October 2008 | Volume VII, Issue X

Transcription

MAGAZINE
ONLINE
AQUARIST'S
ADVANCED
-
COVER
MAGAZINE
CONTENTS
OF
CHIEF EDITOR
TABLE
Table of Contents
Terry Siegel
(terry@advancedaquarist.com)
WEBSITE AND PRINT
DESIGNERS
Shane Graber (liquid@reefs.org)
Leonard Ho (len@reefs.org)
FEATURED AQUARIUMS
D. Wade Lehmann (wade@reefs.org)
ADVERTISING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Leonard Ho
(advertising@advancedaquarist.com)
COVER PHOTO
Acanthurus leucosternon, Powder
Blue Tang/Surgeonfish (main); Peter
Wilkens -- In memoriam (inset). Photos by Terry Siegel.
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PUBLISHER
Pomacanthus Publications, Inc.
Volume VII, Issue X
October 2008
EDITORIAL
OCTOBER 2008 ............................................................................................................................... 4
By Terry Siegel
Terry discusses the early years of the hobby and copper treatment.
FEATURE ARTICLE
CORAL REPRODUCTION, PART FOUR: NON-SCLERACTINIAN
ANTHOZOANS INCLUDING SOFT CORALS, ZOANTHIDS, AND
ANEMONES .......................................................................................................................................... 5
By Dana Riddle
This month, well examine what little we know of the sexual reproductive habits of soft corals, zoanthids, a few anemone species and others.
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
BREEDER'S NET
Advanced Aquarist's Online
Magazine (ISSN 1931-6895) is published monthly online by
Pomacanthus Publications, Inc. A
central goal of this publication is to
promote exchange between the scientific community and amateur
aquarists, for the benefit of both disciplines and the environment. To
achieve our combined goals of greater understanding of the natural world
and honing our husbandry skills we
will rely heavily on science and scientists. Advanced Aquarist's Online
Magazine will always emphasize protection and understanding of the
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EFFECTS OF COPPER EXPOSURE ON MARINE ORNAMENTAL FISH
REPRODUCTION AND SURVIVAL ....................................................................................... 21
By Chatham K. Callan Ph.D, Charles W. Laidley Ph.D.
The results of these combined experiments indicated that elevated copper levels can cause accute
mortality in flame angelfish and significantly reduce the reproductive performance of orchid dottyback
broodstock. Therefore, the use of copper as a therapy for external parasites in these species is
cautioned.
REEFKEEPING EVENTS
WHAT'S HAPPENING IN YOUR AREA? ........................................................................31
By Advanced Aquarist Readers
Check to see if an event is happening in your area!
Advanced Aquarist | www.advancedaquarist.com
1
Table of Contents
LATERAL LINES
PROBIOTICS PART I: A LOT OF HYPE OR A LOT OF HELP? ...................................................................................... 36
By Adam Blundell M.S.
Adam reviews using probiotics in shrimp culture.
ONLINE COURSES
NEW MACO COURSE! AQUARIUM PHOTOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 39
By D. Wade Lehmann
Marine Aquarist Courses Online (MACO) is proud to offer, starting October 19th, a course for aquarium photography.
PRODUCT REVIEW
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF 400 WATT MOGUL METAL HALIDE LAMPS: USHIO 14000K,
ICECAP 400W SERIES, ELIOS 10000K ..................................................................................................................................... 41
By Sanjay Joshi, Ph.D.
This article presents the last of the 400W mogul lamps tested.
SPONSORS
THANK YOU TO OUR SPONSORS! .................................................................................................................................................... 50
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and online magazine available to all. Make sure that when you do business with our sponsors that you tell them that you saw their ad on
Reefs.org or Advanced Aquarist.
2
Table of Contents
COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
ARTICLE SUBMISSIONS
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3
October 2008
EDITORIAL
OCTOBER 2008
By Terry Siegel
Terry discusses the early years of the hobby and copper treatment.
Published October 2008, Advanced Aquarist's Online Magazine.
© Pomacanthus Publications, LLC
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): Editorial, Terry Siegel
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/aaeditorial
I
I often wrote in those days regarding copper treatment that it was
hard to know what level of copper would kill the parasites and not
the host, that is, the fish. Something, I suppose, like chemotherapy
usage against cancer in humans. I suspect that more fish died from
the copper treatment than from the parasites. Advanced Aquarist is
therefore very pleased to publish in this issue a thoroughly researched study about copper toxicity entitled Effects of copper
exposure on marine ornamental fish reproduction and survival, by
Chatham Callan, Ph.D. Research Scientist, Oceanic Institute.
started keeping marine fish almost 50 years ago, just about the
time that marine fish started to show up in a few pet stores. It was
also about the time that Robert Straughan introduced the concert
of the “undergravel filter.” It was also the time when John Miklosz
and I started the publication called the Marine Aquarist. In those day
just trying to keep marine fish alive in captivity was a challenge. The
important lesson then was how to create a biologically active filtration system. After some painful trial and error we learned how to
establish nitrifying bacteria in a filter bed, which were able to convert ammonia into relatively harmless nitrogen salts. Eventually, the
undergravel filter was replaced by the far more efficient “trickle filter.” These biological filters prevented fish from poisoning
themselves with toxic ammonia, but this development uncovered an
even more pernicious problem: marine fish parasitized by protozoans – especially Cryptocaryon irritans, Amyloodinium ocellatum, and
Brooklynella hostilis.
In those days copper, in various compounds, was the medication of
choice. The use of copper then was effective against said protozoans, but only if it could be kept at an effective concentration. This
was easier said than done as the active copper ion readily precipitated, usually forming copper carbonate, which was ineffective. It
was therefore best to treat a parasitized fish in a empty glass tank.
This, of course, did not eliminate protozoans from the display tank,
and once the stressed fish was returned it was readily parasitized
again.
An angelfish (Centropyge loriculus) particularly effected by low levels of copper.
4
Coral Reproduction, Part Four: Non-Scleractinian Anthozoans Including Soft Corals, Zoanthids, and Anemones
FEATURE ARTICLE
CORAL REPRODUCTION, PART FOUR: NON-SCLERACTINIAN ANTHOZOANS INCLUDING SOFT CORALS,
ZOANTHIDS, AND ANEMONES
By Dana Riddle
This month, well examine what little we know of the sexual reproductive habits of soft corals, zoanthids, a few
anemone species and others.
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): Coral, Dana Riddle, Feature Article, Reproduction
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/aafeature1
S
could be the first on record, so it is important to make notes and
photographs.
oft corals reproduce asexually by a number of methods, includ-
ing fragmentation, budding, fission and others, and hobbyists often
exploit these in their coral propagation efforts (these methods were
briefly
reviewed
at
Part
2 of
this
series).
See:
http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/8/aafeature1
OCTOCORAL REPRODUCTION
Kahng reported at the 11th ICRS that Lasker, Benayahu and he have
sexual reproductive information on 155 octocoral species. Consider
that there are about 100 octocorallia genera, and we quickly realize
how limited research in this arena has been (and this should not be
construed that the few soft coral taxonomists and researchers have
done a poor job!). In addition, soft coral taxonomy seems to be in a
state of constant rearrangement (bordering on chaos) making even
recent references obsolete.
It is usually quite easy to make cuttings from many soft corals, and
one large broodstock colony can easily become hundreds of colonies in a relatively short period of time. This will make most soft corals
unlikely candidates for sexual reproduction in aquaria. However,
there are many reports of soft coral spawnings within aquaria. This
article should be of interest to those interested in what it would
take to grow out the spawn. Perhaps more importantly, the information presented here brings home the message that we actually
know very little about soft coral reproduction. Your observation
SOFT CORAL IDENTIFICATION GUIDES
The groupings listed below are from the latest source on octocorallia I have been able to locate Gary Williams Alphabetical List of Valid
Octocoral Genera. This resource can be found on the internet at:
http://research.calacademy.org/research/izg/OCTOGEN.htm. Photographs are available for some genera and it includes information
from as late as 2007. A list of synonyms is also there.
Fabricius and Alderslades 2001 Soft Corals and Sea Fans (assists with
identification to the genus level) is a good resource with many excellent photographs. It can be ordered at: http://www.aims.gov.au/
docs/publications/bookshop.html
Good information is also found in Sprung and Delbeeks 1997 The
Reef Aquarium, Volume Two. This volume is somewhat dated in its
taxonomic groupings, but has excellent photographs of a number of
invertebrates of interest to the marine aquarium hobbyist. This book
is available through any well-stocked pet shop, or from any major internet retailer.
Of limited use, but still interesting, is Williams 1993 Coral Reef
Octocorals - this work examines the soft corals of northern Natal.
Figure 1. A soft coral (believed to be a Sansibia species) is reproducing within an
aquarium. Photo courtesy of Michael Pollock.
Unfortunately, no guide to soft corals of the caliber of Verons Stony
Coral ID exists. Perhaps this reflects the state of turmoil in soft coral
5
taxonomy. Funding for research in this field is limited which perhaps
explains the very limited number of younger soft coral taxonomists.
BROODERS (SOFT CORALS, HYDROCORALS AND
GORGONIANS):
Hobbyists should be aware that soft coral identification sometimes
requires microscopic examination of the calcium reinforcing rods
(sclerites and spicules). Access to a microscope is of great advantage. Removing sclerites for examination is a bit of science and art.
For an excellent free resource on soft coral examinations, visit this
site:
http://www.aquatouch.com/
Research%20and%20Development.htm
• Anthelia glauca (Kruger and Schleyer, 1998)
• Clavularia koellikeri (Bastidas et al., 2002)
• Heliopora corulea (Harii and Kayanne, 2005)
• Heteroxenia fuscescens (Ben-David-Zaslow et al., 1999)
Fabricius and Alderslades Soft Corals and Sea Fans (2001) also has
good information on the details of examining soft corals in a laboratory, and many drawings of sclerites.
• Litophyton arboreum (Benayahu et al., 1992)
Anemone taxonomy used later in this article is based on Fautin and
Allens 1992 Field Guide to Anemone Fishes and Their Host Sea
Anemones.
This
is
available
for
free
online
at:
http://www.nhm.ku.edu/inverts/ebooks/intro.html
• Paralemnalia thyrsoides (Benayahu, 1997)
GLOSSARY
• Stereonephthea cundabiluensis (Benayahu, 1997)
Brooding
Where fertilized eggs are held internally (or sometimes on the
surface of a parent colony) and are released as planula larvae.
• Xenia macrospiculata (Benayahu and Loya, 1985)
• Nephthea sp. (Benayahu, 1997)
• Parerythropodium fulvum fulvum (surface brooder, Barki et al.,
2000)
SUSPECTED PARTHENOGENESIS
Fecundity
Fertility; ability to produce abundantly.
Parthenogenesis (definition above) is known to occur in a few invertebrates and even some vertebrates. It is suspected to occur in
these marine soft corals:
Gonochoric
Possessing distinct male and female colonies where offspring
are a result of fusion of gametes. Also referred to as dioecious,
or unisexual. Gonochorism occurs in ~25% of coral species examined (Richmond, 1997).
• Alcyonium hibernicum, a temperate soft coral (Hartnoll, 1977)
• Plexaura sp. (Brazeau & Lasker, 1989)
Hermaphroditic
Possessing both male and female reproductive organs, sometimes referred to as monoecious. Self-fertilization (also called
selfing) is an uncommon hermaphroditic trait among corals.
GONOCHORIC BROODING
Gonochoric brooding involves broadcast spawning by males and internal or external fertilization of oocytes. It is known to occur in
these soft corals:
Oocyte
An immature egg (ovum).
• Anthelia glauca (Benayahu and Schleyer, 1998)
Parthenogenesis
Development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg. This
results in a female clone and is thought to occur in many invertebrates (including soft corals, gorgonians and possibly stony
corals) and some vertebrates.
• Capnella gaboensis external brooder (Farrant, 1986)
OCTOCORALS - SOFT CORALS (SUBCLASS
OCTOCORALLIA)
Planula larvae
The free-swimming, ciliated stage of coral larvae.
ORDER ALCYONACEA - STOLONIFERA GROUP
FAMILY CLAVULARIIDAE
Polyspermy
Where more than one sperm fertilizes an ovum.
1. Genus Carijoa (Snowflake Coral): Adult Carijoa colonies are rarely
more than 20 cm in height.
Protandrous hermaphrodite
Where male sex organs mature before those of the female.
Table 1
Protogynous
(proto=first; gynous = female) - Where female sex organs mature before those of the male.
Taxon
Carijoa riisei
Reproduction
Broadcast
2. Genus Cervera (also known as Cornularia): Cervera species without
sclerites may be Clavularia.
Sequential Hermaphrodite
Where one gender sex organ is produced during early life, and
the second genders organs appear later.
Sexuality
Gonochoric
6
Table 2
Taxon
Cornularia komaii
Cornularia saganiensis
Sexuality
ORDER ALCYONACEA - ALCYONIINA GROUP
FAMILY ALCYONIIDAE
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
1. Genus Alcyonium: See Genus Klyxum for specimens from the tropical Pacific.
3. Genus Clavularia (Clove Polyps)
2. Genus Anthomastus
Table 3
Taxon
Clavularia crassa
Clavularia hamra
Clavularia inflata
Clavularia koellikeri
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Table 4
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder (external)
Brooder (external)
Brooder (external)
Taxon
Anthomastus ritteri
Sexuality
Reproduction
Brooder
3. Genus Bellonella: No sexual reproduction information available.
4. Genus Cryptophyton: No information on sexual reproduction
available.
4. Genus Cladiella (Finger Leather Coral)
Table 5
5. Genus Paratelesto: No information on sexual reproduction
available.
Taxon
Cladiella pachyclados
6. Genus Stereosoma: Only one species has been reported, but recent examination of the preserved specimen has tentatively placed
it in Clavulariidae (Fabricius and Alderslade (2001). Williams does not
recognize the genus in his updated internet database. No information on sexual reproduction is available.
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Broadcast
5. Genus Dampia: Possibly a Sinularia species. No reproduction information available.
6. Genus Discophyton
Table 6
7. Genus Telesto: No information on sexual reproduction available.
Taxon
Discophyton sp.
Alcyonium rudyi (now
Discophyton rudyi)
8. Genus Telestula: No information on sexual reproduction is
available.
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder
9. Genus Trachythela: No information on sexual reproduction
available.
7. Genus Eleutherobia: No sexual reproduction information available.
FAMILY COELOGORGIIDAE
8. Genus Klyxum (Colt Corals)
Table 7
1. Genus Coelogorgia: No information is available on reproductive
habits.
Taxon
Alcyonium
aspiculatum
Alcyonium digitatum
Alcyonium hibernicum
Alcyonium molle
Alcyonium pacificum
Discophyton rudyi)
Alcyonium siderium
Alcyonium species A
FAMILY TUBIPORIDAE
1. Genus Tubipora (Pipe Organ Coral)
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Parthenogenic?
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Brooder
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Brooder
Broadcast
9. Genus Lampophyton: No information is available on the sexual reproduction of this genus, erected by Williams in 2000.
Figure 2. Tubipora musica is most well known for its red pipe organ skeleton and
not its rather drab polyps. No information is available on reproductive habits.
Photo by the author.
7
10. Genus Lobophytum (Devils Hand)
14. Genus Sinularia (Soft Finger Coral)
Table 8
Taxon
Lobophytum
compactum
Lobophytum crassum
Lobophytum
depressum
Lobophytum hirsutum
Lobophytum
microlobulatum
Lobophytum
pauciflorum
Lobophytum planum
Lobophytum
sarcophytoides
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
11. Genus Paraminabea: Paraminabea is also called Minabea (for shallow water specimens only). No reproduction information available.
12. Genus Rhytisma: Rhytisma is sometimes referred to as
Parerythropodium.
Table 9
Taxon
Rhytisma fulvum
fulvum
Parerythropodium fulvum fulvum
Sexuality
Reproduction
?
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
13. Genus Sarcophyton (Leather Coral)
Table 10
Taxon
Sarcophyton
crassocaule
Sarcophyton
ehrenbergi
Sarcophyton glaucum
Sarcophyton glaucum
Sarcophyton sp.
Sarcophyton
trocheliophorum
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Brooder
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Figure 4. Sinularia species are seen in a bewildering array of shapes. They are
known to be broadcast spawners. Photo by the author.
Table 11
Taxon
Sinularia conferta
Sinularia cruciata
Sinularia deformis
Sinularia dura
Sinularia exilis
Sinularia flexibilis
Sinularia gyrosa
Sinularia humesi
Sinularia leptoclados
Sinularia lochmodes
Sinularia mayi
Sinularia nanolobata
Sinularia polydactyla
Sinularia rigida
Sinularia scabra
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Reproduction
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Figure 3. In this instance, Sarcophyton glaucum was found in a male female ratio
of 1 to 1.
8
15. Genus Thrombophyton
8. Genus Paralemnalia (Finger Leather Coral)
Table 12
Taxon
Thrombophyton
coronatum
Thrombophyton
trachydermum
Sexuality
Table 17
Reproduction
Taxon
Paralemnalia
thyrsoides
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder
Table 18
1. Genus Capnella (Kenya Tree Coral): The temperate water Australian Capnella gaboensis does not become sexually mature until it is 20
years of age (Farrant, 1987).
Taxon
Scleronephthya
gracillimum
Sexuality
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
10. Genus Stereonephthya
Table 13
Reproduction
Brooder (external)
Table 19
Taxon
Stereonephthya
cundabiluensis
2. Genus Dendronephthya
Table 14
Taxon
Dendronephthya
gigantea
Dendronephthya
hemprichi
Dendronephthya
sinaiensis
Dendronephthya
suensoni
Reproduction
9. Genus Scleronephthya
FAMILY NEPHTHEIDAE
Taxon
Capnella gaboensis
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Brooder
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast (?)
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Brooder
11. Genus Umbellulifera: No information is available on reproductive
habits.
FAMILY NIDALLIDAE
1. Genus Agaricoides: No information on reproduction is available.
2. Genus Chironephthya: No reproduction information available.
3. Genus Nidalia: No reproduction information available.
3. Genus Lemnalia (Branch Coral): No information on sexual reproduction is available.
4. Genus Nephthyigorgia: No reproduction information available.
5. Genus Pieterfaurea: No reproduction information available.
4. Genus Leptophyton: No information on sexual reproduction is
available.
6. Genus Siphonogorgia: No reproduction information available.
5. Genus Litophyton
FAMILY PARALCYONIIDAE
Table 15
1. Genus Studeriotes: No reproduction information available.
Taxon
Litophyton arboreum
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder (internal)
FAMILY XENIIDAE
6. Genus Nephthea: Some Nephthea specimens contain colored sclerites, and these may belong in genus Stereonephthea (Fabricius and
Alderslade, 2001).
1. Genus Anthelia
Table 20
Taxon
Table 16
Taxon
Nephthea sp.
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Anthelia edmondsoni
Reproduction
Brooder
Anthelia fishelsoni
Anthelia glauca
7. Genus Pacifiphyton: No information on sexual reproduction is
available.
Sexuality
See Sarcothelia
edmondsoni
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Reproduction
?
Brooder
2. Genus Cespitularia (Blue Xenia)
Table 21
Taxon
Cespitularia exigua
9
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
?
3. Genus Efflatounaria
Table 22
Taxon
Efflatounaria sp.
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder (external)
3. Genus Funginus: No reproduction information available. Williams
believes Funginus is possibly synonymous with Heteroxenia.
4. Genus Heteroxenia (Pulse Coral)
Table 23
Taxon
Heteroxenia coheni
Heteroxenia
elizabethae
Heteroxenia
elizabethae
Heteroxenia
fuscenscens
Heteroxenia
ghardaqensis
Heteroxenia sp.
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Reproduction
Brooder
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder
Figure 6. Is Sansibia a brooder or slow extrusion broadcast spawner? Photo
courtesy of Michael Pollock.
6. Genus Sarcothelia
Table 24
Taxon
Sarcothelia
edmondsoni
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Figure 7. Sarcothelia edmondsoni colonies, endemic to Hawaii, are often seen as
blue mats in areas of high water motion. Photo by the author.
Figure 5. Oocytes (eggs) within the soft coral Heteroxenia. Histological photomicrograph courtesy of Michael P. Janes.
5. Genus Sansibia: Reproduction of a coral tentatively identified as a
Sansibia species has been noted in an aquarium. There was successful recruitment and young colonies are present. It is believed by the
author that Sansibia is a brooder, but this should be verified.
10
7. Genus Sympodium
2. Genus Erythropodium (Encrusting Gorgonian): No reproduction information available.
Table 25
Taxon
Sympodium
caeruleum
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Brooder
3. Genus Iciligorgia: No reproduction information available.
4. Genus Solenocaulon: No reproduction information available.
FAMILY BRIAREIDAE
8. Genus Xenia (Pulse Coral)
1. Genus Briareum (Incorporates Pachyclavularia & Solenopodium.
Star Polyps)
Figure 8. Xenia species are easily propagated by making cuttings, but they have
been observed spawning in aquaria. Photo by the author.
Figure 9. A Briareum spawns in an aquarium. Photo courtesy of Michael P.
Janes.
Table 26
Table 27. Reproductive habits of Corky Sea Fingers (Briareum asbestinum).
Taxon
Xenia biseriata
Xenia blumi
Xenia faruensis
Xenia garciae
Xenia grasshoffi
Xenia hicksoni
Xenia impulsatilla
Xenia kuekenthali
Xenia lillieae
Xenia macrospiculata
Xenia membranacea
Xenia novabrittanniae
Xenia obscuronata
Xenia sp.
Xenia umbellata
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Taxon
Briareum asbestinum
Briareum asbestinum
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
?
Brooder
Brooder
?
?
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
Brooder
ORDER ALCYONACEA - SCLERAXONIA GROUP
FAMILY ACANTHOGORGIIDAE (SUBORDER HOLAXONIA)
Figure 10. Briareum asbestinum, often called Corky Sea Fingers, is a Caribbean
species, and sex ratios are skewed towards male colonies.
1. Genus Acanthogorgia: No information on reproduction available
2. Genus Anthogorgia: No information on reproduction available
FAMILY CHRYSOGORGIIDAE (SUBORDER CALCAXONIA)
3. Genus Muricella: No information on reproduction available.
1. Genus Stephanogorgia: No information on reproduction available.
FAMILY ANTHOTHELIDAE
1. Genus Altertigorgia: No reproduction information available.
11
FAMILY CORALLIDAE
FAMILY GORGONIIDAE (SUBORDER HOLAXONIA)
1. Genus Corallium
1. Genus Eunicella
Table 28
Taxon
Corallium rubrum
Sexuality
Table 29
Reproduction
Brooder
Taxon
Eunicella singularis
Eunicella stricta
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
FAMILY ELLISELLIDAE (SUBORDER CALCAXONIA)
2. Genus Gorgonia (Sea Fan): No information on reproduction
available.
1. Genus Ctenocella (Sea Whip or Harp Coral): No information on reproduction available.
3. Genus Guaiagorgia: No information on reproduction available.
2. Genus Dichotella: No information on reproduction available.
4. Genus Hicksonella: No information on reproduction available.
3. Genus Ellisella: No information on reproduction available.
5. Genus Pinnigorgia (also known as Plexaura flava & Lophogorgia):
No information on reproduction available.
4. Genus Heliania: No information on reproduction available.
5. Genus Junceella: No information on Junceellas sexual reproduction
is available.
6. Genus Pseudopterogorgia (Purple Frilly Gorgonian): This genus is
found in the Pacific, but is one of the most common genera in the
Caribbean/West Indies.
6. Genus Nicella: No information on reproduction available.
Table 30
7. Genus Verrucella (also known as Umbracella): No information on
reproduction available.
Taxon
Pseudopterogorgia
bipinnata
8. Genus Viminella: No information on reproduction available.
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
7. Genus Pterogorgia (Sea Blade or Sea Whip): No information on reproduction available.
8. Genus Rumphella (Sea Whip): No information on reproduction
available.
FAMILY IFALUKELLIDAE (SUBORDER CALCAXONIA)
1. Genus Ifalukella: No information on reproduction available.
2. Genus Plumigorgia: No information on reproduction available.
Figure 12. Junceella colonies often reproduce by fragmentation, as is shown in
this photograph by Michael P. Janes.
Figure 11. Junceella colonies. Photo courtesy of Michael P. Janes.
12
FAMILY ISIDIDAE (SUBORDER CALCAXONIA):
9. Genus Muriceopsis (Sea Plume)
Table 33
1. Genus Isis (Sea Fan): No information on reproduction available.
Taxon
Muriceopsis flavida
2. Genus Jasminisi: No information on reproduction available.
3. Genus Pteronisis: No information on reproduction available.
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
10. Genus Paracis: No information on reproduction available.
4. Genus Zignisis: No information on reproduction available.
11. Genus Paramuricea
FAMILY KEROEIDIDAE (SUBORDER HOLAXONIA)
Table 34
1. Genus Keroeides: No information on reproduction available.
Taxon
Paramuricea clavata
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder (external)
FAMILY MELITHAEIDAE
12. Genus Paraplexaura: No information on reproduction available.
1. Genus Acabaria
13. Genus Plexaura (Sea Rod)
Table 31
Taxon
Acabaria erythraea
Acabaria biserialis
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Table 35
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
Taxon
Plexaura homomalla
Plexaura kuna
Plexaura sp. 'A'
2. Genus Clatharia: See Acabaria
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Parthenogenic?
Reproduction
Broadcast
Broadcast
3. Genus Melithaea: See Acabaria
14. Genus Plexaurella: No information on reproduction available.
4. Genus Mopsella: See Acabaria
15. Genus Pseudoplexaura
Table 36
5. Genus Wrightella: See Acabaria
Taxon
Pseudoplexaura
porosa
Pseudoplexaura sp.
FAMILY PARISIDIDAE
1. Genus Parisis: No information on reproduction available.
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
FAMILY PLEXAURIDAE (SUBORDER HOLAXONIA)
1. Genus Astrogorgia (also known as Muricella & Anthoplexaura): No
information on reproduction available.
2. Genus Bebryce: No information on reproduction available.
3. Genus Echinogorgia: No information on reproduction available.
4. Genus Echinomuricea: No information on reproduction available.
5. Genus Eunicea (Knobby Candelabrum): No information on reproduction available.
6. Genus Euplexaura: No information on reproduction available.
Figure 13. Pseudoplexaura porosa specimens demonstrated a male/female ratio
of 1:1 (Lasker et al., 1996).
7. Genus Menella (also known as Echinogorgia & Plexauroides): No information on reproduction available.
16. Genus Trimuricea: No information on reproduction available.
8. Genus Muricea (Spiny Sea Fan)
17. Genus Villogorgia: No information on reproduction available.
Table 32
Taxon
Muricea californica
Muricea fruticosa
Sexuality
FAMILY PRIMNOIDAE (SUBORDER CALCAXONIA)
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
1. Genus Plumarella: No information on reproduction available.
FAMILY SUBERGORGIIDAE
1. Genus Annella: No reproduction information available.
13
Table 39
2. Genus Subergorgia: No reproduction information available.
Taxon
Parazoanthus
anguicomus
Parazoanthus
axinellae
Parazoanthus
parasiticus
ORDER ANTHOATHECATAE (FIRE CORALS)
FAMILY MILLEPORIDAE
1. Genus Millepora (Common Fire Corals)
Table 37
Taxon
Millepora dichotoma
Millepora murrayi
Millepora platyophylla
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Broadcast
2. Genus Sphenopus
Reprodution
Table 40
Taxon
Sphenopus marsupialis (zoanthid)
ORDER HELIOPORACEA
FAMILY HELIOPORIDAE
1. Genus Heliopora (Blue Fire Corals)
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast?
Gonochoric
Broadcast?
3. Genus Epizoanthus
Table 38
Taxon
Heliopora coerulea
Sexuality
Reproduction
Brooder
SUBCLASS HEXACORALLIA: INCLUDING ORDER ACTINIARIA (SEA ANEMONES),
ORDER ZOANTHINIARIA (ZOANTHIDS)
1. Zoanthids
ORDER ZOANTHINIARIA
FAMILY ZOANTHIDAE
1. Genus Parazoanthus (Yellow Polyps)
Figure 15. Yellow Polyps (Parazoanthus species) offer a nice yellow color to an
aquarium. Photo by the author.
Figure 14. An unidentified Hawaiian zoanthid. Photo by the author.
14
Table 41
Taxon
Epizoanthus
abyssorum
Epizoanthus couchii
Epizoanthus
paguriphilus
2. Genus Condylactis
Sexuality
Reproduction
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Table 48
Taxon
Condylactis gigantea
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Table 49
Table 42
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Taxon
Entacmaea quadricolor (anemone)
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
4. Genus Epiactis
Table 50
5.Genus Zoanthus (Zoanthids)
Taxon
Epiactis prolifera
(anemone)
Epiactis prolifera
(anemone)
Table 43
Taxon
Zoanthid sp.
Zoanthus pacificus
Zoanthus pulchellus
Zoanthus sansibaricus
Zoanthus sociatus
Zoanthus solanderi
Reproduction
Broadcast
3. Genus Entacmaea
4. Genus Protopalythoa (Button Polyps)
Taxon
Protopalythoa sp.
Protopalythoa
variabilis
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Reproduction
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Sexuality
Reproduction
Brooder
Gynodioecy
5. Genus Phymanthus
Table 51
Taxon
Phymanthus crucifer
(anemone)
5. Genus Palythoa (Sea Mat)
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Table 44
6. Genus Urticina
Taxon
Palythoa caribaeorum
Palythoa tuberculosa
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Reproduction
Broadcast
Broadcast
Table 52
Taxon
Urticina lofotenis
6. Genus Isozoanthus
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
FAMILY AURELIANIDAE
Table 45
Taxon
Isozoanthus gigantea
Sexuality
Gonochoric
1. Genus Actinoporus
Reproduction
Brooder
Table 53
7. Genus Isaurus (Snake Polyps)
Taxon
Actinoporus
elongatus
Table 46
Taxon
Isaurus sp.
Isaurus sp.
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
FAMILY SAGARTIIDAE
1. Genus Sagartia
SEA ANEMONES
Table 54
FAMILY ACTINIIDAE
Taxon
Sagartia troglodytes
1. Genus Anthopleura
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Reproduction
Broadcast
FAMILY STICHODACTYLIDAE
Table 47
Taxon
Anthopleura dixoniana (anemone)
Anthopleura elegantissima (anemone)
Sexuality
Gonochoric
1. Genus Heteractis
Table 55
Taxon
Heteractis crispa
15
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Broadcast
2. Genus Entacmaea
QUICK AND EASY REFERENCE TABLE
Table 56
FAMILY ACTINODISCIDAE
This concludes our observations of sexuality and reproductive habits
among corals. Next time, well examine one of the most important
environmental parameters in coral reproduction that of lighting. I
have chosen to present the reference list at the end of this series.
For those wishing an early copy, please email me at
RiddleLabs@aol.com and Ill send the complete reference list as a
Word document.
1. Genus Discosoma (Mushroom Anemone)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Taxon
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
ORDER CORALLIMORPHARIA
Table 57
Taxon
Discosoma sp.
Sexuality
I wish to thank Michael P. Janes for his generosity in sharing photographs and helpful comments. He often pointed me in the proper
direction, especially with comments on classifications. However, any
mistakes within the article are mine and mine alone. Also, aquarist
Michael Pollock kindly shared the extraordinary introductory photo.
Reproduction
Broadcast
FAMILY DISCOSOMATIDAE
1. Genus Rhodactis (Elephant Ear Mushroom Coral)
Table 58
Taxon
Rhodactis
indosinensis
Rhodactis
rhodostoma
Sexuality
Reproduction
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
SUBCLASS CERIANTIPATHARIA: INCLUDING ORDER ANTHIPATHARIA (BLACK OR WIRE CORALS)
FAMILY ANTIPATHIDAE
1. Genus Antipathes: It has been estimated that there are 23 Antipathes species. Overall, we know very little about their reproductive
habits.
Table 59
Taxon
Antipathes fiordensis
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Broadcast
SIZE AND AGE OF ANTIPATHES FIORDENSIS AT SEXUAL MATURITY
Antipathes fiordensis is sexually mature at an age of 31 years (with a
corresponding height of approximately 70-105 cm). As Figure 16
shows, it is found in a male/female ratio of 1 to 1 (Parker et al., 1997).
Figure 16. Sex ratio of the black coral Antipathes (Parker et al., 1997).
16
Table 60. Quick and Easy Reference
Taxon
Acabaria erythraea
Sexuality
Hermaphroditic
Reproduction
Brooder
Acabaria biserialis
Gonochoric
Brooder
Actinodiscus sp.
Actinoporus elongatus
Alcyonium
aspiculatum
Alcyonium digitatum
Alcyonium hibernicum
Alcyonium molle
Vertical (egg)
Horizontal water 85%
Broadcast
Reference
Fine et al., 2005
Zeevi-Ben Yosef and
Benayahu, 1999
ASIRA Data base
Clayton & Collins, 1992
in Lin et al., 2001
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Alino & Coll, 1989
Gonochoric
Parthenogenic ?
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Broadcast
McFadden et al., 2001
Hartnoll, 1977
Alino & Coll, 1989
McFadden & Hochberg, 2003
McFadden, 1997
Alcyonium pacificum
Gonochoric
Discophyton rudyi)
Gonochoric
Brooder
Alcyonium siderium
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Alcyonium species A
Amplexidiscus sp.
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Broadcast
X
Sebens, 1983; McFadden et al., 2001
McFadden et al., 2001
ASIRA Data base
Anthelia fishelsoni
See Sarcothelia
edmondsoni
Gonochoric
?
Anthelia glauca
Gonochoric
Brooder
Brooder
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu & Schleyer,
1998
Cordes, 2001
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Linn et al., 1992
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Anthelia edmondsoni
Anthomastus ritteri
Anthopleura dixoniana (anemone)
Anthopleura elegantissima (anemone)
Antipathes fiordensis
Briareum asbestinum
Broadcast
Briareum asbestinum
Brooder
Capnella gaboensis
Carijoa riisei
Cespitularia exigua
Cladiella pachyclados
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Clavularia crassa
Brooder (external)
Broadcast
?
Broadcast
Brooder
Clavularia hamra
Clavularia inflata
Clavularia koellikeri
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Brooder (external)
Brooder (external)
Condylactis gigantea
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Corallium rubrum
Cornularia komaii
Cornularia saganiensis
Dendronephthya
gigantea
Dendronephthya
hemprichi
Dendronephthya
sinaiensis
Dendronephthya
suensoni
Jennison, 1979 in Lin
et al., 2001
Parker et al.,
Lasker et al., 1996;
Lasker & Stewart, 1992
Brazeau & Lasker,
1989
Farrant, 1986
Kahng et al., 2008
Benayahu, 1991
Shinkarenko, 1981
Kowalewsky & Marion, 1883, in Benayahu
& Loya, 1983
Benayahu, 1989
Bermas et al., 1992
Bastidas et al., 2002
Jennison, 1981, in Lin
et al., 2001
Vighi, 1970
Suzuki, 1971
Babcock et al., 1986
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder
Hwang & Song, 2007
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Dahan & Benayahu, in
Benayahu, 1997
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Barki, 1992
Gonochoric
Broadcast (?)
Choi & Song, 2007
Discophyton sp.
Gonochoric
Brooder
Efflatournaria sp.
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Eleutherobia aurea
?
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Bermas et al., 1992;
Dinesen, 1985
Ketzinal, 1997, in Schleyer & Celliers, 2003
Scott & Harrison, 2005
17
Taxon
Epiactis prolifera
(anemone)
Epiactis prolifera
(anemone)
Epizoanthus
abyssorum
Epizoanthus couchii
Epizoanthus
paguriphilus
Eunicella singularis
Eunicella stricta
Heteractis crispa
Heteractis magnifica
(anemone)
Heteroxenia coheni
Heteroxenia
elizabethae
Heteroxenia
elizabethae
Heteroxenia
fuscenscens
Heteroxenia
ghardaqensis
Heteroxenia sp.
Sexuality
Vertical (egg)
Brooder
Hermaphroditic
Reference
Harrison, 1988
Broadcast
Muirhead et al., 1986
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Chia, 1976
Gynodioecy
Ryland, 2000
Broadcast
Muirhead et al., 1986
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Weinberg & Weinberg,
1979; Gori et al., 2007
Theodor, 1967
Scott & Harrison, 2005
Holbrook& Schmitt,
2005
Benayahu, 1991
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Gohar, 1940
Gonochoric
Brooder
Gonochoric
Brooder
Broadcast
Asexual fission
Gonochoric
Hwang & Song, 2007
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Hermaphroditic
Brooder
Gohar, 1940
Gonochoric
Brooder
Benayahu et al., 1988
Calgren, 1923, in Ryland et al., 2000
Isozoanthus gigantea
Kadosactis
troglodytes
Litophyton arboreum
Lobophytum
compactum
Lobophytum crassum
Lobophytum
depressum
Lobophytum hirsutum
Lobophytum
microlobulatum
Lobophytum
pauciflorum
Lobophytum planum
Lobophytum
sarcophytoides
Millepora dichotoma
Millepora murrayi
Millepora platyophylla
Muricea californica
Muricea fruticosa
Muriceopsis flavida
Nephthea sp.
Pachyclavularia
violacea
Reproduction
Gohar, 1940
Brooder
See Sagartia
troglodytes
Gonochoric
Brooder (internal)
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Benayahu, 1997
Michalek-Wagner,
2001
Coll & Kelman, 1997
Schleyer et al., in
Benayahu, 1997
Alino & Coll, 1989
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Alino & Coll, 1989
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Alino & Coll, 1989
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Alino & Coll, 1989
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Dai, 1989
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Soong & Cho, 1998
Soong & Cho, 1998
Soong & Cho, 1998
Grigg, 1977
Grigg, 1977
Brooder
Brooder
Broadcast
Brooder
Benayahu, 1997
Broadcast
Palythoa caribaeorum
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Palythoa tuberculosa
Paralemnalia
thyrsoides
Paramuricea clavata
Parazoanthus
anguicomus
Parazoanthus
axinellae
Parazoanthus
parasiticus
Parerythropodium fulvum fulvum
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
ASIRA Data base
Boscolo & Silveira,
2005
Kimura et al., 1972
Gonochoric
Brooder
Benayahu, 1997
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Linares et al., 2008
Gonochoric
Ryland, 2000
Gonochoric
Ryland, 2000
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Ryland & Westphalen,
2005
Benayahu & Loya,
1983
18
Taxon
Phymanthus crucifer
(anemone)
Plexaura homomalla
Plexaura kuna
Plexaura sp. 'A'
Protopalythoa sp.
Protopalythoa
variabilis
Pseudoplexaura
porosa
Pseudoplexaura sp.
Pseudopterogorgia
bipinnata
Rhodactis indosinensis
Rhodactis
rhodostoma
Rhytisma fulvum
fulvum
Sagartia troglodytes
Sarcophyton
crassocaule
Sarcophyton
ehrenbergi
Sexuality
Reproduction
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Broadcast
Vertical (egg)
Parthenogenic?
Broadcast
Reference
et al., 2001
Martin, 1982
Swain et al., 1997
Brazeau and Lasker,
1989
ASIRA Data base
Boscolo & Silveira,
2005
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Lasker et al., 1996
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Lasker et al., 1996
Broadcast
Kinzie, 1970
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
?
Brooder
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Gonochoric
Broadcast
X
n/a
ASIRA Data base
Chadwick-Furman et
al., 2000
Benayahu & Loya,
1983
Shaw, 1989, in Lin etal., 2001
n/a
Dai, 1989
Alino & Coll, 1989
Brooder
Broadcast
Schleyer & Celliers,
2003
Schleyer et al., 2004
ASIRA Data base
Broadcast
Shinkarenko, 1981
Broadcast
Choi & Song, 2007
Gonochoric
Brooder (external)
Davis, 1976
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Sinularia dura
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Sinularia exilis
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Sinularia flexibilis
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Sinularia gyrosa
Gonochoric
Broadcast
Sinularia humesi
Sinularia leptoclados
Sinularia lochmodes
Sinularia mayi
Sinularia nanolobata
Sinularia polydactyla
Sinularia rigida
Sinularia scabra
Stereonephthya
cundabiluensis
Sympodium
caeruleum
Thrombophyton
coronatum
Thrombophyton
trachydermum
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Alino & Coll, 1989
Alino & Coll, 1989
Alino & Coll, 1989
Schleyer et al., in
Benayahu, 1997
Dai & Wu, 1995
Michalek-Wagner,
2001
Schleyer et al., in
Benayahu, 1997
Alino & Coll, 1989
Dai & Wu, 1995
Slattery et al., 1999
Alino & Coll, 1989
Dai & Wu, 1995
Gonochoric
Broadcast ?
Soong et al., 1999
Gonochoric
Broadcast ?
Soong et al., 1999
Gonochoric
Brooder
Benayahu, 1997
Gonochoric
Brooder
Benayahu, 1991
Urticina lofotenis
Gonochoric
Sarcophyton glaucum
Sarcophyton glaucum
Sarcophyton sp.
Sarcophyton
trocheliophorum
Scleronephthya
gracillimum
Sarcothelia
edmondsoni
Sinularia conferta
Sinularia cruciata
Sinularia deformis
Gonochoric
X
X
et al., 2000
Brooder
Gonochoric
Broadcast
19
Taxon
Xenia biseriata
Xenia blumi
Xenia faruensis
Xenia garciae
Xenia grasshoffi
Xenia hicksoni
Xenia impulsatilla
Xenia kuekenthali
Xenia lillieae
Sexuality
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Reproduction
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
?
Brooder
Brooder
?
?
Xenia macrospiculata
Gonochoric
Brooder
Xenia membranacea
Xenia novabrittanniae
Xenia obscuronata
Xenia sp.
Xenia umbellata
Xestospongia muta
Zoanthid sp.
Zoanthus pacificus
Zoanthus pulchellus
Zoanthus sansibaricus
Zoanthus sociatus
Zoanthus solanderi
Gonochoric
Hermaphroditic
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Gonochoric
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Brooder
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Broadcast
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Hermaphroditic
Vertical (egg)
X
X
20
Reference
Benayahu, 1991
Gohar, 1940
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Gohar, 1940
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu & Loya,
1984; Benayahu, 1997
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Benayahu, 1991
Becerro, 2005
ASIRA Data base
Cooke, 1976
Karlson, 1981
Ono et al., 2005
Karlson, 1981
Fadlallah, 1984
Effects of Copper Exposure on Marine Ornamental Fish Reproduction and Survival
BREEDER'S NET
EFFECTS OF COPPER EXPOSURE ON MARINE ORNAMENTAL FISH REPRODUCTION AND SURVIVAL
By Chatham K. Callan Ph.D, Charles W. Laidley Ph.D.
The results of these combined experiments indicated that elevated copper levels can cause accute mortality in flame
angelfish and significantly reduce the reproductive performance of orchid dottyback broodstock. Therefore, the use
of copper as a therapy for external parasites in these species is cautioned.
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): Angelfish, Breeder's Net, Breeding, Charles W. Laidley Ph.D., Chatham K. Callan Ph.D, aquaculture, captive breeding, Copper
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/breeder
T
angelfish revealed that most were exhibiting rapid respiration and
some appeared listless. The angelfish were promptly removed from
the system and placed into new tanks in another system. Unfortunately, most of the fish succumbed to the apparent toxin prior to
being moved. Those fish that had survived the move, recovered rapidly once in new water. Other fish species in the system
(anemonefish and dottybacks) appeared normal and otherwise unaffected; however, their spawning performance and egg quality did
significantly decline for a prolonged period following this event.
After more than two months of investigation, we concluded that the
cause of the mortality was likely an elevated copper level in the system caused by the accidental dropping of copper wire into one of
the sumps in our recirculation system.
his study was carried out to determine if exposure to copper
would cause mortality in flame angelfish (Centropyge lorciulus) and
affect reproduction of the orchid dottyback (Pseudochromis fridmani). Flame angelfish were exposed to copper in a series of toxicity
experiments. In the first assay, angelfish were exposed to copper at
0.00, 0.05. 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25mg/L for a period of 48 hours
(n=5). In the second experiment, angelfish were exposed to copper
at 0.00, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20mg/L for 196 hours (n=8). In a third experiment, orchid dottyback broodstock pairs (n=3) were maintained and
monitored for reproductive performance (spawn frequency, fecundity, fertilization rate and survival of hatched larvae) while in copperfree water (0.00mg/L) or water treated with copper (0.10mg/L). Results of the toxicity experiments revealed that flame angelfish were
accutely sensitive to copper in the first trial, where 60% of the fish
exposed to the 0.25mg/L level died within the first 12 hours of exposure. Likewise, flame angelfish exposed to 0.15 and 0.20mg/L
exhibited 40% mortality. In the second assay, flame angelfish also exhibted increased mortality (25%) at the highest level tested (0.20mg/
L), though the onset of mortality, in that experiment, was delayed
until after 120 hours of exposure. Results of the third experiment
demonstrated that copper exposure at 0.10mg/L significantly reduced fecundity and negatively affected embryonic development
from orchid dottyback broodstock. However, upon replacement
into copper-free water, subseqent fecundity, embryonic development and larval survival characteristics were not significantly
different from their pre-exposure values. The results of these combined experiments indicated that elevated copper levels can cause
accute mortality in flame angelfish and significantly reduce the reproductive performance of orchid dottyback broodstock. Therefore,
the use of copper as a therapy for external parasites in these species
is cautioned.
About two weeks prior to the incident, an electrical junction box
was installed in an area near our main filtration area. Upon inspection of our systems, we found pieces of copper wire insulation and
small clippings of mostly dissolved copper wire in the system sump,
near the main pump intake. It is likely that these clippings were
byproducts of the recent electrical work, and were accidentally
INTRODUCTION
During the commissioning of a new marine ornamental fish broodstock laboratory at The University of Maine, we experienced an
episode of acute mortality of nearly all our flame angelfish broodstock in response to what appeared to be an unidentified toxin in
the system. Abruptly one day in June 2004, our flame angelfish were
observed to be swimming erratically at the surface of their tanks
and some appeared to be "gasping." Closer examination of all our
Figure 1. Photograph of the bioassay system at the Oceanic Institute. Each 75L
tank was equipped with separate lighting and filtration and could be run as
entirely flow-through, re-circ, or a combination of both.
21
dropped into the system. Months after the copper wire was found
and removed, the system continued to exhibit an elevated copper
level of 0.10 to 0.20mg/L, which is nearly the therapeutic level for
treatment of marine fish parasites (Noga, 2000). Since copper was
never utilized as a therapy in this system, it was not suspected as a
possible toxin and the actual copper level at the time of the fish
mortalities was not recorded. Therefore, it is possible that the copper level at the time of the mortality was considerably higher, as we
had made several large (>50%) water changes to the system immediately following this event, and prior to measuring the dissolved
copper levels. What remained unclear is why only the angelfish exhibited this acute response, while the other species in our system
appeared mostly unaffected.
The objectives of the present study were to:
1. Determine if exposure to copper would affect the survival of a
commonly traded marine ornamental fish, the flame angelfish.
2. Determine if exposure to copper would affect the reproductive performance and embryonic development of a cultured
marine ornamental fish, the orchid dottyback.
Due to the ubiquitous use of copper as a treatment for external
parasites in the marine aquarium industry and the documented
acute and chronic effects of copper on fish, coupled with our unexpected episode with the flame angelfish, we considered it necessary
to investigate possible impacts such treatments may have. Our goal
was to determine if the level of copper that we recorded after the
mortality event could have caused the observed mortality and contributed to the decline in reproductive performance of our other
pairs of fish.
Copper is an essential element required by all living organisms, but it
can be toxic to aquatic species when present at elevated concentrations (Grossel et al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b; Handy, 2003). For example,
copper is widely used as an algaecide and mulluscicide (Paris-Palacios et al., 2000) and frequently employed as a treatment for
pathogenic parasites of fish (Bassleer, 1996; Noga, 2000; Perschbacher, 2005). Although toxicity arising from dietary exposure to
copper generally only occurs at very high levels, exposure to low
levels of dissolved copper in the holding water can cause toxic effects in aquatic organisms (Grossel et al., 2004a).
METHODS
EXPERIMENTS 1 AND 2: EFFECTS OF COPPER EXPOSURE ON
SURVIVAL OF THE FLAME ANGELFISH (CENTROPYGE LORCIULUS)
EXPERIMENT 1
While the mechanisms of copper toxicity of freshwater fish have
been studied in some detail, much less is known about the mechanisms of copper toxicity of marine teleost fish (Grossel et al., 2003). It
has been suggested that marine fish are generally less sensitive to
water borne copper exposure than freshwater fish (Grossel et al.,
2003). Calcium and sodium in the water have been found to reduce
both copper uptake and toxicity in freshwater fish and it is suggested that the high concentrations of these ions in seawater help to
reduce the acute sensitivity of marine teleosts to copper (Grossel et
al., 2003). Increasing water hardness, addition of organic substances, and increasing pH will also reduce the toxicity of copper in
fresh water (Handy, 2003).
The first of a series of copper toxicity experiments was a 48hour trial
completed in June of 2005, at the Oceanic Institute (OI) in Hawaii.
This first copper toxicity trial investigated the effects of copper exposure on flame angelfish (Centropyge lorciulus) at 0.0, 0.05, 0.10,
0.15, 0.20, and 0.25mg/L. Five replicate fish were tested in each treatment except the control, which contained three replicate fish. This
experiment was done in 30 identical (75L) tanks (Fig. 1), with one
fish stocked per tank. The majority of fish that comprised each treatment group had been at OI for several weeks prior to the start of
the trial and were well acclimated to the aquarium conditions. Approximately two new fish per treatment group were added the day
prior to the experiment to increase the number of replicates. Each
tank had a separate external filter and light aeration was provided
via an air stone in each tank. The tanks were exposed to ambient
photoperiod (filtered natural sunlight) and the temperature was
maintained between 24-27 °C. The salinity of the water was approximately 32ppt. New seawater was provided to each tank at a rate of
~25ml/minute (50% exchange per day). Copper was dosed directly into the tanks as copper sulfate using a commercially available
preparation (Red Sea "Paracure™") and the total copper level was
determined by colorimetric analysis (Bicinchoninate method; Hach
#2504025) twice daily at 0900 and 1500 for each tank using a Hach™
DR/890 colorimeter. When necessary, copper was re-dosed to maintain the desired treatment level. Mortality was monitored hourly for
the first 12 hours, followed by every 12 hours for the duration of the
experiment.
The physiological mechanism of acute copper toxicity to fish is well
known (reviewed in Taylor et al., 1996). Acute copper toxicity in fish
is caused by direct target effects on the gill epithelium (Noga, 2000).
Acute copper exposure causes gill edema and epithelial lifting
(Handy, 2003). Edema of the gill is followed by accumulation of
solutes in the epithelial cells and an influx of water into the cells,
leading to loss of ionoregulatory control. Efflux of electrolytes from
the blood over the gill epithelium then results in cardiovascular failure and death (Handy, 2003).
While the acute effects of copper toxicity are well studied, the effects of chronic copper toxicity are not well documented (Handy,
2003). However, it has been shown that chronic (4 weeks or more)
copper exposure can result in altered bodily functions and physiological changes across a range of body systems. The physiological
processes that have been found to be affected by chronic copper
exposure include altered cell type and turnover in gut epithelium,
changes in ionoregulatory physiology, altered immunity, change of
swimming speeds to preserve metabolic scope for aerobic metabolism, and altered reproductive strategy (Handy, 2003).
EXPERIMENT 2
The second copper toxicity experiment was completed in January of
2006, using the bioassay system (Fig. 1) at OI, but with a modified
configuration. The same 75L tanks were utilized, but they were
replumbed to allow for continuous exchange of natural seawater (6
tank exchanges/day). Temperature was maintained at 26-27 °C and
salinity was maintained at 32ppt. Additionally, new lighting and filtration were added to each tank in the form of an Eclipse™ hood
(Marineland Aquarium Products, Inc.). The lighting system was set
22
Table 1. Mean concentration of copper exposure per treatment and percent survival of flame angelfish 1 following 48 hours of copper exposure during Experiment 1.
Mean Copper Concentration
Treatment
Day 1
mg Cu/L
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
AM
0.01
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.13
0.18
Treatment
Mean
PM
AM
PM
AM
for Duration
0.04
0.00
0.04
0.00
0.02
0.09
0.01
0.10
0.02
0.05
0.14
0.06
0.15
0.04
0.08
0.18
0.11
0.17
0.08
0.12
0.22
0.12
0.22
0.05
0.15
0.26
0.12
0.26
0.16
0.20
1 n=5 individuals for all copper exposed fish, n=3 individuals for control (0.00mg/L) treatment
Day 1
Day 2
Day 2
on a timer to allow for 14 hours light and 10 hours dark. Four treatment levels (0.0, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20mg/L copper) were tested, with
one fish stocked per tank (n=8). For this experiment, all fish were
stocked at the same time (24h prior to start of trial) and originated
from a local marine fish importer (Hawaiian Sealife Inc, Honolulu,
HI).
STDEV
% Survival
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.07
0.06
48 hrs
100%
100%
80%
60%
60%
40%
COPPER TREATMENT
The pairs were held in their respective aquaria at 0.00mg/L Cu for 30
days prior to copper treatment (period 1). Copper (as copper
sulfate) was administered, as a commercially available preparation
(Red Sea "Paracure™") to each aquarium at 0.10mg/L for a period of
21 days (period 2). Copper levels were tested twice daily on replicate
(n=3) 10ml samples of aquarium water. Copper measurements were
recorded by colorimetric analysis using a Lamotte "Smart Colorimeter™" utilizing the Diethldithiocarbamate method (Lamotte
#3646-SC). Copper levels were maintained at 0.10 ± 0.02 mg/L
through twice daily doses of copper sulfate. Following the 21-day exposure period, each pair was held for an additional 30 days in
copper-free water (period 3).
Copper was added to the incoming seawater as copper sulfate using
Dosatron™ (DI 1500) proportional mixing pumps, which were
plumbed into the incoming seawater lines (1 dosing unit per treatment). A 100mg/L copper solution was made daily using distilled
water and cupric sulfate pentahydrate (Fisher Scientific). This stock
solution was dosed into the incoming seawater lines for the respective treatment groups to maintain the desired treatment levels for
the duration of the study. This configuration allowed for very tight
control over the copper levels tested while maintaining excellent
water quality in the aquariums. Total copper levels were tested once
daily for each treatment (n=3 samples/treatment) using colorimetric
analysis as described for Experiment 1.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Spawn quality information consisting of total number of eggs produced, percent normal embryos at 24h post-fertilization, percent
normal embryos at 72h post-fertilization, percent hatch, and total
number of larvae to survive 12h post-hatch was collected from each
pair over the duration of the experiment. Three to four spawning
cycles were recorded for each pair during each of the three treatment periods. Each pair was monitored daily for the production of
eggs. Time of spawning was recorded, and eggs were removed from
the tank for initial analysis at approximately 24 hours postfertilization.
EXPERIMENT 3: EFFECTS OF COPPER EXPOSURE ON REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORCHID
DOTTYBACK (PSEUDOCHROMIS FRIDMANI)
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND BROODSTOCK HUSBANDRY
This experiment was conducted at the Aquaculture Research Center
(ARC) at The University of Maine campus in Orono, Maine. Three
orchid dottyback (Pseudochromis fridmani) pairs were selected from
a collection of spawning broodstock held by a commercial marine
ornamental aquaculture company (Sea & Reef Aquaculture, LLC).
Each pair had spawned regularly over the preceding year and had
produced numerous viable embryos and larvae. Preceding the experiment, each pair was moved to an isolated 75L glass aquarium.
The aquaria were bare, except for a few pieces of PVC pipe, which
served as surrogate "dens" for the fish. The water temperature was
maintained at 27 ± 1 °C, and salinity was kept at 31ppt. The photoperiod was 14h L: 10h D. Each tank was filtered by a submerged airlift
sponge filter, which also served as the aquaria's biofilters. Water
quality parameters were checked daily and maintained at the following: pH, 8.1-8.3; NH3, 0.00-0.30mg/L; NO2, 0.00-0.04mg/L.
Approximately 25-30% of the tank water was replaced weekly using
an artificial seawater mix (Forty Fathoms- Crystal Sea) combined
with reverse osmosis filtered water. The new seawater was mixed
and aerated for 24 hours prior to water exchanges. The fish were
fed four times daily a complex "mixed" diet consisting of commercial aquarium diets, frozen mysid shrimp and fresh seafood. This
feeding regime was identical to their prior regimen as commercial
broodstock.
Day 3
The entire egg mass was removed from each aquarium and carefully
blotted dry with lint-free paper. The egg mass was then transferred
into a 25ml graduated cylinder containing a known volume of aquarium seawater. The amount of water displaced by the egg mass was
recorded to the closest 0.10ml. Knowing the average volume per
egg, this displacement method (Shirley, unpub. data) was used to
calculate the approximate number of eggs produced per spawn. The
egg mass was replaced after a small sub-sample of the egg mass
(50-100 eggs) was removed at 24 and 72 hours post-fertilization and
analyzed under a dissecting microscope.
The embryos were observed for any developmental abnormalities as
compared to a "normal" developmental series (Fig. 2). The number
of normal and abnormal embryos at each sampling session was recorded. On the evening of expected hatch (90 hours postfertilization), the egg mass was removed from the aquarium to
hatch in an 8 liter aquarium (Fig. 3). The egg mass was placed in a
submerged 250ml Erlenmeyer flask and gently aerated with a rigid
airline tube producing approximately 40 bubbles per minute. This
motion facilitated hatch of the egg mass once the lights went out.
At approximately 12 hours post-hatch, the surviving hatched larvae
were euthanized with MS-222 (100mg/L) and counted.
23
difficult to maintain at the desired treatment levels for more than 8
hours. Generally, recorded copper levels were below the targeted
values in the morning and above targeted values in the afternoon
following re-dosing. Additionally, fluctuating background levels of
copper in our incoming seawater were recorded between
0.01-0.04mg/L, which further complicated proper dosing. Despite
the fluctuations in copper levels, angelfish were acutely sensitive to
copper at the higher doses. Flame angelfish in treatments that received the two highest levels of copper exhibited significant
mortality within the first 12 hours of exposure.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All data were analyzed using SYSTAT™ (ver 11.0). Data from Experiment 3 were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA with repeated
measures. Normality of the data (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965) and homogeneity of the variance (Snedecor and Cochran, 1993) were tested to
ensure assumptions for ANOVA were satisfied. Percent data were
transformed (arcsine) before conducting analysis of variance.
Tukey's HSD test (Snedecor and Cochran, 1993) was used to determine significant differences among the means (p<0.05).
The relationships between exposure duration and flame angelfish
mortality at increasing copper concentration are illustrated in Figure
4. At 6 hours of exposure, the 0.25mg/L treatment had already experienced 40% mortality. At 12 hours of exposure, the 0.25mg/L
treatment experienced a total of 60% mortality, whereas the
0.20mg/L and 0.15mg/L treatments experienced 20% mortality. After
24 hours, the 0.1, 0.15 and 0.20mg/L treatments experienced an additional 20% mortality. After 36 hours of exposure, the cumulative
RESULTS
EXPERIMENT 1
The daily mean concentration of copper measured for each treatment and the respective survival to 48 hours are presented in Table
1. Targeted copper concentrations were rarely achieved and were
Figure 2. Photomicrograph series depicting the normal embryonic development of the orchid dottyback (Pseudochromis fridmani). Time = time post fertilization. A 20min;
B 45min; C 90min; D 4h; E 8h; F 11h; G 14h; H 17h; I 19h; J 21h; K 24h; L 29h; M 34h; N 39h; O 45h; P 64h; Q 72h; R 91h; S 93h. Box grid on slide = 1mm.
24
mortality had reached its maximum point and the values were constant until the conclusion of the experiment at 48 hours. All of the
fish in the 0.00mg/L (n=3) and 0.05mg/L (n=5) treatments survived
the trial. Results of a log-rank (Mantel-Cox) comparison of the survival curves revealed a significant difference (p<0.05) between the
slopes of the 0.25mg/L and Control treatment curves. These data indicated that copper toxicity increased with increasing concentration
and that mortality was strongly correlated with copper level. Figure
5 illustrates the relationship between the copper levels recorded
and mortality in flame angelfish at the conclusion of this
experiment.
EXPERIMENT 2
Copper levels were maintained at controlled levels in Experiment 2
and did not fluctuate significantly from the targeted treatment
levels (Fig. 6). However, due to the use of the Dosatron™ on the
flow-through seawater configuration, copper levels did not reach
targeted concentrations until after 24 hours. We routinely measured
values between 0.02-0.05mg/L of copper in the control treatment,
indicating a background level of copper in our incoming source water. These background values were similar to what was observed in
Experiment 1 (Table 1).
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the aquarium used to hatch dottyback eggs. Arrows indicate direction of air/water flow. The egg mass was aerated in a 250 ml
flask, submerged in an aquarium. Top of the flask was open to allow hatched larvae to swim out.
The survival of flame angelfish exposed to the 4 levels of copper is
shown in Figure 7. In contrast to what was observed in Experiment 1,
mortality was not observed until after 5 days of exposure at the
highest level (0.20mg/L). After 144h of exposure (day 6), the
0.20mg/L treatment had experienced 25% mortality. No additional
mortality was observed for the duration of the experiment. None of
the other treatment groups experienced any mortality.
EXPERIMENT 3
A summary of the data collected during experiment 3 is presented in
Table 2. During the 30-day pretreatment period, each pair of dottybacks spawned between four and five times. The mean number of
eggs produced per spawn (n=14) was 1927 ± 122 and the mean number of hatched larvae counted at 12 hours post hatch was 730 ± 135.
Normality of the developing embryos was 98% and 84% at 24h and
72h, respectively. Embryonic development closely followed the normal progression as depicted in Figure 2. The mean hatch rate was
46%. It is important to note that we believe the hatch rate was negatively affected by the artificial incubation of the egg mass, as
typical hatch rates are normally near 100% when the egg mass was
left under the male's care. Despite our best efforts to replicate the
motion and hatching environment of the egg mass, we typically
could not achieve higher than 70% hatch rates.
Figure 4. Survival of flame angelfish exposed to six levels of copper for 48 hours
(Control n=3; all others n=5).
During the 21-day copper treatment period (0.10mg/L Cu), the three
pairs of dottybacks spawned 2, 3 and 4 times respectively. The mean
number of eggs produced per spawn (n=9) was 1004 ± 162, which
was significantly fewer (p<0.05) than during both the pre-treatment
and post treatment periods (Fig. 8A). Normality of the developing
embryos (Fig. 8B) was also significantly lower at 24h (47%) and at
72h (0%) than during pre and post-treatment periods. The mean
number of hatched larvae produced was 0, as all of the developing
embryos had died by 72 hours post-fertilization.
Most of the abnormalities caused by the copper treatment were visible by 24h post-fertilization (Fig. 9). Exposure to copper at the
levels tested caused many of the developing embryos to arrest
shortly after fertilization. These arrested embryos would start to
Figure 5. Relationship of flame angelfish survival to increased copper level after
48 hours of exposure. (0.00mg/L n=3; all others n=5)
25
Table 2. Summary of spawning data collected from orchid dottyback broodstock over the duration of Experiment 3.
Pair 1
Pair 2
Pair 3
Pair 1
Pair 2
Pair 3
Pair 1
Pair 2
Pair 3
Period
# Spawns
Pre-Cu
Pre-Cu
Pre-Cu
During Cu
During Cu
During Cu
Post-Cu
Post-Cu
Post-Cu
4
5
5
4
3
2
3
4
0
Normal 24 hrs
%
2365 ± 203
97.37 ± 1
2013 ± 96
98.72 ± 1
1491 ± 122
99.13 ± 1
1305 ± 66
56.73 ± 9
963 ± 296
49.26 ± 10
746 ± 186
37.78 ± 7
2641 ± 55
95.30 ± 2
1608 ±70
72.80 ±18
N/A
N/A
Values are means ± standard error.
Eggs/Spawn
Figure 6. Recorded copper levels during trial Experiment 2. Copper levels were
measured once each day on three replicate samples and values are reported as
means ± standard deviation.
Hatched Larvae
Hatch Rate %
96.90 ± 2
93.89 ± 2
60.97 ±23
0
0
0
91.58 ± 3
53.36 ± 22
N/A
1107 ± 46
941 ± 91
376 ± 193
0
0
0
1734±433
497 ±316
N/A
54.07 ± 6
49.12 ± 8
33.59 ± 19
0
0
0
69.76 ±18
32.29 ±20
N/A
Figure 7. Survival of flame angelfish exposed to copper for 168 hours. Treatment
levels were not reached until after 24 hours of dosing (n=8 fish per treatment).
Therefore, there were no eggs available for hatching, resulting in
zero hatched larvae during the copper treatment period.
darken in color as they decomposed within the egg. Many of the
eggs appeared less round, and in some cases were completely
misshapen.
During the 30-day recovery period (period 3), pair #1 and #2
spawned three and four times, respectively. The mean number of
eggs produced per spawn (n=7) was 2050 ± 204 and the mean number of hatched larvae counted at 12 hours post-hatch was 1027 ± 318.
Normality of the developing embryos was 82% and 69% at 24h and
72h, respectively. Embryonic development closely followed the normal progression as depicted in Figure 2. The mean hatch rate was
48%. All spawning data collected in the post-treatment period were
not significantly different from the pre-treatment period. However,
pair 3 did not resume spawning during the 30-day post-treatment
observation period. It is unknown why they did not resume spawning, as all other observed behaviors appeared normal.
Despite the large number of abnormalities observed at the 24 hours
post-fertilization sampling period, many of the embryos continued
to develop until about 30 to 40 hours post-fertilization. At the 72
hours post-fertilization sampling period it was clear that almost
none (<1%) of the embryos exposed to copper sulfate had survived
(Fig. 10).
Due to the fact that we allowed the male to care for the egg mass
until just prior to hatch, very few eggs were available for sampling at
the 72h sampling period during the copper treatment. It is common
for the male to cull out dead or improperly developing eggs during
the incubation period, thereby reducing the number of embryos we
were able to evaluate. However, of the eggs remaining for sampling,
we were still able to document abnormal development of embryos
exposed to copper (Fig. 10). It appeared that most development had
ceased by 40 hours post-fertilization, despite normal development
until that point. There were a very small (<1%) number of embryos
that completed normal development to 72 hours post-fertilization.
However, the male had consumed, or otherwise culled out, all remaining eggs from his den prior to the 90hr post-fertilization point
when we would normally remove the egg mass for hatching.
Normal 72 hrs %
DISCUSSION
In the summer of 2004, acute mortality of flame angelfish broodstock and a gradual, but system-wide decline in reproductive
performance (egg output and egg viability) across a range of other
species (clownfish & dottybacks) was observed. After much investigation, it was determined that the only abnormal system parameter
was an elevated copper level, caused by the introduction of copper
26
Figure 8. (Top) Mean number of eggs and hatched larvae produced and (Bottom) mean percent normal embryos at 24 and 72 hrs post fertilization, before, during and
after copper treatment. Values are reported as means (n=3 pairs) ± standard error. Asterisk indicates significant differences between means (p<0.05).
27
Figure 9. Photographs of abnormalities in early embryonic development of orchid dottyback eggs exposed to copper. Arrows indicate normal embryos. A) Normal 24hr
post-fertilization embryo surrounded by dead (dark) and misshapen eggs. B) Close-up of arrested 24hr post-fertilization embryo, showing characteristic darkening of yolk
area. C) Normal 24hr post fertilization embryo with embryo that arrested 10-12hrs post-fertilization. D) Normal 24hr post-fertilization embryo surrounded by embryos that
arrested 4-8hrs post-fertilization.
wire into the sump of the recirculating holding system. The wire had
slowly dissolved releasing copper into the water and eventually elevated the system level to 0.10-0.20mg/L. It was at least 6 weeks
before the elevated copper level was discovered.
this species. In strong contrast to the low-level treatments, fish in
the highest-level treatments (Experiment 1) were immediately adversely affected by the addition of copper to the water. Within a few
hours of exposure, many fish in the high-level treatments were exhibiting signs of stress (rapid respiration and erratic swimming
behavior). The behaviors observed in these treatments were very
similar to those observed during the acute mortality event at the
ARC in Maine. It was clear that the addition of copper to the water
at recommended therapeutic levels caused severe stress and injury
to these fish.
After much effort, the copper was removed from the system using a
series of large water changes, removing all calcium carbonate substrate (which absorbed copper, acting as a copper sponge,
subsequently re-releasing copper back into the water to equilibrium), and by using a commercially available copper removing resin
Cuprisorb™ (Seachem Laboratories, Inc.). Once the copper level was
reduced to below 0.10 mg/L, most of the broodstock pairs began to
spawn normally again.
Prior to the start of Experiment 1, mortality of two of the recently
acquired fish was recorded. Those two fish had been observed
showing signs of "stress" (rapid breathing and abnormal swimming
behavior) upon arrival at OI. They were purposefully going to be assigned to the 0.00mg/L treatment group with the idea that any
additional treatment "stress" might inadvertently cause mortality,
confounding the effects of the copper treatment. However,
The use of copper as a treatment for marine parasites requires constant exposure to levels between 0.15-0.25mg/L for a minimum of 21
days (Bassleer, 1996; Noga, 2000). Given the demonstrated sensitivity of angelfish to copper, copper treatment is counter indicated for
28
mortality of these fish prior to the experiment caused the trial to
commence with only 3 replicates in the control treatment.
dosing at targeted therapeutic levels may be achieved. However, implementation of such systems is likely beyond the capacity of most
hobbyists, importers or retail proprietors. Additionally, it is unknown
whether prolonged exposure beyond the one-week end point of
this trial would have lead to additional chronic mortality. It is also
possible that other, less obvious, physiological injury could be
caused by repeated or prolonged exposure to copper. Therefore, alternate treatment strategies should be investigated for the
treatment of external parasites in this species of fish.
This observed mortality could be attributed to the stress imposed on
fish when they are recently imported. The only control treatment
fish that were lost were the new fish, acquired just prior to the experiment. Acclimation stress, and subsequent mortality, is
unfortunately common in newly acquired fish. Mortality is particularly common with fish that are recently collected, as these
undoubtedly were (coming directly from an importer). The remaining fish in the control treatment displayed no visible signs of stress
and appeared completely normal for the duration of the trial. Also,
the other newly acquired fish did not contribute disproportionately
to the observed mortality in the other treatment groups. Furthermore, angelfish in the 0.05mg/L treatment did not experience any
mortality, indicating that this species should not be negatively affected at the background levels of copper routinely measured in the
incoming saltwater (derived from wells) at the Oceanic Institute.
Results from Experiment 3 verify that the lowest level of copper observed during the period of accidental copper introduction (0.10mg/
L) was high enough to impair the reproduction of marine ornamental fish broodstock. The effects of copper on reproduction in marine
ornamental fish appear to be two-fold, negatively affecting both the
adults and embryos. First, copper at 0.10mg/L affected the adult female orchid dottyback as evidenced by significantly reduced egg
production. Second, the same copper level was toxic to the developing dottyback embryos, as none of the embryos survived past 48
hours of exposure. It is interesting to note that although the copper
affected the adult females, the adult males did not seem to be affected to the same degree, as evidenced by unchanged fertilization
rates of the eggs during copper exposure. Fertilization rates remained near 100% for the duration of this study and did not appear
to be affected by copper levels in the water. It was observed that
eggs produced in copper-treated water, if moved to copper-free water shortly after fertilization, would complete normal embryonic
development. This result is highly suggestive that the negative effects of copper on the developing embryo occurred after
fertilization and were caused by exposure to copper in the water,
rather than exposure inside the female during egg maturation.
In Experiment 2, the same acute onset of mortality following copper
exposure was not recorded. However, flame angelfish at the highest
treatment level did experience 25% mortality. It is possible that
through the more gradual and constant addition of copper, these
fish were able to somewhat acclimate to higher copper levels. More
likely, as these fish are increasingly sensitive to copper at the higher
treatment levels, the reduced fluctuation in copper dosing precluded exposure to these "upper maximums". In Experiment 1, the
targeted treatment levels were often exceeded in the afternoon, exposing the fish (even if only for an hour or two) to higher than
desired levels. This exposure could likely have led to increased stress
and reduced capacity for coping with the copper at lower levels and/
or the ability to adjust to copper fluctuations. However, the former
method of dosing copper (not using dosing equipment) is the only
feasible method for hobbyists.
Although copper exposure impaired the reproduction and embryonic development in this species, those effects were reversed shortly
after returning the fish to copper-free water. Following the treatment, two of the three pairs immediately began producing eggs and
larvae in similar numbers to pre-treatment levels. Although the third
pair did not resume spawning during the 30-day, post-exposure
Prolonged exposure to copper, with reduced mortality, may be possible by utilizing a flow-through system with dosing equipment, such
as the one described in Experiment 2. In this way, precise copper
Figure 10. Photographs of abnormalities in late embryonic development of orchid dottyback eggs exposed to copper. Arrows indicate normal embryos. A) Close-up of arrested ~35hr post-fertilization embryo, showing darkening of yolk area and bent body axis. B) Normal 72hr post-fertilization embryo next to an embryo that arrested
30-40hrs post-fertilization.
29
evaluation period, that pair did begin spawning again shortly thereafter. These results indicate that moderate exposure to copper may
not have negative long-lasting effects on reproduction in marine ornamental fish. However, caution must be utilized during therapeutic
use of copper, as some species, such as flame angelfish, appear to
be much more sensitive than others. From these results, it can concluded that the recorded copper levels observed in the system at
the ARC could have contributed to the flame angelfish mortality and
prolonged reproductive decline in the other marine ornamental
broodstock. Copper also proved very difficult to remove from recirculating systems and therefore should be avoided if other viable
treatment alternatives are available.
4. Grossel, M., McDonald, M.D., Walsh, P.J., Wood, C.M., 2004. Effects of prolonged copper exposure in the marine gulf
toadfish (Opsanus beta) II: copper accumulation, drinking rate
and Na+/K+ - ATPase activity in osmoregulatory tissues. Aquatic Toxicology 68, 263-275.
5. Grossel, M., McDonald, M.D., Wood, C.M., Walsh, P.J. 2004. Effects of prolonged copper exposure in the marine gulf
toadfish (Opsanus beta) I. Hydromineral balance and plasma nitrogenous waste products. Aquatic Toxicology 68, 249-262.
6. Grossel, M., Wood, C.M., Walsh, P.J., 2003. Copper homeostasis and toxicity in the elasmobranch Raja erinacea and the
teleost Myoxocephalus octodecemspinosus during exposure to
elevated water-borne copper. Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology Part C. 135, 179-190.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thank you to Søren Hansen, for assistance in identifying and correcting the copper contamination of our broodstock system. We wish to
thank Dr. Michael Optiz for preparation of tissue samples and assistance in diagnosis of copper toxicity. Additional provisions for
replacement broodstock and systems modifications were provided
by The University of Maine. We also wish to thank Kenneth Liu, and
Joe Aipa for assistance during copper toxicity assays at the Oceanic
Institute. Funding for the angelfish toxicity assays were provided
through the Hawaii Sustainable Fisheries Development Project
(NOAA Award No. NA05NM4441228).
7. Handy, R., 2003. Chronic effects of copper exposure versus endocrine toxicity: two sides of the same toxicological process?
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A. 135, 25-38.
8. Noga, E.J., 2000. Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. Blackwell Publishing.Ames, Iowa. 367p.
9. Paris-Palacios, S., Biagianti-Risbourg, G., Vernet, G., 2000. Biochemical and (ultra) structural hepatic perturbations of
Brachydanio rerio (Teleostei, Cyprinidae) exposed to two sublethal concentrations of copper sulfate. Aquatic Toxicology 50,
109-124.
REFERENCES
1. Ali, A., Al-Ogaily, S.M., Al-Asgah, N.A., Gropp, J., 2003. Effects
of sublethal concentrations of copper on the growth performance of Oreochromis niloticus. Journal of Applied Ichthyology
19, 183-188.
10. Perschbacher, P.W., 2005. Temperature effects on acute copper toxicity to juvenile channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus.
Aquaculture 243, 225-228.
11. Shapiro, S. S., Wilk, M.B., 1965. An analysis of variance test for
normality (complete samples). Biometrika 52, 591-611.
2. Bassleer, G., 1996. Diseases in Marine Aquarium Fish: causes,
symptoms treatment. Basleer Biofish, Westmeerbeek, Belgium. 94p.
12. Snedecor, G. W., Cochran, W. G., 1993. Levene's test of homogeneity of variance. In: Statistical Methods, 8th edition. Iowa
State University Press, Ames Iowa.
3. Grossel, M., Hansen, H.J.M., Rosenkilde, P., 1998. Cu uptake,
metabolosim and elimination in fed and starved European eels
(Anguilla Anguilla) during adaptation to water-borne Cu exposure. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C. 120,
295-305.
30
What's Happening in Your Area?
REEFKEEPING EVENTS
WHAT'S HAPPENING IN YOUR AREA?
By Advanced Aquarist Readers
Check to see if an event is happening in your area!
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): Advanced Aquarist Readers, Reefkeeping Events
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/events
We are pleased to introduce Mark Vera from Aqua-Tech Co. Mark
will be giving two talks during the day:
DO YOU HAVE AN UPCOMING EVENT?
If so, please email us at feedback@advancedaquarist.com and let us
know about it!
• Adding refugia to your reportoire, how to design and build a
refugium
SUMMARY OF UPCOMING EVENTS
• A plethora of plankton, how to culture phytoplankton at home.
1. Cincinnati Reefkeepers Annual Frag Swap, October 18
Mark Vera has been keeping marine aquariums since 1991 during
which he has worked in many capacities of the aquarium business.
He has also worked on various personal and public research projects
and spent two years breeding H. reidi. Being an active Divemaster
Mark travels extensively diving lakes, rivers, and oceans throughout
the world. Between travels Mark owns and operates a specialty
aquarium installation and service company as well as volunteering
his diving and husbandry skills at the John G. Shedd Aquarium. Mark
is also the creator of the Phyto2 and Zoo2 product lines and continues research on the value of Plankton in the captive aquarium.
2. New Jersey Reefers Club 2008 Fall Frag Swap & Symposium,
October 25
3. Second Annual Oklahoma City Conference for Reef Aquarists
and Saltwater Enthusiasts (CRASE), October 25
4. Boston Reef Society and The Salt Water Addicts of Maine Coral
Frag Farmers Market, October 26
5. Louisville Marine Aquarium Society, November 1
6. Southern Maryland Marine Aquarium Society Fourth Annual
Reef Symposium, November 8
Stop by to share or gain knowledge of reef keeping and buy, sell, or
trade coral frags! Check out local vendors and club sponsors! Free
raffle ticket to win a multitude of door prizes when you pay the $5
admission fee! Plus main raffle!!! We look forward to seeing you
there!
7. The Marine Aquarium Society of Ventura County's Second Annual F.R.A.G. Swap, December 6
8. Dallas / Fort Worth Marine Aquarium Society's Next Wave
2009, January 24, 2009
NEW JERSEY REEFERS CLUB 2008 FALL FRAG SWAP
& SYMPOSIUM, OCTOBER 25
9. Marine Aquarium Expo, April 3-5, 2009
When: October 25, 2008, 10 AM to 6 PM
Where: Crown Plaza Secaucus, 2 Harmon Plaza 07904, Secaucus, NJ
(info, map)
Admission: Before October 1st: $25; After October 1st: $30; $40 at
the door. 15 and under are free.
Website:
http://www.njreefers.org/joomla/
index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=91&Itemid=1
10. MACNA XXI, September 25-27, 2009
CINCINNATI REEFKEEPERS ANNUAL FRAG SWAP,
OCTOBER 18
When: Saturday October 18, 2008 from 10am to 3pm
Where: The Underground, 1140 Smiley Ave., Forest Park, OH 45240
(map)
Phone: (513)221- 4888
Admission: $5; Frag Swap attendants with more than 15 items will be
charged a $25 entrance fee.
More Info: http://www.cincyreef.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=46
Schedule of Events:
• 9:00 - Vendor Setup
• 10:00 - Doors open
• 11:00 - Guest Speaker
• 12:00 - Lunch/Fragging Demo
31
• And the Grand Prize this year is: A complete 75gallon Reefready
system. This comprises a 75g All Glass mega flow tank (Donated
by Aquariums) a custom built Oak Stand and Canopy, 2 4 foot T5
lights, return pump, plumbing for the overflows and a sump. The
stand and canopy are not stained so that you can match the system to your house decor. This prize is worth over $1,500.
• 4:30 - HUGE Raffles
• 6:00 - Cleanup
Guest speakers will be:
Guest Speakers:
• Dr. Ron Shimek: Firstly, it is with great pleasure that the organizers of CRASE wish to announce that --after a great deal of
requests from COMAS members---Dr. Ron Shimek will be returning to CRASE. Dr. Shimek will be discussing invertebrates used as
clean up crews, commonly available and some not so commonly
available. His talk will encompass the pros- the cons- the dos and
the don'ts.
• Dana Riddle
• Charles Mazel
• Eric Borneman
Admission includes access to:
• Adam Mangino: The second presenter is a new face to the
CRASE. Adam Mangino is one of the ORA team and is primarily
involved with their captive breeding program and in particular he
is responsible for the hybridization to create the indigo dottyback. He will be talking on captive breeding of marine
ornamentals.
• Huge Raffles
• Drygoods vendors
• Livestock vendors
• Dr. Sanjay Joshi: Also new to the CRASE is one of the most respected names in reef tank lighting. Dr. Sanjay Joshi has
published numerous articles on spectral qualities of bulbs and
the effect of various reflectors. It is fair to say the level of expertise he will be bringing to the CRASE is outstanding and I very
much look forward to meting him. Dr. Joshi will be discussing
various options in reef lighting with particular respect to both T5
and MH technology.
• NY Style Deli lunch buffet, snacks, soft drinks
SECOND ANNUAL OKLAHOMA CITY CONFERENCE
FOR REEF AQUARISTS AND SALTWATER ENTHUSIASTS (CRASE), OCTOBER 25
When: October 25, 2008, 10 AM to 6 PM
Where: University Central Oklahoma Conference Center
Admission: Adult tickets are $15 each for general admission, $25 with
prepaid gourmet box lunch. Children are $10 each for general admission, $20 with prepaid gourmet box lunch.
Website: http://www.mycomas.com/content/view/89/102/
• Dr. Paul W. Whitby: Dr. Whitby is President of the Central Oklahoma Marine Aquarium Society (COMAS) and has over 20 years
experience as a saltwater hobbyist. Dr. Whitby will be discussing
aquascaping techniques.
BOSTON REEF SOCIETY AND THE SALT WATER ADDICTS OF MAINE CORAL FRAG FARMERS MARKET,
OCTOBER 26
After the fabulous success of CRASE 2007, Aquariums Tropical Fish
Supply and the Central Oklahoma Marine Aquarium Society are
pleased to announce the second annual Oklahoma City Conference
for Reef Aquarists and Saltwater Enthusiasts (CRASE). This will be a
single day event and will comprise keynote lectures by distinguished
speakers in the area of saltwater aquariums. In addition, the President of COMAS, Dr. Paul Whitby, will be discussing aquascaping.
There will also be a hobbyist frag sale, vendor and trade displays as
well as numerous door prizes.
When: October 26, 12 PM - 3:30 PM
Where: VFW Post 168, 238 Deer Street, Portsmouth, NH 03801 (map)
Admission: $20 per tank charge for a 2-10 gallon tank, and $30 per
tank charge for anything larger
More
Information:
http://bostonreefers.org/forums/
showthread.php?t=58988
The list of prizes is beginning to take shape, please remember to
stop by and check as it grows. For now, here are a few of the door
prizes we will have:
The Boston Reef Society (BRS) and The Salt Water Addicts of Maine
(SWAM) are joining forces for their October meeting and having a
Coral Frag Farmers Market at the VFW Hall in Portsmouth, NH at 238
Deer Street on Sunday Oct 26th, from 12:00 noon to 3:30 PM. There
will be a $20 per tank charge for a 2-10 gallon tank, and $30 per tank
charge for anything larger. The market place will be for tank raised
stuff only. Members will need to bring their own tank/water/lighting
system. There will also be a standard frag swap for anyone
interested.
• Gift Certificates to Aquarium Oddballs
• Gift Certificates to Aquariums Tropical Fish Supply
• Gift Certificates to Zoanuts
32
There will be plenty of food for everyone as well as one of the best
Marine Aquarium raffles in the state, Lighting Systems, Skimmers,
Custom Sumps, Bio-Cube 8 gallon tanks, and Gift Certificates are just
a few of the raffle items! Vendors will also be on hand selling live
coral as well as dry goods at very reasonable prices.
LOUISVILLE MARINE AQUARIUM SOCIETY, NOVEMBER 1
When: November 1, 1 PM - 4 PM
Where: Falls Of The Ohio State Park, 201 West Riverside Dr., Clarksville IN 47129 (map)
More
Information:
http://www.lmas.org/joomla/
index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=54
If you have any questions,
club.smmas@gmail.com
feel
free
to
email
Please send payment through PAYPAL (www.payal.com) -- to email
address club.smmas@gmail.com include your name, address and
phone number so you can be reached if needed, in the subject line
type "SMMAS Reef Symposium tickets" or just pay at the door!
The LMAS 2nd annual frag swap is just a few weeks away. Please do
what you can to spread the word. We would like to see a good turn
out again for the swap. Last years was great.
Schedule of events:
SOUTHERN MARYLAND MARINE AQUARIUM SOCIETY
FOURTH ANNUAL REEF SYMPOSIUM, NOVEMBER 8
• 10:00 – 11:00 Doors open, tour the museum, view raffle prizes/
buy raffle tickets (all raffle tickets are only $1), view/buy items
from vendors selling wet and dry goods, and socialize. Door
prizes will be handed out to random guest as they arrive.
When: November 8, 10 AM - 5 PM
Where: Calvert Marine Museum, P.O. Box 97, Solomons, MD 20688
(map)
Admission: Adult ticket price is only $20, $15 for SMMAS members,
$10 for students 12-18, and $4 for children under 12.
More Information: http://www.smmas.org/
• 11:00 – 12:15 Dr. Mac will give his presentation.
• 12:15 – 1:30 Lunch, socializing, vendors and raffle tickets will be
available during this time also.
The Southern Maryland Marine Aquarium Society (www.smmas.org)
is proud to host the Fourth Annual Southern Maryland Reef Symposium featuring noted speakers Tullio Dell Aquila of Aquatic
Research & Development and Dr. Mac of Pacific East. This event will
be held Saturday, November 8th, 2008 at the Calvert Marine Museum from 10:00 am to 5:00 pm located in Solomon’s, Maryland.
• 1:30 – 2:45 Mr. Dell Aquila will give his presentation.
• 2:45 -3:15 Short break and the last call for raffle tickets.
• 3:15 – 4:30 Raffle prize drawing!
• 4:30 – 5:00 Closing remarks, socializing with our speakers, and
clean up
Mr. Dell Aquila has pioneered LED lighting in the aquarium trade and
is head of new product development and founding partner of Aquatic Research and Development located in Utica, New York. ARAD is a
contract manufacturer and developer of aquarium products for a
few of the top companies in the aquarium trade specializing in advanced high power solid state lighting systems. Tullio has spent over
a decade focusing on the importance of proper lighting techniques
for aquariums and developing much of the technology they are now
producing today. He will be unveiling the latest in LED technology as
well as his newest invention, for the first time at this show!
THE MARINE AQUARIUM SOCIETY OF VENTURA
COUNTY'S SECOND ANNUAL F.R.A.G. SWAP,
DECEMBER 6
When: Saturday, December 6, 2008, 11 AM – 4 PM
Where: TAAM Warehouse, 1011 Avenida Acaso, Camarillo, CA 93012
(map)
Admission: $5, Raffle Tickets $1
More Information: http://frag.masvc.org/
Dr. Mac, a Board Certified veterinarian is well known in the hobby
and has been a reef hobbyist for 40 years. His business, Pacific East
is the number one livestock vendor in the nation over the last seven
years and is the first and only State Certified Marine Aquaculture Facility in Maryland. He will be speaking on his Solomon Island
Mariculture Project.
Here’s what you can count on at F.R.A.G. 2008:
• SPS, LPS, Zoanthids, Softies, Hardware and just about anything
else you could want for your aquarium, sold by fellow hobbyists
and well-known vendors
The adult ticket price is only $20, $15 for SMMAS members, $10 for
students 12-18, and $4 for children under 12. Included in this price is
admission to the Calvert Marine Museum featuring wildlife from the
Chesapeake Bay, a petting area of rays, interactive displays, as well
as the history of the Chesapeake. Check out their website,
www.calvertmarinemuseum.com for directions and all the activities
that are available.
• Presentations and demonstrations from hobby experts
• Tons of prizes raffled off
• Great food from local vendors
• Hot deals!! (What’s the point in a swap if you can have it delivered to your door from the latest Ultra-Mega-Reef-FarmWarehouse-Superstore for less?)
The doors open at 10:00am; check in at the front desk to receive
your Reef Symposium passes and admission stickers for the museum. Tour the museum and enjoy the “saltwater” tank displays of
the local Chesapeake Bay (who knew seahorses lived in the Chesapeake?), there is so much to see and do here you may want to join
the museum and come back again!
please
• A wonderful time!!
33
Attention all reefers north of Ventura County – Now you don’t have
to drive 3 hours to attend a Swap!! Amenities:
• A warehouse with electrical outlets galore!
• Free Wi-Fi (PayPal!!)
• Plenty of free parking
We need your help!!
• We need some of the local growers/backyard hobbyists who are
dedicated to promoting this hobby because they love it and
want to share (you know who you are).
• Spread the word! This is the BEST way to stock your tank!
• F.R.A.G. 2008 is also open to commercial vendors. Visit the
vendor sign up page for information on reserving a booth.
DALLAS / FORT WORTH MARINE AQUARIUM
SOCIETY'S NEXT WAVE 2009, JANUARY 24, 2009
When: January 24, 2009, 9 AM - 5 PM
Where: Fort Worth Botanic Garden, 3220 Botanic Garden Blvd., Ft.
Worth, TX 76107 (map)
Admission: $25 until November 1
More
Information:
http://www.dfwmas.org/nextwave2009/
registration.html
Everyone is encouraged to attend Next Wave 2009! -- Think of this
conference as going to Reef Keeping College for a day. Four speakers are being flown in to instruct attendees on successful saltwater
care. After each presentation, which will be in the form of slides,
PowerPoint, or video, attendees can ask questions from the speakers about the subject being discussed. Don't miss your chance to
gain knowledge that will last you a lifetime!
Speakers for this great event are:
• Bob Fenner- The pros and cons of hitchhikers in the reef
aquarium
• Eric Borneman - The sustainablity of our hobby
• Bruce Carlson - Reef Life in the Solomon Islands, a video
presentation
• Jake Adams - Water Flow is More Important Than Light
The day will end with our famous Raffle, and we are sure you won't
want to miss that! Raffle tickets will be for sale during the lunch session and before the raffle.
We are accepting your reservations now. If you wait, the prices will
increase as follows:
• October 1st to November 1st: $25
• November 1st to December 1st: $30
34
• December 1st to January 1st: $35
• Livestock Dealers selling corals, frags, fish, invertebrates, and
more
• January 1st to the event: $40
• Courtyard classes provides a wealth of entertainment and learning experiences
So register online now and save up to $15. Not enough to convince
you to come? Here's pictures and info from Next Wave 2005! So register now!!!
• Many booths, workshops, and educational displays represented
by clubs and charities
• Huge Drawing both days with many, many, Major Prizes to WIN!
MARINE AQUARIUM EXPO, APRIL 3-5, 2009
• Manufacturers showcasing the latest equipment, products and
services available!
When: Friday, April 3 - Sunday, April 5; 12:00 PM - 6:00 PM
Where: OC Fair & Event Center, 88 Fair Drive, Costa Mesa, CA 92626
(map)
Phone: 714-708-1500
Admission: $10 for Adults, $5 for Seniors, and FREE for Children 12
and under
Website: http://marineaquariumexpo.com/
• Six Speakers from all over the United States come to demonstrate, educate, and inspire
MACNA XXI, SEPTEMBER 25-27, 2009
The 21st Marine & Aquarium Conference of North America (MACNA
XXI) has been announced! Your destination city for this industry
leading event is Atlantic City, NJ. This must attend event will be held
September 25-27, 2009.
Marine Aquarium Expo” (MAX), is southern California’s premier
indoor consumer-tradeshow, bringing together manufacturers, retailers, and saltwater enthusiasts from all over the nation into one
giant, centralized location. More than 100 booths fill 22,000 square
feet of exhibitor floor space plus another 7,000 sq. ft. of covered
courtyard to accommodate speakers, raffle drawings, Club booths,
and various workshops. MAX is the perfect venue to see the latest
innovative products and offerings as well as the most progressive
enterprises in the marine aquarium business. MAX is a spectacular
marketplace for selling/trading of livestock, equipment, supplies,
and various other goods. Literally THOUSANDS of coral frags are
available for sale from the dozens of livestock exhibitors attending
Marine Aquarium Expo. We invite you to bring the entire family to
see what the excitement is all about. MAX is an event that you do
NOT want to miss!
Join us for a weekend near the beautiful beaches of Atlantic City
where the excitement never stops. September and NJ beaches are a
winning combination. The weather is still warm and the water temperatures are perfect. If beaches aren't your thing, there is plenty of
shopping, casinos, energizing spas, shows and concerts, endless
nightlife, fine dining, boardwalk, golf, attractions, fishing, and water
sports to keep you well entertained for the entire week after the
show.
The convention hotel is the Sheraton, Atlantic City located at 2 Miss
America Way and attached to the convention center via an enclosed
walkway. Hotel rooms are being held under MACNA XXI for special
convention rates of $139 with discounted parking (though if you're
not coming in by car you don't need to rent one to get around
town). These rates are greatly discounted from their normal weekend rates. Be sure to use the room block when reserving your room.
• Two Full Days of festivities, trade, and entertainment! Do not
miss this event!
• Giant Market of Manufacturers, Wholesalers, Retailers, Hobbyists and more!
To make reservations, use the Sheraton Hotel Reservation System.
35
Probiotics Part I: A Lot of Hype or a Lot of Help?
LATERAL LINES
PROBIOTICS PART I: A LOT OF HYPE OR A LOT OF
HELP?
By Adam Blundell M.S.
Adam reviews using probiotics in shrimp culture.
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): Adam Blundell M.S., Lateral Lines, Probiotics
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/lines
New uses of probiotics are making their way into the aquaculture industry. A probiotic is a term which literally means good organism.
The concept is that you take a living organism (usually bacteria of
some sort) and harvest the actions of that animal to benefit another. The quintessential example is the bacteria living in your intestines
that help to break down your breakfast. Those bacteria greatly contribut to your health and wellbeing.
disagree with that Im sure they have studies to back up that claim.
However, Im not sure that regulating your slow intestinal transit is a
good thing. Their company states that probiotics are a new wave of
functional foods and they use a type of Bifidobacterium. Bifidobacteria are anaerobic bacteria that make up the gut flora and aid in
digestion.
PROBIOTICS FOR AQUATICS
BACKGROUND
This is the cool part. Probiotics are now being used in the aquaculture industry. Im going to focus on shrimp cultures since that is
where I get the most questions. When I first started looking into
Sanolife MIC (by INVE Technologies) I was expecting to see a form
of Bifidobacterium. Some sort of anaerobic digestive bacteria. What
I wasnt expecting to see were strains of the aerobe Bacillus. The
three forms of Bacillus found in Sanolife MIC are Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus pumilu. These bacteria are naturally
occurring in soil and have been well studied. Actually they are some
of the most well described and understood bacteria.
It has been almost a decade since I really put forth any energy into
raising ornamental shrimp. Sure, I still dabble in it here and there.
However, it isnt something Ive had much interest in for years. Yet I
still get emails regarding shrimp aquaculture on a weekly basis. Apparently some articles I printed years ago still make the rounds in
that field.
What is of interest to me (and has been a specialty of mine) is nutrition. And in the world of nutrition the newest fad (some would say
the newest achievement) are probiotics. Needless to say I get asked
about this all the time both from a human foods and an aquaculture
perspective.
PROBIOTICS FOR HUMANS
Maybe Im just skeptical. To me, probiotics are the next marketing
wonder. Remember Beta-carotene? Ginkgo biloba? Echinacea? Aloe
vera? Smoothies with vitamins? Green Tea extract? Copper Ion bracelets? Do these things work? Probably so. Im not going to argue
against it, because honestly there are studies to back up everything.
My biased view is that there are a million things out there that can
improve your health. As soon as someone shows that, there is a
market for sales. [In the opinion of this editor, most of the things
just mentioned do not work other then via the placebo effect.]
Ive been seeing lots of commercials for yogurt containing probiotics.
I eat a lot of yogurt. Ive yet to buy the yogurt that contains probiotics. Maybe Im being foolish and not taking advantage of a great
benefit. Or maybe Im just not falling for the marketing. (Why is it
that all the yogurt commercials I see for probiotics feature women,
and try to tell them it is better for their health?)
The author is amazed that somehow the human species has lived for 8 million
years without these miracle products! How did we ever live without the Worlds
Strongest Fat Burner!? As a side note the local grocery store by my house has
these products for sale in the same isle as the potato chips!!!
According to Danone (Dannon in the US), the maker of Activia, their
product helps to regulate your slow intestinal transit. I wont
36
How does that help in raising shrimp? I dont know. One area of
shrimp development that has always been in the back of my mind is
to what degree a living system important to the larvae. Meaning is it
better to raise the larvae in a system with lots of live rock and sand,
or is it better to raise them in clean 5 gallon buckets? My experience
would tell me that the live rock system is undoubtedly a better way
to go.
RESULTS
Just because I dont know how that helps, doesn't mean it is isnt
helping. In fact INVEs worldwide testing has produced some amazing results. In growing shrimp they have seen a growth from 40
g/tonne to nearly 80 g/tonne of biomass. That is roughly doubling
their production. What is just as impressive is the increased survival
rate of their cultures.
It is possible, and the author is certainly aware, that many larval
shrimp may be eating but not properly digesting foods. This could
be one reason why so many hobbyists can raise ornamental shrimp
for a few days or weeks but not for many months. Could probiotics
help to overcome that hurdle (assuming there is a hurdle there)?
Time will tell.
Graph from INVE Technologies testing of shrimp cultures. Faster
growth rates of larvae receiving Sanolife MIC-F:
CONCLUSION
Is this a miracle breakthrough in raising ornamental shrimp? Absolutely not. I wrote that last sentence with strong language but
honestly I could be wrong. However with such complex mechanisms
Is this a new trend? Or is this really something great?
Figure 1: Significant increase of biomass yield (PL12) after application of Sanolife® MIC during the complete hatchery cycle of Penaeus monodon.
Numerous studies show the benefits of fish oils, mainly Omega-3 fatty acids.
Scientific reports and medical experts have certainly found good reason to make
this a popular item.
Figure 2: Sanolife® MIC produces superior survival rates throughout the entire
culture cycle of Litopenaeus vannamei.
37
in development of zoeae stages I fill confident in saying that one big
advancement wont do it all. At least, I dont think so.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
But in the meantime it will be interesting to see what kind of impact
this research will have. For those who are trying to raise ornamental
shrimp, they have nothing to lose by trying this. Additionally, early
indications show that it may provide a great benefit.
Adam Blundell M.S. is a hobbyist, lecturer, author, teacher, and research biologist. Adam is the director of the Aquatic & Terrestrial
Research Team, a group which bridges the gap between hobbyists
and scientists. Adam can be reached by email at
adamblundell@hotmail.com.
38
New MACO Course! Aquarium Photography
ONLINE COURSES
NEW MACO COURSE! AQUARIUM PHOTOGRAPHY
By D. Wade Lehmann
Marine Aquarist Courses Online (MACO) is proud to offer, starting October 19th, a course for aquarium photography.
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): D. Wade Lehmann, Fish, Online Courses, Photography
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/maco
M
arine
Aquarist
Courses
REGISTRATION DETAILS
Online
(http://www.aquaristcourses.org) is proud to announce the newest
in our series of online courses. Aquarium Photography is designed
for those of us who want to learn how to better use our cameras to
document and show off our tanks and inhabitants.
Registration closes on Saturday October 18th!! Register now before
its too late!
The Aquarium Photography Techniques - Level I course, beginning
October 19, 2008, is now open for registration! Live chat sessions
will be 5-7pm PST (8-10pm EST).
http://www.aquaristcourses.org/aqphoto/
Through interactive online learning with practical, hands on photography assignments and critiques of your images through your own
student gallery on the MACO website, you will gain a thorough understanding of how to capture stunning photographs of marine or
freshwater aquariums and their aquatic inhabitants.
In order to register for the Photography course, please click the
Paypal link at the bottom of the page. The cost for the course is $85
for the full 6 weeks and lifetime access to both the forums and the
course materials.
This course will be 6 weeks, with a weekly chat session (8-10pm EST
Sundays). Transcripts of each course chat will be available on the
website shortly after each chat session.
During the Aquarium Photography Techniques – Level I course, you
will learn how to utilize your camera equipment (including electronic
flash) to capture clear and compelling images of aquariums under
different conditions as well as the basic rules of composition and
fundamental macro photography techniques.
When your registration is received, watch your registered email for
your login ID and password for the MACO website. At that point,
you should have full access to the course and its contents.
We will examine how to ‘set the stage’ in an aquarium for your
photo shoot while discussing a variety of techniques for capturing
images of a variety of subject matter, including corals, invertebrates,
and (of course) fish. We will also cover methods of photographing
entire aquarium environments.
Click this link to register for the course:
http://www.aquaristcourses.org/aqphoto/
Aquarium%20Photography%20Techniques%20-%20Registration
The Aquarium Photography Techniques – Level I course will also include an introduction to multimedia uses for your images & methods
for displaying and sharing them as well as basic post-production
skills, including digital file management and computer manipulation.
39
New MACO Course! Aquarium Photography
working with a number of local aquarium stores and wholesalers on
livestock photography projects.
INSTRUCTOR BIO
Chris lives in Vancouver, British Columbia; on the shore of the Pacific
Ocean, about 10 minutes from the Vancouver Aquarium.
Chris’ photography background includes producing commercial imagery for Food Manufacturers, Restaurants, Hotels, Resorts, Cruise
Ships, and Tourist Attractions. His work has been used by organizations such as Hyatt, Disney, Carnival Cruise lines, Sutton Place
Hotels, Vancouver Tourism, Seattle's Best Coffee and Expedia.com.
He has been teaching specialized photography skills since 2002 and
has been an aquarium enthusiast and professional for almost 25
years.
In addition, he also holds a certificate in Adult Education from the
Vancouver School Board.
Currently, Chris works with an aquarium design & service company
that maintains approximately 150 (fresh & salt-water) tanks ranging
from a 10-gallon nano to an 800-gallon reef environment. He is also
40
Spectral Analysis of 400 Watt Mogul Metal Halide Lamps: Ushio 14000K, Icecap 400W Series, Elios 10000K
PRODUCT REVIEW
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF 400 WATT MOGUL METAL
HALIDE LAMPS: USHIO 14000K, ICECAP 400W SERIES, ELIOS 10000K
By Sanjay Joshi, Ph.D.
This article presents the last of the 400W mogul lamps tested.
Keywords (AdvancedAquarist.com Search Enabled): 400 watt, Ballast, Bulbs, Elos, Halide, Halides, IceCap, Intensity, Lighting, PAR, Product Review, Sanjay Joshi Ph.D., Ushio
Link to original article: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2008/10/review
O
USHIO 400W 14000K MOGUL (PULSE START)
ver the last year, I have continued to test the metal halide
lamps, for their performance and spectral output. This article
presents the last of the 400W mogul lamps tested. Table 1 shows
the complete list of the 400W Mogul lamps and ballast combinations tested. Icecap has introduced their new series of lamps, and
results of these are reported here. The Elios lamp was one given to
me by Italian aquarists, I have not seen this lamp being sold in the
USA. While performing tests on the Elios lamp, I also received the
new Sunlight Supply Galaxy 400W Electronic ballast, and tested the
Elios lamp with this ballast. During the course of this round of testing, the Coralvue Electronic ballast failed and hence was unavailable
for use with the Icecap and Elios lamps.
Table 2: USHIO 400W 14000K Mogul - Pulse Start
Ballast
Power
Voltage
Current
PPFD
CCT
Efficiency
Icecap
PFO-HQI
Blueline
Coralvue
TaiwanHQI
Magnetic
- M59
Pulse M135
EVC
428
445
388
457
120.6
120.6
120.5
121.2
3.71
5.3
3.37
3.91
154.7
144.7
129.8
167.9
13380
12950
15583
10389
0.36145
0.32517
0.33454
0.36740
496
121.5
4.38
190.6
9344
0.38427
0.35309
518
121.5
4.49
182.9
8842
475
122.5
4.23
164.4
9667
0.34611
422
122.1
3.61
151.1
10862
0.35806
Table 1: List of lamps and ballasts tested
400W Mogul Lamps
Ushio 400W 14000K (Pulse Start)
Icecap 400W 10000K
Icecap 400W 14000K
Icecap 400W 20000K
Elios 400W 10000K
400W Ballasts
PFO-HQI
Taiwan HQI
EVC (Electronic)
Icecap (Electronic)
Magnetic (M59)
Blueline (Electronic)
Sunlight Galaxy (Electronic)
COMPARISON OF LAMP PERFORMANCE UNDER DIFFERENT BALLASTS
This section presents the results of testing the different lamps using
different ballasts. For each lamp tested different ballasts were used
to fire the lamp and data is presented.
Figure 1: Spectral Plot of the Ushio 14000K Pulse Start Lamp with the different
ballasts
41
ICECAP 400W 10000K MOGUL
Table 3: Icecap 400W 10000K Mogul
Ballast
Magnetic
(M59)
PFO HQI
Blueline
TaiwanHQI
Icecap
EVC
Power
Voltage
Current
PPFD
CCT
Efficiency
518
120.9
5.52
192.4
6564
0.37143
437
393
120.8
121.3
5.28
3.4
147
137.4
7207
8340
0.33638
0.34962
501
120.7
4.31
200
6715
0.39920
432
424
122.8
122.3
3.68
3.64
162.4
157.3
6868
7400
0.37593
0.37099
Ballast
Power
Voltage
Current
PPFD
CCT
Efficiency
Icecap
EVC
Blueline
PFO HQI
TaiwanHQI
Magnetic
(M59)
432
423
393
517
120.6
121.1
121.9
122.5
3.75
3.67
3.38
5.52
106.3
103.7
92.9
122.3
0
0
0
43821
0.24606
0.24515
0.23639
0.23656
442
121.6
3.52
108.5
0
0.24548
458
121
4.18
98.8
0
0.21572
Figure 2: Spectral Plot of the Icecap 400W 10000K Mogul Lamp with the different
ballasts
ballasts
ELIOS 400W 10000K MOGUL
Ballast
Magnetic
(M59)
EVC
Blueline
TaiwanHQI
PFO-HQI
Icecap
Power
Voltage
Current
PPFD
CCT
The Elios lamp was one given to my by Italian aquarists during my
visit to Germany last year. The lamp comes with the technical specifications and relative spectral plot on the packaging - this is
something not seen with any other lamp. Figure 5, show the packaging for the Elios lamp. Further information about this lamp can be
found at www.reefline.it
Efficiency
543
121
4.73
223.2
7413
0.41105
420
388
121.7
121.9
3.63
3.35
164
133
8709
17389
0.39048
0.34278
474
122.7
4.31
188.5
7801
0.39768
460
429
122.8
123.5
5.53
3.62
223.2
163.7
7412
9022
0.48522
0.38159
Figure 5: Elios Lamp Packaging
ballasts
42
Table 6: Elios 400W 10000K Mogul
Ballast
Power
Icecap
Magnetic
(M59)
HQI
Taiwan
EVC
Sunlight
Supply
(Electronic)
Blueline
CCT
Efficiency
171.3
9478
0.400
211.4
10218
0.418
187.8
225.2
174.1
10010
10108
9920
0.395
0.445
0.411
3.95
204
9494
0.439
3.32
149.8
9891
0.384
Voltage
Current
428
121
3.65
505
120.6
4.41
475
505
423
121.1
120.5
121.1
5.4
4.42
3.63
464
121.3
390
121.9
PPFD
Figure 7. Comparison of PPFD of these lamps against all 400W lamps
Figure 6: Spectral Plot of the Elios 400W 10000K Mogul Lamp with the different
ballasts
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Figure 7 and Tables 7,8, and 9 show the comparison of the PPFD output of these lamps against all the previously tested 400W lamp/
ballast combinations. As seen from the data, the Elios lamp ranks towards the top of the list in terms of output. The Icecap 10000K lamp
also has output comparable to the top 1/3rd of the lamp ballast combinations. The Icecap 14000K has the highest output of all 14000K
rated lamps, but the CCT of this lamp is more in line with 10000K
lamps. The Ushio 14000K lamp's output is in the top 1/3rd of all ballast lamp combinations rated at 14000K. Figure 8 shows how the
correlated color temperatures compare to other 400W mogul
lamps. The European lamps, Ushio (German) and Elios (Italy) have
the color temperature close to what is advertised, with the Elios
having the narrowest spread of CCT. The Icecap lamps 10000K and
14000K lamps have their CCT towards the lower end of similarly
labeled lamps. The Iccecap 2000K lamp is quite similar to several of
the other 20000K lamps in the market. While testing the Elios lamp I
also received the new Sunlight Supply Galaxy 400W Electronic Ballast, and results for this ballast are also presented for the Elios lamp.
The Galaxy ballast draws more power than the other electronic ballasts (Icecap, EVC, Blueline) and hence also results in higher output
of light. A forthcoming article will review some of the newer electronic ballasts. For comparisons with specific individual lamp/ballast
combinations, the user is reffered to the lighting website
www.reeflightinginfo.arvixe.com
Figure 8: Comparison of Correlated Color Temperature of these lamps against all
400W lamps
43
Table 7: Elios 400W 10000K and Icecap 400W 10000K compared to all other 400W Mogul Lamps
Lamp Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
XM 400W 10000K
SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
XM 400W 10000K
SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
XM 400W 10000K
SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
XM 400W 10000K
SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Sylvania Aqua Arc
400W 10000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
EVC 400W 10000K
SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Elios 400W
10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Sylvania Aqua Arc
400W 10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Ballast Name
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
Taiwan 400W HQI
225
10108
505
120
4.42
0.4459
Taiwan 400W HQI
224
13096
502
119
4.4
0.4462
Taiwan 400W HQI
220
8194
492
120
4.37
0.4474
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
211
10218
505
120
4.41
0.4186
PFO 400W HQI
208
8418
519
123
5.54
0.4017
204
8330
485
120
4.27
0.4221
204
9494
464
121
3.95
0.4397
PFO 400W HQI
202
13082
478
119
5.31
0.4226
Taiwan 400W HQI
200
6715
501
120
4.31
0.3992
Taiwan 400W HQI
198
7419
500
121
4.28
0.397
PFO 400W HQI
197
7639
522
122
5.35
0.3776
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
192
6564
518
120
5.52
0.3714
Taiwan 400W HQI
191
9262
514
122
4.38
0.372
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Sunlight Galaxy
400W Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
187
10010
475
121
5.4
0.3954
184
8788
471
122
4.08
0.3907
179
11915
438
120
4.07
0.4087
175
8935
423
120
3.66
0.4158
174
9920
423
121
3.63
0.4116
173
8441
450
121
5.26
0.3851
172
11660
438
120
3.9
0.3927
172
8371
420
120
3.58
0.41
171
8402
426
122
3.62
0.4021
171
9478
428
121
3.65
0.4002
PFO 400W HQI
170
0
535
121
5.22
0.3194
Taiwan 400W HQI
167
8110
482
119
4.28
0.3465
PFO 400W HQI
165
8071
512
119
5.47
0.3223
164
8600
412
123
3.46
0.4
164
7213
446
122
3.76
0.3688
162
10014
480
119
4.32
0.3375
162
6868
432
122
3.68
0.3759
157
7400
424
122
3.64
0.371
153
7186
452
122
3.96
0.3396
EVC 400W
Electronic
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
Taiwan 400W HQI
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
EVC 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Taiwan 400W HQI
153
7208
412
122
3.47
0.3733
151
10047
386
120
3.37
0.3917
149
7267
424
122
3.59
0.3524
149
9891
390
121
3.32
0.3841
148
8199
414
122
3.5
0.3597
147
7207
437
120
5.28
0.3364
146
10454
438
117
3.81
0.3333
143
8978
419
121
3.57
0.3427
143
7233
413
122
3.5
0.3465
143
0
458
122
4.02
0.314
44
Lamp Name
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Aqualine Buschke
400W 10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
10000K SE 1
Sylvania Aqua Arc
400W 10000K SE 1
Aqualine Buschke
400W 10000K SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Sylvania Aqua Arc
400W 10000K SE 1
Giesemann 400W
Marine SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
South Pacific Sunlight 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Aqualine Buschke
400W 10000K SE 1
Coralvue ReefLux
400W 10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
Aqualine Buschke
400W 10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
10000K SE 1
Ballast Name
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
Taiwan 400W HQI
140
9481
464
119
4.2
0.3017
138
7191
419
120
3.59
0.3296
137
0
425
121
3.64
0.3228
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
137
8340
393
121
3.4
0.3496
PFO 400W HQI
133
10335
467
119
5.56
0.2848
PFO 400W HQI
133
9104
485
119
5.56
0.2742
133
7324
380
123
3.18
0.3518
132
10409
447
118
4.11
0.2953
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
132
7140
414
122
3.46
0.3191
130
0
418
121
3.57
0.3117
129
0
417
121
3.52
0.3098
127
0
437
121
374
0.2913
123
7650
428
118
3.94
0.2874
122
8946
386
121
3.31
0.3161
119
7199
384
120
3.32
0.3104
117
7507
412
117
4.03
0.284
115
0
381
122
3.22
0.3031
PFO 400W HQI
103
0
503
120
5.57
0.2052
PFO 400W HQI
102
0
508
121
5.57
0.2018
101
6995
415
118
3.97
0.2434
101
0
395
122
3.64
0.257
Taiwan 400W HQI
98
0
458
122
3.99
0.2157
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
94
6616
418
118
3.87
0.2249
Taiwan 400W HQI
93
0
465
122
4.04
0.2017
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
93
0
451
122
3.78
0.2064
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
92
0
472
121
4.19
0.1962
88
0
445
121
3.96
0.1978
85
0
452
122
3.81
0.1887
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
84
0
419
122
3.58
0.2026
Blueline 400W
Electronic
84
0
385
122
3.25
0.2185
EVC 400W
Electronic
84
0
418
122
3.55
0.201
Icecap 400W
Electronic
80
0
418
122
3.49
0.1928
78
0
425
123
3.59
0.1842
76
0
412
122
3.47
0.1845
75
0
384
123
3.23
0.1977
66
0
426
123
3.93
0.1554
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
45
Table 8: Ushio 400W 14000K and Icecap 400W 14000K compared to all other 400W 14000K Mogul Lamps
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Lamp Name
Ballast Name
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
BLV 400W Nepturion 14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
14000K SE 1
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 1
Ushio 400W
14000K SE 2
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
223
7413
543
121
4.73
0.411
PFO 400W HQI
223
7412
460
122
5.53
0.4852
PFO 400W HQI
214
10026
547
122
5.24
0.3912
Taiwan 400W HQI
198
10648
500
122
4.3
0.396
Taiwan 400W HQI
190
9344
496
121
4.38
0.3843
Taiwan 400W HQI
188
7801
474
122
4.31
0.3977
Taiwan 400W HQI
185
11214
506
121
4.4
0.366
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
182
8842
518
121
4.49
0.3531
PFO 400W HQI
170
0
536
123
4.8
0.3172
169
12756
446
122
3.78
0.3809
167
10389
457
121
3.91
0.3674
166
12377
493
122
5.52
0.3385
164
8709
420
121
3.63
0.3905
164
9667
475
122
4.23
0.3461
163
9022
429
123
3.62
0.3816
162
13701
418
120
3.59
0.3876
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
EVC 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
EVC 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
161
11706
492
121
4.33
0.3285
160
12809
457
122
3.87
0.3505
154
13380
428
120
3.71
0.3614
152
13648
419
123
3.5
0.3649
152
12241
458
122
4.19
0.3319
151
10862
422
122
3.61
0.3581
151
13494
431
122
3.66
0.352
PFO 400W HQI
146
0
541
121
5.08
0.271
146
0
416
123
3.51
0.3514
146
13262
420
121
3.63
0.3495
144
12950
445
120
5.3
0.3252
143
0
418
121
3.56
0.3421
142
12307
440
123
3.9
0.3227
141
0
428
122
3.63
0.3306
PFO 400W HQI
140
34583
512
122
5.6
0.2744
Blueline 400W
Electronic
140
15441
386
124
3.22
0.3627
Taiwan 400W HQI
134
0
448
122
4.14
0.3009
Blueline 400W
Electronic
133
17389
388
121
3.35
0.3428
Taiwan 400W HQI
131
0
465
122
4.14
0.2828
129
15583
388
120
3.37
0.3345
129
16581
388
121
3.35
0.3325
EVC 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
125
79735
426
123
3.61
0.2937
124
0
378
121
3.23
0.328
PFO 400W HQI
123
30519
524
121
4.95
0.2361
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
116
0
425
122
3.61
0.2744
Taiwan 400W HQI
115
0
450
123
3.97
0.2562
46
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Lamp Name
Ballast Name
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
EVC 400W 14000K
SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
Hamilton 400W
14000K SE 1
Aquaconnect
400W 14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 14000K SE 1
14000K SE 1
EVC 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
114
0
412
123
3.47
0.2767
111
0
422
121
3.58
0.2652
104
0
412
122
3.49
0.2529
102
0
381
122
3.22
0.2698
96
0
449
122
3.98
0.2149
PFO 400W HQI
96
0
517
121
5.52
0.1868
Taiwan 400W HQI
93
0
442
122
3.92
0.2124
92
0
388
123
3.59
0.2387
84
0
387
121
3.31
0.2196
81
0
516
121
5.53
0.1574
80
0
414
122
3.49
0.1955
80
0
341
120
3.35
0.237
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
79
0
421
120
3.59
0.1876
78
0
444
121
3.98
0.1761
78
0
456
121
3.97
0.173
76
0
425
121
3.64
0.18
75
0
418
121
3.58
0.1804
Taiwan 400W HQI
73
0
452
122
3.99
0.1617
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
72
0
452
121
3.84
0.1608
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
69
0
451
123
3.78
0.153
Blueline 400W
Electronic
68
0
383
121
3.3
0.1783
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
68
0
462
123
4.12
0.1474
Icecap 400W
Electronic
66
0
421
122
3.54
0.158
Taiwan 400W HQI
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
65
57329
422
122
3.62
0.1545
64
0
422
123
3.93
0.1517
64
0
388
121
3.34
0.1668
Blueline 400W
Electronic
63
0
390
123
3.29
0.1636
62
31024
432
122
3.68
0.1454
62
0
378
122
3.65
0.164
60
0
416
123
3.51
0.1461
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
EVC 400W
Electronic
47
Table 9: Icecap 400W 20000K compared to all other 400W 20000K Mogul Lamps
Lamp Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
Radium 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Radium 400W
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
Osram 400W
20000K SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Ushio Blue 400W
20000K SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Ushio Blue 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Ushio Blue 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
Osram 400W
20000K SE 1
Coralvue 400W
20000K SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
Ushio Blue 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
Ballast Name
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
PFO 400W HQI
149
0
526
122
4.94
0.2844
PFO 400W HQI
147
0
471
119
5.11
0.3121
PFO 400W HQI
146
0
532
121
5.4
0.2761
PFO 400W HQI
138
0
524
120
5.42
0.2647
Taiwan 400W HQI
137
0
465
122
4.07
0.2948
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
128
0
466
120
4.1
0.2747
Taiwan 400W HQI
128
0
458
120
3.98
0.2808
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
127
0
424
123
3.6
0.3012
125
0
416
123
3.52
0.3017
125
0
447
120
3.82
0.2801
Taiwan 400W HQI
123
0
428
118
3.95
0.2874
PFO 400W HQI
122
0
543
121
5.24
0.2263
Taiwan 400W HQI
122
0
451
121
3.95
0.2716
PFO 400W HQI
122
43821
517
122
5.52
0.2366
PFO 400W HQI
121
0
438
119
4.98
0.2763
119
0
420
122
3.52
0.2855
118
0
414
123
3.48
0.2865
117
0
417
120
3.57
0.2808
Icecap 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
EVC 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
114
0
486
118
4.39
0.2346
Taiwan 400W HQI
114
0
460
119
4.37
0.2478
Icecap 400W
Electronic
113
0
422
122
3.58
0.2682
PFO 400W HQI
112
0
486
119
5.75
0.2305
112
0
383
123
3.22
0.293
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
112
0
418
121
3.53
0.2696
110
0
425
122
3.82
0.2595
109
0
451
118
4.13
0.2417
108
0
423
121
3.63
0.257
108
0
442
121
3.52
0.2455
Taiwan 400W HQI
107
0
465
121
4.07
0.2314
Taiwan 400W HQI
106
0
450
120
4.05
0.2356
106
0
405
123
3.89
0.262
106
0
432
120
3.75
0.2461
104
0
433
119
3.95
0.2402
104
0
383
120
3.31
0.2715
104
0
442
121
4
0.2362
104
0
450
122
3.81
0.232
103
0
387
122
3.28
0.2672
103
17614
516
121
5.33
0.1996
103
0
423
121
3.67
0.2452
102
0
445
118
4.2
0.2292
99
0
414
121
3.51
0.2398
98
0
442
121
5.38
0.2217
Taiwan 400W HQI
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Taiwan 400W HQI
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
EVC 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
PFO 400W HQI
48
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
Lamp Name
Ballast Name
Catalina Reefgrow
400W 20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Helios 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Osram 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
Radium 400W
20000K SE 1
Osram 400W
20000K SE 1
Icecap 400W
20000K SE 1
XM 400W 20000K
SE 1
Radium 400W
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
EVC 400W 20000K
SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
Acquarmckzo
400W 20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
20000K SE 1
EVC 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Reef Fanatic
400W Electronic
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
EVC 400W
Electronic
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Venture 400W
Pulse Start (M135)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Blueline 400W
Electronic
Taiwan 400W HQI
PPFD
CCT
Power
Volts
Amps
EFF
98
0
420
122
3.58
0.2333
98
0
458
121
4.18
0.2157
97
0
423
121
3.63
0.2312
96
0
385
121
3.62
0.2506
96
0
422
122
3.59
0.2284
95
0
419
121
3.57
0.2267
94
0
412
120
3.74
0.2282
94
0
412
122
3.48
0.2301
93
0
406
119
3.91
0.2291
93
0
415
119
3.91
0.2241
92
0
393
121
3.38
0.2364
91
0
385
122
3.28
0.2364
90
0
412
120
3.76
0.2184
88
0
386
121
3.31
0.2295
88
0
444
122
3.9
0.1991
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
Icecap 400W
Electronic
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
81
0
402
121
3.7
0.2035
76
55272
431
121
3.72
0.1763
75
0
436
123
3.98
0.1736
PFO 400W HQI
74
0
516
120
5.44
0.1442
74
52462
423
121
3.65
0.1759
69
0
392
121
3.38
0.1778
Coralvue 400W
Electronic
67
0
452
121
3.82
0.15
Taiwan 400W HQI
66
0
452
120
3.96
0.1473
EVC 400W
Electronic
63
0
420
121
3.61
0.1502
Icecap 400W
Electronic
59
0
418
121
3.55
0.1423
Magnatek 400W
(M59)
55
0
446
120
4.05
0.1253
Blueline 400W
Electronic
49
0
385
121
3.29
0.1286
EVC 400W
Electronic
Blueline 400W
Electronic
49
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other invasive species of Caulerpa, and the prevention of their
spread.
tensity Discharge (H.I.D.) and fluorescent lighting fixtures. We
specialize in fixtures with applications in the hobby & commercial
horticulture and reef tank aquarium industries. Sunlight Supply Inc.
is a recognized and respected leading brand in the marketplace.
THAT FISH PLACE
W e are the original Aquatic and Pet Supply Superstore! Every
year, tens of thousands of visitors come from all over the US and
Canada to explore our 110,000 square foot retail store. Bring your
pet along and check out our incomparable fish room with over 800
aquariums!
51
AQUAFX
AQUARIUMPART.COM
T he Leaders in Aquarium Water Treatment and Purification.
A quariumPart.com is an online retailer of many hard to find parts
for various aquarium lights, pumps, protein skimmers, meters, UV
sterilizers and filters.
CHAMPION LIGHTING & SUPPLY
ECOSYSTEM AQUARIUM
U SA's largest distributor of exclusively Saltwater products.
T hrough extensive experiments since 1987, EcoSystem Aquarium
proudly brings only time tested and proven products to the Aquatic Industry.
E.S.V. COMPANY, INC.
JELLIQUARIUM
S pecialty Chemicals and Products for the Advanced Aquarist.
S pecializes in custom made aquariums for jellyfish.
MICROCOSM
PHISHY BUSINESS
M icrocosm™ Aquarium Explorer is the creation of an interna- P hishy Business is a reef livestock mail order company dedicated
tional team of leading aquarium authors, marine biologists,
underwater photographers, and tropical naturalists.
to captive propagation of soft and SPS corals.
RED SEA
SALTY CRITTER
A leader in the development and introduction of new and innov- Y our source for saltwater and reef aquarium supplies and equipative technologies and products for the serious aquarium hobbyist.
ment here online, or come visit us at our full service walk-in retail
location.
TROPICAL FISH AUCTION
TWO LITTLE FISHES
B uy and sell aquarium fish, invertebrates, coral, aquarium sup- P roducts
plies, and more!
and Information for Reef Aquariums and Water
Gardens.
52
COVER
BACK

October 2008 | Volume VII, Issue X

Transcription

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