Chapter 26 Inca

t
The Incas
26.1 Introduction
In Chapter25, you learnedabout daily life
in the Aztec Empire of Mexico. Now you will
learnaboutthe Inca Empire, a greatsociety
that developedin the Andes Mountainsof South
America. The Inca Empire arosein the 1400s
c.B.It lasteduntil 1532,when the Incaswere
conqueredby Spanishexplorers.
From north to south,the Inca Empire
stretchedmore than 2,500 miles. To communicate acrossthis vast distance,the Incasused
runnerscalled chasquisto relay messagesfrom
one place to another.
Imagine that you are a young chasqui.From
your messengerstationalong the Royal Road,
you seeanotherchasquiracing toward you. You
know he carriesan important messagefrom the
emperor.You dart out of the messengerstation
and run alongsidethe other runner while he
handsyou a set of stringscalled a quipu. Knots
tied at different placesin the stringsstandfor
numbers.They will help you rememberthe
message.
The otherchasquialsogivesyou a
verbal message.Once he is certainthat you
have both parts of the message,he stopsrunning. His work is over. Now it is up to you to
get the messageto the next stationas quickly
as possible.
This remarkablerelay systemhelpedthe
Incas managetheir far-flung empire.In this
chapter,you will explore how the Inca Empire
was built and maintained.You'll also learn
aboutthe Incas'class structure, family
life, religion, and relations with other
peoples.
The Incas 289
26.2The Rise of
th e In ca Em p ir e
Vl
At the height of their power in the early
1500sc.e.,the Incasruled over a vast,wellorganizedempire.From north to south,the
Inca Empire stretchedalmost the length of
the Andes mountainrange,a distanceof
2.500 miles. It reachedfrom the Pacific
{d
Coastin the west to the Amazon River
Basin in the east.Today this territory
includesmost of Peru and Ecuador,as
well as partsof Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina.Perhapsl0 million people
lived underInca rule.
's' *
How did the Incasbuild and manage
such a huge empire?In part, the Incas
adoptedideasand institutionsthat had been
pioneeredby earliercultures.Two peoples
who had an especiallystrong influenceon
the lncas were the Moche and the Chimu.
$l $-
The Moche lived along the northerncoast
of Perufrom about 100 s.c.e.to 700 c.e.
They built cities,dug irrigationcanals,and
developedspecialclassesof workers.
The Chimu kingdom in northernPeru flourishedduring the 1300s
and 1400s.Like the Moche,the Chimu built well-plannedcitiesand
usedelaborateirrigation methods.They preservedthe artistic traditions
of the Moche and passedthem on to the Incas.They also built good
b
roadsand createda messagesystemusing runners.The Incas adopted
and improvedupon all of theseachievements.
The Beginnings of the Empire The centerof the Inca
Empirewas the capitalcity of Cuzco,which was locatedin a valley
high in the mountainsof southernPeru.The Incas first settledin this
areaaround1200c.e.Apart from this fact. theirearly historyis cloaked
in myth.
According to one Inca legend,the peoplewere descendedfrom Inti,
the sun god. Inti commandedhis son,Manco Capac,to rise out of the
watersof Lake Titicaca.Manco Capacthen founded the Inca tribe.
In anotherlegend,Inti appearedbefore a later Inca ruler. He said
the Incas must becomea greatpower and educatethe peoplethey met.
But for more than 200 years,the Incas increasedtheir territory by only
abouta dozenmiles aroundCuzco.
The Incasbeganexpandingtheir empirein 1438,when they were
attackedby the neighboringChancas.The Inca emperorand many
290 Chapter26
T
citizensfled Cuzco.But one of his sons,Yupanqui,stayedbehindand
AId
led his army againstthe Chancas.Inca legendsaysthat the stoneson
the battlefield turned into powerful warriors.Yupanqui'svictory made
his peoplethe strongestgroup in the area.
After driving off the Chancas,Yupanquitook the namePachacuti,
which means"earthshaker."He also seizedthe throne.Pachacutiand
tii
his son TopaInca then launcheda seriesof conquests
againstnearby
tribes.With eachvictory,the Inca army becamelargerand more skilled.
Soonthe Incassubduedalmosteverymajor groupin the central
Andes.In 1470,they conqueredthe Chimu.By the 1500s,their empire
coveredabout350,000squaremiles.
Roads and Messengers
To managetheir far-flungholdings,
Inca leaderscameto rely on a systemof roads.The two main routes
were the coastalroad and the inland road. which was called the Royal
Road.Smallerroadsconnectedthem.
*1
Somehistorianshavesaidthat the Incas'systemof roadswas as
impressiveas that of ancientRome.About 15,000miles of road linked
all cornersof the empire.The roadscrossedtropicaljungles,high
t 3s
Chasouis
counted
theknotsand
strings
onquipus
to relaymessages
aboutvarious
things.
suchasthe
number
of people
in a military
troop
or theamount)f goodsgivenin
tribute
to an lncaleader
mountains,and ragingrivers.Inca ofllcials
usedthe roadsto travel throughoutthe
empire.Shelterswere placedevery 15 to
30 miles to give travelersplacesto rest.
The roadsalso allowed the emperorat
Cuzcoto communicatewith officialsin
distantplaces.The Incassentmessages
by
+
an elaboraterelay system.They built messengerstationseverycoupleof miles along
the main roads.Chasquis.
or messengers.
carriedthe messagesfrom one stationto
the next.Using this system,messages
could travelmore than 250 miles a day.
*
A messageconsistedof memorized
words,and setsof stringscalledquipus.The
quipusservedas memoryaids.Knots tied at
variousplacesand on stringsof different
colors stood fbr numbers.The Incas had no
systemof writing, but the quipushelped
them keeptrack of populations,troops,and
tribute,as well as informationabouttheir
legendsand achievements.
The oral commentsthat accompanieda quipu helpeda
trainedexpertdecipherthe message.For the
Inca government,quipusprovedto be an
llt
effective substitutefor written language.
The lncas 291
r
In cal egends ay st ha t th e e m p e ro r
wa s des c ended
f r om In ti ,th e s u n
g o d .H e was t hust he " s o n o f th e
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.a
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SUN. ,,
26.3 Class Structure
Inca societywas basedon a strictlyorganizedclassstructure.There
were threebroadclasses:thc emperorand his immediatefamily. nobles,
and comrnoners.
Throu-ehout
Inca society,peoplewho were "lnca
ra
by blood"-those whosefamilicswere originallyfrom Cuzco-held
higherstatusthannon-lncas.
As the Inca Empiregrew.its classstructnrebecamemore complex.
Let's look at the mles and responsibilities
of eachsocialclassin the
empire.
The Emperor
At the top of Inca societywas the emperor,called
the SapaInca.The Incasbelievedthat the SapaInca was descended
fiorn Inti, the sun god. For this reason,the SapaInca ruled with completeauthority.
Everythingin the ernpirebelongedto the SapaInca.He lived in
greatsplendor.When the Spanishcameto Cuzcoin the 1500s.they
were dazzledto seefine gardens,goldenstatues,andjars madeof gold
litter a seator chaironwhich
a personis carried;
a kindof
people
carriage
for high-ranking
Servantscaried the SapaInca everyand silvcr studdedwith erneralds.
whereon a goldenlitter. His sub.jects
darednot look him directly in
the eye.
{
The SapaInca could havemany wives and hundredsof children.
But he had one "primary" wife. who was calledthe Coya.Traditionally,
to ensurethe purity of the royal blood.the Coya was the SapaInca's
full sister.The SapaIncachosehis heir from theirchildren.
Nobles
Belowthe SapaIncawerethe nobles.The Incanobility
was madeLrpof leaderswho helpedadministerthe vastempire.
All noblesenjoyedcertainprivileges.They receivedgifts of land.
servants,llamas,and fine clothing.They did not pay taxes.and rnen
had the right to marry more thanone wif'e.However.nobleswere not
all of equalrank.Therewerethreemain classesof nobles:CapacIncas.
who were consideredrelativesof the emperor;HahuaIncas.who did
who were leadersof people
not sharethe royal blood; and<'uruc'us,
conqueredby the Incas.
292 Chapter26
J
1{'
Sr
F;
tl1.
L,
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The highest-ranking
nobleswere the CapacIncas.Like the emperor
himself.they were believedto be descended
from MancoCapac.the
legendaryfbunderof the Inca dynasty.
CapacIncascontrolledthe empire'sland as well as its valuable
resources,
suchas llamas,cocaleaves.and gold. They held the most
importantpostsin the government.army,and priesthood.
The upus,or
governors,of the four quartersof the ernpirecalnefiom this group.
!; ,'
As the empiregrew,the Incasneededmore noblesto staff the governr-nent's
complexbureaucracy.
As a result,somepeoplewho were not
true Incasalsogainedentryinto the nobleclass.CalledHahuaIncas,
they were considered"lncas by privilege."Often
leadersfiom aroundCuzcobecameHahuaIncas.
Sometimespeopleof cornrnonbirth _sained
this
t,
5$
statusas well.
Additionalconquests
createda needlbr the third
classof nobles.thc curacas.The curacaswere local
leadersof conqueredpeoples.Curacascarriedout
variousjobs.Many collectedtaxes.Othersworked
as inspectors.makingsureeveryonetbllowedInca
lawsand custonrs.
suchas wearingpropefclothing
and keepingcleanhomes.Curacaswere required
to spendtime in Cuzcolearningtheselawsand
custorns.They were allowedto rule their people
only if they followedlnca ways.
+l
Commoners
Most of the peoplein the Inca
Enrpirewere commonerswho workedas f'armers
and herders.
The Incasdid not practiceslaveryin the
usualsenseof the word. However,they did require
cornrnoners
to supportthe government.both through
the product:.oftheir labor and by working on
-qovprojects.Men did jobs like buildernment-sponsoled
*
ing roads,while womenmightweavecloth
Inca f'armers
a varietyof crops,including
-qrew
squash.peppers.beans,peanuts.more than20 types
of corn, and morethan 200 typesof potato.The most
importantcrop was the potato,which could surviveheavyfrostsat
altitLrdes
as high as 15,000f'eetabovesealevel.Corn couldbe grownat
Inthisillustration,
datingfromabout
potatoes,
1565,Inca
farmers
harvest
altitudesnearlyas high.The Incasenjoyedcorn fiesh,fiied, and popped.
Inca farmerswererequiredto give most of their cropsto the government.The governmentplacedthe cropsit collectedin storehouses
throughoutthe ernpire.The fbod was thendistributedto warriors.temple priests,and peoplein need.For example,the governmentgavefbod
It
to peoplewho could no longerwork. particularlythe aged,the sick. and
the disabled.
The Incas 293
26,4 Family Life
ayllu an Incaclan{groupof
related
families),
thebasicunit
of Incasociety
communal sharedbya
community
or group
Familiesin the Inca Empire belongedto larger clans called ayllus.
The ayllu was the basis of Inca society.Everyone was born into an
ayllu, and most people lived their entire lives within the borders of its
land. So to understandfamily life in the Inca Empire, we need to begin
with the ayllu.
Groups of families made up the ayllus, which
Life In the Ayllu
rangedin size from small villages to large towns. Each ayllu had its
own farming land and homes, but the ayllu did not own the land. As
you have read, everything in the empire belonged to the emperor.The
InthisIncacoming-of-agB
ceremony,government loaned lard to the ayllus for living and for farming. The
peopleof an ayllu then worked this communal land cooperativelyto
a boyreceives
thew€apons
ofan
Incawarrior,
grow crops and producegoods.
Everyone had responsibilities to the ayllu and to the government.All
membersof the ayllu had to work, except for the very young and the
very old. The leadersof the ayllu made sure all the work got done. For
instance,a leadermight assignsomemen to clear the fields and others
to dig inigation ditches.
The householdsof the ayllu came under the authority of a seriesof
curacas.One headof householdruled every 10 households.Fifty of
theseheadsof householdcameunder the supervisionof a higher-level
curaca.At still higher levels,curacasmanagedgroupingsof 100, 500,
1,000,5,000,and 10,000households.
One of the functions of the curacas
was to make sureayllus paid their taxes.
The Incas had no currency, so taxes were
paid in the form of goods and labor. The
SapaInca claimed one third of everything
an ayllu produced.Another third supported the Inca temple system.Commoners
kept the remaining third for themselves.
In addition,men had to pay the mit'a,
public
duty tax. Men paid the mit'a by
or
contributing labor to government projects
eachyear. In responseto the government's
need, the leadersof an ayllu assigned
work to its members.For example, men
might repair roads,build storehouses,
or
work in the mines.
Most Incas were born
Chlldhood
into ayllus of hardworking commoners.
The children of commoners learned about
their responsibilitiesearly in life. Young
children performed simple tasks around
294 Chapter26
{
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i,
l,
rs. r
the home.As they grew older.
-eirls
took careof the babies.f'etchedwater.
cooked.madeclothing,and learnecl
to
weave.Boys lookedafier the animals
and helpedin the fields.
The childrenof mostcommoners
did not receiveany fbrmal education.
Instead,theylearnedthe skillsthey
needed,as well as Inca customs.fiom
theirelders.Someespecially
talented
boys were trained in crafis or record
keepingso they could servethe
emperor.
Unlike boys tiom commonerf'amilies,the sonsof nobleshad special
unteLttes,
or tutors.Amautitstaught
religion.geometry.history.rnilitary
'$)
strategy,public speaking.and physical training.
Around the ageof l-5,all boys
receiveda loincloth,a strip of cloth
wurn aroundthe waist.The sonsof
*$
$
noblesunderwenta much rnoreelaborateritual.Theseboys had to pass
month-longtestsof courage,stren-eth,
anddiscipline.
After passingthese
tests,the boys sworeloyalty to the
Sapalnca and receivedthe weanons
of an Inca warrior.
Marriage
Youngmen and womenremainecl
at home until they
married.unlike the emperorand the nobility.malecornnroners
maried
Incacouples
agreed
to marryby
holding
handsandexchanging
sandals.
only one wif'e.Youngmen marrietrin their earry20s,while girrscould
rnarryat 16.
Peopleusuallymarriedwithin their ayllu. Somemarriageswere
arrangedby familiesor by the youngpeoplethemselves.
In sclmecases.
the local curacachosea wif'efirr a young man who was not yet maffiecl
Every year,the curacaarsoheld a "mamiagemarket"whereyoung
men
chosebrides'when a coupleagreedto marry,they held hanclsand
exchangedsandals.
,;
t
once they were married,coupresestablished
their own homes.commonerstypicallylived in one-roomhousesmadeof adobebrick or
srone.
Noble familieshad fancierhouseswith severalrooms.while nobles
enjoyedthe help of servants,col'r'oners workedharcrto produce
their
own fbod andclothingand t. fulfill theirresponsibilitics
to the ayllu.
The Incas 295
t,
V
26.5 Religion
Religion was an important part of Inca life. Like other groups in the
Americas,the Incasbelievedthat the gods influencedtheir daily lives.
Consequently,they showed their devotion to the gods through a number
ofpractices. Let's look first at the Incas'basic beliefs about the gods,
and then at their rituals and other religiouspractices.
Religious
Beliefs
The Incas believedin many gods who controlled various aspectsof nature. For example, Illapu was the weather
god and rain giver. PacaMama was the Earth Mother, and Mama
Cochawas the goddessof the sea.The Incas believedthat all these
gods had receivedtheir power from a supremegod, Viracocha,the
creator of the world.
ln thislncafestival
heldin honorof
thesungod,lnti,menintraditional
dresscarryskeletons
on platforms.
But to the Incas,the most importantgod was Inti, the sun god. Inti
was important for two reasons.First, Incas believed that the emperor's
family was descendedfrom Inti. Second,Inti was also the god of
agriculture,which was the basisof Inca life.
The Incas also believedthat
spirits dwelled in certain sacred
objectsand places,called huacas:
Huacasincludedtemples,charms,
and placesin naturesuch as
springsand rocks. Becausethe
Incas believed in an afterlife, the
tombs and bodies of the dead
were also consideredhuacas.
People often prayed and made
offeringsto all thesehuacas.
ReligiousPractices
The
Inca religion was highly formal
and required a large number of
priests to conduct rituals and ceremonies.Priestsworked at temples
and shrinesdevoted to the gods.
The most important temples were
thosededicatedto Inti. The high
priest, a closerelative of the
SapaInca, presided over the
Sun Templein Cuzco. Priests
who worked in the sun temples
in the countryside came from the
families of curacas.
Like the Maya and the Aztecs,
the Incas offered sacrifices to the
gods. Some sacrificestook place
296 Chapter26
regularly.For example,eachday
prieststhrew corn on a fire to
encouragethe sun to appear."Eat
this, Lord Sun," the priestssaid,
"so that you will know we are
your children."In manyrituals.
rF
the Incassacrificedlive animals.
usuallyllamasor guineapigs.
t*
The Incasalsopracticed
humansacrifice,but only on the
most sacredoccasionsor in times
of a naturaldisaster.
At suchtimes
childrenmight be sacrificed,
becausethe Incasbelievedthat
their purity honoredthe gods.
1; ,
In additionto pertbrmingrituals and sacriflces,priestspracticed
divination to try to predictthe
future.Divinationhelpedthe
Incasdecidewhat courseof action
*! t
to take.For example.a priest
might ask an oracle when the
army shouldattackanothertribe.
Chosen Women A unique
aspectof Incareligion was the
role playedby the Chosen
Women.Eachyear,government
.
,if,
ftt
{l
ll;
\i
I
officialsvisitedall the towns in
the empireto searchfbr the most
beautiful,graceful,and talented
girls betweenthe agesof 8 and 10.Selectedgirls were honoredas
chosen women and takento live in convents.Therethey studiedInca
religion,learnedhow to preparespecialtbod ancldrink fbr religious
TheChosen
Womenin Incasociety
werehonored
asservants
of Inti.
ceremonies,
and wove garmentsfbr the SapaInca and the Coya.
Around the ageof 15,many ChosenWomenlefi their convents.
Somewent to work in templesor shrines.others becameconvent
teachers,calledmumoconos.
Still otherswent to cuzco and became
wives of noblesor secondarywives of the SapaInca himself.
t;
A few ChosenWomenwere sacrificedat importantreligious
ceremonies.
The rest spentalmosttheir whole lives eitherserving
Inti or fulfilling their rolesas wives of noblesor the emperor.only
in old age were they sometimesallowedto returnto the homesand
divination theartof tellingthe
futureor findinghiddenknowledgethrough
religious
means
oracle a person
through
whoma
godor spiritis believed
to speak
tamiliesthey had lefi so many yearsearlier.
6
The Incas 291
26.6 Relations with Other Peoples
The Incashad severalrnethodsof bringingothergroupsof people
-*'
into the empire.They did not immediatelyresortto war. Instead,the
Sapalnca generallysenta delegateto meetwith a tribe.The delegate
join the Inca Empire and enjoy peaceand
explainedthat the tribe cor-rld
prosperity.Everyoneunderstoodthat the alternativewas war againstthe
strongInca army.
t,
When facedwith theseoptions,manytribeschoseto join the empire.
Their leaderswere thenallowedto retainsomelocal power.In this way,
tl *
the Incasexpandedtheir empirewithout alwayshavingto fight.
As th e Inc a ex panded
t h e i r e mp i re ,
fo re i g ntr ibesc ouldc ho o s eto j o i n
th e e mp ir eor f ac e I nc aw a rrro rs
i n b a ttl e.
If a tribe resisted.however.the two sidesmet in battle.The Incas
useda varietyof weapons,includingspears,axes.and clubs.They
were especiallyskilledat hurling stoneswith a sling.The fighting
often cost the enemytribe rnanyof its men. Usuallythe Incaswon.
Sometimesthe Incasmoveda defeated
tribe to otherpartsof the empire,so
*
that its peoplelost their nativelands
as well.
v
-:-:--.
Becomingpart of the empiremeant
adoptingthe ways of the Incas.The
leadersof a conqueredtribe had to
build a sun temple.While the tribe
could go on worshipingits own
-eods.
it had to acceptthe Inca godsas the
most powerful.Local leadersand their
sonswere broughtto Cuzcoto study
Inca laws as well as Quechua,the official language.Then they returnedto
their peopleas curacas.
As the new territory acceptedInca
ways,teachersarrivedto createlncastylevillages.When necessary,
they
organizedayllusand taughtthe people
t
irrigrtion
how to burldstorehouses.
systems,and terracedfarmingflelds.
Meanwhile.the Incastook an
importantreligiousobjectbelonging
to the tribe and kept it in Cuzco.The
I
Incasclaimedthey actedout of respect
for the local religion.In reality,the
objectwas held "hostage"in the
--:--:
.I6-,ra.r,lr*SnE
y f'G{ i€,ot
capital.lf the tribe ever rebelled.
the governmentcould destroythe
sacredobject.
29lt Chapter26
{
Despitetheseefforts, sometimesthe Incasfailed to bring a
tribe fully into their empire.In
TF
%
{1"
suchcasesthey might removeand usuallykill-the local leader.
Somerebellioustribeswere
forced to move far away.The gov-
rlJ
ernmentthen settledloYal membersof the empirein their place.
ln this way, the Incasreducedthe
to their rule.
chanceof resistance
Many historianshavewonderedwhat drove the Incas to conquer sucha hugeempire.Partof
1i
the answermay Iie in a unique
Inca belief.The Incasthoughtthat
even after death,the SapaInca
continuedto rule the lands he had
conquered.ln order fbr the new
emperorto establishhis own
sourceof power and wealth,he
.$
had to take new lands.Only then
would he haveland that belonged
to him alone.
26.7 Ghapter Summary
$
)
leadcaPtive
Incasoldiers
PeoPle
to be
homelands
their
from
away
in theempire.
elsewhere
resettled
In this chapter,ygu learned about life in the Inca Empire. In the
1400s,the Incas began rapidly expanding their power from their
base in Cuzco. Eventually they createda huge empire that extended
almost the length of the Andes Mountains. An impressive systemof
roads and messengershelped the emperor managehis vast holdings'
The strict Inca class structure had three main levels: the emperor
and his family, the nobility, and the commoners'All Incas belong to
ayllus, which provided the empire with crops, goods, and labor. Like
)ii
other peoples in the Americas, the Incas engagedin many religious
practices to maintain a proper relationship with their gods' As empire
builders, they used a variety of meansto bring other groups under
;' $
their control.
.;
You have now learned about three great empires in the Americas:
those of the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas' In the next chapter,
you'll explore the achievementsof thesethree peoplesin greater
depth.
tl f
The Incas 299