insights into linguistics

Transcription

INSIGHTS
INTO
LINGUISTICS
Class 3
Universidad Laica
Vicente Rocafuerte
School of Languages
Name: _________________________
Phone: _________________________
e-mail: _________________________
Universidad Laica
Vicente Rocafuerte
English Language School
Rebeca Vera, M.Ed.
INSIGHTS INTO LINGUISTICS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Allen, J. P. B. and Corder, S. Pit (1974). Techniques in Applied Linguistics. The Edinburgh Course
in Applied Linguistics, Volume 3. UK: Oxford University Press.
2.
Fromkin, Victoria, Rodman, Robert & Hyams, Nina (2003). An Introduction to Language. Seventh
Edition. Boston, USA: Heinle, Boston
3.
Ipsen, Guido (1997).
4.
Napoli, Donna Jo (1996). Linguistics. UK: Oxford University Press.
5.
Radford, Andrew (1981). Transformational Syntax. A Student’s Guide to Chomsky’s Extended
Standard Theory. UK: Cambridge University Press.
6.
Radford, Andrew et al. (2005). Linguistics: An Introduction. UK: Cambridge University Press.
7.
Richards, Jack and Schmidt, Richard. (2002). Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. UK: Longman.
8.
Thornbury, Scott (1997). About Language. UK: Cambridge University Press, UK.
9.
Wallwork, J. F. (1989). Language and Linguistics. An Introduction to the Study of Language. UK:
Heinemann Educational Books.
Linguistics for Beginners.
Germany:
University of Kassel.
10. Widdowson, H. G. (1996). Linguistics. UK: Oxford University Press.
Journals:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Journal
of
Linguistics
published
by
Cambridge
University
Press.
(http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=LIN)
The Linguistics Journal published by the Linguistics Journal Press. British Virgin Islands.
(http://www.linguistics-journal.com/)
SKY Journal of Linguistics
published by the Linguistic Association of Finland.
(http://www.linguistics.fi/skyjol-en.shtml)
TESOL Quarterly. USA.
Journal of English Linguistics published by SAGE Publications.
(http://eng.sagepub.com/content/37/3.toc)
Northwest Journal of Linguistics. (http://www.sfu.ca/nwjl/contact.html)
Webs:
http://www.ling.udel.edu/idsardi/101/
http://www.ling.udel.edu/ling/
http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html/text/startlfbframeset.html
http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb8/misc/lfb/html/navigation/navigate.html
http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/3920/
http://www.mathpsyc.uni-bonn.de/doc/albert/node7.html
http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/COMPET_PERFO.html
http://changingminds.org/explanations/critical_theory/concepts/langue_parole.htm
http://www.ling.udel.edu/idsardi/101/syll.html
http://linguistlist.org/issues/
http://feminafelis.tripod.com/tgl.html
Universidad Laica Vicente Rocafuerte de Guayaquil
English Language School
Rebeca Vera, M.Ed., Insights into Linguistics
1
INSIGHTS INTO LINGUISTICS
TASK 1. COURSE OBJECTIVE AND EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Objectives
(a) To clarify objectives and evaluation procedures.
(b) To negotiate changes to these if necessary.
(c) To give CPs the opportunity to experiment a ‘pyramiding’ activity.
Input:
(a) Course objectives
(b) Evaluation procedures
(c) Process language expressions for task
Interaction pattern:
(a) Pyramiding
Tutor’s role:
(a) language model
(b) Plenary
(b) facilitator
Activity:
Study the course objectives and evaluation procedures (a) individually for 5 minutes, (b) in pairs for 5
minutes, (c) in groups for 10 minutes.
Finally discuss these in plenary session with tutor.
PROVISIONAL COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course participants should be able to:
(a) recognize the diversity of language systems and their fundamental similarities.
(b) use the basic terminology of linguistic subfields, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax
and semantics.
(c) use linguistic analysis to investigate the organizing principles of language.
(d) solve phonetic, phonology and morphology problems.
(e) demonstrate proficiency in constructing syntactic trees.
COURSE EVALUATION PROCEDURE
The course itself will be evaluated through the following:
1. On-line students’ feedback.
2. Value and achievement of mutually agreed objectives as determined by end-of-course questionnaire.
3. Suggestions for improvement of the course from nominal group technique session at end of course.
COURSE PARTICIPANT EVALUATION
Below is a suggestion for evaluation the CPs (CP evaluation will be negotiable at the beginning and
during the course).
An end-of-course evaluation report based on the seven criteria below:
1. Attendance.
2. Level of involvement in class, group work and on-line participation
3. Effort put into out-of-class activities which CPs commit themselves to.
4. Performance on end-of-chapter test.
5. Performance on end-of-term examination.
6. Performance on end-of-course examination.
2
SESSION DISCUSSION LANGUAGE SUMMARY
To all participants:
Try to use the following expressions as much as possible when you discuss the various tasks
with your tutor or in groups.
GENERAL
What do we have to do?
We have to look for/find (hay que)
Where are we?
We’re here on line …
Which one?
This / that one.
Where is it?
I can’t find it.
Oh yeah.
Look! It’s here on line …
It isn’t here.
Here it is.
What does it/he/she say?
It says here / on line …
What does “….” mean, do you think? I think it means …
Wait
a minute
Just
a second
Hang on a moment
Sorry?
Pardon?
Excuse me?
I know.
I have it.
of course. I’ve got it.
I see / understand.
I mean (digo)
What did you say?
I didn’t hear you.
I didn’t catch you.
OPINIONS
What do you think (number one is)?
What about you? (y Ud.?)
I think it’s …
I think so, too. / me, too.
Do you agree?
Yes, I think that’s right.
Well, no. I think that’s wrong.
Well, no. I think you’re wrong.
Well, … (pues, bueno)
I don’t agree, (either).
know
understand.
Me, neither.
Have you finished?
We’ve finished.
It’s already here / We’ve already done it.
3
GROUP COORDINATOR, ETC.
First, …
OK
Let’s
do
look at
Right
Now
Shall we
letter A. Let’s see now.
answer
read
What about …?
question 2?
the first one.
Why don’t we study the next
last
other
one?
What do you have / what have you got?
Do we agree?
Let’s
put
write
mark
underline
So, … (entonces)
(así)
that, then.
DOUBT AND CERTAINTY
It could be …. (puede ser)
I’m not sure.
maybe / possibly / perhaps
It must be …. (debe ser)
has to
I’m sure / certain
It can’t be. (no puede ser)
The only word
thing
I can think of is …
GETTING MORE INFORMATION
Could you tell me a bit more about …?
Sorry, but I’d like to know some more about …
I didn’t quite follow what you said about ….
Sorry, that’s not quite what I meant. What I really wanted to know was ….
Sorry, I don’t quite understand why ….
DISCUSSING
Expressing opinions in a more tentative way:
I sometimes think that ….
Would you agree that …?
Well, I’ve heard that ….
Do you think it’s right to say that …?
Rephrasing your own statements:
That’s not quite what I meant…
Sorry, let me explain…
Let me put it another way …
4
Welcome to Linguistics for Beginners
The study of linguistics is a vast field. Do not expect to learn everything while going through this
course the first time. And do not feel linguistically dwarfish if you find that there are many
questions that will remain unanswered at the end of it. This is an introductory course!
You will not only find information using this introduction. You can actually study linguistics by
filling in the questionnaires that accompany the various chapters. Suggestions for further reading
will always be listed alongside the chapters.
The contents of this introduction will cover the core knowledge of what is relevant and (together
with some ingenuity on your part) should suffice for you to be able to give detailed answers to
the questions. In addition, however, you should take your time to look up some of the additional
literature. In the bibliography you will also find suggestions for further reading that may help
you in the future, when you need more detailed information. Thus, this introduction should still
be of use for your studies in the future.
Learning Techniques
There are many different ways to learn, so we will try to experience as many different ways of
learning as possible. Some people are still most comfortable with lectures and examples, so we
will have lectures and discussion each week. Other people learn better when discussing problems
together in groups, so we will do that too.
There are lecture notes. We will be intermixing the "theoretical" material with the "applied"
material. This means that the readings will come from more than one chapter or set of notes.
At the end of each unit you have to do the worksheet, which will be useful material for tests.
If you have a question at any time, please ask it. Other people will benefit too. If you want to ask
a question by email, that's great too. My e-mail is: xtorresf@laica.edu.ec.
Grading


Exam (50%)
Tests, project/homework, class and on-line participation and attendance 50%
Some tests will include short answer and multiple choice questions.
Test questions will include language analysis problems similar to the homework problems.
Do the readings before coming to class.
Projects are due on the day indicated on the schedule.
Homework must be handed in on time, otherwise you will receive a zero (assignments may be
handed in early, too. You can send them by mail if you are unable to come to class).
Class attendance and participation are essential -- IF you do not show up THEN you will not
do well!
5
UNIT 1
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
Talking, shouting, whispering, lying, swearing, telling jokes or tales, in short:
communication of all sorts by means of articulate sound is something we are so familiar with
that we hardly ever come to think about it as something unique. However, no other creature on
this planet shows the ability to communicate verbally in the way we do. Take a minute to think
about the immense impact spoken and written language has on your everyday life! You could not
possibly do without it in situations where you meet other people, like in school, university, or at
the breakfast table. The examples are innumerous.
In this course, we will take a look at the unique features of human language. As you will
see when we proceed, the human curiosity concerning language is no modern phenomenon.
Language has been examined by linguists and philosophers for several millennia. Therefore, we
can look back on a respectable stock of literature on the topic originating from the times of
Ancient Greece until the present day. The result is a compendium of linguistic disciplines that
are interwoven with the domains of, among others, philosophy, psychology, neurology, and even
computer science: a vast and fascinating network of knowledge.
To keep you fascinated (which I hope you are) and to keep you from becoming
intimidated (which I hope you are not), we will start right away with the very principles that
make human language so special.
1.1. WHAT IS HUMAN LANGUAGE?
Language is a highly elaborated signaling system. We call the aspects that are peculiar to
it the design features of language. Some of these we find only with the language of human
beings, others we have in common with animals. Another aspect of human language is that we
express thoughts with words.
1.1.1. Design features of language

A principal feature of human language is the duality of patterning. It enables us to use our
language in a very economic way for a virtually infinite production of linguistic units. How
does this principle work?
All human languages have a small, limited set of speech sounds. The limitation derives from
the restricted capacity of our vocal apparatus.
The speech sounds are referred to as consonants and vowels.
Linguistically speaking, the distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes, which are
explained in more detail in the chapter on phonology. You cannot use isolated phonemes for
communication, because phonemes are by themselves meaningless. But we can assemble
and reassemble phonemes into larger linguistic units. These are commonly called “words”.
Although our capacity to produce new phonemes is limited, we frequently coin new words.
Hence, our capacity to produce vocabulary is unlimited.
6

Displacement
In contrast to other animals, humans have a sense of the past and the future. A gorilla, for
example, cannot tell his fellows about his parents, his adventures in the jungle, or his
experience of the past. The use of language to talk about things other than “the here and
now,” is a characteristic of humans. Displacement is thus our ability to convey a meaning
that transcends the immediately perceptible sphere of space and time.
Although some animals seem to possess abilities appropriating those of displacement, they
lack the freedom to apply this to new contexts. The dance of the honey-bee, for instance,
indicates the location of rich deposits of food to other bees. This ability of the bee
corresponds to displacement in human language, except for a lack of variation. The bee
frequently repeats the same pattern in its dance, whereas humans are able to invent ever new
contexts.

Open-endedness
The ability to say things that have never been said before, including the possibility to express
invented things or lies, is also a peculiar feature of human language.

Stimulus-freedom is another aspect that distinguishes human language from animal
communication. The honey-bee must perform its dance, the woodchuck must cry out in
order to warn his fellows when it beholds an eagle.
Humans have the ability to say anything they like in any context. This ability is only
restricted in certain ceremonial contexts such as church services, etc., where a fixed form is
expected to be followed. The possibility to violate this fixed linguistic behaviour is then the
source of jokes, such as a bride’s “no”.

Arbitrariness
Why is a table called “table”? Obviously, the thing never told us its name. And tables do not
make a noise similar to the word. The same applies to most of the words of our language.
Hence, words and their meanings have no a priori connection. We cannot tell from the
sound structure which meaning is behind it. Language is not motivated, as we can also put it.
There are, however, exceptions to this rule: language can be iconic, which means that there
is a direct correlation between form and meaning. The length of a phrase, for example, could
represent a length of time the phrase refers to, like in “a long, long time ago.” Here, the
extension serves to visually represent the semantic emphasis.
Iconicity in language can be found frequently. This is seen in more detail on semiotics.
Another example for non-arbitrariness is onomatopoeia. These are words that seem to
resemble sounds. There are many examples for onomatopoetic words, like splash or bang.
Some names for animals are also onomatopoetic, for example, “cuckoo”. Still, since animals
such as the bird are named differently in different languages, there can be no ultimate
motivation for the name.

The human vocal tract
An elaborated language requires a highly sophisticated speech organ that will enable the
speaker to produce the many differentiated sounds. Only humans are endowed with
a speech organ of this complexity.
7
1.2. WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what
is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining
language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split
infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters.
The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning
language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to
place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict
what can not occur in a language.
Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such
as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines
such as English, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part
though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer
science, linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions.
Linguistics is the scientific inquiry into the human language with all its aspects. All its
aspects: these are many. There is a specialized branch for each approach to the examination of
language.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, scholars were occupied with research on the
history of languages and the roots of words in ancient tongues. The famous linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure coined this approach the diachronic analysis and moved to the analysis of the system of
language, which he assumed to be of greater importance. Saussure stated this in the first decades
of this century and thus formed the fundament of modern linguistics.
1.2.1. Diachronic versus synchronic view

Diachrony
Diachronic linguistics views the historical development of a language. Thus, on the
diachronic axis we can go back and forth in time, watching the language with all its
features change.

Synchrony
Synchronic linguistics views a particular state of a language at some given point in time.
This could mean Modern English of the present day, or the systematic analysis of the
system of Shakespeare’s English. However, no comparisons are made to other states of
language or other times.
Modern linguistics, following Ferdinand de Saussure, is primarily interested in the
synchronic point of view. Saussure postulated the priority of synchrony: no knowledge of
the historical development of a language is necessary to examine its present system. He
arrived at this radical viewpoint due to his conviction that linguistic research must
concentrate on the structure of language. Later, the whole paradigm was hence called
structuralism.
8
1.2.2. The two axes of the synchronic view
When we look at the structure of language, we find sentences and words. This is,
however, a very rough view. A grammar of a language must be more precise.

One axis of the synchronic view is syntagmatic analysis. Here we examine the
relationships of all elements of a sentence to one another. We ask ourselves exactly what
element appears where and under which condition in a sentence. For example, where do
nouns appear? Where are auxiliary verbs applied? All word classes show certain
syntagmatic relationships. They can be defined by distribution analysis, a method that
classifies elements according to their appearance within the logical order of a sentence.
Let's have a look at an example:
A + ______ + crosses + the + street
Obviously, a noun must appear in the blank space, for example:
A woman crosses the street.

Of course, nouns and verbs are not all the same. They do not fit into contexts freely.
Hence we apply paradigmatic analysis. In our example, the idea of a sandwich crossing
the street is impossible.
As you can see, the elements of language obviously evince paradigmatic relationships.
Elements can be substituted by others of the same paradigmatic class, such as street,
lane, road, etc. Articles can also be exchanged. Words that belong to the same
paradigmatic class thus belong to the same grammatical class. They also belong to the
same lexical field. The following diagram shows the two axes of synchronic analysis:
1.2.3. Langue and parole
One such mark was made by Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss scholar usually credited with
establishing the principles of modern linguistics. In a celebrated series of lectures in the early
part of the century, he proposed that linguistics should concern itself with the shared social code,
the abstract system, which he called langue, leaving aside the particular actualities of individual
utterance, which he called parole. (Widdowson 1996: 21).
Langue and parole are more than just 'language and speech' (although this is a useful quick way
of remembering them).
9
Langue
La langue is the whole system of language that precedes and makes speech possible. A sign is a
basic unit of langue.
Learning a language, we master the system of grammar, spelling, syntax and punctuation. These
are all elements of langue.
Langue is a system in that it has a large number of elements whereby meaning is created in the
arrangements of its elements and the consequent relationships between these arranged elements.
Parole
Parole is the concrete use of the language, the actual utterances. It is an external manifestation of
langue. It is the usage of the system, but not the system.
By defining Langue and Parole, Saussure differentiates between the language and how it is used,
and therefore enabling these two very different things to be studied as separate entities.
As a structuralist, Saussure was interested more in la langue than parole. It was the system by
which meaning could be created that was of interest rather than individual instances of its use.
1.2.4. Competence and performance
A comparable distinction to that of Saussure, designed to idealize language data, and to define
the scope of linguistic enquiry, is made by Noam Chomsky. He distinguishes competence, the
knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations,
and performance, their actual behaviour. (Widdowson, 1996: 24).
A distinction introduced by Chomsky into linguistic theory but of wider application.
Competence refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce
and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which he may have never
seen or heard before. Performance refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical
mistakes and non-linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language.
(http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/COMPET_PERFO.html)
1.2.5. The various linguistic disciplines: Survey
Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study
and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects.
Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the
sounds of language, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer perceives them.
Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the
analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics:



Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds.
Acoustic Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.
Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.
10
Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are
organized in a language. Phonology examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are
combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to
explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules.
Morphology
Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together
from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process. The elements that are combining to
form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in
a language. The word cats, for example, contains the morphemes cat and the plural -s.
Syntax
Syntax is the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a
particular language in term of rules. These rules detail an underlying structure and a
transformational process. The underlying structure of English for example would have a subjectverb-object sentence order (John hit the ball). The transformational process would allow an
alteration of the word order which could give you something like The ball was hit by John.
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning. It is concerned with describing how we represent the
meaning of a word in our mind and how we use this representation in constructing sentences.
Semantics is based largely on the study of logic in philosophy.
Language Acquisition
Language acquisition examines how children learn to speak and how adults learn a second
language. Language acquisition is very important because it gives us insight in the underlying
processes of language. There are two components which contribute to language acquisition. The
innate knowledge of the learner (called Universal Grammar or UG) and the environment. The
notion of UG has broad implications. It suggests that all languages operate within the same
framework and the understanding of this framework would contribute greatly to the
understanding of what language is.
Other Disciplines:

Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of interrelationships of language and
social structure, linguistic variation, and attitudes toward language.

Neurolinguistics: Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in the
production, perception and acquisition of language.

Historical Linguistics: Historical linguistics is the study of language change and the
relationships of languages to each other.

Anthropological Linguistics: Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and
culture and how they interact.

Pragmatics: Pragmatics studies meaning in context.

Semiotics: Semiotics is the study of signs in communication processes in general. It
concerns itself with the analysis of both linguistic and non-linguistic signs as
communicative devices and with their systems
11
Learning Notes
UNIT 1
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
Communication
By means of articulate sounds
e.g. talking, shouting, whispering, lying, swearing, telling jokes or tales
Only human beings show the ability to communicate verbally
WHAT IS HUMAN LANGUAGE?
It is a highly elaborated signaling system. (Study the concept in the copies)
Design features of language
1. Duality of patterning:
- It enables us to use our language in a very economic way for a virtually infinite production of
linguistic units
- All human beings have a small limited set of speech sounds: vowels and consonants.
- Phonemes are distinctive speech sounds and are by themselves meaningless.
- Words are larger linguistic units.
- Limited capacity to produce new phonemes derived from the restricted capacity of our
vocal apparatus.
- Unlimited capacity to produce vocabulary.
2. Displacement:
- It is a sense of past and future. eg. gorilla cannot talk about his adventures in the jungle or
experience of the past.
- Only humans can talk about things other than “the here and now”
- It is our ability to convey a meaning beyond the sphere of space and time.
- Animals lack of freedom to apply this to new contexts. eg. the dance of the honey-bee: the
bee repeats the same pattern of its dance.
3. Open-endedness:
- It is the ability to say things that have never been said before, including the possibility to express
invented things or lies is also a peculiar feature of human language.
Rebeca Vera, M.Ed., Insight into Linguistics
12
4. Stimulus-freedom:
- Humans have the ability to say anything they like in any context. Only restricted in certain
ceremonial contexts. e.g. church services, etc.
5. Arbitrariness:
- Things never told us its name. Names of things are arbitrary.
- Exceptions: iconic language: direct correlation between form and meaning. e.g. long long
time ago (length of a phrase)
onomatopoeia: words that seem to resemble sounds. eg. splash, bang, names for
animals: cuckoo.
6. Human vocal track:
- An elaborated language requires a highly sophisticated speech organ that enables the speaker
to produce the many differentiated sounds.
12
Learning Notes
WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?
- It is the scientific study of language.
- Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive
rules of the language.
- Goal: to try to discover the universals concerning language.
Universals are common elements of all languages.
Diachronic versus synchronic view
Linguistics views
are
Dyachronic
Synchronic
It views the historical
development of a language.
We can go back and forth
in time
It views a particular state
of a language at some
given point in time
Two axis are
Syntagmatic analysis
Paradigmatic analysis
The relationships of all elements
of a sentence to one another. e.g.
a noun comes after the article a
Elements can be substituted by
others of the same paradigmatic
class: book, pen
Langue and parole: Study from the copies.
Competence and performance: Study from the copies.
The various linguistic disciplines: Survey: Study from the copies.
1. Phonetics
Linguistic
Disciplines
a. Articulatory Phonetics
b. Acoustic Phonetics
c. Auditory Phonetics
2. Phonology
3. Morphology
4. Syntax
5. Semantics
6. Language Acquisition
a. Sociolinguistics
b. Neurolinguistics
7. Other disciplines
c. Historical Linguistics
d. Anthropological Linguistics
e. Pragmatics
f. Semiotics
13
UNIT 2
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS
Nearly five thousand languages are spoken in the world today. They seem to be quite
different, but still, many of them show similar principles, such as word order. For example, in
languages such as English, French, and Italian, the words of the clause take the order of first the
subject, then the verb, and then the direct object. There even exist basic patterns or
principles that are shared by all languages. These patterns are called universals. When the same
principles are shared by several languages, we speak of language types. There are several
examples for universals.
2.1. SEMANTIC UNIVERSALS
There are semantic categories that are shared by all cultures and referred to by all
languages - these are called semantic universals. There are many examples of semantic
universals. Let's discuss two of them:

One semantic universal regards our notion of colour. There exist eleven basic colour terms:
black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, purple, pink, orange, and grey.
The pattern that all languages universally abide by, is that they do not entertain a notion of a
colour term outside of that range. This means, any imaginable color is conceived of as a
mixture, shade, or subcategory of one of these eleven basic color terms.
As a result, one way of classifying languages is by colour terms. The eleven colour terms are
not in usage equally among the languages on Earth. Not all languages have all basic color
terms. Some have two, some three, and some four. Others have five, six, or seven, and some
have eight to eleven.
Those with two colour terms always have black and white,
those with three black, white, and red,
and those with more have additional basic colour terms according to the order in the list
given above. This is a universal pattern. The languages which have the same basic color
terms in common belong to the same language type. Hence, we find seven classes of
languages according to this scheme.

Another semantic universal is the case of pronouns. Think of what it is you do when you
talk to someone about yourself. There is always the "I", representing you as the speaker, and
the "you", meaning the addressee. You could not possibly do without that, and neither could
a speaker of any other language on earth. Again, we find a universal pattern here. Whenever
you do not talk about yourself as a person, but as a member of a group, you use the plural
"we". English is restricted to these two classes of pronouns: singular and plural, each in the
first, second, and third person. All languages that evince this structure are grouped into one
language type.
There are other languages that make use of even more pronouns. In some languages, it is
possible to address two people with a pronoun that specifically indicates not just their being
plural, but also their being 'two' people; this is then the dual pronoun.
Other examples are languages that have pronouns to refer to the speaker and the addressee
together, called inclusive pronouns. Exclusive pronouns refer to the speaker together with
people other than the addressee. However, these are not among the European languages.
14
2.2. PHONOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS
Different languages may have very different sets of vowels. If you are familiar with a few
foreign languages, you may find it difficult to believe there are universal rules governing the
distribution of vowels, but they do exist. Remember our example of basic color terms: A similar
pattern could be drawn on the basis of the vowel system. Languages with few vowels always
have the same set of vowel types. And if a language has more vowels, it is always the same type
of vowel that is added to the set. These vowels may not always sound exactly the same, but they
are always created at the same location in our vocal apparatus.
2.3. SYNTACTIC UNIVERSALS
Remember the word order of English I mentioned above. Hmhm, you say: that cannot be
a universal rule, since you know other sentences from English and possibly from other languages
which do not follow this order. You are right, but the order subject, verb, object (SVO) may be
defined as the basic order of English sentences. In other languages there are different "basic"
orders, such as Japanese (SOV) or Tongan (VSO), a Polynesian language. After an extensive
study, one can define two different sets of basic orders that languages follow: First
SVO, VSO, SOV
and second
VOS, OVS, OSV.
What is the difference? In the first set the subject precedes the object, in the second set it
follows the object. Since the first set is the one which applies to the basic structures of far more
languages than the second one does, the universal rule is that there is an overwhelming tendency
for the subject of a sentence to precede the direct object among the languages of the world.
2.3. ABSOLUTE UNIVERSALS - universal tendencies; implicational, nonimplicational
universals
Of course, not all universals can be found in all languages. With so many tongues
spoken, it would be hard not to find any exceptions. Most languages have not even been the
subject of extensive research as of yet. However, some rules appear without exception in the
languages which have been studied so far. We call these absolute universals. If there are minor
exceptions to the rule, we speak of universal tendencies or relative universals. In saying this, we
take for granted that exceptions may be found in future surveys among languages which have
remained unexplored up to the present day.
Sometimes a universal holds only if a particular condition of the language structure is
fulfilled. These universals are called implicational. Universals which can be stated without a
condition are called nonimplicational. In other words, whenever a rule "If ... then ..." is valid, the
universal appears in the structure of the respective language.
There are thus four types of universals: implicational absolute universals, implicational
relative universals, nonimplicational absolute universals, and nonimplicational relative
universals. The final determination of which type a universal belongs to is dependent on
intensive field research.
15
WORKSHEET 1 – ON LINGUISTICS AND UNIVERSALS
Please check your answers carefully.
Name: ___________________________
E-mail: ______________________
Question
Name three design
Features of language
Solution
Points
3
Find the core definition for
diachronic linguistics in the
handout. It is a one-sentence
definition. Copy the sentence
1
"The subject is usually followed by
the verb, then comes the object."
Is this an example for syntagmatic
or paradigmatic analysis?
 paradigmatic
 syntagmatic
1
a) The human language is the only signaling
system for communication purposes we know.
 True
 False
b) Universals are features that ALL languages
have in common.
 True
 False
True or False?
3
c) Linguistics deals with spoken language only.
 True
 False
Parallel Saussure’s distinction
between “langue” and “parole”
and Chomsky’s distinction between
“competence” and “performance”.
2
Learning Notes
UNIT 2
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS
Semantic
Notion of
colour
Phonological
Pronouns
Syntactic
Absolute
Word order
- Absolute: rules
- Relative: exceptions
- Implicational
- Nonimplicational
16
UNIT 3
THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH I: OLD ENGLISH
Looking at a living language, one of the most interesting aspects is language change. All
languages, except for the extinct ones, change permanently. Usually we do not notice the change
that takes place during our own time because it happens quite slowly. But if we take a look back
over a considerable span of time, language change becomes more obvious.
Of course there were no textbooks in the beginnings of language, but fortunately linguists have
developed certain methods to trace back words even beyond earliest records. Thus we have
knowledge not only of the last 1500 years of English. We can even make an assumption about
the very roots of the language.
English is an Indo-European language. Indo-European was discovered to be the parent
language of most European, Anterior-Asian, and Indian languages. As a rule, according to
prototypical features of some of these languages, two main branches are defined in the IndoEuropean language tree, namely an eastern branch and a western branch. However, scholars have
disputes about where the divisions within the Indo-European language family are to be placed.
For example, in examining languages other than the prototypical, it has been found that not all
languages can be classified into one of the two main branches, the eastern and western branches,
of language families.
How do we recover features of languages which are so old that no speakers live to tell us
about them? Historical linguistics deduces that an abundant occurrence of features in a daughter
language, the presence of which cannot be explained by language universals or by the
assumption of them having been borrowed, or adopted, from another tongue, is likely to have
been inherited from the parent language. Thus, by inferring from widespread phenomena on a
mother tongue from which these phenomena came, linguists trace back languages.
In Indo-European languages, for example, obvious correlations can be found. The Latin
(L.) and Sanskrit (S.) words for “hundred”, namely L. “centum” and S “satem”, can be traced
back to a common root. Since these two languages were considered to be the most prominent
examples for the respective branches, the whole branches were named after them. Also, former
scholars believed that they should make judgements about the various languages.
Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek were commonly believed to be of a higher quality than the
modern languages. Often scholars argued that these languages were more "pure" and praised
their "perfection" and "clarity". Today we consider such notions to be outdated. There is no
room in linguistics for the approval or disapproval of a language. If we look for the origin of a
word, we call this the word's etymology (etymon = Greek for "root").
Within the Indo-European family tree and among the centum languages, we find
language families like the Germanic, Celtic, or Latin families. Some authors refer to the early
Germanic language as "Proto-Germanic". The Germanic language family is again split up in the
West-, East-, and North-Germanic groups. While the Scandinavian tongues derived from the
North-Germanic language group, Anglo-Frisian and Modern German came from the WestGermanic group.
17
In the case of English, interaction with other languages was very important during its
history, as we will see. Hence, many influences from foreign sources can be found in Modern
English, while the family tree does not suggest these interchanges to have occurred.
3.1. LANGUAGES IN BRITAIN BEFORE ENGLISH
3.1.1. Celtic Languages
The first culture in England of which we have definite knowledge is the Celtic culture
and language. It is assumed that the coming of the Celts to England coincided with the
introduction of bronze on the island. There were - and still are - Celtic tongues spoken on the
British isles.
Celtic Languages in Britain are Welsh, Cornish, Scots Gaelic, Manx, and Irish Gaelic.
The main groups of Welsh, Scots and Irish Gaelic still exist, as does Manx, and are even
promoted in order to preserve the language community. Cornish, however, became extinct 200
years ago when the last recorded speaker died. Due to the above mentioned promotion, the rest
of the Celtic languages have a better chance of surviving. Other Celtic tongues are also still
spoken in Brittany (France) and, also on the verge of becoming extinct, are sponsored as well.
18
Language
Welsh (Cymric)
Cornish
Scots Gaelic
Manx
Irish Gaelic
Area
Wales
Cornwall
Scotland
Isle of Man
Ireland
Status
still spoken
extinct
still spoken
still spoken
still spoken
3.1.2. Latin
Another language in England was Latin. It was spoken extensively for a period of about
four centuries before the coming of English. In 55 BC, Julius Caesar decided to invade Britain.
Because of the unexpectedly powerful resistance of the Celts, however, a final conquest could
not be accomplished until about 100 years later. Almost all of what is now England was then
subjected to Roman rule. Naturally, the military conquest of Britain was followed by the
romanization of the province, as was the case in other countries and provinces conquered by the
Romans, such as Gaul of present day France. The Roman culture and the Latin language were
introduced. Note, however, that the Celts, who then inhabited the whole of the British Isles,
withstood the Romans in the other parts of the country. Hence, Latin did not spread further
north or west of what are roughly the present day English borders.
Latin did not replace the Celtic language in Britain. Its use was confined to members of
the upper classes such as landowners and the bureaucracy. Nevertheless, vocabulary for items
not known to the Celts prior to Romanization infiltrated the language of the, mainly lower class,
Celts, to some extent.
19
Roman Britain
3.2. OLD ENGLISH
About the year of 449 an event occurred that profoundly affected the course of history in
Britain: the invasion of Britain by certain Germanic tribes. These were the Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes who came from regions of Northern Europe where natural disasters and famine, due to
overpopulation, had forced them to leave. Since the Roman Empire was under heavy attack at
many of its borders at that time, no legions could be spared to defend the British province. The
emperor in Rome, therefore, left the British population on their own devices.
The British inhabitants, bereft of a military force, subsequently failed to defend
themselves and what was once Roman Britain became inhabited by the newcomers. The Celtic
population was forced to leave and take refuge in other areas of Britain. The struggle of the
Celts against the Anglo-Saxons has been preserved in the myth of the legendary King Arthur who
led his people in their resistance. The names "English" and "England" were then drawn from
the name of the predominant tribe of the Angles, who had established their most powerful
kingdom in the former Roman province.
20
3.2.1. Features of Old English
Old English (OE) was spoken from 449 to 1100 AD. Characteristic features of Old English are
that the vocabulary is almost purely Germanic. OE is a period of full inflections: in form of
endings to the noun and pronoun, the adjective and the verb. Since the grammar of such
languages depends on the synthesis of words and endings, we call them synthetic languages.

Nouns
It is impossible here to present the inflections of the Old English noun in detail. Their nature
may be gathered from two examples of the strong declension and one of the weak:
(stone), a masculine a-stem;
(gift), a feminine o-stem; and
(hunter), a
masculine consonant-stem.

Verbs
There are certain differences between OE verbs and Modern English (ModE) verbs. Verbs
are divided into two classes: regular and irregular verbs. Regular verbs all follow the same
inflection pattern, while there are irregularities among the second group. The latter consists
of strong, weak, and anomalous verbs. Strong verbs are called so because a change of tense
is there indicated within the word itself, by a modification of the verb root vowel, such as in
sing, sang, sung. In weak verbs, like walk, walked, walked, this change is dependent on being
indicated by an additional syllable.
OE strong verbs can still be strong verbs in ModE:
OE strong verbs may be regularized in ModE:
OE weak verbs may be regularized in ModE:
21
3.2.2. Scandinavian influence on Old English
Invasions and conquests were quite common during the first millennium AD in Britain.
From 787 on, the Danes raided the English coasts and the hinterland quite frequently. In 850,
they started large-scale invasions. In this period, Ælfred the Great, king of Wessex, gained
recognition due to his long but successful struggle against the Danes. In 878 he defeated them
and saved his kingdom, although the invaders still remained in the eastern territories. The
Danish rule in these countries was also called Danelaw.
To cut a long story short - after a lot of battles, defeats and victories, the Danish king
Svein became king of England in 1014. The Danish rule lasted until 1042. Their language
naturally had some influence on the English tongue. This influence can be seen mainly with
the English vocabulary, for example word-borrowings. In Old English, the sound sk, which it
had inherited from its Germanic ancestors, had soon been changed to sh. The under the Danish
rule introduced Scandinavian words, however, retained their sk sound until today, helping us to
identify the Scandinavian word-borrowings in English.
This development also produced a range of word pairs - newly introduced Scandinavian
words then stood side by side with the already existing altered sh-version, such as skiff-ship;
skirt-shirt. The words of these word pairs are thus closely related on a semantic level, but serve
to
designate
different
aspects
or
understanding
of
the
items.
Word replacements also occurred. Several of the new foreign words replaced OE ones, as with
take-niman; cast-weorpan; cut-ceorfan. In 1066, the Normans invaded England. Through the
influence of Norman French, the OE period gradually ended.
22
WORKSHEET 2 – ON OLD ENGLISH
Name: ___________________________
Question
E-mail: ______________________
Solution
Points
Name an extinct Celtic
language that was spoken on
the British Isles.
1
Name a Celtic language that
is still spoken on the British
Isles.
1
What happened to the OE
weak verb lufian during its
evolution? Your answer
should contain: a definition
of what a weak verb is, the
modern counterpart of
"lufian", and a one-sentence
explanation of the change
that occurred.
3
a) Old English vocabulary was almost entirely
Celtic of origin.
 True
 False
True or False?
b) A word with a sk- at the beginning is likely to
be of Scandinavian origin.
 True
 False
3
c) Latin never replaced the native languages in
Britain.
 True
 False
Mention two characteristic
features of Old English.
2
23
Learning Notes
UNIT 3
LANGUAGES IN BRITAIN BEFORE ENGLISH
Celtic Languages
are
Still spoken
Welsh
Scots
Gaelic
Extinct
Manx
Irish Gaelic
Cornish
LATIN
-
Spoken for about four centuries.
In 55 BC Julius Caesar invaded Britain.
The final conquest took about 100 years.
What is now England was subjected to Roman rules.
The military conquest of Britain was followed by the Romanization of the province.
The Roman Culture and the Latin language were introduced.
The Celts withstood (resisted) the Romans in the other part of the country.
Latin did not spread further north or west of what are the present day English borders.
Latin did not replace the Celtic language
Latin was used by upper classes: landowners and the bureaucracy.
Latin vocabulary for items not known to the Celts prior to Romanization infiltrated the
language of the lower class Celts.
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. Old English: 7th century – 1100.
2. Middle English: 1100 – 1450/1500.
3. Modern English: 1500 - now
OLD ENGLISH
- Period: 449 – 1100 A.D.
- In 449 Germanic tribes invaded Britain: Angles, Saxons and Jutes. They came from the regions
Northern Europe.
- Roman Empire did not defend the British province because it was under heavy attack at many of
its borders at that time.
- British inhabitants did not have a military force so they could not defend themselves.
- The Anglo-Saxons occupied the Roman Britain and the Celts took refuge in other areas of Britain.
- The names “English” and “England” were taken from the name of the tribe of the Angles.
24
Learning Notes
1. Vocabulary purely Germanic
2. OE is a period of full inflections: endings to the
Characteristics
of
Old English
noun
pronoun
adjective
verbs
3. These languages are called synthetic languages since the grammar
of such languages depends on the synthesis of words and endings.
4. Nouns: masculine and feminine, singular and plural.
regular: weak: change: addition of a syllable:
walk, walked.
5. Verbs
irregular: strong: change: modification of the root vowel:
sing, sang, sung
Scandinavian influence on Old English
-
From 787 on, the Danes raided the English coasts and the hinterland quite frequently.
In 850 they started large-scale invasions.
In 1014 the Danish king Svein became king of England.
Danish rule lasted until 1042.
- Influence of the Danish
language
- In English vocabulary: Word-borrowings. The sound sk
inherited from its Germanic ancestors was changed to sh
- Scandinavian words retained their sk. Example: skirt
- This development produced a range of word pairs – newly
introduced Scandinavian words stood side by side with
the already existing altered sh-version. Examples:
skiff-ship; skit-shirt.
- Word replacement also occurred: New foreign words
replaced OE ones. Examples: take instead of niman;
cast instead of weorpan; cut instead of ceorfan.
- In 1066 the Normans invaded England and through the influence of Norman French, the
OE period gradually ended.
25
Learning Notes
UNIT 3
INDO-EUROPEAN
Western branch
Eastern branch
Latin: centum
Sanskrit: satem
Germanic
West
AngloFrisian
English
East
Modern
German
Frisian
Celtic
North
Scandinavian
tongues
Latin
Still
spoken
Extinct
Welsh
Scots Gaelic
Manx
Irish Gaelic
Cornish
Balto-Slavic
IndoIranian
UNIT 4
THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH II: MIDDLE ENGLISH
4.1. THE CHANGE FROM OLD ENGLISH TO MIDDLE ENGLISH
The Middle English (ME) period lasted from about 1100-1500. Major historical
events influenced the language change. In 1066, the Duke of Normandy, the famous
William, henceforth called "the Conqueror", sailed across the British Channel. He
challenged King Harold of England in the struggle for the English throne. After winning the
battle of Hastings where he defeated Harold, William was crowned King of England. A
Norman Kingdom was now established. The Anglo-Saxon period was over.
The Norman invasion naturally had a profound effect on England’s institutions and
its language. The Norman French spoken by the invaders became the language of England's
ruling class. The lower classes, while remaining English-speaking, were influenced
nevertheless by the new vocabulary. French became the language of the affairs of
government, court, the church, the army, and education where the newly adopted French
words often substituted their former English counterparts.
The linguistic influence of Norman French
continued for as long as the Kings ruled both
Normandy and England. When King John lost
Normandy in the years following 1200, the links to
the French-speaking community subsided. English
then slowly started to gain more weight as a
common tongue within England again.
A hundred years later, English was again
spoken by representatives of all social classes, this
new version of the English language being
strikingly different, of course, from the Old English
used prior to the Norman invasion. The English
spoken at this turn of events is called Middle
English. About ten thousand French words had
been taken over by English during the Middle
English period, and most of them have remained in
the language until the present day.
Aside from the already mentioned new vocabulary pertaining to the affairs of
government, court, the church, the army, and education, many words relating to food and
fashion were introduced as well. In some fields an original English terminology did not
exist. Therefore, many French terms were borrowed. One example is the names of animals
and their meat. Whereas the names of the animals remained the same, their meat was
renamed according to the Norman custom. This correlated to the sociological structures: the
farmers that raised the animals were predominantly English natives and could afford to keep
using their own vocabulary while farming - those serving the meat at the dining room table
to the mainly French upper classes had to conform to the French language.
ANIMAL
sheep
cow
swine
MEAT
mutton
beef
pork
27
The English language also has doublets - these are pairs of words that have the same
etymology, i.e. the same source, but that differ in meaning because they had been introduced
into the English language by two separate languages. The Latin and French influence, for
instance, made for many of such word pairs. Latin vocabulary adopted by the Celts directly
became a part of English. The same vocabulary was sometimes adopted by the Gauls and
introduced to English via Norman French .
DOUBLETS
Adj.
urban
urbaine
Noun
Curtsy
courtesy
MEANING
(area) having qualities of a large settlement
(person) having a certain sense for culture
female gesture of respect (bending the knees)
politeness
As far as grammar is concerned, a reduction of inflections began. The grammatical
gender disappeared and inflections merged. As the inflections of the Old English
disappeared, the word order of Middle English became increasingly fixed. This change
made for a great loss of strong verbs.
At a time when English was the language mainly of the lower classes and largely
removed from educational or literary domains and influence, it was natural that many
speakers applied the pattern of inflecting weak verbs to verbs which were historically strong.
This linguistic principle of adopting the pattern of a less common form to a more familiar
one is called analogy. The exclusive use of the pattern SVO (subject – verb – object; see the
chapter on universals) emerged in the twelfth century and has remained part of English ever
since.
Middle English dialects
28
4.2. MODERN ENGLISH
The Modern English (ModE) period began in 1500 and lasts until the present day.
The complex inflectional system of Old English had been simplified during the ME period.
Modern English is therefore called the period of lost inflections.
An important phonological change of English vowels took place between 1450 and
1650, when all long vowels changed their quality to a great extent. This development is
called the Great English Vowel Shift. For information on phonology, see unit 7.
Each long vowel came to be pronounced with a greater elevation of the tongue and
closing of the mouth. Those vowels that could be raised were raised and those that could not
be raised became diphthongs. Diphthongs are sounds where two vowels are pronounced
after another so closely that they become one acoustic phenomenon, like in German "Eule"
or "Auto". "Raising" here refers to the position of the tongue in the mouth. This movement
is commonly illustrated with the help of the following graphic, which shows where the
vowels are produced in the mouth. The top left corner, for example, corresponds to the upper
front space in the mouth, where the tongue moves when you pronounce the
Some examples can be drawn from the pronunciation of words at the time of
Geoffrey Chaucer, one of the most famous authors of ME, and William Shakespeare, whose
use of English was already modern.
Short vowels were not affected by the Great English Vowel Shift. Thus, ME sak
remained ModE sack
, ME fish remained ModE fish
.
This phonological change did not, however, express itself in any alterations of
writing conventions. This fact is confusing for many learners of English. The spelling
conventions of English vowels had essentially been established by the time of William
Caxton, who founded his printing press in 1476. This was some time before the
phonological change had progressed very far. Caxton's spelling reflects the pronunciation of
the Middle English period and thus does not do justice to Modern English pronunciation.
29
WORKSHEET 3 – ON
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Name: ___________________________
E-mail: ______________________
Question
Solution
In which areas of social or
political life was the
influence of Norman French
established after 1066?
Points
5
What is a doublet?
2
What happened to the
English system of vowels
during the Great English
Vowel Shift?
3
Learning Notes
UNIT 4
THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH II: MIDDLE ENGLISH
4.1. THE CHANGE FROM OLD ENGLISH TO MIDDLE ENGLISH
- The Middle English (ME) period lasted from about 1100 – 1500.
- In 1066 the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, defeated King Harold of England
and was crowned King of England.
- A Norman Kingdom was established and the Anglo-Saxon period was over.
- The Norman French was the language of England’s ruling class, the language of affairs of
government, court, the church, the army, and education.
- English was spoken by the lower classes, but influenced by the new French vocabulary.
- The linguistic influence of Norman French continued for as long as the Kings ruled both
Normandy (in France) and England.
- After 1200 the King John lost Normandy but the links to the French-speaking community
remained.
- English started to gain more weight as a common tongue within England again.
- One hundred years later, English was again spoken by representative of all social classes.
- This new version of English was different from the Old English used before Norman
invasion.
30
- This is called Middle English
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Vocabulary
Grammar
French words
Doublets
- 10,000 French words
had been taken over
by English
- Most of them have
Pairs of words that have
the same etymology (the
same source) but differ in
meaning because they
had been introduced into
the English language by
two separate languages
remained until present
Vocabulary
of affairs of:
- government
- court
- the church
- the army
- education
Words for food:
- For animals:
English, because
farmers raised
the animals)
- For food: French,
because they had to
serve the meat at
the dining room
table of the French
upper classes.
Words for fashion
were French
Latin
vocabulary
adopted
by the
Celts
French
introduced
to English
via
Norman
French
urban
curtsy
urbaine
courtesy
Reduction of
inflections
- Gender disappeared
- Inflections merged
- Word order became
increasingly fixed
- Use of the pattern
SVO emerged in the
12th century
- Great loss of strong
(irregular) verbs because lower class
people applied the inflection of weak
(regular) verbs to
strong verbs
MODERN ENGLISH
- The Modern English period began in 1500 and lasts until the present day.
MODERN ENGLISH
Grammar
Period of lost
inflections
Phonology
- Great English Vowel Shift
- Long vowels were pronounced with
a greater elevation of the tongue
- Some vowels became diphthongs
QUESTIONS
e.g. five /fIf/ became /faIv/
Spelling
- Phonological changes
did not alter writing
conventions
- Spelling conventions of
English vowels were
established
31
PROJECT 1
Do a piece of research about this topic:
ENGLISH WORDS.
MIDDLE ENGLISH WORDS AND MODERN
Find 20 words beginning with ...... (A to Z) that originated in the Middle English period and 20
words that originated in the Modern English period.
The paper should have:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Introduction
Content (body)
Conclusion
Bibliography (references)
Check the bibliography page of this course to see the way of presenting it. You should write the
reference in every part, that is, where you found the information you are presenting.
The paper should have maximum three pages. It must be typed 1½ space, Times Roman 12.
Margins: Top: 1.5, Down: 1.6; Left: 3.1; Right: 2.1.
Date to submit the paper:
32
UNIT 5
COMMUNICATION
There is more to communication than just one person speaking and another one
listening. Human communication processes are quite complex. We differentiate verbal and
nonverbal, oral and written, formal and informal, and intentional and unintentional
communication. In addition, there is human-animal communication and human-computer
communication. A famous statement says that we are not able to not communicate. In this
chapter, we will concentrate on verbal communication between humans in either spoken or
written form.
Verbal communication involves the use of linguistic symbols that mean something to
those who take part in the process. These symbols are spoken words in oral communication
and their realization as alphabetical units in written communication.
Oral communication refers to messages that are transmitted "out loud" from one
person to another. We all participate in this process every day, for example, as speakers or
listeners when talking, watching TV, or answering the phone. The most prominent feature
of oral communication is that it is not permanent unless it is recorded.
Written communication is primarily verbal but involves also other elements due to
the variations in writing. In contrast to oral communication, it is not transitory, but
permanent. Thus, written messages enable us to keep exact records of language and
communication. Living in a purely oral culture would limit our capacity of cultural
development enormously.
The communication process involves certain elements. Let us have a look at these
elements by examining some communication models.
5.1. SAUSSURE’S MODEL OF THE SPEECH CIRCUIT
On the one hand, communication is linear in that two persons, A and B, communicate
in a way that a message is conveyed from one to the other: A B. On the other hand, the
participants in the communication process are both simultaneously active. Person B does
not only listen, she or he may answer or at least show some reaction.
On the basis of this understanding, Saussure devised a circular communication
model, i.e. the model of the speech circuit. It shows the mechanisms of a dialogue:
Acoustic signals are sent from a speaker A to a receiver B, who then, in turn, becomes the
sender, sending information to A, who becomes the receiver. Saussure outlined two
processes within this framework. The first one is phonation. Here the sender formulates
mental signs in the mind and then gives acoustic shape to them. The second one, audition, is
the opposite process of the receiver transforming the acoustic message into mental signs.
33
Part of the Saussurean model of the speech circuit consists of his model of the
linguistic sign. You now know its most important feature, namely the division into acoustic
shape, or acoustic image, and the idea related to the image, the mental concept. Concept and
acoustic image are transported in communication.
5.2. SHANNON’S AND MOLES’ COMMUNICATION MODELS
In 1949, the American engineer Shannon developed a model which explains what
basically happens in communication: The input, or intended message, is sent by a sender via
a channel. The message received becomes the output. Input and output may differ
substantially as a channel is usually exposed to circumstances that may alter its intended
quality of transmission. For instance, the channel of a telephone communication line is
usually impaired with noise, which in turn affects the outcome, i.e. output, of the message.
Moles appended Shannon's model in 1963, adding a crucial element, the code. The
sender and receiver have to have at least a fundamental set of codes in common, in order for
them to communicate successfully. For example, two speakers from different countries who
do not speak each other's language can only rely on internationally known words, thus
making the sought for communication hardly possible. But even speakers of the same
language often have problems of the same sort if their 'personal codes' differ greatly.
5.2.1. Elements of the communication process
Here are the various components of the communication process in detail.

Input. The sender has an intention to communicate with another person. This intention
makes up the content of the message.

Sender. The sender encodes the message, e.g. the idea of "piece of furniture to sit on" =
/tʃeə/. Thus he gives expression to the content.
34

Channel. The message is sent via a channel, which can be made of a variety of materials.
In acoustic communication it consists of air, in written communication of paper or other
writing materials.

Noise. The channel is subjected to various sources of noise. One example is telephone
communication, where numerous secondary sounds are audible. Even a solid channel
such as paper can be crushed or stained. Such phenomena are also noise in the
communicative sense.

Receiver. The receiver decodes the incoming message, or expression. He "translates" it
and thus receives the

Output. This is the content decoded by the receiver.

Code. In the process, the relevance of a code becomes obvious: The codes of the sender
and receiver must have at least a certain set in common in order to make communication
work.
5.3. BÜHLER’S ORGANON MODEL
Plato was the first to discuss an instrumentalist definition of language. According to
this definition, language primarily serves the purpose of communication. It is a linguistic
tool. From this instrumental approach, Karl Bühler devised a model which described the
communicative functions. In his words, language is an "organum for one person's
communicating with another about things." Organum is Greek for tool. The three main
functions of language Bühler distinguishes in his model are representation, expression, and
appeal. Which function applies to which communicative action depends on which relations
of the linguistic sign are predominant in a communicative situation.
BÜHLER’S ORGANON MODEL
How does this model work?
Bühler's model describes the communication between a sender and a receiver by
including a third party, the objects or states of affairs. A communicative function is then
attributed to each act of communication, depending on which of the three parties involved
was focused on most heavily.
35
When the focus is on the sender, we speak of the expressive function of
communication. When the focus is on the objects, the function is representative. The third
function refers to communication where the focus is on the receiver. This function is called
appeal. The circle symbolizes the phenomenon of the sound, that is the actual word spoken.
The triangle symbolizes the linguistic sign and shares common space with the circle in some
areas, while extending beyond it in other areas. This overlapping portrays the two key
features of the relationship between the sign and its physical realization.
Abstractive relevance. Where the circle overlaps the triangle, the phenomenon sound
contains more acoustic information than the sign does. We are, however, capable of filtering
out the relevant information without being hindered by all the additional stuff, e.g. the "ahs"
and "ehms" of casual conversation.
Apperceptive enlargement. The triangle also covers space beyond the circle. This
means that part of the message may be lost, due to either misspellings or omissions on the
part of the sender, or because the channel is subjected to noise. In this case, we are still able
to fill in the gaps to create a meaningful message. Somehow we gather what got lost. This is
what we call apperceptive enlargement.
S
apperceptive enlargement
abstractive
relevance
5.4. JAKOBSON’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS
Jakobson extended Bühler's system of communicative functions. His model reminds
us of those lined out at the beginning of this chapter containing all the components of Moles',
except for one, namely context. Jakobson stated that a common code is not sufficient for the
communicative process. A context is necessary from which the object of communication is
drawn.
This context resembles Bühler's object correlate. Jakobson allocates a
communicative function to each of the components.
 The emotive function focuses on the addresser and resembles Bühler's expressive
function. The addresser's own attitude towards the content of the message is emphazised.
Examples are emphatic speech or interjections.
 The conative function is allocated to the addressee. Bühler called it the appelative
function, so it is possible to find both terms in the literature. It is directed towards the
addressee. One example is the vocative.
 The referential function refers to the context. Here we, again, have the function
emphasizing that communication is always dealing with something contextual, what
Bühler called representative.
 The phatic function helps to establish contact and refers to the channel of
communication. Some of these utterances only serve to maintain contact between two
speakers.
36
 The metalinguistic function deals with the code itself. This is the function of language
about language. This whole reader is an example of metalanguage. We use it to
examine the code. The metalinguistic function is also predominant in questions like
"Sorry, what did you say?" where the code is misunderstood and needs correction or
clarification.
 The poetic function is allocated to the message. Messages convey more than just the
content. They always contain a creative 'touch' of our own. These additions have no
purpose other than to make the message "nicer". Rhetorical figures, pitch or loudness
are some aspects of the poetic function. Naturally, several functions may be active
simultaneously in utterances. To find out which function predominates requires
analysis.
Referential
Context
Emotive
Addresser
Message
Poetic
Addressee
Conative
Code
Metalinguistic
Contact
Phatic
37
WORKSHEET 4 –
COMMUNICATION
Name: ___________________________
Question
E-mail: ______________________
Solution
Explain what "noise" means
in the context of
communication models.
Points
2
abstractive relevance:
Give examples for the
phenomena of apperceptive
enlargement and abstractive
relevance.
2
apperceptive enlargement:
Why is Bühler's
communication model called
the organon model?
3
a) Communication is only possible if the
involved persons speak the same language.
 True
 False
True or False?
b) A person who neither talks nor moves does not
communicate.
 True
 False
Mention Jakobson’s
communicative functions.
2
1
38
Learning Notes
UNIT 5
COMMUNICATION
Verbal
Non-verbal
Oral
Written
Formal
Informal
Intentional
Non-intentional
Human-animal
Human-computer
Verbal communication
involves
use of linguistic symbols
which are
spoken words
alphabetical units
oral communication
writen communication
- Messages transmitted “out loud” from
one person to another
- It is not permanent unless it is recorded
- It is not transitory, but permanent
- It enables us to keep exact records
of language communication
SAUSSURE’S MODEL OF THE SPEECH CIRCUIT
- Communication is linear: The message is transmitted from person A to person B and
person B does not only listen, but he/she may answer or at least show some reaction.
- Acoustic signals are sent from a speaker A to a receiver B, who then, in turn, becomes the
sender, sending information to A, who becomes the receiver.
- The sender formulates mental signs in the mind and then gives acoustic shape to them.
This is phonation. Then the receiver transforms the acoustic message into mental signs.
This is audition.
Phonation:
Audition:
Sender: Mental sign: 
and then gives acoustic
shape or acoustic image:
telephone
Receiver: transforms the
acoustic message: telephone
into mental sign (concept):

See the diagram of the copies
39
Learning Notes
SHANON’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
- Study from the copies. It is quite clear. Study the diagram.
The input is the information source or intended message.
The sender is the transmitter, where communication originates.
The channel is the medium through which the message is carried: speech, memo, mail.
The receiver is the person who receives the message, the recipient of the message.
The output is the destination or the message received.
MOLES’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
- Study from the copies. It is quite clear. Study the diagram.
The sender and the receiver have to share the same code, that is, the system of signals which
can be used to send a message. A natural language is an example of a code. So, if people
want to communicate they should speak the same language. If not, they can only rely on
international known words, such as, taxi, telephone, TV, thus making communication almost
impossible. And even speakers of the same language may have problems when they have
different ‘personal codes’. For example, in Spanish, when somebody coming from a poor
area says “caleta”, the educated receiver won’t understand that it means “house.” Also,
some regions and countries have different codes for certain words. For example: durazno
(in Ecuador) and melocotón (in Spain); trousers (in England) and pants (in the United
States).
Elements of the communication process:
- Study all the elements from the handout. They are very clear.
BÜHLER’S ORGANON MODEL
- Karl Bühler devised a model which described the communicative functions: representation, expression and appeal.
- Communication elements: sender, receiver and objects and states of affairs.
- When the focus is on the sender, we speak of the expressive function of communication.
- When the focus is on the object, the function is representative.
- When the focus is on the receiver, the function is appeal.
- The circle symbolizes the phenomenon of the sound, that is the actual word spoken.
- The triangle symbolizes the linguistic sign (words) and shares common space with the circle in
some areas, while extending beyond it in other areas.
- Abstractive relevance: Where the circle (sound) overlaps the triangle (words), the phenolmenon sound contains more acoustic information than the sign does. However, we are
capable of filtering out (catching) the relevant information without being hindered by
additional stuff, e.g. the “ahs”, and “ehms” of casual conversation.
S
apperceptive enlargement
abstractive
relevance
40
Learning Notes
- Apperceptive enlargement: study from the copies. It is clear.
JAKOBSON’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS
- His model contains all the components of Moles’ plus context.
- A common code is not sufficient for the communication process. A context is necessary.
The context resembles Bühler’s object correlate.
- A message is sent by the addresser to an addressee. For this to occur, the addresser and
addressee must use a common code, a physical channel, or contact, and the same frame of
reference, or context. (An addresser, using a code, produces a message for the addressee, thanks
to a contact, in a context).
CONTEXT
MESSAGE
ADDRESSER
------
ADDRESSEE
CONTACT
CODE
Functions: Study them from the copies.
CONTEXT
(Referential)
Cognitive use of the language
ADDRESSER
(Emotive)
MESSAGE
(Poetic
ADDRESSEE
(Conative)
Reflects the speaker’s attitude
to the topic of his discourse
(Decorative / aesthetic)
Centered on the second
person
CONTACT
(Phatic)
Channel/Contact between
speaker and addressee
CODE
(Metalinguistic)
Focuses on the verbal code
41
UNIT 6
PHONETICS
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the material aspects of speech sounds.
What is meant by "material aspect"? And what other features exist which characterize
sounds? Well, material aspects of sounds are those aspects that make for the physical
production, transportation and comprehension of the sound. Another aspect of a sound is its
function within a language. The function of sounds is, however, examined by another
linguistic discipline, namely phonology.
Please take note of the fact though that this represents the European (including the
English) categorization of these linguistic disciplines and that Americans follow a different
convention. Americans use the term "phonology" to refer to our understanding of both
phonetics and phonology. They refer to what we call 'phonetics' also as 'phonetics', but refer
to what Europeans call 'phonology' as 'phonemics'. So if you ever come across the American
terminology, do not be confused. In any way, in this textbook we will stick to the European
terms.
The modern alphabet does not suffice to transcribe all sounds on a one-to-one basis.
There are many instances though, when we need an internationally comprehensible code for
the detailed transcription of sounds, such as in linguistic research, as well as in foreign
language teaching. A special alphabet devised by the International Phonetic Association
(IPA) is then used. Phonetic characters refer to the actual utterance of a sound. In phonetic
writing, the symbols for these sounds are put within brackets, such as: [ ].
6.1. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF A SOUND
Back to phonetics. We stated above that there are three different physical aspects of
a sound. These are the articulatory aspect of the speaker, the acoustic aspect of the channel,
and the auditory aspect of the hearer.

Articulatory phonetics researches where and how sounds are originated and thus carries
out physiological studies of the respiratory tract, trying to locate precisely at which
location and in which manner a sound is produced.

Acoustic phonetics examines the length, frequency and pitch of sounds. Special
instruments are required to measure and analyze the sounds while they travel via the
channel.

Auditory phonetics studies what happens inside the ear and brain when sounds are
finally received. It also interested in our ability to identify and differentiate sounds.
6.2. ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
In this textbook, we will concentrate on articulatory phonetics, which also happens to
be what modern linguistics has traditionally focused on. Our notion of the typical, classical
linguist, zealously studying speech sounds, such as the famous Dr. Higgins from George
Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, is derived from this stage in the discipline.
Any speech sound is caused by a stream of air that, originating in our vocal
apparatus, escapes our mouth or nose. The various sounds all differ according to the
voicing, location and manner of their production. A minor change of any of these three
factors may alter a sound significantly. For example, if a stream of air leaves the vocal tract
unhindered, the result is a vowel. If the stream of air is obstructed in any way the result is a
consonant. Although the procedure is very complex, it is possible to determine the exact
voicing, location and manner of articulation of all sounds of a language.
42
6.2.1. Voicing
Try to utter two long consonants, first [z], then [s], continually:
"zzzzzzzzsssssssssszzzzzzz". Hold your fingertip to your larynx (Adam's apple) and try to
notice what happens. You will feel a vibration. This is caused by a stream of air that is
being pressed through a narrow aperture, called glottis, between the vocal cords. It is the
pressure of the air on the walls of the glottis that causes the vibration of the cords. We are
able to produce two different sets of sounds, which are otherwise identical: voiced and
voiceless sounds, by this small change of the glottis. There are many consonants which are
differentiated in this way, like [f]-[v], [t]-[d], or [g]-[k].
6.2.2. Manner of articulation
6.2.2.1 Plosives and continuants
Another fundamental distinction of consonants is made between so-called plosives
and continuants. Plosives are consonants that are brought about by an explosive release of
air from the mouth, e.g. [ ]. They are also called stops, or oral stops. If the air is released
through the nose, we call the resulting consonant is a nasal plosive, as in [ ] or [ ], which is
also called nasal stop since the mouth is kept closed for the most part.
If the air continues to be released after the articulation of the consonant, the sound is
a continuant. If we let out air continuously through a space behind the upper teeth, the socalled alveolar ridge, we produce a type of continuant sound called fricative, e.g., [ ].
Affricates are produced by a plosive and a fricative continuant following immediately
thereafter, as in [ ], e.g., in the word "chair". Fricatives and affricates with a hissing sound,
as [ ] in "zip", or [( ] in "measure" are also called sibilants. Oral stops, i.e. nonnasal
plosives, and fricative and affricative continuants all have in common that the air is notlet
out through the nose; consonants produced in this way are called obstruents. If air is
released also through the nose, these consonants are called sonorants. The sounds [ ] and [ ]
are called liquids.
6.2.2.2. Aspiration
A further manner of articulating a sound is by either aspirating or not aspirating the
sound. Try to pronounce these: [ ]-[
]. You will notice that while saying the word
'pit', a stream of air evades your mouth, whereas when saying 'spit', your glottis starts to
vibrate immediately after the pronunciation of [ ]. Hence, we may call the [ ] aspirated
when saying 'pit', while it is unaspirated when saying 'spit'. This distinction results from the
glottis remaining open after certain occasions of a sound, namely in the case of aspirated
ones.
6.2.3. Place of articulation
Consonants are distinguished also according to the location of their production, that
is, after the various organs of the vocal tract.
 Labials are consonants that are articulated by use of the lips. Some of these are created
by bringing the lips together, like [ ]. These are called bilabials. Other consonants are
brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth. These are called
labiodentals, e.g. [ ].
 Alveolars. These are articulated by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, like
[ ].
 Velars. If you raise the back of your tongue to the soft velum, velars are produced. An
example is [ ].
43
 Interdentals are the sounds at the beginning of "thin" and "then", in IPA: [ ] and [ ]. In
order to articulate these, you have to press the tongue between the teeth. Again you can
see that the difference is voicing.
 Palatals (or Alveopalatals) as in the middle of the word "measure" are produced by the
contact of the front part of the tongue with the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge.
With the help of this detailed information we can now refer to every consonant by its
location and manner of articulation; [ ], for example, is a voiceless, labiodental fricative.
CHART OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES
Place of articulation
Bilabial
Manner
Labiodental
Dental
Alveolar
 ð
t d
sz
of
articulation
Plosive
Fricative
fv
Affricate
Nasal
Lateral
Approximant
6.3.
p b
Palatoalveolar
(Postalveolar)
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
k g
h
ʃʒ
tʃ dʒ
m
w
n
l
ŋ
r
j
Articulatory phonetics – vowels
In contrast to consonants, where voice, manner and place of articulation serve as
descriptive categories, vowels are differentiated by their position of the tongue and the lips.
These categories are indicative of the different ways in which the two sounds are produced while consonants are produced with the help of many organs, vowels depend only on the
position of the tongue and the lips. The positioning the tongue and the lips allow for a great
amount of variation, enabling us to voice many more vowels than the familiar five vowels a,
e, i, o, u. English has more than a dozen different vowels. Also, in English we find several
diphthongs.
Vowels can be produced by raising the tongue high, keeping it in the middle, or low
in the mouth; also, the tongue can be moved to the front, center or back. The lips can be
rounded or nonrounded. If you try to articulate while moving your lips and your tongue
around, you will notice how manifold the resulting vowel-like sounds are. A general chart of
the vowels of English looks as follows:
44
This chart is a rough sketch of the mouth. It is similar to a coordinate system, with
the positions high, middle, and low representing one axis, and the positions front, central,
and back the other axis. The only position not used in English for the pronunciation of
vowels is the high central point.
SHORT AND LONG VOWELS
FRONT
Close i

CENTRAL
BACK
u
i:
u:
υ
I
Close-mid
e
o
ɔ:
e
ɜ:
ɛ
Open-mid
ɔ
ʌ
æ
ɑ:
ɒ
ɑ
Open a
6.3.1. English short vowels
English has a large number of vowel sounds; the first ones to be examined are short
vowels. The symbols for these short vowels are:
ɪ
kit, bid, hymn, minute
e
dress, bed, head, many
æ
trap, bad
ɒ
lot, odd, wash
ʌ
strut, mud, love, blood
ʊ foot, good, put
45
6.3.2. Long vowels
Long vowels are the vowels which tend to be longer than the short vowels in similar
contexts. It is necessary to say “in similar contexts” because the length of all English vowel
sounds varies very much according to the context (such as the type of sound that follows
them) and the presence or absence of stress. To remind you that these vowels tend to be
long, the symbols consists of one vowel symbol plus a length-mark made of two dots : .
iː
fleece, sea, machine
ɜː
nurse, stir, learn, refer
ɑː start, father
ɔː
thought, law, north, war
uː goose, two, blue, group
6.3.3. Diphthongs
Diphthongs are sounds which consists of a movement or glide from one vowel to
another. A vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel, and one
of the most common pronunciation mistakes that result in a learner of English having a
“foreign” accent is the production of pure vowels where a diphthong should be pronounced.
In terms of length, diphthongs are like the long vowels described above. Perhaps the
most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much
longer and stronger than the second part.
The total number of diphthongs is eight. The easiest way to remember them is in
terms of three groups divided as in this diagram:
centring
ɪə
closing
closing
eɪ face, day, break
əʊ goat, show, now
eə square, fair, various
aɪ price, high, try
aʊ mouth, now, how
ʊə poor, jury, cure
ɔɪ choice, boy
near, here, weary
46
In American English they add the sound /r/ to these words:
/nɪər/ near
/skwɛər/ square
/pʊər/ poor
/hɪər/ here
/fɛər/ fair
/ˈdʒʊəri/ jury
/ˈwɪəri/ weary
/ˈvɛəriəs/ various
/kyʊər/ cure
6.3.4. Triphthongs
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced
rapidly and without interruption.
eɪ + ə = eɪə layer, player
aɪ + ə = aɪə liar, fire
ɔɪ + ə = ɔɪə loyal, royal
əʊ + ə = əʊə lower, mower
aʊ + ə = aʊə power, hour
In American English they add the sound /r/ to these words:
/ˈleɪər/ layer
/ˈpleɪər/ player
/ˈlaɪər/ liar
/faɪər/ fire
American and British Vowel Sounds in Phonemic Script
EXERCISES
1. Give the correct technical terms for the sounds made in the following ways:
a.
Both lips coming together.
b.
The bottom lip and top teeth coming together.
c.
The tongue touching the upper teeth ridge
d.
The tongue touching the hard palate.
e.
The tongue touching the soft palate.
47
2. Give the correct technical term for the sounds resulting from the following closures:
a.
Complete closure followed by slow release of air.
b.
Complete closure of the oral cavity with the air diverted through the nose.
c.
Partial closure where the air stream is blocked by the tip of the tongue but allowed to
escape round the sides of the tongue.
d.
Incomplete closure.
e.
Complete closure followed by a sudden release of air.
3. Give the symbol for each of the following sounds and give an example of its use in an
English word:
a.
Voiced bilabial plosive
f.
High back rounded vowel
b.
Bilabial nasal
g.
Voiced alveolar fricative
c.
Voiceless labiodentals fricative
h.
Voiced frictionless continuant
d.
Alveolar lateral
i.
Voiceless velar plosive
e.
High front unrounded vowel
j.
Voiced dental fricative
4. Each of the following sets contains an inappropriate member. Pick it out and say why it
is inappropriate.
a.
m, n, ŋ, b
b.
b, p, n, t
c.
b, m, p, s
d.
l, f, v, s, z
e.
l, o, e, ɛ
f.
i, o, ɛ, e
g.
t, d, l, n, p
h.
t, d, p, f, s
i.
b, d, z, r, s
j.
t, k, ŋ, g
5. Describe the similarities and differences in the sounds represented by the underlined
elements in the following sets. (Remember you are dealing with sounds and not letters.)
a.
leaf
leaves
f.
notion
nodding
b.
assure
azure
g.
rough
rub
c.
sad
sat
h.
feel
fall
d.
seat
set
i.
vine
wine
e.
jut
shut
j.
sing
sin
48
6. Look at the phonetic transcription and write the words next to them.
a. /’brekfəst/
_________________
g. /’nju:zpeɪpə/ ___________________
b. /kəm’pju:tə/ _________________
h. /trəˈdɪʃn/ _______________________
c. /’nɒlɪdʒ/
_________________
i. /ˈdʒɜ:nəlɪst/ ____________________
d. /’hʌŋgri/
_________________
j. /’wepənz/ ______________________
e. /ɜ:ɵ/
________________
k. /’stætʃu:/ ______________________
f. /ˌmju:zɪkl ˈɪnstrəmənt/ ______________________________________
7. Read the poem and transcribe the words in phonetic script to complete the lines.
I wonder
a
I wonder why / ðə gra:s ɪz gri:n /,
b
And why / ðə wɪnd ɪz nevə si:n /.
c
Who taught / ðə bɜ:dz tə bɪld ə nest /,
d
And told / ðə tri:z tə teɪk ə rest /?
e
And when / ðə mu:n ɪz nɒt kwaɪt rɑʊnd /,
f
Where can / ðə mɪsɪŋ bɪt bi fɑʊnd /?
g
Who / laɪts ðə stɑ:z /, when they blow out,
h
And / meɪks ðə laɪtnɪŋ / flash about?
i
Who paints / ðə reɪnbəʊ ɪn ðə skaɪ /,
j
And hangs / ðə flʌfi klɑʊdz səʊ haɪ /?
Why is it now, do you suppose,
That Dad won’t tell me if he knows?
8. Write these words in phonetic symbols.
a. word
________________
d. woman ______________
g. half _________
b. weather ________________
e. women ______________
h. island _______
c. sugar
f. uncle
i. work _______
________________
______________
9. Cross out the word which does not contain the vowel sound on the left.
a. /ɪ/
build
field
fill
women
b. /e/
leather
friend
break
bread
c. /ʌ/
front
rough
won’t
country
d. /ɒ/
clock
wonder
want
wash
e. /æ/
angry
hungry
fax
salmon
f. /i:/
cheese
breath
meal
breathe
g. /u:/
spoon
wooden
zoo
souvenir
h. /ɔ:/
warm
walk
store
work
i. /ɜ:/
world
ferry
early
journalist
49
10. Say these words aloud and then transcribe them.
Two syllables:
a. /ˈmænɪdʒə/
b. /ˈbɪznəs/
c. /fəˈget/
d. /əˈplaɪ/
e. /ˈfɒrən/
f. /ˈkɪdnæpt/
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
/kəˈrɪə/
/rɪˈzaɪn/
/rɪˈtaiəd/
/ˈfæktri/
/dɪˈgri:/
/pəˈli:s/
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
f. /dɪˈrektə/ _____________________
g. /ˈju:nɪfɔ:m/ _____________________
h. /ˈmɜ:dərə/ _____________________
i. /rɪˈdʌndənt/ _____________________
j. /ˌmægəˈzi:n/ ____________________
Three syllables:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
/ɪmˈplɔɪə/
/ɪmplɔɪˈi:/
/ˈɪntəvju:/
/mɪljəˈneə/
/ˈpɒlətɪks/
Four syllables:
a. /ˌʌnɪmˈplɔɪmənt/ __________________
b. /ˌɪntəvju:ˈi:/
__________________
c. /ˌpɒləˈtɪʃn/
__________________
d. /ˌæplɪˈkeɪʃn/ _____________________
e. /ˌrezɪgˈneɪʃn/ _____________________
f. /ɪnˈtɜ:prɪtə/ ______________________
Ways of pronouncing –ooThe letters –oo- are pronounced in different ways.
Examples: soon = /u:/
book = /ʊ/
flood = /ʌ/
Say the following sentences to yourself and write all the –oo- words in the correct columns.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Have you read the ‘Good Food Guide’ to Britain?
The best cooks use a wooden spoon to stir the sauce.
Look! There’s a pool of blood on the carpet!
If I won the football pools, I’d be flooded with begging letters.
We foolishly booked a hotel room without a ensuite bathroom.
I took my woolen jumper in case the weather turned cool in the afternoon.
He stood on a stool and climbed onto the roof.
soon = /u:/
book = /ʊ/
flood = /ʌ/
50
Ways of pronouncing –ou–
The letters –ou– are also pronounced in many different ways.
Examples: four = /ɔ:/
group = /u:/
11. The following groups of four words are all spelt with –ou-. Underline the word with the
different pronunciation.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
your
would
accountant
drought
enough
anonymous
trouble
through
court
should
country
ought
cough
mouse
double
group
neighbour
shoulder
count
bought
rough
enormous
doubt
soup
pour
could
fountain
thought
tough
furious
country
thought
12. Write the words from the box next to the correct diphthong. There are two more words
for each diphthong.
where
know
high
clear
sure
enjoy
stay
now
aloud
shy
noise
poor
beer
phone
weigh
bear
a. /ɪ/ + /ə/ = /ɪə/
near ______________
__________________
b. /e/ + /ə/ = /eə/
c. /e/ + /ɪ/ = /eɪ/
hair ______________
pay ______________
__________________
__________________
go ________________
my ______________
boy _______________
how _______________
tour* ______________
_____________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
/ə/ + /ʊ/
/a/ + /ɪ/
/ɔ:/ + /ɪ/
/a/ + /ʊ/
/ʊ/ + /ə/
= /əʊ/
= /aɪ/
= /ɔɪ/
= /aʊ/
= /ʊə/
* Some native speakers do not use the diphthong /ʊə/. They use /ɔ:/ and say /tɔ:/ for tour.
However, this is becoming less frequent.
13. Transcribe the words in the sentences in phonetic script. They are all tiphthongs.
a. We caught the /pleɪn/ __________ to the (saʊθ/ ___________ of /speɪn/ ___________.
b. The /bɔɪ/ ____________ in the red /kəʊt/ _____________ said that he /ɪnˈdʒɔɪd/
___________________ the journey.
c. I’ve /nəʊn/ _____________ Sally for /ˈnɪəlɪ/ __________ /faɪv/ ___________ years.
d. She’s /ˈweərɪŋ/____________ a red /rəʊz/ __________ in her /heə/ ______________
e. Fewer people /sməʊk/ ____________ /paɪps/ ___________ these /deɪz/ __________
f. He /laɪks/ _________ to /raɪd/ _________ a big black /ˈməʊtəbaɪk/ _______________.
51
Learning Notes
UNIT 6
PHONETICS
Phonetics
studies
material aspects of speech sound
Physical production
of the sound
Transportation of the
sound
Comprehension of
the sound
Americans use ‘Phonology’ to refer to Phonetics and Phonology.
And they use ‘Phonemics’ to refer to Phonology.
Phonetic Alphabet
- Devised by the IPA (International Phonetic Association)
- Phonetic characters refer to the actual utterance of a sound
- The symbols of the phonetic alphabets are put within brackets  
Physical aspect of a sound
Articulatory phonetics
- researches where and
how sounds are originated
- carries out physiological
studies of the respiratory
tract: location & manner
Speech sound
Acoustic phonetics
examines:
- length
- frequency
- pitch of sound
a stream of air originated
in our vocal apparatus
Auditory phonetics
- studies what happens
inside the ear and brain
when sounds are received.
- Interested in our ability to
identify and differentiate
sounds
escapes our mouth
and nose
differs
voicing
voiced
voiceless
manner of articulation
plosives
- nasals
- non-nasals
continuants
- fricative
- affricate
place of articulation
- labials: bilabials &
labiodental:
- alveolars
- velars
- interdentals
- palatals
52
Learning Notes
Aspiration: aspirating the sound: pit pit
not aspirating: spit spit
Place of articulation:
Labials
bilabials: pie, buy, my
labiodental: fat, vat
Alveolar: nigh, lie, tie, die, sue, zoo
Velars: cool, back, bag, bang
Interdentals: thigh, thy // /ð /
Palatals: you
Alveopalatals: measure, leisure, she,
Voicing: voiced: /b/ /d/ /g/
/v/ /ð/ /z/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ / l / /m/ /n/ /w/ /r/ /j/ /ŋ /
voiceless: /p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ // /s/ /ʃ/ /h/ / tʃ/
CHART OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES
Place of articulation
Bilabial
Manner
Labiodental
Dental
Alveolar
 ð
t d
sz
of
articulation
Plosive
Fricative
p b
fv
Affricate
Nasal
Lateral
Approximant
Palatoalveolar
(Postalveolar)
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
k g
h
ʃʒ
tʃ dʒ
m
n
l
w
ŋ
r
j
VOWELS
are differentiated by their position of the
lips
tongue
high
middle
low
front
centre
back
rounded
nonrounded
53
EXERCISES
1. Give the correct technical terms for the sounds made in the following ways:
a.
Both lips coming together.
b.
The bottom lip and top teeth coming together.
c.
The tongue touching the upper teeth ridge
d.
The tongue touching the hard palate.
e.
The tongue touching the soft palate.
2. Give the correct technical term for the sounds resulting from the following closures:
a.
Complete closure followed by slow release of air.
b.
Complete closure of the oral cavity with the air diverted through the nose.
c.
Partial closure where the air stream is blocked by the tip of the tongue but allowed to
escape round the sides of the tongue.
d.
Incomplete closure.
e.
Complete closure followed by a sudden release of air.
3. Give the symbol for each of the following sounds and give an example of its use in an
English word:
a.
Voiced bilabial plosive
/
/
______________
b.
Bilabial nasal
/
/
______________
c.
Voiceless labiodentals fricative
/
/
______________
d.
Alveolar lateral
/
/
______________
e.
High front unrounded vowel
/
/
______________
f.
High back rounded vowel
/
/
______________
g.
Voiced alveolar fricative
/
/
______________
h.
Voiced frictionless continuant
/
/
______________
i.
Voiceless velar plosive
/
/
______________
j.
Voiced dental fricative
/
/
______________
4. Each of the following sets contains an inappropriate member. Pick it out and say why it
is inappropriate.
a. a. m, n, ŋ, b
/
/
_______________________________________
b. b, p, n, t
/
/
_______________________________________
c. b, m, p, s
/
/
_______________________________________
d. l, f, v, s, z
/
/
_______________________________________
e. l, o, e, ɛ
/
/
_______________________________________
54
f. i, o, ɛ, e o –
/
/
_______________________________________
g. t, d, l, n, p
/
/
_______________________________________
h. t, d, p, f, s
/
/
_______________________________________
i. b, d, z, r, s
/
/
_______________________________________
j. t, k, ŋ, g
/
/
_______________________________________
6. Describe the similarities and differences in the sounds represented by the underlined
elements in the following sets. (Remember you are dealing with sounds and not letters.)
a. leaf leaves
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
f. notion nodding /
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
/
/
_______________________________________
b. assure azure
c. sad
sat
d. seat
e. jut
set
shut
g. rough
h. feel
rub
fall
i. vine wine
j. sing sin
55
UNIT 7
PHONOLOGY
Phonology deals with the function of sounds within a language. Let us have a close
look at these functions. Every language has a precisely defined set of sounds. This set
consists of the so-called distinctive sounds. The system of the speech sounds and their usage
is defined as duality of patterning: with a given set of components, we may construct an
unlimited number of new arrangements of the components. In other words: Our language
provides us with a limited set of sounds, but we can arrange these to ever new utterances.
7.1. PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES
By calling a sound distinctive, we refer to its capability of changing the meaning of a
word. Naturally, single sounds cannot carry any meaning. "B" or "P", for example, are
meaningless utterances. But when several distinct sounds are assembled to a word, each of
them suddenly contribute to a meaning. And by exchanging individual distinct sounds, we
may change this meaning. We call these sounds phonemes, the smallest distinctive elements
of a language. They are easy to discern.
Compare two words which differ only by one sound, e.g., "pin" and "bin". By
replacing the beginning consonants, the meaning of the word changes. We call such pairs
minimal pairs. The test we just performed to locate the phonemes is called Commutation
Test. The phonemes thereby discerned are then put within dashes, such as /p/, /b/, for
phonological transcription. These are, of course, ideal units of the sound system of a
language. They should not be confused with the sounds of actual utterances examined by
phonetics. Phonetics tries to differentiate among the sounds with the highest possible degree
of accuracy. It does so without regard for the influence a sound may have on the meaning of
an utterance. These phonetic units are put in brackets, as you can see in the chapter on
phonetics.
Not all sounds of a language are necessarily distinctive sounds. Compare the English
and American pronunciations of "dance": [
] versus [
]. Although there are different
sounds in the pair, the meaning does not change. Thus, [ ] and [ ] are not phonemes in this
case. We call this phenomenon free variation. The two sounds can be referred to as
allophones. These sounds are merely variations in pronunciation of the same phoneme and
do not change the meaning of the word. Free variation can be found in various dialects of
the same language. In this case, the different pronunciations of words throughout a country
do not change the meaning of those words.
Another example of sounds which are not phonemes are those which occur in
complementary distribution. This means that where one sound of the pair occurs, the other
does not. An example for complementary distribution are the aspirated and unaspirated
allophones of / /. The initial consonant as in "pill" is aspirated. The consonant after / / in
"sprint" is unaspirated. The respective transcriptions would be [
] and [
], where [ ]
indicates aspiration. Aspirated [ ], as you can see in this example, occurs only at the
beginning of words. [ ] and [ ] are only allophones of the same phoneme /p/.
56
7.2. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
From our studies of phonetics, we know how to describe the features of sounds. The
same techniques apply for the description of phonemes. In the pair "fault" and "vault", for
example, the difference lies in the voicing of the first phonemes: / / versus / /, the first
representing a voiced consonant [+voiced], the second an unvoiced consonant [-voiced].
Voicing is of great importance in the English sound system. Therefore we call it a
distinctive feature. Other distinctive features are [±nasal] (for consonants only) or
[±consonantal], etc.
Every feature has two values, the positive value '+' contrasting the negative value '-'.
7.3. REDUNDANT FEATURES
Some features of sounds may be redundant in a language. This means that these
sounds have a specific feature, but do not constitute minimal pairs. An example for such a
redundant feature is [±nasal] of vowels in English. You have already seen that phonetics
treats consonants as nasal or nonnasal only. Still, vowels can be positive nasal [+nasal] or
negative nasal [-nasal]. This does not make them into phonemes; they are merely allophones
of the same vowel.
In the English language the redundant feature of nasality is found to abide to a
general rule: Vowels that are [+nasal] are always followed by consonant that are also
[+nasal]. Likewise, 'Consonants that are [+nasal] are always preceded by vowels that are
also [+nasal]. For example, the vowel in "band" is [+nasal], while in "bar", it is [-nasal].
Still, nasality is a distinctive feature in English consonants. In languages other than English,
nasality of vowels may well not be a redundant feature. The general rule stated above says
that nasality in English vowels is predictable, because you can tell if a vowel is nasal or not
by looking at the consonant following it.
7.4. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
As well as the sounds that occur in speech, a number of other phenomena are of
interest to the linguist. The most significant of these, pitch, stress, tone, intonation and
timing (tempo), are called suprasegmental features because they accompany speech
sounds and are sometimes a feature of the entire utterance rather than of any individual
sound.
Pitch refers to the normal melodic height of an individual’s speech. In English,
higher than usual pitch for a speaker is usually associated with excitement or strain.
Human speech may be considered as a succession of syllables, some of which are
more strongly stressed than others. Thus, in the word ‘debatable’ it is the second of the four
syllables that receives most emphasis. World languages seem to be divided into two types:
 ‘syllable-timed’ languages like French where syllables are produced at regular
intervals of time and where stresses occur randomly; and
 ‘stress-timed’ languages like English where stresses occur at regular intervals with a
random number of syllables occurring between stresses.
57
In so-called ‘tone languages’, relative pitch can distinguish meanings. In many of the
Bantu languages, for example, the word for ‘house’ differs from the word for ‘thread’ in
terms of pitch difference only. Tone languages make systematic use of high, low, rising and
falling pitch to distinguish meanings. Pitch is not systematically employed in this way in
English although, on occasion, different meanings can be carried by changes of pitch or
stress as in the sentence:
I don’t like him because of his money.
If we use a rising pitch and extra stress on ‘because’, the sentence means that I like
him but my liking is not related to the fact the he has money. If we do not stress ‘because’
the sentence means that I do not like him and his money is responsible for my dislike.
Intonation is associated with pitch in that it involves speech melody over an
utterance. The usual intonation for a statement in English involves a slow fall:
The tempo (timing) or speed of an utterance is usually associated with a speaker’s
frame of mind. Increased speed may suggest excitement; reduced speed may imply
boredom, tiredness or a threat.
7.4. RULES OF PHONOLOGY
The sequences of phonemes are determined by certain laws that are peculiar to that
particular language. The English language, for example, does not allow consonants such as
/ / or / / to be followed by a consonant similar to it. The phoneme sequence */bgliz/, to give
another example, is not permitted in English due to the consonant cluster /bg/ at the
beginning. The following rules have been found to apply to the assembly of phoneme
sequences in the English language.
7.4.1. Assimilation rules
The rule stated above concerning the nasalization of vowels preceding [+nasal]
consonants is an assimilation rule. The vowel segment is assimilated to the consonant
segment by copying the [±nasal] feature of the latter to the former. You can observe this
phenomenon in your own language. There are many instances in which we try to ease
articulation and the easiest way of doing this is to simplify articulation by assimilating
sounds. The assimilation rule also reflects a phenomenon called coarticulation. According
to this principle, features of phonemes spread in anticipation of sounds or perseveration of
articulatory processes.
58
Assimilation: A significance difference in natural connected speech is the way that
sounds belonging to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighbouring
words. Assuming that we know how the phonemes of a particular word would be realized
when the word was pronounced in isolation, when we find a phoneme realized differently as
a result of being near some other phoneme belonging to a neighbouring word we call this an
instance of assimilation.
Example: consonantal sounds at the end of a word are often influenced by the following
consonant. Thus / gυd / becomes / gug / under the influence of the following velar
consonant. Similarly / wɔn / may become /wəm/ before a following / m /. This is known
as assimilation. It does not necessarily always occur, but may do so, and with some speakers
is habitual.
There are two types of assimilation:
Regressive assimilation: If the last consonant of the first word changes to become
like the initial consonant of the second word in some way, the assimilation is called
regressive (the phoneme that comes first is affected by the one that comes after it).
Example:
that person / ðæ t pɜ:sņ /
light blue /laɪt blu: /
becomes / ðæp pɜ:sņ /
/laɪp blu: /
becomes
meat pie /mi:t paɪ / becomes
/mi:p paɪ /
that case /ðæ t keis/ becomes
bright colour /braɪt kʌlə /
quite good /kwaɪt gυd /
/ðæ k keis/
becomes /braɪk kʌlə /
becomes /kwaɪk gυd /
An example at the word level: In English the negative prefix appears as im- before
words such as possible: impossible. As possible starts with a bilabial sound, the prefix imends in a bilabial sound. Before words like tolerant, however, the prefix is in-: intolerant.
As tolerant starts with an alveolar sound, the prefix in- ends in an alveolar sound. As the
following sound brings about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.
Progressive assimilation:
Example:
When the preceding sounds bring about the change.
The English plural is either /z/ or /s/ when it occurs after a non-sibilant sound. The voicing
feature is taken from the final consonant of the base.
books /bυks/
rooms /ru:mz/
The pronunciation of the –ed suffix in English:
stopped /stɒpt/
named /neɪmd/
7.4.2. Feature addition rules
Sometimes, features are added to phonemes when they occur in a specific phonetic
context. We have already looked at aspirated and unaspirated occurences of stops like / /. At
the beginnings of words as in pill, / / is aspirated. The feature of aspiration is hence added
because / / is a sound at the beginning of a word. In other phonetic contexts, the feature of
aspiration is not added.
59
7.4.3. Segment-deletion and addition rules
Phonological rules of a language may result in the addition or deletion of segments
from a phoneme sequence. A good example for this rule is French, where word-final
consonants are deleted when a consonant follows. But they are maintained when the
following word starts with a vowel or a glide:
An example in English: the phoneme / r / cannot occur in syllable-final position in
RP, but when a word’s spelling suggests a final / r /, and a word beginning with a vowel
follows, the usual pronunciation for RP speakers is to pronounce with / r /.
here / hɪǝ /
but
here are / hɪǝr ǝ /
four / fɔ: /
but
four eggs / fɔ:r egz /
7.4.4. Movement (methathesis) rules
In some languages, and in some English dialects, phonemes are rearranged. Consider
the example "ask". In some English dialects, it is pronounced [
]. Historically, "ask"
derived from OE "aksian". A metathesis rule changed it in most English dialects to the form
commonly known today, whereas in others, the old form is pertained.
EXERCISES
1. Supply pairs of English words which can be distinguished by the following sets of
consonants. (For example, a minimal pair for /p/ and /b/ could be ‘pear’ and ‘bear’.
Remember that you are dealing with sounds and not spellings, so ‘post’ and ‘boast’ would
also be a minimal pair).
a. /p/ and /b/
b. /t/ and /d/
c. /k/ and /g/
d. /s/ and /z/
e. /ʃ / and /tʃ /
f. /n/ and /ŋ/
g. /m/ and /p/
h. /n/ and /d/
i. /r/ and /l/
j. /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
60
2. Transcribe the following words phonemically, using RP pronunciation.
a. ghost
f. judging
b. among
g. splendid
c. infiltrate
h. underpinned
d. farmyard
i. thousandths
e. chutney
j. beautiful
3. What English words are represented by the following transcriptions? Where the
phonemic notation could represent more than one word, indicate the alternatives.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
/ʃɔ:t/
/’treʒǝ/
/kju:t/
/ju:/
/mi:t/
f. tʃɜ:tʃ/
g. /tʌŋ/
h. /weðǝ/
i. /dʒæz/
j. /’evrɪθɪŋ/
4. Transcribe the following words in phonemic notation indicating (a) UK and (b) US
pronunciation.
a. bird
b. grass
c. new
d. castle
e. farmyard
f. advertisement
g. fear
h. steward
i. half
j. better
k. advantage
l. towards
m. I can’t
61
62
WORKSHEET 5 –
PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY
Name: ___________________________
Question
E-mail: ______________________
Solution
Points
What does the term "manner
of articulation" refer to?
2
What is the difference
between phonemes and
allophones?
3
What is complementary
distribution? Explain and
give examples.
3
a) Vowels in the English language are not formed
at all possible positions in the mouth.
 True
 False
True or False?
b) All sounds that occur in a sound chain are
phones. Therefore they are also phonemes.
 True
 False
2
http://ipa.typeit.org/
63
7.4.1. STRESS IN SIMPLE WORDS
THE NATURE OF STRESS
Stress has been mentioned several times already in this course without any attempt to
define what the word means. The nature of stress is simple enough – practically everyone
would agree that the first syllable of words like ‘father’, ‘open’, ‘camera’ is stressed, that the
middle syllable is stressed in ‘potato’, ‘apartment’, ‘relation’ and that the final syllable is
stressed in ‘about’, ‘receive’, ‘perhaps’, and most people feel they have some sort of idea of
what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables, though they might explain
in many different ways. We will mark a stressed syllable in transcription by placing a small
vertical line ˈ high up, just before the syllable it relates to; the words quoted above will thus
be transcribed as follows:
ˈfɑ:ðə
ˈəʊpən
ˈkæmrə
pəˈteɪtəʊ
əˈpɑ:tmənt
rɪˈleɪʃn
ˈəbaʊt
rɪˈsi:v
pəˈhæps
Exercise 1
When you hear the word, write it in phonetic symbols marking the stress mark ˈ before the
stressed syllable.
enemy
subtract
collect
elephant
capital
observer
carnation
profit
paradise
entertain
What are the characteristics of stressed syllables that enable us to identify them?
It is important to understand that there are two different ways of approaching this
question, one being to consider what the speaker does in producing stressed syllables and the
other being to consider what characteristics of sound make a syllable seem to a listener to be
stressed. In other words we can study stress from the point of view of production and of
perception; the two are obviously closely related, but are not identical.
The production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more
muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. Measuring muscular effort is difficult,
but it seems possible, according to experimental studies, that when we produce stressed
syllables, the muscles that we use to expel air from the lungs are more active, producing
higher subglottal pressure. It seems possible that similar things happen with muscles in
other parts of our speech apparatus.
Many experiments have been carried out on the perception of stress, and it is clear
that many different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable recognisably
stressed. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllables have one characteristic in
common, and that is called prominence; stressed syllables are recognised as stressed
because they are more prominent than unstressed syllables.
64
What makes a syllable prominent?
At least four different factors are important.
1.
Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed; in other
words, loudness is a component of prominence. In a sequence of identical syllables (e.g.
ba:ba:ba:ba:), if one syllable is made louder than the others, it will be heard as stressed.
However, it is important to realise that it is very difficult for a speaker to make a syllable louder
without changing other characteristics of the syllable such as those explained below; if one
literally changes only the loudness, the perceptual effect of stress is not very strong.
2.
The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence. If one of the syllables in
our “nonsense word” ba:ba:ba:ba: is made longer than the others, there is quite a strong
tendency for that syllable to be heard as stressed.
3.
Every syllable is said on some pitch; pitch in speech is closely related to the frequency of
vibration of the vocal cords and to the musical notion of low- and high-pitched notes. It is
essential a perceptual characteristic of speech. If one syllable of our “nonsense word” is said
with a pitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have a strong tendency
to produce the effect of prominence. For example, if all syllables are said with low pitch except
for one said with high pitch, then the high-pitched syllable will be heard as stressed and the
others as unstressed. To place some movement of pitch (e.g. rising or falling) on a syllable is
even more effective.
4.
A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from
neighbouring vowels. If we change one of the vowels in our “nonsense word” (e.g.
ba:bi:ba:ba:) the “odd” syllable bi: will usually be heard as stressed. This effect is not
very powerful nor very important, but there is one particular way in which it is relevant
in English: the most frequently encountered vowels in weak syllables are ɪ, ʊ and
ə (syllabic consonants are also quite common). We can look on stressed syllables as
occurring against a “background” of these weak syllables, so that their prominence is
increased by contrast with these background qualities.
Prominence, then, is produced by four main factors:
a. loudness,
b. length,
c. pitch, and
d. quality.
Generally these four factors work together in combination, though syllables may
sometimes be made prominent by means of only one or two of them. Experimental work
has shown that these factors are not equally important; the strongest effect is produced
by pitch, and length is also a powerful factor. Loudness and quality have much less
effect.
Exercise 2
The following are British place-names. When you hear the number, pronounce them with
the stress as marked. You will then hear the correct pronunciation, which you should repeat.
1.
ˈʃrəʊzbri
6. ˈbɜ:mɪŋəm
2.
pɒlˈperəʊ
7. nͻ:ˈθæmptən
3.
æbəˈdi:n
8. dʌnˈdi:
4.
wʊlvəˈhæmptən
9. ˈkæntəbri
5.
æbəˈrɪstwəθ
10. ˈbeɪzɪŋstəʊk
65
LEVELS OF STRESS
Up to this point we have talked about stress as though there was a simple distinction
between “stressed” and “unstressed” syllables with no intermediate levels; such a treatment
would be a two-level analysis of stress. Usually, however, we have to recognise one or more
intermediate levels. It should be remembered that in this chapter we are dealing only with
stress within the word; this means that we are looking at words as they are said in isolation,
which is a rather artificial situation – we do not often say words in isolation, except for a few
such as ‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘possibly’, ‘please’ and interrogative words such as ‘what’, ‘who’, etc.,
but looking at words in isolation does help us to see stress placement and stress levels more
clearly than studying them in the context of continuous speech.
Let us begin by looking at the word ‘around’ /ˈəraʊnd/, where the stress always falls
clearly on the last syllable and the first syllable is weak. From the point of view of stress,
the most important fact about the way we pronounce this word is that on the second syllable
the pitch of the voice does not remain level, but usually falls from a higher to a lower pitch.
We might diagram the pitch movement as shown below, where the two parallel lines
represent the speaker’s high and low pitch level.
ˈəraʊnd
ˈəraʊnd
_______________
around
The prominence that results from this pitch movement, or tone, gives the strongest
type of stress; we call this tone, gives the strongest type of stress; we call this tonic strong
stress when we wish to refer specifically to this type of stress. It is also called primary
stress.
In some words, we can observe a type of stress that is weaker than tonic
strong stress but stronger than that of the first syllable of ‘around’, for example in the first
syllables of the words ‘photographic’ /fəʊtəgræfɪk/, ‘anthropology’ /ænrəpɑləʤi/. The
third syllables of ‘activated’ /æktɪveɪtɪd/, ‘enterprising’ /entəpraɪzɪŋ/ are also quite
prominent, but most speakers of English would probably not feel that they were as strongly
stressed as the first two examples. The stress in the first two examples can be called nontonic strong stress; it is also called secondary stress. It is sometimes represent in
transcription with a low mark /ˌ / so that the examples could be transcribed as
/fəʊtəˈgræfɪk/, /ˌænrəˈpɑlədʒi/. This convention will only be used where necessary in
this course.
Levels of stress
We have now identified two levels of stress: tonic strong (or primary) and non-tonic
strong (or secondary), as well as a third level which could be called unstressed and regarded
as being the absence of any recognisable amount of prominence. These are three levels that
we will use in describing English stress. However, it is worth noting that unstressed
syllables containing ə, ɪ, ʊ or a syllabic consonant will sound less prominent than an
unstressed syllable containing some other vowel. For example, the first syllable of ‘poetic’
/pəʊˈetɪk/ is more prominent than the first syllable of ‘pathetic’ /pəˈetɪk/. This could be
used as a basis for further division of stress levels, giving us a third and fourth level, but it
seems unnecessarily complex to do so.
66
PLACEMENT OF STRESS WITHIN THE WORD
We now come to a question that causes a great deal of difficulty, particularly to
foreign learners (who cannot simply dismiss it as an academic question): how can one select
the correct syllable or syllables to stress in an English word? As is well known, English is
not one of those languages where word stress can be decided simply in relation to the
syllables of the words, as can be done in French (where the last syllable is usually stressed),
Polish (where the syllable before the last – the penultimate syllable – is stressed) or Czech
(where the first syllable is stressed).
Many writers have said that English word stressed is so difficult to predict that the
best approach is to treat stress placement as a property of the individual word, to be learned
when the word itself is learned. Certainly anyone who tries to analyse English stress
placement has to recognise that it is a highly complex matter. However, it must also be
recognised that in most cases when an English speaker comes across an unfamiliar word,
that English speaker can pronounce it with the correct stress (there are exceptions to this, of
course); in principle, it should be possible to discover what it is that the English speaker
knows and to write this in the form of rules.
Recent word based on the theory of generative phonology has claimed that such
rules can be stated; the following summary of stress placement in nouns, verbs, and
adjectives is based to a large extent on this work, but it is an attempt to present the rules in
the simplest possible form. Nevertheless, practically all the rules have exceptions and
readers may feel that the rules are so complex that it would be easier to go back to the idea of
learning the stress for each word individually.
In order to decide on stress placement, it is necessary to make use of some or all of
the following information:
1. Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is complex as a result
either of containing one or more affixes (that is, prefixes or suffixes) or of being a
compound word.
2. The grammatical category to which the word belongs (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).
3. The number of syllables in the word.
4. The phonological structure of those syllables.
The rules for complex words are different from those for simple words and these will
be dealt later. Obviously, single-syllable words present no problems – if they are
pronounced in isolation they are said with tonic strong (i.e. primary) stress.
Two-syllable words
Verbs:
Here the choice is still simple: either the first or the second syllable will be stressed –
not both. We will look first at verbs. The basic rule is that if the second syllable of the verb
contains a long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that second
syllable is stressed. Thus:
‘apply’ /əˈplaɪ/
‘arrive’ /əˈraɪv/
’attract’ /əˈtrækt/
’assist’ /əˈsɪst/
67
If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant, the first
syllable is stressed. Thus:
‘enter’ /ˈəntə/
‘envy’ /ˈenvi/
’open’ /ˈəʊpən/
’equal’ /ˈi:kwəl/
A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains /əʊ/ (e.g. ‘follow’
/ˈfɒˈləʊ/, ‘borrow’ /ˈbɒˈrəʊ/. Most two-syllable verbs that seem to be exceptions to the
above might be interpreted as being morphologically complex (e.g. ‘permit’ /pəˈmɪt/ =
‘per’+ ‘mit), or we could simply list all such verbs as exceptions.
Exercise 3
When you hear the number, pronounce the word with the appropriate stress. You will then
hear the correct pronunciation, which you should repeat. Place the stress mark and then
write the spelling for these words.
1.
dɪsi:v
6. əbʤekt
2.
ʃɑ:pən
7. kɒŋkə
3.
kəlekt
8. rɪkͻ:d
4.
prənaʊns
9. pɒlɪʃ
5.
kɒpi
10. dɪpend
Adjectives
Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule, giving:
‘lovely’ /ˈlʌvli/
‘even’ /ˈi:vɪņ/
‘hollow’ /ˈhɒləʊ/
’divine’ /dɪˈvaɪn/
’correct’ /kəˈrekt/
’alive’ /əˈlaɪv/
As with most stress rules, there are exceptions, for example ‘honest /ˈɒnɪst/,
‘perfect’ /ˈpɜ:fɪkt/ or /ˈpɜ:fekt/, both of which end with two consonants bur are stressed on
the first syllable.
Exercise 4
1.
i:zi
6. jeləʊ
2.
kəmpli:t
7. ɜ:li
3.
meɪʤə
8. səblaɪm
4.
ələʊn
9. hevi
5.
bɪləʊ
10. əlaɪv
68
Nouns
Nouns require a different rule: if the second syllable contains a short vowel the stress
will usually come on the first syllable. Otherwise it will be on the second syllable.
‘money’ /ˈmʌni/
‘product’ /ˈprɒdʌkt/
‘larynx’ /ˈlærɪŋks/
’estate’ /ɪˈsteɪt/
’ballon’ /bəˈlu:n/
’design’ /dɪˈzaɪn/
Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave like verbs and
adjectives.
Exercise 5
1.
bɪʃəp
6. ɒfɪs
2.
æspekt
7. əreɪ
3.
əfeə
8. pətrəʊl
4.
kɑ:pɪt
9. dentɪst
5.
dɪfi:t
10. ͻ:təm
Three-syllable words
Here we find a more complicated picture. In verbs, if the last syllable contains a
pəˈshort vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, that syllable will be unstressed,
and stress will be placed on the preceding (penultimate) syllable. Thus:
‘entertain’ /entəˈteɪn/
’resurrect’ /rezəˈrekt/
Nouns require a different rule. Here, if the final syllable contains a short vowel or
əʊ, it is unstressed; if the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel or
diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that middle syllable will be stressed.
Thus:
‘mimosa’ /mɪˈməʊzə/
‘potato’ /pəˈteɪtəʊ/
’disaster’ /dɪˈzɑ:stə/
’synopsis’ /sɪˈnɒpsɪs/
If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short
vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, both final and middle syllables are
unstressed and the first syllable is stressed:
‘quantity’ /ˈkwɒntɪti/
‘cinema’ /ˈsɪnɪmə/
’emperor’ /ˈemprə/
’custody’ /ˈkʌstədi/
69
Most of the above rules show stress tending to go on syllables containing a long
vowel or diphthong and/or ending with more than one consonant. However, three-syllable
simple nouns are different. If the final syllable is of this type, the stress will usually be
placed on the first syllable. The last syllable is usually quite prominent so that in some cases
it could be said to have secondary stress.
‘intellect’ /ˈɪntɪlekt/
‘alkali’ /ˈælkəlaɪ/ or /ˈælklaɪ/
’marigold’ /ˈmærɪgəʊld/
’stalactite’ /ˈstæləktaɪt/
Adjectives seem to need the same rule, to produce stress patterns such as:
‘opportune’ /ˈɒpətju:n/
‘derelict’ /ˈderɪlɪkt/
’insolent’ /ˈɪnslənt/
’anthropoid’ /ˈænθrəpͻɪd/
The above rules do not, of course, cover all English words. They apply only to major
categories of lexical words (nouns, verbs and adjectives in this chapter), not to grammatical
or function words such as articles and prepositions.
Exercise 6
Verbs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
entəteɪn
rezərekt
əbændən
dɪlɪvə
ɪntərʌpt
6. ɪlɪsɪt
7. kɒməndɪə
8. ɪmæʤɪn
9. dɪtɜ:mɪn
10. sepəreɪt
Adjectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ɪmpͻ:tņt
ɪnͻ:məs
derɪlɪkt
desɪml
æbnͻ:ml
6. ɪnslənt
7. fæntæstɪk
8. negətɪv
9. ækjərət
10. ʌnlaɪkli
Nouns
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
fɜ:nɪtʃə
dɪzɑ:stə
dɪsaɪpl
æmbjələns
kwɒntɪti
6. kəθi:drəl
7. hɒləkͻ:st
8. trænzɪstə
9. æksɪdņt
10. təmɑ:təʊ
70
COMPLEX WORD STRESS
In the last section the nature of stress was explained and some broad general rules
were given for deciding which syllable in a word should receive primary stress. The words
that were described were called “simple” words. “Simple” in this context means “not
composed of more than one grammatical unit”, so that, for example, the word ‘care’ is
simple while ‘careful’ and ‘careless’ (being composed of two grammatical units each) are
complex; ‘carefully’ and ‘carelessness’ are also complex, and are composed of three
grammatical units each.
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to decide on whether a word should be treated as
complex or simple. The majority of English words of more than one syllable (polysyllabic
words) have come from other languages whose way of constructing words is easily
recognisable; for example, we can see how combining ‘mit’ with the prefixes ‘per-‘, ‘sub-‘,
‘com-‘ produced ‘permit’, ‘submit’, ‘commit’, words which have come into English from
Latin. Similarly, Greek has given us ‘catalogue, ‘analogue’, ‘dialogue’, ‘monologue’, in
which the prefixes ‘ cata-‘, ‘ana-‘, ‘dia-‘, ‘mono-‘ are recognisable. But we cannot
automatically treat the separate grammatical units of other languages as separate
grammatical units of English.
Complex words are of two major types: words made from a basic stem word with
the addition of an affix, and compound words, which are made of two (or occasionally
more) independent English words (e.g. ‘ice-cream’, ‘armchair’). We will look first at the
words made with affixes; these will be called affix words.
Affixes are of two sorts in English: prefixes, which come before the stem (e.g.
prefix ‘un-‘ + stem ‘pleasant’ ’unpleasant’) and suffixes, which come after the stem (e.g.
stem ‘good’ + suffix ‘-ness’  ‘goodness’).
Affixes will have one of three possible effects on word stress:
1. The affix itself receives the primary stress
(e.g. ‘ semi-‘ + ‘circle’ /ˈsɜ:kl/  ‘semicircle’ /ˈsemɪsɜ:kl/
‘-ality’ + ‘person’ /ˈpɜ:sņ/  ‘personality’ /pɜ:sņˈælɪti/ ‘personality’
2. The word is stressed just as if the affix was not there (e.g.
‘pleasant’ /'plezņt/, ‘unpleasant /ʌnˈplezņt/
‘market’ /ˈmɑ:kɪt/, ‘marketing’ /ˈmɑ:kɪtɪŋ/
3. The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable
(e.g. ‘magnet’ /'mægnət/,
‘magnetic’ /mæg'netɪk/
SUFFIXES
Suffixes are easier to deal with than prefixes. However, there are so many of these
that it will only be possible here to examine a small proportion of them; we will concentrate
on those which are common and productive (that is, are applied to a considerable number of
stems and could be applied to make new English words). In the case of the others, foreign
learners would probably be better advised to learn the stem + affix combination as an
individual item.
71
Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves
In the examples given, which seem to be the most common, the primary stress is on
the first syllable of the suffix. If the stem consists of more than one syllable there will be a
secondary stress on one of the syllables of the stem. This cannot fall on the last syllable of
the stem, and is, if necessary, moved to an earlier syllable. For example, in ‘Japan’
/dʒəˈpæn/ the primary stress is on the last syllable, but when we add the stress-carrying
suffix ‘-ese’ the primary stress is on the suffix and the secondary stress in placed not on the
second syllable but on the first: ‘Japanese’ /ˌdʒæpəˈni:z/.
‘-ain’ (for verbs only)
‘-ee’
‘-eer’
‘-ese’
‘-ette’
‘-esque’. ‘-ique’
entertain /ˌentəˈteɪn/
refugee /ˌrefjʊˈdʒi:/
mountaineer /ˌmaʊntɪˈnɪə/
Portuguese /ˌpɔ:tʃəˈgi:z/
cigarette /ˌsɪgrˈet/
picturesque /ˌpɪktʃə'resk/
ascertain /ˌæsəˈteɪn/
evacuee /ɪˌvækjuˈi:/
volunteer /ˌvɒlənˈtɪə/
journalese /ˌdʒɜ:nlˈi:z/
launderette /ˌlɔ:ndrˈet/
unique /ˌju:'ni:k/
Suffixes that do not affect stress placement
‘-able’
‘-age’
‘-al’
‘-en’
‘-ful’
‘-ing’
‘-ish’
comfort /'kʌmfət/
anchor /'æŋkə/
refuse (verb) /rɪ'fju:z/
wide /waɪd/
wonder /'wʌndə/
amaze /ə'meɪz/
devil /'devl/
comfortable /'kʌmfətəbl/
anchorage /'æŋkrɪdʒ/
refusal /rɪ'fju:zl/
widen /'waɪdn/
wonderful /'wʌndəfl/
amazing /ə'meɪzɪŋ/
devilish /'devlɪʃ/
(This is the rule for adjectives; verbs with stems of more than one syllable always have the
stress on the syllable immediately preceding ‘ish’, e.g. ‘replenish’ /rɪ'plenɪʃ/, ‘demolish’
/dɪ'mɒlɪʃ/.
‘-like’
‘-less’
‘-ly’
‘-ment’
‘-ness’
‘-ous’
‘-fy’
‘-wise’
‘-y’ (adjective or noun)
bird /bɜ:d/
power /'paʊə/
hurried /hʌrɪd/
punish /'pʌnɪʃ/
yellow /'jeləʊ/
poison /'pɔɪzn/
glory /'glɔ:ri/
other / 'ʌðə/
fun /fʌn/
birdlike /'bɜ:dlaɪk/
powerless /'paʊələs/
hurriedly /’hʌrɪdli/
punishment /'pʌnɪʃmənt/
yellowness /'jeləʊnəs/
poisonous /'pɔɪznəs/
glorify /'glɔ:rɪfaɪ/
otherwise /'ʌðəwaɪz/
funny /'fʌni/
Primary stress on the last syllable of the stem
‘-eous’
‘-graphy’
‘-ial
‘-ic’
‘-ion’
-ious’
‘-ity’
‘-ive’
advantage /əd'vɑ:ntɪdʒ/
photo /'fəʊtəʊ/
proverb /'prɒvɜ:b/
climate/'klaɪmɪt/
perfect /'pɜ:fɪkt/
injure /'ɪndʒə/
tranquil /'træŋkwɪl/
reflex /'ri:fleks/
advantageous /ædvən'teɪdʒəs/
photography /fə'tɒgrəfi/
proverbial /prə'vɜ:bɪəl/
climatic /klaɪ'mætɪk/
perfection /pə'fekʃn/
injurious /ɪn'dʒʊəriəs/
tranquillity /træŋ'kwɪlɪti/
reflexive /rɪ'fleksɪv/
72
The suffixes ‘-ance’. ‘-ant’ and ‘-ary’
When these suffixes are attached to single-syllable stems, the stress is almost always
places on the stem. When the stem has two syllables the stress is sometimes on the first,
sometimes on the second syllable of the stem. If the final syllable of the stem contains a
long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that syllable receives
the stress. For example: ‘importance /ɪm'pɔ:tns/; ‘centenary’ /sen'ti:nri/. Otherwise the
syllable before the last one receives the stress: ‘consonant’ /'kɒnsnənt/; ‘military’ /'mɪlɪtri/.
We will not consider words with stems of more than two syllables. Such words are, from the
point of view of this course, too complex and uncommon for it to be worth attempting to
write rules.
PREFIXES
We will only deal briefly with prefixes. Their effect on stress does not have the
comparative regularity, independence and predictability of suffixes, and there is no prefix of
one or two syllables that always carries primary stress. Consequently, the best treatment
seems to be to say that stress in words with prefixes is governed by the same rules as those
for words without prefixes.
Exercise 7: Stress-carrying suffixes
When you hear the number, pronounce the word with stress on the suffix. You will then
hear the correct pronunciation which you should repeat. Write the words in phonetic
symbols.
1.
–ain: entertain
4. –ese: Portuguese
2.
–ee: refugee
5. –ette: cigarette
3. –eer: mountaineer
6. –esque: picturesque
When you hear the stem word, say he word with the given suffix, putting the stress on that
suffix. In these examples, a secondary stress comes on the penultimate syllable of the stem.
Write the words in phonetic symbols.
employ + -ee
absent + -ee
engine + eer
profit + -eer
Sudan + ese
Pekin + -ese
usher + ette
statue + -ette (statuette)
Exercise 8. Neutral suffixes
When you hear the stem word, add the suffix without changing the stress. Then write the
words in phonetic symbols.
comfort + -able
power + -less
anchor + -age
hurried + -ly
refuse + -al (refusal)
punish + -ment
wide + -en (widen)
yellow + -ness
wonder + -ful
poison + -ous
amaze + -ing (amazing)
glory + -fy (glorify)
devil + -ish
other + -wise
bird + -like
fun + -y (funny)
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Exercise 9. Stress-moving suffixes
When you hear the stem word, say it with the suffix added and put the stress on the last
syllable of the stem.
advantage + -eous (advantageous)
injure + -ious (injurious)
photo + -graphy
tranquil + -ity (tranquility)
proverb + -ial
refle + -ive
climate + -ic (climatic)
embryo + -logy
COMPOUND WORDS
The main characteristic of the compound words is that it can be analysed into two
words, both of which can exist independently as English words. As with many of the
distinctions being made in connection with stress, there are areas of uncertainty. For
example, it could be argued that ‘photograph’ may be divided into two independent words,
‘photo’ and ‘graph’; yet we usually do not regard it as a compound, but as an affix word. (If
someone drew a graph displaying numerical information about photos, this would perhaps be
called a ‘photo-graph’ ad the word would be regarded as a compound).
Compounds are written in different ways; sometimes they are written as one word,
e.g. ‘armchair’, ‘sunflower’, sometimes with the words separated by a hyphen, e.g. ‘gearchange’, ‘fruit-cake’, and sometimes with two words separated by a space, e.g. ‘desk lamp’,
‘battery charger’. In this last case there would, of course be no indication to the foreign
learner that the pair of words was to be treated as a compound. There is no clear dividing
line between two-word compounds and pairs of words that simply happen to occur together
quite frequently.
As far as stress is concerned, the question is quite simple. When is primary stress
placed on the first word of the compound and when on the second? Both patterns are found.
A simple rule can be used, though it is not completely reliable.
1. If the first part of the compound is (in a broad sense) adjectival, the stress goes on the
second element, with a secondary stress on the first. For example:
‘loudpeaker’ /ˌlaʊd'spi:kə/
‘bad-tempered’ /ˌbæd'tempəd/
‘second-class’ /ˌsekənd'klɑ:s/
‘three-wheeler’ /ˌθri:'wi:lə/
There are many exceptions to this rule; the majority of these exceptions have in common
the fact that they have become more like simple words and less like compounds with the
passage of time, and their meaning is no longer easily derived from their constituent parts.
For example, ‘greenhouse’ /'gri:nhaʊs/ is derived from ‘green’ and ‘house’, but a
greenhouse is not green and is not really a house.
Other examples are: ‘gentleman’, ‘bluebell’, ‘background’, ‘broadcast’ – all of these are
of the form adjective + noun.
74
2. If, however, the first element is (in a broad sense) a noun, the stress goes on the first
element. For example:
‘typewriter’ /'taɪpraɪtə/
‘car-ferry’ /'kɑ:feri/
‘sunrise’ /'sʌnraɪz/
‘suitcase’ /'sju:tkeɪs/
‘tea-cup’ /'ti:kʌp/
Exercise 10
When you hear the number, say the item. Then write the words in phonetic symbols.
a) First element adjectival, stress on second element.
1. loudspeaker
4. second-class
2. bad-tempered
5. three-wheeler
3. headquarters
b) First element nominal, stress on first element.
1. typewriter
4. suitcase
2. car-ferry
5. tea-cup
3. sunrise
c) Mixture of type (a) and (b).
1. long-suffering
4. red-blooded
2. gunman
5. gear-box
3. shoelace
6. overweight
Variable stress
It would be wrong to imagine that the stress pattern is always fixed and unchanging
in English words. Stress position may vary for one of two reasons: either as a result of the
stress on other words occurring next to the word in question, or because not all speakers of
RP agree on the placement of stress in some words.
A well-known example is ‘controversy’, which is pronounced by some speakers as
/'kɒntrəvɜ:si/ and by others as /kən'trɒvəsi/, it would be quite wrong to say that one version
was correct and one incorrect. Other examples of different possibilities are ‘ice-cream’,
‘kilometer’ (either /'kɪləmi:tə/ or /kɪ'lɒmɪtə/ and ‘formidable’ /'fɔ:mɪdəbl/ or /fə'mɪdəbl/
Word-class pairs
One aspect of word stress is best treated as a separate issue. There are several dozen
pairs of two-syllable words with identical spelling which differ from each other in stress
placement, apparently according to word class (noun, verb or adjective). All appear to
consist of prefix + stem. We shall treat them as a special type of words and give them the
following rule: when a pair of prefix-plus-stem words exists, both members of which are
spelt identically, one of which is a verb and the other is either a noun or an adjective, the
stress will be placed on the second syllable of the verb but on the first syllable of the noun or
adjective. Some common examples are given below:
75
(V = verb, A = adjective, N = noun):
‘abstract’ /'æbstrækt/ (A), /æbs'trækt/ (V)
‘conduct’ /'kɒndʌkt/ (N), /kən'dʌkt (V)
‘ contract’ /'kɒntrækt/ (N), /kən'trækt/ (V)
‘contrast’ /'kɒntrɑ:st/ (N), /kən'trɑ:st/ (V)
‘desert’ /'dezət/ (N), /dɪ'zɜ:t/ (V)
‘escort’ /'eskɔ:t/ (N), /ɪs'kɔ:t/ (V)
‘export’ /'ekspɔ:t/ (N), /ɪks'pɔ:t/ (V)
‘import’ /'ɪmpɔ:t/ (N), /ɪm'pɔ:t/ (V)
‘insult’ /'ɪnsʌlt/ (N), /ɪn'sʌlt/ (V)
‘object’ /'ɒbdʒɪkt/ (N), /əb'dʒekt/ (V)
‘perfect’ /'pɜ:fɪkt/ (A), /pə'fekt/ (V)
‘permit’ /'pɜ:mɪt/ (N), /pə'mɪt/ (V)
‘present’ /'preznt/ (N, A), /prɪ'zent/ (V)
‘produce’ /'prɒdju:s/ (N), /prə'dju:s/ (V)
‘protest’ /'prəʊtest/ (N), /prə'test/ (V)
‘rebel’ /'rebl/ (N), /rɪ'bel/ (V)
‘record’ /'rekɔ:d/ (N), /rɪ'kɔ:d/ (V)
‘subject’ /'sʌbdʒɪkt/ (N), /səb'dʒekt/ (V)
With verbs we very often have suffixes, such as ‘-ed’, ‘-ing’. eg. ‘conducting.’ and
we prefer to have the stressed syllable at the stem, before the suffix.
Nouns are very often preceded by a/the, which are unstressed, that is why we prefer
to have the stress in the first syllable. e.g. ‘the progress’ /ðə 'prəʊgres/.
Exercise 11. Word-class pairs
You will hear the number of the item and its word-class. Stress the second syllable if it is a
verb; stress the first syllable if it is a noun or adjective. Then write the words in phonetic
symbols.
1.
abstract (Adjective)
10. object (Noun)
2.
conduct (Verb)
11. perfect (Adjective)
3.
contract (Noun)
12. permit (Verb)
4.
contrast (Verb)
13. present (Adjective)
5.
desert (Noun)
14. produce (Verb)
6.
escort (Noun)
15. protest (Noun)
7.
export (Verb)
16. rebel (Verb)
8.
import (Noun)
17. record (Noun)
9.
insult (Verb)
18. subject (Noun)
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Learning Notes
UNIT 7
Phonology
deals with
function of sounds within the
language
distinctive sound:
defined set of sounds
duality of patterning:
system of speech sound and
their usage
limited set of sounds: but we can arrange these to ever new utterances
phonemes: the smallest distinctive element of a language
individual distinct sound / distinctive speech sound
/pet/
/pɒt/
/pʌt/
/pɪn/
/bɪn/
Commutation: the test to locate phonemes. Put within dashes: /p/
Phonetics:   tries to differentiate among the sounds with the highest possible degree of
accuracy
without regard for the influence of sound on the meaning of an utterance.
Allophones: Merely variation in pronunciation of the same phoneme
Do not change the meaning of the word.
Complementary distribution: Where one sound of the pair occurs, the other does not.
/p/ [
[
] pill (aspirated)
] sprint (unaspirated)
Distinctive features
[ ] and [ ] are allophones of /p/
voiced /v /
voiceless /f /
Redundant features
These sounds have a specific feature, but
do not constitute minimal pairs
consonants
nasal
nonnasal
vowels
+ nasal
- negative nasal
band
bar
both are allophone of the same vowel
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Learning Notes
Assimilation rules: nasalization of vowels preceding +nasal consonants
coarticulation: features of phonemes spread in anticipation of sounds or perseveration of
articulatory processes.
Rules of
Feature addition rules: Features are added to phonemes when they occur
occur in a specific phonetic context.
Phonology
Segment-deletion and addition rules: the car has /ðəkɑ:hæz/
the car is /ðəkɑ:rɪs/
Movement (methathesis) rules: In some English dialects phonemes are
rearranged.
Methathesis: change in the order of two sounds in a word, eg /flɪm/ for /fɪlm/ film.
Methathesis sometimes occurs in the speech of language learners but it may also occur with
native speakers. When a metathesized form becomes commonly and regularly used by most
native speakers of a language, it may lead to a change in the word. For example, Modern
English bird developed by methathesis from Old English brid “young bird”.
Assimilation: A significance difference in natural connected speech is the way that sounds
belonging to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighbouring words.
Assuming that we know how the phonemes of a particular word would be realized when the
word was pronounced in isolation, when we find a phoneme realized differently as a result
of being near some other phoneme belonging to a neighbouring word we call this an instance
of assimilation.
Example: consonantal sounds at the end of a word are often influenced by the following
consonant. Thus / gυd / becomes / gug / under the influence of the following velar
consonant. Similarly / wɔn / may become /wəm/ before a following / m /. This is known
as assimilation. It does not necessarily always occur, but may do so, and with some speakers
is habitual.
There are two types of assimilation:
Regressive assimilation: If the last consonant of the first word changes to become like the
initial consonant of the second word in some way, the assimilation is called regressive (the
phoneme that comes first is affected by the one that comes after it). Example:
that person
/ ðæ t pɜ:sņ /
becomes
/ ðæp pɜ:sņ /
light blue
/laɪt blu: /
becomes
/laɪp blu: /
meat pie
/mi:t paɪ /
becomes
/mi:p paɪ /
that case
/ðæ t keis/
becomes
/ðæ k keis/
becomes
/braɪk kʌlə /
bright colour /braɪt kʌlə /
quite good
/kwaɪt gυd /
becomes
/kwaɪk gυd /
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Learning Notes
Progressive assimilation: If the initial consonant of the second word changes to become
like the last consonant of the first word, the assimilation is called progressive. This is
rightward assimilation; the phone assimilation to a following phone. (English –s). Example:
The English plural is either /z/ or /s/ when it occurs after a non-sibilant sound. The voicing
feature is taken from the final consonant of the base. books /bυks/
The pronunciation of the –ed suffix in English: stopped /stɒpt/
"tape" pronounced as "tate"
rooms /ru:mz/
named /neɪmd/
Feature addition rules: Adding a whole new segment: pin pʰɪn]
random: athlete
pronounced /’æ  l i: t/
systematic: plural /z/ ->/´z/ after another sibilant (s-type sound)
pronounced / ’kl æ sɪz/
classes
Segment-deletion rule: dropping a whole segment
Examples:
random:
pronounced /pɪtʃə/
picture
slow-like pronounced /sləυlɪ/
a friend of mine
systematic: bomb
hymn
pronounced
/əfrendə’maɪn/
pronounced /bɒm /
lamb
pronounced /læm/
pronounced /hɪm /
damn
pronounced /dæm/
cupboard
pronounced
/’kʌpbəd/
Segment-addition rule:
the car has /ðəkɑ:hæz/
the car is /ðəkɑ:rɪs/
79
UNIT 8
MORPHOLOGY
Whereas phonology studies the smallest distinctive elements of a language,
morphology is the study of the smallest meaning units of a language. This smallest meaning
unit is also called a morpheme. The overriding rule is that a morpheme must be able to stand
alone, i.e. to yield meaning independently of its general context. Let's start out by taking a
closer look at the term 'smallest meaning unit' and how it may be understood.
 We are inclined to think that a 'word' fits the definition of 'smallest meaning unit'.
However, not all words are single meaning units. Some words are 'nonsense words' and
lack any meaning whatsoever. These are invented words mostly, for example "brillig", or
"chorps". Then there are words that are composed of more than one meaning unit.
Examples of words which consist of more than one meaning unit are:
blue-berry, auto-bus, hence-forth
 Although a word may be a smallest meaning unit, such as 'blue', it does not necessarily
have to be one, as in 'blueberry'.
 Neither can syllables be regarded as the smallest meaning units. They are, in the first
place, phonological units. They consist of a nucleus, which is a vowel, a diphthong, or a
vowel-like consonant, and one or several satellites. A satellite is always a consonant.
(satellites) + nucleus + (satellites) (satellites) + nucleus + (satellites)
(C1, C2,...) + V
+ (C1, C2,...) (C1, C2,...) + V
+ (C1, C2,...)
M
a
g
n
u
m
Words may consist of several syllables, but not all of them are necessarily meaning
units.
Example: Mas-sa-chu-setts, po-lice, mo-ther
Thus, while a syllable may be a smallest meaning unit, such as the syllable 'end' in
the word 'endless', it does not necessarily have to be one.
As we can see, a morpheme cannot necessarily be confined to a particular form of a
word or a syllable. The study of morphology seeks to, in the first place, determine the
precise form (Greek- morph) that an elemental meaning takes. However, it does, as we will
see later, remain within the abstract domain, in cases where form either varies or where form
is simply nonexistent.
Morphemes are also referred to as the minimal linguistic signs; you may also come
across the term moneme, which is the French term for morpheme.
The above may have given you an understanding of why linguists have been engaged
in endless debates over the definition of the word "word". The term remains ambiguous, and
we should try as best to avoid it. After all, linguistic terminology is available to describe
linguistic units in higher detail.
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8.1. TYPES OF MORPHEMES
We can discern different types of morphemes when analyzing a text corpus. The
process of sorting out which morpheme is which is called distributional analysis.
8.1.1. Grammatical Classification
Grammatically speaking, there are two classes of morphemes:
* Free morphemes: these may occur on their own, they can be used freely according
to the rules of sentence structure, for example "boy, tree, church, go, leave, love."
* Bound morphemes: These are an exception to the rule that a morpheme must be
able to stand alone; they have no meaning of their own, but add substantial meaning to other
morphemes to which they are attached. They are used for various purposes, such as
inflection. Example: "-ing, -er" in "working, worker.", where "work" is a free morpheme
accompanied by various bound morphemes, namely suffixes. Derivational morphemes can
be added to a word to create (derive) a new word. The addition of –ness to ‘happy’, for
example, to give ‘happiness’.
8.1.2. Morphological Classification
Morphological classification will help you to understand exceptions and different
occurrences of morphemes.

Homophonous morphemes sound the same, although their morphological function and
visual realization may be different, for example the "in" in "inn", and the "in" in
"incongruous".

Discontinuous morphemes. A morpheme of this type does not appear in one continuous
string in a word, but is split up into fragments. For example, the morpheme "ge- and -t"
in the German word "ge-reis-t". Still, both parts belong together. It does not exist in
present day English.

A portmanteau morpheme is the result of a fusion of two other morphemes. For example,
the French "au" is a fusion of the former morphemes "à" and "le".

Unique or residual morphemes. These are a further exception to the rule that a
morpheme must be able to stand alone. Representing bound morphemes, unique or
residual morphemes are, by themselves, meaningless and gain meaning only in
combination with other morphemes. Examples for this kind of morpheme are the "cran"
in "cranberry", or the "mit" in "transmit", "commit", and so on.

Zero morphemes. As already mentioned above, there do exist meaningful grammatical
features that are not materialized, neither in writing nor in sound waves, in a consistent
manner. The plural of a noun, for instance, is not always formed by adding a bound
morpheme 's' to the word. Some words are not changed at all when meaning the plural.
We usually simply understand which case the speaker meant from the context of the
conversation. One such example is the word 'sheep', designating singular as well as plural
sheep. The zero morpheme 'plural' would, in this case, designate the abstract concept of
the plurality. It then means the plural sheep as opposed to the singular sheep.
81
8.1.3. Morph, morpheme, and allomorph
Note that any language has a register of morphemes, the physical realizations of
which are called morphs. While morphemes remain ideal abstract units, the corresponding
morphs may show some variation. In the case of the plural morpheme, various realizations
are possible. These variations sound and look differently:
/z/ in "dogs, beds";
/s/ in "cats";
/iz/ in "garages".
All three morphs are different representations of the same morpheme of plurality.
Several morphs that belong to the same morpheme are also called allomorphs: variants of
one morpheme. In morphological transcription, morphs are commonly put in between
braces. The plural morph in "cats" thus becomes {cat}+{s} in morphological transcription.
8.2. MORPHOLOGY AND WORD-FORMATION
We have already seen that the term word is highly ambiguous. Now we come to
consider it anew. Commonly, various grammatical forms of linguistic units such as "sing",
"sang", "sung" are referred to as various words. In all three words of our example, however,
we are confronted with various forms of the same unit, namely "sing". We will use a more
specific term for these "pure" linguistic units than word.
We thus refer to the more abstract units, regardless of their representation as
phonological or orthographic units in various inflectional forms, not as words, but lexemes;
in linguistic transcription they are distinguished by capitals. Hence the word "cut" can offer
three forms of the lexeme CUT: present, past and participle.
The sum of the lexemes of a language is called the lexicon. The lexicon of a
language is not fixed. New entries may occur, or old ones might become extinct. New
entries are called neologisms, if they are created from existing resources of the language.
New entries can also be borrowed from other languages. As for the process in the former
case, we are able to create new words by applying the morphological rules of our language.
Morphological rules apply to both inflection and word formation.
8.2.1. Inflection
Inflection is the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way
according to the rules of the grammar of a language.
There are two kinds of inflection: The declension of nouns, adjectives, and
pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs. There is a set of morphological rules which we
apply in order to form the correct tenses or cases. We combine free morphemes with bound
morphemes, the latter marking tense, gender, number, case, and so forth. Bound morphemes
like {to}, which appears as a marker of the infinitive, are also used in order to form correct
sentences. These markers help to create sentences that are correct according to the syntactic
rules of a language. We see here that morphology and syntax cannot be regarded as entirely
different disciplines.
82
The inflectional morphemes do not carry any meaning on their own.
Examples:
Declension: Noun: boy: boys, boy’s, boys’
Adjective: big: bigger
Pronouns: I: me, my, mine
Conjugation: Verb: work: works, worked, working
8.2.2. Word formation
8.2.2.1. Derivation
There are morphemes in English that allow us to change words. These are
derivational morphemes: new words are derived in the process. Derivational morphemes are
affixes. If affixes are added to the front of a word, we speak of prefixes like in-, a-. If they
are attached to the end of the word, they are called suffixes, such as -able, -ish. Derivational
morphemes may or may not cause a change of the grammatical class of the word.
In any event, the following morphological rules apply to most cases cover the main
changes brought about by affixes. We speak of word formation as the productive feature of
a language. By changing one element, new classes of words can be produced.
NOUN TO
ADJECTIVE
{boy}+{ish}
{virtu}+{ous}
{Elizabeth}+{an}
{alcohol}+{ic}
VERB TO
ADJECTIVE
NOUN TO
NO CHANGE IN
NOUN
TO ADVERB
VERB
CLASS
{acquitt}+{al} {exact}+{ly}
{moral}+{ize} {a}+{moral}
{clear}+{ance} {quiet}+{ly}
{vaccin}+{ate} {mono}+{theism}
{confer}+{ence}
{brand}+{ish} {ex}+{wife}
{predict}+{ion}
{sub}+{minimal}
8.2.2.2. Compounding
We may also create new words by combining two free morphemes. The product of
such a process is called a compound. While German is notorious for compounding a
multitude of units (e.g., Weihnachtsbaumschmuckvertriebsorganisationshandbuchverkäufer),
compounds in English usually do not exceed two units.
In a compound, the two morphemes always serve two different purposes. The initial
morpheme is also called the head of the compound, the following is the body. The head of
the compound always determines the body semantically, e.g., {black}+{bird} -> a black
bird, whereas the body usually determines the grammatical class of the whole compound.
There are various possible combinations of English compounds:
-ADJECTIVE
ADJECTIVE- {bitter}+{sweet}
NOUN{head}+{strong}
VERB
{carry}+{all}
-NOUN
{poor}+{house}
{rain}+{bow}
-{pick}+{pocket}
-VERB
{high}+{born}
{spoon}+{feed}
{sleep}+{walk}
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8.2.2.3. Other processes of word-formation
Apart from the above mentioned morphological processes, there are also other ways
of creating new words:





Invention: Xerox, Exxon.
Acronymy: NATO, Unicef.
Reduplication: zigzag, chitchat.
Blending: smog, brunch.
Clipping: bus, auto, flu.
8.3. WORD CLASSES AND SENTENCE FUNCTIONS
We can divide words into two broad types: content words versus function words.
8.3.1. Content Words.
Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which
have meaning (lexical meaning) when the words are used alone.





Nouns: John, room, dog, London
Verbs: see, retire, laugh
Adjectives: fast, deep, yellow, big
Adverbs: really, completely, well, much, yesterday
Interjections: alas, oh, ugh, phew
Speakers can add new Content Words to the language, and so they are also called the
"open class" vocabulary, because it is open to additions.
8.3.2. Function Words
Function words are words which have little meaning on their own, but which show
grammatical relationships in and between sentences (grammatical meaning).





Pronouns: I, you, he, which, him
Conjunctions: and, but, because
Preposition: in, on, at, between, in front of
Auxiliaries: do, does, have, be
Determiners: the, a, this, my, that
In general speakers cannot add new Function Words to the language, and so this is the
"closed class" vocabulary.
Some difficulties remain, such as with adverbs: one cannot, for example, exchange
the adverbs "very" and "quickly" freely in a sentence: *”he ran very quickly” versus “he ran
quickly.”
To avoid this problem, the subcategory of the intensifiers is used to distinguish
adverbs such as 'very', from the common adverbs. The classing of words gives us overall
categorical information about those words. Note that words from the same class can take on
different functions depending upon their use in a sentence. Nouns, for example, may appear
words within the context of a sentence, such as subject, object, etc., this is called functional
information.
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EXERCISES
1. How many morphemes do you find in each of the following word? Which ones are free
and which are bound morphemes?
a. sofa
f. running
b. oranges
g. actor
c. rainbows
h. doctor
d. hippopotamus
i. revisited
e. looked
j. potato
2. Identify the morphemes in the following words, indicating where a spelling change may
be necessary when one breaks the word down into its constituents.
a. equalizers
f. predetermination
b. inclination
g. dangerously
c. befriending
h. unbelievable
d. transportation
i. protection
e. endearment
j. dehumanize
3. Pick out the bound morphemes in the following words and say whether they are
derivational morphemes (D) or inflectional morphemes (I).
a. inflectional
f. respectably
b. terrifying
g. represents
c. hospitalized
h. stifles
d. regularizes
i. previewed
e. reviewers
j. submariners
4. What are the main allomorphs of each of the following morphemes? Provide examples to
illustrate each of the allomorphs.
a. –s (as in the verb ‘looks’)
b. –ed (as in the verb ‘looked’)
c. in- (as in words where the morpheme means ‘not’, for example ‘in + eligible’)
d. –er (as in words where the morpheme is used to form nouns from verbs, for example,
‘work + er’
e. the (before ‘apple’ and ‘book’)
5.
Segment the following words into free and bound morphemes. Say in each case
whether the bound morpheme changes the word class of the free morpheme.
a. unbearable.
b. moralised
c. tranquilisers
d. imprudently
e. width
85
WORKSHEET 6 –
MORPHOLOGY
Name: _______________________________________ e-mail: _____________________
Question
Solution
Points
2
Explain the difference
between a syllable and a
morpheme.
2
What is an allomorph? Give
an example. (You are not
required to use phonetic
transcription).
3
Is there anything in the
definition of the terms
'morph' and 'phone' that
could be compared?
a) Words always consist of one meaning unit.
 True
 False
True or False?
3
b) Words always consist of one lexeme.
 True
 False
c) Lexemes always consist of one meaning unit.
 True
 False
86
Learning Notes
UNIT 8
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology
studies
the smallest distinctive element
of a language
A word may fit this definition, however
- not all words are single meaning units
e.g. ‘nonsense words’
- There are words composed of more
than one meaning unit. e.g. blue-berry
morpheme
A syllable cannot be regarded as the
smallest meaning unit, they are phonological units. Not all the syllables are
meaning units. e.g. po-lice
Some syllables can be meaning units.
e.g. end-less.
1. Free morpheme: It can be used on its own: work,
pen
Grammatical
2. Bound morpheme: It is never used alone, but must
be
used with another morpheme, e.g. as an affix or
combining form. e.g. the suffix –ing: writing
the suffix –er: worker
the s in plurals: boys
1. Homophonous: Morphemes that sound the same,
but their morphological function and visual realization
may be different. e.g. in in inn and incongruous
2. Discontinuous: It is a morpheme that is interrupted by
the insertion of another morphological unit.
e.g. “ge- and –t” in the German word “ge-reis-t”
TYPES OF
MORPHEMES
3. Portmanteau: It is the result of a fusion of two other
morphemes. e.g. “al” is the fusion of “a” and “el”.
Morphological
4.
Unique or residual:
Representing bound
morphemes,
they are, by themselves, meaningless and gain meaning
only in combination with other morphemes. e.g.
“mit” in “transmit”, “commit”.
5. Zero morpheme: There are meaningful grammatical
features that are not materialized, neither in writing nor
in sound waves, in a consistent manner. e.g. the
plural of some nouns: sheep (sing) – sheep (plural),
fish (sing.) – fish (plural).
87
Learning Notes
MORPH, MORPHEME AND ALLOMORPH:
Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Morphemes can have
grammatical functions. For example, the –s in boys, which shows that the word is in plural.
Morph is the physical realization of the morpheme. For example, the morph of the
morpheme –s for plural may show has various realizations. These variations sound and look
differently:
Morpheme –s
morphs:
/z/ in “dogs, beds”;
/s/ in “cats”;
/ɪz/ in “garages”
Allophorms are several morphs that belong to the same morpheme: variants of one
morpheme.
88
UNIT 9
SYNTAX
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which
govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is the grammatical arrangement or words in a
sentence. It concerns both word order and agreement in the relationship between words.
Syntax is primarily concerned with structure of sentences.
Examples:
The following statements follow normal English word order:
 The cat sat on the mat.
 My old brown leather suitcase.
The following statements do not follow normal English word order:
 The cat on the mat sat.
 My brown leather old suitcase.
Use
Word order is very important in English, because the language is no longer inflected. That
is, individual words do not have endings to show which parts of speech they represent.
Changes to conventional syntax are often used to create dramatic, poetic, or comic effect.
For instance, poets and song lyricists often change syntactic order to create rhythmic effects.
“I’ll sing to him, each spring to him
And long for the day when I’ll cling to him,
Betwitched, bothered and bewildered am I.”
(Cole Porter)
A normal sentence in English usually contains at least three elements: subject, verb, and
object.
Subject
The cat
John
Mary
Verb
eats
likes
chose
Object
the goldfish
football
the wallpaper
Every language has rules of syntax, and to the linguist the essential rules are descriptive.
They are the rules which underpin the life of the language and which are extremely slow to
change.
These are not to be confused with the prescriptive ‘rules’ of traditional grammar (For
instance, ‘Never end a sentence with a preposition’).
89
An example of a descriptive rule of English syntax is that in the imperative in
English, the verb takes the initial position in the sentence, usually directly before the noun
which is the object.




Put those books on the table.
Take the lid off after half an hour.
Remove all packaging before heating the soup.
Isolate the switch in case of fault.
It is important to make a distinction between grammar and syntax, and to realise that syntax
is a component of grammar.
The term 'grammar' refers to the whole structure of the language including the naming of its
parts, its rules of tense, and its sound system. It is a comprehensive term.
Syntax only refers to the relationship between the grammatical components of language in
use. In other words it is the nature, quality or type of relationship between terms in any given
statement which is the province of syntax.
9.1. GRAMATICAL SYSTEM
This is where inflection comes in, of course. It can, to begin with, locate the event in
time, setting the co-ordinates of past and present by marking the verb for tense. At the same
time it marks the verb for aspect, that is to say, it represents the process as taking place either
over an open period of time (progressive), or within a closed period of time (perfective), or
left unspecified (simple).
Tense and aspect are systems which provide the verb with its formal identity as a
sentence constituent. So if ‘live’ is to function as a verb, it has to be processed through the
system and marked as such. Let us then select present tense and simple aspect. We now
have a slightly more focused proposition:
artist lives in gothic church.
Again, this might be sufficient to signal meaning. It might, for example, figure quite
plausibly as a newspaper headline. But notice that our choice of inflection does not only
signal tense and aspect, but singular as well, and as such it transfers the signal to the
preceding subject. We specify one artist. But this needs to be formally marked as well
(even though in certain uses, like headlines and telegrams, convention allows us to waive the
requirement in the interests of brevity). Nouns also have systems which provide them with
identity conditions. Just as verbs have to be processed through the dual tense/aspect system,
so nouns have to be processed through the dual number/definiteness system. Are we talking
about a single artist or artists in the plural, the artist or artists we know about, any old artist
or an artist or artists unknown? We have to decide, and mark the noun accordingly; and the
same, of course, applies to the noun ‘church’.
If we then process our sequence of words through the required grammatical systems,
we come up with a number of possibilities:
The artist lives in a gothic church.
An artist lived in a gothic church.
The artist was living in a gothic church.
Artists live in gothic churches.
Artists have lived in gothic church.
And so on, and so on.
90
9.2. CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE
Now there are a number of points that are worth noting here. Firstly, the processing
of nouns and verbs through their systems has to be co-ordinated. The marking of plurality
on the noun, for example, has to match up with a corresponding marking on the verb to
which it relates. In other words, they have to fit together as interdependent constituents or a
larger structure, that of the sentence.
Secondly, this preparation for constituent status may involve only the use of an
inflection as in ‘artists’, ‘lives’, and so on. But it may also involve the deployment of
separate morphemes, the so-called ‘function words’. This is the case with English, for
example, where such function words are required for the marking of definiteness, as in
phrases like ‘a/the artist’, ‘is/was living’ and so on. So we can say that the noun phrases (for
example, ‘the artist’), and verb phrases (for example, ‘was living’) are constituents of larger
structures, but are themselves in turn structured into constituents. Thus, the noun phrase
consists of a noun as headword, and markers for number and definiteness. These markers
too are interdependent. (Widdowson: 1996: 48-50)
What is the structure of a sentence? A natural assumption is that sentences are mere strings
of words, with no special structure (this is what we call ‘Hypothesis 1’). This assumption is
incorrect, however. We show that sentences have more structure than meets the eye: they
are organized intro subgroups of words, which are called ‘constituents’. Constituents have a
tree-like structure, which has lead linguists to represent sentences as syntactic trees (this is
what we call ‘Hypothesis 2’). The crucial argument in favour of Hypothesis 2 and again
Hypothesis 1 stems from certain tests (called ‘constituency tests’), in which a group of words
is targeted by a certain operation to yield another sentence. If the operation succeeds, and
yields a grammatical sentence, the group of words in question behaves a natural unit, and is
likely to be a ‘constituent’. For example in Mary will meet the President the words the
President can be moved as a unit to the beginning of the sentence, yielding The President,
Mary will meet, which is grammatical. We conclude that the President is a constituent. By
contrast, if we attempt to move to the beginning of the sentence the words meet the, the
result is ungrammatical: *Meet the Mary will President. This suggests that meet the is not a
constituent. With this background in mind, we give an account of structural ambiguities, i.e.
cases in which a given string of words can be organized into two distinct trees, with different
meanings.
9.3. TREE ANALYSIS
Information about the constituents of a sentence is easily seen in the schema known
as SYNTACTIC TREES. This diagram provides a visual representation of the Constituent
Structure of the sentence.
Phrase Structure Rules: NP
NP  N
N: students, assignments, hats, bus …
(1)
NP

N

students
NP

N

hat
NP  DET – N
91
DET  the, these, a …
2)
NP
DET

these
NP
N

students
DET

the
N

hat
NP  (DET) – N
Phrase Structure Rules: PP
PP  P – NP
P: for, with, on …
(3)
PP
P

for
NP
DET

the
N

students
(4) I walked out the door.
I walked out.
PP  P – (NP)
Phrase Structure Rules: NP, PP
(5) (a) the students with a hat
(b) the students on the bus with a hat
NP  (DET) – N – (PP) – (PP)
95
NP
N

students
PP
P

on
PP
NP
DET

the
N

bus
P

with
NP
DET

a
N

hat
92
The Golden Rule of the Tree Structures: Modifiers are always attached within the phrase
they modify.
Phrase Structures: ADJP
(6) a. tall
b. surprisingly tall
c. very surprisingly tall
ADJP  (ADVP) – ADJ
ADJP
ADVP
DEG

very
ADV

surprisingly
ADJ

tall
Phrase Structure Rules: NP, ADJP
(7) a. the big yellow book
b. the very yellow book
NP  (DET) – (ADJ) – ( ADJ) – N
NP
DET

The
ADJP

ADJ

big
ADJP

ADJ

yellow
NP
N

book
DET

the
ADJP
DEG

very
ADJ

yellow
N

book
93
Phrase Structure Rules: VP
(8) Ignatious
a. left (the room) (quickly) (often)
b. (often) (quickly) left
VP  (ADVP) – (ADVP) – V – (NP) – (ADVP) – (ADVP)
(9) Bill often left the room in a huff on Tuesdays.
VP  (ADVP) – (ADVP) – V (NP) – (ADVP) – (PP) – (PP)
VP
ADVP

A

often
V

left
NP
DET

the
PP
N

room
P

in
PP
NP
DET

a
P

N on

huff
NP

N

Tuesdays
PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES (From Radford, Andrew: Transformational Syntax)
S
NP
DET
This
AUX
N
boy
VP
will
V
speak
ADVP
PP
DEG
ADV
P
very
slowly
to
NP
DET
N
that
girl
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The Phrase Structure Rules:
Chomsky suggested that structures could be generated by a set of rules which he calls
Phrase Structure Rules. Consider for example, the following set of Phrase Structure Rules:
(1) S  NP – AUX – VP
(2) NP  D – N
(3) VP  V – ADVP – PP
(4) ADVP  DEG – ADV
(5) PP  P – NP
(6) NP  D – N
S = Sentence
NP = Noun Phrase
DET = Determiner
N = Noun
AUX = Auxiliary
VP = Verb Phrase
V = Verb
ADVP = Adverbial Phrase
DEG = Degree Adverb
ADV = Adverb
PP = Prepositional Phrase
P = Preposition
 = ‘can consist of / can be formed from’
 = ‘immediately preceding’
The rule can be regarded as specifying ‘You can form a Sentence by taking a Noun
Phrase immediately followed by an Auxiliary immediately followed by a Verb Phrase.’
More formally, we can say that the rule will generate the partial tree-structure below:
(1) S  NP – AUX – VP
S
NP
AUX
VP
In order to get the lower branches on the left side of the tree, we need a rule like this:
(2) NP  DET – N
S
NP
DET
AUX
VP
N
This reads, Noun Phrase can consist of a Determiner immediately preceding a Noun
We can form a Verb Phrase by taking a Verb immediately followed by an Adverbial
Phrase immediately followed by a Prepositional Phrase. We can generate:
95
S
NP
AUX
VP
DET
N
will
V
ADVP
PP
98
We can form an Adverbial Phrase by taking a Degree Adverb followed by an
Adverb; applying this rule to the structure, we expand into:
S
NP
DET
AUX
N
VP
will
V
ADVP
DEG
PP
ADV
We can form a Prepositional Phrase out of a Preposition immediately followed by a
Noun Phrase; applying the rule to the structure will give us:
(5) PP  P – NP
S
NP
DET
This
AUX
N
boy
VP
will
V
speak
ADVP
DEG
very
ADV
slowly
PP
P
to
NP
DET

that
N

girl
96
(6) NP  DET – N
Rule 6 says that we can form a Noun Phrase by taking a Determiner immediately
followed by a Noun; if we apply this rule to expand both the Noun Phrases, we derive the
structure:
S
NP
DET
This
AUX
N
VP
will
boy
V
speak
ADVP
PP
DEG
ADV
P
very
slowly
to
NP
DET
N
that
girl
Let’s now assume that in addition to the Categorial Rules – that is, rules expanding
categories into other categories – the syntactic component of our grammar also contains a
Lexicon ( = dictionary), or list of all the words in the language. And let us further assume
that the Lexical Entry ( = dictionary entry) for each such Lexical Item ( = word) contains (in
addition to other information) a specification of the syntactic category that the word belongs
to. For present purposes, we might imagine that our Lexicon contains the following entries:
DET  this
N  boy
AUX  will
V  speak
DEG  very
ADV  slowly
P  to
DET  that
N  girl
The final phrase structure rules of the above sentence are:
(1) S  NP – AUX – VP
(2) NP  D – N
(3) D  this
(4) N  boy
(5) AUX  will
(7) V  speak
(9) DEG  very
(10) ADV  slowly
(11) PP  P – NP
(12) P  to
(13) NP  DET – N
(14) DET  that
(15) N  girl
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EXERCISE 1
Draw trees for the following phrases:
1. the students with a hat
2. students on the bus with a hat
3. the little dog in the house
4. Mary’s collection of mushrooms
5. that expensive little box of delicious chocolate
6. little black furry cats
7. The Joneses’ new Japanese car
8. Many regions of the United States
EXERCISE 2
Draw trees for the following sentences:
1. This girl will speak very carefully to the waiter
2. A boy must speak very sincerely to a girl.
3. That student may signal rather carefully to the waiter.
4. The big cat will chase the little mouse
5. Which car will your father put in the garage?
6. The poor old man must be quite tired
7. The new hotel has a reasonably cheap restaurant.
8. Two young children were seriously injured in the accident.
9. The business meeting with the American executives was very badly organized.
10. The young girl speaks three foreign languages perfectly.
98

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