Children`s Rights in Intercountry Adoption

Children`s Rights in Intercountry Adoption

CHILDREN’S RIGHTS IN INTERCOUNTRY ADOPTION
European Family Law Series
Published by the Organising Committee of the
Commission on European Family Law
Prof. Katharina Boele-Woelki (Utrecht)
Prof. Frédérique Ferrand (Lyon)
Prof. Cristina Gonzalez Beilfuss (Barcelona)
Prof. Maarit Jänterä-Jareborg (Uppsala)
Prof. Nigel Lowe (Cardiff )
Prof. Dieter Martiny (Frankfurt/Oder)
Ass. Prof. Velina Todorova (Plovdiv)
CHILDR EN’S RIGHTS IN
INTERCOUNTRY ADOPTION
A European Perspective
Claire Fenton-Glynn
Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland
Intersentia Ltd
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Children’s Rights in Intercountry Adoption. A European Perspective
Claire Fenton-Glynn
© 2014 Intersentia
Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland
www.intersentia.com | www.intersentia.co.uk
ISBN 978-1-78068-228-0
D/2014/7849/64
NUR 822
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is
available from the British Library.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any
other means, without written permission from the publisher.
To Dan and Catriona Simmonds
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book has developed from my doctoral thesis, completed at the University of
Cambridge in 2013. During this time, I have benefited enormously from the
advice, encouragement, comments and criticisms of many friends and
colleagues, both on this manuscript, and in reaction to talks and papers that
have been based on it.
In particular, I would like to express my gratitude to my doctoral supervisor,
Dr Andrew Bainham, for his willingness to share his time and extensive
expertise, and to Dr Jens Scherpe, for his advice and unwavering support in all
aspects of academic life over the last four years. I would also like to thank
Professor Jonathan Herring for his insightful comments and constructive
discussions in examining the thesis.
The research in this book could not have been undertaken without invaluable
assistance from many colleagues who helped me to find foreign texts or provided
translations: Humberto Cantu Rivera, Tom Coppen, Philippe de Bonneval,
Marco Devesas-Campos, Elena Kazamia, Demetrio Maltese, Nora Markard,
Sergii Masol, Natasa Mavronicola, and Rumiana Yotova. Thank you for so
generously sharing your knowledge and skills.
Finally, thanks must go to Shaun Berg, who gave me my first chance, and helped
me to become the lawyer, academic and person I am today.
Intersentia
vii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. The Importance of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2. Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2. Combating Abuses: International and Regional Regulation . . . . . 11
2.1. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in
Respect of Intercountry Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Revised European Convention on the Adoption of Children 2008 . . . . . .
2.4. Proposing Normative Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
16
18
18
Chapter 3. Intercountry Adoption and the Domestic Child Welfare System:
The Principle of Subsidiarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1. Subsidiarity in Practice: Waiting Periods and Necessary Conditions . . .
3.2. Continuity of Culture, Language, Religion and Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. The Place of Domestic Alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1. Institutional Care: Can It Ever be Appropriate?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2. Foster Care: Alternative or Smoke-Screen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Impact of Intercountry Adoption on the Domestic Child Welfare
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1. Sending Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2. Receiving Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
30
34
35
41
43
43
47
48
Chapter 4. Consenting Adults: Giving and Receiving Consent to Adoption . 51
4.1. Consent by the Birth Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1. How Soon Is Too Soon? The Timing of a Mother’s Consent
and its Revocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2. Promoting Assistance during the Adoption Process. . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
54
60
65
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Children’s Rights in Intercountry Adoption
4.2. Consent by the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1. The Importance of Establishing Paternity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2. Who Is Required to Give Consent to an Adoption Order? . . . . . . .
4.2.3. Establishing Paternity: Registration, Acknowledgement and
Court Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4. Identifying the Father: Investigation and Determination . . . . . . .
4.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
66
67
72
75
80
Chapter 5. Buying Babies: The Inducement of Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1. International Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2. Elements of Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2.1. “Free” Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2.2. Is Consent Ever Free? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3. Payments and Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4. Improper Financial Gain in Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4.1. “Approved Non-Accredited Bodies” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.4.2. Independent and Private Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chapter 6. Compulsory Adoption: Adoption Without Consent . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
Loss of Parental Rights and Parental Misconduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overriding a Refusal to Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abandonment, Lack of Contact and Disinterest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Legal Assistance to Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
108
110
113
114
Chapter 7. Child Participation: Autonomy and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.1. International Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. Adoption in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. Autonomous Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1. Strict Age Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2. Age Limits with Exceptions for Capable Children . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3. Age Limits with Exceptions for Best Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4. No Age Limit or Laws on Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5. European Convention on Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. Participation of Younger Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5. Participation and the Protection of the Child’s Welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x
118
121
122
122
126
127
128
130
133
139
145
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Chapter 8. Adoptive Parents: Eligibility, Preparation, and Support . . . . . . . 147
8.1. Adoptive Parents and the Rights of Children: Complementary or
Contradictory? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1. Intercountry Adoption: An Emerging Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2. A Right to a Child? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Qualifications of Adoptive Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1. International Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2. The Age of Adopters: How Old Is Too Old? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3. Marital Status: Single Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4. Marital Status: Unmarried Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5. Adoption by Same-Sex Couples: Changing Social Perceptions? .
8.2.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. Facilitating the Adoption: Counselling, Contact, Monitoring and
Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1. Counselling of Prospective Adoptive Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2. Establishing a Pre-Adoption Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3. Post-Adoption Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
148
148
151
154
154
155
163
166
169
172
172
173
177
179
183
Chapter 9. Who Am I? The Child’s Right to Identity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.1. International Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child . . . . . . . .
9.1.2. Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.3. Revised European Convention on the Adoption of Children . . .
9.2. The Right to Access Information? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1. Why Is Access to Information Important for a Child? . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2. The Child’s Access to Information in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3. Secrecy and Birth Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1. Must Information Be Recorded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2. Balancing the Rights of Biological Parents and Children . . . . . . .
9.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
185
188
189
190
190
191
197
197
207
210
Chapter 10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
List of Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
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TABLE OF CASES
EUROPEAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
B, R and J v Federal Republic of Germany (Appl. No. 9639/82) Decision
of 15 March 1984. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Berrehab v the Netherlands (Appl. No. 10730/84) Decision of 21 June 1988 . . . 69
ED v Ireland (Appl. No. 25054/94) Decision of 18 October 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
MB v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 22920/93) Decision of 6 April 1994 . . . . . . . . 69
VS v Germany (Appl. No. 4261/02) Admissibility Decision of 22 May
2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
X v Belgium and the Netherlands (Appl. No. 6482/74) Decision of
10 July 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 165, 166
X v the Netherlands (Appl. No. 8896/80) Decision of 10 March 1981 . . . . . . . . 162
X v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 7626/76) Decision of 11 July 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . 69
EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Airey v Ireland (Appl. No. 6289/73) Judgment of 9 October 1979;
[1979] ECHR 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Anayo v Germany (Appl. No. 20578/07) Judgment of 21 December 2010;
[2010] ECHR 393 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
EB v France (Appl. No. 43546/02) Judgment of 22 January 2008;
[2008] ECHR 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 171
Evans v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 6339/05) Judgment of 10 April 2008;
[2007] ECHR 264 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fretté v France (Appl. No. 36515/97) Judgment of 26 February 2002;
[2002] ECHR 156 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 171
Gas and Dubois v France (Appl. No. 25951/07) Judgment of 15 March
2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Gaskin v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 10454/83) Judgment of 7 July 1989;
[1989] ECHR 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Godelli v Italy (Appl. No. 33783/09) 25 September 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Hokkanen v Finland (Appl. No. 19823/92) Judgment of 23 September
1994; [1994] ECHR 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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Johansen v Norway (Appl. No. 17383/90) Judgment of 7 August 1996;
[1996] ECHR 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 110
Kearns v France (Appl. No. 35991/04) Judgment of 10 January 2008;
[2008] ECHR 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 64
Keegan v Ireland (Appl. No. 16969/90) Judgment of 26 May 1994;
[1994] ECHR 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 69
Kutzner v Germany (Appl. No. 46544/99) Judgment of 26 February 2002,
[2002] ECHR 160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Marckx v Belgium (Appl. No. 6833/74) Judgment of 13 June 1979;
[1979] ECHR 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 69
McMichael v United Kingdom (Appl. No, 16424/90) Judgment of
24 February 1995; [1995] ECHR 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Neulinger and Shuruk v Switzerland (Appl. No. 41615/07) Judgement of
6 July 2010; [2010] ECHR 1053 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Nielsen v Denmark (Appl. No. 10929/84) Judgment of 28 November 1988;
[1988] ECHR 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–131
Odièvre v France (Appl. No. 42326/98) Judgment of 13 February 2003;
[2003] ECHR 86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 194, 198, 199, 202, 203, 207–209
Olsson v Sweden (No 2) (Appl. No. 13441/87) Judgment of 27 November
1992; [1992] ECHR 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 143
P, C and S v the United Kingdom (Appl. No. 56547/00) Judgment of
16 July 2002; [2002] ECHR 604 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 114
Pini and Others v Romania (Appl. No. 78028/01) Judgment of 22 June
2004; [2005] ECHR 275. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
R and H v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 35348/06) Judgment of 31 May
2011; [2011] ECHR 844 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 110
Raw and Others v France (Appl. No. 10131/11) Judgment of 7 March 2013;
[2013] ECHR 199 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Rozanski v Poland (Appl. No. 55339/00) Judgment of 18 May 2006;
[2006] ECHR 545 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 73
Sahin v Germany (Appl. No. 19301/92) Judgment of 10 April 2001;
[2001] ECHR 266 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 128, 136, 137
Saviny v Ukraine (Appl. No. 39948/06) Judgment of 18 December 2008 . . . . . . 87
Schneider v Germany (Appl. No. 17080/07) Judgment of 15 September
2011; [2011] ECHR 2416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 70
T v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 24724/94) Judgment of 16 December
1999; [1999] ECHR 170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Todorova v Italy (Appl. No 33932/06) Judgment of 13 January 2009;
[2009] ECHR 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
W v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 9749/82) Judgment of 8 July 1987;
[1987] ECHR 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Wagner and JMWL v Luxembourg (Appl. No. 76240/01) Judgment of
28 June 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164–166
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Table of Cases
Wallova and Walla v Czech Republic (Appl. No. 23848/04) Judgment of
26 October 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
X and Others v Austria (Appl. No. 19010/07) Judgment of 19 February
2013; [2013] ECHR 148. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 170
X v Croatia (Appl. No. 11223/04) Judgment of 17 July 2008; [2008] ECHR
641. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
X, Y and Z v United Kingdom (Appl. No. 21830/93) Judgment of 22 April
1997; [1997] ECHR 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Zaunegger v Germany (Appl. No. 22028/04) Judgment of 3 December
2009; [2009] ECHR 1982. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
FR ANCE
Enfance et Familles v F et A, Court of Appeal of Riom, 16 December 1997
(1998) JCP II 10147. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
TGI La Roche-sur-Yon (29 July 1993) BICC 1 March 1994, No 302 . . . . . . . . . . 143
NETHER LANDS
Valkenhorst II (HR 15 April 1994) NJ 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
NEW ZEALAND
C v S and W (2006) High Court Napier, CIV-2005–441–776 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
SPAIN
Recurso de Casacion num. 2854/1994, Sentencia del TS de 21 septiembre
1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
UNITED KINGDOM
A Local Authority v GC [2009] 1 FLR 299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Birmingham City Council v S [2006] EWHC 3065 (Fam); [2007] 1 FLR
1223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flintshire County Council v K [2001] 2 FLR 476 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M (A Minor) [1997] EWCA Civ 2766 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
66
81
41
Intersentia
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Children’s Rights in Intercountry Adoption
Mabon v Mabon [2005] EWCA Civ 634; [2005] 2 FLR 1011 . . . . . . . . 135, 143, 144
R (G) v Nottingham City Council [2008] EWHC 152 (Admin);
[2008] 1 FLR 1660 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
R (Thomson) v Minister of State for Children [2005] EWHC 1378 (Admin) . . . 151
Re C (A Child) v XYZ County Council [2007] EWCA Civ 1206;
[2008] 1 FLR 1294 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 79
Re C (Adoption: Legality) [1999] 1 FLR 370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 100, 149
Re C (Foreign Adoption: Natural Mother’s Consent: Service) [2006] 1 FLR
318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Re D (Paternity) [2006] EWHC 3545 (Fam); [2007] 2 FLR 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Re E (A Minor) (Wardship: Medical Treatment) [1993] 1 FLR 386 . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Re G (Foreign Adoption: Consent) [1995] 2 FLR 534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Re H (Minors) (Local Authority: Parental Rights) (No 3) [1991] Fam 151 . . . . . . 68
Re H (Paternity: Blood Test) [1996] 2 FLR 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Re J (Abduction: Children’s Objections) [2011] EWCA Civ 1448;
[2012] 1 FLR 457 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Re K (Adoption & Wardship) [1997] 2 FLR 230 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Re L (An Infant) (1962) 106 SJ 611, CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Re M (Adoption or Residence) [1998] 1 FLR 570 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109
Re P (Adoption: Unmarried Couple) [2008] UKHL 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Re R (A Minor) (Contact) [1993] 2 FLR 762 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Re W [1971] AC 682 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
S v S [1992] 2 FLR 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
S v S; W v Official Solicitor [1972] AC 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Watson v Nikolaisen [1955] 2 QB 286 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
X and Y (Foreign Surrogacy) [2008] EWHC 3030 (Fam); [2009]
1 FLR 733. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 94, 97
X County Council v C [2007] EWHC 1771 (Fam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
UNITED STATES
GP, 842 So 2d 1062 (Florida) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
In re Baby Girl Clausen (1993) 442 Mich. 648; 502 NW 2d 649 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
US v Focus on Children US District Court of Utah, Sealed Indictment
(2007) <www.brandeis.edu/investigate/adoption/docs/FOCindictment.
pdf> [1 February 2013] (Utah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 85, 91
US v Lauryn Galindo No CR 03–0187 Z (Washington District Court) . . . . 85, 91
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Intersentia