Storms and Scanlan

Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
What is real about cold fusion and what
explanations are plausible?
Edmund Stormsa and Brian Scanlanb
a
Kiva Labs, 2140 Paseo Ponderosa, Santa Fe, NM 87501
b
Kiva Labs, 277 Old Church Rd, Greenwich, CT
Abstract. Experimental observations are now available to test rational theories and models
about the cold fusion effect. Some of this information is summarized and used to draw logical
inferences. Requirements a plausible theory must meet are suggested and a model based on the
role of so-called super-clusters is proposed.
Keywords: Cold fusion, cluster, nuclear reaction, fusion
PACS: 89.3Jj
INTRODUCTION
The field of study commonly called cold fusion started in 1989 with the
announcement by Profs. Fleischmann and Pons[1] of unusually large heat production
in an electrolytic cell containing deuterium. At the time, the reported experimental
results were too general to give much confidence in the claims for a fusion reaction
between deuterons in palladium. Over the last 20 years, this situation has changed
remarkably thanks to steady research in over 8 countries. The question now is which
part of this large data set can be believed and used to understand the mechanism that
results in fusion and transmutation reactions.
To explain the anomalous results, a successful theory or model must be related to a
unique physical and/or chemical environment because the nuclear reaction cannot
occur without this condition being present. Once this novel condition forms, a nuclear
reaction can releases its energy into the environment by several different processes
including emission of energetic radiation. This radiation has been difficult to detect
because most is absorbed before reaching a detector. Nevertheless, various nuclear
products accumulate in the material and these have been detected in significant
amounts.
This is not a review or evaluation of proposed theories. Hopefully, the approach
used in this paper will encourage theoreticians to evaluate their own ideas. In addition,
this paper accepts the effect as being real and is not a critique or review of published
work. A few well-documented studies are cited to provide a general understanding of
the cold fusion effect. Each of these observations suggests several questions that must
be addressed and logically connected by any theory. A mechanism is described that
meets this requirement.
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
DISCUSSION
Several indications of a novel process have been discovered. These have a range of
acceptance and importance, with heat generation being the most accepted and
important. However, for this energy to result from a nuclear reaction, nuclear
products must be found. At the present time, these products include, helium-4, tritium,
transmutation products from various target elements, and energetic radiation. These
are listed and discussed in the order of decreasing amount. So far, only helium
production is quantitatively related to heat production. Other radiation products may
be present in amounts consistent with heat production but are difficult to detect due to
their limited range in experimental conditions.
Heat
Energy production in excess of any known chemical reaction is the major indication
of a novel nuclear reaction taking place. The number of successful efforts is too large
to list here, but can be found in the book by Storms[2]. The histogram below (Fig. 1)
summarizes the amount of heat produced using the electrolytic method pioneered by
Fleischmann and Pons. While many studies produced only a few watts of extra power,
a significant number produced large and easily measured amounts of power.
Furthermore, each paper in the histogram is only counted once even though many
successful results are described in each paper. “What kind of reaction can generate MJ
of energy in a simple chemical system along with production of radiation and
additional elements”? This question is addressed in a later section.
FIGURE 1. Histogram of power production from the electrolytic method.
Where in a sample is this energy produced? McKubre et al. used the following
equation to describe excess power (EP) obtained from wire cathodes in a
Fleischmann-Pons electrolytic cell. [3, 4]
EP = M*(x-xo)2*(i-io)*dx/dt,
2
Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
where xo= critical average D/Pd of the bulk cathode, x = actual average composition, i
= actual average current density, io= critical average I/cm2, dx/dt = variation in
composition. This equation can be expanded by
M = n * A where “A” is the number of nuclear active sites having ‘n’ efficiency.
The heat producing reaction favors locations where the deuteron concentration is
greatest, which is affected to some degree by applied current density and rate of
composition change. This location exists at the surface of the cathode in an electrolytic
cell and on the surface of nanoparticles. The deuterium concentration becomes
especially great on the surface of a cathode as the bulk composition approaches unity
and on the surface of nanoparticles as they become smaller. In fact, the composition at
the surface of a cathode has been measured[5, 6] and the D/Pd ratio is found to be at
least 1.5, which indicates the presence of another phase having a perfect lattice D/Pd
ratio greater than unity — perhaps as great as 2.[7] Abrupt changes in the temperature
coefficient of resistively at D/Pd = 1 also indicate the presence of another phase
having a higher ideal lattice composition.[8, 9] The surface of an electrolytic cathode
contains a much greater D/Pd ratio than the bulk material as well as lithium[10] and
other advantageous impurities. Consequently, a theory based on β-PdD in bulk
material is not addressing the true active environment, which is a complex alloy
containing Li, Pd, D and other elements of unknown kind and amount with a very nonuniform distribution. Such surfaces also frequently contain significant oxygen because
the stability of the Li-O bond prevents reduction by hydrogen generated at the
electrode.
Products of Nuclear Reactions
Although some anomalous energy is produced when ordinary hydrogen[11] or
water[12] is used, the d-d fusion reaction has been and continues to be the center of
attention. Many laboratories investigating cold fusion searched for products expected
from hot fusion, but without success. For example, the expected neutrons are
occasionally detected, but these are not associated with heat production either in time
or in magnitude. Tritium is occasionally detected in small quantity, but again it is not
associated with heat production.
A nuclear reaction between two nuclei must produce at least two products, which
are required to carry away the energy and momentum. Fusion reactions involving
deuterons are known to result in the paths listed in Table 1, with each producing the
required two products. The first two reaction paths are found in equal amount when
enough energy is applied to force two deuterium nuclei through the Coulomb barrier,
i.e. hot fusion.
According to the third possible reaction path, if helium were formed by a
conventional reaction, 23.5 MeV gamma radiation would be produced and easily
detected. Failure to find this radiation supported considerable skepticism, but did not
stop a search for helium at a few laboratories.
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
TABLE 1. Reactions resulting from fusion involving deuterons
d + d = 3He(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV) d + t = n(14.01 MeV) + 4He(3.5 MeV)
d + d = p(3.02 MeV) + t(1.01 MeV)
d + p = 3He + gamma (5.5 MeV)
4
d + d = He + gamma (23.5 MeV)
Helium
Helium has been detected on many occasions in cold fusion cells, in both the gas
and the palladium cathode, and shown to have a relationship to the amount of heat
measured. Two independent measurements are compared in Fig. 2. Many other studies
show a clear correlation between heat and helium production, but without giving
quantitative values. To properly understand these measurements, a few qualifications
must be accepted. Only the amount of He released into the gas stream is measured.
McKubre et al.[13] and Matsunaka et al.[14] show that this quantity represents only
part of the total amount of He produced since it omits any helium captured in the solid
Pd cathode. Although the amount captured can be variable, depending on how deep
into the surface helium forms, the round number value is about 50%. Both studies
compared in Fig. 2 are consistent with this 50% value within expected uncertainty.
Taking all measurements into account and applying this potential loss of helium,
Storms[2] proposed a value of 20±5 MeV for the energy produced by formation of
each helium nucleus, which is consistent with the expected energy produced by a d-d
fusion reaction.
Alternative explanations have been suggested that involve addition of deuterons,
protons, or neutrons to isotopes of lithium to generate helium. None of these reactions
produce enough energy per He atom to be consistent with the measurements.
FIGURE 2. Helium atoms/Joule vs Excess power. Two independent studies are compared.
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
Tritium
Many examples of tritium production have been reported occasionally in
electrolytic cells and during gas discharge,[15, 16] as reviewed by Storms[2]. While
more success may have occurred than was reported, because the isotope is seldom
measured, production is nevertheless rare. The amount when found is always too small
to generate detectable heat, but sufficient to demonstrate an unexpected nuclear
process. When the neutron/tritium ratio is measured, it is always found to be very
small – in the range between 10-9 and 10-6. Consequently, tritium does not result from
the normal hot fusion reaction.
Bockris [17] reported interruption of tritium production when the electrolytic cell
was shaken, suggesting the source is dendrites on the cathode surface that are removed
by agitation. These later reformed to continue production. Surface examination
showed deposits of copper from wires within the cell. Claytor et al.[16] have been
increasingly successful in producing tritium using pulsed DC discharge between alloys
of palladium in deuterium gas. This process is very sensitive to the composition of the
alloy and also generates dendrites.
Tritium is unique because it is one of the very rare radioactive elements produced
by the process. A useful theory must account for its occasional presence.
Transmutation
Isotopes and elements not present in the initial environment are reported.[2] While
the elements or isotopes may have been present initially as contamination, this
argument cannot be applied successfully to all such claims. Two studies stand out in
showing that clusters of deuterons might be involved in such transmutation reactions.
Iwamura et al.[18-22], in a series of papers, claimed to detect the reactions shown in
Table 3. Clusters containing as many as 6 deuterons are required to enter the nucleus
as a unit. However, several aspects of this work require explanation. As shown in Fig.
3, the target nuclei are deposited on a 400 Å thick surface layer of palladium which
lies on a layer of CaO, a presumed catalyst. How does the cluster get from the catalyst
to the target and why do the clusters not react completely with the intervening
palladium? How is the significant energy communicated to the environment? Clearly,
something must be emitted that is not detected, as indicated by the question mark.
FIGURE 3. Simplified cross-section representation of the Iwamura experiment. Figure provided
by Steve Krivit.[23]
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
TABLE 3. Observed transmutation reactions reported by Iwamura et al.
Ba + 6d = Sm + ?, Q=67.6 MeV
Cs + 2d = La + ?, Q = ~24 MeV
Sr + 4d = Mo + ?, Q= 53.4 MeV
Cs + 4d = Pr + ?, Q = 50.5 MeV
The second study involves the work of Miley et al.[24, 25]. His experiments
employ SIMS, AES, EDX and NAA for analysis. The work is based on the use of thin
films of nickel and/or palladium deposited on an inert substrate, with a small amount
of platinum as an impurity from the anode and perhaps a little sulfur as an impurity
from the electrolyte. The electrolyte contained Li2SO4 in H2O. Elemental analysis was
made before and after electrolytic action. Although it is safe to assume some of the
detected elements resulted either from contamination or from error in analysis, the
general pattern appears to be real — showing a region of atoms having high
concentration from about mass 106 (Pd) to mass 130; from mass 195 (Pt) to mass 210;
and from about mass 25 (S?) to mass 32. The region around nickel (58) shows
elements on both the high mass and the low mass sides of this potential target element.
Transmutation requires addition of something to the target, which leaves elements on
the low-mass side unexplained. Possible addition of neutrons, protons or deuterons to
Pd is explored next.
Figure 4 shows the position of the stable isotopes near palladium with respect to
their atomic number and atomic weight. If neutrons are added to palladium, the
resulting isotopes would follow a horizontal line on the figure and eventually produce
beta emitters. These have half-lives that decrease from minutes to milliseconds as
more neutrons are added. To produce the observed elements near mass 130, a series of
decays from parent to daughter would have to take place over a significant length of
time as each isotope decayed to another radioactive isotope with gradually increasing
atomic number. In addition, the expected radioactivity is rarely detected even though
this would be an easy measurement. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that
transmutation does not result from neutron addition from any source.
If protons are added to palladium, the resulting isotopes would follow a line parallel
to the one shown on the figure for protons. The mass of the heaviest stable isotope is
114 before unstable isotopes are produced, which is not high enough to explain the full
range reported.
FIGURE 4. Stable elements as a function of atomic weight and atomic number near palladium. Lines
show the result of adding neutrons, protons, or deuterons to palladium.
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
Only addition of deuterons, as indicated by the line labeled “add deuteron”, results
in the full range of observed stable isotopes. This same process can be applied to
nickel, platinum and sulfur to give the same conclusion in spite normal water
containing only about 7000 ppm deuterium being used. Apparently, only deuterons,
regardless of their concentration, produce active clusters.
In the case of elements having a mass lower than nickel, these cannot result from a
reaction with deuterons or any other particle. These elements might result from fission
of nuclei after addition of deuterons to palladium, as has been suggested by other
authors. Because the resulting nuclei are at and near iron, additional energy can be
released by formation of these very stable nuclei. Consequently, a certain fraction of
nuclei resulting from addition of deuterons to Pd may split into two parts during the
transmutation process and may account for the frequent reports of iron on palladium
cathodes. The consequence of this proposed process is summarized in Table 5. Since
no radioactive isotopes have been found to result from transmutation, it is safe to
assume only stable isotopes are formed by the fission process. These are shown in
bold. Notice, except for Ag, stable isotopes result only by the addition of an even
number of deuterons up to 10. No stable isotopes are formed by larger additions.
However, a few unstable isotopes, shown in italic, can release additional energy by
splitting into the elements listed at the bottom of the table. In other words, stable
isotopes remain whole and certain unstable (radioactive) isotopes fission while
conserving total mass and total atomic number. The quantity of each transmutation or
fission product is determined by the abundance of the target isotope and unknown
selection rules.
TABLE 5. Summary of isotopes made by adding deuterons to palladium.
Element
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Atomic
Number
#D
Atomic
Weight
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
0
102
104
105
106
108
110
1
104
106
107
108
110
122
2
106
108
109
110
112
114
3
108
110
111
112
114
116
4
110
112
113
114
116
118
5
112
114
115
116
118
120
6
114
116
117
118
120
122
7
116
118
119
120
122
124
8
118
120
121
122
124
126
9
120
122
123
124
126
128
10
122
124
125
126
128
130
11
124
126
127
128
130
132
12
126
128
129
130
132
134
Ti+
Co
2 Mn
Ti+Ni
Fe+Cu
Fe+
Mn
2 Fe
Fe+Co
2 Co
Ni+
Co
2
Ni
Ni+
Cu
2
Cu
Fission
path
#D = number deuterons added
bold – stable isotopes
italic – radioactive and produces stable isotopes after fission
normal – radioactive and produces radioactive isotopes after fission.
Although this approach does not prove elements near iron result from fission, it
does show such a process is consistent with the atomic numbers and weights resulting
after deuteron addition to palladium. One of many examples of experimental evidence
for this process is shown in Fig. 5, based on an electrolytic study by Mizuno[26, 27]
who used a Pd cathode, Pt anode, and an electrolyte containing D2O. These elements
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
are located within a few tens of microns of the surface and seriously hide the
underlying palladium.
FIGURE 5. EDX examination of a palladium cathode before and after electrolysis.[26]
Energetic Radiation
Nuclear reactions are expected to produce radiation that can be used to determine
the nature of the reaction. For many years, failure to detect expected radiation was a
reason for skepticism and frustration. At the very least, X-ray radiation should be
detected from the slowing-down process of energetic particle emission and gamma
radiation. Both should be detectable well away from the source using simple detectors
such as film or Geiger-Mueller counters.
Charged particles have a much shorter range and must be sought very close to the
source. Until CR-39 was used, detection was not possible in electrolytic cells although
such radiation was found during gas discharge using other kinds of detectors. The
apparent absence of such radiation encouraged people to propose mechanisms that did
not require energetic emissions. The characteristics of detected radiation must now be
examined carefully to determine whether these mechanisms are necessary and to
discover exactly how the nuclear energy is dissipated. Because different energy is
applied and different detectors are used, radiation from electrolysis and gas discharge
will be discussed separately.
X-ray emission during electrolysis
Electrolysis involves so little energy that emission of X-radiation is unexpected, yet
such radiation has been reported many times. This provides one more clear indication
of a nuclear reaction being the source of the anomalous energy.
X-ray emission from electrolytic cathodes using dental X-ray film revealed a point
source that appeared to be well focused.[28] When X-ray energy is measured, the
results are consistent with K-α radiation from elements present on the surface along
with some Bremsstrahlung.[29-31] The radiation flux correlates with the amount of
heat being produced.[32, 33] However, the measured flux is very low, no doubt caused
by absorption in the cell wall as calculated by Violante et al.[34] Bursts of radiation
reveal the erratic nature of the process, a fact that is not visible in the heat
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measurement because of the large time constant typical of calorimeters. What process
can eject an electron from a K-α state, which for Pd requires about 3 keV.
Particle emission during electrolysis
After many failed attempts, particles of various kinds having a range of energy are
found during electrolysis using D2O. Because their range is very short, detection
requires placing CR-39 very close to the cathode. Passage of energetic particles
modifies the plastic, producing a pit where some plastic is dissolved away by
concentrated NaOH. The energy and type of radiation can be estimated from the size
and shape of the pit.
Mosier-Boss et al.[35] found pits on pieces of CR-39 after they were exposed to
radiation from cathodes made of three different metals. Each was subjected to
electrolysis in D2O + LiCl + PdCl2 in the same cell while Pd deposited on each metal
surface. The front side of the CR-39 shows the effect of what are identified as alpha
particles with energy near 1 MeV and pits on the backside are produced by radiation
identified as neutrons. The silver cathode (Ag), which readily absorbs neutrons, did
not generate radiation that is able to penetrate to the backside.
A cathode was made by oxidizing Pd and plating one side with gold (Lipson et
al.[36]). This was reacted with deuterium using the electrolytic method and placed
next to a silicon barrier detector while under vacuum. The energy of particles emitted
during removal of deuterium is shown in Fig. 6. Notice most particles have energy
near 0.7 MeV, with a rapid drop in number at higher values. Lower energies might be
present, depending on where the lower detection-limit was set. Some of the peaks near
8 MeV might be caused by radon. Although the particles were identified as alpha, this
conclusion is questionable, which also raises doubts about the assigned energy.
Nevertheless, the emitted particles appear to have a range of energy with most at low
energy.
FIGURE 6. Particles emitted from PdD as deuterium is removed.
In contrast to evidence for conventional particles having relatively low energy,
Oriani and Fisher[37, 38] used CR-39 to detect particles able to cause secondary
reactions well outside of the apparatus. These are detected within the electrolytic cell
as well as up to 8 cm from the cathode after they passed through electrolyte and glass.
As suggested by Kowalski[39], these might be energetic neutral particles emitted from
an unconventional source.
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Particle emission during gas discharge
Particles emitted from the cathode during and after low-voltage gas discharge in D2
have been detected using a silicon barrier detector (SBD), from which energy can be
determined after the kind of particle is identified using absorbers. Energy is reduced
by an amount proportional to the absorber mass-density and the kind of particle being
detected. Alphas are easy to identify this way but protons and deuterons are more
difficult to differentiate from each other because they have similar absorption
characteristics.
Karabut et al.[40] produced a discharge in D2 using a Pd cathode and less than 500
V. Immediately after the discharge was stopped, the spectrum shown in Fig. 7 was
recorded using a silicon barrier detector. The radiation at 3.5 MeV was identified as
alpha using absorbers. Presumably, this radiation resulted from d-d fusion as the
deuterium content slowly decreased from the level produced by the discharge.
FIGURE 7. Energy of particles emitted immediately after discharge in D2 was stopped. [40]
Too much electrical noise prevented the spectrum from being recorded during
discharge. This delayed reaction, so called life-after-death, was explored by
Savvatimova[41] by measuring the total current produced by emitted ions and by
observing exposure of X-ray film. Evidence for strange radiation having extraordinary
penetrating power was also found, similar to reports by Oriani and Fisher,[42]
Matsumoto[43], and Lochak and Urutskoev[44].
Storms and Scanlan[45] (Fig. 8) observed an energetic particle spectrum during
discharge in D2 at 794 V using a silicon barrier detector. The particles were tentatively
identified as deuterons and distinguished from electrical noise using absorbers. The
lowest energy that could be measured was about 0.5 MeV, with decreasing numbers of
particles with greater energy, similar to the behavior found by Karabut et al.[40]. The
question is, “What process produces this type of energy spectrum”?
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF THEORY
A comprehensive theory has been slow to develop because several ad hoc
assumptions are required to explain the “impossible”. Now that the field has a large
body of experimental data, a rational basis exists to reject or accept many proposed
theories. This understanding is summarized below.
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100
#12, 794 V
BIN COUNT for 3 min
80
60
40
20
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
BIN NUMBER
5000
6000
(12-13-07)
FIGURE 8. Spectrum of particles emitted during discharge at 794V in D2.[45]
The nuclear reactions occur where deuterium concentration is the greatest, which
includes the surface of electrolyzing cathodes and the surface of nano-particles of
certain metals and alloys. These environments have very little relationship to the
properties of β-PdD, which have been used as the basis for many mechanisms. In
addition, the nuclear-active environment (NAE) has additional unknown features that
allow it to form only rarely.
The major heat producing reaction is unconventional fusion between deuterons to
produce helium-4, which can occur at rates in excess of 1012 He/second as bursts.
Helium results in preference to the other products because a mechanism is available in
a solid to dissipate the resulting energy and achieve a product having the lowest
energy. The only mechanism available in plasma to create helium requires emission of
gamma radiation, which is forbidden. Consequently, the other less-energetic paths are
taken because they can use energetic particles to dissipate energy.
Other possible but rare reactions involve additions of multiple deuterons to nuclei
of various elements in the NAE, i.e. transmutation and production of tritium.
Formation of radioactive elements other than tritium is rare but not impossible.
Neutrons do not play a role in these reactions, neither as reactants nor as products.
Protons have a limited role and deuterons are the main reactant.
Energy is released from these reactions by energetic particles without gamma
emission. The energy of these particles is smaller than expected to result from the
proposed source reaction and is too small to allow detection except very close to the
source. Some energy might be absorbed directly into the lattice, but this process has
no direct evidence and might have no importance once all of the particle emission has
been identified. Some of the particles have strange properties and have not been
identified.
Regardless of the reaction, the resulting particle energy can produce secondary
reactions, resulting in neutron and/or gamma emission, if their energy is above critical
values. Failure to detect significant amounts of such radiation indicates existence of a
mechanism that can reduce most energies below these values. Measurements show
particle energy well below energy released by a fusion or transmutation reaction. This
realization places emphasis on the low end of the energy range as location of
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important particle energy and indicates need for a process to reduce energy to these
values.
A plausible theory must also be consistent with general scientific understanding. To
get over a barrier, energy must be concentrated to a level equal to the barrier height. If
the concept of tunneling is used, the energy must be high enough to produce the
observed reaction rate. Accelerating the nuclei, as used to produce hot fusion, can
achieve this result. In contrast, the concentration process in cold fusion has to be done
in small steps because so little energy is available in the environment and the overall
structure will not tolerate local high-energy. These small steps must involve an
exothermic reaction for the process to be spontaneous and must be localized on a
group of deuterons, called the active structure (AS). Such a group or cluster is required
for multiple deuterons to enter a nucleus at the same time and cause the observed
transmutation. This assumption leads to several logical consequences. As energy is
lost from the AS, electrons in the AS become more stable, hence increasingly less
affected by the presence of a nearby nuclear charge. This allows them to remain fixed
in locations, orbits, or energy levels that can hide the combined nuclear charge of the
AS. Once this total charge is sufficiently hidden, the AS can approach and enter
another nucleus, whether this is a deuteron or a heavier element. In other words, a
two-step process is required. The first step involves incremental loss of energy until a
special structure is sufficiently stable to overcome a Coulomb barrier. This process
gives off energy that accelerates the reaction without requiring additional energy from
the environment. Once this structure forms, a nuclear reaction can take place with a
large release of energy that further accelerates the process. What type of mechanism
might be consistent with these requirements?
PROPOSED MECHANISM
Two basic questions, in addition to the requirements noted above, need to be
addressed by any theory. These are, “How can multiple deuterons enter a nucleus with
high atomic number and how is the energy resulting from this reaction dissipated into
the environment”? One possible answer is the involvement of deuterium clusters in
both processes. While involvement of small clusters has been suggested in the past by
several authors, this model solves a couple of problems by proposing the clusters have
a large number of members. This concept is applied first to the transmutation reaction
and then to fusion.
Up to 10 deuterons apparently can enter a nucleus. For this to happen as a single
event, all must be at the same place at the same time. This condition describes what
can be called a super-cluster. For all members of the cluster to enter at the same time,
they must be located close together compared to nuclear dimensions and their nuclear
charge must be hidden from the target nuclei. These requirements imply existence of
an unusual bonding state that can form within a group of deuterons. The nature of this
state will not be discussed here, but will be a subject for future papers.
Clusters of deuterons are proposed to form by an exothermic reaction requiring a
catalyst or template. Once the basic structure of the cluster has formed on the surface
of this special material, it detaches and diffuses in random directions within the solid
lattice. Initially, this seed structure cannot cause fusion or transmutation because it has
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Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
not released enough energy. Energy is released in small units as each deuteron is
added, causing the effective nuclear charge of the assembly to be hidden by a greater
amount. For example, in the Iwamura study, cluster seeds form on the surface of the
CaO and these diffused through 400 Å of Pd to the surface where target nuclei have
been deposited. During the trip, the seeds grow in number-size as they encounter an
increasing concentration of deuterons streaming in the opposite direction. A
transmutation reaction is only possible after the number-size has increased enough to
hide the nuclear charge of the assembly and to reduce the physical size comparable to
that of the target nucleus. Presumably, in the Iwamura study, clusters do not become
active until they reach the deposited targets, where reaction with the deposited targets
as well as with the much more numerous palladium nuclei become possible. A similar
process might occur in studies [46-53] during which deuterium is simply allowed to
diffuse through palladium, which produces a small amount of heat and transmutation
products.
This special material is rare so that cold fusion occurs infrequently only when and
where it is present. The observed delay in starting power production is proposed
caused by slow formation of this material and slow growth of clusters to a reactive
number-size. The rate of cluster growth is influenced by the concentrations of AS and
deuterons. Therefore, nuclear reactions will have the highest rate where deuteron
concentration is greatest. This concentration determines how fast cluster size increases
and the probability of an active cluster finding a deuteron with which to fuse one of its
members.
The AS is slow to form because it is a complex combination of certain atoms that
seldom result in the require structure. Several different combinations of several
different elements are probably active, all in the form of nanoparticles. Consequently,
the NAE is located on the surface of nanoparticles that are formed on a surface or
present after having been placed in the apparatus fully formed. Naturally, not all such
particles are active. As a result, the amount of power produced by a cell is highly
variable, as is observed. Power output will also be highly variable over short and long
times, as observed, because active clusters will be destroyed by energy release and
new ones will have to form by a random process. The challenge is to identity the
nature of the active nanoparticle and to make these in large amounts. Only then can
the effect be made reproducible and a source of significant power.
Once a cluster reacts with a target nucleus, how is the considerable energy
dissipated? If the cluster has more members than can be fully absorbed by the target,
the extra members are proposed to carry away the energy. The number of extra
members would have to be large enough so that the energy of each emitted deuteron is
too small to cause significant secondary reactions. Furthermore, a transmutation
reaction would have to be impossible before this large number had been achieved to
prevent this requirement from being violated. Therefore, the nuclear charge must be
increasingly hidden as the number increases and a critical number, determined by the
charge on the target nuclei, must be reached before reaction is possible.
The probability of a fusion reaction between a cluster and a deuteron is expected
increase as number-size increases, resulting in competition between further increase in
number-size and the fusion reaction. Therefore, fusion will have a higher rate than
does transmutation and compete with transmutation by removing clusters that might
13
Submitted for publication in AIP Proceedings, 2010.
grow enough members to cause transmutation. However, even a fusion reaction will
require the cluster to be large enough to avoid secondary reactions. Because a random
range of number-sizes are expected to react, energy of emitted deuterons is expect to
have a range of values, from ones that are difficult to detect to a few that are energetic
enough to produce secondary reactions, similar to the spectrum of particle energy
shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8. This range is expected to be sensitive to conditions and
applied energy, which might explain the observed wide range of reported energies for
detected particles. Also, some of the emitted particles might be neutral or be a
fragment of the original cluster, which would complicate identification and
measurement of energy. A cluster fragment, if it retained the unique bonding
characteristics, might not be stopped easily by matter and could explain the behavior
of the reported “strange” radiation.
The proposed model is still very incomplete and ignores many observations.
Nevertheless, the logic suggests a new way to look at the problem that might be
helpful in development of more complete models. While many questions remain, the
approach has many ways it can be tested and suggests how the cold fusion effect
might be increased.
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