Solution Phase Conformation and Proteolytic Stability

Biopolymers
VOLUME 99 NUMBER 10 OCTOBER 2013
50th Anniversary Special Issue on Glycosciences
Guest Editor: C. Allen Bush
View this journal online at wileyonlinelibrary.com
vii-viii Research Highlights
Editorial
649
Glycosciences Special Issue of Biopolymers
C. A. Bush
Published online 22 July 2013
Articles
Cover Illustration:
a-2,8-O-linked polysialic acid
650
Review: Exploration of Sialic Acid Diversity and Biology Using Sialoglycan
Microarrays
L. Deng, X. Chen, and A. Varki
Published online 13 June 2013
666
Invited Review: Synthesis of Glycans and Glycopolymers Through Engineered
Enzymes
Z. Armstrong and S. G. Withers
Published online 2 July 2013
675
N-Sulfotestosteronan, A Novel Substrate for Heparan Sulfate 6-O
Sulfotransferases and its Analysis by Oxidative Degradation
G. Li, S. Masuko, D. E. Green, Y. Xu, L. Li, F. Zhang, C. Xue,
J. Liu, P. L. DeAngelis, and R. J. Linhardt
Published online 20 April 2013
686
Solution Phase Conformation and Proteolytic Stability of Amide-Linked
Neuraminic Acid Analogues
J. P. Saludes, T. Q. Gregar, I. A. Monreal, B. M. Cook,
L. M. Danan-Leon, and J. Gervay-Hague
Published online 13 June 2013
697
Review: Amphiphilic Cytosolic Glycans from Mycobacteria: Occurrence,
Lipid-Binding Properties, Biosynthesis, and Synthesis
L. Xia and T. L. Lowary
Published online 22 May 2013
713
Review: Mucin-Type Glycopeptide Structure in Solution: Past, Present, and Future
J. J. Barchi Jr.
Published online 13 June 2013
724
Polarizable Empirical Force Field for Acyclic Polyalcohols Based on
the Classical Drude Oscillator
X. He, P. E. M. Lopes, and A. D. MacKerell Jr.
Published online 22 May 2013
overlaid on the left-handed
helical structure of d-amidelinked Neu2en homooligomer.
This helical construct is
protease resistant and serves as
a prototype for the design of
bioavailable sialic acid-derived
peptide scaffolds.
Biopolymers
and Peptide Science
are now publishing
Preprints online within
5 days of acceptance*!
Preprints are
peer-reviewed articles
that are published
online in EarlyViewT
before copyediting and
author correction.
Preprint articles
are citable by DOI.
The final copyedited,
author-corrected,
paginated version
is available
shortly thereafter—
within 12 weeks
of first submission.
*Upon receipt of all
necessary materials
(figure files, signed Copyright
Transfer Agreement, etc.
from authors).
739
The Conformation of a Ribose Derivative in Aqueous Solution:
A Neutron-Scattering and Molecular Dynamics Study
P. E. Mason, G. W. Neilson, M.-L. Saboungi,
and J. W. Brady
Published online 5 July 2013
746
Unraveling Cellulose Microfibrils: A Twisted Tale
J. A. Hadden, A. D. French, and R. J. Woods
Published online 16 May 2013
757
Invited Review: Structure—Function Relationships in Glycopolymers: Effects of
Residue Sequences, Duplex, and Triplex Organization
M. Sletmoen and B. T. Stokke
Published online 19 June 2013
772
Generation of Free Oligosaccharides from Bacterial Protein N-Linked Glycosylation
Systems
R. Dwivedi, H. Nothaft, B. Reiz, R. M. Whittal,
and C. M. Szymanski
Published online 10 June 2013
784
Thermodynamic Signature of Substrates and Substrate Analogs Binding to Human
Blood Group B Galactosyltransferase from Isothermal Titration Calorimetry
Experiments
N. Sindhuwinata, L. L. Grimm, S. Weißbach, S. Zinn, E. Munoz,
M. M. Palcic, and T. Peters
Published online 10 June 2013
796
Invited Review: Characterizing Carbohydrate—Protein Interactions by Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
C. A. Bewley and S. Shahzad-ul-Hussan
Published online 19 June 2013
Solution Phase Conformation and Proteolytic Stability of AmideLinked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
Jonel P. Saludes,1,2 Travis Q. Gregar,3* I. Abrrey Monreal,2 Brandan M. Cook,2
Lieza M. Danan-Leon,4,† Jacquelyn Gervay-Hague1
1
Department of Chemistry, , University of California Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616
2
Department of Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
3
Department of Chemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
4
Campus Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616
Received 30 April 2013; accepted 31 May 2013
Published online 13 June 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/bip.22315
ABSTRACT:
Amide-linked homopolymers of sialic acid offer the
advantages of stable secondary structure and
increased bioavailability making them useful constructs for pharmaceutical design and drug delivery.
Defining the structural characteristics that give rise to
secondary structure in aqueous solution is challenging
in homopolymeric material due to spectral overlap in
NMR spectra. Having previously developed computational tools for heteroologomers with resolved spectra,
we now report that application of these methods in
combination with circular dichroism, NH/ND NMR
exchange rates and nOe data has enabled the structural determination of a neutral, d-amide-linked
homopolymer of a sialic acid analogue called Neu2en.
The results show that the inherent planarity of the
pyranose ring in Neu2en brought about by the a,dAdditional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this
article.
Correspondence to: Jacquelyn Gervay-Hague; e-mail: jgervayhague@ucdavis.edu or
Jonel P. Saludes; e-mail: jonel.saludes@wsu.edu
*
Present address: 3M, 3M Center, St. Paul, Minnesota 55144.
†
Present address: Sutro Biopharma Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080.
Contract grant sponsor: NSF
Contract grant numbers: CHE-0518010; CHE-0196482; CHE-0443516;
DBI-0722538; OSTI 97-24412; CHE-9115282; DBI-9604689
Contract grant sponsor: NIH
Contract grant numbers: RR11973; RR0631401; RR12948
Contract grant sponsor: Washington State University Startup; University of
Arizona; Murdock Charitable Trust
C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
V
686
conjugated amide bond serves as the primary driving
force of the overall conformation of the homooligomer.
This peptide surrogate has an excellent bioavailability
profile, with half-life of !12 h in human blood
serum, which offers a viable peptide scaffold that is
resistant to proteolytic degradation. Furthermore, a
proof-of-principle study illustrates that Neu2en
oligomers are functionalizable with small molecule
ligands using 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition chemistry.
C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers 99: 686–
V
696, 2013.
Keywords: sialic acid; Neu2en; NMR; circular dichroism; helical peptide; water-soluble scaffold; blood
serum; proteolysis; 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition chemistry;
click chemistry
This article was originally published online as an accepted preprint. The “Published Online” date corresponds to the preprint
version. You can request a copy of the preprint by emailing the
Biopolymers editorial office at biopolymers@wiley.com
S
INTRODUCTION
ugar amino acids (SAAs) are carbohydrates that possess amino and carboxylic acid groups. The duality
of functional groups along with the rigid sugar pyran
framework1 and readily convertible hydroxyl groups
makes SAAs versatile building blocks for polymerization. N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid; Neu5Ac: (1)) is a
Biopolymers Volume 99 / Number 10
Amide-Linked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
FIGURE 1 N-Acetylneuraminic
homopolymers.
acid
and
its
O-linked
naturally occurring nine-carbon SAA that forms homopolymeric structures (Figure 1b) through glycosidic attachment
on both mammalian and bacterial cells.2 Neu5Ac is also a damino SAA and can be considered as a conformationally
restricted surrogate of a dipeptide, with torsion angles determined by the actual ring conformation (1).3,4 The rigid
framework of Neu5Ac gives rise to regions of fluxional helicity in the polymeric structures that adorn mammalian and
bacterial cell surfaces.
Research in the Gervay–Hague laboratory has focused
on making physiologically stable surrogates of polymeric
Neu5Ac by replacing the labile glycosidic linkage between
the anomeric carbon and the C-8 hydroxyl with an amide
linkage between the C-1 carboxyl and the C-5 amine. To
that end, the synthesis and structural characterization of
the first water soluble Neu5Ac-based oligomers with stable
secondary structure was reported in 1997 (Figure 2a).5
Analyses of circular dichroism (CD) studies were consistent
with peptide folding and in combination with NMR studies
indicated that a minimum of four residues were required
for ordered structure, and further elongation to eight residues increased 2! structure stability. Subsequent studies
revealed the same general trend using different Neu5Ac
analogs (Figures 2b–2d),6 particularly those derived from
Neu2en (2-10).
The NMR spectra of the amide-linked oligomers were
complicated by spectral overlap and a general lack of analytical tools made it impossible to determine the threedimensional structures of the homopolymers. To address
these deficiencies, the synthesis of heterooligomers composed
of Neu2en (2) and glutamic acid was undertaken. Glutamic
acid (Glu) was chosen in an effort to reintroduce carboxylic
acids into the amide-linked oligomers to mimic the functionality of the glycosidically linked oligomers. At the outset,
Biopolymers
687
FIGURE 2 Synthetic amide-linked homopolymers of N-acetylneuraminic acid derivatives.
it was not clear if the stereochemistry of Glu would impact
the secondary structure or if the order of incorporation
would matter. To probe these questions, four sets of oligomers containing alternating Neu2en/L-Glu and Neu2en/D-Glu,
as well as the reversed order D-Glu/Neu2en and L-Glu/
Neu2en were synthetically prepared and structurally defined.7
Incorporation of two different amino acid building blocks
gave rise to chemical shift dispersion in the NMR spectra
allowing the assignment of residues that could not be distinguished in the homopolymers. Additionally, XPLOR-NIH
was parameterized to include Neu2en in addition to naturally occurring amino acids. The combination of chemical
shift resolution, coupling constant data and nuclear Overhauser (nOe) effects when analyzed in XPLOR-NIH allowed
the three dimensional structure of the heterooligomers to be
defined. The results of these studies indicated that stable secondary structure was reinforced in oligomers containing LGlu and that the preferred order was L-Glu/Neu2en (11).
Most importantly, the results showed that L-Glu/Neu2en
(11) adopts a similar helical structure to 1b albeit with half
the number of carboxylic acids per turn. Equally important
was the later study, which showed that L-Glu/Neu2en (11) is
proteolytically stable under physiological conditions.8
The advances gained from the heterooligomer studies
provided important NMR and computational tools that have
now enabled structural reinvestigation of the homopolymers.
The studies reported herein include the three-dimensional
structure determination of a polysialic acid analog consisting
688
Saludes et al.
of d-amide-linked homooligomers of Neu2en. Fmoc-Neu2en
(12) was chosen as the building block because earlier studies
indicated that polymers made from this molecule were the
most stable and synthetically accessible.6 Subsequent studies
probed the proteolytic stability of the homooligomer in human
blood serum. Finally, functionalization of the homooligomer
using an azide/alkyne 1,3-dipolar cylcoaddition afforded a fluorescent analog demonstrating the feasibility of conjugation
chemistry. These combined studies establish a foundation for
understanding the factors that contribute to structural and
physiological stability and aid the rational design of biologically relevant molecular scaffolds.
RESULTS
Conformational Studies by Circular Dichroism
The solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) of compounds 2–9
using 12 and 13 as building blocks (Figure 3) and employing
the classical SPPS method was previously reported by Gervay
et al.6 Structural studies began by investigating the circular
dichroism (CD) of 2–9. Samples were prepared in water and
their spectra were recorded at 25! C. Molar ellipticity ([h]) values were divided by the number of amide residues in the peptide to normalize the contribution of each chromophore to the
observed circular dichroism.5 Figure 4a shows the CD spectra
FIGURE 3 Amino acids used for constructing the azidefunctionalized amide-linked Neu2en.
of 2–9 revealing the same peak and trough profiles that were
observed in helical L-Glu/Neu2en hybrid peptide (11).7 Starting with the monomer 2, a general shape is presented in the
spectrum with a minimum at 210 nm and a maximum at 240
nm, which is attributed to the ad-unsaturated amide linked to
the caproamide. There is an increasing difference in peak (240
nm) to trough (210 nm) molar ellipticity values (D[h]) from
the dimer through the octamer indicating increasing folding
behavior with length. The dimer (3) minimum and maximum
dramatically decreases and increases, respectively; this change
is attributed to the increase in the number of inter-residue
chromophores. The trimer (4) shows a larger increase and
decrease relative to the dimer, while the jump to the tetramer
(5), pentamer (6) and hexamer (7) is less pronounced. Homooligomers 5–7 all display similar spectra suggesting a common
secondary structure. The heptamer 8 is more closely aligned to
the profile of the trimer, which has been interpreted as a
FIGURE 4 (a) CD spectra of 2–9 at 25! C showing the unique spectral signature of amide-linked
Neu5Ac analogs. (b) CD spectrum of 10 at 25! C showing a similar profile and consistent kmax and
kmin with 7, indicating that the presence of the azide moiety at the a-C of the linker does not affect
peptide folding.
Biopolymers
Amide-Linked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
Table I Analyses of Peak and Trough of Molar Ellipticities of
2–10 at 25! C Indicate Increase in 2! Structure Stability with
Length
Compound
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
k
max
(nm)
k
min
(nm)
Peak
(h)
Trough
(h)
Peak –
Trough,
D(h)
240
242
242
241
240
241
240
241
241
210
212
212
212
211
211
211
211
211
2190
8263
10,764
11,384
11,422
11,376
10,219
13,288
12,017
2428
25568
26733
27395
27185
27498
27420
29539
27200
2617
13,830
17,497
18,779
18,607
18,874
17,639
22,827
19,217
transitional flux.5 Stable secondary structure is restored and
even more pronounced in the octamer (9), which exhibits
an even larger peak to trough difference. Table I summarizes the peak maxima and peak minima, the associated
kmax and kmin for each oligomer, and their D[h]. One may
conceive of comparing the circular dichroic properties of
Neu2en homooligomers with those of a-peptides to gauge the
stability of their 2! structures, but the absence of the classical
helical polypeptide trough at 222 nm in Neu2en oligomers precludes the standard comparison of ellipticity at [h]2229 (n–p*
transitions of the a-helix) or their ellipticity ratio R2 ([h]222/
[h]208)10 with a-peptides. However, comparison of [h]208 (p –
p* transitions of the a -helix) of peptide 9 (-9539 deg cm22
dmol21) with the value reported in the literature indicates that
it is not as helical as poly(L-lysine) ([h]208 5 232,600 6 4000
deg cm22 dmol21).11 Nonetheless, the 2! structure stability of
compounds 5–9 are comparable with our previously reported
Neu2en heterooligomers7 that are resistant to thermal denaturation even at 80! C, a temperature whereby most a-helical
polypeptides would denature.
To have a handle for attaching a fluorescent probe, an
azide-functionalized analog of 7 was also prepared. The azide
was introduced at the a-C of the caproamide linker of the
new hexamer (10) to enable copper-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar
azide alkyne cycloaddition (“Click” chemistry)12 at a later
stage. The SPPS synthesis of 10 also utilized Fmoc chemistry
but, in contrast to previous SPPS of Neu2en homooligomers,
14 was introduced as the linker and microwave technology
was used to effect shorter reaction times.7 As shown in Figure
4b, this slight structural modification of the caproamide side
chain did not alter the CD signature; the CD profile of 10 is
almost identical to 7 with a consistent kmax and kmin of 241
and 211 nm, respectively. Furthermore, the calculated D[h] of
10 at 19,217 mdeg cm22 dmol21 is close to that of 7 at
Biopolymers
689
Table II Half-Life from NH/ND Exchange for Compounds 3–9
t1/2 linker
E-amide, s
t1/2 internal
Neu2en
amides, s
t1/2 C-terminal
Neu2en
amide, s
t1/2 linker
E-amide, s
t 1/2 internal
Neu2en
amides, s
t1/2 C-terminal
Neu2en
amide, s
3
4
5
7.0 6 2.2
5.8 6 1.1
5.9 6 1.2
7.1 6 1.3
19.3 6 4.7
16.7 6 3.1
n/a
8.5 6 2.5
6.9 6 1.5
6
6.3 6 1.1
7
5.5 6 2.9
8
5.1 6 1.5
9
5.1 6 2.2
17.7 6 2.8
13.6 6 1.7
16.3 6 3.0
16.4 6 1.3
7.8 6 0.9
12.8 6 9.6
7.6 6 1.6
6.6 6 0.9
18,874 mdeg cm22 dmol21 (Table I), which is within an
acceptable experimental error of <2%. These findings indicate that appending an azide at the a-C of the linker does not
affect the 2! structure of the peptide.
NMR NH/ND Exchange Studies
In proteins and peptides, the measurement of the rate of amide
NH/ND exchange by 1H NMR spectroscopy is used to demonstrate the presence of peptide folding due to intramolecular
H-bonding.13 The rate of decrease of the NH resonance peak
integration due to deuterium exchange from the solvent is correlated to the exchange rate and is used to calculate the NH
half-life (t1/2) following pseudo-first-order kinetics. Deuterium
exchange studies were performed on compounds 3–9 in
NaD2PO4 buffer in D2O at pD 5 3.0 and 277 K to slow the
exchange to an observable rate on the NMR time scale.
NaD2PO4 buffer was chosen because it is known that the
exchange rates of amide protons are slowest at this low pD.14
Under these experimental conditions, the E-hydrogen of the
caproamide linker was observable but the carboxamide hydrogens were not found in the first FID. The rapid exchange confirms that in aqueous solutions, the terminal amide of the
homooligomers is fully exposed to the solvent and does not
form an intramolecular H-bond. The C-terminal Neu2en residue shows a distinct amide resonance peak; however, the
amide H’s of internal residues overlapped and could not be differentiated. Table II lists the t1/2 corresponding to the amide
NH/ND exchange rates. The general trends of the study indicate fast exchange of the caproamide and terminal amide protons with fairly consistent rates through the oligomer lengths.
690
Saludes et al.
Exchange rates for the internal amide protons also show a consistent rate throughout the oligomer series with the exception
of the dimer and hexamer. The lack of a general trend of
exchange rates in relation to the oligomer length indicates a
lack of participation of the amide protons in the formation of
secondary structure and suggests other inherent structural features in Neu2en that may be responsible for stable secondary
structure.
NMR Conformational Analysis of Amide-linked
Neu2en (10)
Compound 10 was selected for extensive 1H and 2D homonuclear NMR studies at 298 K to assign all 1H resonances. NMR
characterization proved to be challenging because of close and
overlapping 1H NMR peaks, even with an 800 MHz frequency
spectrometer. Initial NMR studies were performed on the
dimer, trimer, and tetramer analogue of 10 to differentiate terminal and internal residue resonances and to facilitate the
assignment for 10 (data not shown). This strategy was further
assisted by previous reports on resonance assignments for
amide-linked Neu2en oligomers6,7 that helped distinguish
between the downfield N-terminal olefinic H3-1 proton from
the C-terminal H3-6. The characterization began with HE (d
3.22–3.31) of N3Lys-7 because it is an unambiguous aminomethylene, and the assignment was walked through the residue
to completely assign the protons using homonuclear COSY.
Next, Neu2en H3 was used as a reporter atom that distinguished Neu2en-1 (d 5.96) from Neu2en-6 (b 5.84). Each of
these residues have unique, distinguishable sets of 1H NMR
resonance peaks and assignment of proton resonances was
accomplished by separately walking through intraresidue connectivities of both terminal residues using homonuclear COSY.
Some overlapping peaks could not be differentiated i.e., H3
(b 5.91), H4 (d 4.65), H5 (d 4.26), H6 (d 4.50), H7 (d 3.67),
H8 (d 3.93), H9 (b 3.67), and H90 (d 3.88) of Neu2en-2 to -5,
and three residues (Neu2en-3 to -5) show the same amide H
resonance of 8.18 ppm. The similarity in the 1H NMR
resonances is indicative of the similar environment that these
internal residues experience. In contrast, the amide H
resonance (d 8.22) of the next to end residue, Neu2en-2, were
differentiated based on initial studies of the tetramer analogue.
This finding is suggestive that the internal repeat units in the
Neu2en homooligomer adopt the same conformation, a
structural property that was also found in a-2,8-linked
polysialic acids.15
ROESY spectra using WATERGATE solvent suppression16
were recorded for 10 prepared in 9:1 H2O/D2O to retain the
resonances of exchangeable amide H for the elucidation of its
three-dimensional structure in an aqueous environment. Also
found in 10 were the same ROESY correlations between the
polyhydroxy side chain protons H-8 with backbone amide H
and H-9’ with the olefinic H-3 of the immediately preceding
residue that were previously observed in 11. A number of
ROESY cross peaks were assigned for 10 that helped define the
backbone conformation of the peptide. These interactions
were found to be sequential and recurring throughout the
chain (Figure 5a). ROESY cross peak integrations were
calibrated and used as distance restraints for solution phase
calculations using restrained molecular and simulated annealing in XPLOR-NIH17 following the topology and parameters
that were established for 12 and 14.7 The effect of solvent and
solvent screening of electrostatic energy function in XPLOR
structure calculation was implemented using the 1/R dielectric
option for the energy function in XPLOR-NIH.7 The phi and
psi dihedral angles were obtained from ab initio calculations18
and measured values for 11.7 A total of 100 iterations of simulated annealing and molecular dynamics calculations were performed, the lowest energy structures without NOE violations
were selected, averaged, and energy minimized. Figure 5b
shows a bundle of low-energy NMR-derived structures of 10
calculated using XPLOR-NIH with NOE restraints from
ROESY spectra. It shows a closely packed backbone, but the
glycerol side chain shows a lot of flexibility and movement.
Furthermore, the overlaid structures do not converge well at
the N-terminal residue, which appears to be frayed. This may
explain why the amide H of Neu2en-2 showed only one
ROESY with the glycerol side chain of Neu2en-1. Figure 5c is
the horizontal side view of the averaged and minimized structure of 10 from 19 low energy structures. This model is defined
by 84 nOe’s with calculated backbone rmsd of 0.982 Å and a
1.912 Å rmsd for non-H atoms, indicating good convergence
(Table III). The two carboxamide H of the linker are oriented
away from any H-bond acceptors, which accounts for their
fast deuterium exchange. The azide is oriented outwards making it accessible for functionalization with relevant small molecule ligands by cycloaddition chemistry. The hydroxyl group
on the allylic C-4 of Neu2en is also oriented away from the
core of the helix, which also makes it a favorable site for chemical modification. The glycerol side chains of Neu2en residues
are extended and could be easily solvated, which explains the
high solubility of amide-linked sialooligomers. This is in contrast to the intractable and water-insoluble glucose-derived,
amide-linked polymers reported by Fuchs and Lehmann that
lack this polyhydroxy side chain.19
Further analysis of the model for 10 revealed a left-handed
helix with a pitch of 18.8 Å and 3.5 residues per turn (n). This
conformation is significantly different from the observations
for 11, which has a deep cleft in the helix and a shorter pitch
of 7.4 Å and n 5 3.7.7 These structural differences can be
Biopolymers
Amide-Linked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
691
FIGURE 5 (a) Crucial inter-residue long-range NOEs for 10 extracted from the ROESY spectra
(9:1 H2O/D2O, 500 ms mixing time, 800 MHz, 298 K). (b) A bundle of low-energy NMR-derived
structures of 10 calculated using XPLOR-NIH using NOE restraints from ROESY spectra. (c) Side
view of the averaged and minimized solution phase structure of 10 showing an extended,
left-handed helix (H atoms were omitted except the amide H).
attributed to the backbone and amide periodicity. Compound
10 is made of repeating pyranose rings of Neu2en and each
residue is analogous to a dipeptide as shown for 1.3,4 The pyranose ring is flattened because of the conjugated a,b-unsaturated amide bond that gives rise to a puckered conformation
characteristic of a glycal, and a preferred trans-d-amide bonds
with the amide H cis to the ring O. Therefore, one complete
helical turn of 10 has three amide bonds but contains an equivalent of seven a-amino acid residues. In contrast, the helix in
11 contains a sum of three a and d-amide bonds at an equivalent of six a-amino acid residues, and the a-amide bond further contributes to the shorter turn of this helix.
A comparison of the conformations of 10 and 11 shown in
Figure 6 reveals opposite handedness of these oligomers and
pronounced difference in the depth of the cleft, with 10 possessing a shallow cleft and a wider helical turn that has a pitch
Table III Properties of Calculated Lowest Energy Structures
of 10
r.m.s.d. for Neu2en
backbone, Å
r.m.s.d. for Non-H atoms,
including side chains, Å
Total number of NOEs
Final energy, kcal mol21
Biopolymers
0.982 6 0.230
1.912 6 0.323
84
686.873
2.5 times longer than 11. The combination of ring conformation and a longer peptide backbone accounts for the difference
in the 2! structures of 10 and 11. By way of comparison to
peptides, the poly-L-Ala-containing segment of T4 lysozyme20
(pdb: 1L64) is an a-helical peptide. The model of 10 when
compared with 1L64 (39–50) shows that although their n is
almost the same, it requires 3.5 a-helices (11.5 residues) to
equal the length of one full turn of 10 (Figure 6). Although
pyranose SAA’s could theoretically represent the length of a
dipeptide and one helix of 10 is calculated to be equivalent to
seven a-amino acid residues, the extended helical shape of 10
renders this molecule longer. The extended conformation also
explains the rapid NH/ND exchange found in 2–9 because the
amide H in the peptide backbone is readily accessible for
deuterium exchange.
The structural characteristics of 10 provide essential information for the future design on Neu5Ac-derived peptide scaffolds. Because the extended homooligomer conformation is
defined by restricted motion about the Neu2en glycal and
preferred conformation of the amide, modifications of the
sugar hydroxyl groups should not alter the 2! structure offering
the advantage of further manipulation on 12 prior to peptide
synthesis. The allylic C-4 hydroxyl could be replaced by an
azide or guanidinium group, followed by further functionalization with small molecules as we have previously
692
Saludes et al.
FIGURE 6 Comparison of the conformations of 10 with 11 and 1L64 (39-50) (H atoms were
omitted for clarity). Red spheres indicate O atoms ofcarboxylate groups while orange spheres indicate O atoms of hydroxyl groups at position 4 of Neu2en.
demonstrated.21 Modifications on the pendant glycerol side
chain present another potential of incorporating small molecule ligands without concern on the attenuation of the solubility of Neu2en homooligomers since it has been shown that
transformations at this site do not affect water solubility of
sialic acid derivatives.22,23
Proteolytic Stability in Human Blood Serum
Short peptides are labile towards proteolytic enzymes. From
the perspective of pharmaceutical development, the degradative action of proteases on proteins and peptides presents a
significant hurdle, and is a major impediment towards drug
development.24 Structural modifications employing D-isomers
or extending the peptide backbones with b amino acids have
been employed to prolong metabolic half-life (t1/2) and
increase stability.25,26 In vitro incubation closely reproduces the
proteolytic activity in the blood and provides a good estimation of in vivo metabolism.27 We previously reported the
proteolytic resistance of Neu2en-derived a/d-hybrid peptide
towards degradation by endogenous human blood proteases in
human blood plasma.11 This study was performed using
radiometal-DOTA labeling and cellulose acetate electrophoresis
(CAE), which revealed t1/2 that are two- to three-orders of
magnitude higher than natural a-peptides.
The stability profile of 10 was studied in the presence of
human blood serum with the aim of investigating the resist-
ance of amide-linked sialic acid homooligomers towards
peptide processing. Blood serum contains serine proteases,
which are inactivated in plasma preparations, that contribute
to the total enzymatic activity of all proteases found in the
blood and mimic the physiological environment. Proteolytic
stability was studied using HPLC-MS, a radiolabel-free, environmentally friendly, and less-hazardous technique than the
radiometal-DOTA-CAE method. Compound 10 was incubated
in the blood serum at 37! C, samples were taken at 0, 2, 4, 8, 16
h, and the serum proteins were precipitated. The supernatant
was analyzed by HPLC coupled to ESI-MS at SIM mode to
selectively detect the m/z due to 10 and eliminate interference
from the matrix. The peak area at each time point was integrated and the serum t1/2 was calculated using the least squares
analysis of the integration peaks vs. time following pseudofirst-order kinetics.28,29 Figure 7 is the pseudo-first-order rate
plot showing that 10 has t1/2 5 11.7 h. This result indicates
that 10 persists for a long time in the presence of a mixture of
at least 25 known amino- and carboxypeptidases found in the
blood,25 and possesses a t1/2 of about fifty times more than
those of natural a-peptides.30
Investigations on the proteolytic resistance of unnatural
peptides over the past decade have employed isolated
enzymes31–36 or animal serum,33 and only two recent reports
utilized human blood components.8,37 For example, the t1/2 of
hybrid a/b-peptide mimics of Bcl-xL is "9 to >1200 min in
isolated enzymes and 820 to >2200 min in 50% fetal bovine
Biopolymers
Amide-Linked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
693
FIGURE 7 Pseudo-first-order rate plot of the stability profile of
10 in human blood serum showing its t1/2 of 11.7 h.
serum.33 The t1/2 of 10 is shorter when compared to the proteolytic resistance of In-labeled DOTA conjugate of L-Glu/
Neu2en 11.11 We explain this discrepancy as due to the difference in the 2! structures of 10 and 11: the former has an
extended conformation and more accessible amide bonds
while the latter has a deeper cleft and a tighter wound helix.
The C@OAHAN H-bonding observed in 11 that is not found
in 10 contributes to the 2! structure and proteolytic stability of
11. Nonetheless, the t1/2 of 10 is significantly longer than what
has been observed in vivo in mice for a 15-mer a-2,8-O-linked
Neu5Ac (90% degraded in 30 min),38 which further proves the
point that amide-linked Neu2en oligomers are more resistant
towards enzymatic degradation than polysialic acid.
Neu2en Oligomer is Functionalizable at the
C-terminus by ‘Click’ Chemistry
In previous work, we alluded to the use of the C-terminal
a-azido moiety of the Neu2en-based peptides as a handle for
scaffold conjugation.7 In our proof-of-principle study,
attempts to conjugate an alkyne functionalized small molecule
to the homooligomer 10 by “Click” chemistry to yield 16
(Figure 8) proved successful. N-(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol4-yl)-N-(2-propynyl)amine (NBD-propargylamine, 15) was
selected as a small molecule model because this compound is
fluorogenic and is an excellent probe for studying the interactions of peptides with macromolecular systems like proteins
and phospholipid vesicles.39,40
Following our reported method,41 compound 16 was
prepared by solution phase copper-catalyzed cycloaddition
chemistry using tris[(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)methyl]Biopolymers
FIGURE 8 Conjugation of NBD-propargylamine at the C-terminal azide of peptide 10 by “Click” chemistry.
amine as ligand and an excess amount of Cu(I) in the form of
[(CH3CN)4Cu]PF6 that did not require sodium ascorbate for
the regeneration of Cu(I) species. This method is advantageous because copper/sodium ascorbate mixture has been
shown to be detrimental to biological and synthetic polymers.
The crucial step in our approach is the efficient degassing of
the solvents with N2 for at least 30 min to ensure the removal
of dissolved O2. This method was found to be convenient and
straightforward and yielded compound 16 after 25 h at room
temperature. Although the reaction was sluggish, this demonstrates the proof-of-principle that Neu2en oligomers have the
potential as metabolically-stable scaffolds for small molecule
ligand display. We are currently investigating other ligands to
help accelerate the kinetics of this reaction.
CONCLUSIONS
Reported herein for the first time is the three-dimensional 2!
structural determination of a d-amide-linked homooligomer
of the N-acetylneuraminic acid derivative Neu2en in water
using a combination of spectroscopic and computational tools
that have been developed. The stability of the helix increases
with length as observed in the increase in the difference in their
D[h] in CD. The important features in the 2! structure of 10
include the fact that the a-azido group does not perturb the
helix, the observation of nOe’s of the H’s in the polyhydroxy
694
Saludes et al.
side chains with the amide backbone, and the inherent planarity of the pyranose ring effected by the a,b-conjugated amide
bond that serves as the driving force for the overall
conformation of the peptide. Furthermore, this work also
demonstrates the proof-of-principle that amide-linked sialic
acid oligomers could be decorated with small molecule alkynes
at the a-C azide of the caproamide linker. The findings show
that amide-linked Neu2en homooligomers represent novel
scaffolds that provide a stable backbone that has potential for
manipulation at the C-4 position, glycerol side chain, and
a-azido moiety. Future studies will be directed toward the
replacement of the hydroxyl groups with other chemical
handles and the development of improved synthetic protocols
for scaffold functionalization.
EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental procedures for the synthesis of compounds 2–10
and 14 have been fully described elsewhere.6,7
Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis
Typically, 100 mg of dry Fmoc-Rink resin (0.5 mmol g21) was
taken, swelled in DMF for 2 h, and drained. The classical,
room temperature SPPS and purification of compounds 2–9
was previously reported.6 Microwave-assisted SPPS, monitoring, and cleavage from solid support of 10 followed the previously reported method7 using either CEM Discover or Biotage
Initiator1 SP Wave peptide synthesizer. Microwave conditions
are as follows: power 5 20 W, ramp time 5 2 min, hold time
5 5 min, temperature 5 75! C. The crude peptide was purified
by reverse phase HPLC (RP-C18, 10 3 250 mm2; 5–35%
aqueous MeCN with 0.1% TFA) with detection set at 225 and
260 nm. Eluates were concentrated and lyophilized to yield
white, fluffy solid TFA salt of the peptide.
Compound 10
This was obtained in 22% purified yield. 1H NMR (D2O,
800 MHz): d 5.96 (d, 1H, J 5 3.0 Hz, H3-1), 5.91 (d,
4H, J 5 1.8 Hz, H3-2/3/4/5), 5.84 (d, 1H, J 5 1.8 Hz,
H3-6), 4.65-4.64 (m, 4H, H4-2/3/4/5), 4.639–4.632
(m, 1H, H4-1), 4.636–4.628 (m, 1H, H4-6), 4.62 (d, 1H,
J 5 10.8 Hz, H6-1), 4.50 (d, 4H, J 5 10.8 Hz, H6-2/3/4/
5), 4.46 (d, 1H, J 5 10.8 Hz, H6-6), 4.263 (dd, 1H, J 5
10.8, 9.0 Hz, H5-2), 4.257 (dd, 3H, J 5 10.8, 9.6 Hz,
H5-3/4/5), 4.24 (dd, 1H, J 5 11.4, 9.6 Hz, H5-6), 4.13
(dd, 1H, J 5 7.2, 5.4 Hz, Ha-7), 3.99 (ddd, 1H, J 5 8.4,
5.4, 3.0 Hz, H8-1), 3.94 (ddd, 1H, J 5 8.4, 5.4, 3.0 Hz,
H8-2), 3.94–3.91 (m, 4H, H8-3/4/5/6), 3.904–3.898
(m, 1H, H7-1), 3.890–3.886 (m, 1H, H90 -1), 3.88–3.86
(m, 4H, H90 -3/4/5/6), 3.857–3.852 (m, 1H, H90 -2), 3.75
(dd, 1H, J 5 12.0, 6.0 Hz, H9-1), 3.70–3.65 (m, 10H,
H7/9-2/3/4/5/6), 3.64 (dd, 1H, J 5 9.6, 8.4 Hz, H5-1),
3.37–3.28 (m, 2H, HE-7), 1.88–1.77 (m, 2H, Hb-7),
1.64–1.58 (m, 2H, Hd-7), 1.44 (p, 2H, J 5 7.8 Hz, Hc7). 1H NMR (9:1 H2O/D2O, 800 MHz): d8.22 (d, 1H,
J 5 8.8 Hz, HN5-2), 8.18 (d, 3H, J 5 8.8 Hz, HN5-3/4/
5), 8.17 (d, 1H, J 5 7.2 Hz, HN5-6). 13C NMR (D2O,
150 MHz): d 178.5, 167.2, 166.6, 166.1, 148.7, 148.5,
148.3, 111.8, 110.9, 79.1, 79.0, 77.9, 72.8, 70.6, 70.0, 67.5,
65.9, 65.8, 65.3, 53.7, 52.9, 41.9, 33.8, 30.7, 24.8.
ESI-HRMS: [M 1 H1] calcd for C60H92N11O371,
1558.5650; found, 1558.5816. [M 1 Na1] calcd for
C60H91N11O37Na1, 1580.5470; found, 1580.5631. FT-IR
(ATR, neat): 3306, 2114, 1668, 1642, 1535 cm21.
Circular Dichroism
Samples were prepared in water at a concentration of 0.5–1.0
mg mL21. Spectra were recorded in a 1 or 2 mm path length
quartz cuvette at 25! C. Three to five scans were obtained and
averaged for each sample from 320 to 190 nm with data points
taken every 1.0 nm. The values obtained form the raw data
were used to calculate the molar ellipticity values [h], using the
equation [h] 5 (hM)/(cl) where h is the corrected value, M is
the molecular weight, c is the concentration in mg mL21, and l
is the path length in mm. All molar ellipticity values were
normalized per residue by dividing [h] by the number of
amino acid residues in the oligomer.
Amide NH/ND Exchange
Samples were prepared in 25 mM NaD2PO4 buffer in D2O at
0.01M concentrations that was precooled in an ice bath prior
to addition to the peptides. 1H NMR spectra were collected on
a 600 MHz NMR spectrometer at 277 K using standard Bruker
kinetics program. A total of 85 FIDs were obtained at 16 scans
each with 8192 data points for a total acquisition time of 30
sec per FID. Integral areas were measured with normalization
to a peak in the spectra not exchanging with D2O. Data were
processed, plotted the time versus integral area, fitted with an
exponential curve, the half-life was calculated following
pseudo-first order kinetics, and the plots are shown in the
Supporting Information.
ROESY NMR and Solution Phase Structure
Calculations
Compound 10 was dissolved in 0.5 mL of H2O/D2O (9:1) at a
concentration of 1.1 mM, pH 6.0. All ROESY experiments
were performed at 298 K on an 800 MHz spectrometer
Biopolymers
Amide-Linked Neuraminic Acid Analogues
equipped with a 5 mm cryoprobe. Water suppression was
achieved by WATERGATE technique.16 ROESY spectra were
recorded at 300 and 500 ms mixing times, and we found 300
ms to be optimal. All data were recorded using Bruker TopSpin
and the ROESY cross-peak volumes in the contour plot were
measured using Mestrenova software. Distance restraints,
parameter and topology files, and restrained molecular dynamics and simulated annealing calculations were performed using
the protocol of XPLOR-NIH as previously described.7,17 The
values for phi (190 6 30) and psi (180 6 40) dihedral angle
restraints were obtained from ab initio calculations18 and our
previous report.7 Visualization was done using MacPyMOL.42
LLC. #1432
Proteolytic Stability in Human Blood Serum
To 45 lL aliquots of human blood serum from a commercial
source was added 5 lL solution of 10 (1.6 mg mL21) to give a
final concentration of 100 lm. The mixture was vortex mixed
and incubated at 37! C. The samples were removed from the
incubator at predetermined time points of 0, 2, 4, 8, and 16 h,
and three replicates were setup for each time point. The serum
proteins were precipitated using 50 lL MeOH, the mixture
was cooled in an ice bath for 30 min, and centrifuged for 10
min at 16,000g. The supernatant was transferred to a polypropylene tube, the pellet was washed with 100 lL 50% aqueous
MeOH, the wash was added to the supernatant, and the mixture was lyophilized. The dried mixture from the lyophilizer
was taken up in 100 lL H2O and centrifuged for 10 min at
16,000g. The supernatant was analyzed by RP-C18 HPLC (1.0
3 150 mm2) at 0–10% for 10 min, 10–35% for 15 min, and
35–100% for 10 min MeCN in H2O with 0.1% FA on a divert
mode for the first 5 min. Detection was done using ESI-MS at
SIM mode with masses set at m/z 1579–1585 [(M1Na)]1,
1557–1563 [(M1H)]1, 801–804 [(M1Na2)]21, and 790–793
[(M1H1Na)]21. Compound 10 eluted at 14.1 min. The peak
area at each time point was integrated, the replicates averaged,
and the serum half-life was calculated using the least squares
analysis of the integration peaks vs. time following pseudofirst-order kinetics.11
Synthesis of N-(7-Nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)-N(2-propynyl)amine (15)
Compound 15 was prepared following a previous method43
but with slight modifications. To a solution of NBD-Cl (250
mg, 1.25 mmol) dissolved in anhydrous MeCN (10 mL) was
added propargylamine (138 mg, 2.5 mmol). The reaction mixture was kept under an inert atmosphere using Ar and stirred
for 1 h at 0! C, then allowed to warm to room temperature and
reaction stirred for another 1 h. The solvent was evaporated
Biopolymers
695
under vacuum and the crude product purified by column
chromatography using 2:1 hexane/EtOAc to afford 15 (248
mg, 91% yield) as a brown powder. The 1H NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric data were in agreement with the
literature.43
Fluorophore Conjugation by “Click” Chemistry
Peptide 16 was prepared using our previously published
method.41 To peptide 10 (14.8 mg, 12.5 lmol) was added N(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)-N-(2-propynyl)amine (15,
4.3 mg, 18.8 lmol) and the mixture taken up in 150 lLMeOH
that was purged with N2 for at least 30 min. To this mixture
was added Tris[(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4- yl)methyl]amine
(TBTA, 19.9 mg, 37.5) and Tetrakis (acetonitrile)copper(I)
hexafluorophosphate ([(CH3CN)4Cu]PF6, 70.8 mg, 187.5
lmol). MeCN was added dropwise to bring everything into
solution, and the reaction was allowed to proceed at room
temperature with constant stirring for 25 h. The sample was
quenched with 1 mL H2O, frozen, and lyophilized to dryness.
The dried crude product was re-suspended in 0.1 M EDTA,
loaded on a Sep-Pak C18 cartridge, and sequentially eluted
with 5 mL of H2O, 1:1 H2O/MeCN, and MeCN. The H2O/
MeCN fraction was concentrated to dryness, dissolved in water,
frozen, and lyophilized to dryness to yield a yellow fluffy solid
TFA salt of 16. ESI-MS: [M 1 Na1] calcd for
C69H97N15NaO401, 1798.6; found, 1799.1.
REFERENCES
1. Von Roedern, E. G.; Kessler, H. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1994,
33, 687–689.
2. Varki, A. Trends Mol Med 2008, 14, 351–360.
3. Von Roedern, E. G.; Lohof, E.; Hessler, G.; Hoffmann, M.;
Kessler, H. J Am Chem Soc 1996, 118, 10156–10167.
4. Baldauf, C.; Gunther, R.; Hofmann, H. J. J Org Chem 2004, 69,
6214–6220.
5. Szabo, L.; Smith, B. L.; McReynolds, K. D.; Parrill, A. L.; Morris,
E. R.; Gervay, J. J Org Chem 1998, 63, 1074–1078.
6. Gregar, T. Q.; Gervay-Hague, J. J Org Chem 2004, 69, 1001–
1009.
7. Saludes, J. P.; Ames, J. B.; Gervay-Hague, J. J Am Chem Soc
2009, 131, 5495–5505.
8. Saludes, J. P.; Natarajan, A.; DeNardo, S. J.; Gervay-Hague, J.
Chem Biol Drug Des 2010, 75, 455–460.
9. Lazo, N. D.; Downing, D. T. Biochemistry 1997, 36, 2559–2565.
10. Bruch, M. D.; Dhingra, M. M.; Gierasch, L. M. Proteins Struct
Funct Genet 1991, 10, 130–139.
11. Greenfield, N.; Fasman, G. D. Biochemistry 1969, 10, 4108–
4116.
12. Kolb, H. C.; Finn, M. G.; Sharpless, K. B. Angew Chem Int Ed
2001, 40, 2004–2021.
13. Appella, D. H.; Christianson, L. A.; Karle, I. L.; Powell, D. R.;
Gellman, S. H. J Am Chem Soc 1996, 118, 13071–13072.
696
Saludes et al.
14. Wuthrich, K.; Wagner, G. J Mol Biol 1979, 130, 1–18.
15. Brisson, J. R.; Baumann, H.; Imberty, A.; Perez, S.; Jennings, H.
J. Biochemistry 1992, 31, 4996–5004.
16. Piotto, M.; Saudek, V.; Sklenar, V. J Biomol NMR 1992, 2,
661–665.
17. Schwieters, C. D.; Kuszewski, J. J.; Tjandra, N.; Clore, G. M.
J Magn Reson 2003, 160, 65–73.
18. Gregar, T. Q. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Arizona,
Tucson, 2001.
19. Fuchs, E. F.; Lehmann, J. Carbohydr Res 1976, 49, 267–273.
20. Heinz, D. W.; Baase, W. A.; Matthews, B. W. Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA 1992, 89, 3751–3755.
21. Lu, Y.; Gervay-Hague, J. Carbohydr Res 2007, 342, 1636–1650.
22. Honda, T.; Masuda, T.; Yoshida, S.; Arai, M.; Kobayashi, Y.;
Yamashita, M. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002, 12, 1921–1924.
23. Honda, T.; Yoshida, S.; Arai, M.; Masuda, T.; Yamashita, M. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002, 12, 1929–1932.
24. Manning, M. C.; Patel, K.; Borchardt, R. T. Pharm Res 1989, 6,
903–918.
25. Werle, M.; Bernkop-Schnurch, A. Amino Acids 2006, 30,
351–367.
26. Adessi, C.; Soto, C. Curr Med Chem 2002, 9, 963–978.
27. Falciani, C.; Lozzi, L.; Pini, A.; Corti, F.; Fabbrini, M.; Bernini,
A.; Lelli, B.; Niccolai, N.; Bracci, L. Chem Biol Drug Des 2007,
69, 216–221.
28. Powell, M. F.; Stewart, T.; Otvos, L.; Urge, L.; Gaeta, F. C. A.;
Sette, A.; Arrhenius, T.; Thomson, D.; Soda, K.; Colon, S. M.
Pharm Res 1993, 10, 1268–1273.
29. Fernandes, A. I.; Gregoriadis, G. Biochim Biophys Acta 1997,
1341, 26–34.
30. Powell, M. F. Annu Rep Med Chem 1993, 28, 285–294.
31. Frackenpohl, J.; Arvidsson, P. I.; Schreiber, J. V.; Seebach, D.
ChemBioChem 2001, 2, 445–455.
32. Disney, M. D.; Hook, D. F.; Namoto, K.; Seeberger, P. H.;
Seebach, D. Chem Biodiv 2005, 2, 1624–1634.
33. Sadowsky, J. D.; Murray, J. K.; Tomita, Y.; Gellman, S. H. ChemBioChem 2007, 8, 903–916.
34. Seebach, D.; Abele, S.; Schreiber, J. V.; Martinoni, B.; Nussbaum,
A. K.; Schild, H.; Schulz, H.; Hennecke, H.; Woessner, R.;
Bitsch, F. Chimia 1998, 52, 734–739.
35. Hook, D. F.; Bindschadler, P.; Mahajan, Y. R.; Sebesta, R.; Kast,
P.; Seebach, D. Chem Biodiv 2005, 2, 591–632.
36. Schmitt, M. A.; Weisblum, B.; Gellman, S. H. J Am Chem Soc
2007, 129, 417–428.
37. Ahmed, S.; Kaur, K. Chem Biol Drug Des 2009, 73,
545–552.
38. Gregoriadis, G.; McCormack, B.; Wang, Z.; Lifely, R. FEBS Lett
1993, 315, 271–276.
39. Morton, L. A.; Yang, H.; Saludes, J. P.; Fiorini, Z.; Beninson, L.
A.; Chapman, E. R.; Fleshner, M.; Xue, D.; Yin, H. ACS Chem
Biol 2013, 8, 218–225.
40. Saludes, J. P.; Morton, L. A.; Ghosh, N.; Beninson, L.;
Chapman, E. R.; Fleshner, M.; Yin, H. ACS Chem Biol 2012, 7,
1629–1635.
41. Saludes, J. P.; Morton, L. A.; Coulup, S. K.; Fiorini, Z.; Cook, B.
M.; Beninson, L.; Chapman, E. R.; Fleshner, M.; Yin, H. Mol
BioSyst 2013. DOI: 10.1039/C3MB70109C.
42. The PyMOL Molecular Graphics System, Version 1.3r1
Schr€
odinger, LLC.
43. Key, J. A.; Cairo, C. W. Dyes Pigm 2011, 88, 95–102.
Reviewing Editor: C. Allen Bush
Biopolymers