Indian Journal of Hill Farming

Transcription

Registration No. SR/IAHF 439/87 of 1987
ISSN 0970-6429
Vol 26
December 2013
No. 2
Contents
Sl No
Title
Page
1
Manipulation of Conjugated linoleic Acid in Milk and Meat through Dietary
Management in Ruminant Animals: A Review
Pramod Singh, S. Senani, C.S. Prasad, S.B.N. Rao
1-15
2
Quality Evaluation of Indigenous Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) Cultivars
of Nagaland
Juri Buragohain, T. Angami, B. U. Choudhary, P. Singh, B. P. Bhatt,
A. Thirugnanavel, Bidyut C. Deka
16-20
3
Quality and Shelf-life of Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) Fruits in Different
Packages During Storage
Bidyut C. Deka, A. Nath, R.L. Lamare, R.K. Patel
21-25
4
Improved Measures for Conservation Agriculture Practices in Rice Farming System
R. Nagarajan, J. Aravind, R. Ravi, A. Venkatesh
26-31
5
Comparative Study of Composite Fish culture (CFC) and Local Practice of Fish
Culture in East Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh
Shah Mustahid Hussain, Debashish sen, Mahesh Pathak, M. Premjit Singh
32-34
6
Temporal Rainfall Distribution Characteristics at Tura, Western Meghalaya
Lala I. P. Ray, P.K. Bora, A.K. Singh, Ram Singh, N.J. Singh, S.M. Feroze
35-41
7
Response of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Clones to Integrated Nutrient Management
Practices
I. Jaisankar, R. Revathi, K. T. Parthiban, M. R. Backiyavathy,
R. Jude Sudhagar, K. Sivakumar
42-48
8
Dynamics of Physico-Chemical Values in Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.)
across Maturity
R. L. Lamare, Bidyut C. Deka, A. Nath, R. K. Patel
49-53
9
Status of Livestock Production in Gurez Valley of Jammu and Kashmir in India
A. A. Khan, A. A. Dar, H. M. Khan, M. S. Mir, A. A. Malik, Y. Afzal
54-58
10 Tolerance Evaluation using Different Methods Against Soybean Rust caused by
Phakopsora pachyrhizi
P. Baiswar, N. Tiameren Ao, D.N. Upadhyay, S. Chandra
59-62
11 Phosphorus, Sulfur and Cobalt Fertilization Effect on Yield and Quality of Soybean
(Glycine max L. Merrill) in Acidic Soil of Northeast India
Saraj Bhattacharjee, A. K. Singh, Manoj Kumar, S. K. Sharma
63-66
The views expressed are of the author/authors, the journal is not responsible for the technical correctness of data and does not
in any way subscribe to any views or opinions expressed thereof.
123
December 2013  Volume 26  Issue 2
12 Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on the Performance of Allium odorosum
under Mid-altitude Foothill condition of Manipur
B. Narsimha Rao, S. S. Roy, A. K. Jha, I. M. Singh, N. Prakash
67-70
13 Wide Hybridization in the Genus Oryza : Aspects and Prospects
Patu Kahte, A. Pattanayak
71-77
14 Analogy of Soil Parameters in Particle Size Analysis through Laser Diffraction
Techniques
Roomesh Kumar Jena, R. Jagadeeswaran, R. Sivasamy
78-83
15 Genetic Variability in Yields and Its Component Characters in Upland Rice
of Nagaland
Toshimenla, Sapu Changkija
84-87
16 Organic Farming: Reality and Concerns
S. Hazarika, Manoj Kumar, D. Thakuria, L.J. Bordoloi
88-97
17 Studies on the Variability in Biochemical Characters in F1 Progenies of Peach
(Prunus persica L.)
Y. Indrani Devi, S. S. Roy
98-104
18 Vermicompost, Mulching and Irrigation Level on Growth, Yield and TSS of
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
B.K. Singh, K. A. Pathak, Y. Ramakrishna, V. K. Verma, B. C. Deka
105-110
19 Collection and Evaluation of Some Underutilized Leafy Vegetables of Meghalaya
J. Buragohain, V. B Singh, B. C. Deka, A. K. Jha, K. Wanshnong, T. Angami
111-115
20. Effect of Minamil on Growth Performance and Age at Maturity of Ghungroo
Pigs in Field Condition in Zunheboto District
Rakesh Kumar Chaurasia
116-117
124
Indian Journal of Hill Farming 26(2):1-15
Available online at www.kiran.nic.in
Manipulation of Conjugated Linoleic Acid in Milk and Meat
through Dietary Management in Ruminant Animals: A Review
PRAMOD SINGH1*, S. SENANI2, C.S. PRASAD2, S.B.N. RAO2
Received 18.7.2012, Revised 3.11.2012, Accepted 7.11.2012
ABSTRACT
Importance of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in the diets of humans as a vital health promoter has
gained significance in recent times. CLA is a collective term used for a mixture of positional and
geometrical (cis or trans) isomers of linoleic acid with conjugated double bonds. The major isomers
are c9t11 and t10c12 besides many others. Most prevalent and biologically active CLA isomer is
c9t11. Amongst, several beneficial health effects inhibition of cancer, coronary heart diseases and
mutagenesis are most important aspects, besides reduction of body fat in humans. Even though, ruminant
milk and meat and their products are richest sources of CLA, further enrichment of these products is
required to obtain the health benefits of CLA in human population. This can be achieved by increase
of CLA contents of above livestock products by way of various dietary manipulations in the ruminant
animal production system. CLA is principally synthesized in the rumen by biohydrogenation of linoleic
acid and endogenous desaturation of trans vaccenic acid (TVA), which is also produced in the rumen.
Feeding ruminant animals with diets either rich in linoleic acid or poor but effectively increase the
TVA production is the practical way for elevation of CLA contents in milk and meat. Grazing on
pastures rich in grasses enhanced the milk and meat CLA contents. Supplementing ruminant diets
with oilseeds/oils viz. soybean, rapeseed, linseed, sunflower, safflower etc. or fish meal/oil and some
methods of feed processing like- cracking, rolling, roasting, extrusion etc. increased milk and meat
CLA contents. Literature relates that high level of concentrate feeding did not support elevation of
CLA, whereas feeding good quality roughage was always beneficial. Moreover use of ionophore
antibiotics in the animal diet produced marginal increase; their role is limited due to prohibition. The
effects of various other dietary factors and processing methods for increasing CLA levels in the ruminant
livestock products have been discussed. Future research studies on aspects of synchronized ruminal
fermentation along with effective biohydrogenation and optimization of passage rates are suggested.
The role of alternate hydrogen sink in rumen such as organic acids, component of Krebs cycle may
also be explored for potential of increasing CLA levels.
(Key Words: CLA, milk, meat, ruminants, oilseed, roughages, pastures)
INTRODUCTION
acid and also produced endogenously in other body
tissues from trans vaccenic acid (TVA), which also
originate in the rumen (Griinari and Bouman 1999).
The term conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is
collectively used for a mixture of positional and
geometrical (cis or trans) isomers of linoleic acid
having conjugated double bonds. The major
isomers include c9t11, t9t11, t10t12, and c10t12
while the minor isomers include c9c11, c10c12,
c10t12, and c10t12 (Lin et al. 1995). The most
biologically active and abundant isomers of CLA
Amongst 400 odd fatty acids (FA) found in cow
milk fat, one was recognized to contain conjugated
double bonds by UV absorption technique (Booth
et al. 1935). Its structure was later, recognized
mainly as cis 9, trans 11-C18:2 (c9t11-C18:2)
monocarboxylic acid. It was christened as ‘Rumenic
Acid’, probably due to its origin from the rumen. It
is formed as an intermediate compound during the
microbial hydrogenation of linoleic acid to stearic
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani (Meghalaya) – 793 103, India
NIANP, Bangalore – 560 030, India
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: praamodsingh@gmail.com
2
Review
1
are c9t11 and t10c12. However, former alone
accounts for over 80% of total in milk fat (Bouman
and Griinari 2001; Chin et al. 1992).
Different isomers of CLA and especially c9t11
possess beneficial effects on human health like
suppression of carcinogenesis (Cantwell et al. 1999;
Ha et al. 1990), mutagenesis (Ha et al. 1987) and
atherosclerosis (McGuire and McGuire 2000). The
other important physiological effects include its
ability to reduce catabolic effects of immune
stimulation (Cook et al. 1998), increased IgG and
IgM production (in vitro) by spleen lymphocytes
in rats (Yamasaki et al. 2000), immune stimulation
and modulation (Cook et al. 1993) and prevention
of distress (Ohgushi et al. 2001) in poultry,
increased lean muscle tissue in humans (Beuker et
al. 1999). It has also been shown to reduce the body
fat (Pariza et al. 1996) and growth-promoting action
(Chin et al. 1994) in rats and increased feed
conversion efficiency in growing and finishing pigs
(Thiel-Cooper et al. 2001). Emerging evidence
indicates that c9t11 and t10c12 isomers of CLA
produce different effects (Wang et al. 2005a) and
later could be associated with decrease in level of
HDL-cholesterol in humans (Martin and Valeille
2002).
Although CLA is found in foods both of animal
and vegetable origin, but its content is much higher
in animal products. Milk, meat and their products
from ruminant animals are richer sources than their
non-ruminant counter parts (3.32 vs 1.39 mg CLA/
g fat) and are recognized as major dietary sources
for human beings. Goat meat with 63.5 mg/g fat
CLA contents was ten times higher than of pork
and chicken (Takenoyama et al. 2001). Among
various sources, level of CLA vary from as low as
0.2 mg/g in vegetable oils to 17 and 30 mg/g fat in
beef and milk respectively, and c9t11 isomer
contributes more than 90% of total CLA content in
milk fat (O’Shea et al. 1998).
Owing to the considerable differences in CLA
contents of common foods its dietary intake in
humans varies to large extent. According to
estimates the common people are not fully benefited
by the advantages of CLA since they are not
consuming appropriate quantity through the diets
(Ip et al. 1994). German males and females had
average CLA intake with 430 and 350 mg/d
respectively. In USA and Finland, the daily intake
of CLA for men and women together ranged from
52-137 and 40-310 mg, respectively (McGuire et
al. 1999). In Indian context, no such estimates are
available, but looking into the beneficial effects and
consumption pattern of milk and meat by human
population, the increase of CLA levels may be
important. This could be achieved by adjusting the
animal diet that can increase CLA levels. This
article is aimed to review the influences of various
dietary factors on the CLA content in milk and meat
of ruminant animals and to suggest suitable research
strategies.
CLA biosynthesis in ruminants
Membrane associated enzymes of some rumen
bacteria carry out the process involving
biohydogenation (BH) of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA; Hughes et al. 1982). Typically,
enzymes produced by fiber degrading rumen
bacterium, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens catalyze these
reactions. Moreover, recently Megashphaera
elsdenii (YJ-4) has been found responsible for the
synthesis of t10c12-CLA in rumen (Kim et al.
2005). Principally c9t11 isomer of CLA is
synthesized in rumen as BH intermediate of linoleic
acid (C18:2∆c9,c12 or C18:2) to stearic acid (C18:0),
however BH also take place in the hind gut to a
small extent. Henceforth term CLA will be used
for c9t11 isomer or otherwise mentioned. Process
of CLA biosynthesis in ruminant animals is depicted
in Figure 1.
During the synthesis of CLA in the BH pathway,
specific protonation of C13 atom in D-configuration
of linoleic acid is carried out by an isomerase
enzyme. It involves interaction between active site
of enzyme and π-electrons of double bonds at C9
position followed by transfer of proton (H+) owing
to additional bonding between an electronegative
region of enzyme and -COOH group of substrate
to produce c9t11 isomer (Kepler et al. 1971).
Further, strong linear correlation between contents
of CLA and TVA (C18:1∆11 or t11-C18:1) suggest
that, first two reactions i.e., up to the formation of
TVA, are not rate limiting (Kepler et al. 1966)
nevertheless, conversion of TVA to stearate is a rate
limiting step in the complete BH of linoleic acid
(Jiang et al. 1996). Accumulation of higher TVA in
rumen could be an indicator of a decrease of BH
process (Scollan et al. 1997) and reduced BH as
evidenced by higher TVA could lead to
accumulation of CLA (from linoleic acid) due to
negative feedback and might yield higher CLA in
the rumen (Enser et al. 1999).
2
intermediate for BH
pathways of C18:2 and
C18:3 FA. Both CLA and
TVA after synthesis in
rumen are absorbed in
lower gastrointestinal tract
and transported through
blood circulation to
different body sites, where
these are incorporated into
tissues. The TVA can be
transformed to CLA by
desaturase enzyme present
in intestine, adipose tissue
and mammary gland
(Fig.1). Elevated CLA
content in cow milk on post
ruminal infusion of TVA
provide good evidence in
favour
of
tissue
desaturation. According to
few estimates, the milk fat
CLA can arise to a tune of
Figure 1: Schematic representation of biosynthesis and origin of CLA in milk and
meat in ruminants
Table 1: C18 Fatty Acid (FA) contents of some
feedstuffs and vegetable oils
It is suggested that relatively small proportion
of CLA escapes the rumen and after absorption
made available for uptake by mammary gland or
adipose tissues and thereby an increase of dietary
supply of linoleic acid, being elementary precursor
through oil supplement enhances the amount of
CLA in milk and meat. Moreover, some studies
indicate the presence of alternate mechanisms also.
Feedstuffs which are not good sources of linoleic
acid like pasture grasses (Palmquist 1988) and
linseed (Table 1) upon consumption increase the
CLA contents and conversion of linoleic acid by
rumen microorganisms to CLA probably does not
appear to be major source (Griinary and Bauman
1999). Choi and Song (2005) observed that addition
of C18:3 FA produced higher level of CLA than
radiolabeled C18:2 under in vitro system. On the
other hand, γ-linolenic acid (C18:3∆c6,c9,c12) which
occur frequently in fungi, algae and certain oil seeds
but present in small quantities in lipids from animal
and higher plants (Kemp and Lander 1983) does
not seem to be of much significance.
A mechanism involving the tissue conversion
of TVA into CLA seems to be of major importance
(Corl et al. 1998). The BH of linolenic acid
(C18:3∆ c9,c12,c15) does not include CLA as an
intermediate whereas TVA is a common
Item
FA content
(g/100g total FA)
Reference
C18:1 C18:2 C18:3
Alfalfa
3
6.5
18.4
39.0
Rye grass
Pasture grass
Barley silage
Vetch grass pasture
2.2
3.4
18.4
3.5
14.6
13.2
28.1
14.0
68.2
61.3
6.4
63.3
Vetch grass hay
Barley grain
8.3
12.5
16.8
48.2
48.8
8.9
Corn grain
Corn oil
22.8
30.5
58.1
52.0
1.6
1.0
Cottonseed oil
Groundnut oil
Linseed oil
Rapeseed oil
Rice bran oil
Safflower seed oil
Hempseed oil
Jack fruit oil
Karanj seed oil
Poppy seed oil
Beef Tallow
19.0
37.0
28.0
56.0
42.3
13.8
12.0
6.4
47.9
11.0
40.0
52.0 Traces
41.0
0.3
18.0
60.0
26.0
10.0
37.0
1.3
75.3 Traces
55.0
25.0
40.2
9.4
23.6
72.0
5.0
4.0
2.5
Palmquist
1988
-do-do-doValvo et al.
2005
-doGibb et al.
2005
-doAnonymous
1995
-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-
characteristically higher digestibility and passage
rates than silages (Mambrini and Peyraud 1994) or
dry roughages. Probably, these conditions result in
the more incomplete BH, and therefore responsible
for the increased flow of TVA and CLA with
concurrent reduction in stearic acid production in
rumen. Several workers have observed an array of
effects on different dietary treatments.
Kelly et al. (1998a) reported an increase of over
200% in milk fat CLA when cows were exclusively
grazed on grass rich (>75%) lush green pasture as
compared to cows fed a total mixed ration (TMR)
containing corn silage-24, legume silage-18.8,
legume hay-4.2, rolled corn-25 and whole
cottonseed-12.5 parts. The increase in CLA may
be attributed to increased availability of TVA
coupled with its desaturation in tissues specially
the mammary gland, since C18:3 FA did not directly
yield CLA. Further, the decreased DMI would have
affected some rumen bacteria due to reduced energy
supply to complete the BH process (Jahereis et al.
1997; Stantone et al. 1997). Dhiman et al. (1999a)
observed a 4.5 fold increase in milk fat CLA content
when cows were allowed 100% grazing on pastures
rich in grasses. There was 4.5 and over 8 folds
increase in stearate and oleate contents respectively,
and 12 and 25 folds decrease in C18:2 and C18:3
FA contents respectively in milk fat on pasture
grazing.
Elgersma et al. (2003) demonstrated that both
milk fat CLA and TVA progressively decreases as
dairy cows were shifted from pasture grazing to
silage based diets during the commencement of
winter (Fig. 2). Esterified FA present in grasses
become free on silage making and are highly
susceptible for easy hydrogenation in the rumen.
Overall, CLA (mg/g milk fat) contents in milk of
43% via endogenous conversion of TVA (Griinary
and Bauman 1999). Interestingly, Adolf et al. (2000)
obtained 30% conversion efficiency via
desaturation of deuterium labeled TVA at ∆ 9
positions. A higher level of 91% of ruminant milk
fat CLA was traced to be of endogenous origin via
desaturation of TVA (Kay et al. 2004). Thus
formation of CLA in ruminant animal is a
consequence of partial BH of dietary FA (C18:2
and C18:3) and endogenous ∆9 desaturation of TVA
in mammary gland and other parts like
subcutaneous or intarmuscular adipose tissues
(Raes et al. 2004).
Influence of various dietary factors on CLA
content in milk and meat
Various dietary conditions affect the rumen
environment and consequently supply of precursors
for CLA synthesis. Concentration and duration of
feeding lipid substrates and energy sources could
affect microbial FA metabolism in the rumen and
could be major determinants at ruminal CLA
production (Bessa et al. 2000). Fundamentally,
linoleic acid is a better CLA precursor than linolenic
acid but others not fully recognized precursors may
also be contributing through many other reactions
viz. desaturation, chain elongation and many other
modifications. Recently, Kay et al. (2004) have
suggested that endogenous synthesis is responsible
for more than 91% of the c9t11-CLA secreted in
milk fat of cows fed fresh pasture. Therefore,
different tissues differ in CLA distribution, probably
because of differences in activities of desaturase
enzyme apart from various dietary factors (Mir et
al. 2000). Like milk fat, CLA in meat also depends
upon similar dietary factors, but sizable literature
is available.
Effect of roughage based diets
The pasture grasses, especially lush green with
young leaves are rich sources of linolenic acid i.e.,
C18:3∆ c9,c12,c15 (Young et al. 2000), mostly as
galactosyl-glyceride esters. Usually, these are also
rich in readily fermentable sugars and fiber
fractions, which go on decreasing as plant matures.
Legume forages are rather not good source of FA
like C18:2 and C18:3. The content of readily
fermentable carbohydrates and fiber portion is also
reduced considerably in silages, haylages and hay
or straws. The young lush green grasses have
Figure 2: Effect of change of dairy cows from pasture
grazing to silage feeding on milk fat CLA and TVA
(data adapted from Elgersma et al. 2003)
4
concentrate fed conditions (Dufey 1999). Shantha
et al. (1997) in an experiment involving 21 steers,
fed either pasture or pasture plus cracked corn for
150 days, observed that all pasture group had 1.5
fold higher CLA content (7.4 vs 5.1 mg/g fat) in
semi membranous muscle than grain supplemented
diet. The c9t11 isomer represented 95-98% of total
CLA in all pasture groups. Tsuneishi et al. (1999a)
reported a positive correlation (P<0.05) between
roughage intake from chopped rice straw and CLA.
In steers fed on concentrate and chopped rice straw
ad libitum for 11 months; from 15-26 months of
age, showed CLA contents of 0.44, 0.34 and 0.25%
in subcutaneous, intermuscular and perinephric fats
respectively. A difference was observed in mean
CLA concentrations amongst the adipose tissues.
Coefficient of correlation between percentage of
CLA in subcutaneous and intermuscular fat was
0.897 (P<0.01), in subcutaneous and perinephric
fat 0.680, and in intermuscular and perinephric fat
0.643. Correlations between the proportion of
roughage and total feed consumed and CLA
concentrations in the subcutaneous fat,
intermuscular fat and perinephric fat were 0.761,
0.658 and 0.393, respectively. Roughage intake was
significantly correlated with CLA concentrations
in the subcutaneous fat. Relatively higher
percentage of CLA was observed in the
subcutaneous fat of beef cattle which had higher
intake of fibrous feed.
Valvo et al. (2005) observed significant increase
in milk fat CLA and TVA in ewes that were allowed
grazing before about 30 days of lambing as
compared to concentrate feeding. The CLA and
TVA contents in meat (Longissimus dorsi) of lambs,
determined after 38 days of sole milk feeding from
respective ewes also indicated similar trend (Fig.
3). Knight et al. (2004) also reported similar results
individual cow were in range of 14-36 on grazing
while it was 4.0-5.8 at the end of 14th day on silage
based diet. Jehris et al. (1997a) also observed lower
level of milk fat CLA and TVA from cows fed silage
based diets as compared to pasture fed conditions.
Rego et al. (2004) reported higher concentration
of milk fat TVA and CLA on pasture grazing as
compared to cows fed a TMR consisting of corn
silage (60%) and concentrate (40%) on DM basis.
Further, moderate (i.e. 1.0 kg/d) low fat concentrate
supplementation of grazing dairy cows increases
performance without compromising the FA profile
of milk fat.
Bargo et al. (2006) evaluated two pasture
allowances (25 and 40 kg DM/cow/d), which were
supplemented with or without 1 kg concentrate for
every 4 kg milk production. Concentrate
supplementation has reduced DMI by 2.0 or 4.4
kg/d at low or higher pasture, respectively, and also
the contents (g FA/100g fat) of TVA, c8t11 and
t10c12 CLA in milk fat (Table 2). A reduction in
TVA content of milk fat was found on concentrate
supplementation and c9t11-CLA by 13%. The ratio
of two CLA isomers was not affected by concentrate
supplementation. It was suggested that the reduction
in milk fat is due to a reduction in contribution of
pasture. An Indian study indicated that a total
roughage based diet containing berseem (Trifolium
alexandrnum) and wheat straw (87:13) was best
for enhancement of contents of CLA as well as ideal
ratio of ω-3 and ω-6 FA in milk of buffalo
(Anonymous 2005).
Table 2: Effect of two levels (25 vs 40 kg) of pasture
with or without concentrate supplementation on
contents of TVA and CLA isomers (g FA/100g fat)
in milk of cows
Fatty acid
Low pasture
High pasture
Without With
Without
concen- concen- concentrate
trate
trate
TVA
c9t11-CLA
t10c12-CLA
3.37
1.35
0.17
2.72
1.11
0.07
3.58
1.36
0.16
With
concentrate
2.85
1.24
0.08
Figure 3: Effect of grazing and concentrate feeding on
CLA and TVA contents in milk and meat of ewes and
lambs
(adapted from Bargo et al. 2006)
All grass fed conditions in beef steers increased
CLA incorporation into meat over silage or
(data adapted from Valvo et al. 2005
5
in CLA contents in meat (Longissimus dorsi) samples
of lambs raised on ewe’s milk containing high or
low levels of CLA. Poulson et al. (2004) in a study
involving beef cattle demonstrated that raising
cattle on forage and pasture without grain
supplementation enhances beef CLA content.
Additionally, finishing cattle on pasture increased the
vitamin E content of beef by 300% compared to beef
from animals finished on a traditional high-grain diet.
sunflower seeds (300 and 260 g/kg concentrate) to
a diet having 78:22 forage to concentrate ratio
(Table 3).
Table 3: Effect of oilseed supplementation to high
forage diets on TVA and CLA contents in milk and
cheese (g/kg of total FA) of lactating ewes
Products TVA/CLA
Effect of oilseed supplementation
On supplementation of oil rich feed ingredients
to the diets, the increased concentration of CLA in
milk fat is primarily due to increased supply of
precursor to the rumen. Such effects may be
observed in animals fed oilseeds and/or other grains
rich in either linoleic acid or linolenic acid. Oilseeds
rich in former produced higher CLA contents. A
smaller increase of dietary lipids from cereals failed
to yield any significant change in milk fat CLA
content. Dhiman et al. (1999a) did not find the
beneficial impact of dietary inclusion of high oil
corn (7.5% EE) at 32% level in TMR over normal
corn (3.8% EE) on milk fat CLA content. However,
higher dietary lipid level in the form of oilseeds
enhanced the CLA content (Takamistu et al. 1999).
Lawless et al. (1998) observed different ranges of
CLA (mg/g milk fat) i.e., 6.8-25.7 in control (3 kg/
d unmolassed beet pulp and pasture ad libitum),
10.6-33.5 in rapeseed (1.65 kg/d full fat rapeseed,
1.2 kg/d unmolassed beet pulp, 150 g/d molasses
and pasture ad libitum) and 8.8-30.5 in soybean
(3.1 kg/d full fat soybean and pasture ad libitum)
supplemented diets in cattle.
Aii et al. (1999) reported a 3.5 fold increase in
CLA content on linseed supplementation and
Stantone et al. (1997) reported 165% increased milk
fat CLA content on 1.65kg/d linseed
supplementation over control. At 3.63 kg/d linseed
supplementation, further increase of 172% was
recorded. There was substantial increase in FA like
C14:0, C16:0, C18:0 and C18:1 from diet to milk
fat with reduction in C18:2 and C18:3. Collomb et
al. (2004) have observed 4.07, 5.47, 7.46, 15.46,
4.85 and 7.37 mg/g fat of c9t11-CLA in the milk
samples of dairy cows on without supplementation
or ground oilseeds supplementation with rapeseed1, sunflower-1 and 1.4, linseed-1 and 1.4 kg
respectively. Zhang et al. (2006) have reported
significant increase of TVA and CLA contents in
milk and cheese on supplementation of flax and
Milk
Cheese
TVA
CLA-c9t11
CLA-t10c12
TVA
CLA-c9t11
CLA-t10c12
High
Forage
(HF)
HF +
Flax
HF +
Sunflower
9b
10c
1b
9b
9c
1b
15a
15b
2a
15a
15b
1b
15a
23a
2a
15a
22a
2a
Figures bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05)
across a row.(adapted from Zhang et al. 2006)
Abu-Ghazaleh et al. (2001) investigated the
effect of replacing soybean meal with fish meal on
feed intake, milk yield and milk composition in 12
multiparous Holstein cows at 48±8 days in milking
with 4 x 4 Latin square design of 21-day periods.
Fishmeal substituted for soybean meal on an
isonitrogenous basis at 0, 25, 50 and 100% of
supplemental protein. Total mixed diets were (DM
basis) 25% corn silage, 25% lucerne hay and 50%
concentrate mix. Intake of DM and milk yield was
similar for all diets. Milk protein percentages (3.23,
3.24, 3.31 and 3.35%) increased with 100%
fishmeal supplementation and tended to be higher
with 50% fishmeal supplementation compared with
100% soybean meal diet. Milk fat percentages
(3.18, 2.99, 3.04 and 2.87) and yield were lower
with the 100% fishmeal than with the 100%
soybean meal diet. Concentrations (g/100g of FA)
of CLA (0.39, 0.44, 0.46 and 0.72) and TVA (1.09,
1.19, 1.28 and 1.54) were higher with the 100%
fishmeal diet than with 100% soybean meal diet.
Effect of processing of oilseeds on CLA has
been investigated. Perhaps, roasting of oilseeds
caused brittleness thereby enhancing the efficiency
of oil release, de-esterification and early escape of
precursors from the rumen. On the other hand
extrusion causes partial gelatinisation and also
increases the substrate in the form of readily
available oil. These conditions improve the rumen
passage leading to more incomplete BH of dietary
oils. Moreover, a shift in rumen environment due
6
to dry or moist heat treatment of full fat oilseeds
may also be responsible for enhanced CLA content
in milk fat. Over 200% increase (8.1 vs 3.8 g/d) in
cow milk fat CLA yield was noticed when roasted
full fat soybean was supplemented with raw cracked
full fat soybean at 18% level in TMR of dairy cattle
(Dhiman et al. 2000). Similar to roasting, extrusion
of whole soybean and cottonseed has also shown
to influence the CLA content in milk fat. The
supplementation of soybean meal in cow diet
produced 0.34 g/d CLA whereas full fat extruded
cottonseed and soybean supplementation at similar
level resulted in 0.72 and 0.96 (g/d) CLA content
in milk fat (Dhiman et al. 1999b).
Like the case of milk fat CLA, small increase in
supply of precursors from increased dietary lipids
did not increase its contents in meat. When silage
portion was increased from 12 to 20% level in
isocaloric TMR containing either 74% high oil corn
(7.04% EE) or 82% normal corn (4.86% EE), the
CLA content in longissimus dorsi muscle was
increased (P<0.06) from 3.87 to 4.87 mg/g fat in
finishing steers. A level of silage at 12% in either
of the diets did not bring any significant change.
However, a small decrease (3.81 from 3.92 mg/
100g) in CLA content was observed when they
offered TMR containing 83% high oil corn (7.04%
EE) and 12% silage as compared to similar levels
of normal corn (4.86% EE). Feeding silage at 20%
level from 80% high oil corn (isocaloric TMR to
normal corn) resulted in a significant (P<0.06)
increase in CLA content (McGuiree et al. 1998).
Stasiniewicz et al. (2000) have carried out an
experiment on bulls to investigate the effect of
feeding rapeseed oil cake or linseed on performance
and meat quality. Bulls were fed ad libitum on a
basic complete feed and barley straw (control
group) or with similar amounts of supplemental fat
as linseed, rapeseed oil cake, or rapeseed oil. The
fat samples in the M. longissimus dorsi from linseed
fed bulls showed highest content of linolenic acid
and CLA. The level of cholesterol in the same
sample of animals fed the experimental complete
feed with vegetable oils was significantly lower
than in the control group. On supplementing
cracked hempseed at 0, 9 and 14% levels in the
diets of feedlot cattle, there was an increase in CLA
content in fats from both brisket and costalis
diaphragmatic meat samples, but former contained
higher amounts (Gibb et al. 2005).
Effect of vegetable oil supplementation
Oil supplementation is more efficient than
oilseed feeding. It may be due to partial deviation
in bacterial activity on account of lipid coating over
bacterial surface (Devendra and Lewis 1974)
coupled with rapid escape of CLA and TVA from
the rumen and partial suppression of cellulolytic
bacterial activity. Usually oils provide fair
quantities of C18:2, C18:3 and other PUFA (table
1). The oils supplying higher quantities of C18:2
FA yield more CLA. On supplementation at 5.3%
(DM basis) levels of peanut (oleic acid rich),
sunflower (linoleic acid rich) and linseed (linolenic
acid rich) oils yielded 13.3, 24.4 and 16.7 mg CLA/
g milk fat respectively in three groups of lactating
cows (Kelly et al. 1998b). Supplementing canola
oil at 1 kg/d in the diet had increased the duodenal
flows and milk concentrations of TVA and CLA.
The feed intake, ruminal fermentation
characteristics, ruminal and total tract digestibilities
of nutrients were not significantly affected
(Chelikani et al. 2004).
Up to a certain limit the increased level of
supplementation of some vegetable oil has further
increased milk fat CLA. A level of 4.8 g/d CLA
increased to 18.3 g/d when soybean oil was
increased from 0.5-4.0% (DM basis) in cow diets
(Dhiman et al. 2000). On supplementation of 3.0%
canola oil (DM basis), Loor and Herbein (1997b)
also reported similar results. Mir et al. (1999)
observed increase in milk fat CLA content when
goats were supplemented with 0, 2, 4 and 6%
rapeseed oil (DM of grain intake). The CLA content
increased (P<0.01) from 10.35 to 19.42 and 32.05
mg/g milk fat, when goats fed 0, 2 and 4% rapeseed
oil respectively with linear and quadratic increase
(P<0.01) in C18:1 and quadratic decrease in
medium and short chain FA. Atkinson et al. (2006)
reported that increase of level of safflower oil (77%
C18:2) supplementation from 3-9% in the diet of
sheep has relatively decreased the ruminal lipolysis
and increased the amount (g/d) of TVA and CLA
flow through duodenum but absorption or
disappearance of these metabolites in small
intestine remained similar. Szumacher et al. (2001)
have studied the influence of the addition of
rapeseed oil, linseed oil and hydrogenated rape seed
oil at 4, 8 or 10% of fat (DM basis) to the basal diet
consisting of 60% concentrate and 40% meadow
hay (control group) in milking ewes. Rapeseed oil
7
and hydrogenated rapeseed oil had no effect on the
CLA content in milk, whereas the addition of
linseed oil significantly increased (P<0.05) the CLA
level in milk.
As compared to low (2.2%), high (4.4%) level
of linseed oil supplementation (DMI basis)
decreased the average daily yield (16.6 vs 12.5 g)
of CLA in milk of dairy cows. However,
supplementation of soybean oil at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and
4.0% DM level an expected increase was observed
(7.1, 8.5, 13.8 and 18.1 g CLA/d) in milk of cows.
It may be inferred that higher level of linseed oil
(increasing level of C18:3 FA) probably had
negative effect on bacterial activity, which might
have reduced the CLA content and supplementing
soybean oil is relatively beneficial over linseed oil
at higher levels (Dhiman et al. 2000).
Supplementation of lipids from different sources
also affects the CLA contents in meat. In a study
by Enser et al. (1999), steers were supplemented
with megalac, a mixture of saturated FA, linseed
oil (high C18:3), fish oil (high C20:5 and C22:6)
and a mixture of linseed oil and fish oil for 120
days to 60% grass silage and 40% concentrate
(barley and sugar beet based) diet. The levels of
CLA (g/kg of total FA) in longimissus muscle were
3.2, 8.0, 5.7 and 7.3 in respective groups. Dhiman
et al. (1999c) also observed similar results in steers
fed 2 or 4% soybean oil. Thus, dietary availability
of both C18:2 and C18:3 FA has increased the
muscle CLA content.
Mir et al. (2000) suggested that supplementation
of lamb feedlot diets with a source of linoleic acid
was a successful method of increasing CLA content
of tissues. They compared the relative increase in
the CLA content of lamb tissues by dietary CLA
supplementation (0.33 g/d for 21 days prior to
weaning) to milk replacer of pre-ruminant lambs
or by feeding linoleic acid rich oil (safflower oil,
6% DM-SAFF) to weaned ruminating lambs with
that of lambs receiving unsupplemented milkreplacer and pelleted feed. Dietary supplementation
with safflower oil increased fat content of
subcutaneous adipose tissue only, but CLA content
of all the tissues was increased (P<0.05) by more
than 200%. Dietary safflower oil increased C18:2
in all tissues and C16:0 in the diaphragm, and
decreased (P<0.05) C18:1 and C18:3 content in all
tissues. Supplementation of the diet with preformed CLA prior to weaning decreased fat content
of the adipose tissue with decreases occurring in
C18:0 relative to animals receiving the
unsupplemented diet, however, tissue CLA content
was not affected by provision of dietary CLA to
pre-ruminant lambs.
Szumacher et al. (2001) have studied the
influence of the addition of rapeseed oil, linseed
oil and hydrogenated rapeseed oil to the diet for
milking ewes and growing lambs on the
concentration of CLA, in milk and meat
respectively. Supplementing diets for fattened
lambs with 6% rapeseed oil, linseed oil or
hydrogenated rapeseed oil had no significant effect
over non-supplementation on the CLA content in
meat. Hristov et al. (2005), fed finishing cattle with
high grain (78.6%) diet, supplemented with either
high (76.5%) linoleic or oleic acid rich oils at 5%
level. Subcutaneous fat contained significantly
higher CLA (% of total FA) at 0.37 and 0.29 on
linoleic or oleic acid rich oil supplementation than
kidney fat with 0.23 and 0.17 on similar diet
composition. However, CLA contents of different
muscles viz. longissimus, semitendinosus and
semimembranous were similar and were in a range
of 0.21 to 0.25% of total FA on both type of
supplementation.
Supplementation of rumen-protected vegetable
oils did not promote the CLA synthesis in animals.
Triglycerides, amides, esters or calcium salts are
required to be hydrolyzed to respective fatty acids
with free –COOH group before any BH can occur
in body. The degree of protection may have some
impact on CLA or TVA flow from rumen of
supplemented animals. Canola oil has comparable
C18 FA composition to oleamide with 61.8% C18:2
and 21.7% C18:3 FA. In dairy cows when 53%
concentrate based TMR was supplemented with
increasing levels from 0 to 3% of rumen-protected
canola oil product canolamide with concurrent
reduction in canola oil, the CLA content did not
change. However, the CLA content was higher in
oil-supplemented groups than control i.e., without
oil (DeLuca and Jenkins 2000). Milk fat CLA did
not change (0.28 vs 0.23 g/100gm) when
canolamide was added at a level of 3.0 % to TMR.
A level of 1.5 % each of canolamide and canola oil
increased the CLA to 0.44 g/100g milk fat in dairy
cows (Loor and Herbein 1997b). In vitro (Rusitech)
study by Buccuioni et al. (2006) indicated that
supplementation of diet with toasted soybean
provided better CLA contents in rumen liquor than
soap of olive oil.
8
Effect of fish and animal origin lipid
supplementation
Generally, fish oils and ruminant animal body
fats are rich in long chain PUFA and saturated FA
respectively. Marine fish oils are richer source of
C20:5n-3 or C22:6n-3 FA. Fish oil provides
necessary precursors for the CLA synthesis and it
increases the milk fat CLA content. Fundamentally,
both fish oil and tallow interfere with fiber digestion
and BH process. The C18:3 and (or) long chain
PUFA may coat rumen bacteria. The higher levels
of fish oil may have damaging effect as high
concentration of unsaturated fatty acids in fish oil
are effective inhibitors of fiber degrading bacteria
in rumen (Jenkins and Jenny 1989). Fish oil
inhibited the reduction of TVA in the rumen and
elevated the supply of TVA which was mainly
responsible for enhanced milk fat CLA content
(Shingfield et al. 2003).
Offer et al. (1999) observed about ten-fold
increase in milk fat CLA content when 250 g fish
oil was supplemented to total mixed diets in cattle.
On supplementing fish oil there was an increase in
the C16:1, C18:1, TVA and CLA with reciprocal
changes in C18:0, C18:3n-3 and total saturated fatty
acids in milk fat (Donovan et al. 2000). They
reported 0.60, 1.58, 2.23 and 1.5 g CLA/100 g milk
fat on 0, 1, 2 and 3% dietary supplementation of
menhaden fish oil (DM basis) in cattle. Fish oil
supplementation up to 2% level increased the milk
fat CLA and further increase lowered it.
Tallow did not seem to be good for CLA
increase. Combining tallow with increasing levels
of fish oil to TMR in cows improved CLA
concentration in milk fat (Jones et al. 2000). Other
marine products that are similar in fatty acid
composition to fish oil, too promote the CLA
content. Franklin et al. (1999) demonstrated six
times increase in milk fat CLA of cows
supplemented with marine algae (Schzochytrium
sps).
The inclusion of fish meal, replacing the
soybean meal at 0, 25, 50 and 100% in the TMR
fed for 21 days have resulted in decrease of milk
fat (3.18, 2.99, 3.04 and 2.87%) and increase of
milk protein (3.23, 3.24, 3.31 and 3.35%), CLA
(0.39, 0.44, 0.46 and 0.72 g/100g FA) and TVA
(1.09, 1.19, 1.28 and 1.54 g/100g FA) in an
observation by Abu-Ghazaleh et al. (2001).
Effect of concentrate feeding
Certain level of concentrate in diet reduces the
cellulolytic bacterial activity in the rumen. This
condition may be responsible for the incomplete
BH leading to higher accumulation of TVA (and
may be CLA) in the rumen with simultaneous
proportionate reduction in stearate level. By ∆9
desaturation activity some of the absorbed TVA is
converted into CLA (Jiang and Jiang 1998). The
decreased proportion of fiber coupled with
increased concentration of starch in diet, resulted
in decrease of final BH step and an increased
formation of TVA as main product (Jiang et al.
1996). Further, a higher starch content in the diet
with one or two meals as compared to continuous
feeding i.e., steady state condition, lowers the
rumen pH. This condition causes a greater reduction
of the fibrolytic microbial activity, and at extreme
conditions BH process may stop completely.
However, mild acidic conditions may produce
increased levels of TVA. In case of corn based
concentrate feeding, further higher milk fat content
of CLA and TVA may also be attributed to increased
supply of precursors like C18:2 and C18:3 FA in
addition to normal action of starch from diet. On
very high concentrate (starch) based diet, a
substantial supply of CLA precursors would fail to
increase CLA unless more forage is offered.
In many developed countries, ruminant
production is principally dependent upon high
concentrate feeding. Usually, such diets do not
support fibrolytic bacterial population, as they
require particulate material for their attachment in
rumen, and also lowering of pH. To maintain a fairly
constant rumen pH, sodium bicarbonate and
magnesium oxide have been used as buffers.
Though no direct work has been reported in this
regard, use of these buffers may play a role in
changing the CLA content since TVA can be
converted to CLA in the tissues of ruminant
animals. Piperova et al. (1997) used 0.5%
magnesium oxide and 1.5% sodium bicarbonate as
buffers on medium (40%) and high (75%)
concentrate diets in cattle. There was no marked
effect of buffer in medium concentrate diet, while,
there was 0.19-unit increase in rumen pH and TVA
contents were reduced from 5.7 to 2.9 g/100g milk
fat. It was proposed that more complete BH might
have been responsible for such depression.
Kalscheur et al. (1997) have also noticed similar
9
results in their study using sodium bicarbonate. Qiu
et al. (2004) observed a decrease (24.5 vs 17.9 mg/
g FA) in the milk fat CLA content on addition of
0.8% sodium bicarbonate as buffer to the diets of
cows on high concentrate (63.8%) with 2% fish
oil. However, the values were still higher than
similar diet with 2% soybean oil (10.1 mg/g FA).
MO+FO increased (p<0.001) the proportions of
C18:2. The MO alone reduced (p<0.022) the
proportion of CLA compared to FO in all incubation
times. The FO supplementation increased the
proportion of CLA. An additive effect of MO to
FO in the production of CLA was observed at 6 h
incubation. In vitro supplementation of monensin
reduced hydrogenation of C18 unsaturated FA,
while fish oil supplementation increased the
production of CLA.
In another in vitro study, Wang et al. (2005b)
observed that addition of 10 ppm monensin did not
affect the total VFA concentration, but propionate
was increased during overall incubation intervals.
VFA concentration and proportion was not affected
by fish oil supplementation. Content of total C18
FA increased as incubation increased in case of
control and fish oil supplementation, while it was
reduced on monensin with fish oil supplementation.
Monensin reduced proportion of c9t11, but
increased t10c12 isomer of CLA when compared
to control or fish oil supplementation. Monensin
appears to incresase t10c11 synthesis and blocks
the last step of BH of unsaturated FA while fish oil
contributes to increase of c9t11-CLA and TVA
production in the ruminal culture.
Effect of ionophore antibiotic supplementation
Ionophores antibiotic substances alter the rumen
fermentation by selectively influencing hydrogen
producing bacteria. Monensin was first introduced
as growth promoter. It improved feed efficiency
with reduced DMI and prevented acidosis. These
compounds have been used for the reduction of
methane production in the ruminants. However,
European Union Commission proposed to ban its
use in animal production from year 2006
(McCartney 2002) and other countries may follow
similar ban.
Dhiman et al. (1999a) reported a positive effect
of monensin addition to diet on milk CLA.
However, Chouinard et al. (1998) did not observe
effect of monensin on milk fat CLA in cows. In in
vitro study, Fellner et al. (1997) reported that
monensin increased the total CLA isomers and it
inhibited the growth of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens,
major bacterium involved in ruminal BH. Dhiman
et al. (1999) in a study in lactating cows noticed
some beneficial effects on ionophore
supplementation. The cows in different groups were
without supplementation (control) or supplemented
daily with 3% fish meal, 250 mg monensin or fish
meal with monensin. The relevant contents of CLA
in milk (mg/g of FA) were 5.3, 8.6, 6.8 and 8.9
respectively.
To study the mechanism of BH of C18unsaturated FA of safflower oil and CLA production
by mixed ruminal bacteria on ionophore or fish oil
supplementation Wang et al. (2005a) conducted an
in vitro study. Commercially manufactured
concentrate (1%, w/v) with safflower oil (0.2%, w/
v) was added to mixed solution (600 ml) of strained
rumen fluid and McDougalls artificial saliva
(control). Monensin (10 ppm, w/v, MO), mixed fish
oil (0.02%, w/v, absorbed to 0.2 g alfalfa hay, FO)
or similar amounts of monensin and fish oil
(MO+FO) to MO and FO was also added into the
control solution. All the culture solutions prepared
were incubated in the culture jar anaerobically at
39 0C up to 12 h. Supplementation of MO or
Effect of post ruminal infusion of CLA mixture
Direct abomasal infusion of preformed CLA
mixture enhanced its availability at mammary gland
and adipose tissues. Due to increased supply of
different FA, especially TVA, mammary de novo
synthesis of C:4 to C:14 FA was reduced (Loor and
Herbein 1997a). Chauinard et al. (1998) reported a
linear decrease in milk yield and milk fat percentage
with out any effect on DMI, when different levels
(ranging from 0 to 150 g/d) of CLA-60 mixture
containing 14.5% c9t11 isomer and 45% of other
CLA isomers was infused. There was 4-fold
increase in c9t11 isomer in milk fat at highest level
of infusion. Kraft et al. (1999) reported a 7-fold
increase in CLA on 200 g/d CLA mixture infusion
in duodenum for five days period. They also
observed about 40% reduction in milk fat content.
Gervais et al. (2005), on contrary under commercial
conditions observed that supplementation of
ruminaly inert CLA, containing 7.9% c9t11 and
8.6% t10c12 isomers at 8-32 g/d to dairy cows did
not impact the level of CLA in the milk, but
decreased the overall fat content and total CLA
yield (g/d).
10
Effect of nutritional status of animal
The dietary restriction alters the rumen
fermentation and nutrient partitioning in the
lactating animals. Lower feed intake associated with
condition such as higher intake of PUFA and fiber,
promoted the CLA synthesis in rumen (Jahreis et
al. 1997b; Stantone et al. 1997). The higher level
of feeding increased the insulin activity that in turn
promote lipogenesis and after absorption FA are
partitioned for lactation and adipose tissues. This
condition perhaps, lowers the availability of CLA
and TVA for milk synthesis. When animals receive
the diets required for lactation alone they do not
store FA in adipose tissue and all available CLA
and/or TVA are directed towards milk. Where as,
the animals receiving a deficient diet will mobilize
CLA and TVA from body reserves and this
condition might increase CLA content (Jiang et al.
1996). However, on longer exposure to such
conditions the milk fat CLA content is ought to
remain in close association with availability of
dietary CLA precursors.
Stantone et al. (1997) offered 16, 20 and 24 kg
grass (DM/head) to lactating cows. The 16 and 20kg
DMI groups received approximately 67 and 80%
of DM requirement respectively as compared to last
group. The CLA and TVA contents were 3.94 and
3.91; 6.84 and 5.92; 5.71 and 5.52 mg/g milk fat
for respective groups. The CLA content for 20 kg
group at 12-week period of feeding were
significantly (P<0.01) higher. Kelly et al. (1998a)
reported increased level of milk fat CLA and TVA
when cows received, 19% less DM on pasture than
cows maintained on 100 or 50% TMR. On average
animals lost approximately 40 kg body weight
during experimental period, which might have
caused mobilization of CLA and TVA from body
reserves into milk fat. Jiang and Jiang (1998) also
reported higher production of CLA with strong
positive correlation (P<0.01) in animals on
restricted diets.
Tsuneishi et al. (2001) studied the influence of
anatomical location and nutritional status on CLA
concentration in goats. Fat tissues located at body
surfaces contain higher CLA than perinepheric fat
tissue. As compared to dietary restriction full fed
condition showed improvement in tissues from both
locations. They observed two groups of growing
goats in 90 days long experiment. The first group
that received maintenance ration had growth rate
of 15 g/d and second full fed group had growth
rate of 210 g/d. The full fed animals had
significantly higher contents of total unsaturated
fatty acids, TVA and CLA in meat. Further,
subcutaneous fat tissue from full fed animals had
higher contents of total unsaturated FA and CLA,
while TVA concentration was higher in same tissue
from first group of animals. This study indicates
that the level of feeding over maintenance increases
the availability of CLA precursors and D 9
desaturase activities play an important role on ad
libitum feeding since adipose tissue in growing
ruminant animals has the greatest desaturase
activity. It also seems that this activity is more
pronounced in tissues located on the body surfaces
as perinepheric fat contain less CLA than
subcutaneous fat in both maintenance and full fed
groups.
EPILOGUE
Grass rich lush green pasture, feeding high
concentrate diet with optimum fiber level and
oilseeds are advantageous to enhance the CLA
content in ruminant milk and meat. Although no
estimates are available, the prevailing conditions
of northeastern hill region where ruminants receive
ample supply of lush green grasses during the rainy
season would also produce richer CLA contents in
their milk and meat. Dry and moist heat treatments
of oilseed also elevate CLA to the tune of 200 to
300%. Up to a certain level of vegetable oil
supplementation encouraging results were obtained.
Fish oil addition produced 3 to 4 fold increase. The
post rumen preformed CLA infusion also proved
beneficial. However, feeding animal based
saturated and rumen protected fat supplemented
diets failed to exhibit useful impact on CLA content
in milk and meat. The CLA out put vary
considerably on different diets because of variation
in supply of precursors, rumen environment and
endogenous desaturation. Different dietary
regimens affected the rumen microbial activity for
more incomplete process of BH. Therefore, a
balance has to be achieved for optimal growth of
biohydrogenating bacteria and availability of CLA
precursor like linoleic or linolenic acid with faster
passage rate so that these products can evade
complete hydrogenation in rumen and are available
for the host animal for synthesis into milk and meat.
11
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Future Research Approach
So far, various feeding strategies have been
demonstrated for maximizing the levels of CLA in
milk and meat of ruminant animals. In order to
ascertain accurate estimates of synthesis and
potential availability of the CLA in milk or other
tissues, not only the adequate dietary supply of CLA
precursors in shape of lipids is essential but also it
has to be synchronized with optimal rate of lipolysis
and subsequent optimum intensity of BH in the
rumen. Following approaches may be tried for
future research, so that optimum health benefits of
CLA can be achieved in human beings on
consumption.
Ø Elucidation of levels of CLA in the milk and
meat of ruminant animals under the prevailing
feeding practices in northeastern region of India.
Ø Certain substances that influence the rumen
passage like common salt etc. may be used with
supplementation of vegetable oils/oilseeds rich
in either linoleic or linolenic acids.
Ø Other feed processing methods that are capable
of modifying rumen environment needs to be
worked out.
Ø Various secondary plant metabolites viz. tannins
and saponins/sarsaponin, especially later have
recently been demonstrated to alter the rumen
metabolism and inhibit the methane production.
Effect of these compounds on CLA may also be
worked out.
Ø The conversion efficiency of TVA into CLA
needs to be validated in different tissues with
regard to trace minerals and vitamins as probable
desaturase enzyme co-factors.
Ø Like ionophore antibiotics that are banned for
use in animal production, bacteriocins (nisin),
derived from strains of probiotic bacterial sps.
like Lactococcus lactis could have promising
potential for CLA enhancement.
Ø Other compounds that act as alternate hydrogen
sink viz. organic acids especially components
of Krebs cycle like fumarate and malate can also
be tried for enhancement of CLA production
potential in ruminant animals and their products.
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15
Quality Evaluation of Indigenous Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.)
Cultivars of Nagaland
JURI BURAGOHAIN1, T. ANGAMI2, B.U. CHOUDHARY1, P. SINGH1, B.P. BHATT3,
A. THIRUGNANAVEL4, BIDYUT C. DEKA4*
ABSTRACT
Twenty locally grown taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott.) cultivars were collected from different
parts of Nagaland, and their morphological and chemical analysis were done. The different parameters
analyzed include corm length, corm diameter, specific gravity, number of cormels, starch, calcium
oxalate, moisture, dry matter, energy, nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S) contents. Wide variability in nutritional and other quality parameters
like starch, calcium oxalate, dry matter etc. among the different taro cultivars was recorded. There
was strong positive correlation (P < 0.05) between corm length and specific gravity; calcium oxalate
and moisture content. Among the 20 cultivars, Nalon, Toongphak, Tanchong Shg, Angphak and Toa
Boi were found superior to others with respect to yield attributes, nutritional and other quality parameters
based on an over-all rank sum index (ORSI).
Keywords: Taro, quality parameters, nutritional assessment, Nagaland
commonly eaten stewed. Petioles are fed to pigs
after boiling with broken rice or rice bran.
In developing regions like North East India, food
shortage and subsequent malnutrition particularly
among the resource poor rural population is
conspicuous. Besides rice, cultivation of such
locally grown, nutritionally rich root crops like taro
at large scale will increase the total food production
and income of the farmers. However, before
popularizing taro cultivation, identification of
suitable locally adapted superior cultivars/
genotypes particularly with respect to its nutritional
value is the foremost need. Unfortunately, very little
or no attempt has been made in assessing nutritional
quality and identification of suitable cultivar with
respect to balanced diet in North East India.
Therefore, in the present study, an attempt has been
made to evaluate nutritional and other quality
parameters of some of the most commonly grown
taro cultivars across Nagaland.
INTRODUCTION
‘Taro’ (Colocasia esculenta L. Schlott.), a
wetland herbaceous plant, is widely grown in the
low and mid-altitude areas of Eastern Himalayan
region. Wide variability exists in the taro genotypes
grown in the North Eastern Hill region (Sarma
2001). It is also believed that the origin of
domesticated taro is from ‘wild type’ C. esculenta
var. aquatilis, either in North East India or South
East Asia (Matthews 1991). Taro corms contain
very high amount of starch and are a good source
of dietary fiber and the leaves are rich in vitamins
and minerals. Presently, taro is one of the prominent
components of food items in Eastern Himalayan
region, largely consumed by the rural population
as a substitute to vegetables and it has other multipurpose uses as well. The corms are consumed as
cooked vegetables or are made into puddings,
breads or poi. The large nutrient rich leaves are
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793103, Meghalaya
KVK Hailakandi (ICAR), Assam
3
ICAR Complex for Eastern Region, Patna
4
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Medziphema-797106, Nagaland
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: bidyutdeka@yahoo.com
2
Original aticle
16
evaluated to present the pooled value of ORSI
(Simonne et al. 1999).
The data obtained was statistically analyzed
using critical difference at 5% level of probability
(Gomez and Gomez 1984).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Corrms of twenty different cultivars, namely,
Nacon, Baikhi, Puptung, Angphak, Nalon,
Tongngah, Bano, Laihi, Toongphak, Hoaktoa (Big),
Hoaktoa (Small), Tanchong Shg, Toa Bih, Toa Boi,
Tea Gumgumkhi, Tapniam Toalo, Toakhi Khilo,
Mekshang, Toagam and Penjong Toalo, were
collected from different parts of Nagaland. The taro
cultivars were analyzed for their morphological,
chemical and nutritional parameters following
standard procedures. The morphological parameters
like corm length (mm), corm diameter (mm),
specific gravity and number of cormels were
recorded following standard procedures. The
moisture and dry matter contents were determined
by drying 10g sample at 60°C untill constant weight
of the sample was obtained (Rangana 1997). Starch
content was determined by the method of Rangana
(1997). Calcium oxalate content was determined
by titration against standard KMnO 4 solution
(AOAC 1984).
Percentage of total nitrogen (N) was determined
by modified ‘micro-Kjeldhal Method’ (Subbiah and
Asija 1956). A known quantity of powdered sample
was digested and distilled and NH3 released was
passed into boric acid, which was then back titrated
with standard acid. Determination of total
phosphorous (P) was done by the
Vanadomolydophosphoric yellow colour method
(Bray and Kurtz 1945) and expressed in percentage.
The estimation of total potassium (K) in the samples
was carried out by Neutral Normal Ammonium
Acetate method with the help of Flame Photometer
(Jackson 1973) and expressed in percentage. Total
calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were
determined by Complexometric titration method in
the samples after digestion with di–acid (Nitro–
perchloric) mixture (Baruah and Barthakur 1997).
For determination of total sulphur (S), the di-acid
digested samples were subjected to turbidimetric
estimation (Chesnin and Yien 1951). Energy
estimation was done using ‘Bomb Calorimetric
System’.
Over-all rank sum index (ORSI) of the different
cultivars of Colocasia was assessed on the basis of
important morphological and nutritive characters.
For each attribute, the rating was made using 0.25–
1.0 scale (0.25 = poor, 0.50 = fair, 0.75 = good and
1.0 = excellent). Based on these estimates, the total
score was then divided by number of accessions
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Morphological parameters reflected wide
variation among the cultivars (Table 1). Highest
corm length of 169.2 mm was recorded in the
cultivar Nalon while lowest (55.44 mm) was
recorded in Toa Boi, with an average corm length
of 103.3 mm ± 37.9 (number of cultivars, n=20).
Similarly, corm diameter also depicted a significant
variation from 152.1 mm (in cultivar Tanchong Shg)
to 25.29 mm (in Tapniam Toalo) with an average
diameter of 78.2 mm ± 39.1. As regards to specific
gravity, the cultivars Toakhi Khilo and Penjeng
Toalo recorded the highest value of 1.58 and the
cultivar Hoaktoa (Small) recorded the least specific
gravity of 1.08. A maximum of nine numbers of
cormels were recorded in cultivar Toa Boi while
Tapniam Toalo cultivar had no cormel. The reported
values were within the range reported by Kay
(1987).
Physical and yield attributing characters of
cultivar, in fact, significantly influenced the
productivity of Taro. From the results, it appeared
that out of twenty cultivars, four namely Angphak,
Nalon, Toongphak and Tanchong Shg were superior
to others if cumulative values of size (length,
diameter), specific gravity and number of cormels
were accounted for (Table 1). Therefore, if higher
productivity per unit land area is desired, then, these
four cultivars could be suggested for cultivation by
the farmers of Mon district from where they were
collected. There was significant (P < 0.05) positive
correlation between corm length and specific
gravity. Though the corm length was weakly
correlated with the corm diameter, yet, with an
increase in length, diameter also increased marginally.
The quality parameters of the samples showed
significant (P < 0.05) variations among the different
cultivars (Table 2). The cultivars Puptung,
Tongngah and Toagam had highest starch content
(22.50%) while cultivar Penjeng Toalo recorded the
lowest starch content of 10.84%. The highest
moisture content of 80.56% was found in the
cultivar Puptung, followed by Toagam (77.19%).
17
Table 1: Morphological parameters of some
Colocasia cultivars of Nagaland
Name
Corm
Length
(mm)
Corm
diameter
(mm)
Specific
gravity
Number
of
cormels
Nacon
Baikhi
Puptung
Angphak
Nalon
Tongngah
Bano
Laihi
Toongphak
Hoaktoa (Big)
Hoaktoa (Small)
Tanchong Shg
Toa Bih
Toa Boi
Tea Gumgumkhi
Tapniam Toalo
Toakhi khilo
Mekshang
Toagam
Penjeng Toalo
SeM ±
CD (P= 0.05)
76.61
72.30
84.08
116.47
169.20
141.36
90.93
85.49
123.00
57.20
64.62
162.15
69.14
55.44
73.17
164.55
127.23
70.42
136.25
126.85
8.28
23.57
59.84
79.63
68.17
146.03
92.50
65.52
94.09
33.05
144.39
110.00
45.16
152.10
118.51
56.70
33.10
25.29
44.83
71.14
82.76
41.28
8.53
24.30
1.30
1.11
1.16
1.16
1.53
1.39
1.48
1.37
1.38
1.25
1.08
1.16
1.39
1.24
1.14
1.49
1.58
1.21
1.20
1.58
0.04
0.12
3.00
4.50
2.00
2.00
8.00
3.00
6.00
1.67
5.00
2.50
1.00
4.00
6.00
9.00
2.00
0.00
2.00
3.00
5.00
2.00
0.51
1.45
(1983) reported varietal variation in starch content
and dry matter content in taro.
It was evident from the data (Table 2) that most
of the cultivars recorded lower calcium oxalate
values which ranged from 0.23 to 1.78 mg/100g.
Among the cultivars, Toakhi Khilo had lowest
content (0.23 mg/100g) while cultivar Puptung
recorded the highest value of calcium oxalate, i.e.
1.78 mg/100g. Levels of oxalates are of interest
because of their alleged adverse effect on nutrient
bioavailability (Libert and Franceschi 1987).
However, oxalates levels may not pose a health
hazard since these are leached out during cooking.
Huang et al. (2007) also reported the variation in
calcium oxalate levels among different cultivars of
taro. It was also found that calcium oxalate content
and moisture content were significantly (P < 0.05)
and positively correlated (r = 0.60*). Dry matter
content, however, showed significant (P < 0.05)
negative correlation with calcium oxalate (r = - 0.60*)
and moisture content (r = - 0.99*). Data pertaining
to energy values ranged from 15.67 (in Toagam) to
16.92 MJ/kg in Hoaktoa (Small). Energy values
were another important parameter, which gave more
calories to the human beings, and the results of the
present study were in close conformity with the
findings of Wills et al. (1983) and Huang et al.
(2007).
The lowest value for moisture content was recorded
in Hoaktoa (Small), i.e. 63.09%. The cultivar
Hoaktoa (Small) exhibited the highest amount of
dry matter content (36.91%) whereas, the cultivar
Puptung recorded the lowest (19.91%). Wills et al.
Table 2: Quality parameters of some Colocasia cultivars of Nagaland
Name
Starch
(%)
Ca-oxalate
(mg/100g)
Nacon
Baikhi
Puptung
Angphak
Nalon
Tongngah
Bano
Laihi
Toongphak
Hoaktoa (Big)
Hoaktoa (Small)
Tanchong Shg
Toa Bih
Toa Boi
Tea Gumgumkhi
Tapniam Toalo
Toakhi khilo
Mekshang
Toagam
Penjeng Toalo
SeM ±
CD (P= 0.05)
17.03
15.93
22.50
21.37
20.50
22.50
15.00
12.50
19.60
12.68
19.15
20.00
13.43
15.00
20.00
18.07
20.45
16.67
22.50
10.84
0.79
1.66
0.72
0.45
1.78
0.28
0.25
0.43
0.52
0.54
0.30
0.47
0.25
0.31
0.40
0.34
0.25
0.29
0.23
0.31
0.43
0.32
0.07
0.15
Moisture
(%)
65.17
72.24
80.56
65.61
64.40
68.88
72.86
65.01
68.82
64.54
63.09
65.40
64.75
68.52
64.22
72.56
63.81
68.98
77.19
70.90
1.04
2.18
18
Dry Matter
(%)
Energy
(MJ/Kg)
34.83
28.43
19.91
34.39
35.60
31.12
27.14
34.99
31.18
35.46
36.91
34.60
35.25
31.49
35.78
27.44
36.19
31.02
22.81
29.14
1.02
2.14
16.15
16.11
15.98
16.75
16.80
16.13
15.75
15.75
16.75
16.10
16.92
16.50
16.29
15.75
16.39
15.89
15.99
16.09
15.67
15.96
0.08
0.17
The variation in quality parameters among the
cultivars could be attributed to the varietal
differences mainly governed by the genetic makeup of the particular cultivar. These differences might
also be influenced by soil and environmental
factors, which play crucial role in metabolic
synthesis, translocation and storage of primary and
secondary metabolites.
Among the nutrients analyzed, N content was
found to be highest (1.79%) in Hoaktoa (Small),
followed by Tanchong Shg (1.75%). The cultivar
Hoaktoa (Big) had the lowest N content of 0.63%.
The data for P content also showed significant (P <
0.05) variation among the cultivars: ranging from
1.30 % (Nalon) to as low as 0.10 % (in cultivars
Hoaktoa (small), Toa Boi, Mekshang & Toagam).
K content also varied significantly (P < 0.05) which
was found to be the highest (3.80%) in Toongphak
and the lowest in Mekshang (0.20%). The values
for total Ca ranged from 42.0 (Puptung) to 120.0
(Tea Gumgumkhi) meq/100g of dry matter. The
indigenous taro cultivars evaluated for this study
had sufficient amount of Ca, particularly in the
cultivars like Angphak, Nalon, Bano, Toongphak,
Tanchung Shg, and Toa Boi. In an earlier study,
Englberger et al. (2008) also reported that variation
in Ca content was observed in Micronesian giant
swamp taro (Crytosperma) cultivars. Similarly, total
Mg content varied widely. Nalon recorded the
highest value of 212.0 meq/100g dry matter
followed by Tanchong Shg (160.0 meq/100g dry
matter). The cultivar Hoaktoa (Big) had the lowest
amount of total Mg content (6.0 meq/100g dry
matter). Cultivar Tea Gumgumkhi recorded the
highest value of total S (3064.30 mg/kg) whereas
Toakhi Khilo had the lowest value (135.70 mg/kg).
The correlation studies showed that N and P
contents were significantly (P < 0.05) and positively
correlated with most of the nutrient elements. An
increase in any of the nutrients would bring an
increase in all other nutrient contents (Table 3).
The wide variations in chemical composition
of different colocasia cultivars might be primarily
due to varietal differences, which ultimately
determined the nutritional values of a particular
crop since all the cultivars were grown under similar
climate and soil type with uniform cultivation
practices (Barooah 1982). Similar observations
were also made by Wills et al. (1983) for taro
cultivars grown in Papua New Guinea highlands.
Over-all rank sum index (ORSI) was calculated
taking into account the most important characters
like cormel number, starch , calcium oxalate, dry
matter, total Ca, total Mg and total S contents in
Table 3: Nutritional composition of the colocasia cultivars of Nagaland
Name
N
(%)
P
(%)
K
(%)
Nacon
Baikhi
Puptung
Angphak
Nalon
Tongngah
Bano
Laihi
Toongphak
Hoaktoa (Big)
Hoaktoa (Small)
Tanchong Shg
Toa Bih
Toa Boi
Tea Gumgumkhi
Tapniam Toalo
Toakhi khilo
Mekshang
Toagam
Penjeng Toalo
SeM ±
CD (P= 0.05)
1.27
0.97
1.12
1.72
1.64
0.91
1.12
1.30
1.70
0.63
1.79
1.75
1.47
1.23
0.91
0.76
0.92
0.90
0.70
1.12
0.08
0.17
0.23
0.13
0.30
1.28
1.30
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.98
0.23
0.10
1.25
0.30
0.10
1.23
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.10
0.21
0.80
0.69
0.30
2.99
1.78
0.49
0.38
3.55
3.80
0.52
0.25
2.80
3.60
0.62
0.83
0.80
0.80
0.20
0.56
0.31
0.28
0.59
Total Ca
(meq/100g
dry matter)
54.00
94.00
42.00
110.00
115.00
50.00
100.00
80.00
100.00
74.00
96.00
100.00
46.00
115.00
120.00
58.00
72.00
72.00
84.00
98.00
5.35
11.24
19
Total Mg
(meq/100g
dry matter)
46.00
42.00
28.00
150.00
212.00
72.00
110.00
46.00
110.00
6.00
42.00
160.00
110.00
12.00
16.00
34.00
44.00
68.00
20.00
62.00
12.14
25.49
Total S
(mg/kg)
ORSI
1964.3
1100.0
1857.1
2850.0
2328.6
821.4
1242.9
1914.3
2021.4
1442.9
2085.7
2335.7
1964.3
1550.0
3064.3
1911.6
135.7
1257.1
1635.7
2571.4
151.03
317.16
0.27
0.33
0.24
0.41
0.52
0.31
0.40
0.31
0.44
0.27
0.34
0.44
0.39
0.40
0.34
0.27
0.29
0.32
0.35
0.33
__
Kay DE (1987). Crop and Product Digest, No. 2 – Root Crops,
Second Edition, London, Tropical Development and
Research Institute, XV, p 380
Libert B, Franceschi VR (1987). Oxalate in crop plants. Journal
of Agricultue and Food Chemistry 35: 926-938
Englberger L, Schierle J, Kraemer K, Aalbersberg W,
Dolodotawake U, Humphries J, Graham R, Anne P
Reid, Lorens A, Albert K, Levendusky A, Johnson E,
Paul Y, Sengebau F (2008). Carotenoid content of
Micronesian giant swamp taro (Crytosperma) cultivars.
Journal of Food composition and Analysis 21: 93 –
106
Matthews PJ (1991). A possible tropical wild type taro
(Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis). Indo Pacific
Prehistory Association Bulletin 11: 69-81
Rangana S (1997). Hand book of analysis and quality control
of fruits and vegetables products, 2nd Edition. Tata
McGraw Hill Publ. Co. Ltd., New Delhi
Sarma BK (2001). Underutilized crops for hills and mountain
ecosystems. Compandium of Summer School on
Agriculture for Hills and Mountain Ecosystem held at
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam,
pp 308-314
Simonne E, Simonne A, Boozer R (1999). Ear characteristics
and consumer acceptance of selected white sweet corn
varieties in southern United States. Horticulture
Technology 9: 289-292.
Subbiah BV, Asija GL (1956). A rapid procedure for the
determination of available nitrogen in soils. Curr Sci
25: 259-260
Wills Ron BH, Lim Jessie SK, Greenfield Heather, BaylissSmith Tim (1983). Nutrient composition of taro
(Colocasia esculenta) cultivars from the Papua New
Guinea highlands. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 34 (10): 1137-1142
different cultivars of Colocasia. Based on ORSI,
cultivar Nalon was found to be the best, followed
by Toongphak, Tanchong Shg, Angphak, Bano and
Toa Boi. Hence, these cultivars could be suggested
for cultivation in large scale.
REFERENCES
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Washington D.C. Association of Official Analytical
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some local colocasia (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott)
and Xanthosoma (Xanthosoma sagittifolium L. Schott.)
cultivars of Assam. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, AAU, Jorhat
Baruah TC, Barthakur HP (1997). A Textbook of Soil Analysis.
Vikah Publishing House Limited. New Delhi, India,
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and available forms of Phosphorus in soils. Soil Sci
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Chesnin L, Yien CH (1951). Turbidimetric determination of
available sulphate. Proc Soil Sci Am 15: 149 – 151
Gomez KA, Gomez AA (1984). Statistical procedure for
Agricultural Research, 2nd Edn. John Wiley & Sons
Inc., Phillipines
Huang Chien-Chun, Chen Woan-Chin, Wang Chiun-C R.
(2007). Comparison of Taiwan paddy and upland
cultivated taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) cultivars for
nutritive values. Food Chemistry 102: 250-256
Jackson ML (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. 464 Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, pp 151 – 153
20
Quality and Shelf-life of Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) Fruits in
Different Packages during Storage
BIDYUT C. DEKA1*, A. NATH2, R.L. LAMARE3, R.K. PATEL2
ABSTRACT
Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) is an important indigenous fruit of Meghalaya that grows in Khasi
and Jaintia hills besides other places of North East India. It is being consumed to a great extent by the
rural and tribal masses of the Northeast India for its unique taste. Sohshang fruits being highly perishable
have a very short shelf life. The fruits get damaged during the process of handling, transportation and
marketing due to non adoption of suitable post harvest management practices. Different packaging
materials with and without perforation were used to extend the shelf life of the fruits at ambient
condition. Packaging of fruits in non-perforated polypropylene extended the shelf life of fruits up to
9 days with better retention of almost all the quality characteristics of the fruits.
Keywords: Shoshang, fruits, packaging materials, storage, shelf life, quality
INTRODUCTION
polyethylene pouches. Likewise, the shelf life of
passion fruits increased up to five weeks when the
fruits were waxed and packed in polyethylene
terephthalate packaging (Patel et al. 2009). Keeping
these facts in view, a comprehensive study was
carried out to identify a suitable packaging material
to extend the shelf life of the sohshang fruits with
desirable quality.
Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) is a large
evergreen spreading type woody shrub that is
mostly grown in semi-wild condition in the
backyard garden throughout the North Eastern
region of India. It is being consumed to a great
extent by the rural and tribal masses of the Northeast
India for their congenial taste. The fruits of
Sohshang are highly perishable in nature and have
a very short shelf life (1-2 days). Besides, due to
lack of proper packaging materials, huge quantity
of the fruits gets damaged during the process of
handling, transportation and marketing. This
situation has resulted in a glut in the local market
causing huge losses to the farmers as they are
compelled to dispose off their produce at
throwaway prices. Packaging materials play a
significant role in extending the shelf life of many
fruits and vegetables. Besides, it helps in retention
of ascorbic acid and such other antioxidants for a
prolong period of time. Singh et al. (2008) reported
that the shelf life of strawberry increased up to six
days when they were packed in high-density
Fully ripe, undammaged Sohshang fruits of
uniform size and maturity (pink colour) were
collected from the experimental field of ICAR
Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam,
Meghalaya. The healthy fruits were washed with
chlorinated (100 ppm) water and the surface
moisture was dried up at room condition under a
fan. Thereafter, the fruits were packed in different
packaging materials in five replications, viz., T0:
unpacked and kept at room temperature (Control),
T1: perforated polypropylene (PP, 100 gauge), T2:
non-perforated polypropylene (100 gauge), T3:
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani-797106, Nagaland
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793103
3
Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Meghalaya, Shillong
*Corresponding author’s E-mail: bidyutdeka@yahoo.com
2
Original aticle
21
perforated low density polyethylene (LDPE, 200
gauge), T4: non-perforated low density
polyethylene (200 gauge), T5: perforated LDHM
(100 gauge), T6: non-perforated LDHM (100
gauge) with and without perforation (5 pinholes,
1mm in diameter) and T7: leaf (Phrynium pubinerve
Bl.). Fruits kept inside the polybags as per
treatments were sealed. Fruits packed with leaves
(T7) were not sealed. The fruits so packed were
stored at ambient condition for the study. The daily
room temperature and relative humidity varied from
23.9 to 26.1oC and 27 to 43 % during the study
period, respectively.
Ten fruits each for each of the treatments were
kept for storage at ambient condition for recording
the physiological loss in weight (PLW). Another 3
lots of 15 fruits each were kept for recording the
other remaining parameters so that every bag could
be opened at an interval of 3 days up to 10 days.
PLW was determined at 3 days interval. Moisture
was determined by oven dry method as described
by Ranganna (1997). The decay loss (%) was
recorded at a periodical interval and the cumulative
decay loss was calculated using the standard
formula as described by Ranganna (1997). The
visual and textural qualities were determined as per
the methodology suggested by Bhowmik and Pann
(1992).
The textural property of the fruits in term of
firmness was measured using a Stable Micro
System TA-XT-plus texture analyzer (Texture
Technologies Corp., UK) fitted with a 35 mm
cylindrical aluminum probe. Firmness value was
considered as mean peak compression force and
expressed in kgf. The studies were conducted at a
pre-test speed of 1 mm/sec, test speed of 2mm/sec,
distance of 3.0 mm and load cell of 50 kg
(Kudachikar et al. 2003).
The total soluble solids (TSS) content was
determined with Erma Hand Refractometer (0-32
o
B). Titratable acidity and fibre content were
estimated as per AOAC (1980) and TSS: Acid ratio,
total carotenoids were determined according to the
methods described by Ranganna (1997). Ascorbic
acid was determined by 2,6 di-chlorophenolindophenol dye visual titration method of Freed
(1966). Shelf life was determined based on visual
and textural qualities of fruits by constituting a
panel of five members.
The PLW increased with the increase in storage
period irrespective of treatments (Table 1).
Enclosure of fruits in plastic bags reduced the PLW
as compared to fruits stored in open. However, the
fruits packed in non-perforated PP recorded the
lowest PLW (2.42 %) as compared to other
packaging materials where the PLW varied from
2.89-18.94 % on the 9th day of storage. Similar
findings were also reported in Kinnow mandarin
(Thakur et al. 2002), Khasi mandarin (Singh et al.
2006), banana (Kudachikar et al. 2007) and loquat
(Amoros et al. 2008).
Decay loss was found to increase with the
advancement of storage period irrespective of
packaging treatments (Table 1). On the 9th day of
Table 1: Effect of packaging materials on physiological loss of weight (PLW), texture and decay loss of
Sohshang during storage
Treatments
Days after storage
PLW (%)
T0 (Control)
T1 (Perforated PP)
T2 (Non perforated PP)
T3 (Perforated LDPE)
T4 (Non perforated LDPE)
T5 (Perforated LDHM)
T6 (Non perforated LDHM)
T7 (Leaf)
CD0.05
Texture (kgf)
3
6
9
16.58
1.02
0.58
1.09
0.99
1.11
0.97
1.57
0.08
35.72
2.15
1.16
2.58
1.98
3.87
1.95
8.41
0.08
3.49
2.42
5.44
3.68
5.08
2.89
18.94
0.05
3
0.770
1.472
1.550
1.606
1.487
1.479
1.611
1.311
0.024
22
6
0.719
1.407
1.298
1.371
1.340
1.259
1.251
1.144
NS
Decay (%)
9
1.181
1.261
1.234
1.165
1.207
1.243
0.890
0.017
3
12.41
12.82
18.13
6.47
0.10
6
13.01
26.58
26.59
19.94
26.12
0.08
9
6.63
33.18
10.20
39.74
33.28
39.88
26.66
48.32
0.08
storage, maximum decay loss (48.32 %) was
observed in the fruits packed in leaf, while
minimum loss (10.20 %) was recorded in the fruits
packed in non-perforated PP. The result of the
present study was in conformity with the reports of
Kishan (1992) in ber and Jadhao et al. (2007) in
Kagzi lime.
The study revealed a significant decline in
texture of the fruits throughout the storage period.
This was observed in all the packaging system
(Table 1). At the end of storage period, fruits packed
in non-perforated PP recorded the highest texture
value (1.261 kgf) as compared to other types of
packages (0.890-1.234 kgf). Preservation of
freshness and firmness of the fruit might be affected
by the modified environment created due to
different types of packing. Similar observations
were also reported by Perez et al. (1997) in
strawberry and Amaros et al. (2008) in loquat.
In the present study, it was found that that the
TSS contents of fruits increased throughout the
storage period (Table 2). However, fruits under
different packaging resulted in lower and slower
accumulation of TSS (8.8-12.0 oB) on the 9th day
of storage with minimum change (8.8 oB) in the
fruits packed in perforated PP and non-perforated
LDPE as compared to control, which recorded
maximum TSS (14.5 oB) on the 6th day of storage.
The increase in TSS with the advancement of
storage might be due to conversion of reserved
starch and other polysaccharides to soluble form
of sugars during storage (Singh and Narayan 1999).
These findings were in conformity with that of
Bhushan et al. (2002) in kiwifruit and Jadhao et al.
(2007) in Kagzi lime.
The titratable acidity of fruits decreased with
the progress of storage period (Table 2). Maximum
decrease in acid content was observed in control
(1.41 %) on the 6th day of storage as compared to a
slower rate of decrease (1.92-1.41 %) in other
treatments on the 9th day of storage with better
retention of acidity (1.92%) in perforated PP, LDPE,
non-perforated LDPE and leaf. Similar findings
were also reported by Singh et al. (2006) in Khasi
mandarin. The TSS: Acidity ratio was found to
increase with increase in storage period irrespective
of treatments (Table 2). A rapid increase in TSS:
Acidity ratio from an initial of 2.34 to 10.29 was
observed in fruits under control on the 6th day of
storage as compared to a slower increase in other
packaging materials (4.60-7.73) on the 9th day of
storage with minimum TSS: Acidity ratio (4.60) in
perforated PP and non perforated LDPE. The
increase in TSS: Acidity ratio irrespective of storage
time and treatments might be due to the increase in
TSS and decrease in acidity during the same period.
These findings were in conformity with those of
Singh and Mondal (2006) in peach and Jadhao et
al. (2007) in Kagzi lime.
The reducing sugar increased with the
advancement of storage period irrespective of
treatments (Table 3). Fruits without any treatment
(control) exhibited a rapid increase in reducing
sugars on the 6th day of storage as compared to fruits
packed in non-perforated PP, which recorded a
steadier increase in reducing sugars (2.98%) on the
9th day of storage. Similar results were also reported
by Deka et al. (2007) in pineapple and Singh et al.
(2007) in passion fruits.
Table 2: Effect of packaging materials on TSS, acidity and TSS: acidity ratio of Sohshang during storage
Treatments
Days after storage
TSS (o B)
T0 (Control)
T1 (Perforated PP)
T7 (Leaf)
CD0.05
Acidity (%)
TSS: acidity ratio
3
6
9
3
6
9
3
6
9
12.4
8.4
8.1
9.4
8.0
8.4
9.0
8.0
0.39
14.5
8.6
9.3
9.6
8.5
9.2
9.4
10.3
0.35
8.8
10.9
10.0
8.8
9.7
9.9
12.0
0.30
1.92
2.43
2.43
2.30
2.43
2.05
2.30
2.30
0.30
1.41
2.30
1.66
2.30
2.30
1.92
1.92
2.18
0.35
1.92
1.41
1.92
1.92
1.79
1.66
1.92
0.49
6.51
3.45
3.33
4.16
3.29
4.10
3.91
3.48
0.65
10.29
3.74
5.64
4.18
3.79
4.82
4.90
4.76
0.79
4.60
7.73
5.24
4.60
5.44
5.98
6.23
0.57
23
Table 3: Effect of packaging materials on reducing sugar, ascorbic acid and total carotenoids of Sohshang
during storage
Treatments
Days after storage
Reducing sugar (%)
T0 (Control)
T1 (Perforated PP)
T7 (Leaf)
CD0.05
Ascorbic acid (mg/ 100g)
Total carotenoids (µg/g)
3
6
9
3
6
9
3
6
9
4.20
3.14
2.78
3.14
3.13
3.33
3.08
2.80
0.05
4.55
3.33
2.96
3.33
3.85
3.50
3.57
3.07
0.08
3.60
2.98
3.85
4.81
3.88
3.60
3.70
0.05
6.4
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
8.0
9.6
0.17
6.4
6.4
9.6
8.0
8.0
8.0
6.4
8.0
0.24
6.4
9.6
8.0
8.0
8.0
6.4
8.0
0.12
109.63
103.78
69.70
97.99
99.47
100.31
74.85
80.70
0.30
109.63
103.85
70.22
98.96
100.05
101.40
75.23
81.47
0.11
104.36
70.41
99.02
101.08
101.40
75.49
81.53
0.30
Shelf life of Sohshang fruits stored in different
packaging materials was determined based on
visual and textural properties of the fruits (Table
4). A gradual decrease in both visual and textural
property of the fruits was observed with the increase
in storage period. On 9th day of storage, the fruits
packed in non-perforated PP recorded the highest
visual (5.5) and textural (3.0) score while the fruits
packed in leaf recorded the lowest visual (3.0) and
textural (1.0) score (Table 4). The highest shelf life
of 9 days was found in the fruits packed in nonperforated PP followed by non-perforated LDHM
with 8 days of storage. However, the shortest shelf
life was recorded in fruits without packaging, which
had a shelf life of 3 days only. The extended shelf
life with different packaging materials might be
attributed to the modified environment created by
accumulation of CO2 and depletion of O2 and
maintenance of high humidity inside the pack. This
Ascorbic acid content of the fruit declined
during storage in all treatments (Table 3). However,
fruits packed in non-perforated PP retained higher
ascorbic acid content (9.6 mg/100g) as compared
to other treatments (6.4-9.0 mg/100g) on the 9th day
of storage. Reduction in ascorbic acid during
storage was also reported by Mahajan et al. (2005)
in Kinnow mandarin. The total carotenoids content
of Sohshang increased significantly with the
progress of storage period (Table 3). Maximum
increase in total carotenoid content was observed
in fruits under control (67.50-109.63 µg/g) on the
6th day of storage while the minimum increase was
observed in fruits packed in non-perforated PP
(70.41µg/g) on the 9th day of storage. This increase
might be due to the degradation of chlorophyll and
extensive accumulation of carotenoids as the
chloroplasts were transformed to chromoplasts
(Kader and Grierson 1978).
Table 4: Effect of packaging materials on visual and textural quality of Sohshang during storage
Treatments
Days after storage
Visual quality
T0 (Control)
T1 (Perforated PP)
T7 (Leaf)
CD0.05
Shelf life
(Days)
Textural quality
3
6
9
3
6
9
5.0
8.0
8.0
6.5
6.8
8.0
7.5
8.0
0.24
2.0
6.5
7.5
5.0
6.0
7.0
6.2
4.5
0.30
5.0
5.5
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
0.24
2.5
4.8
4.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.8
3.5
0.24
1.5
3.2
3.5
3.0
3.2
3.3
3.5
2.0
0.39
2.5
3.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
2.8
1.0
0.17
24
2-3
6-7
>9
5-6
6-7
6-7
7-8
>4
storage behaviour of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk)
cv. Gola. M.Sc. Thesis, CCS. Haryana Agric. Univ.,
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Kudachikar VB, Kulkarni SG, Aradhya SM, Prasad AB,
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39(6): 609-618
helped to maintain turgidity, higher firmness and
freshness during storage (Emerald et al. 2001). The
extended shelf life of the fruits in different
packaging materials was also reported by Joshua
and Sathimurthy (1993) in sapota, Bhushan et al.
(2002) in kiwifruit, Kudachikar et al. (2007) in
banana and Amoros et al. (2008) in loquat.
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treatments and storage conditions on quality and
25
Improved Measures for Conservation Agriculture Practices in
Rice Farming System
R. NAGARAJAN1*, J. ARAVIND1, R. RAVI1, A. VENKATESH2
Received 2.9.2013, Revised 24.9.13, Accepted 24.9.2013.
ABSTRACT
Conservation Agriculture is a concept for resource saving agricultural crop production to achieve
sustained production and conserving the environment. Function of conservation agriculture is based
on three key principles, viz. effective resource conservation, input optimization and optimum
productivity of the farming system. Certainly, the advancement in conservation agriculture is possible
through genetic improvement in crops and varieties, which are suitable for better adaptation to different
farming system environments. Besides, improved varieties and technologies can be assumed to improve
productivity with an optimized input level. In the case of rice, resource conservation is possible with
proper technological intervention. Water is the one of the most important factor, which governs the
productivity of rice in Asia. In the concept of conservation agriculture, rice growing systems such as
aerobic rice, direct seeded rice, system of rice cultivation and alternate wetting and drying were
introduced to conserve water. Several problems come to exist in rice growing environment under
limited water such as pest, disease and weeds, which may reduce productivity. In this paper the problems
associated with rice growing under limited water resources are discussed and possible solutions are
analyzed.
Key words: Conservation agriculture, rice, organic farming
conservation, input optimization and over all the
productivity of the farming system. Certainly, the
advancement in conservation agriculture is possible
through better adopted high yielding varieties
grown under optimized input level. This paper
aimed to provide the strategies to improve the
conservation practices suitable for different farming
system environment.
INTRODUCTION
Conservation agriculture is a concept for
resource-saving agricultural crop production that
strives to achieve acceptable profits together with
high and sustained production levels, while
concurrently conserving the environment.
Conservation agriculture is based on enhancing
natural biological processes above and below the
ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil
tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and
the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals
and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are
applied at an optimum level and in a way that does
not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological
processes. Conservation agriculture is based on the
three key principles of effective resource
WHY CONSERVATION
AGRICULTURE ?
In India, one of the biggest challenges is feeding
a population of 1.1 billion with food grains. The
total demand for the cereals alone is ranged from
261.5 to 267.0 million tons by 2020-2021, as
reported by Chand (2007) and Kumar (1998). In
1
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, India
ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam, Meghalaya
*Corresponding author’s E-mail:rnagarajan1@gmail.com
2
Mini review
26
terms of percentage increase, improving yield levels
would require serious efforts to sustain and improve
the total factor productivity through research and
development efforts. Therefore, crop production
under this situation may depend on higher
utilization of natural resources like water and inputs
like fertilizer etc. The fertilizer consumption of
India has increased from 105.5 kg ha-1 in 2005-06
to 144 kg ha -1 in 2011-12 (SIA 2013). The modest
increase (1% annually) in water productivity
(quantity per consumptive water use) will eliminate
the additional consumptive water demand for grains
(Amarasinghe et al. 2006). Furthermore, climate
change is likely to impact agricultural land use and
production especially due to less availability of
water for irrigation.
Likewise, the effect of crop residues on the soil
chemical properties is related to increase of soil
organic carbon in the form of organic matter, which
provides essential nutrients such as macro and
micronutrients that directly stabilizes the soil
structure (Martinez et al. 2007). The microbial
population of soils may increase up to 30 to 40
percent. The combined and integrated action of
fungi, actinomycete, bacteria and soil mesofauna
transforms the organic matter into humus. In
synthesis, crop residues on top of the soil may have
multiple beneficial influences in the crop
production. Certainly, diversification of suitable
crop species grown in sequence or associations also
helps in maintaining the sustainable productivity
in several ways.
KEY PRINCIPLES IN CONSERVATION
AGRICULTURE
IMPROVED MEASURES FOR
CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE
Three principles of conservation agriculture
outlined by conservationists and producers are a)
continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance
b) permanent organic soil cover and c)
diversification of crop species grown in sequence
or associations. Continuous minimal mechanical
soil disturbance is one of the important phenomena
in the conservation agriculture. Tillage is one of
the most “energy consuming” processes in the
existing farming practices. Producers can save 30
to 40 percent of time and labour by practicing the
no-till process as a conservation practices. When
the soil residues are left on top of the soil, many
phenomena occur in the soil-residue interphase,
which are determinant for crop growth. These
include, partitioning and balance of radiation,
energy, water and carbon. As a result, more soil
moisture is available for plants. The rains fall on
the residue, dissipating their kinetic energy, without
affecting the soil structure. The soil water
infiltration may improve due to the lower kinetic
energy of the water reaching the soil surface,
decreasing the water runoff and soil erosion
(Acevedo and Martínez 2003). Improved soil water
balance generally enhances the soil water
availability to the plants (Martinez et al. 2007). The
lower solar radiation reaching the soil surface in
no-till along with the higher water content of the
soil decrease the mean soil temperature and thereby
lowering the rate of biological processes.
Food production must be increased to meet
burgeoning global population. However, declining
investment in agriculture, reduced inputs and an
increasingly variable production environment make
this a significant challenge. Combining resource
efficient agronomy with better adapted crop
cultivars will be vital if the productivity of the
world’s food producing systems is to be maintained
or increased. The existence of genotype x resource
conserving crop management practice interactions,
traits controlling these interactions and breeding
strategies that can be used to improve yield under
conservation agriculture are discussed for
improving conservation agriculture.
The development of short-statured wheat and
rice cultivars warranted farmers to apply more N
and resulted in yield increment. The semi-dwarfing
genes also radically changed plant morphology,
significantly improving harvest index. However, it
is unlikely that the dramatic improvements achieved
through either semi-dwarf wheat or rice is likely to
continue for a long time. Certainly, water will
become increasingly limiting factor in many
cropping systems (Trethowan et al. 2005).
Combining water and resource conserving
agricultural practices, such as zero-tillage, more
water-use-efficient cultivars will enhance the
overall productivity and profitability of most
cropping systems. In this paper, ways to improve
the conservation agriculture practices in the farming
27
system with special reference to water conservation
is discussed with rice crops.
Rice is a predominant food crop of Asia and
more than 80% of the developed freshwater
resources are used for irrigation purposes, about
half of which is used for rice production (Dawe et
al. 1998). To produce 1 kg of grain, farmers have
to supply 2-3 times more water in rice fields than
other cereals (Barker et al. 1998). Rapidly depleting
water resources threaten the sustainability of the
irrigated rice, food security and livelihood of rice
producers and consumers (Tuong et al. 2004). In
Asia, 17 million hectare (Mha) of irrigated rice
areas may experience physical water scarcity and
22 Mha may have economic water scarcity by 2025
(Tuong and Bouman 2002). There is also much
evidence that water scarcity already prevails in ricegrowing areas, where rice farmers need
technologies to cope with water shortage and ways
must be sought to grow rice with lesser amount of
available water (Tuong and Bouman 2002). The
important water management technologies adopted
under various rice farming environment is discussed
below to cover the productivity constraints.
(Tabbal et al. 2002), ground cover systems (Lin et
al. 2002), and system of rice intensification (Stoop
et al. 2002).
However, fields are still kept flooded for some
periods in most of these systems, so water losses
remain high. Aerobic rice is high yielding rice
grown under non-flooded conditions in nonpuddled and unsaturated (aerobic) soil. It is
responsive to high inputs, can be rainfed or
irrigated, and tolerates (occasional) flooding
(Bouman and Tuong 2001). In any variety
development programme, variety should perform
well both under aerobic condition as well as under
normal irrigated condition, so that chance of getting
a good harvest in a good rainfall year is not skipped.
The high yielding variety MAS 946-1 was
released for Aerobic Cultivation in South Eastern
Dry Zone of Karnataka in 2007 (Gandhi et al. 2012).
Similarly, a study conducted to evaluate the variety
suitable for aerobic rice cultivation in Tamil Nadu
summarized that the upland rice variety PMK 3
produced the highest grain yield of 3684 kg ha-1
and it was significantly superior to other rice
varieties. The next best variety was ASD 16 (3138
kg ha-1) and it was on par with MDU 3 (2943 kg ha1
) and CO 43 (2805 kg ha-1) (Martin et al. 2007).
Aerobic rice cultivation
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
developed the “aerobic rice technology” to address
the water crisis problem in tropical agriculture. In
aerobic rice systems, rice is grown like an upland
crop with adequate inputs and supplementary
irrigation when rainfall is insufficient (Bouman and
Tong 2001). This concept of aerobic rice may be
an alternate strategy, which combines the
characteristics of both upland varieties with less
water requirement and irrigated varieties with high
response to inputs. The water use for aerobic rice
production was 55-56 percent lower than the
flooded rice, with 16-19 times higher water
productivity and net returns to water use was two
times higher. The water productivity in aerobic rice
is ranged from 0.45 - 0.55 g grain/liter of applied
water as compared to 0.25-0.30 g grain/liter of
applied water in conventional system. The results
of aerobic rice indicated that it may be a viable
option where shortage of water does not allow
growing lowland rice. Several technologies have
been developed to reduce water loss and increase
the water productivity of the rice crop; these include
the following practices such as saturated soil culture
(Borell et al. 1997), alternate wetting and drying
System of rice intensification (SRI)
The system of rice intensification was developed
in Madagascar by Fr Henri de Lau Lanie in
association with NGO- association Tefy Saina
(ATS) and many small farmers in the 1980s is
becoming popular in many countries including
India. SRI is a system rather than a technology. It
is based on the insight that rice has the potential to
produce more tillers and early transplanting along
with optimal growth condition like wide spacing,
optimum humidity, a vibrant healthy soil and
aerobic soil conditions during vegetative growth
can fulfill this potential. Water saving in SRI may
be as high as 40 percent as compared to
conventional practice. In a field trial at Directorate
of Rice Research (Hyderabad, India), SRI gave 166
percent higher grain yield than normal transplanting
method. The varietal response to SRI and normal
cultivation was wide SRI method gave nearly 46 to
48 percent higher yield in hybrids, 52 to 17 percent
in HYVs while negative results were also observed
in case of Pusa basmati due to its shy tillering habit
under wider spacing. All the varieties are not
promising for SRI cultivation method and response
28
of cultivars to SRI varies as per their ability to
exploit the natural resources.
Hence, there is a need to develop varieties that
can give better response to SRI cultivation and must
have compact plant type, profuse tillering, better
root system, bolder grains, low water requirement,
responsive to organic inputs (inorganic inputs
constitute 25 to 50 percent only), and resistance to
pest and diseases. Besides, rice matures 10 - 15
days earlier as compared to conventional practice
and thereby vacates the land for timely sowing of
succeeding crop. Therefore, genotypes used for SRI
should be able to produce more with less duration.
High yield varieties and hybrids are the most
suitable cultivar for system of rice intensification.
In addition, high tillering rice cultivars are also
recommended for SRI.
miliacea among sedges, and Ammania baccifera,
Eclipta prostrata, and Sphenoclea zeylanica in the
broadleaf category. The reported yield losses from
weeds on DSR range from 20 to 88 percent in India
(DRR 1995). Under minimum tillage concept of
conservation agriculture, emergence of weed might
be increasing at an alarming rate. The selection of
weed-suppressing rice varieties and use of clean
seed are the basis for reducing weed pressure in
DSR rice system is essential. In addition with
suitable herbicide, manual weeding and adapting
integrated weed management is essential.
Similarly, emergence of pest and diseases are
high and causes severe problems due to varied plant
densities under DSR. For example, under high
planting density of DSR, more vegetative biomass
are produced which are adopted to suppress weeds
as well as to obtain high yields. The observed
panicle densities are 700–800 m-2 in broadcast sown
rice and 500–600 m-2 in row seeded rice in tropical
developing countries, compared with >1,200 m-2
in temperate Australia. High tiller density leads to
highly humid micro environments in the rice canopy
that might favor the invasion of certain pests and
diseases.
Insects such as stem borer, green leaf hopper,
leaf folder, and gall midge highly emerge under
DSR. Diseases like blast, ragged stunt virus, yellow
orange leaf virus, sheath blight, and dirty panicle
are also prevalent (Pongprasert 1995). Other insect
pests that attack emerging rice seedlings are the
golden apple snail [Pomacea canaliculata
(Lamarck)] and rats. Protecting young seedlings
against these pests is more difficult in DSR than in
transplanted rice. In Philippines, farmers make
narrow ditches to entice snails to pools of water
and then handpicks them. In severe cases,
molluscicides are used to control snails. Indonesian
farmers reported that the rat problem is more serious
in DSR than in transplanted rice, especially in
broadcast sown crops. They use traps, barn owls
(biological predator), and sulfur fumigation or
poison baits to minimize rat damage.
Cultivation of resistant varieties can
complement cultural practices to reduce pest
problems under wet direct seeding. There are
varieties resistant or tolerant to BPH, ragged stunt
virus, blast, and bacterial leaf blight, but none for
stem borers, thrips, leaf folder, sheath blight, sheath
rot, and dirty panicle (Pongprasert 1995). Therefore,
integrated pest management is a strategy that
Direct seeded rice
Direct Dry Seeding (DDS) in rice has advantage
of faster and easier planting, reduced labour
requirement and drudgery with earlier crop maturity
by 7-10 days, better efficient water use and high
tolerance of water deficit, less methane emission,
and higher income due to less cost of production
(Balasubramanian and Hill 2002). In both direct
dry and wet seeded rice weed management is a
major problem. Suitable genotypes needed to be
developed for suitability under dry condition with
better root system and competitiveness to weed. The
genotypes with weed suppressing ability would a
boon for the rice farmer’s across the cultivation
method and regions. Scientists are now able to
identify some plant types that have the ability to
compete successfully with weeds and give a good
harvest even under no weeding conditions. In North
East, variety Sahsarang 1 is said to have some
abilities to compete with weeds. Development of
such genotypes would reduce the requirement for
tillage, save labour and herbicide use and thereby
conserving resource base in agriculture.
Weed pressure is often two to three times higher
in D-DSR than in transplanted crops. It is commonly
observed that dry direct seeding is subject to
relatively more weed pressure than wet direct
seeding, probably because of differences in land
preparation. Generally, weeds such as grasses,
sedges, and broadleaf weeds are found in DSR
fields. The dominant weeds in D-DSR fields are
Echinochloa crus-galli and Leptochloa chinensis
among grasses, Cyperus difformis and Fimbristylis
29
employs various tactics or control measures
harmoniously to bring the pest population below
the economic threshold level under DSR. In
addition, adoption of the IPM strategy by combining
resistant varieties, predator management, cultural
practices, and/or the judicious application of
pesticides will help control most insects and
diseases (Heong et al. 1995) under DSR is highly
essential.
Screening of rice varieties suitable for direct
seeding in Punjab revealed that short stature and
low tillering, medium and fine grain varieties, viz.
KS-282, NIAB- IR9, IR-6, Basmati-2000, Super
Basmati, 99512 and PK-5261-1-2-1 produced
significantly higher yield than all the other varieties/
lines under test (Ali et al. 2007).
Thermo-tolerance will also improve cultivar
adaptation to early season temperature fluctuations,
as the rate of emergence and general seedling vigour
are influenced by temperature fluctuations. Good
early vigor combined with vegetative frost tolerance
is advantageous in areas where cold temperatures
come rapidly after planting and early frost can
occur. Nevertheless, changes in disease patterns
linked to stubble retention remain the primary
constraint to cultivar adaptation to conservation
agriculture
Transgenic herbicide tolerance can also
improve crop adaptation to zero-tillage as they
effectively control weed competition and need only
to be deployed in one element of the crop rotation.
An example is the deployment of herbicide tolerant
soybean in rotation with wheat, very common in
Argentina in which weed growth in the subsequent
wheat crop is significantly reduced (Cook 2006).
Organic Farming
To attain self-sufficiency in food grain
production, high yielding varieties may play a major
role as compared to traditional varieties. About 65
percent of India is under non-irrigated cultivation
where the farming practices are still largely ‘organic
by default’. The use of chemical fertilizers is
comparatively low in eastern and northeastern part
of the country and yet there is sufficient food
production. This defies the myth that the output
would fall if the farmers go back to organic farming.
However organic farming in India is still in its
infancy, and due research efforts are required to
support the various requirements of organic
farming. Presently the varieties suited to
conventional farming conditions are also used in
organic farming. Efforts should be focused on use
of organic in basmati rice, where nitrogen
requirement for the crop is less as compared to nonbasmati rice.
CONCLUSION
Conservation agriculture is a very important
process to be looked at in order for the future
generations both improvements in resource
conservation and yield improvement. This paper
addressed the improved measures for conservation
agriculture in farming systems adopted in India with
special reference to water conservation measures.
In addition, crop and varieties, which are suitable
for better adaptation to different environment, need
to be improved through breeding traits. These
improved varieties and technologies can be
assumed for favorable productivity with an
optimized input at any farming system. Optimizing
inputs and the choice of cultivar for an effective
resource conserving farming practice can improve
overall productivity and yield potential of crops,
especially traditional cultivars.
Conversion of Rice from C3 to C4 Crop
In rice C3 plants, photorespiration reduces net
carbon gain and productivity by as high as 40
percent, as a result of this; C 3 plants are less
competitive in certain environments. On the other
hand, C4 plants exhibit many desirable agronomic
traits, high photosynthesis rate, faster growth and
high water and input use efficiency. Therefore,
efforts are on to convert rice to C4 crop for realizing
higher photosynthesis rate and yield. Development
of such a genotype would save a huge amount of
water, which could be utilized for increasing
irrigated area.
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Acevedo E, Martínez E (2003). Sistema de labranza y
productividad de los suelos.In: Sustentabilidad en
Cultivos Anuales: Cero Labranza, Manejo de Rastrojos,
Eds: E.Acevedo, Universidad de Chile, Serie Ciencias
Agronómicas N°8, Santiago, Chile, pp 13-25
Ali Awan RITH, Manzoor Z, Ashraf MM, Safdar ME, Ahmad
M (2007). Screening of rice varieties suitable for direct
seeding in Punjab. J Anim Pl Sci 17:1-2
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Lin S, Dittert K, Tao H, Kreye C, Xu Y, Shen Q, Fan X,
Sattelmacher B (2003). The ground-cover rice
production system (GCRPS): A successful new
approach to save water and increase nitrogen fertilizer
efficiency. In: Bouman BAM, Hengsdijk H, Hardy B,
Bindraban, PS, Tuong TP, Ladha JK (eds) Water-Wise
Rice Production. Proceedings of a Thematic Workshop
on Water-Wise Rice Production, 8–11 April 2002,
International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
Philippines
Martin GJ, Padmanathan PK, Subramanian E (2007).
Identification on suitable rice variety daptability to
aerobic irrigation. J Agril Biol Sci 2(2): 1-3
Martínez E (2007). Cero labranza, carbono y capacidad
productiva de un suelo aluvial en la Zona Central de
Chile. Tesis para optar al grado Académico de Doctor
en Ciencias Silvoagropecuarias
Veterinarias.
Universidad de Chile, p 149
Pongprasert S (1995). Insect and disease control in wet-seeded
rice in Thailand. In: Moody K (ed). Constraints,
opportunities, and innovations for wet-seeded rice.
IRRI Discussion Paper Series No.10. Los Baños
(Philippines): International Rice ResearchInstitute,
pp 118-132
SIA (State of Indian Agriculture) (2013). State of Indian
Agriculture, Government of India Ministry of
Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
New Delhi, p 247
Stoop WA, Uphoff N, Kassam A (2002). A review of
agricultural research issues raised by the system of rice
intensification (SRI) from Madagascar: Opportunities
for improving farming systems for resource-poor
farmers. Agric Syst 71: 249-274
Tabbal DF, Bouman BAM, Bhuiyan SI, Sibayan EB, Sattar
MA (2002). On-farm strategies for reducing water
input in irrigated rice; case studies in the Philippines.
Agric WaterManage 56: 93-112
Trethowan RM, Hodson D, Braun HJ, Pfeiffer WH (2005).
Wheat breeding environments. In: Dubin J, Lantican
MA, Morris ML (eds) Impacts of international wheat
breeding research in the developing world, CIMMYT,
Mexico, pp 4-11
Tuong TP, Bouman BAM (2002). Rice production in waterscarce environments. Paper presented at the Water
Productivity Workshop, 12-14 November 2001,
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Tuong TP, Bouman BAM, Mortimer M (2004). More rice,
less water - Integratedapproaches for increasing water
productivity in irrigated rice - based systems in Asia.
‘‘New Directions for a Diverse Planet.’’ Proceedings
of the 4th International Crop Science Congress, 26
September-1 October 2004, Brisbane, Australia
(published on CDROM)
Amarasinghe UA, Shah T, Singh O (2006). Changing
consumption patterns: Implications for food and water
demand in India. Draft prepared for the IWMI-CPWF
project on ‘Strategic Analysis of National River
Linking Project of India’, International Water
Management Institute, Columbo, Sri Lanka
Balasubramanin V, Hill JE (2000). Direct seeding of rice in
Asia: emerging issues and strategic research needs for
the 21st century. In: Pandey S, Mortimer M, Wade L,
Tuong TP, Lopez K, Hardy B (eds) Direct seeding:
research issues and opportunities.
Proceedings of the International Workshop on Direct
Seeding in Asian Rice Systems: Strategic Research
Issues and Opportunities, 25-28 January, 2000,
International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, pp
15-39
Barker RD, Dawe TP, Tuong SI, Bhuiyan LC, Guerra (1998).
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September 1998. FAO, pp 96-109
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of water use for irrigated rice in a semi-arid tropical
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Bouman BAM, Tuong TP (2001). Field water management to
save water and increase its productivity in irrigated
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31
Comparative Study of Composite Fish Culture (CFC) and Local
Practices of Fish Culture in East Siang District,
Arunachal Pradesh
SHAH MUSTAHID HUSSAIN1, DEBASHISH SEN2, MAHESH PATHAK1*, M. PREMJIT SINGH3
ABSTRACT
A multilocational trial on composite fish culture (CFC) was carried out to evaluate growth, yield and
economic analysis of fish culture during three successive years 2010–2012 in East Siang District of
Arunachal Pradesh, India. The study revealed that growth of silver carp and catla is better than that of
other fish species in CFC. Fish yield was more in CFC than the traditional fish farming system in all
locations under study with the highest harvest of 20.6 q ha-1. An increment of fish harvest up to 114 %
was recorded by adopting CFC. Gross profit to the tune of Rs. 2, 62,233 and Rs. 1, 25,500 per hectare
were recorded from CFC and local practice with a net profit of Rs. 1, 44,067 and Rs. 61,700 per
hectare and benefit-cost ratio of 2.21 and 1.96 respectively.
Key words: Composite fish culture, local practice, yield, benefit- cost ratio
INTRODUCTION
compatible species is also not maintained. There
are many fish culture technologies available and
among them, the Composite Fish Culture (CFC)
system is the most sustainable for this region. In
this system, distinctive compatible species of Indian
and Exotic carps of different feeding habits are
stocked and cultured in the same pond so that all
its ecological niches are utilized by the fishes.
Present investigation is an attempt to quantify the
yield advantages of CFC over the local traditional
fish culture system. Effort has also been made to
find out economic sustainability of CFC in the study
area for logical analysis and adoption by the fish
growing community of the district.
Fishery in Arunachal Pradesh is mostly based
on capture from natural resources. There is a large
cultivable fresh water area in Arunachal Pradesh
in the form of ponds, tanks and beels etc., of which
only small part is utilized for fish culture. According
to the census 2007-08, the fishery production in
East Siang District covers an area of 233 ha. There
is a tremendous gap between the demand (180 tons
per annum and supply (16 tons per annum of fish
in the district (Haloi 2009). Though fishery is an
important sector of livelihood for the local
community, but still the technology of aquaculture
has not been well established among them. The fish
growers of the state traditionally growing different
varieties of fishes in polyculture method were
species ratio and water quality management is not
been practiced. Fishes are feed with locally
available feed materials like banana leaf, banana
pseudostem, rice bran, cow dung etc. In their
practice, proper stocking density and selection of
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was carried out during the years 20102012. The experiment was carried out in Mangnang,
Sille, Nari, Mirem, Ledum and Tabi villages of East
Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh geographically
1
KVK East Siang; College of Horticulture and Forestry, CAU, Pasighat-791102, Arunachal Pradesh
Department of NRM, College of Horticulture and Forestry, CAU, Pasighat-791102, Arunachal Pradesh;
3
Directorate of Extension Education, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur
* Corresponding author’s Email: maheshpathak@rediffmail.com
2
Short communication
32
located between 27.300° to 29.420° North latitude
and 94.420° to 95.350° East longitude with an
altitude of 133m in to 300 m. Fingerlings of Rohu
(Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla), Mrigala
(Cirrhinus
mrigala),
Grass
Carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella), Common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and Silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) were stocked in a
ratio 2 Catla: 2 Rohu: 1.5 Mrigal: 2 Silver carp: 1
Grass carp: 1.5 Common carp (Mahapatra et al.
2006) @ 7000 fingerlings per ha.
The management practices in composite fish
farming can be categorized as Pre-stocking,
stocking and post-stocking management. The major
steps followed in pre-stocking management were
aquatic weed clearance by manual effort,
eradication of predatory and weed fish by repeated
netting, manuring by using cow dung 1000 kg/ha/
month and liming with quick lime @ 2000 kg/ha/
yr for regulating pH of pond water. One third
quantity of total amount of lime was applied as
initial dose and rest was applied in seven split doses
after checking pH of the pond water. In stocking
management, transportation of fingerling is one of
the most important steps. In the present
investigation, transportation of fingerlings was done
in the early morning hours with oxygen packing
from Mini Carp Hatchery located at Dhemaji
District, Assam. Acclimatization of the fingerlings
was also done by putting the Oxyzen packed
polythene bags in pond water for 30 minutes
followed by addition of excess water in the same
bag and releasing the fishes slowly in the pond for
reducing the stress related to temperature
fluctuation. Supplementary feeding of oil cake and
rice bran with a mixing ratio of 1:1 was done @ 23% of body weight of fishes. Manuring was also
done once in a month to maintain water quality of
the ponds. Sampling for checking the health and
growth were also done once in two months.
Siang District showed that growth of silver carp
and catla was better than other fish species in CFC.
Silver carp and catla was recorded to grow faster
with an average size of 771.6 g and 791.4 g
respectively in eight months of culture period. This
might be attributed to balance feeding to the fishes
as well as manuring of pond in CFC and
consequently optimum production of phytoplankton
and zooplankton which were basic food for silver
carp and catla respectively (Wohlfarth and
Schroeder 1979). In all the locations under study
congenial water temperature for fish growth was
observed from April to October. Pre-monsoon
rainfall in the month of April, May followed by
monsoon rainfall during June to September
favoured fish culture in the district.
It was noted that, the fish yield was more in CFC
than traditional fish farming system in all locations
under study. Average fish yield recorded in CFC
was 18.9 q ha-1, 19.3 q ha-1 and 20.6 q ha-1 during
2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively as compared to
10.0 q ha-1, 9.0 q ha-1 and 9.3 q ha-1 during the
aforesaid period (Table 1). This might be attributed
to pre-stocking, stocking and post-stocking
management practices. Gradual increase in fish
productivity in CFC over local practice might be
due to the residual effect of incorporation of inputs
viz. lime, manure and feeding materials in the same
pond over the years. Similar observations were also
made by Murty et al. 1978 and Yadava et al. 1992.
An increment of fish harvest to the tune of 89% ,
113 % and 114 % was recorded by adopting
composite fish farming in the year 2010, 2011 and
2012 respectively (Table 1).
Economic analysis of fish farming in CFC and
local practice was made to evaluate the
sustainability of CFC. Average total cost of
production over the period of 2010-2012 was Rs.
1, 18,167and Rs. 63,800 in CFC and local practice
respectively (Table 2). Variation in the cost of
production in different years was due to variation
in cost of inputs. More cost of production in CFC
as compared to the local practice is due to feeding,
manuring, liming and using chemicals in the former
system. Mean yield of fishes obtained from these
two systems were 19.6 q ha-1 and 9.43 q ha-1. Gross
profit to the tune of Rs. 2, 62,233 and Rs. 1, 25,500
per hectare were recorded from CFC and local
practice with a net profit of Rs. 1, 44,067 and Rs.
61,700 per hectare respectively. This gave an
average benefit-cost ratio of 2.21 in CFC and 1.96
Present study revealed that Composite Fish
Culture has many advantages over local practice
of fish culture. Talukdar and Sontaki (2005)
described various advantages of CFC. Different fish
species viz. Silver carp, Catla, Mrigala, Grass Carp,
Common carp and Rohu harvested from Mangnang,
Mirem, Nari, Sille, Ledum and Tabi villages of East
33
Table 1 : Year wise average yield (q ha-1) of fishes in CFC and local practice of fish farming during the
study period
Year
2010
2011
2012
2010
2011
2012
Mangnang
22.0
20.1
21.7
10.8
8.5
9.6
Mirem
17.3
19.6
22.0
Nari
Sille
Ledum
Average yield (q ha-1) of fishes in CFC
18.5
17.8
17.2
22.0
18.2
17.0
20.8
17.4
17.6
Average yield (q ha-1) of fishes in local practice
9.5
10.3
9.7
10.2
9.6
7.4
10.2
7.9
9.8
8.5
9.5
8.2
Tabi
Avg. yield
20.8
18.9
23.9
18.9 (89%*)
19.3 (114%*)
20.6 (113%*)
9.3
10.1
10.2
10.0
9.0
9.3
Note: *Fish yield Increase in CFC over local practice (%)
Table 2: Economics of fish farming in CFC and local practice during the study period
Parameter (Average of
different location)
Total Cost of production (Rs. ha-1)
Mean Yield of fishes (q ha-1)
Gross profit (Rs.ha-1)
Net returns(Rs. ha-1)
Benefit Cost ratio
CFC
Local practice
2010
2011
2012
Avg.
2010
2011
2012
Avg.
106500
18.9
226800
120300
2.13
117000
19.3
250900
133900
2.14
131000
20.6
309000
178000
2.36
118167
19.60
262233
144067
2.21
58000
10.0
120000
62000
2.07
64500
9.0
117000
52500
1.81
68900
9.3
139500
70600
2.02
63800
9.43
125500
61700
1.96
· Sale price of fish per kg was Rs.120, Rs. 130 and Rs. 150 in the year 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively.
Total cost of production includes cost of labour for pond preparation and management, fertilization application, liming, netting etc. and
material cost like fish fingerlings, feed, fertilizer, lime etc.
in the local practice. The result reflects that
production of fishes and profitability is more than
double in CFC over the local practice which is
because of adoption of good management practices.
Biswas et al. 1991 reported that those farmers, who
have a tendency to maximize their earnings, have
higher adoption of Composite Fish Farming
System. Our results showed that CFC could be a
beneficial venture for optimum utilization of land
and water resources of East Siang District of
Arunachal Pradesh. Adoption of this technique will
open avenues for self-employment, supplement the
income of the farmers and enhance fish production.
Haloi K, Seetharaman S, Sikligar PC, Acharyya K, Rakhal B,
Kalita A, Barman MK, Deka P (2009). Production,
productivity and developmental potential.
Comprehensive District Agriculture Development Plan
(C- DAP), East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh: 7879
Mahapatra BK, Vinod K, Mandal BK, Bujarbaruah KM
(2006). Composite Fish Culture. Technical Bull. No.
20, ICAR-RC NEH, Barapani, Meghalaya: 1-11
Murty DS, Dey RK, Reddy PVGK (1978). Experiments on
rearing exotic carp fingerlings in composite fish culture
in India. Aquaculture 13(4): 331–337
Rout M, Tripathi SD (1998). Effects of various inputs in fish
production under composite fish culture in different
regions of India. In The First Indian Fisheries Forum,
Proceedings of Asian Fisheries Society, Indian branch,
Mangalore: 45-48
Talukdar PK, Sontaki BS (2005). Correlates of adoption of
composite fish culture practices by Fish farmers of
Assam, India. The Journal of Agricultural Sciences 1
(1):12-18
Wohlfarth GW, Schroeder GL (1979). Use of manure in fish
farming-A review. Agricultural Wastes 1(4): 279–
299
Yadava NK, Garg SK (1992). Relative efficacy of different
doses of organic fertilizer and supplement feed
utilization under intensive fish farming. Bioresource
Technology 42(1): 61–65.
REFERENCES
Biswas A, Acharjee S K, Haque MA (1991). Adoption of
composite fish culture in the context of some
psychological orientation. Environment and Ecology
9 (3): 661-663
De Silva SS, Gunasekera R M (1991). An evaluation of the
growth of Indian and Chinese major carps in relation
to the dietary protein content. Aquaculture 92: 237–
241
34
Temporal Rainfall Distribution Characteristics at Tura,
Western Meghalaya
LALA I.P. RAY*, P.K. BORA, A.K. SINGH, RAM SINGH N.J. SINGH, S.M. FEROZE
ABSTRACT
Western Meghalaya is one of the major rainfed- rice grown areas of Meghalaya, India. Tura, the
headquarter of West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, is falling under mild extremely wet agroclimatic zone with an annual rainfall of 4,851.5 mm with 113 numbers of rainy days [average of 24
years (1984-2007) daily rainfall data]. Rainfall analysis with advanced statistical methods can be
used for crop planning, land water management, water harvesting, aquaculture and floriculture planning
etc. The analysis of 24 years (1984-2007) daily rainfall data of Tura, Meghalaya has been carried out.
Monsoon rainfall contributes more than 70% of average annual rainfall. Weekly rainfall is more than
100 mm and 3 rainy days from 16th to 40th standard meteorological week, however, for 1st to 15th and
43rd to 52nd week the probability of getting rainfall is zero.
Key words: Crop planning, standard meteorological week, probability of occurrence, rainfed
agriculture, rainfall analysis
for defining a rainy day is not suitable for
agriculture purpose. However, Ashokraj (1979)
used the criteria fixed by India Meteorological
Department (IMD) for defining the rainy day i.e.
the day with at least 2.5 mm rain is called rain day.
A lot of work has been carried out in the past by
various investigations on rainfall analysis, viz. i.
Probability analysis of rainfall (Jakhar et al. 2011;
Sharda and Bhushan 1985; Ray et al. 2011a), ii.
rainfall characteristics analysis (Chakraborty et al.
2008; Mohanty et al. 2001; Satapathy et al. 1998;
Ray et al. 2011b), iii. Dry spell analysis (Verma
and Sharma 1989).
For Northeast India, Meghalaya in particular,
rainfall analysis work have been done to find out
the maximum probable rainfall, meteorological
drought assessment, annual trend in rainfall etc.
Williamnagar, Tura and Cherapunjee stations of
Meghalaya shows an increasing trend in rainfall
(Ray et al. 2012c). Meteorological drought
assessment was done for Tura and Barapani stations
of Meghalaya (Ray et al. 2013b; Ray et al. 2012b).
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge on amount of rainfall, number
of rainy days and its distribution over the cropping
season are important for timely preparation of seed
bed, selection of crop varieties, and choice of
cropping pattern. In most part of India, rainfall is
uneven and erratic. The amount of rainfall at a
particular place is important; an equally important
factor is its temporal distribution. The importance
of this distribution is realised in agricultural and
allied sectors. The knowledge of distribution of dry
spells and amount of rainfall during wet spells is
very much essential for successful irrigation water
management of agriculture. The information of
amount of rainfall during wet spell is useful for
storage purpose based on the magnitude of dry
spells. Also the crop development is severely
affected if dry spells coincide with the sensitive
phenological stage of the crop, and it is sometimes
beneficial if it coincide with the ripening stage. The
criterion set by Raman (1979) for rainfall of 1 mm
School of Natural Resource Management, College of Postgraduate Studies,
Central Agricultural University, Umiam, Barapani- 793103 Meghalaya
* Corresponding author’s Email: lalaiswariprasadray@yahoo.co.in
Original aticle
35
Probable maximum amount of daily rainfall with
its return period was analysed for Barapani and
Nongstoin station of Meghalaya (Ray et al. 2012a;
Ray et al. 2013a). When probability of occurrence
of dry spell different length in a week bounded by
wet weeks is known; adequate steps may be taken
by shifting the sowing time or arranging minimal
irrigation to get optimum yield. In this paper, the
weekly and monthly rainfall pattern, extreme
monthly rainfall event at Tura, Meghalaya has been
analysed at different probability levels by using
Weibull‘s plotting position method. The probability
of occurrence of amount of normal weekly rainfall
is also analysed. The distribution of weekly,
monthly and seasonally rainfall is discussed in this
paper.
days were calculated from the 24 years of recorded
data. Both minimum and maximum value of the
rainfall and rainy days was used for necessary
analysis.
The average annual rainfall at Tura is 4,851.5
mm with 113 numbers of rainy days. The maximum
annual rainfall recorded was 7,584.5 mm
corresponding to the year 1984; and the minimum
recorded was 3,757.8 mm corresponding to the year
1997. The number of rainy days and amount of
rainfall in a standard week throughout a water year
was calculated by simple average of the 24 years
of daily rainfall. The average number of rainy days
per week is more than three from 16th to 40 th
Standard Meteorological Week (SMW); these
weeks also receive a rainfall of more than 100 mm.
The weekly average number of rainy days and
amount of rainfall is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2,
respectively. The probability weekly analysis was
made for 50%, 60%, 70%, 80% and 90%
probability levels for estimating the amount of
rainfall. Generally rainfall at 70% probability can
be safely taken as assured rainfall, while 50%
chance can be considered as the maximum limit
for taking any risk (Gupta et al. 1975; Dingre et al.
2006). The probability distribution of number of
rainy days and amount of rainfall on SMW is
presented in Figs. 3 and 4 respectively. Monthly
analysis of point rainfall revealed that May, June,
July and August were the wettest month
contributing more than 60% of annual rainfall (Fig.
5). However, the annual rainy days are more than
10 in May to September months (Fig. 6). Seasonal
rainfall analysed (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8) at the Tura
station showed that monsoon season was
contributing about 73% of total rainfall with more
than 60% of rainy days. Weekly probability analysis
of rainfall is presented in Table 1. It was found from
Table 1 that there are 70% chances of getting
rainfall more than 10 mm during 16th to 41st SMW.
During 1st to 15th SMW and 43rd to 52nd SMW the
amount of rainfall received was nil at all probability
levels, hence it indicates that during winter and
summer crop. The assured irrigation facilities need
to be there, so that the cropping intensity may be
enhanced. During 21st to 39th SMW even at 90%
probability level there are every chances of getting
Tura, the head quarter of West Garo Hills district
of Meghalaya is located at 250 20' to 260 N latitude,
890 40' to 900 30' E longitude at an elevation of less
than 625 m above sea level. The amount of rainfall
and number of rainy days in a standard
meteorological week (SMW) at Tura was estimated
from historic daily rainfall records (1984-2007)
collected from IMD, Pune. Probability analysis is
carried out to estimate the expected amount of
rainfall at various probability levels of (50 - 90%)
at Tura station using Weibull‘s plotting position
method (Murthy 1998).
The weekly rainfall data have been analysed at
different levels of probability by using Weibull’s
method. In this method, the weekly rainfall was
arranged in descending order of magnitude. The
highest one assigned rank 1; next magnitude was
given rank 2 and so on. The probability ‘P’ of the
week having rainfall exceeding or equaling normal
value was calculated by using Weibull’s formula
(Eq.1).
… (1)
where,
P = probability of occurrence
m = rank number;
and n = number of years of data used
The extreme event of monthly rainfall was
calculated from the point rainfall data used for
analysis. The extreme value of rainfall and rainy
36
Fig. 2: Depth of rainfall in mm at Tura on standard
week basis
Fig. 1: Number of rainy days in a standard week at
Tura
Fig. 4: Probability distribution of amount of rainfall in
a standard week at Tura
Fig. 3: Probability distribution of number of rainy
days in a standard week at Tura
Fig. 6: Average number of rainy days in a month at
Tura station
Fig. 5: Monthly distribution of rainfall at Tura station
Fig. 8: Annual distributin of rainfall at Tura station
Fig. 7: Annual distribution of rainy days at Tura
station
37
rainfall; hence high duration rice crop (more than
130 days) may be taken so that the harvesting time
may not coincide with rainfall. In between 21st to
39th week, the chance of getting dry spell is almost
zero. Table 2 shows the weekly extreme and normal
rainfall, standard deviation (SD), coefficient of
variation (CV) and percentage of contribution at
Tura station. An extreme rainfall (maximum) of
rainfall recorded for 30 th SMW amounting to
1,119.9 mm; however the normal rainfall for this
week is 299.83 mm. each SMW has got a
contribution towards annual rainfall of this station
but during 16 th to 43 rd SMW the percentage
contribution is about 94%. Coefficient of variation
of rainfall is less than 100% during 17th to 24th;
26th, 28th, 31st, 32nd and 34th to 39th SMW. Since
the variation is less there are every chances of
getting assured rainfall during 17th to 39th SMW.
Monthly normal and extreme rainfall with number
of rainy days along with SD, CV and percentage
contribution at Tura is presented in Table 3. The
CV values ranged from 72% to 31% during April
to September month. It is found that about 86% of
rainfall occur during five months (i.e. May to
September) of the year. During these five months
the number of rainy days exceeds more than 15.
Normally at the first week of October, the monsoon
recedes. Monthly analysis of point rainfall reveals
that May, June, July and August are the wettest
month cumulatively contributing more than 60%
of annual rainfall (Fig. 5). However, the annual
rainy days are more than 10 for May to September
month (Fig. 6). The seasonal rainfall analysis for
rainy days and amount of rainfall is presented in
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, respectively. Monsoon rainfall
accounts for about 73% of the total rainfall, with
pre-monsoon and post-monsoon shower of 20% and
7%, respectively. The monsoon rainy days limits
to 67% of the total rainy day in a year.
Table 1: Weekly rainfall at Tura station at different
probability levels in a year
Standard
Met Week
(SMW)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
Rainfall, mm at different probability level
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
35.4
59.6
70.8
64
131
82
122.3
184.6
211.1
182
163.8
167
175.5
75.4
177
100
96.3
93.8
109.2
99
134.5
135
61.2
117.5
70
76.2
34.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
31
52.2
64.4
56.4
121
76.2
120.8
182.6
152.4
175.2
143.2
166.9
105.6
70.5
152.2
86.2
92.2
66
107.4
80.8
113.6
90.4
52
105
61.4
67.4
7.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.4
42.2
50
55.2
105.2
73.7
89
145
118
92.2
125.5
132
87
57
143.5
66.8
85.6
53.1
101.6
72.8
64.6
85
41.2
85.4
57
53.4
2.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22.6
47
37
51.2
40
75.2
97.5
102.4
71
115
110
40.6
26.7
43
50.4
53.3
32
29.9
48.7
54.8
63.8
30.4
37.6
19.8
6.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.6
0
13
22
51.6
7.5
28
3
64.2
35.4
12.5
17.8
8.6
23
15.2
2.4
6
26.6
20.8
15.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
CONCLUSIONS
The present study reveals that western
Meghalaya receives quite a good quantum of
rainfall. The Tura station, Meghalaya receives an
average annual rainfall of 4,851.5 mm with 113 days
of number of rainy days. During monsoon period
there is less chances of any critical dry spell, hence
rainfed agriculture can be done suitably. Since
winter season gets only 7% of total rainfall, it is
38
Table 2: Weekly rainfall at Tura station at different probability levels in a year
Standard Met
Week (SMW)
Extreme Value
Minimum
(mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.6
0
13
22
51.6
7.5
28
3
64.2
35.4
12.5
17.8
8.6
23
15.2
2.4
6
26.6
20.8
15.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Normal
(mm)
Standard
deviation
(mm)
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
0.41
11.57
5.86
4.71
4.24
3.21
6.54
10.80
3.83
3.49
8.76
18.76
42.69
10.81
42.25
69.27
86.82
118.14
100.29
162.81
114.03
220.38
244.76
281.44
267.29
237.40
342.26
253.88
122.41
299.83
153.35
185.95
165.96
144.17
164.19
184.12
126.21
109.63
169.96
99.86
120.29
51.54
5.31
19.39
11.81
5.59
1.21
1.87
9.53
15.23
0.00
7.37
1.55
30.52
11.24
12.76
10.80
8.22
16.72
25.77
12.07
11.02
17.07
26.67
51.94
16.51
67.13
89.07
65.77
99.59
77.59
117.86
82.16
182.79
193.39
233.12
276.48
223.01
351.50
210.80
150.85
313.81
121.31
178.24
182.45
108.74
144.92
161.12
65.71
88.06
158.13
103.58
126.81
61.84
10.51
67.76
24.23
12.25
2.57
4.53
35.65
43.72
0.00
23.59
374.17
263.77
191.92
270.74
254.57
255.74
255.81
238.61
315.25
315.50
194.98
142.20
121.69
152.69
158.88
128.59
75.75
84.30
77.36
72.39
72.05
82.94
79.01
82.83
103.44
93.94
102.70
83.03
123.23
104.66
79.10
95.85
109.94
75.42
88.27
87.51
52.06
80.33
93.04
103.72
105.42
120.00
197.84
349.53
205.06
219.09
212.83
241.81
374.17
287.08
0.00
320.07
Percentage of
contribution
(%)
Maximum
(mm)
5.8
110.6
40.2
44.2
31.2
24.8
62
94.9
45
41.2
54.4
88.8
174
47
223.2
295.9
206.4
306.3
270.8
435.6
307.4
528.1
829.6
811.4
990.4
915
1323
612.6
606.2
1119.9
394.5
634.6
620
362.6
473
627.6
224
317.8
554.8
398.1
469.4
208.7
28.8
254.4
74.4
46
7.5
16
133.4
158.4
0
88.5
39
0.01
0.24
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.07
0.13
0.22
0.08
0.07
0.18
0.39
0.88
0.22
0.87
1.43
1.79
2.44
2.07
3.36
2.35
4.54
5.04
5.80
5.51
4.89
7.05
5.23
2.52
6.18
3.16
3.83
3.42
2.97
3.38
3.80
2.60
2.26
3.50
2.06
2.48
1.06
0.11
0.40
0.24
0.12
0.02
0.04
0.20
0.31
0.00
0.15
Table 3: Monthly normal and extreme rainfall (number of rainy days) along with SD, CV and
Percentage contribution at Tura
Month
Normal
(mm)
Extreme Value
Minimum
(mm)
Maximum
(mm)
Standard
deviation
(mm)
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
Percentage
contribution
(%)
January
24.43(1.14)
0(0)
124.8(4)
42.78(1.41)
175.12(123.06)
February
23.54(1.36)
0(0)
99.9(4)
33.05(1.45)
140.42(106.61)
0.50(1.01)
0.49(1.20)
March
62.05(2.71)
0(0)
152.1(8)
57.47(2.40)
92.61(88.41)
1.28(2.40)
April
240.45(7.50)
0(0)
623.4(16)
175.17(4.27)
72.85(56.99)
4.96(6.64)
May
611.44(15.21)
0(10)
1183.6(23)
283.58(3.79)
46.38(24.89)
12.60(13.47)
June
1068.47(18.71)
0(14)
2701.7(23)
562.18(2.49)
52.62(13.33)
22.02(16.57)
July
1116.58(22.07)
0(16)
1959.8(28)
489.23(3.97)
43.82(17.99)
23.02(19.54)
August
729.12(18.21)
0(13)
1552.0(25)
370.67(3.58)
50.84(19.64)
15.03(16.13)
September
626.41(16.71)
0(11)
1045.9(22)
197.00(3.41)
31.45(20.38)
12.91(14.80)
295.31(7.07)
0(3)
664.8(11)
171.09(2.30)
57.94(32.56)
6.09(6.26)
November
19.91(1.00)
0(0)
85.8(3)
29.30(1.11)
147.14(110.94)
0.41(0.89)
December
33.77(1.21)
0(0)
291.8(7)
79.06(2.12)
234.10(174.48)
0.70(1.08)
October
Gupta SK, Rambabu, Tejwani KG (1975). Weekly rainfall of
India for planning cropping programme. Soil
conservation Digest 3(1):31-39
Jakhar P, Hombe Gowda HC, Naik BS, Barman D (2011).
Probability analysis of rainfall characteristics of
Semiliguda in Koraput, Orissa. Indian J Soil Cons
39(1): 9-13
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Characteristics of Vidarbha Region. Indian J Soil Cons
29 (1): 18-21
Murthy VVN (1998). Land and Water Management
Engineering. Kalyani, Ludhiana
Raman CRV (1979). Analysis of commencement of monsoon
rains over Maharashtra state for agricultural planning.
Scientific Report No -216, IMD, Pune
Ray Lala IP, Bora PK, Singh AK, Ram V (2011a). Weekly
Behavioral Pattern of Rainfall at Barapani- A
probabilistic Approach. Published by: Director of
Research, CAU Research News Letter, January- Jun
2011, pp 8-9
Ray Lala IP, Bora PK, Singh AK, Ram V, Singh R, Feroze SM
(2011b). Weekly Rainfall analysis of Cherapunjee.
Published by: Director of Research, CAU Research
News Letter, July- December 2011, pp 12-13
Ray Lala IP, Bora PK, Ram V, Singh AK, Singh R, Feroze SM
(2012a). Probable Annual Maximum Rainfall for
Barapani, Meghalaya. Journal of Progressive
Agriculture 3(1):16-18
(2012b). Meteorological drought assessment in
Barapani. J Indian Water Res Soc 32(1-2): 56-61
(2012c). Rainfall trends in Meghalaya. In: Book of
Abstract of National Seminar on “Agricultural
Research towards Food Security and Environmental
necessary to construct water harvesting structures,
to store excess water during rainy season, and
vegetables and other cash crops during winter
season which will be utilized as life saving irrigation
for fruit crops. A good amount of rainfall during
monsoon season helps the farmer to go for fish cum
paddy culture and pisciculture in the water
harvesting ponds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial assistance received from Central
Agricultural University (CAU, Imphal) vides Order
No. PG.IRP-VI/2010-11; dated 30 th November
2010; for conducting the experiment is duly
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Ashokraj PC (1979). Onset of effective monsoon and critical
dry spell. IARI Research Bulletin 11, WTC New Delhi,
pp 6-18
Chakraborty PB, Mandal APN (2008). Rainfall characteristics
of Sagar Island in Sunderban, West Bengal. Indian J
Soil Cons 36(3): 125-128
Dingre S, Habib R (2006). Rainfall analysis for crop planning
in Kashmir valley. Indian J Agro Meteorology
8(2):281-286
40
Satapathy KK, Jena SK, Das Choudhury D (1998).
Characteristics of monsoon and rainfall pattern at
Umiam, Meghalaya. J Soil and Water Cons 42:155161
Sharda VN, Bhushan LS (1985). Probability analysis of annual
maximum daily rainfall for Agra. Indian J Soil Cons
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supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops. J Indian
Society of Water Res 9(4): 12-16
Sustenance” held at Palli Siksha Bhavana (Institute of
Agriculture), Visva-Bharati, West Bengal, pp 08
Ray Lala IP, Bora PK, Ram V, Singh AK, Singh NJ, Singh R,
Feroze SM (2013a). Estimation of Annual Maximum
Rainfall for Central Meghalaya. Indian J Hill Farming
26 (1):47-51
(2013b). Meteorological drought occurrences in Tura,
Meghalaya. Journal of E-Planet 10(2):7-11
41
Response of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Clones to Integrated
Nutrient Management Practices
I. JAISANKAR*, R. REVATHI, K.T PARTHIBAN, M.R. BACKIYAVATHY, R. JUDE SUDHAGAR,
K. SIVAKUMAR
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was carried out in 2012-13 to study the location specific nutrient requirement
based on soil test value during the first year growth and development of Dalbergia sissoo raised from
clonal source. The study area was located at TNPL, Karur (11º03´44.33" N latitude and 77º59´19.95"
E longitude) Tamil Nadu, India. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with four
replications. There were six different treatment combinations of soil test value based organic and
inorganic fertilizers. Among the treatments, 125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM (100g
plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g plant-1) + Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g plant-1) recorded
significantly maximum growth parameters, quality parameters and nutrient uptake followed by 100 %
of STV- 110:78:52 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g plant-1) + Phosphobacteria
(50g plant-1) + FYM (500g plant-1). The results indicate that soil test value based integrated application
of organics along with inorganic fertilizers could increase the growth as well as dry matter production
in clonal plants of Dalbergia sissoo during the initial growth stages.
Key words: Dalbergia sissoo, clones, nutrient management, growth parameters, dry matter production.
INTRODUCTION
but most plants either do not show satisfactory
growth due to low soil fertility status or die during
drought due to stress conditions.
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. is one of the tropical
timber tree species with multiple uses such as fuel
wood, fodder, pulp, shade, shelter and N-fixing
ability (Sharma et al. 2007). It is one of the few
indigenous leguminous tree species of South Asia,
growing naturally from Himalayan foot hills to the
plains of Afghanistan, Malaysia, India and Pakistan.
It is widely used in agroforestry and afforestation
programmes in the Indian subcontinent (Chander
et al. 1998, Huda et al. 2007). Nursery and field
response of D. sissoo were also studied by Dabas
and Kaushik (1998). In dry deciduous forest it has
been reported to produce 15 tonnes ha-1 year-1 of
woody biomass (Rajvanshi et al. 1985) and a total
biomass of 160 tonnes ha-1 year-1 (Sharma et al.
1988).
Increasing demand coupled with low
productivity of tree plantations is one of the major
concerns faced by wood based industries. One of
the main reasons for low productivity of industrial
plantations is non-availability of genetically
improved planting stock and proper nutrient
management practices. Improved planting material
coupled with location specific silvicultural
technologies will improve the productivity of the
plantations (Lal 2000). Low soil fertility and
moisture stress conditions of the field are important
limitations causing transplanted seedlings difficult
to establish. These limitations can be narrowed by
use of inorganic fertilizers combined with organic
fertilizers which are capable in increasing soil
fertility and decreasing soil moisture loss. A large
area is undertaken for transplantations each year
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam, Tamilnadu – 641301, India
* Corresponding author’s Email: ijaisankar@yahoo.com
Original aticle
42
+ Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g
plant-1). New shoots were collected from D. sissoo
clonal garden maintained by TNPL for clonal
propagation. Two month old clones of Dalbergia
sissoo was planted during November, 2012 in 40
cm3 size pit at 3 x 1.5m spacing. There were 24
plants per treatment; irrigation was given at weekly
intervals.
The required amounts of each fertilizer and
manure were applied 30 cm away from tree base to
avoid the risk of loss over the surface. Biometric
observations on plant height (cm), basal diameter
(mm), number of branches (no. plant-1) and leaf area
(cm2 plant-1) were recorded at 60, 120 and 180 days
after planting (DAP). The total chlorophyll,
chlorophyll a and b were estimated by adopting the
method suggested by Yoshida et al. (1971) and
expressed in mg g-1 of fresh weight. For root studies,
one representative plant sample was removed at six
months after planting from each plot and roots of
the plant were excavated and the dry weight was
recorded after oven drying the samples and
expressed in g plant-1. Quotient of sturdiness (SQ)
was calculated following Thompson (1985). To
quantify the morphological quality of seedlings, the
quality index (QI) was calculated following
Dickson et al. (1960) formula: QI = TW / (H/D) +
(SW / RW), where, TW is the total seedling dry
weight (g), H is the seedling height (cm), D is the
collar diameter (mm), SW is the shoot dry weight
(g) and RW is the root dry weight (g) of the plant.
During 180 DAP, soil and plant nutrient analysis
were carried out following standard methods for
soil pH and EC (Jackson 1973), available nitrogen
(Subbiah and Asija 1956), available phosphorus
(Olsen et al. 1954), available potassium (Stanford
and English 1949), soil organic carbon content
(Walkley and Black 1934). The uptake of N, P and
K was computed by multiplying total dry matter
production with nutrient content and expressed in
kg ha-1. The data were subjected to analysis of
variance using SPSS / PC+ (1986) statistical
package to test the significance of difference in the
studied parameters due to the treatments.
Systematic efforts to test the selected clonal
material of Dalbergia sissoo under location specific
conditions are meagre. Some trials comparing the
performance of clones and seedlings have been
conducted by different organizations and the results
are mixed. Under location specific condition, the
performance of clonal source of this species has to
be tested for getting higher utilizable biomass so
as to fetch the highest profit to the stakeholders.
In order to solve the above mentioned problems
and to bridge the gap between demand and supply
of industrial wood and also to reduce the rotation
period, new technologies have to be evolved
through intensive location specific silvicultural
management practices. The first year data on the
growth of sissoo clones helps to assess the
establishment in field condition besides the
comparing differences in growth. The present study
on location specific nutrient application based on
soil test value for growth and development of
Dalbergia sissoo raised from clonal source will help
to arrive at the optimum nutrient requirement in
the field condition in the initial period of
establishment.
Experiment Details
A field experiment was carried out at Tamil
Nadu Newsprints and Papers Limited (TNPL),
Karur (11º03´44.33" N latitude and 77º59´19.95"
E longitude) Tamil Nadu, India. The mean annual
rainfall of the site was 635 mm. The initial soil
properties of the study area showed that the soil
was red sandy loam with pH 6.3 and EC 0.10 d Sm-1.
The soil available nitrogen, P2O5 and K2O content
were 220, 10.0 and 330 kg ha-1 respectively. The
design of the experiment was RBD and replicated
four times. There were six treatments viz., T1 –
Control, T 2 – Recommended dose of fertilizer
(RDF) alone - 110:65:65 NPK kg ha-1, T3 – Soil
Test Value (STV) alone – 110:78:52 NPK kg ha-1,
T4 – 75 % of STV – 83:59:39 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM
(100g plant -1) + Azospirillum (50g plant -1) +
Phosphobacteria (50g plant -1) + FYM (500g
plant-1), T5 – 100 % of STV- 110:78:52 NPK kg
ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g
plant-1) + Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g
plant-1), T6 – 125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK kg ha-1
+ VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g plant-1)
Influence on growth characters
The nutrient management practices had a
profound influence on growth parameters and
43
quality parameters of the D. sissoo seedlings.
However, the treatment comprising application of
125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM (100g
plant -1 ) + Azospirillum (50g plant -1 ) +
Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g plant-1)
(T6) recorded significantly higher plant height of
89.52, 182.27 and 229.33 cm respectively at 60,
120 and 180 DAP. Bumatay et al. (1988) supported
that increased fertilizer application increased the
height of the trees. The current findings are also in
tune with many workers who revealed that increase
in the fertilizer doses increased plant height
(Kusumakumari 2002, Velmurugan and
Shanmugam 2011). The same treatment (T 6)
recorded the maximum basal diameter of 9.73,
16.83 and 24.66 mm at all the three growth stages
respectively compared to all the other treatments.
Singh (2001) reported that fertilizer (NPK)
application significantly increased the collar
diameter of Populus deltoides.
The nutrient management strategies
significantly influenced the number of branches per
plant. Higher number of branches per plant (16.00,
24.00 and 36.3) at 60, 120 and 180 DAP was
recorded with application of 125% of STV 138:98:65
NPK kg ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum
(50g plant-1) + Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM
(500g plant -1) (T 6). Increased availability of
nutrients due to FYM+NPK application resulted
in increased production of photosynthates and their
translocation to branches and this could have led
to the production of higher number of branches per
plant. This is in line with the findings of Deswal et
al. (2001). The increase in the height, basal diameter
and number of branches of the treatment T6 was
recorded to be 28.60, 23.67 and 53.49 per cent
respectively over the control at 180 DAP. This
increase in number of branches per plant led to
significant increase in total dry matter production
(Table 1).
Influence on quality parameters
The analytical results on the chlorophyll content
of Dalbergia sissoo clonal plants due to application
of various nutrient management treatments showed
that the highest chlorophyll a (1.300 mg g-1),
chlorophyll b (1.006 mg g-1) and total chlorophyll
(2.337 mg g-1) at 180 DAP was observed in T6
(Table 2). This was followed by T5 (chlorophyll a
1.127 mg g-1, chlorophyll b 0.817 mg g-1 and total
chlorophyll 2.196 mg g-1). The inoculation of
biofertilizers to plant would have increased the
chlorophyll content by the supply of higher amount
of nitrogen to growing tissues (Singh et al. 1983)
(Table 2).
Table 2: Effect of Nutrient Management Practices
on Chlorophyll a, b and total Chlorophyll content
(mg g-1) of Dalbergia sissoo clones
Treatment
Chlorophyll
a (mg g-1)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
CD(P=0.05)
0.710
0.816
0.978
0.740
1.127
1.300
0.052
Chlorophyll
b (mg g-1)
0.686
0.747
0.839
0.710
0.817
1.006
0.04
Total
chlorophyll
(mg g-1)
1.567
1.779
2.028
1.604
2.196
2.337
0.070
The trend of leaf area revealed steep increases
from 60 to 180 DAP. A highly significant individual
effect on improving leaf area of 45.54, 83.11 and
141.90 cm2 plant-1 at all the growth stages viz., 60,
120 and 180 DAP was noticed in the treatment T6
which received 125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK kg
Table 1: Effect of Nutrient Management Practices on growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo clones
Treatment
60 DAP
Height
(cm)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
CD(P=0.05)
70.96
77.04
74.24
75.80
77.91
89.52
7.62
Basal
dia. (mm)
5.30
6.36
6.47
5.96
7.15
9.73
0.75
120 DAP
Branches Height
(nos)
(cm)
9.00
9.33
10.33
8.33
14.67
16.00
2.15
132.57
153.13
135.01
149.00
158.88
182.27
6.81
180 DAP
Basal
dia. (mm)
Branches
(nos)
Height
(cm)
Basal
dia.(mm)
Branches
(nos)
11.00
13.11
11.68
12.00
13.13
16.83
1.12
15.67
20.33
20.33
19.33
22.67
24.00
3.25
178.33
202.33
201.00
202.67
211.67
229.33
7.40
19.94
21.82
21.87
21.16
22.86
24.66
1.63
23.67
25.33
24.67
27.67
34.67
36.33
4.85
44
ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g plant1
) + Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g
plant-1). This was followed by T5 (43.08, 77.02 and
134.05 cm2 plant-1) in all three stages. An increment
in leaf area of 25.44 per cent was recorded in T6
over the control at 180 DAP. Similar to other
parameters the leaf area also increased due to the
integration of inorganic, organic and biofertilizers.
This observation is in agreement with the findings
of Das et al. (1994) in Morus alba (Table. 3).
Table 4 : Effect of Nutrient Management Practices
on Total Dry matter production (g plant -1 ),
Sturdiness quotient and Dickson quality index of
Dalbergia sissoo at 180 DAP
Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
CD(P=0.05)
Table 3: Effect of Nutrient Management Practices
on Leaf area (cm2plant-1) of Dalbergia sissoo
clones
Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
CD(P=0.05)
Total Dry
matter
production
(g plant-1)
33.45
43.34
42.50
40.41
45.66
52.27
0.98
Sturdiness
quotient
Dickson
quality
index
8.97
9.26
9.21
9.60
9.31
9.32
NS
2.58
3.16
3.11
2.94
3.41
3.76
0.20
Leaf area (cm2plant-1)
60 DAP
120 DAP
180 DAP
21.50
39.12
33.37
36.50
43.08
45.54
3.87
55.82
68.94
73.75
70.02
77.02
83.11
5.10
113.12
126.36
121.61
120.65
134.05
141.90
5.69
Influence on soil properties
The different nutrient levels did not significantly
influence the soil pH and electrical conductivity of
the soil. However, the values ranged from 6.26 to
6.52 pH and 0.10 to 0.15 d Sm-1 respectively at 180
DAP. The reduction in soil pH might be due to the
decomposition of litter addition and subsequent
acid production coupled with residual effect of
nitrogenous fertilizers. Similar findings were
reported by Mohanraj (2008) in Eucalyptus,
Chakraborthy and Chakraborthy (1989) in Acacia
auriculiformis. The maximum soluble salt
concentration was recorded in T6 which might be
due to the different combinations of fertilizer
application and litter addition. Totey et al. (1992)
reported that EC increased with the age of Teak
plantations, Chakraborthy and Chakraborthy (1989)
reported that four year old Acacia auriculiformis
plantation enhanced the soil EC (Table 5).
The results of the effect of various nutrient levels
on soil available nutrients showed that significantly
higher value (251.33 kg ha-1) for available N under
T6 and it was on par with T5 (238.67 kg ha-1). The
lowest value (210 kg ha-1 ) was recorded under T1.
This might be due to the reason that the continuous
addition of nitrogenous fertilizers leads to build up
in the available N status of the soil. Sharma and
Meelu (1975) reported that application of
phosphorus continuously over a period enhanced
the available N content. Similar trend was also
observed in soil available P and the highest value
of 12.93 kg ha-1 was recorded in T6 which was on
par with T5 (11.57 kg ha-1) and the lowest value of
8.67 kg ha-1 was observed in T1. Comparing the
different doses of fertilizers, it was found that there
The total dry matter production at 180 DAP was
recorded to be significantly higher in T6 (52.27 g
plant-1) followed by T5 (45.66 g plant-1). The dry
matter production was recorded to be lowest in T1
(33.45 g plant-1). The increase in the DMP of the
treatment T6 over the control was recorded to be
56.26 per cent. The combined application of urea
and SSP to Dalbergia sissoo might have resulted
in the production of vigorous seedlings with high
survival and maximum dry matter production which
is concomitant with the results of Tiwari and Saxena
(2003).
The sturdiness quotient ranged from 8.97 to 9.60
and it was found to be non significant whereas the
Dickson quality index (QI) ranged from 2.58 to
3.76. Among the various treatments, T6 recorded
the maximum value for Dickson quality index
followed by T5. Higher values for QI indicated the
positive impact of the treatments on the growth and
development of the seedlings at 180 days after
planting. This was in consonance with the findings
of Bayala et al. 2009 who reported that QI appeared
to be the most appropriate indicator to predict out
planting performance in Acacia, Gliricidia and
Leucaena species (Table. 4).
45
Table 5 : Effect of Nutrient Management Practices on soil physicochemical and fertility properties of
Dalbergia sissoo at 180 DAP
Treatment
pH
Electrical
conductivity
(dS m-1)
Organic
carbon
%
Available N
(kg ha-1)
Available P
(kg ha-1)
Available K
(kg ha-1)
T1
6.36
0.11
0.24
210.00
8.67
318.00
T2
6.34
0.13
0.30
226.00
11. 03
325.68
T3
6.31
0.14
0.30
232.33
11.13
333.66
T4
6.33
0.12
0.32
236.67
11.10
332.65
T5
6.52
0.14
0.37
238.67
11.57
340.69
T6
6.26
0.15
0.46
251.33
12.93
358.00
CD(P=0.05)
NS
NS
0.08
9.47
was an increase in the soil available P which might
be due to the fact that the application level of P
fertilizers increased their residual effect in soil
which thereby increased the available P. Similar
results were also reported by Santhy and
Kothandaraman (1988). The results on the effect
of various nutrient levels showed that highest value
of soil available K (358.00 kg ha-1) under T6 was
significantly superior in comparison with all other
nutrient levels. The lowest value of 318.00 kg ha-1
of soil available K was recorded in T1. The higher
level of K fertilizers, higher biomass and more litter
addition might have increased the available K
content in soil. The result of this study is in line
with Santhy (1995) (Table 5).
Application of 125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK
kg ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) + Azospirillum (50g
plant-1) + Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM
(500g plant-1) (T6) was associated with relatively
higher organic carbon (0.46%) and the lowest
organic carbon of 0.24 per cent was observed in
control (T1). Irrespective of fertilizer levels, the soil
organic carbon content was significantly higher
with increasing levels of fertilizers in Dalbergia
sissoo clonal plantation (Table 5). The increase in
organic carbon content of the soil may be due to
the application of P and its sources (Chellamuthu
1990).
0.94
7.63
Phosphobacteria (50g plant-1) + FYM (500g plant-1)
(T6) recorded the highest N, P and K uptake of
86.13, 23.96 and 72.74 kg ha-1 respectively at 180
DAP followed by T5. The control (T1) registered
the lowest N, P and K uptake 23.60, 10.81 and 28.72
kg ha-1 respectively at 180 DAP. The higher value
of nutrient uptake recorded in the treatment T6 might
be due to the fact that application of 125 per cent
of soil test value NPK along with organic and
biofertilizers must have enhanced mineralization
of organic nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, thus
making more NPK available to the plant. Hulikatti
and Madiwalar (2011) also reported that application
of FYM+NPK increased the N and P uptake in
Acacia auriculiformis plants. The present finding is
also in agreement with the findings of Mishra (1995)
who stated that in Dendrocalamus strictus, the
maximum value of K uptake was registered by the
application of Azospirillum along with FYM and NPK
fertilization (Table. 6).
Table 6 : Effect of Nutrient Management Practices
on N, P and K uptake (kg ha-1) of Dalbergia sissoo
at 180 DAP
Treatment
Influence on nutrient uptake
There was a significant effect of nutrient
management practices on nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium uptake of D. sissoo plants. Application
of 125% of STV 138:98:65 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM
(100g plant -1) + Azospirillum (50g plant -1) +
46
N Uptake
kg ha-1
P Uptake
kg ha-1
K Uptake
kg ha-1
T1
23.60
10.81
28.72
T2
33.57
16.33
44.88
T3
38.13
14.78
45.82
T4
37.50
15.63
47.49
T5
65.28
19.59
48.44
T6
86.13
23.96
72.74
CD(P=0.05)
12.22
1.91
12.41
nilotica and Dalbargia sissoo seedlings. Annals of
Biology 14: 91-94
Das PK, Choudhury PC, Ghosh A, Katiyar RS, Rao YRM,
Mathur VB, Mazumder MK, Madhava Rao YR (1994).
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Deswal A K, Dahiya DJ, Bargarwa KS (2001). Response of
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Dickson AA, Leaf L, Hosner JF (1960). Quality appraisal of
white spruce and white pine seedlings stock in
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Huda SMS, Sujauddin M, Shafinat S, Uddin MS (2007).
Effects of phosphorus and potassium addition on
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nursery. J Forestry Res 18: 279-282
Hulikatti MB, Madiwalar SL (2011). Management strategies
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Jackson ML (1973). Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall, Inc.,
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Kusumakumari TA, Sreenivasulu, Elusing Meru, Rao PS
(2002).Response of chemical fertilizers on Eucalyptus
tereticornis clones. Indian Forester 128(5):502-508
Mishra K (1995). Enhancement of seedling growth by the
application of Potassium on Tectona grandis Linn. And
Dendrocalamus strictus Nees. Indian J For 18(4): 325327
Mohanraj T (2008). Standardization of silvicultural practices
for higher biomass production from seedlings and
clonal plants of Eucalyptus tereticornis. Ph.D. Thesis,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Olsen SR, Cole CV, Watanable FS, Dean LA (1954). Estimation
of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with
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Lal (2000). National forest policy and raw material supplies
for wood based industries in India Indian Forester
126(2): 351-366
Rajvanshi, Rashmi, Gupta SR (1985). Biomass, productivity
and litterfall in a tropical Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
Forest. J Tree Sci 4 (2), 73-78
Santhy P (1995). Studies on organic matter, NPK fractions
and their influence on soil fertility and crop yield under
long term fertilization. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
Santhy P, Kothandaraman GV (1988). Studies on the uptake,
availability and fraction of P due to partial
accumulation of rock phosphate. In Proceedings of
national seminar on use of rock phosphate in neutral
soils. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,
India: 27-29
Sharma DC, Taneja PL, Bisht APS (1988).Biomass,
productivity and nutrient cycling in a Dalbergia sissoo
plantation. Indian Forester 114 (5), 261-268
Sharma KN, Meelu OP (1975). Effect of long-term application
of P, K and FYM on the Zn content of soil. J Indian
Soc Soil Sci 23: 76-82
Sharma R, Kumar S, Thakur KS, Kumar S (2007). Estimates
of genetic parameters from an open pollinated progeny
test of Shisham (Dalbergia sissooRoxb.). Indian
Journal of Forestry 30(3): 273-278
CONCLUSION
The study conducted on the nutrient
management practices of Dalbergia sissoo revealed
that all the growth parameters, quality parameters
and nutrient uptake were found to be higher with
the treatment T6 which received 125% of STV
138:98:65 NPK kg ha-1 + VAM (100g plant-1) +
Azospirillum (50g plant-1) + Phosphobacteria (50g
plant-1) + FYM (500g plant-1). Soil test value based
integrated application of organics along with
inorganic fertilizers could increase the growth as
well as dry matter production in clonal plants of
Dalbergia sissoo during the initial growth stages
especially during the first year of growth. The
present study will help in arriving at possible
juvenile adult correlations, if any in sissoo clones
besides aiding in precision application of a mix of
inorganic, organic and bio fertilizers through INM
mode.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Indian Council for
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, The Dean,
Forest College and Research Institute for financial
support and the Tamil Nadu Newsprint and Papers
Limited, Karur for providing the necessary facilities
for conducting the research.
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phosphorus and drought stress on the growth of Acacia
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seedlings. Indian J For 26: 254-259
48
Dynamics of Physico-Chemical Values in Sohshang
(Elaegnus latifolia L.) across Maturity
R.L. LAMARE1, BIDYUT C. DEKA2*, A. NATH3, R.K. PATEL4
ABSTRACT
Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) is a large evergreen spreading type woody shrub mostly grown in
semi-wild condition in the backyard garden throughout Northeast India. It is harvested during FebruaryApril when most of the major fruits are not available in the market. However, a bulk quantity of the
fruit gets damaged during the process of handling and marketing due to harvesting of fruits at improper
stage. Therefore, standardization of harvest maturity is required to reduce post harvest loss. Dynamics
of physico-chemical values like fruit colour, pulp: seed ratio, moisture content, specific gravity, fibre,
texture, total soluble sugar (TSS), ascorbic acid, total carotenoids, ß-carotene, tannins, etc. were
analyzed at different stages of maturity to determine the harvest maturity of Sohshang. The present
study indicated that the right stage of fruit harvesting is 75-80 days after fruit setting when the fruits
develop deep orange colour and attain optimum fruit weight (11.55-61 g), TSS (>11.0 0Brix) and
TSS: Acidity ratio (>3). Moreover, the fruits harvested at this stage had all the desirable qualities with
a better shelf life.
Keywords: Sohshang, Elaegnus latifolia L., fruit maturity, specific gravity, TSS, ascorbic acid,
ß-Carotene, sensory quality
INTRODUCTION
Sohshang (Elaegnus latifolia L.) is an important
indigenous fruit of Meghalaya that grows in Khasi
and Jaintia hills besides other places in Assam and
Nagaland. It is a large evergreen spreading type
woody shrub that is mostly grown in semi-wild
condition in the backyard garden throughout the
region. It is being consumed to a great extent by
the rural and tribal masses of the Northeast India
for their congenial taste. The fruits of Sohshang
are very delicious with an attractive pink colour.
However, the fruits must be fully ripe before it could
be eaten raw, as it is very astringent in taste at
immature and half ripe stage. At full ripe stage, the
fruits are acidic in taste and are pleasantly
refreshing. It also possesses specific medicinal
properties. In Sind and Punjab, its flowers are
considered cardiac and astringent, whereas the fruits
are used in Kashmir as an astringent (Kirtikar et al.
1975). They can be used for making jam, chutney
and pickles, etc. Its leaves are used as fodder for
goats and cows and its woods can be used as a good
fuel (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2003).
Sohshang is normally harvested during February
to April when most of the major fruits are not
available in a sufficient amount in Northeast India.
Thus, the fruits may partly meet the demand of
vitamins and minerals of the people in these months.
The added advantage of cultivation of Sohshang is
a relatively wider phenological and soil adaptability,
higher degree of pest and disease resistance and
minimal demand for intensive production care as
compared to the many major fruits.
It is known that physico-chemical qualities
depend on various physiological and biological
1
Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Meghalaya, Shillong
ICAR (RC) for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani-797106, Nagaland
3,4
ICAR (RC) for NEH Region, Umiam-793103
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: bidyutdeka@yahoo.com
2
Original aticle
49
December 2013  Volume 26  Issue 2
changes that occur during fruit growth,
development and maturity (Harding and Hatoon
1967). Maturity at harvest is an important factor
affecting quality perception and the rate of change
of quality during post harvest handling. The
information pertaining to the dynamics of physicochemical properties of Sohshang at different stages
of maturity is very scanty since no systematic study
has so far been reported. Such information is
required because physico-chemical changes during
maturity can be used as important criteria for
determining the optimum stage of harvesting for
best quality and extended shelf life. Keeping these
facts in view, a comprehensive study was carried
out on various physico-chemical changes in
different stages of fruit maturity to determine the
appropriate time of harvesting of Sohshang for
better quality and desirable shelf life.
Fruits of Sohshang were harvested from the
experimental field of the division of Horticulture,
ICAR Research complex for NEH Region,
Barapani at 15-day interval from fruit set to mature
green stage and then at five-day interval from
mature green stage to full ripe stage and analyzed
for different physico-chemical parameters. Fruit,
pulp and seed weight was measured at each stage
using the standard method. Fruits and seed size
(length and breadth) were measured using vernier
calipers. A TA-XT-plus texture analyzer measured
the textural property of the fruit. A panel consisting
of five untrained members based on visual
observation evaluated the visual colour of the fruit
at different stages of maturity. Specific gravity was
measured by water displacement method and
sensory evaluation was done by a panel of five
untrained members based on nine-point hedonic
scale rating (Amerme et al. 1965). Moisture content
was determined as per the method of AOAC (1980)
The total soluble solids (TSS) content was
determined by Erma Hand Refractometer (0-32oB).
Titratable acidity and fibre content were estimated
as per AOAC (1980) and total carotenoids were
determined according to the methods described by
Ranganna (1997). Ascorbic acid was determined
by 2,6 di-chlorophenol-indophenol dye visual
titration method of Freed (1966). Ash and ßCarotene were determined as per the method
described by Srivastava and Kumar (2002).
Chlorophyll content of the fruit was determined by
using the colorimetric method of Singh (1997).
The experiment was carried out in completely
randomized design, and each treatment was
replicated thrice. The data were subjected to
statistical analysis following the Fisher’s method
of “Analysis of Variance” (Snedecor and Cochran
1967). Critical difference at 5% level of significance
was used for finding the significant differences if
any, between the treatments means.
Fruit growth of Sohshang in terms of fruit length
and fruit breadth followed a single sigmoid growth
curve (Fig. 1). The fruits attained maximum length
(35.55 mm) and breadth (23.96 mm) on 75 days
after fruit set (DAF) after which, they remained
almost constant up to 85 DAF. The increase in fruit
length (14.57-35.55 mm) and breadth (5.37-23.96
mm) might be due to an increase in cell size because
of cell division and cell elongation, which enabled
the maximum accumulation of food materials. The
present result was in conformity with the findings
of Gowda and Huddar (2001) in mango. A linear
increase in fruit weight (Fig. 2) was observed up to
75 DAF after which it remained almost constant
Fig. 1: Changes in fruit length and fruit breadth of
Sohshang at different stages of maturity
Fig. 2: Changes in fruit weight (g), seed weight (g)
and pulp weight (g) of Sohshang at different stages of
maturity
50
up to 85 DAF. The increase in fruit weight (0.3711.61 g) could be attributed to an increase in the
size of the cells and accumulation of food
substances in the intercellular spaces in fruit.
Similar findings were also reported by Kishore et
al. (2006) in passion fruit. Pulp weight and seed
weight followed the same pattern as that of fruit
weight where the highest pulp weight (8.38g) and
seed weight (3.233g) was observed in the fruits
harvested at 75 DAF (Fig. 2).
A linear increase in seed length (13.00-32.41
mm) and seed breadth (2.67-13.90 mm) of
Sohshang was observed up to 85 DAF (Table 1).
These findings were comparable to those obtained
by Sahni and Khurdiya (1984) in mango and LilienKipnis and Lavee (1971) in peach. The data
presented in Table 1 showed a significant increase
in pulp: seed ratio (1.29-2.69) with the advancement
of maturity and ripening of the fruits. Increase in
this ratio might be due to accumulation of the
metabolites, thus increasing the fruit weight. Similar
results were also reported by Dhillon et al. (2007)
in pear.
The immature fruits were firmer than the
completely matured fruits due to decline in fruit
texture (13.46-0.85 kg) with the progress of
maturity and ripening (Fig. 3). This might be a result
of progressive decline in cell wall strength and loss
of cell-to-cell adhesion. Similar findings were also
reported by Heyes et al. (1994) in pepino. Specific
gravity (Table 1) was found to increase up to 75
DAF (0.26-1.84), and thereafter, it decreased until
the last date of observation. Increase in specific
gravity might be due to higher rate of accumulation
or synthesis of food materials. Similar results were
also reported by Sema and Sanyal (2003) in lemon.
A gradual change in colour (Table 1) from dark
Fig. 3: Change in texture (kg) of Sohshang at different
stage of maturity
green to deep pink was observed with the
advancement of maturity and ripening. This could
be attributed to a gradual decrease in the content of
chlorophyll and increase in carotenoids (Kramer
and Smith 1947; Deka et al. 2006) in Khasi
mandarin. Increase in moisture content (Table 1)
of the fruit was observed upto 60 DAF (80.20-91.47
%) which was followed by a decline up to 85 DAF
(91.47–86.17 %). The reduction in fruit moisture
at later stages might be due to dehydration of the
fruit as well as due to low relative humidity during
the period. Similar results were also reported in
peach by Chapman et al. (1991). Fruits harvested
between 75 and 80 DAF attained the best taste,
optimum texture, attractive colour, good aroma and
best appearance, thereby, recorded the highest score
for sensory quality (Table 2). Similar observation
was also reported by Deka et al. (2007) in pineapple.
A gradual increase in TSS contents (8.5712.23 o B) of the fruit was observed with the
advancement of maturity (Table 2). The increase
in TSS content might be the result of degradation
of starch during later stage of harvest maturity.
Similar results were also reported by Candir et al.
(2009) in persimmon. Acidity of the fruit increased
gradually (Table 2) and was at its maximum on 70
Table 1: Changes in fruit characters of Sohshang at different stages of maturity
Days after
fruit set
15
30
45
60
65
70
75
80
85
CD0.05
Seed length
(mm)
13.00
13.67
26.31
31.13
31.15
31.81
31.88
31.98
32.41
1.51
Seed breadth
(mm)
Pulp: seed
ratio
Specific
gravity
2.67
5.07
11.32
12.67
12.74
13.01
13.17
13.69
13.90
0.91
1.29
1.01
1.55
1.86
2.50
2.58
2.60
2.58
2.69
0.08
0.26
1.09
1.18
1.31
1.42
1.62
1.84
1.23
1.06
0.24
51
Fruit Colour
content (%)
Dark green
Dark green
Dark green
Mature green
Light yellow
Yellowish orange
Deep orange
Pink
Deep pink
-
Moisture
80.20
84.36
87.90
91.47
88.32
88.00
87.80
86.62
86.17
1.40
Table 2: Changes in chemical properties of Sohshang at different stages of maturity
Days after
fruit set
TSS
(oB)
Titratable
acidity (%)
TSS:
Acidity
Reducing
sugar (%)
Total sugar
(%)
Fibre
(%)
Sensory
score
60
8.57
2.90
2.98
0.92
2.25
2.40
-
65
10.53
3.33
3.18
2.14
2.48
2.30
6
70
11.07
4.05
2.70
2.59
3.92
2.10
7
75
11.33
3.16
3.59
2.76
7.62
1.90
8
80
12.23
2.60
4.28
3.01
8.21
1.80
8
85
12.23
2.86
4.70
3.10
9.04
1.60
7
1.35
0.69
0.37
NS
0.21
0.08
0.17
CD0.05
DAF (4.05 %) followed by a decreasing trend
(4.05–2.86 %) as the fruit approached maturity and
ripening stage. The increase in acidity might be
attributed to an increased biosynthesis of organic
acid during the growth period. The decrease at later
stages was due to conversion of organic acid into
sugar. Similar results were also observed by Deka
et al. (2006) in Khasi Mandarin and by Sakamura
and Sugaa (1987) in oleaster. There was a
fluctuation in TSS: Acidity ratio up to 70 DAF
(Table 2), after which it increased gradually until
maturity (3.59– 4.70). Decrease in the concentration
of acid with a gradual increase in total sugar during
development resulted into an increase in the TSS:
Acidity ratio. This finding was in conformity with
those of Singh et al. (2004) in banana and Deka et
al. (2006) in Khasi Mandarin.
Both reducing (0.92-3.10%) and total sugars
(2.25-9.04%) were found to increase linearly up to
85 DAF (Table 2). The increase in sugar was due
to an increase in TSS and accumulation of glucose,
fructose and sucrose. Similar trend was also
reported by Selvaraj et al. (1996) in grapes. A
significant decrease in fibre content (2.40–1.60 %)
was observed with the advancement in maturity and
ripening. A decrease in fibre content during fruit
development was also reported by Venu et al. (2005)
in fig fruits. Ascorbic acid (Table 3) content was
found to decrease from 19.04 to 8.16 mg / 100 g at
mature green stage to full ripe stage. The decline
in ascorbic acid content might be attributed to an
oxidation of ascorbic acid. Similar results were also
reported by Bal et al. (1981) in plum and Sakamura
and Sugaa (1987) in oleaster and Dubey et al. (2003)
in Khasi Mandarin.
Total carotenoid contents of Sohshang (Table
3) fruits increased with the advancement of maturity
and ripening (12.82–67.54 µg/g). Gradual increase
in carotenoids during ripening was also reported
by Kumar (1982) in grape and Hamid et al. (1990)
in fig. A significant increase in ß-carotene (Table
3) of Sohshang fruit was observed with the increase
in maturity and ripening of the fruits (0.51-4.88 µg/
100 g). Similar finding was also reported by
Aggarwal and Sandhu (2003) in Kinnow Mandarin.
Ash content (Table 3) of the fruit was found to
increase upto 75 DAF (0.93 -1.76 %) and thereafter,
it decreased upto 85 DAF. Similar finding was also
reported by Ting and Attaway (1971) in orange. A
gradual decrease in chlorophyll content (Table 3)
of the fruit was observed with the advancement of
maturity and ripening of fruits. This finding was in
Table 3: Changes in nutritional parameters of Sohshang at different stages of maturity
Days after
fruit set
60
65
70
75
80
85
CD0.05
Ascorbic acid
(mg/100g)
Total carotenoids
(µg/g)
19.04
12.80
12.72
12.24
10.20
8.16
7.41
12.82
14.08
23.21
57.32
67.13
67.54
3.19
β-carotene
(µg/100g)
0.51
1.27
2.39
2.84
3.01
4.88
0.31
52
Ash (%)
0.93
1.04
1.17
1.76
0.62
0.26
0.55
Tannin (%)
0.27
0.28
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.04
NS
close conformity with the observation made by
Gowda and Huddar (2001) in mango and Ishak et
al. (2005) in Ambarella. Tannin content (Table 3)
of Sohshang was found to diminish as the fruit
entered maturity and ripening stage (0.27-0.04%).
A decrease in tannin content with the advancement
in maturity was also reported by Sakamura and
Sugaa (1987) in oleaster fruits and Candir et al.
(2009) in Persimmon.
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Status of Livestock Production in Gurez Valley
of Jammu and Kashmir in India
A. A. KHAN*, A. A. DAR, H. M. KHAN, M. S. MIR, A. A. MALIK, Y. AFZAL
Received November 6, 2013; Revised November 19, 2013; Accepted November 20, 2013
ABSTRACT
Livestock production situation in agro-pastoral production system of Gurez sub-valley of Kashmir
was assessed based on field visits and interview of selected households as well as group discussion
with community leaders. The survey showed that livestock was the main source of income; followed
by agriculture and off-farm activities. Among the livestock, cattle were the most important livestock
species followed by sheep, horse and chicken. The main feed resources of the area were highland
pastures, forest lands, common property resources and cultivated fodders; the production of these are
also decreasing due to lack of required scientific interventions. Productivity of animals in terms of
milk production, growth rate and reproductive performance was generally low owing to primitive
livestock breeding and rearing practices, scarcity of feed and fodder, migration of labour and lack of
extension support services.
Key words: Livestock husbandry, agro-pastoral system, production performance
INTRODUCTION
for sustainable agriculture. Livestock wealth also
acts as a dependable cushion against adversities like
crop failures due to natural calamities to which such
areas are more prone to. Literature is replete with
several region specific studies documenting status
of livestock husbandry in Kumaon region of
Uttarakhand (Meena et al. 2007), Kangra District
of Himachal Pradesh (Chauhan et al. 1994), draught
prone villages of Ahmednagar Maharashtra (Phand
et al. 2007), Sunderbans in West Bengal (Anand et
al. 2012) etc. India’s North Western Himalayan
region is largely mountainous with rugged terrain
and in-hospitable climate characterized by fragility,
marginality, inaccessibility and poor market support
and Gurez is a typical example of such situation.
The area is a sub valley of picturesque Kashmir
valley which like other mountain and hill agroecological zones has its own unique opportunities
and challenges. A study was therefore undertaken
to assess the livestock production situation in agropastoral production system of Gurez.
Livestock sector plays an important role in
socio-economic upliftment and provides economic
security at times of stress. It contributes about 6
percent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and
25 percent to the Agricultural GDP of India. Over
the last two decades, livestock sector has grown at
an annual rate of 5.6 %, which is higher than 3.3 %
growth in agricultural sector (Jabir 2007). Animal
husbandry activities constitute even more important
part of the agro-ecological and socio-economic
system in hill and mountain agro-ecological system
where crop production is constrained due to small
land holdings, poor soil fertility, inclement weather
and shorter growing seasons. The importance of
livestock in fragile ecosystems goes beyond its food
production function (Birthal et al. 2002). Besides
providing quality protein in form of meat, milk and
egg they provide much needed draft power, pack
animal services and nutrient rich organic manure
Division of Livestock Production and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sher-e-Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shuhama, Alusteng, Srinagar 190006 INDIA.
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: alamkhan1231@yahoo.co.in
Mini review
54
A study was carried out in Gurez which is
located at a distance of around 130 Km from
Srinagar city, the summer capital of the state of
Jammu and Kashmir in district Bandipore across
Razdan pass at an altitude 11672 ft above msl. The
altitude of Gurez valley ranges between 2460 to
3900 m above msl and extends over an area of
362.88 sq. km. Other important features of Gurez
valley are summarised in Table 1. The Valley
remains totally isolated from the rest of the world
for 4-5 months during winter season where in entire
population has to survive on the local produce or
the stocks raised before onset of winter. Livestock
production scenario of Gurez valley was assessed
based on field visits and interview of selected
households as well as group discussions with the
community
leaders. A
semi-structured
questionnaire was used for interviewing. Informal
discussions were also held with the development
agents working in the localities. The collected data
were analyzed using descriptive statistics.
Some of the indicators of livestock production
of Gurez valley are indicated in Table 2. Overall
agriculture and animal husbandry scenario is of
subsistence level with little or no technological
intervention. Almost all the farm produce is
consumed locally.
Table 2: Indicators of livestock production in Gurez
valley
Sl. Indicator
No
1
2
Table 1: Major Characteristics of Gurez Valley
S. Particulars
No
Status
1
Area (sq km)
362.88
2
Population (2001 census)
28.786
3
Population density
(persons/sq Km)
79
4
Literacy (%)
43
5
Rural population (%)
100
6
Schedule Tribe Population (%)
100
7
Administrative status
Assembly constituency
Tehsils
Blocks
3
4
Status
Population (1000 No’s)
Total Cattle
Breedable cows
Yaks
Horse /mules
Total Sheep
Cross bred Sheep
Local Sheep
Goat
Produce (1000 Kg)
Wool
Mutton
Per capita milk availability (g/day)
Average daily milk yield per cow (L)
8.50
5.00
4.69
3.70
50.69
28.24
22.45
9.05
79.08
293.34
136.00
2.30
Source: Wani et al. (2012)
Panchayats
Villages
One: Gurez
One: Gurez
Two: Dawer,
Tulial
10
27
8
Altitude (meters above msl)
2460 to 3900
9
Average temperature
Max: 25oC,
Min: -20oC
10 Soil type
Sandy loam
11 Livestock
Cattle, Yak and their
hybrids Sheep, Goat,
Horses, Ponies and
Chicken.
Large ruminants
Cattle were found to be most important livestock
species. Mostly dwarf local cattle (desi/zebu) and
jersey cross breds were reared for milk and draft
purpose. Cattle x Yak hybrids locally called Zho or
Zombo were also reared. Zho/Zhomo were reported
to have better milk and draft potential and famous
for their hardiness and endurance for ploughing and
pack animal services. Proximity to Kargil District
of Ladakh area and high altitude justifies the
presence of yak and its hybrids in the area. Natural
service was reported to be the most prevalent
breeding method due to inaccessibility and poor
Artificial Insemination (AI) infrastructure facilities.
Jersey bulls were kept available by Animal
Husbandry Department to provide breeding cover.
Breeding of animals mainly through natural service
with available bulls due to poor facility of artificial
insemination in Kumaon region of Uttrakhand was
also reported by Meena et al. (2007). It took 2-3
services per conception and next heat was observed
4-5 months after parturition. Milk production in
Source: Wani et al. (2012)
55
Equines
Local non-descript horses were kept by few
households and used as pack animals. Over the
years number of horses has declined because of
construction of motorable roads and increased use
of auto-mobiles by defence forces that used to hire
potter services turning horses into a liability.
Decline in non-food uses of livestock such as
draught power has also been reported by Birthal
and Taneja (2012).
crossbreds was reported to be higher than that of
local cattle. While cross breds were reported to
produce 8-10 Kg of milk daily throughout the year,
local cattle produced 3-4 Kg daily for 8 months a
year. Calf mortality, as high as 20-40% was reported
in crossbreds. Milk produced was used mostly for
domestic consumption and very less quantity was
sold as surplus @ Rs 25-30/Kg. Very few
respondents reported conversion of milk to milkproducts like Paneer and Ghee. Poor performance
and increased mortalities may be attributed to low
genetic potential of the local animals, negligible
breed improvement programmes, poor winter
feeding, lack of extension services, unhygienic
housing and poor health cover facilities.
Poultry
Chicken was the only poultry bird being reared
for meat and egg production. Unlike rest of
Bandipora district, which has a good population of
duck and geese no non-chicken poultry species was
reported from the area. Besides local birds, people
kept Vanraja and other improved varieties of
chicken that have been introduced in the area by
the Krishi Vigyan Kendra Bandipore and
Department of Animal Husbandry. The average
number of chicken per household varied from 510. During summer months hens laid as many as
20 eggs/month whereas no egg production was
reported during winter months; which may be
attributed to the short day length coupled with very
little scavenging feed resources. As reported by the
respondent’s poultry meat and eggs fetched
premium prices owing to higher demand and nonvegetarian food habits. Poultry meat was reportedly
sold at Rs 200/kg live weight in summer and Rs
300/Kg live weight in winter months depending
upon availability and demand of the meat during this
period. Eggs were sold at premium price of Rs 6/egg.
Small ruminants
The average number of small ruminants per
household ranged from 10-15 sheep and 2-3 goats.
The sheep were of Gurezi breed or the crosses of
Gurezi with Kashmir Merino while as goats were
of bakerwal breed. Sheep were reared for wool,
meat and milk while goats were being reared for
meat, milk and hairs, though like other parts of
Kashmir, Gurezis also preferred mutton to chevon.
This preference of mutton over chevon is a stark
contrast to rest of Indian sub-continent where
reverse is true. While no seasonality was reported
with respect to lambing in sheep, the kidding in
goats was reported to take place twice a year in
May and September. Average birth weight of lambs
and kids was reported to be 3 kg and age at six
months of age was reported to be 15 kg in both
sheep and goat. Crossbred Merino sheep was
reported to attain higher adult body weight of 3540 Kg as compared to only 20 Kg of local Gurezi
sheep. Sheep and goat produced were reported to
be sold for consumption within Gurez and adjoining
Bandipora district. The prevalent market prices of
meat at the time of study were Rs 300/Kg. Twice a
year (March and September) shearing of sheep was
reported. Locally made hand shears were used for
shearing and no grading of wool was practiced but
it was sold as a mixed lot and used locally for
making Pattoo, Loyee etc. Similarly, goat hairs were
used in making floor mats. Poor performance of
small ruminants may be attributed to nutritional
stress during winter months, inbreeding, poor health
cover facilities and over-exploitation of the already
neglected natural pasture and common property
resources.
Feed and fodder
The main fodder resources of the Gurez
comprised of cultivated oats and maize, natural
pastures, forest lands, community lands, common
property resources, tree leaves and maize straw.
Surplus fodders and grasses available in forest lands
and common property resources was harvested for
hay making during summers for feeding during lean
months. This was one of the priority activities of
the livestock owners. Concentrate feeding was
limited and only very few well-of livestock owners
purchased wheat straw, bran and cakes from outside
the Gurez for supplementation during lean months
only. Fortification of fodders, silage making or
feeding of mineral mixtures was not prevalent in
the area. Feed and fodder availability can be
56
increased from the area by utilizing improved
varieties, development of Common Property
Resources (CPRs) and barren lands and better
knowhow regarding fodder production and their
preservation. The scarcity of fodders can also be
taken care of by providing effective fodder banks,
utilization of non-conventional feed resources and
feed and mineral block technologies.
after the feeding and watering of animals and
cleaning of animal houses during winter. Collection,
preservation and storage of fodder were shared by
men and women while as marketing of surplus
animal produce or the animal as whole was taken
care of by men folk. Backyard poultry farming was
found to be exclusively the domain of farm women.
Likewise women were reported to be mainly
responsible for livestock and poultry rearing in
Sunderbans of West Bengal (Anand et al. 2012).
Animal Housing
Log houses were mostly used for housing cattle,
sheep and goat. Traditional practice of keeping the
livestock in the ground floor with human dwellings
on other floors is preferred over other conventional
type of houses. This practice keeps the human
dwellings warm during severe cold winters due to
available heat increment from the livestock. All
the animals were kept in the same house. A separate
enclosure within same shed was used for housing
sheep and goat along with the cattle. Drainage,
sanitation and ventilation were not proper which
resulted in unhygienic housing and as such can be
attributed for low performance and increased
morbidity and mortalities. During winters animals
were rarely let out and remained confined to their
houses. Houses were cleaned only once or twice a
week. Use of bedding materials was rarely
practiced. Some old houses had wooden flooring
that was relatively comfortable to animals and
ensured better sanitation.
Major constraints
Non-availability of feed and fodder particularly
during winter months was perceived to be the most
important constraint in livestock husbandry and
main reason for decreasing livestock numbers per
house hold over the years. While smaller land
holding and shorter growing season limited the
cultivation of fodders, proximity to the line of
control and loss of accessibility to pastures because
of security concerns has deprived the livestock and
livestock owners of the area from nutritive natural
pastures that are now out of bound for the civilian
population. This is consistent with the findings of
studies in Ethopia (Oba 1998, Oba et al. 2000, Oba
and Kotle 2001, Desta and Coppock 2004), which
showed that Borana pastoralism is under increasing
pressure due to shrinkage of grazing lands as a result
of ethnic conflicts, demarcation of regional
boundaries and displacement of Borana pastoralists
from large parts of the grazing lands. This has
increased the pressure on available pastures and
resulted in their deterioration. Similarly, using
Common property resources to non-agriculture
purposes has also depleted the natural grazing areas.
The pressure on pastures whatever available, from
migratory sheep populations from other parts of the
state was perceived as yet another constraint.
Besides non-availability of feed and fodder,
migration to urban centers and shifting to other
seemingly lucrative means of livelihood like
government services, Mahatama Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
programme and defence related services resulted
in non-availability of work force to take care of
livestock.
Animal diseases
Study revealed that easily preventable diseases
like diarrhea, bloat and Foot and Mouth Disease
(FMD) among cattle, pneumonia, foot rot, FMD
and ecto-parasites among sheep and Ranikhet
among poultry were prevalent resulting in loss of
performances, increased morbidities and
mortalities. Vaccination and dosing was seldom
carried out by the Animal and Sheep Husbandry
Departments. Sheep rearers were unaware of
dipping and provision of salt licks. Provision of
timely health cover viz. dosing, vaccination, dipping
and supplementation can mitigate most of the health
problems observed in the area.
Division of labour
Our study revealed that out of the several
activities related to livestock rearing, men folk
looked after grazing of the animals in pastures and
local community lands while women folk looked
Interventions suggested
Based on the study following interventions are
suggested for overall development of livestock
husbandry.
57
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15; 535-546.
Oba G, Kotile DG (2001). Assessments of landscape level
degradation in southern Ethiopia: Pastoralists versus
ecologists. Land Degradation and Development 12;
461-475.
Phand S, Tiwari R, Arya HPS (2007). Dairy development
through natural resource management: a success story
of drought prone village in India. Livestock Research
for Rural Development 19 (8); http://www.lrrd.org/
lrrd19/8/phan19112.htm
Wani SA, Ghani MY, Shaheen FA, Mattoo FA, Baba SH, Gul
Zaffer (2012). Livelihood facets in Gurez Valley:
Status, Issues and Strategies. Kashmir and Ladakh
Watch Centre. Division of Agricultural Economics and
Marketing, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences and Technology of Kashmir.
1. Genetic improvement of livestock through
crossbreeding among dairy cattle, selection in
small ruminants and introduction of improved
poultry strains/ varieties for backyard poultry
farming.
2. Feed and fodder improvement through
introduction of new short duration fodder
varieties with higher biomass yield. Pasture
development through regulated grazing and
making available hitherto in-accessible pastures
to decrease pressure on available pastures.
3. Establishment of fodder banks in remote
villages.
4. Popularisation of fodder fortification
techniques, provision of salt and mineral licks.
5. Improvement in housing by way of providing
proper drainage, ventilation and bedding
material particularly during winter.
6. Animal health improvement by way of providing
timely vaccination cover, area specific mineral
supplementation, dosing and dipping services.
A strong need based research and development
support taking into consideration the unique local
agro-climatic conditions, natural resource base and
socio-economic conditions coupled with well
orchestered delivery system for transfer of
technology and services is required for fruitful
intervention.
REFERENCES
Anand Raja R, Ghoshal TK. Sundaray JK, De D, Biswas G,
Kumar S, Panigrahi A, Kumaran M, Pradhan, JK
(2012). Status and Challenges of livestock farming
community in Sunderbans India. Indian J Anim Sci
82(4); 436-438.
Birthal PS (2002). Technological Change in India’s Livestock
Sub-sector: Evidence and Issues, In: Technology
Options for Sustainable Livestock Production in India
(P S Birthal and P Parthasarathy Rao, eds). National
58
Tolerance Evaluation Using Different Methods Against
Soybean Rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi
P. BAISWAR1*, N. TIAMEREN AO2, D.N. UPADHYAY2, S. CHANDRA1
Received August 16, 2013; Revised November 1, 2013; Accepted November 7, 2013
ABSTRACT
Eight varieties viz. NRC 80, DS 2613, MACS 1140, MAUS 417, AMS 1, MACS 1184, JS 335 and
MACS 1039 of soybean were screened for tolerance against rust using different methods. Variety
NRC 80 was found to be the best according to WiPi rankings followed by DS 2613 and MACS 1140.
Our results show that the use of different measures like Piu, Wiu and WiPi, both individually and in
combination for identification of tolerant varieties, lines are better than the max-min method.
Key words: Soybean, tolerance, max-min method, WiPi
INTRODUCTION
tropical and humid climate prevails at the
experimental site. Soil is moderately acidic, sandy
loam in texture, rich in organic carbon and available
nitrogen, poor in available phosphorus and medium
in available potassium (Patiram 2003).
Recommended agronomic practices for soybean
cultivation were followed.
Eight genotypes viz. NRC 80, DS 2613, MACS
1140, MAUS 417, AMS 1, MACS 1184, JS 335
and MACS 1039 were evaluated. Split plot design
with three replications was used for the experiment
[Main plot: Protected or Sprayed (Fungicide,
Bayleton (triadimefon) @ 1ml/L) and nonprotected
(Water spray), Sub plot: Different varieties/lines].
Severity ratings (0-9 scale) from the last evaluation
before complete defoliation were used for analysis.
For yield loss calculations following formulae were
used.
Yield loss = Protected or sprayed crop yield non-protected crop yield
The experiment was conducted in the
experimental field of Plant Pathology, ICAR
Meghalaya (Latitude 25030’N, Longitude 91051’E,
Elevation 1000 msl) during 2009 and 2010. Sub-
A max-min and minimax method (Odulaja and
Nokoe 1993) was also used for determination of
varieties, which were tolerant (susceptible high
Rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi is a
major problem and hindrance in utilization of full
yield potential of soybean in northeast India. This
disease was first reported in northeast India from
Upper Shillong in Meghalaya. Yield loss estimates
indicate 10 % to 90 % loss in India, 10 % to 40 %
in Thailand, 10 % to 50 % in the south of China, 23
% to 90 % in Taiwan and 40 % in Japan (Sinclair
and Hartman 1999) due to rust. As the resistance
sources are very few and almost rare hence other
management options like tolerance, fungicidal
management etc. are the preferred methods for
management of soybean rust. Keeping this in view
following experiment on tolerance evaluation was
planned for identification of tolerant lines/varieties.
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103
Department of Plant Pathology, SASRD Campus, Nagaland University, Medziphema, Nagaland
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: pbaiswar@yahoo.com
2
Short communication
59
mean over n seasons. The lowest Wi indicates the
most stable genotype. The change in the ecovalence
statistic was calculated using the formula:
yielding). Percent yield loss using this method was
calculated from the yields obtained from protected
and non-protected plots. A resistant (entry giving
highest yield under nonprotected condition) and
susceptible (entry showing maximum percent yield
loss) check were identified. Relative yield (Ry) was
calculated for the ith entry using the formula Ry=
100Yi/Yr where Yi is the yield of the ith entry and Yr
is the yield of the resistant check, both under nonprotected condition. Relative yield loss (Rp) of the
i th entry relative to a susceptible check was
calculated as Rp= 100 Pi/Ps where Pi is the percent
yield loss of the ith entry and Ps is the percent yield
loss of the susceptible check. A scatter plot was
drawn with Ry on Y axis and Rp on X axis. Four
quadrants were created with a line on Y axis at 75
and a line on X axis at 25. These four quadrants
contained specific entries describing their
performance. The superiority measure (Pi) by Lin
and Binns (1988) was used to calculate the
protected (Pis) and nonprotected yields (Piu) using
the formula:
∆Wi = Wis — Wiu
The WiPi statistic was computed as the distance
of the coordinate in the biplot of Wiu and Piu from
the origin (Jarvie and Shanahan 2009). WiPi is the
hypotenuse of a right angle triangle with two sides
equal to Wiu and Piu. The square of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the two opposite
sides, the formula:
WiPi = √ Wiu2 X Piu2
Results revealed that minimum yield loss
occurred in case of MAUS 417 (252.7 kg/ha)
followed by MACS 1140 (312.5 kg/ha) and 1039
(320 kg/ha) whereas maximum yield loss was
recorded in AMS 1 (1485.8 kg/ha) followed by DS
2613 (1045 kg/ha). Results in case of percent yield
loss indicated the same pattern as yield loss i.e.
maximum yield loss was in case of AMS 1 (54.2%)
followed by MACS 1184 (41.1%) and minimum
loss in MAUS 417 (16.4 %) followed by MACS
1140 (18.6 %) (Table 1).
Max-min and minimax method (Odulaja and
Nokoe 1993), used for determination of varieties
which were tolerant (susceptible high yielding),
revealed that NRC 80, MACS 1140 and MAUS 417
and DS 2613 were tolerant whereas MACS 1039,
JS 335, MACS 1184 were AMS1 were susceptible
but low yielding. No variety was in the resistant
groups (high yielding and low yielding) (Fig. 1).
where n is the number of seasons, Xij is the ith
genotype yield in the jth season, and Mj is the
maximum yield response in the j th season.
According to this equation the most consistently
superior genotype has the lowest Pi value. The nonprotected yields of all 8 varieties/lines were used
for calculating Piu using the highest non-protected
yield each season as the maximum. Likewise Pis
was calculated to determine the change in
superiority using the formula:
∆Pi = pis — piu
Ecovalence statistic (Wi) developed by Wricke
(1962) for measuring phenotypic stability was
calculated for non-protected yield (Wiu) and
protected yield (Wis) using the formula:
where n is the number of seasons, Xij is the ith
genotype yield in the jth season, Xi. is the mean of
the ith genotype across n seasons, X.j is the mean of
all genotypes in the jth season, and X.. is the grand
Fig. 1: A max-min and minimax analysis
60
Table 1: Various yield loss estimates for evaluation for soybean rust tolerance
Varieties
Yield loss
(kg/ha)
MAUS417
MACS1039
DS2613
MACS1184
NRC 80
MACS1140
AMS1
JS 335
Standard
deviation
252.67
320
1045
853.33
519.17
1485.8
507.5
507.5
433.1
% Yield
loss
16.39628
22.50879
40.0639
41.09149
23.66122
18.60119
54.24399
31.52174
13.2
Piu
Pis
Pis-Piu
Wiu
Wis
WiPi
0.073069
0.165114
0.007911
0.099761
0.000014
0.045762
0.088228
0.162495
0.062475
0.710141
0.858436
0.008414
0.215028
0.144462
0.552672
0.00008
0.62845
0.336747
0.637072
0.693322
0.000503
0.115267
0.144448
0.50691
-0.08814
0.465955
0.301577
0.002509
0.010153
0.012934
0.000217
0.000475
0.000184
0.003134
0.003267
0.004816
0.002064
0.001039
0.00003
0.000121
0.00008
0.00004
0.006738
0.000003
0.002329
0.073112
0.165426
0.015161
0.099761
0.000476
0.045762
0.088283
0.162528
0.061297
became stable under rust pressure. No variety or
line was present in this category. Quartile B
contained lines which are consistently unstable viz.
AMS 1, MAUS 417 and MACS 1039 (Fig. 3).
Piu statistic indicated the departure from
maximum yield. So, the lowest Piu values indicated
a better adaptation to the rust. In this case lowest
values were for NRC 80 followed by DS 2613 <
MACS 1140 < MAUS 417 < AMS 1< MACS 1184
< JS 335 < MACS 1039 (Table 1). Biplot of Piu vs
Pis was divided into four quartiles. Quartile C
represented lines NRC 80 and DS 2613 which were
rust insensitive and superior yielding; quartile D
contained lines AMS 1 and MACS 1184 which were
rust sensitive but superior yielding. Quartile A had
lines MAUS 417 and MACS 1140 which were
insensitive to rust but inferior yielding whereas
quartile B had JS 335 and MACS 1039 which were
rust sensitive and inferior yielding (Fig. 2).
Fig. 3: Biplot of Wiu vs Wis
A biplot of Piu vs Wiu was also plotted and
divided into four quartiles. Quartile C represented
lines, which were superior and with stable yield
viz. NRC 80, MACS 1140 and MAUS 417. Quartile
D contained lines which was inferior but stable
yielding viz. MACS 1184. Quartile A contained
lines, which were superior yielding but unstable
viz. DS 2613. Quartile B contains lines which were
inferior with unstable yield viz. AMS 1, MACS
1039 and JS 335 (Fig. 4). Variety NRC 80 was
adjudged as the best according to WiPi rankings
followed by DS 2613 and MACS 1140 (Fig. 5).
Our results clearly indicate the superiority of
ecovalence statistic and WiPi (Jarvie and Shanahan
2009) over the max-min method (Odulaja and
Nokoe 1993). The discriminatory power or degree
of resolution of max-min and minimax method
seems to be less in comparison to biplot of Piu vs
Wiu and WiPi method. Using WiPi and Piu vs Wiu
it was clear that MACS 1184 was inferior but stable
yielding which was identified as susceptible low
Fig. 2: Biplot of Piu vs Pis
A biplot of Wiu vs Wis containing four quartiles
was also plotted. Quartile C represented lines,
which were consistently stable over the seasons viz.
NRC 80, MACS 1140 and MACS 1184. Quartile
D contained lines, which were stable under sprayed
condition but became unstable under rust pressure
viz. JS 335 and DS 2613. Quartile A contained line,
which were unstable under sprayed condition but
61
CONCLUSION
Out of eight varieties (NRC 80, DS 2613, MACS
1140, MAUS 417, AMS 1, MACS 1184, JS 335
and MACS 1039) screened for tolerance against
rust of soybean using different methods, variety
NRC 80 was the best according to WiPi rankings
followed by DS 2613 and MACS 1140.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig.4: Biplot of Piu vs Wiu
Authors wish to thank DSR, Indore for providing
the seeds. Authors wish to thank all the authorities
at ICAR Research Complex for NEH region,
Meghalaya and SASRD campus, Medziphema,
Nagaland for all the help and cooperation.
REFERENCES
Flores F, Moreno MT, Cubero JI (1998). A comparison of
univariate and multivariate methods to analyze G x E
interaction. Field Crops Res 56: 271-286
Jarvie JA, Shanahan PE (2009). Assessing tolerance to soybean
rust in selected genotypes. Field Crops Res 114:419425
Lin CS, Binns MR (1988). A superiority measure of cultivar
performance for cultivar location data. Can J Plant Sci
68: 193-198
Odulaja A, Nokoe S (1993). A maxmin-minimax approach for
classifying crop varieties into resistant groups based
on yield potential and loss. Int J Pest Mgt 39: 64-67
Patiram (2003). Soil health management for sustainable
production. In: Approaches for increasing agricultural
productivity in hill and mountain ecosystem (eds. Bhatt
BP, Bujarbaruah KM, Sharma YP and Patiram). pp
15-25
Sinclair JB, Hartman GL (1999). Soybean diseases. In:
Compendium of soybean diseases (eds. Hartman GL.,
Sinclair JB. and Rupe JC). 4 ed. St. Paul. American
Phytopathological Society. pp: 3-4
Wricke G (1962). U¨ ber einemethode zur erfassung der
oekologischen streubreite in feldversuchen. Zeitschr
Pflanzenz 47: 92–96
Fig. 5: WiPi values of different varieties evaluated for
tolerance
yielding in max-min method. Variety DS 2613 was
identified as superior but unstable in Piu vs Wiu
whereas it was identified as tolerant in max-min
method. Actually, during the tolerance evaluation,
G x E interaction often compounds the results and
makes the interpretation difficult because of
seasonal variability over the years hence Flores et
al. (1998) suggested evaluation of different indices
in different areas for tolerance evaluation. These
methods, if used over the years in different
agroclimatic regions will definitely help in
identifying stable high yielding varieties under
severe soybean rust pressure.
62
Phosphorus, Sulfur and Cobalt Fertilization Effect on Yield and
Quality of Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) in Acidic Soil of
Northeast India
SARAJ BHATTACHARJEE1, A. K. SINGH1, MANOJ KUMAR2*, S. K. SHARMA1
Received November 7, Revised November 28, Accepted November 29
ABSTRACT
Soybean production on acidic soils of northeast India is often constrained by inadequate availability
of phosphorus (P), sulfur (S) and cobalt (Co). To ascertain their individual and synergistic effects on
growth, yield and quality of soybean, we conducted a field experiment on an acid alfisol (pH 4.5),
with 12 treatments consisting of three levels of P (30, 60 and 90 kg P2O5 ha-1), two levels of S (15 and
30 kg S ha-1) and two levels of Co (1 and 2 kg Co ha-1) application in factorial combination. In general,
growth and yield parameters of soybean responded positively to higher doses of P, S and Co applications,
with the response to P fertilization being the best. Higher doses of P also improved seed protein
content of soybean. Based on the results of this study, we conclude that 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 along with 15
kg S and 1 kg Co is advisable for optimum growth, yield and quality of soybean on acid alfisols of
northeast India.
Keywords: Micronutrient deficiency, nutritional quality, pulse production, soil acidity
synthesis of important amino acids (methionine,
cysteine and cystine), chlorophyll and vitamins
(biotin and thiamine). It also helps in nitrate
reduction and assimilation of nitrogen (N) by root
nodule bacteria. Cobalt (Co) is a constituent of
cobalamine enzyme and is responsible for
formation of leghemoglobin required for N fixation;
it also governs the number and size of the root
nodules (Yadav and Khanna 1988). It is essential
for microorganisms fixing atmospheric N and also
helps in formation of vitamins B12 in symbiotic
microorganisms (Singh et al. 2012). Hence, these
three essential nutrients (P, S and Co) are crucial
for satisfactory field performance of soybean. Since
information on the response of soybean to
application of these nutrients in acidic soils of north
east India is scarce, the present study was conducted
to determine the effect of different levels of P, S
and Co application on growth, yield and quality of
soybean on an acidic soil of this region.
INTRODUCTION
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill), one of the
premier crops, contains 18–20% oil and 40 – 42%
protein. It is a good source of isoflavones which
helps preventing heart diseases, cancer and HIV.
In India, the average productivity of soybean is quite
low as compared to other developed or developing
countries. The northeastern regions of India is one
of the promising soybean growing belts, where crop
is grown on slopes, jhum lands, terraces and plains.
Cultivation of soybean on marginal land combined
with sub-optimal nutrient supply is the major hurdle
in realizing potential productivity of 2.5–3.0 t ha-1.
Sub-optimum phosphorus (P) supply in soil is
reported to commonly affect the growth, nodulation
and yield of soybean on acid soils (Laltlanmawia
et al. 2004; Sentimenla et al. 2012). Sulfur (S) is
an important secondary nutrient which helps in
1
Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, SASRD, Nagaland University, Medzhiphema -797 106, Nagaland
Division of Natural Resource Management (Soil Science), ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793 103,
Meghalaya, India
*
corresponding author’s E-mail: mkumar_iari@yahoo.co.in
2
Original aticle
63
and stover samples were grinded in a Willey mill,
and analysed for N by steam distillation procedure
as described by Jackson (1973). Protein content of
soybean seeds was worked out by multiplying the
percentage value of seed N content with a
conversion factor 6.25. Experimental data were
analyzed using standard statistical procedure
(Gomez and Gomez 1984).
A field experiment was conducted at the
Experimental Research Farm (20° 4' 45'’ N latitude;
93° 53' 04'’ E longitude) of School of Agricultural
Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland
University, Medziphema. The soil of the
experimental farm was sandy loam in texture and
acidic in reaction (pH 4.5), with 13.8 g kg-1 organic
carbon, 250.8 kg ha-1available N, 17.9 kg ha-1
available P2O5 and 165.3 kg ha-1 available K2O. The
treatments comprised of three levels of P (30, 60
and 90 kg P2O5 ha-1, henceforth referred to as P30,
P60 and P90), two levels of S [15 and 30 kg S ha-1
(S15 and S30)] and two levels of Co [1 and 2 kg Co
ha-1 (Co1 and Co2)] in factorial combination in a
randomized complete block design with three
replications. Rhizobium, N, K and Mo were added
uniformly in each plot. FYM was applied @ 2 tons
ha-1 two weeks before sowing. Different levels of
P, S and Co were applied at the time of sowing
through single super phosphate (SSP), elemental S
and cobalt chloride, respectively. The seed of
soybean crop (variety JS 335) was sown with a
distance of 45 cm row-to-row and 10 cm plant-toplant. All standard agronomic practices were
followed during crop growth period.
The observations including plant height, number
of leaves per plant, nodules per plant, fresh weight
of nodules, pods and filled pods were recorded.
Plants were harvested at maturity, and sun-dried.
After threshing, seeds and stover were separated,
air-dried and finally oven-dried at a temperature of
65°C + 3oC to attain a constant weight. Dried seeds
Application of P, S and Co did result in improved
growth and yield parameters of soybean, although
the degree of response was different for the three
nutrients. Higher doses of P application (P60 and
P90) invariably improved all the growth and yield
attributes of soybean (plant height, number of
leaves, number of nodules per plant, weight of fresh
nodules, number of total pods and filled pods per
plant and stover yield) relative to its lowest dose
(P 30) (Table 1). This resulted in significantly
improved seed yield at higher doses of P fertilization
(28.2 and 30.2 q ha-1 yield at P60 and P90 respectively,
compared to 23.5 q ha-1 at P30). In contrast, higher
doses of S and Co (relative to their lower doses)
improved only few growth parameters, and could
not increase the seed yield of soybean (Table 1). In
case of seed protein content also, higher doses of P
application (P60 and P90) were found effective, while
S30 and Co2 could not result in any significant
increase in protein percentage. Interaction effect
of these three nutrients on plant growth, yield and
quality was not found significant, as the beneficial
Table 1: Effect of P, S and Co fertilization on growth, yield and quality of soybean
Treatments
Phosphorus
P30
P60
P90
CD at 5%
Sulfur
S15
S30
CD at 5%
Cobalt
Co1
Co2
CD at 5%
Plant
height
(cm)
No. of
leaves
No. of
nodule
plant-1
Weight of
fresh nodule
plant-1 (g)
No. of
pods
plant-1
No. of filled
pods plant-1
Stover
yield
(q ha-1)
Seed
yield
(q ha-1)
Protein
(%)
61.0
68.4
75.3
2.1
187.7
234.1
274.0
11.9
73.7
116.2
200.4
5.0
8.01
8.85
10.11
0.48
156.6
199.5
200.1
12.5
127.8
193.3
204.0
5.1
34.4
37.9
41.4
2.0
23.5
28.2
30.2
2.61
36.15
38.76
40.03
1.56
66.1
70.3
1.7
227.9
235.9
NS
124.0
136.2
4.1
8.69
9.29
0.39
181.6
201.1
10.2
170.7
179.4
4.2
36.0
39.8
1.6
26.9
27.6
NS
38.24
38.39
NS
67.3
69.1
NS
230.7
233.2
NS
128.7
131.5
NS
8.86
9.29
0.39
186.5
196.2
NS
172.7
177.4
4.2
37.1
38.7
1.6
27.3
27.4
NS
38.36
38.27
NS
64
effect of P application was not modified in presence
of other two nutrients (Figure 1). Thus, the highest
seed yield and protein content was recorded at P90
(though statistically, they were on par with the yield
and protein content obtained at P60), irrespective
of the levels of S and Co application.
parameters, as also reported by More and Jadhav
(1998), Mohanti et al. (2004) and Awomi et al.
(2012), but failed to increase the final seed yield of
soybean. We again envisage that Co requirement
of the crop might have been fulfilled at Co1 and
thus no improvement in seed yield was observed
with its further addition (Co2).
Increase in seed protein content
caused by P application can be
attributed to improved nitrogen
(N) nutrition of crop.
Laltlanmawia et al. (2004) and
Sentimenla et al. (2012) also
observed significant increase in
protein content of soybean by
application of P in acidic soils
of Nagaland. In contrast to the
earlier report by More and
Jadhav (1998), who observed
the best growth and yield of
soybean at P90 S30 Co2, relatively
lower doses of P, S and Co
fertilization (P 60 S 15 Co 1 )
resulted in statistically similar
Fig. 1: Interaction effect of P, S and Co fertilization on some selected
yield as that found with P90 S30
growth, yield and quality attributes of soybean
Co2 in the present investigation.
The most beneficial effect of P application on
Some of the contradictory results on the
plant growth, yield and quality can be understood optimum doses of P, S and Co fertilization, as
given the fact that the experimental soil was reported in foregoing discussion, indicates the
severely deficient in P availability, which is differential nutritional requirement of soybean for
considered a major limiting factor for crop different soils of the region. Thus nutritional
production on acidic soils of northeast India (Kumar requirement of the crop must be assessed on site2011; Kumar et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2014). Such specific basis for recommendation of optimum
positive response of pulses to P application in acidic fertilizer doses for soybean. However, in light of
soils has also been reported by Vara et al. 1994; the results reported here, we conclude that the
Raychaudhury et al. 1997; Laltlanmawia et al. 2004, concomitant application of P, S and Co (P60 S15 Co1)
2005 and most recently by Awomi et al. 2012. This is advisable for the best growth, yield and quality
could be ascribed to the better root growth and more of soybean on acid alfisols of the study area.
efficient uptake and utilization of other nutrients
and water by plant subsequent to adequate P
application. Although, S application (S30) caused
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yield and quality of mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) in
significant improvement in seed yield of soybean
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over that produced at S15. May be the S requirement
22–26.
of crop on the experimental soil was satisfied at Gomez KA, Gomez AA (1984). Statistical procedures for
experimental research. John Wiley and Sons, New
S15 and therefore further addition of S (S30) was not
Yark.
effective in improving seed yield. Similar results
Gupta V, Sharma GL (2003). Impact of different levels of FYM
were found in case of Co application also, which
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65
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(1994). Response of soybean (Glycine max) to
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66
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on the Performance of Allium
odorosum under Mid-altitude Foothill condition of Manipur
B. NARSIMHA RAO1*, S. S. ROY2, A. K. JHA3, I. M. SINGH2, N. PRAKASH2
Received November 11, 2013; Revised November 28, 2103, Accepted November 29, 2013
ABSTRACT
Allium odorosum, locally known as Maroi Nakupi in Manipuri, is one of the important underutilized
herbal spices of mid-altitude sub-Himalayan region. The present study was undertaken to find out the
effect of nitrogen and spacing on Allium odorosum with three levels of nitrogen (45, 60 and 75 kg/ha)
and six levels of spacing (15x7.50 cm2, 15x10 cm2, 15x12.50 cm2, 20x7.50 cm2, 20x10 cm2 and
20x12.50 cm2) under foothill condition of Manipur. Nitrogen dose has significantly increased all the
growth and yield characters. Irrespective of spacing, maximum leaf yield (8 t/ha) was recorded with
nitrogen dose of 75 kg/ha. Spacing also influenced significantly all the characters under study except
width of leaf. Irrespective of nitrogen dose, the closest spacing (15x7.50 cm2) recorded the highest
leaf yield (10.28 t/ha) followed by 15 X 10 cm2 (7.80 t/ha) due to higher plant population. Although
higher number of leaves per plant (28.21) was recorded at wider spacing (20x12.50 cm2), it could not
compensate the gain in yield due to more plant population under close spacing. Interaction between
nitrogen and spacing was also found to be significant for most of the characters. Maximum leaf yield
(11.20 t/ha) was recorded in plants grown with higher nitrogen dose (75 kg/ha) and closest spacing
(15x7.50 cm2), followed by medium nitrogen dose (60 t/ha) and closest spacing of 15x7.50 cm2
(10.58 t/ha).
Key words: Allium odorasum, Manipur, Maroi Nakupi, nitrogen, spacing
produce many years if optimum requirement of soil
moisture and proper fertilization is done during the
growing period. The cold tolerant cultivar (locally
known as Ningtham Sidabi) which can thrive in
frosty winter is also found in Manipur. Hence, the
crop can be grown throughout the year. The young
leaves and inflorescences flavour like garlic and
are used for culinary purposes daily in majority of
the houses in Manipur for seasoning food. They
may be eaten as blanched or green. It also replaces
onion in many of the religious feasts where onion
is considered as taboo. It has been traditionally used
in folklore medicine as diuretic, wormicide, and
has antifungal, antibacterial properties. its juice is
used to cure baldness. The crop is rich in various
nutrients. The young leaves contain Vitamin A, LAscorbic Acid and Calcium. The seed contains high
INTRODUCTION
Manipur, one of the North Eastern states of
India, known for its diverse flora is the treasure
trove of many indigenous wild food plants. The
ethnic communities inhabiting the Manipur state
use about 400 species of wide varieties of wild
plants, ranging from algae to angiosperms as food
(Anonymous 1994). Allium odorosum belongs to
the family Liliaceae, locally known as “Maroi
Nakupi” is one of the perennial spices grown in
almost home gardens in the Manipur valley
(Premila and Chetry 2013). It is a perennial
herbaceous plant forming dense clump, 20-40 cm
tall with prominently spreading rhizome and has
4-9 leaves. The leaves are harvested 45-60 days
after planting and the same plant may continue to
1
Directorate of Oilplam Research, Pedavaegi-534450, Andhra Pradesh
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Imphal - 795 004
3
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya - 793 103
*Corresponding author’s Email : narasimha101@rediffmail.com
2
Short communication
67
amount of oil (15.8%), dietary fibre (18.2%) and
crude protein (12.3%). Seeds oil is composed of
10% saturated and 90% unsaturated fatty acid. The
leaves is an excellent source of calcium,
phosphorus, zinc and iron. It also contains
antioxidants and amino acids. The crushed leaves
is directly applied on the head for improving hair
growth and help in reducing tension. Fresh or boiled
leaves are used for normal flow of urine (Singh et
al. 2012). In Peru, it is being used for bronchitis
and asthma (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is
commonly seen in the local markets preferred by
the local people in North Eastern Region. Its
cultivation is mostly concentrated around the cities
and towns where the market facility is available. In
spite of its immense potential, the crop has not yet
been grown commercially by the farmers due to
lack of knowledge on production technology. Given
this backdrop, an attempt has been made to
standardize the production technology with special
emphasis on spacing and nitrogen dose for Allium
odorosum under foot hill conditions of Manipur.
regularly at lush green stage (before turning into
yellow) and weighed on a digital balance. Growth
and yield characters were recorded on ten randomly
selected plants in all the treatments such as number
of suckers per plant, leaves per plant, weight of
harvested leaves per plant, length of leaf, width of
leaf and leaf yield/ha. Data were analyzed by
Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software
(Version 9.1) for analysis of variance and
differences among means were compared at P<0.05.
The experimental results indicated that nitrogen
and spacing significantly influenced growth and
yield of Allium odorosum (Table 1). Spacing also
influenced all the characters except width of leaf.
The number of suckers and leaves per plant
increased progressively with increase in nitrogen
dose. Irrespective of spacing, maximum number of
suckers/plant (6.15), leaves/plant (29.27), length of
leaves (26.27 cm) and width of leaves (0.60 cm)
were recorded with higher nitrogen dose of 75 kg/
ha; whereas, minimum number of suckers per plant
(5.14), number of leaves per plant (25.59) and
shortest (23.8 cm) and narrow leaves (0.49cm) were
found in plants grown with low nitrogen dose (45kg/
ha). Kumar et al. (1998) reported higher number of
leaves with higher dose of nitrogen in onion.
Wilman and Joy Pearse (1984) also observed
increased number of tillers and rate of emergence
of new tillers in field swards by application of
nitrogen. Purushotham et al. (1992) also reported
that the plant height and tiller number improved
with increase in nitrogen dose in hybrid napier
grass.
Spacing also significantly affected the number
of suckers per plant, length of leaf and number of
leaves per plant. Irrespective of nitrogen dose,
highest number suckers per plant (5.82) and length
of leaf (25.20 cm) was recorded with a spacing of
20x10 cm2; whereas, maximum number of leaves
per plant (28.21) was associated with wider spacing
(20x12.50 cm 2 ). The results are similar to
Weerasinghe et al. (1994), They reported that
increasing plant competition significantly decreases
seedling leaf number in onion. Mari et al. (1997)
and Rizk (1997) also reported that lower planting
density resulted in higher number of leaves per plant
of onion. The assumptions are also similar to Singh
The study was carried out at Langol Hill
Research Farm of ICAR Research Complex for
North East Hill Region, Manipur Centre, located
0
between 23.830N and 25.680 N latitude and 93.03 E
and 94.780 E longitudes at an elevation of 790 m
above mean sea level. The site experienced
temperatures ranging from 3.6 0C-30.2 0C and
average rainfall of 1340.6 mm during the
experimental period. The soils at the site were acidic
in nature with pH 5.00 and shallow in depth. The
experiment was laid out in split plot design with
three replications. The treatments involved three
nitrogen doses as main plots viz., N1-45 kg/ha, N260 kg/ha and N3-75 kg/ha and six spacing as sub
plots viz., S1-15x7.50 cm2, S2- 15x10 cm2, S315x12.50 cm2, S4-20x7.50 cm2, S5-20x10 cm2 and
S6-20x12.50 cm2. Suckers of Allium odorosum were
planted on raised beds of 1.20x1.50 m2 size during
April and the study was continued for two years.
The plots were top dressed with urea after each
harvest as per the treatments. Phosphorous and
potassium fertilizers were applied uniformly to all
plots @ 60 kg/ha along with 10 t/ha FYM before
planting. Weeding and earthing up was done in all
the plots uniformly. Matured leaves were harvested
68
Table 1 : Effect of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield in Allium odorosum
Treatments
No. of
suckers
/plant
No. of
leaves
/ plant
Length
of leaf
(cm)
Width
of leaf
(cm)
Weight
of leaves
/plant (g)
Green leaf
Yield
/ ha (t)
5.14
5.52
6.15
0.20
25.59
26.99
29.27
0.73
23.81
24.22
26.21
0.34
0.49
0.52
0.60
0.01
10.15
11.81
13.26
0.47
5.98
7.21
8.00
0.45
5.53
5.49
5.41
5.57
5.82
5.80
0.23
26.38
26.86
27.23
27.09
27.93
28.21
0.33
24.6
24.2
24.7
24.7
25.2
25.0
0.43
0.54
0.53
0.54
0.53
0.54
0.53
NS
11.66
11.68
11.72
11.68
11.87
11.84
0.13
10.28
7.78
6.27
7.35
5.94
4.77
0.32
5.19
5.10
4.80
5.13
5.40
5.24
5.46
5.26
5.23
5.58
5.76
5.80
5.94
6.10
6.21
5.99
6.31
6.36
NS
25.70
25.27
25.13
24.93
26.60
25.90
26.43
26.13
26.70
27.50
27.30
27.90
27.00
29.17
29.87
28.83
29.90
30.83
0.57
24.41
23.13
23.71
23.90
24.23
23.46
23.68
23.58
24.20
23.86
24.75
25.23
25.71
25.86
26.18
26.45
26.76
26.28
0.75
0.51
0.50
0.47
0.49
0.51
0.46
0.53
0.51
0.53
0.51
0.52
0.52
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.60
0.60
0.61
0.02
10.18
10.56
10.03
10.09
10.08
9.97
11.90
11.53
11.70
11.80
12.00
11.95
12.91
12.96
13.42
13.14
13.54
13.61
0.22
9.05
7.02
5.38
5.41
5.04
3.99
10.58
7.69
6.24
7.87
6.00
4.88
11.20
8.64
7.17
8.76
6.77
5.44
0.56
Nitrogen dose (N)
N1 (45kg/ha)
N2 (60kg/ha)
N3 (75kg/ha)
CD (P=0.05)
Spacing (S)
S1 (15x7.5 cm2)
S2 (15x10 cm2)
S3 (15x12.5 cm2)
S4 (20x7.5 cm2)
S5 (20x10 cm2)
S6 (20x12.5 cm2)
CD (P=0.05)
Nitrogen x Spacing (N X S)
N1 x S1
N1 x S2
N1 x S3
N1 x S4
N1 x S5
N1 x S6
N2 x S1
N2 x S2
N2 x S3
N2 x S4
N2 x S5
N2 x S6
N3 x S1
N3 x S2
N3 x S3
N3 x S4
N3 x S5
N3 x S6
CD (P=0.05)
NS = Non-significant
Leaf yield was also significantly influenced by
nitrogen dose and plant spacing. Maximum weight
of leaves per plant (13.26 g) and green leaf yield
(8.00 t/ha) was recorded with higher nitrogen dose
(75 kg/ha) while the minimum weight of leaves per
plant (10.15g) and leaf yield (5.98 t/ha) was
observed with the application of 45 kg N/ha.
Spacing significantly influenced the weight of
leaves and green leaf yield. The weight of leaves
was increased with increase in plant spacing and
maximum weight of leaves per plant (11.87 g) was
recorded at wider spacing (20x10 cm2), which is
statistically at par with 20X12.50 cm2 spacing. Rao
and Sachan (1999) who stated that greater number
of onion leaves was found at wider spacing.
The interaction between nitrogen dose and
spacing was also found to be significant for all the
growth and yield characters under study except
suckers per plant. Among the treatment
combinations, maximum number of leaves per plant
(30.83) and broadest leaves (0.61 cm) were
recorded with 75 kg N/ha and 20x12.50 cm 2
spacing; whereas, longest leaves (26.76 cm) were
found with 75 kg N/ha and 20x10 cm2 spacing.
Although wider spacing recorded longer leaves it
was not conspicuous.
69
et al. (2006) also reported similar results in Allium
odorosum. However, maximum green leaf yield
(10.28 t/ha) was recorded with 15x7.50 cm 2
spacing. Minimum yield of green leaf (4.77 t/ha)
was associated with 20x12.50 cm2 spacing due to
lowest plant population. Increase in weight of
leaves is obvious with increase in spacing due to
the fact that competition for nutrition will be more
at higher plant population. This may be attributed
to the fact that leaf in Allium odorosum acts as both
photosynthetic site as well as sink.
Interaction between nitrogen dose and plant
spacing was found to be significant for weight of
leaves per plant and green leaf yield. Maximum
weight of leaves per plant (13.61g) was recorded
with the application of 75 kg N/ha and 20x12.50
cm2 spacing; whereas, minimum weight of leaves
(9.97 g) was found in plants grown with 75 kg N/
ha and spaced at 15x7.50 cm2. Contrary to this,
highest green leaf yield of 11.20 t/ha was recorded
with 75 kg N/ha and 15x7.50 cm2 spacing; followed
by 10.58 t/ha with 60 kg N/ha and 15x7.50 cm2
spacing and 9.05 t/ha with 45 kg N/ha and 15x7.50
cm2 spacing. Plant population was found to show
more influence than nitrogen dose in maximizing
the green leaf yield. The lowest leaf yield (3.99 t/
ha) was associated with 45 kg N/ha and 20x12.50
cm2 spacing. Although number of leaves and weight
of leaves per plant increased with spacing it could
not compensate the yield of closely spaced plants
due to higher plant population. The interaction
effect of nitrogen dose and plant spacing on sucker
production was found to be insignificant. Hence,
the study suggests that growing Allium odorosum
at a spacing of 15x7.50 cm2 and application of
nitrogen at 75 kg/ha would be helpful to enhance
the green leaf yield under foothill condition of
Manipur.
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Kumar H, Singh JV, Kumar A, Singh M, Kumar A (1998).
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M (1997). Effect of transplanting density of the cultivar
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(1992). Nitrogen management in hybrid napier grasses
under irrigation. Karnataka J Agric Sci 5(3): 218-223
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spacing on Moroi Nakupi (Allium odorosum). In: Book
of abstracts of SYMSAC III, Indian Society of Spices,
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70
Wide Hybridization in the Genus Oryza: Aspects and Prospects
PATU KHATE ZELIANG*, ARUNAVA PATTANAYAK
Received October 2, 2013; Revised November 22, 2013, Accepted November 30, 2013
ABSTRACT
The cultivated species of rice has lost many valuable traits for stress tolerance in the process of
domestication and selection, which resulted in uniformity in many agronomic traits. Although there
are several instances of transfer of useful tolerant genes from the wild rice to the cultivated rice, it has
now become essential to look at the newer breeding and selection methods that can be applied to wide
hybridization in rice. The paper, discusses issues related to hybridization between different species of
the genus Oryza, problems and difficulties encountered and the strategies for a successful breeding
program.
Key words: Wild rice, Hybridization, Gene transfer
essential to create genetic variability and widen the
genetic pool by obtaining useful genes from alien
germplasm sources and wild relatives of rice. In
crop improvement, though cross between varieties
of the same species is the major form of gene
transfer, in many cases, it may be desirable or even
required to cross individuals belonging to two
different species or genera of a wild type. Such type
of crossing is known as wide/distant hybridization.
In this paper, we discuss issues related to
hybridization between the different species of the
genus Oryza, problems and difficulties encountered
and the strategies for a successful breeding program.
INTRODUCTION
The genus Oryza was first described by
Linnaeus (1753), who recognized only one species,
O. sativa. Today more than 100 species have been
indicated in Oryza by different authors (Vaughan
1989). It consists of two cultivated species viz. O.
sativa and O. glaberrima and twenty one wild
species, which show a wide range of diversity. The
wild Oryza species are known to have genes for
resistance to various diseases and insects. These
characteristics could be because the wild species
have been subjected to natural selection pressures
in their environments for a longer period than the
cultigens, thus they have a rich source of genetic
diversity for pest and diseases resistance as well as
for adverse soil conditions (Vaughan 1994). In the
case of cultivated rice, selection using the
phenotypic characters has resulted in greater
phenotypic diversity than that of the wild species
with a low rate of seed shedding at maturity, a low
degree of seed dormancy, synchronous heading, self
pollination and high grain yield (Oka 1991) but in
the process, many valuable traits of the landraces
might have been lost. Therefore, it has become
ORYZA GENOME TYPE
The ‘genome’ is defined as the minimum genetic
set necessary for an organism to live with its own
distinct characteristics and to propagate itself
(Kurata 2008). The genus Oryza has been classified
into nine genome types, and twenty three species
have been identified based upon the method of
‘genome analysis’, which consists of the
examination of chromosome pairing in meiosis of
Centre of Biotechnology, ICAR Research Complex for NER, Umiam-793103,India
*Corresponding author’s Email : khatep@gmail.com
Mini review
71
the F1 hybrid between the tester parent of known
genome type and the parent with unknown genome
(Katayama 1990; Agarwal et al. 1997; Kurata
2008). Chromosomes of both the cultivated species
and closely related wild species are similar, and
their genomes are designated as AA genomes. The
chromosomes of other wild species, however, differ
from those of cultivated rice, and they belong to
genomes designated as BB, CC, EE, FF and GG. A
few of the tetraploid species are reported to have
BBCC, CCDD and HHJJ genomes. The AAgenome Oryza germplasm exhibits vast ecogeographical differentiation and are thus expected
to have significant adaptive gene differences among
accessions. Chromosome analysis was also carried
out with various wild species of BB, CC, EE, FF
and GG genomes, and it was found that the FF
genome has the smaller chromosome complements.
varieties of O. sativa through wide crosses.
Moreover, genes for resistance to brown
planthopper (BPH) (Ishii et al. 1994), bacterial
blight (Ikeda et al. 1990; Song et al. 1995), blast
(Amante-Bordeos et al. 1992), tungro, acid sulfate
soils, and iron toxicity have been introgressed from
AA, BBCC, CC, CCDD, EE, and FF genomes into
rice. Genes introgressed from wild species (Bph10,
Bph18, Xa21, Pi-9) have been mapped and also
used in marker-assisted selection. The rice bacterial
blight disease–resistant gene Xa21 from O.
longistaminata has been transferred to O. sativa
(Khush et al. 1991), and the resulting progenies
have been widely used for breeding new varieties
resistant to Xanthomonas infection (Singh et al.
2001). Blast resistance and insect resistances have
been successfully transferred from wild species to
cultivated rice (Amante-Bordeos et al. 2004). Gene
transfers to O. sativa from species other than the
AA genome has also been possible through embryo
rescue technique (Multani et al. 2004). Hybrids
have been successfully produced between
cultivated rice and most of the species in the genus
Oryza through a series of interspecific hybrids, alien
introgression lines, monosomic alien addition lines
(MAALs) (Yasui and Iwata 1991), and chromosome
segmental substitution lines (CSSLs) (Kubo et al.
2002; Ebitani et al. 2005). In CSSLs, a particular
chromosomal segment from a donor line is
substituted into the genetic background of the
recurrent line. CSSLs can be used in a genetic
analysis to associate QTLs with distinct
chromosomal regions and to quickly develop NILs
of target regions containing QTLs of interest
(Yamamoto et al. 2008). With the availability of
information from the entire rice genome sequence
(Anonymous 2005), many new tools for the genetic
study have been designed with a paradigm change
in plant breeding and improvement of rice. Many
phenotypic traits of economic interest are controlled
by multiple genes and often show complex and
quantitative inheritance. With progress in rice
genomics, these traits have been identified into
single genetic factors or quantitative trait loci
(QTLs). Such genetic factors can subsequently be
identified at the molecular level by map-based
strategies (Yano 2001). These natural variations and
QTLs can be exploited with the help of molecular
cloning and marker assisted selection (MAS) for
the biological study and breeding of rice. Some
important characteristics of agronomic value that
RICE IMPROVEMENT THROUGH
WIDE CROSSES
Rice has been domesticated from AA genome.
Wild Oryza and the present Oryza cultivars have
been bred to bear many of the agronomic
characteristics inherent to wild rice such as
tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, some of
which have been lost to domestication and breeding.
Wild Oryza species are known to have genes for
resistance to various diseases and insects such as
blast, bacterial blight, viral diseases, brown plant
hopper, white backed plant hopper, green
leafhopper, whorl maggot and stem borer (Heinrich
et al. 1985). Traits from the wild rice populations
have made rapid progress possible in rice
improvement programs throughout the world. A
major dominant gene for resistance to the grassy
stunt virus was found from O. nivara (Khush et al.
1997). Traits for conferring cytoplasmic male
sterility was also first transferred from the wild rice
O. rufipogon (Katsuo and Mizushima 1958) and
later from O. sativa L.f. spontanea (Lin and Yuan
1980), O. perinnis (Dalmacio et al. 1995), O.
glumaepatula (Dalmacio et al. 1996) into cultivated
rice. Alleles from O. rufipogon increased grain
weight in Hwaseongbyeo a Korean cultivar (Xie et
al. 2006) and QTLs for yield and yield components
and other agronomic characters were identified
from O. rufipogon (Moncada et al. 2001;
Septiningsih et al. 2003) and transferred to elite
72
have been mapped with the help of the map based
cloning include i) heading date (Yano et al. 2001;
Takahashi et al. 2001; Kojima et al. 2002),
(ii)Submergence tolerance ( Xu et al. 2006), (iii)
Salt tolerance (Ren et al. 2005), (iv) Seed shattering
(Konishi et al. 2006), (v) regeneration ability
(Nishimura et al. 2005).
doubling, which may lead to speciation and
adaptation (Baack and Riesberg 2007).
Chromosomal rearrangements frequently cause
sterility in hybrids as indicated by abnormal
chromosomal pairing, formation of multivalent and
other abnormalities at meiosis. Cryptic differences
in chromosomes are regarded as a major cause of
hybrid sterility in plants. Hybrid sterility is also
caused by cytoplasmic difference, as in the case of
O. rufipogon where the cytoplasm frequently
induced male sterility (Shinjo 1988). Genes causing
hybrid sterility are either gametophytic or
sporophytic in action, which could affect the
development of gametes produced by male or
female or both. Findings by several workers (Olsen
et al. 2006; Li et al. 2006; Sweeny et al. 2006;
Konishi et al. 2006) suggest that modest changes
in single genes could induce dramatic changes in
phenotype during and after domestication.
Conventionally, alien chromosome is identified by
studying their morphology and karyotyping, which
may not be practical. Genomic in situ hybridization
(GISH) is used to detect alien introgression. Studies
on QTLs have shown that not only QTLS with
major effects but also those with minor effects
generate natural variations among cultivars in traits
with agronomic importance. Therefore, to
understand the complex traits controlled by these
minor QTLs, artificial mutations may be applied
to verify the function of target QTLs in conjunction
with map based cloning. Several candidate genes
are subjected to functional validation, where
mutants of candidate genes will provide evidence
for the molecular identification of QTLs. Mutant
panels in rice have been generated by Tos17 or TDNA insertion, exposure to chemical and gamma
irradiation (Wu et al. 2005) and the mutants of target
genes screened by using Tos17 sequences and TDNA by Tilling (Raghavan et al. 2007). Once the
particular mutant of interest is obtained,
morphological and physiological analyses can be
done for functional validation of the candidate
genes. Sometimes genes from the wild or unadapted
material while enhancing the performance of elite
cultivars may disrupt favorable gene complexes.
Thus, knowing what other genes are likely to be
affected by an allele substitution at one locus can
prove to be an invaluable tool to a plant breeder
regarding the phenotypic consequences of a
particular genetic change.
GENETICS OF HYBRIDIZATION
Hybridization is not always successful where
development of young zygote may be arrested by
hybrid breakdown, hybrid sterility and hybrid nonviability. In wide hybridization, though seeds may
be obtained, the F1 plants may sometime show
sterile and semi-sterile characteristics. This may be
attributed to the abortion of female and male
gametes by respective allelic interactions
(Kitamuara 1961, 1962) since seed development is
regulated by the balance of maternal and paternal
genomes in the endosperm in plants. For example,
in one of our experiments, in the cross between O.
sativa and O. rufipogon and reciprocals, F1 plants
from O. sativa x O. rufipogon were fertile but F1
plants of the reciprocal were all sterile (unpublished
data). Sometimes even when F 1 hybrids are
vigorous and fertile, their progenies may have
severe infertility or a high rate of mortality. This
phenomenon is known as the hybrid breakdown.
Hybrid sterility can be genic, chromosomal, or
cytoplasmic (Grant 1981).
Hybridization results in genetic recombination
between chromosomes of cultivated and wild
species. These can take place through the reciprocal
replacement of alleles of the wild type with that of
the improved cultivar rather than through
substitution of a complete or an arm of
chromosomes of wild species (Brar and Khush
1997). Sometimes due to the genomic interactions
of cultivated and wild species or activation of
transposable elements, some novel genes may also
arise. Hybridization may also result in genomic
change, including alteration to gene expression,
chromosomal structure and genome size. Changes
such as gene loss, gene silencing, gene expression
and tissue-specific expression of copies of some
loci from the two genomes may occur after
hybridization. Sometimes the phenomenon of
hybridization is also accompanied by chromosome
73
during endosperm development. Moreover, to use
genes from wild germplasm requires repeated
backcrossing to the female cultivated parents to
eliminate undesirable traits from the wild
germplasm. Therefore, a carefully planned program
or ‘prebreeding’ is necessary to transfer useful
genes from many wild species to an improved plant
type before the breeder can use the germplasm. In
a conventional breeding program, the breeder has
to first identify a useful character, capture its genetic
diversity and put those genes into a usable form.
These can be carried in different ways viz. by using
non-adapted (exotic) land race or germplasm and
by dynamic management of gene pools thereby
broadening the genetic base of new cultivars. Cai
et al. (2008) also stated that prolonged selfing
decreases inbreeding depression by purging
deleterious genes. Challenges for a breeder include
raising of the segregating generations (F2 and later
generations), which consists of several thousand
plants. Raising of F2 requires money, labour, land
and other facilities, and handling of the segregating
generations also become tedious.
MECHANISM OF WIDE
HYBRIDIZATION: ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
The advantages of hybridization include disease
resistance, wider adaptation, heterosis, better
quality, higher yield, development and utilization
as new crop varieties. The disadvantages are
incompatible crosses, F1 sterility, problems in
creating new species, undesirable linkages,
dormancy and problems in using improved varieties
since wild relatives cross more easily with land
races than with highly improved varieties.
Hybridization-introgression representing gene
flow between cultivated and wild rice has been
widely observed in nature (Vaughan et al. 2008).
The phenomenon of gene flow exists between the
cultivated and weedy rice species (Chen et al. 2004),
and though pollen competition between wild and
cultivated rice has caused a low rate of crop-towild gene flow, but it does not completely prevent
gene flow from the crop (Song et al. 2005). Thus,
it may alter the genetic structure of natural
populations and eventually lead to its genetic
erosion. Many of the wild relatives of rice in their
natural habitats at present may be hybrid derivatives
of wild types and domesticates. On the other hand,
due to the great genomic differences among
different genomes of the genus Oryza, reproduction
barriers, such as low crossability and hybrid nonviability, are common problems encountered in
wide hybridization between cultivated rice with the
AA genome and distantly related wild species with
a non-AA genome. Isolating barriers can be
classified into (i) pre-mating barriers like
divergence in spatial and ecological habitats,
flowering time, floral organs, and reproductive
modes (autogamy and apomixes) and (ii) postmating barriers, which include crossincompatibility, hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility
and hybrid breakdown. Several incompatibility
barriers such as low crossability and limited
recombination between homologous chromosomes
of wild and cultivated species limit the transfer of
useful genes. Sometimes the F 1 embryos and
endosperms begin to deteriorate a few days after
fertilization or the embryos may fail, which could
be due to the presence of a barrier controlled by a
set of complementary dominant lethal genes.
Failure of the embryo and seed maturation could
be the consequence of some disturbances occurring
LINKAGE DRAG: HOW IMPORTANT
IS IT?
During an introgression breeding program, a
wild plant with a favorable trait is crossed with a
high-quality cultivar. The wild plant, however,
passes on not only its genes of interest to the
progeny but also deleterious genes sometimes.
When the gene of interest is tightly linked with the
deleterious gene and inherited together, it is known
as linkage drag. The extent of linkage drag depends
on numerous variables- such as population size; the
number of meiotic generations before selection is
applied and the genomic location of the locus of
interest. To reduce linkage drag, plant breeders
carry out successive generations of recurrent
backcrossing with the cultivated plant and
simultaneous selection for the trait to generate a
genotype in which the gene of interest is no longer
linked to any undesired genes. This results in a long
breeding period for developing an improved variety.
With the help of molecular markers, recombinant
individuals that retain only a very small piece of
wild chromosome can be selected. The region of
the genome associated with specific components
of a phenotype and the donor parent of the favorable
allele at a particular locus can also be determined.
74
The genes underlying the QTL are then cloned for
developing markers, which provides the basis for
understanding how these genes interact in
biochemical and regulatory pathways (McCouch
et al. 2007). Fine mapping also provides an
opportunity to identify key recombination events
that break linkage drag, separating favorable from
the deleterious alleles along a chromosome and to
deliver high-quality NILs for application in plant
breeding. Crosses between O. sativa landraces
might contain fewer deleterious ‘wild alleles’ and
thus generate fewer linkage drags than in crosses
with a wild variety, but the progenies will be more
similar.
hybridization programs. Crosses between O. sativa
and wild relatives could lead to the discovery of
useful QTLs from a range of allelic variations much
wider than that present in cultivated lines (Ashikari
and Sakamoto 2008). Genes coding important
agronomic traits can be identified with the growing
infrastructure of plant genomics. These scientific
discoveries and tools will lead to more effective
and practical breeding programs. New technologies
that will assist in enhancing and directing the
natural process of meiotic recombination will also
facilitate the introgression of favourable alleles
(McCouch et al. 2007) and minimize the current
requirement of screening large populations.
Strategies in the future containing a broad
knowledge of and access to modern technology,
which will combine the application of new tools
and techniques with traditional and efficient plant
breeding methods may allow populations to regain
traits that have been lost. And also possibly to
replace damaged alleles with functional copies from
related species through the process of wide
hybridization.
STRATEGIES FOR A SUCCESSFUL
BREEDING PROGRAM
Three main strategies that can be used include
the following:
1) Identify gene(s) controlling homologous
chromosome pairing in Oryza and thereby
enhance recombination events between wild and
cultivated species -Traditional introgression
breeding of cross-fertilizing plants does not
allow the introduction of genes from wild
germplasm without mixing up the combination
of alleles in the existing heterozygote elite
recipient genotype. In addition, the donor
sequence is inserted into the genome in an
unknown position which might affect DNA
methylation and other factors that can in turn
influence gene expression, since the fragments
can contain hundreds of genes.
2) Embryo culture through tissue culture could be
used to save alien introgressed lines from
aborting after chromosomal exchange between
genomes of cultivated and wild species.
3) Further in-depth study of the cytogenetic
properties at the different meiotic levels will also
increase our knowledge about the size/length of
the introgressed segments of the F1 hybrids.
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77
Analogy of Soil Parameters in Particle Size Analysis through
Laser Diffraction Techniques
ROOMESH KUMAR JENA1*, R. JAGADEESWARAN2, R. SAVASAMY2
Received November 11, 2013; Revised November 30, 2013; Accepted December 2, 2013
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to optimize the parameters for particle size analysis through laser diffraction
techniques. Fifty soil samples with varying soil texture, organic matter, sesquioxide content and
calcareousness were collected and analyzed for soil texture by conventional (International Pipette
Method-IPm) and Instrumental (Particle Size Analyser-PSA) methods. The study reveals that PSA is
more accurate and preferable compared to IPm in determining the soil particle sizes. The clay content
of the different samples estimated by International Pipette method and by Particle size analyzer varied
from 0.9 to 48.4% and 0.35 to 41.2 %, respectively. PSA showed a good agreement (72% samples)
for silt size fractions, and a slight shift in the upper limit of clay from conventional size of 2 µm could
help in analysis of soil texture by PSA.
Keywords: Soil texture, international pipette method, particle size analyser
diffraction and digital image processing. They are
fast, easy, operator independent, have a much
broader range and higher resolution with many
more data channels. In these techniques, particles
are to be independently suspended in the flow-cell
and the desirable condition is achieved by agitation
and ultrasonification whereas the chemical means
of removing cementation is not followed. Laser
Diffraction techniques are occasionally applied to
soil material (Cooper et al. 1984). Laser Diffraction
Technique measures light scattered from the
particles suspended in the measurement cell. The
angle of scatter is related to the size of the particles.
The measurement is essentially instantaneous,
although total analysis times are in the order of 30
seconds for most samples. The instrument is
popular for this application because of its wide size
range (0.02-2000 µm), speed, stability and ease of
use. With this background, the present investigation
was attempted to study the variability and
relationship between the international pipette
method and laser diffraction technique for varying
soil properties.
INTRODUCTION
Soil texture is a qualitative classification tool
used in both field and laboratory to determine
classes for agricultural soils. The classes are
distinguished in the field by the ‘textural feel’ which
can be further clarified by separating the relative
proportions of sand, silt and clay using grading
sieves. The class is then used to determine crop
suitability and to approximate the soil’s responses
to irrigation and management practices. Traditional
particle size determination techniques include
sieves for the larger size ranges, usually above
63µm (230 mesh size). Sieves are limited in
resolution (number of sieves = number of data
channels), they are slow and operator intensive, and
has limitation for determining the smaller size
classes. Pipette or sedimentation method is
generally used for the finer fractions; however, this
technique is slow and is affected by particle shape.
Modern automated analytical techniques are
used for sizing sediments which includes laser
1
NBSS&LUP, Regional Centre, Jorhat, Assam
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003
*
Corresponding author’s Email : roomeshjena@gmail.com
2
Original aticle
78
measures particle size over the range of 21 nm-2800
µm in wide angle range of nearly 160 degree.
Microtrac employs three lasers to emit laser light
into particles from the best angle. While many other
particle size analyzers are designed to detect
particles at a point, the Microtrac detection
mechanism is designed to detect all the scattered
light on an entire surface.
Before analyzing samples in the instrument, the
sample parameters viz., size and refractive index
were set up. Since the soil separates are irregular
in shape, the particle parameters were set
accordingly. Another important particle parameter
was Refractive Index (RI), which is a complex
number comprised of (i) a real part (nr) which
represents the change in the velocity of light in
vacuum; and (ii) an imaginary term (ni) which
represents the transparency and absorptivity of that
material. The values of the minerals commonly
found in soil falls between 1.48 and 1.71, but for
minerals like hematite, the RI may reach values
from 2.9 to 3.2. Yet, for most minerals an nr value
of approximately 1.52 was suitable. Thus, the RI
value input was set at 1.52 for the soil samples.
Two grams of soil sample was taken in a 100ml
beaker. To this 50 ml of water and 1-2 drops of
Triton X 100 dispersing agent was added. The
sample was subjected to ultrasonification and fed
into particle size analyzer. Before feeding the
sample to the instrument, samples were drained and
filled twice followed by the flow of water. Samples
were analyzed by setting the instrument parameter
viz., the rate of ultra-sonification at 0.5 cycles with
40% frequency for 5 minutes. A subset of randomly
selected samples, ten in number, was subjected to
different durations of sample cycling in the flow
cell. The soil textural classes for the above samples
were identified using soil textural triangle of
International Society of Soil Science (ISSS scheme
1929).
Graphical examination of the data was
performed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
program. Calculating the percent deviation or
relative difference between IPm and PSA method
for clay, silt and sand were done as per the following
equation:
Fifty numbers of surface soil samples were
collected from different parts of Western Agroclimatic Zone of Tamil Nadu representing various
soil textures and having a wide range of organic
matter content, sesquioxide content and
calcareousness. The samples were analyzed for
texture both by International pipette method (Piper
1966) as well as by Laser diffraction technique in
Microtrac S3500 particle size analyzer. The samples
were also analyzed for organic carbon content
(Walkley and Black 1934), sesquioxide content
from HCl extract (Hesse 1973) and free calcium
carbonate by Rapid titration method (Piper 1966).
The methodologies followed for particle size
determination are detailed below.
International Pipette Method
Twenty grams of soil sample was treated with
60 ml of 6% hydrogen peroxide and kept over water
bath for 30 minutes to oxidize the organic matter.
To this 200ml of N/5 hydrochloric acid was added
and kept overnight to destroy all the carbonates
present in the samples. The contents were filtered
through Whatman No.50 filter paper and washed
with water till the filtrate ran free of chloride. The
contents were transferred from filter paper to
another beaker and 400 ml water was added. To
this 8 ml of 1N sodium hydroxide was added to
deflocculate the finer particles present in the
samples. The entire sample was stirred through
mechanical stirrer for 10 minutes to disperse all
the soil separates. The volume was made up to 1.0
litre using distilled water in a measuring cylinder
without spout. The cylinder was tightly closed with
a rubber stopper and the content was mixed
thoroughly by repeated inversions holding the
rubber stopper tightly so as to avoid spilling of the
soil water suspension. The clay fraction, silt fraction
and the sand fraction were determined using the
pipette method as described by Piper (1966).
Laser Diffraction method
Microtrac S3500 particle size analyzer with a
780 nm wavelength laser beam was used for
studying particle size distribution (PSD) of soil
samples. Microtrac FLEX software was used for
calculation of the particle size distribution. The
analysis was carried out in the laboratory of
Metrohm India limited, Chennai. The instrument
(a - b)
Per cent Deviation = ———
b
79
X 100
Where,
a = per cent of clay / silt / sand determined
through International Pipette method.
b = per cent of clay / silt / sand determined
through Particle Size Analyzer.
to check if this soil property has any bearing on the
choice of the method for textural analysis. When
compared to the IPm, PSA produced agreeing
results (Fig. 1) in terms of soil textural class (38%)
for soils with low EC (<0.1 dSm-1) in group I
followed by 0.5-1.0 dSm-1 in group III and 0.1-0.5
dSm-1 in group II. Loizeau et al. (1994) found that
laser grain size analysis underestimates the 0-2
micrometer fraction proportional to the clay content
as determined by the pipette method.
On the basis of soil organic matter, about 35 per
cent samples had good agreement between IPm and
PSA methods of textural analysis when the organic
carbon content was below 1 per cent (Fig. 2). When
the individual soil separates were considered, silt
content was not comparing well between the two
methods of analysis (Fig. 3). Grouping of soil
samples based on calcium carbonate content was
done to check whether this soil property has any
bearing on the choice of the method for textural
analysis. This was in agreement with the findings
of Zobeck (2004), who obtained a better co-efficient
of determination between the two methods for non-
The clay content of different soil samples
analyzed by IPm varied from 0.9 to 48.4 per cent.
The higher percentage of clay (48.4%) was
observed in two samples (Sample No. 3 and 6) out
of the 50 samples subjected for particle size
analysis. The lowest percent of clay was observed
(0.9%) in the Sample No.16. The silt content of the
samples varied from 2.5 to 20 per cent and the sand
content varied from 32.2 to 90.7 per cent. The
higher percent of silt (20%) was found in Sample
No. 14 and 24. The lowest silt content (2.5%) was
observed in the Sample Nos.11, 12, 33, 37, 38, 40
and 49. The higher percent of sand (coarse and
fine fractions) was observed in Sample No.13. The
lower percent of sand fraction was observed in
Sample No.3. Eshel et al. (2004) obtained a good
agreement between measured and calculated laser
diffraction values for one size class, accompanied
by poor agreement between measured and
calculated values for the other class.
The clay content of different soil samples
analyzed through Laser diffraction technique (PSA)
varied from 0.4 to 41.2 per cent. The highest
percentage of clay (41.2%) was observed in Sample
No 21. The lowest per cent of clay (0.4%) was
observed in the Sample No.19. The silt content of
the soil samples varied from 5.8 to 33.5 per cent
and the sand content varied from 31.2 to 92.6 per
cent. The highest percent of silt (33.5%) was found
in Sample No.3. The lowest per cent of silt (5.8%)
was observed in the Sample No.10. The higher per
cent of sand (92.6%) was observed in Sample
No.10. The lowest per cent of sand (31.2%) was
observed in the Sample No.3. (Table 1)
The per se performance of the soil samples on
pH showed good agreement (50%) between IPm
and PSA methods of textural analysis. The chisquared test showed that these groups are
significantly different (at 1% level) from each other
in terms of showing agreement between the two
methods of textural analysis (Table 2). Soil samples
based on natural breaks in soil EC value was done
Fig 1: Effect of soil EC on textural analysis
Fig. 2: Percent agreement of soil organic carbon
content on textural analysis
80
Table 1: Comparison of soil particle sizes estimated by IPm and PSA
Sl
No
International Pipette Method (IPm)
% Clay
1
18.4
2
23.4
3
48.4
4
5.9
5
35.9
6
48.4
7
23.4
8
20.9
9
20.9
10
3.4
11
25.9
12
5.9
13
5.9
14
18.4
15
23.4
16
0.9
17
10.9
18
20.9
19
5.9
20
10.9
21
35.9
22
20.9
23
20.9
24
25.9
25
43.4
26
45.9
27
10.9
28
20.9
29
15.9
30
3.4
31
28.4
32
8.4
33
10.9
34
15.9
35
5.9
36
10.9
37
20.9
38
15.9
39
10.9
40
18.4
41
15.9
42
10.9
43
23.4
44
5.9
45
20.9
46
8.4
47
13.4
48
18.4
49
13.4
50
15.9
Mean 18.3
S.D.
11.5
C.V. 130.5
LASER Diffraction Technique through PSA
% Silt
% Sand
7.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
15.0
10.0
7.5
17.5
10.0
7.5
2.5
2.5
5.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
10.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
5.0
5.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
7.5
5.0
4.0
10.0
5.0
2.5
17.5
2.5
5.0
2.5
2.5
7.5
2.5
15.0
7.5
10.0
10.0
15.0
10.0
17.5
17.5
2.5
15.0
9.5
5.4
28.6
70.6
57.6
32.2
76.5
44.9
37.3
65.1
59.5
63.9
85.3
70.6
90.7
85.8
54.2
62.0
87.7
82.6
64.4
88.2
76.6
43.3
71.2
70.4
53.1
46.0
44.0
72.7
65.5
78.6
89.0
57.1
84.6
82.4
59.2
89.0
77.4
73.2
78.3
78.3
78.4
65.6
77.4
64.6
79.4
63.5
73.1
64.7
59.5
83.6
68.7
68.9
14.4
202.3
81
% Clay
% Silt
% Sand
10.5
25.9
35.3
6.7
25.8
37.7
10.4
11.5
9.9
1.6
11.1
2.5
1.8
2.0
10.0
6.9
6.8
11.4
0.4
6.1
41.2
11.8
15.7
10.0
9.2
23.2
8.7
13.2
6.6
2.5
20.5
3.8
6.3
11.8
6.5
5.5
9.4
9.3
7.7
7.9
21.1
5.8
14.3
4.9
8.3
10.7
13.7
5.2
2.2
5.3
11.1
9.1
80.6
23.5
21.9
33.5
15.9
25.5
30.1
15.6
18.2
14.3
5.8
23.3
11.0
9.8
22.8
27.1
16.6
16.6
22.8
8.3
14.5
21.7
26.2
25.3
20.3
29.0
32.5
22.3
20.8
16.3
10.1
26.6
11.0
13.3
26.6
14.8
18.3
16.3
22.1
20.3
11.6
23.5
23.7
20.2
13.1
16.7
17.2
23.5
14.0
9.7
14.7
19.2
6.5
41.0
65.9
52.2
31.2
77.4
48.7
32.2
74.0
70.3
75.8
92.6
65.6
86.5
88.5
75.2
62.9
76.4
76.6
65.8
91.3
79.4
37.1
62.0
59.0
69.7
61.8
44.3
69.0
66.1
77.1
87.5
53.0
85.2
80.5
61.6
78.7
76.2
74.3
68.7
72.0
80.6
55.5
70.5
65.5
82.0
75.0
72.1
62.8
80.8
88.1
80.0
69.7
14.3
200.1
comparing well between the methods of analysis
(Fig. 5), as also reported by Pieri et al. (2006).
Table 2: Comparative study of soil samples on pH
basis analyzed by IPm and PSA
pH
No. of No. of samples
Per cent
based samples showing agreement
agreement
Groups
between IPm and PSA
I
II
III
IV
12
12
19
7
6
2
7
2
50
17
37
29
Fig 5: Agreement between IPm and PSA of soil based
on Sesquioxide Content
CONCLUSIONS
Even though it is not explicitly established from
the present study that what causes the difference
between the two methods of analysis of soil
separates, it is found that a relook into the definition
of size of the soil separates could favour the use of
laser diffraction-based soil particle size analysis.
The present findings can be discussed in scientific
forums and if agreed, the PSA can be recommended
as one of the important equipment in the soil
laboratories.
Fig. 3: Agreement between IPm and PSA for Soil
separate estimation under different groups of soil
based on Organic Carbon Content
calcareous soils. Compared to the IPm, PSA
produced agreeing results (50%) in terms of
textural class for soils (Fig. 4) with high calcium
carbonate (15-20%) in group IV, followed by group
II (5-10%), I (0-5%) and III (10-15%). Grouping
based on sesquioxide content, about 37 per cent
samples had good agreement between IPm and PSA
methods of textural analysis when the sesquioxide
content was more than 10%. When the individual
soil separates were considered, silt content was not
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors sincerely thank M/s Metrohm India
Limited, Chennai for providing technical assistance
and laboratory facilities to carry out the study.
REFERENCES
Cooper LR, Haverland RL, Vendricks DM, Knisel WG (1984).
Microtac particle-size analyzer: An alternative particlesize determination method for sediment and soils. Soil
Sci 138:138–146
Eshel G, Levyb GJ, Mingelgrinb U, Singera MJ (2004). Critical
evaluation of the use of laser diffraction for particlesize distribution analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J 68(3):
736-743
Hesse PR (1971). A Text Book of Soil Chemical Analysis.
John Murray Ltd 10–362
ISSS (International Society of Soil Science) (1929). Minutes
of the First Commission Meetings. International
Congress of Soil Science, Washington 1927.
Fig. 4: Effect of Soil free Calcium Carbonate on
Textural
82
Piper CS (1966) Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publisher,
Bombay
Walkley AJ, Black CA (1934). An estimation of method for
determining soil organic matter and proposed
modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil
Sci 27:29–38
Zobeck TM (2004). Rapid soil particle size analyses using laser
diffraction. Appl Engin Agric 20(5): 633-639
Proceedings of International Society of Soil Science
4:215–220
Loizeau JL, Arbouille D, Santiago S, Vernet JP (1994).
Evaluation of a wide range laser diffraction grain-size
analyser for use with sediments. Sedimentol 41: 353361
Pieri L, Bittelli M, Pisa PR (2006). Laser diffraction,
transmission electron microscopy and image analysis
to evaluate a bimodal Gaussian model for particle size
distribution in soils. Geoderma 135: 118-132
83
Genetic Variability in Yields and its Component Characters
in Upland Rice of Nagaland
TOSHIMENLA*, SAPU CHANGKIJA
Received November 11, 2013; Revised November 30, 2013; Accepted December 1, 2013
ABCTRACT
Seventy four upland rice accessions of Nagaland (India) were evaluated for 13 quantitative traits. All
the genotypes differed significantly with respect to all the quantitative characters. Maximum genotypic
and phenotypic variances were observed for days to 80% flowering, days to maturity, plant height,
leaf length, number of filled grains, and yield per plant. High estimates of heritability coupled with
moderate or high value of genetic advance as percentage of means was observed for yield per plant,
100 seed weight, leaf length, days to 80% flowering, leaf width, number of unfilled grains, days to
maturity and panicle weight.
high diversity of rice germplasm and with the
availability of different ecosystem for cultivation
of rice, wide range of rice landraces is found in the
state. The present study was made with an objective
to estimate genetic variability of yield and its
component characters in the jhum rice germplasm
of Nagaland.
INTRODUCTION
Upland rice is the staple food of the poorest
farmers in Asia and Africa. In the North East India,
the major area of upland rice is in the slash and
burn system; commonly known as jhum cultivation.
In this system, productivity is low and ranges from
0.8 - 1.2 t/ha (Sarma and Pattanayak 2009). The
need for improving productivity by exploiting
available variability in the jhum rice germplasm
has been long felt. This requires systematic
evaluation of the germplasm for selection of
superior lines as well as to characterize the
germplasm for various traits. Genetic variability
studies are considered important for selection of
parents for hybridization (Chaudhury and Singh
1982). Once genetic variability is ascertained, crop
improvement through appropriate selection can
proceed (). In rice, yield is a product of the number
of panicles in a unit area, number of spikelets per
panicle, spikelet fertility percentage and 1000 seed
weight (De Datta 1981). It is, therefore, important
to study the heritability and genetic advance under
selection of the yield contributing traits so that their
response to selection can be predicted (Augustina
et al. 2013). Nagaland being located in a pocket of
The experiment consisted of seventy four upland
rice accessions collected from all the eleven districts
of Nagaland. The experiment was laid out in a
Randomized Block Design with three replications
keeping 20 x 15 cm spacing, and the recommended
cultural practices were followed. It was conducted
at the field experimentation site of State
Agricultural Research Station, Yisemyong,
Nagaland over a period of 3 years (2009-11). This
site is located 26o40’28” N latitude and 94o59’88”
E longitude at an altitude of 1, 130m MSL, with an
annual rainfall of about 1,100-1,400mm.
Observations were made from five randomly
selected plants, and data were taken on days to 80%
flowering, days to maturity, plant height, effective
School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema Campus-797106, Nagaland
*Corresponding author’s Email : ttoshimen@gmail.com
Short communication
84
bearing tillers, leaf length, leaf width, panicle
length, panicle weight, no. of primary branches, no.
of filled grains, no. of unfilled grains, 100 seed
weight and yield/plant. The mean data after
computing for each character was subjected to the
standard method of analysis of variance following
Fishers (1954), genotypic coefficient of variation
(GCV) and phenotypic coefficient of variation
(PCV) following the formula given by Burton
(1952), heritability in the broad sense as suggested
by Allard (1960) and genetic advance as per cent
of mean as suggested by Johnson et al. (1955).
genotypic coefficient of variation was recorded for
the number of unfilled grains and yield per plant
(Table 2). The characters like panicle weight,
number of filled grains and 100 seed weight gave
comparatively higher value for genotypic
coefficient of variation. The higher values clearly
indicated a high degree of variability in these
quantitative characters and suggest the possibility
of yield improvement through selection of these
traits. Similar findings were reported by Rangare
et al. (2011), Fukrei et al. (2011) and Kishor et al.
(2008).
The broad sense heritability was higher for 100
seed weight, yield per plant, leaf length, days to
80% flowering, leaf width, number of unfilled
grains, days to maturity and panicle weight. The
results indicated that high estimates of heritability
with less difference between PCV and GCV for
these characters could mean that the characters are
mainly controlled by the genetic factor and selection
based on these characters will be rewarding. These
results are in accordance with the findings of Singh
et al. (1984), Rangare et al. (2012), Singh et al.
(1984), Haider et al. (2012) and Kishor et al. (2009).
Estimates of heritability are more advantageous
when expressed in terms of genetic advance. High
estimates of heritability coupled with moderate or
high value of genetic advance as percentage of
means was observed for yield per plant, 100 seed
weight, leaf length, days to 80% flowering, leaf
width, number of unfilled grains, days to maturity
and panicle weight. This suggested that these
characters were controlled by additive gene action,
which could be improved through simple selection
methods. Similar high estimates of heritability and
genetic advance has been reported by Kishor et al.
(2008), Koli et al. (2013) and Pfukrei et al. (2011)
for yield per plant, 100 seed weight and number of
primary branches per plant.
Analysis of variance revealed significant
differences between the genotypes for all the traits,
indicating the presence of a considerable amount
of variability among the genotypes. The result of
analysis of variance is presented in Table 1.
Phenotypic variance was higher than the genotypic
variances for all the characters thus indicating the
influence of the environmental factors on these
traits. The phenotypic and genotypic variations
were obtained for different characters, and they are
presented in Table 2. The maximum phenotypic and
genotypic variation was obtained from the number
of filled grains, plant height, number of unfilled
grains, days to 80% flowering and days to maturity.
Values of phenotypic and genotypic variance were
very close for leaf width and 100 seed weight
indicating the stable nature of these characters.
Similar findings were reported by Fukrei et
al.(2011), Yadav et al. (2010) and Singh et al.
(1984).
The genotypic coefficient of variation provides
a measure to compare the genetic variability present
in various quantitative characters. The highest
Table 1 : Analysis of variance for 13 characters in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Sources
of
variation
Degree
of
freedom
Replication
2
Genotypes
73
Error
Mean square
Days
Days
Plant
to 80%
to
height
flowering maturity
20.00
7.22
87.38
457.368** 379.34** 807.01**
146
44.54
64.38
231.23
Effective Leaf Leaf
bearing width length
tillers
0.08
0.01
62.40
Panicle Panicle No: of
No: of
weight length Primary filled
branches grains
1.82
42.92**
6.68*
No: of
unfilled
grains
3956.09* 106.17*
100
Yield
seed / plant
weight
0.02
7.00
2.44** 0.28** 269.72**
7.17** 25.84** 18.54** 14112.62** 550.15** 1.37** 163.10**
1.48
1.25
0.03
21.28
7.66
4.59
2671.84
72.29
0.09
12.35
***
Significant at 1% level.
85
Table 2: Mean, range, variance, co-efficient of variation, heritability, genetic advance and genetic advance
as % of mean
Characters
Mean
±S.E
Range
Variance
σ2 g
1. Days to 80%
flowering
2. Days to maturity
118.36
± 5.45
165.18
± 6.55
3. Plant height
130.03
± 12.41
4. Effective bearing 3.15
tillers
± 0.99
5. Leaf length
55.79
± 3.76
6. Leaf width
1.60
± 0.15
7. Panicle length
24.57
± 2.26
8. Panicle weight
3.38
± 0.91
9. No: of primary
9.68
branches
± 1.75
10. No: of filled
181.69
grains
± 42.20
11. No: of unfilled
22.89
grains
± 6.94
12. 100 seed
2.28
weight
± 0.25
13.Yield /plant
13.59
± 2.87
100 165.33
130 195
93 164
1.33 7.66
33.33 73.66
0.86 2.20
17.66 30.66
1.33 9.43
3.66 17.66
72 386.66
582
0.93 4.26
2.60 37.90
Co-efficient of variation
σ2 e
σ2 p
GCV
PCV
ECV
Heritability
(bs) %
Genetic Genetic
advance advance
as % of
mean
137.60
44.54 182.15
9.91
11.40
5.63
75.5
20.84
17.74
104.98
64.38 169.37
6.20
7.87
4.85
61.9
16.34
10.06
191.92
231.23 423.16
10.65
15.81
11.69
45.3
19.06
14.78
1.80
17.97
42.54
38.56
17.8
0.46
15.64
21.28 104.09
16.31
18.28
8.26
79.5
16.59
29.96
0.32
82.81
1.48
0.08
0.03
0.11
17.79
21.35
11.81
69.4
0.48
30.53
6.06
7.66
13.72
10.01
15.07
11.26
44.1
3.35
13.70
1.97
1.25
3.22
41.55
53.15
33.13
61.1
2.24
66.92
4.65
4.59
9.24
22.26
31.39
22.13
50.3
3.13
32.53
3813.59 2671.84 6485.43
33.98
44.32
28.44
58.8
96.21
53.68
55.13
66.47
37.14
68.7
21.30
94.19
1.20
53.04
159.28
72.29 231.58
0.42
0.09
0.52
28.56
31.68
13.71
81.2
50.25
12.35
62.60
52.15
58.21
25.85
80.2
CONCLUSION
13.0
96.25
Burton GW, De Vane EH (1953). Estimating heritability
in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) from
replicated clonal material. Agron J 45 :478-481
Chaudhary VS, Singh BB (1982). Heterosis and genetic
variability in relation to genetic diversity in
soybean. Indian J Genet 42: 324 – 328
De Datta SK (1981). Principles and practices of Rice
Production. John Wiley and sons, New York 618p
Fisher RA (1954). Statistical Methods for Research
Workers. Oliver and Boyd
Haider Z, Khan AS, Zia S (2012). Correlation and path
co-efficient analysis of yield components in rice
(Oryza sativa L.) under simulated drought stress
condition. Int J Botany and Res 2(1): 1-12
Johnson H W, Robinson AE, Comstock RE (1955).
Estimates of genetic and environmental variability
in soybeans. Agron J 47:314-318
Kishor C, Prasad Y, Haider Z.A, Kumar R, Kumar K
(2008). Quantitative analysis of upland rice.
Oryza 45 (4): 268 – 272
Koli NR, Punia SS, Kumhar BL (2013). Assessment of
genetic variability and correlation analysis for
yield and its components characters in rice (Oryza
On the basis of the results, it is concluded that
rice germplasm revealed a high degree of
variability. High estimates of heritability with less
difference between PCV and GCV for 100 seed
weight, yield per plant, leaf length, leaf width,
panicle weight, days to maturity, number of filled
grains, plant height and days to flowering could
mean that these characters are mainly controlled
by the genetic factor and selection based on these
characters will be rewarding.
REFERENCES
Allard RW (1960). Principles of plant breeding. John
Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, pp 485
Augustina UA, Iwunor OP, Ijeoma OR (2013).
Heritability and character correlation among some
rice genotypes for yield and yield components. J
Plant Bree Genet 1 (2) : 73-84
86
sativa L.) accessions. Green Farming 4 (2): 160
– 162
Pfukrei K, Kumar A, Tyagi W, Rai M, Pattanayak A
(2011). Genetic variability in yield and its
components in upland rice grown in acid soils of
North East India. J Rice Res 4 (1&2): 4-7
Rangare NR, Krupakar A, Ravichandra K, Shukla AK,
Mishra AK (2012). Estimation of characters
association and direct and indirect effects of yield
contributing traits on grain yield in exotic and
Indian rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasm. Intl J
Agric Sci 2 (1): 54-61
Sarma BK, Pattanayak A (2009). Rice Diversity of North
East India. Millenium Publisher, Guwahati, India
Singh RP, Rao MJBK, Rao SK (1984). Genetic
evaluation of upland rice germplasm. Oryza 21:
132 – 137
Yadav P, Rangare NR, Anurag PJ, Chaurasia AK (2010).
Quantitative analysis of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in
Allahabad agro climatic zone. J Rice Res 3(1):
16-18
87
Organic Farming: Reality and Concerns
S. HAZARIKA1, MANOJ KUMAR1, D. THAKURIA2, L.J. BORDOLOI1
Received November 27, 2013; Accepted December 1, 2013
ABSTRACT
Organic farming is being proposed as a measure to restore sustainability of agriculture production,
with an eye on maintaining environmental amenity at the same time. Although it has made remarkable
progress in recent times, the scientific community stands rather skeptical about the ability of organic
agriculture to produce enough food to feed the fast-growing population throughout the world. Despite
being recognized to offer some health and environmental benefits, its low-yield potential with respect
to conventional farming, and inadequate availability of organic inputs to meet the crop nutrient
requirements are some constraints that put in jeopardy its future prospect as a universally acceptable
alternative agriculture system. In view of these contrasting opinions, the present review attempts to
explore the extent, distribution, merits and limitations of the organic agriculture. Possible impact of
organic farming on soil health and India’s food security is also discussed.
Keywords: Organic agriculture, food security, soil health, sustainable agriculture, environment
INTRODUCTION
from 1924 to 1931. Although organic farming is
prehistoric in the widest sense, Sir Albert Howard
is widely considered to be the “father of organic
farming” in the sense that he was a key founder of
the post-industrial-revolution organic movement.
There is no singular definition for organic
farming as the term refers to a movement rather
than to a single policy. Organic agriculture avoids
or largely excludes the synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides; growth regulators and livestock feed
additives, and to this list may be added the use of
genetically modified (GM) crops. Organic farming
system solely depends on the use of crop residues,
animal manures, green manures, off-farm organic
wastes, crop rotation incorporating legumes and
biological pest control to maintain soil productivity
(Palaniappan and Annadurai 1999). The philosophy
is to feed the soil rather than the crops to maintain
soil health, and it is a means of giving back to the
nature what has been taken from it (Funtilana 1990).
In contrast to organic farming, the conventional
farming relies more on fertilizing the crops and
Organic farming is arguably one of the most
intensively contested topics in recent times. It is
being proposed as an alternative way of farming to
achieve the sustainability in agricultural production.
The roots of modern organic farming can be traced
in Europe back to the first quarter of the early 20th
century (Stockdale et al. 2001). In 1924, the
Austrian philosopher Dr. Rudolf Steiner
conceptualized and advocated organic agriculture,
and in 1927, a trademark ‘Demeter’ was introduced
for organic products. Organic movement in India
owes its origin primarily to the work of Sir Albert
Howard, who believed that a shift from nature’s
methods of crop production to adoption of newer
methods leads to the loss of soil fertility (Howard
1940). Although he was born and educated in
England, his most important work occurred in India
where he served as Imperial Economic Botanist to
the Indian Government from 1905 to 1924 and as
Director of the Institute of Plant Industry, Indore
1
Division of Natural Resource Management (Soil Science)
ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region, Umiam-793 103 Meghalaya
2
College of Post-Graduate Studies, CAU, Umiam-793 103 Meghalaya
*Corresponding author’s Email : samarendra.ches@gmail.com
Review
88
treating them with different agrochemicals for
removing the productivity constrains.
A large number of terms are used as alternatives
to organic farming. These are: biological
agriculture, ecological agriculture, bio-dynamic,
organic-biological agriculture and natural
agriculture. According to the National Organic
Standards Board of the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA), the word ‘Organic’ has the
following official definition (Lieberhardt 2003):
“An ecological production management system that
promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological
cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on
the minimal use of off-farm inputs and on
management practices that restore, maintain and
enhance ecological harmony.” According to Codex
Alimenarius (FAO 2001), organic agriculture is a
holistic production management system which
promotes and enhances health, including
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological
activity. The primary goal of organic agriculture is
to optimize the health and productivity of
interdependent communities of soil life, plants,
animals and people (Scialabba and Hattam 2002).
farming, but we should proceed cautiously
considering the national needs and conditions in
which Indian agriculture functions. They are fully
aware of the environmental problems created by
the conventional farming. But many of them believe
that yields are lower in organic cultivation during
the initial period and also the cost of labour tends
to increase therein. The third one is all for organic
farming and advocates its adoption wholeheartedly.
They think that tomorrow’s ecology is more
important than today’s conventional farm benefits
(Narayanan, 2005).
CURRENT STATUS OF ORGANIC
AGRICULTURE
International
Organic agriculture is developing rapidly, and
statistical information is now available from 160
countries of the world. Its share of agricultural land
and farms continues to grow in many countries. The
main result of the global survey on certified organic
farming is presented in Table 1 (IFOAM Survey
2012).
RELEVANCE OF ORGANIC FARMING
Asia
The total organic area in Asia is nearly 2.9
million hectares. This constitutes nine percent of
the world’s organic agricultural land, and involves
230,000 producers. The leading countries are China
(1.6 million hectares) and India (1.0 million
hectares). The highest shares of organic land of all
agricultural lands are in Timor Leste (7%). Organic
wild collection areas play a major role in India and
China. Production of final processed products is
growing, although a majority of productions is still
fresh produce and field crops with low value-added
processing, such as dry or processed raw
ingredients. Aquaculture (shrimp and fish) on the
other hand, is emerging in China, Indonesia,
Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and Myanmar. Textile
is another important area. Sector growth is now also
driven by imports, and local markets have taken
off in many of the big cities in the South and Eastern
part of the region besides Japan, South Korea,
Taiwan and Singapore. Kuala Lumpur, Manila,
Bangkok, Beijing, Shanghai, Jakarta, Delhi,
Bangalore and other cities are increasing internal
consumption of organic products. Nine organic
The relevance and need for an eco-friendly
alternative farming system arose from the ill effects
of the chemical farming practices adopted
worldwide during the second half of the last century.
The methods of farming evolved and adopted by
our forefathers for centuries were less injurious to
the environment. People began to think of various
alternative farming systems based on the protection
of environment, which in turn would increase the
welfare of the humankind by various ways like
clean and healthy foods, an ecology which is
conducive to the survival of all the living and nonliving things, low use of the non-renewable energy
sources, etc. Many systems of farming came out of
the efforts of many experts and laymen. However,
organic farming is considered to be the best among
them because of its scientific approach and wider
acceptance all over the world.
There are three categories of opinions about the
relevance of organic farming for India. The first
one simply dismisses it as a fad or craze. The second
category, which includes many farmers and
scientists, opines that there are merits in organic
89
Table 1: Organic Agriculture 2012: Key Indicators and Leading Countries
Indicator
World
Countries with data on
certified organic agriculture
Organic agricultural land
2010: 160 countries
Organic agricultural land
2010: 0.9 %
Growth of organic agricultural
land
2010: -50’000 ha = -0.1%
(2009: +1.9 Mha = +5%;
2008: +2.9 Mha = +9%)
2010: 43 Mha
(2009: 41 Mha; 2008: 31.9 Mha)
Further, nonagricultural
Organic areas (mainly wild
collection)
Producers
Organic market size
Per capita consumption
Number of countries with
organic regulations in 2010
Organic certifiers in 2010
Number of IFOAM affiliates
Leading countries
2010: 37 million hectares (Mha)
(2009: 37. Mha; 1999: 11 Mha)
1.6 million producers
(2009: 1.8 million producers;
2008: 1.4 million producers)
44.5 billion euros or 59.1 billion USD
(2009: 54.1 billion USD
1999: 15.2 billion USD)
Source: Organic Monitor
2010: 6.5 euros or 8.6 USD
Australia (12 Mha, 2009)
Argentina (4.2 Mha)
US (1. Mha, 2008)
Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (35.9 %)
Liechtenstein (27.3 %), Austria (19.7 %)
France: +168,000 ha (+24 %)
Poland: +155,000 ha (+42 %)
Spain: +126,000 ha (+9%)
Finland (7.8 Mha)
Brazil (6.2 Mha; 2007)
Cameroon (6 Mha)
India (400,551),
Uganda (188’625),
Mexico (128,826)
US (20.2 billion euros or 26.7 billion USD,
Germany (6 billion euros or 8.4 billion
USD),
France (3.4 billion euros or 4.7 billion USD)
Switzerland (153 euros or 213 USD),
Denmark (142 euros or 198 USD)
Luxemburg (127 euros or 177 USD)
84 countries (2009: 74 countries)
2011: 549 certifiers(2010: 532; 2009 489)
1.1.2012: 870 affiliates from 120
Countries (2011: 757 from 115
countries; 2000: 606)
Japan, USA, South Korea
Germany: 105 affiliates; India: 50
affiliates; China: 41 affiliates; South
Korea: 39 affiliates; United States: 39
affiliates
Source: FiBL and IFOAM; for total global market: Organic Monitor; for number of certifiers: Organic Standard/Grolink.
regulations are in place. In seven countries, work
on national standards and regulations is in progress.
areas and in the north-eastern states where there is
limited use of agricultural chemicals. Madhya
Pradesh took early lead in this regard and
Uttaranchal, and Sikkim followed the suit and these
states have declared themselves as organic states
(Marwaha and Jat 2004). The Ministry of
Commerce launched the National Organic
Programme in April 2000, and Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Exports (APEDA) is
implementing the National Programme of Organic
Production (NPOP) (Gouri, 2004). Under the
NPOP, documents like National Standards,
accreditation criteria for accrediting inspection and
certification agencies, have been prepared and
approved by the National Steering Committee. An
Indian Organic Logo was released in July, 2002.
Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA), Ministry of
Commerce, GOI is the key Accreditation agency,
the others being Coffee Board, Spice Board, Tea
India
Organic farming has received considerable
attention in India, and Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Govt. of India constituted a Task
Force on Organic Farming under the chairmanship
of Dr. Kunwarji Bhai Yadav, ex-Director of
Agriculture, Gujarat, in the year 2000. The
Committee in its report emphasized on the need
for consolidating the information on organic
farming and its benefits. One of the steering
committees constituted by this Task Force under
the Chairmanship of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan,
Chairman, a Farmers’ Commission has suggested
taking up organic farming as a challenging national
task and to take up this as a thrust area of the 10th
Five-Year Plan. The steering committee advocated
giving a boost to organic farming in the rainfed
90
Board, Coconut Development Board and
Directorate of Cocoa and cashew Board. The list
of accredited inspection and certification agencies
in India is given in Table 2.
Recent survey (FiBL and IFOAM 2012: The
World of Organic Agriculture 2011 and 2012
www.organic-world.net) showed that there was
around 1 Mha of land for certified organic food
production at the farm level and 3.6 Mha of certified
forest area for collection of wild herbs in India
during 2010, but the actual area under organics is
much more. In Maharashtra alone about 0.5 million
ha area is under organic farming since 2003; out of
this, only 10,000 ha is the certified area. In
Nagaland, 3,000 ha is under organic farming with
crops like maize, soybean, ginger, large cardamom,
passion fruit and chilli. The state of Rajasthan has
5,631 ha under organic farming with crops like
pearlmillet, wheat, mungbean, guar, mustard and
cotton (Bhattacharya and Chakraborty 2005).
There is a tremendous potential to increase
India’s share in international trade on organic food
by including commodities such as durum wheat,
aromatic rice (e.g. Basmati rice, Keteki Joha), fruits,
aromatic/medicinal herbs, vegetables, coffee,
pulses, sugar, etc. India has competitive advantages
in the world markets due to low production costs
and availability of diverse climates to grow a large
number of crops round the year.
Table 2: Accredited inspection and certifying agency in India
Sl. Agency
No.
Address
1
Association for Promotion of Organic Farming
2
Bioinspecta
3
Ecocert International (Germany)
4
Indian Organic Certification Agency
(INDOCERT)
Indian Society for Certification of Organic
Products (ISCOP)
UAS Alumni Association Building, Bellary Road, Hebbal
Bangalore-560024
Email: apof@vsnl.net; apofindia@hotmail.com
Ackerstrasse, Postfach CH-5070 Frick, Switzerland
Branch office in India:
Bioinspecta
C/O Indocert
Thottumugham PO Aluva-683105, Cochin, Kerela, India
Email: admin@bio-inspecta.ch
Ecocert South Asia Branch Office,
54 A, Kanchan Nagar, Nakshetrawadi , Aurangabad-413002
Maharastra State
Email: ecocert@sancharnet.in
Thottumugham PO Aluva-683105, Cochin, Kerela, India
Email: admin@bio-inspecta.ch
Rasi Building, 162/163, Ponnaiyarajapuram,
Coimbatore-641 001, Tamil Nadu
Email: profdrkkk@yahoo.com
Sona Udyog (Industrial Estate), Unit 7, Parsi Panchayat Road,
Andheri (E), Mumbai-400 069
Email: arun@irft.org
26, 17th Main HAL 2nd ‘A’ Stage , Bangalore-560008
Email: imoind@vsnl.com
Branch office in India:
LACON, C/O Renewable Energy Centre, Mithradham
Chunangaveli, Alwaye-683 105, Kerela
Email: laconindia@indiatimes.com
M-13/27, DLF City II, Gurgaon-122002 (Haryana)
Email: nidia@naturland.de, prabhamahale@vsnl.com
Business Manager, M/S SGS India Pvt. Ltd.
250 Udyog Vihar, Phase –IV, Gurgaon-122015
Email: sudarshan_sharma@sgs.com
Skal International and Certification Agency
No. 191. 1st Main Road, Mahalaxmi Layout, Bangalore-560086
Email: naraupa@blr.vsnl.net.in, skalindia@vsnl.com
Pune
5
6
International Resources for Fairer Trade
7
IMO Control Private Limited
8
LACON GMBH, Germany
9
Naturland-Association for Organic Agriculture
10
SGS India Pvt. Ltd
11
Skal International (Netherlands)
12
National Organic Certification Association
(NOCA)
91
a few concerns, which persist and apparently hinder
the growth and proliferation of this system of
farming. Some major concerns are interrogated
hereunder:
ORGANIC STANDARDS
Globally, there are about 60 standards for
organic foods. Important features of five of these
are given in Table 3.
Under NPOP programme, the Government of
India has developed ‘National Standards for
Organic Export. The Ministry of Agriculture, GOI
has in principle, accepted these standards for the
domestic purpose also. The scopes of these
standards are:
(i) Lay down policies for development and
certification of organic products.
(ii) Facilitate certification of organic products
conforming to the National Programme
containing the standards for organic
production.
(iii) Institute a logo and prescribe its award by
accredited bodies on products qualifying for
bearing organic label. A National Steering
Committee (NSC) comprising Ministry of
Commerce, Ministry of Agriculture, APEDA,
Spice Board, Coffee Board, Tea Board and
various other Government and private
organizations associated with the organic
movement in monitoring the overall activities
under NPOP has been constituted. NPOP
standard has already got equivalency with
standard of EU Commission.
Are organically produced foods more nutritious
and tastier than their conventionally- grown
counterparts?
There appears no conclusive scientific evidence
to support the claims that organically produced food
is of better quality and taste, and that use of
chemical fertilizers deteriorates it. Since plants
absorb nutrients, mostly in inorganic forms
irrespective of the source of applied nutrients, these
claims need to be substantiated by authentic data
from well-established long-term experiments.
Exhaustive review made by Woese (1997) and
Heaton (2001) indicated that in 43% cases, organic
food was having higher nutrients, in 45% cases
equal and in 11% cases lower nutrients compared
to conventionally grown foods. On the contrary,
nitrate levels were lower in 70% of organic products
compared to the conventionally grown counterparts.
Results from a four-year study (reported in 2012)
conducted by scientists from Standford University
say that organic produce does not get any extra
points for nutrition and taste. The conventionally
grown fruits and vegetables did have more
pesticides residues, but the levels were almost
always under the allowed safety limits (http://
www.nytimes.com/2012/09/04/science/earth/studyquestions-advantages-of-organic-meat -andproduce.html). In many instances in India, it was
found that pesticide residues in conventionally
grown foods were more than the safer limits. Under
ISSUES OF CONCERN
Despite the perceived importance of organic
farming in contemporary agriculture, there are quite
Table 3: Some characteristics of international standards
IFOAM
EU regulation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Demeter
•
•
JAS
•
•
CODEX
Established in 1972
Headquarter in Germany
Umbrella organization for Organic Agriculture Association
Developed international basic standards of organic agriculture
Established IFOAM accreditation programme (1992) to accredit certifying bodies
Set up International Organic Accreditation Service (IOAS) in July 2001
Codex Alimentarious Commission – a joint FAO/WHO intergovernmental body
Established in 1962
Produced a set of guidelines for organic production
Laid out a basic regulation for European Union’s organic standards in Council regulation NO
2092/91 (June 1991)
Regulations give guidelines for the production of organic crops in the European Community
Demeter International is a world wide network of 19 international certification bodies in Africa,
Australia, Europe
Developed guidelines for biodynamic preparation
A set of guidelines ‘Japan Agricultural Standards’ for organic production
92
this circumstance, organically grown foods could
be safer than the conventionally grown foods.
organic management. Organic agriculture has
various positive environmental effects, chiefly
enhancing biodiversity (McNeely and Scherr 2001;
Hole et al. 2005) and reducing the energy use for
agricultural production (Ziesemer 2007). Emissions
of green house gases (GHG) from mineral fertilizer
production, which contribute 1% to the global
anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions, are
totally omitted (FAOSTAT; EFMA; Williams et al.
2006).
There is scientific evidence that organic
agriculture can sequester more carbon than
conventional agricultural practices or inhibit the
carbon release. All available studies showed higher
carbon stocks in organic systems as compared to
conventional systems. Niggli et al. (2009) estimated
the global average sequestration potential of organic
croplands to be 0.9-2.4 Gt CO2 per annum, which
is equivalent to an average sequestration potential
of about 200 to 400 kg C/ha/yr for all croplands.
Most of these published literatures originated from
the developed world under temperate climate.
Published literature from tropical world and
developing countries are limited. There is
apprehension that under tropical climate, organic
farming may not adequately contribute to the carbon
sequestration in soil. Numbers of studies have
indicated that 70-80% of the added carbon in soil
under tropical conditions escapes to the atmosphere
as CO2. Would the addition of larger quantities of
organic residues in organic farming promote global
warming? This may be an important area of
research, particularly in tropical countries.
Organic agriculture has been promoted as a
partial means for mitigating agricultural CH4 and
N2O emissions. Co-benefits claimed lately for
organic agriculture are reduced nitrogen losses to
the environment and, more importantly, enhanced
soil carbon sequestration, which together may offset
between 60 and 92% of contemporary agricultural
greenhouse-gas emissions if all land were
converted to organic practices (Scialabba and
Müller-Lindenlauf, 2010; Niggli et al. 2009). In
contrast, a recent study (Qin et al. 2010) in
Southeast, China reveals that relative to
conventional rice paddies, organic cropping
systems increased seasonal CH4 emissions from 2035% under various water regimes. NO2-N emission
from organic paddy was reported to be significantly
higher than its conventional counterparts. The net
global warming potentials of CH 4 and N 2 O
Does organic farming sustain higher yield?
Numerous individual studies have compared the
yields of organic and conventional farms, but few
have attempted to synthesize the information on a
global scale. A first study of its kind Badgley et al.
(2007) concluded that organic agriculture matched,
or even exceeded, conventional yields, and could
provide sufficient food on current agricultural land.
However, this study was contested by a number of
authors; the criticism included their use of data from
crops not truly under organic management, and
inappropriate yield comparisons (Cassman 2007;
Connor 2008). A paper published recently in Nature
by Seufert et al. (2012) shows that organic yields
are typically lower than the conventional yield.
They use a comprehensive meta-analysis to
examine the relative yield performance of organic
and conventional farming systems globally. The
yield differences are highly contextual depending
on system and site characteristics and range from
5% lower organic yields (rain-fed legumes and
perennials on weak acidic to weakly-alkaline soils),
13% lower yields (when best organic practices are
used) to 34% lower yields (when conventional and
organic systems are most comparable). Under
certain conditions with good management practices,
particularly crop types and growing conditions,
organic systems can nearly match conventional
yields, whereas under others, it at present cannot.
In India, long-term studies from around the country
indicate that sustained yield and soil productivity
can be achieved with balanced nutrient addition
using animal manures and/or commercial fertilizers.
To establish organic agriculture as an important tool
in sustainable food production, the factors limiting
organic yields need to be more fully understood,
alongside assessment of the many social,
environmental and economic benefits of organic
farming systems (Seufert et al. 2012).
Is organic farming eco-friendly?
Recent studies have highlighted the substantial
contribution of organic agriculture to climatechange mitigation and adaptation (Niggli et al.
2009; Scialabba and Muller-Lindenlauf 2010). The
potential of organic agriculture to mitigate climate
change is mostly claimed based on assumptions
about the soil carbon sequestration potential of
93
emissions from organic rice paddies relative to
conventional rice paddies were significantly higher
or comparable under various water regimes. The
greenhouse-gas intensities were greater, while
carbon efficiency ratios were lower in organic
relative to conventional rice paddies. The results
of this study suggest that organic cropping system
might not be an effective option for mitigating the
combined climatic impacts from CH4 and N2O in
paddy rice production.
million tonnes of NPK is foreseen in 2020, even if
we continue to use chemical fertilizers, maintaining
present growth rates of production and
consumption. Even the most optimistic estimate at
present shows that only 25-30 per cent nutrient
needs of Indian agriculture can be met by utilizing
various organic sources. With ever increasing
population, having huge requirement of food and
meager availability of organic resources, pure
organic farming does not appear feasible in India.
The commercial mineral fertilizers will have to bear
the main burden of supplying plant nutrients to meet
the food requirement of increasing population. The
gap between nutrient addition and removal causing
the nutrients mining from soils cannot be allowed
to continue in order to avoid the dire consequences
in days to come. Therefore, organic resources
should be used in conjunction with commercial
fertilizers to narrow down the gap between addition
and removal of nutrients by crops as well as to
sustain the quality of soil and achieve higher
productivity.
Before jumping into the organic farming
bandwagon, we need to have answers to the
following questions: “What level of crop yield/
productivity is acceptable? Is it suitable for a
country like India with a large population to feed?
Whether available organic sources of plant nutrients
are sufficient for pure organic farming? And, are
organic farming technologies sustainable in the long
run?” Whether organic farming can address the
multitude of problems faced by Indian agriculture
at present is a major issue. Further, the virtues
attributed to organic farming need to be rechecked
before coming to any conclusions.
Does organic farming improve soil fertility?
Long Term Fertilizer Experiments (LTFEs)
conducted under varying agro-climatic and soil
conditions have shown that balanced application
of chemical fertilizers over a period of three decades
sustained crop productivity. A paper published in
Nature by Trewaves (2001) points out the likely
hazards of relying solely on organic sources of
nutrients. Long-term application of balanced
chemical fertilizers is known to increase organic
carbon owing to higher root biomass production.
Long-term studies from around the country indicate
that sustained soil productivity can be achieved with
balanced nutrient addition using animal manures
and/or commercial fertilizers.
ORGANIC FARMING AND INDIA’S
FOOD SECURITY
Agriculture in India is one of the most important
sectors of its economy. It provides livelihood to
almost two-thirds of the work force in the country
and contributes substantially to India’s GDP. About
43 % of India’s geographical area is used for
agricultural activity. Agriculture is the single largest
employment provider and plays a vital role in the
overall socio-economic development of India. A
large number of production systems are in practice
in different parts of the country. Large-scale use of
inputs both organic and inorganic has been a
common sight in many of the farming situations in
the past several decades. However, in recent times
the concept of organic farming is being forcefully
projected as the method for sustaining the
agricultural production in the country.
At present, there is a gap of nearly 10 million
tonnes between annual addition and removal of
nutrients by crops, which are met by mining
nutrients from soil. A negative balance of about 8
ORGANIC FARMING AND SOIL
HEALTH
Soil is a key element in increasing crop yields.
Maintaining its quality is therefore, important for
the sustainable management of agricultural lands.
The use of animal manure has been shown to be
influential in enriching soil carbon content.
However, few long-term studies of soil quality have
been performed on organically cultivated lands.
Promoting soil health and encouraging the
development of soil organic matter has always been
central tenets of the organic approach, and the
contribution of organic systems to this area has been
of considerable interest.
94
The potential for agricultural systems to
sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2)
through building levels of soil carbon has been an
area of considerable interest in recent years, in view
of greenhouse-gas reduction targets set by the
Kyoto Protocol and the Climate-Change Act
(2008). Numbers of studies have shown positive
effects on levels of organic carbon in soils as well
as improvement in soil health under organic farming
practices (Clement and Williams 1967; Grace et
al. 1995, cited by Watson et al. 2002; Hepperly et
al. 2006). However, the exact quantification of
benefits in terms of the amount of soil organic
carbon (SOC) accumulation, compared to
conventional, is still an area of debate. What is clear
from existing studies is that the diversity in the
approaches used to carry out assessments make
comparisons difficult.
A few comparative studies have been conducted
to look at soil quality under conventional and
organic agricultural systems. At the Rodale Institute
in Pennsylvania, organically managed soil had
greater soil organic carbon and total nitrogen, and
lower nitrate leaching loss than conventionally
managed soil (Drinkwater et al. 1998), as well as
greater biological soil quality (Yakovchenko et al.
1996).
At the end of 4 years of management of an apple
orchard in Washington, soil bulk density, waterfilled pore space, and nitrate-N were lower under
organic than conventional management, while soil
microbial biomass carbon was greater under organic
than conventional management (Glover et al. 2000).
All other soil properties (viz. aggregate stability,
total nitrogen, extractable phosphorus, cation
exchange capacity, pH, electrical conductivity,
microbial biomass nitrogen, organic carbon and
earthworm population) were not different between
conventional and organic management.
At the end of 40-47 years of dairy farm
management in Denmark, organically managed soil
had greater fragment size, aggregate stability in
water, and microbial biomass carbon than
conventionally managed soil (Schjønning et al.
2002). Several other physical and biological
properties were not different between management
systems, but ergosterol, an indicator of soil fungi,
was lower in abundance under organic than
conventional management systems for some
unknown reason.
At the end of 21 years of crop rotation
management in Switzerland, soil organic carbon
and total nitrogen were greater under biodynamic
management than conventional management, but
organic management and integrated management
(combination of manures, inorganic fertilizers, and
herbicides) were intermediate (Flieâbach et al.
2007). Soil microbial biomass carbon and
dehydrogenase activity were greater under organic
than under conventional management, but basal soil
respiration was not different between the two
systems.
Between 5 paired farms in North Dakota and
Nebraska, total and microbial carbon and nitrogen,
and mineralizable carbon and nitrogen were greater
under organic than under conventional management
(Liebig and Doran 1999). The authors stated that
the capacity of organic production practices to
improve soil quality was mainly due to use of more
diverse crop sequences, application of organic
amendments, and less frequent tillage.
The aforementioned comparative studies had
consistently greater soil microbial biomass carbon
under organic than under conventional
management. Depending upon the suite of soil
properties measured, various other soil microbial
activity assays (dehydrogenase activity,
mineralizable carbon, and mineralizable nitrogen)
were also greater under organic than conventional
management. Total organic carbon and nitrogen
were sometimes greater under organic management,
but not always. Various soil physical properties
were often greater under organic than under
conventional management, but this effect was not
consistent. From the relatively few studies
available, it can be concluded that total and
biologically active fractions of soil organic matter
would be important response variables
characteristic of organic management systems. In
addition, there is a great need to quantitatively
assess the difference between conventional and
organic agricultural systems across a wide range
of ecological conditions using a consistent suite of
soil biological, physical, and chemical indicators.
Inherent conditions within a particular eco-region
may be strikingly different, resulting in significant
variation in how soil responds to organic
management.
Under Indian conditions, long-term studies to
prove conclusively the superiority of organic
farming over conventional farming in improving
soil health are not available. Therefore, setting up
of experiments to prove the relative advantage of
95
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Gouri PVSM (2004). National programme for organic
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and practice. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur (India)
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organic farming over conventional one under the
prevailing soil and climatic conditions is urgently
needed.
CONCLUSION
There are many factors to consider in balancing
the benefits of organic and conventional agriculture,
and there are no simple ways to determine a clear
‘winner’ for all possible farming situations.
However, instead of continuing the ideologically
charged ‘organic versus conventional’ debate, we
should systematically evaluate the costs and
benefits of different management options. In the
end, to achieve sustainable food security we will
probably need different alternatives including
organic, conventional, and possible ‘hybrid’
systems to produce more food at affordable prices,
ensure livelihoods for farmers, and reduce the
environmental costs of agriculture.
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97
Studies on the Variability in Biochemical Characters in F1
Progenies of Peach (Prunus persica L.)
Y. INDRANI DEVI1, S. S. ROY2*
Received November 11, 2013; Revised December 5, 2013, Accepted December 11, 2013
ABSTRACT
Peach (Prunus persica L.) is an important fruit crop valued for its fresh and canned forms. There are
a large number of cultivars, which are grown in different agro-climatic conditions in states like Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and North Eastern States. In the present study, some hybrids, evolved
from crosses using six female parents (July Elberta, Alton, J. H. Hale, Kanto-5, Saharanpuri and
Quetta) and one male parent (Kateroo, a local peach cultivar of Himachal Pradesh), were evaluated
for some important biochemical parameters. The fruits harvested from these hybrids were evaluated
in terms of titrable acidity, total soluble solid, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, total sugar and
TSS/acid ratio. The mean values for titrable acidity for each cross varied between 0.50 to 0.75%, TSS
from 11.53 to 12.90oB, reducing sugars from 2.33 to 2.88%, non-reducing sugars from 6.27 to 6.83%,
total sugars from 9.24 to 10.05% and TSS/acid ratio between 14.47 to 23.90. The coefficient of
variability varied from 11.07 to 31.50% for titratable acidity, 0.00 to 23.02% for TSS, 5.24 to 18.53%
for reducing sugars, 2.09 to 15.14% for non-reducing sugars, 0.00 to 6.80% for total sugars and 18.23
to 156.51% for the TSS/acid ratio in these crosses. Significant variation with respect to biochemical
parameters observed in different cross combinations showed the vast scope for improvement of this
important fruit crop.
Key words: Prunus persica, F1 progenies, variability, biochemical characters, acidity, sugar, TSS
INTRODUCTION
90.8 thousand tonnes peach from an area of 20.3
thousand hectares during 2011-12 (NHB 2013).
Most of the peach cultivars have been bred in
various countries suitable to their agro-climatic
conditions. In India, some attempts have also been
made, and some good varieties have been
developed. In the peach breeding programme
initiated in 1997, crosses were made between July
Elberta, Alton, J. H. Hale, Saharanpuri, Kanto-5
and Quetta with one local peach cultivar of
Himachal Pradesh ‘Kateroo’ with an objective to
evolve cultivars, which are suitable to local agroclimatic conditions, have different maturity period
and varied qualitative characters. In the present
study, some of the F1 hybrids produced in the peach
breeding programme were evaluated for a set of
biochemical parameters considered important for
fruit quality.
Peach (Prunus persica L.) is an important fruit
crop valued for its fresh and canned fruits. It is
native to China where its culture dates back to at
least 3000 years. It has wider climatic adaptability,
and now its cultivation has been successfully
extended to various sub-tropical regions around the
world. Peach is commercially grown in USA, Italy,
France, England, Australia and China but in India,
Pakistan, Turkey, Japan, Germany and USSR, its
cultivation is on a small scale. In India, it is grown
in the mid hills zone of Himalayas extending from
Jammu & Kashmir to North Eastern States at an
altitude of 1000-2000 m above MSL. The area and
production of peaches and nectarines in the world
during 2011 was 1.57 million ha 21.53 million
tonnes, respectively (FAO 2013). India produced
1
Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, H.P. - 173 230
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal - 795 004
*Corresponding authors; Email : subhrasaikat@gmail.com
2
Original aticle
98
parameter and presented as percentage of
individuals in that category. The coefficient of
variation was calculated to know the extent of
variability in each character of each cross. The ttest was applied to test the significance of
differences between the means of different crosses.
The methods were followed as suggested by Panse
et al. (1985).
The experiment was carried out with the F1
hybrids from seven different parents namely July
Elberta, Alton, J. H. Hale, Kanto-5, Saharanpuri
and Quetta as female and local cultivar ‘Kateroo’
as male. The experimental area is located at 30o86’N
latitude and 77o17’E longitude at an elevation of
1220 m above mean sea level, having a mild
temperate climate. The crosses made during the year
1997 resulted in 76 hybrid seedlings of six different
combinations and all of them, grouped into crosses,
were selected for the study. There were all total
three replications (plants), and ten ripe fruits were
selected from each replication for biochemical
analysis. Standard biochemical procedure was
followed for determination of different biochemical
characters viz. titrable acidity, total soluble solids,
reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and TSS/acid
ratio as given by Ranganna (2007). Based on the
mean values observed, hybrids were categorized
in to low, medium and high groups for each
The important biochemical characters viz.
titratable acidity, total soluble solids, total sugars,
reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, TSS/acid
ratios were analyzed for assessing the quality of
peach hybrids obtained from different cross
combinations. The experimental results showed
significant differences between the hybrids for most
of the biochemical parameters.
Titratable acidity : The perusal of the data
(Table 1) revealed that in all the six crosses, a
Table1: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of titratable acidity
Crosses
Number
of hybrids
Percentage of hybrids in different groups
Low
(<0.605%)
July Elberta x Kateroo
Alton x Kateroo
J. H. Hale x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Saharanpuri x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
30
2
29
2
2
11
Medium
(0.605-0.705%)
16.67
50.00
58.63
0.00
0.00
45.46
23.33
0.00
24.13
50.00
50.00
27.27
Test of Significance
Mean of pairs
July Elberta x Kateroo and Alton x Kateroo
Julu Elberta x Kateroo and J.H.Hale x Kateroo
July Elberta x Kateroo and Kanto-5 x Kateroo
July Elberta x Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo
July Elberta x Kateroo and Quetta x Kateroo
Alton x Kateroo and J.H.Hale x Kateroo
Alton x Kateroo and Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Alton x Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo
Alton x Kateroo and Quetta x Kateroo
J.H.Hale x Kateroo and Kanto-5 x Kateroo
J.H.Hale x Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo
J.H.Hale x Kateroo and Quetta x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo and Quetta x Kateroo
Saharanpuri x Kateroo and Quetta x Kateroo
Mean of
the cross
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
High
(>0.705%)
60.00
50.00
17.24
50.00
50.00
27.27
0.70
0.64
0.61
0.68
0.75
0.50
19.29
22.33
19.90
11.07
20.18
31.55
t-value
0.589
2.786*
9.903*
6.248*
2.353*
0.296
0.351
0.758
0.709
1.159
1.294
0.858
0.582
1.531
1.595
*Significant at 5 per cent level
99
majority of the hybrids produced fruits with high
acidity ranging between 17.24% in J. H. Hale x
Kateroo to 60.00% in July Elberta x Kateroo. The
proportions of hybrids with medium acidity ranged
between 23.33% in July Elberta x Kateroo to
50.00% in Kanto-5 x Kateroo and Saharanpurix
Kateroo; whereas, Alton x Kateroo crosses did not
produce any hybrid with medium acidity. The
proportions of hybrids with low acid the minimum
in all the crosses. Kanto-5 x Kateroo and
Saharanpuri x Kateroo crosses did not produce any
hybrid with low acidity. The coefficient of variation
was observed between 11.07% (Kanto-5 x Kateroo)
to 31.55% (Quetta x Kateroo) for different cross
combinations. Four means of pairs showed
significant differences.
Total soluble solid (TSS) : In terms of the TSS
(Table 2), majority of hybrids in all the cross
combinations produced fruits with medium TSS.
The proportions of such hybrids ranged between
50% in Kanto-5 x Kateroo to 100% Alton x
Kateroo. Low TSS was found only in July Elberta
x Kateroo (10.00%) and Saharanpuri x Kateroo
(5.00%). The mean of the cross varied from 11.53
(Quetta x Kateroo) to 13.50 (Alton x Kateroo);
whereas, the coefficient of variation ranged from
0.00% in Alton x Kateroo to 23.02% in Saharanpuri
x Kateroo. Four mean pairs were found to have
significant differences.
Reducing sugars : In all the crosses, the highest
proportions of hybrids were medium for reducing
sugars, which ranged between 27.27% in Quetta x
Kateroo to 100.00% in Alton x Kateroo (Table 3).
The hybrids with high reducing sugars content
varied between 26.67% in July Elberta x Kateroo
to 54.55% in Quetta x Kateroo; whereas, Alton x
Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo crosses did not
produce any hybrid with high reducing sugar. The
percentage of hybrid individuals with low reducing
sugar content varied between 10.00% (July Elberta
Table 2: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of total soluble solid
Crosses
Number
of hybrids
Low
(<9.0%)
Alton x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
30
2
29
2
2
11
10.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.00
0.00
Medium
(9.0-13.5%)
76.67
100.00
79.32
50.00
55.00
90.91
Mean of
the cross
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
High
(>13.5%)
13.33
0.00
20.68
50.00
40.00
9.09
12.34
13.50
12.78
12.15
12.90
11.53
8.47
0.00
8.26
19.21
23.02
13.14
Mean of pairs
t-value
6.346*
1.681
0.115
0.266
1.642
3.842*
0.819
0.286
4.299*
0.380
0.057
2.525*
0.281
0.363
0.637
100
Table 3: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of reducing sugars
Crosses
Alton x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
Number
of hybrids
30
2
29
2
2
11
Low
(<2.4%)
Medium
(2.4-3%)
High
(>3%)
10.00
0.00
10.34
0.00
50.00
18.18
63.33
100.00
62.13
50.00
50.00
27.27
26.67
0.00
27.53
50.00
0.00
54.55
Mean of
the cross
2.88
2.70
2.86
2.78
2.33
2.77
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
9.79
5.24
8.88
14.24
16.73
18.53
Mean of pairs
t-value
1.631
0.048
0.348
1.964
0.682
1.476
0.267
1.263
0.383
0.164
1.898
0.563
1.139
0.031
1.394
x Kateroo) to 50.00% (Saharanpuri x Kateroo) in
different crosses; however, Alton x Kateroo and
Kanto-5 x Kateroo did not produce any hybrid with
low reducing sugars content. The mean of the
crosses varied between 2.33 to 2.88; whereas,
coefficient of variation was between 5.24% (Alton
x Kateroo) to 18.53% (Quetta x Kateroo) in
different cross combinations.
Non-reducing sugar : In the present
experiment, the progenies with high content of nonreducing sugars were in the highest proportions
which ranged between 60.00% (July Elberta x
Kateroo) to 90.00% (J. H. Hale x Kateroo) in
different cross combinations. The medium content
of non-reducing sugars varied from 10.00% of the
hybrids between Kanto-5 x Kateroo to 32.00% of
the hybrids between July Elberta x Kateroo. No
hybrid of this category was obtained from J. H. Hale
x Kateroo cross. The hybrids with low content of
non-reducing sugars varied between 5.00% in
Kanto-5 x Kateroo to 12.00% in Quetta x Kateroo;
however, no hybrid was obtained with low nonreducing sugars content from the cross between
Alton x Kateroo. The mean value of the crosses
ranged between 6.14 to 6.83 and coefficient of
variation ranged between 2.09% (Alton x Kateroo)
to 15.14% (Kanto-5 x Kateroo). All the means of
pairs between different crosses were non-significant
(Table 4).
Total Sugars : It is clear from the data presented
in Table 5 that majority of hybrids were with high
content of total sugars which ranged between
70.00% in Alton x Kateroo to 100.00% in Quetta x
Kateroo. The progenies with medium total sugars
content varied between 10.00% to 20.00% in
different crosses; however, Quetta x Kateroo cross
did not produce any hybrid with medium total
sugars content in their progenies. The low content
of total sugars was found only in 10.00% and 5.00%
progenies of crosses from Alton x Kateroo and J.
101
Table 4: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of non-reducing sugars
Crosses
Number
of hybrids
Low
(>3.50%)
Alton x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
30
2
29
2
2
11
Medium
(3.50-4.50%)
8.00
0.00
10.00
5.00
8.00
12.00
32.00
20.00
0.00
10.00
12.00
18.00
Mean of
the cross
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
High
(>4.50%)
60.00
80.00
90.00
85.00
80.00
70.00
6.83
6.27
6.14
6.59
6.56
6.55
6.01
2.09
9.77
15.14
4.31
10.78
Mean of pairs
t-value
14.82
1.653
0.338
1.283
1.241
0.926
0.449
0.563
1.202
0.629
1.870
1.716
0.041
0.054
0.034
H. Hale x Kateroo, respectively. Other crosses did
not produce any hybrid with low total sugar content.
The mean of the cross ranged between 0.00 to 6.80.
The significant differences between mean of pairs
were obtained in six cross combinations.
Total soluble solids/acid ratio : The TSS/acid
ratio is one of the important biochemical parameters
for qualitative characterization of peach. In the
present study (Table 6), the proportions of hybrids
with a low TSS/acid ratio varied between 3.45% J.
H. Hale x Kateroo to 50.00% in both Kanto-5 x
Kateroo and Saharanpuri x Kateroo. Low TSS/acid
ratio was not recorded in the hybrids from the cross
Alton x Kateroo. The progenies with a medium
TSS/acid ratio varied between 27.27% (Quetta x
Kateroo) to 56.67% (July Elberta x Kateroo);
whereas, Kanto-5 x Kateroo did not produce any
hybrid with a medium TSS/acid ratio. The progenies
with a high TSS/acid ratio ranged between 20.00%
in July Elberta x Kateroo to 65.52% in J. H. Hale
x Kateroo. Saharanpuri x Kateroo cross did not
produce any hybrid with a high TSS/acid ratio. The
mean of the cross ranged between 14.47 to 23.90
and coefficient of variation ranged between 18.23%
(Saharanpuri x Kateroo) to 156.51% (July Elberta
x Kateroo). The significant differences were
obtained only in case of two mean of pairs of
different cross combinations.
Biochemical characters are important to assess
the quality of a particular progeny of different
crosses. In the present study, the mean values for
titrable acidity ranged from 0.50 to 0.75 per cent,
total soluble solids from 11.53 to 13.50 per cent,
reducing sugars from 2.33 to 2.88 per cent, nonreducing sugars from 6.14 to 6.83 per cent, total
sugars from 9.24 to 10.05 and total soluble solids/
acid ratio from 14.47 to 23.90 in various cross
combinations. The main factors responsible for
variation in the fruit composition at a given stage
of maturity of the same group of healthy trees over
102
Table 5: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of total sugars
Crosses
Number
of hybrids
Low
(<6.55%)
Alton x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
30
2
29
2
2
11
Medium
(6.55-7.55%)
0.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.00
20.00
10.00
10.00
20.00
0.00
Mean of
the cross
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
High
(>7.55%)
90.00
70.00
85.00
90.00
80.00
100.00
10.05
9.30
9.32
9.72
9.24
9.67
3.79
0.00
6.80
6.77
1.00
4.32
Mean of pairs
t-value
11.338*
1.749
0.700
8.824*
2.660*
0.180
0.900
0.158
2.922*
0.834
0.624
2.075*
1.019
0.103
3.034s
a series of years are climatic and nutritional
conditions besides load of fruits on the trees.
Atkinson et al. (1951) evaluated different peach
cultivars and reported that acid content ranged from
0.50 to 1.33% with an average of 0.81% in all the
varieties. There was less variation in all the
varieties, but the variation due to maturity was more
marked. They also observed that fruits which are
higher in sugar contents were also higher in level
of acidity and emphasized that more mature fruits
contain more sugar and less acid than less mature
fruits. Dabov and Zadgorski (1970) reported
variation in acidity between 0.19 to 0.92% while
evaluating 37 peach and 3 nectarine cultivars.
Ahmed et al. (2002) observed TSS ranging from
2.23 to 13.37% tested over fifteen peach cultivars;
whereas, Contreras et al. (1998) recorded 13.1 to
16.1°B in sixteen peach cultivars. Robertson et al.
(1992) reported that acidity decreased with
increasing maturity grade. The variation for
biochemical traits has also been reported by many
workers (Ninkovski et al. 1983; Khokhar and
Agnihotri 1990; Yarilgac and Balta 2003) and the
results of the present study are in good agreement
with their findings. The hybrid of the cross July
Elberta x Kateroo was found to be promising over
other hybrids in terms of acidity, TSS, total sugar
and TSS/acid ratio. However, hybrid of the crosses
like Quetta x Kateroo and Alton x Kateroo can be
used as donor parents for low acidity and high TSS
respectively in future the breeding programme.
Significant variation with respect to biochemical
parameters observed in different cross combinations
showed a vast scope for evolving better varieties
of this important fruit crop with varied qualitative
characters.
103
Table 6: Classification of peach hybrids in respect of total soluble solids/acid ratio
Crosses
Number
of hybrids
Low
(<15.0%)
Alton x Kateroo
Kanto-5 x Kateroo
Quetta x Kateroo
30
2
29
2
2
11
Medium
(15.0-20.0%)
23.33
0.00
3.45
50.00
50.00
27.27
56.67
50.00
31.03
0.00
50.00
27.27
Mean of
the cross
Coefficient
of variation
(%)
High
(>20.0%)
20.00
50.00
65.52
50.00
0.00
45.46
23.90
21.29
21.78
18.08
14.47
22.05
156.51
22.29
19.93
29.93
18.23
40.54
Mean of pairs
t-value
July Elberta x Kateroo and J.H.Hale x Kateroo
0.291
5.080*
0.771
1.392
0.262
0.006
0.716
3.829
0.066
0.948
3.622*
0.096
0.848
0.848
2.310
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Ranganna S (2007). Handbook of analysis and quality control
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104
Vermicompost, Mulching and Irrigation Level on Growth, Yield
and TSS of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
B.K. SIINGH1 *, K.A. PATHAK1, Y. RAMAKRISHNA1, V.K. VERMA2, B.C. DEKA3
Received November 16, 2013; Revised December 5, 2013; Accepted December 11, 2013
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted for two years to investigate the effect of vermicompost, organic
mulching and irrigation level on growth, yield and quality attributes of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum
L.) with an ultimate aim of optimizing water and nutrient requirement of tomato in mild-tropical
climate during dry season. The vermicompost together with organic mulching increased plant height
(106.5 cm), leaf area (40.6 cm2), leaf weight (1301 mg/ leaf), fruit weight (92.9 g), fruit yield (4.013
kg/ plant), fruit density (0.972 g/ cc), post-harvest shelf-life (15.0 days) and TSS (5.2º Brix) of tomato
significantly. Application of vermicompost alone too increased the shelf-life of fruits by 25-106 %
and TSS beyond 4.5 %, both of which are traits highly desirable for production of summer tomato and
the related processing industry. The application of vermicompost @ 5 tonnes/ ha, 5 cm thick mulching
with dried crop residues, two-thirds dose of NPK fertilizer (80:40:40 kg/ ha) and 30 % irrigation is
optimum for obtaining better quality and productivity of field grown tomatoes during dry period of
mild-tropical climate.
Key words: Solanum lycopersicum; vermicompost; mulching; irrigation; quality; yield.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable commercial vegetable production
must include increased productivity, maximization
of water use efficiency, reduced costs of production,
integration of organic inputs, higher input use
efficiency, and no harm to the soil, ground water,
environment and product quality. Soil-plantenvironment systems should be integrated
sustainably, locally and economically, and free from
overuse and misuse of the inputs especially
chemicals. World agriculture is increasingly
dependent on irrigation, synthetic pesticides and
chemical fertilizers which present serious
challenges and threaten sustainability due to
indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and
irrigation water.
Water availability for agricultural use is
decreasing due to increasing population and
industrialization particularly in developing
countries. Mizoram, an Indian state, has an annual
rainfall of 2000-3250 mm, but the main tomato
growing season, November to March, is almost dry
(5-25 mm). Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
production is limited by soil moisture stress despite
appropriate temperature and length of day for crop
growth and fruiting. Additional irrigation could be
used to alleviate soil moisture deficit and increase
yield. Shortage of precipitation during the winter
necessitates that water be used efficiently. One
possible way of husbanding water is with organic
mulching. Human, livestock and crops produce
approximately 38 trillion metric tons of organic
wastes worldwide, and around 600 to 700 million
metric tons of agricultural wastes (including 272
million metric tons of crop residues) in India are
available every year, but most remains unutilized
(Suthar 2009). In most parts of Mizoram and the
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Mizoram Centre, Kolasib-796081, Mizoram
ICAR-RC-NEH Region, Umroi Road, Barapani-7793103, Meghalaya
3
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani-797106, Nagaland
*Corresponding author present address: IIVR, Shahanshahpur-221305, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh;
e-mail: bksinghkushinagar@yahoo.co.in
2
Original aticle
105
North East Hill Regions of India, forest and cropplant residues are abundant, available and could
be utilized for vermicomposting i.e. bio-oxidation
and stabilization of organic materials involving the
activity of earthworms and micro-organisms (Singh
et al. 2013). The quantity of crop-plant residues
could be converted into nutrient rich vermicompost
and used as mulch for sustainable production with
integrated farming systems. After the vegetable
growing season, the organic mulch can be ploughed
in to decompose. Increased amounts of humus
support favourable changes in physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil, and increases
water-holding capacity.
Mulch improves the soil environment;
stimulates microbial activity; enhances oxygen
availability to roots; moderates soil temperature;
increases soil porosity and water infiltration;
increases nutrient availability; reduces evaporation,
fertilizer leaching and soil compaction; controls
weeds, runoff and soil erosion; and increases plant
growth, yield and quality (Liasu et al. 2008; Ekinci
and Dursun 2009). Species of earthworm can
consume, and degrade, a wide range of organic
residues including plant residues, animal wastes,
forest residues, sewage, sludge and industrial
refuse. Vermicompost is an eco-friendly, cost
effective and ecologically sound bio-fertilizer. Use
of vermicompost is effective for improving soil
aggregation, structure, aeration and fertility;
contains most of the nutrients in plant-available
form such as nitrates, phosphates, exchangeable
calcium and soluble potassium; increases beneficial
microbial population diversity and activity;
improves soil moisture-holding capacity; contains
vitamins, enzymes and hormones; and accelerates
the population and activity of earthworms (Albiach
et al. 2000; Arancon et al. 2006; Azarmi et al. 2008;
Marinari et al. 2000).
Poor soil respiration and complete destruction
of natural decomposer communities from agroecosystems threatens sustainability and food
security. The escalation in cost and access to
chemical fertilizers (particularly N, P and K) in
remote area by poor farmers, acute water deficit
during growing season, being an organic production
state and ecological concerns have increased
interest of use of integrated approaches
(vermicompost and mulch) to facilitate sustainable
commercial tomato production in mild-tropical
conditions during dry season. The objective of the
present study, therefore, was to ascertain effects of
vermicompost, mulching and irrigation level on
plant growth, fruiting, fruit density, TSS and postharvest life of tomato under field condition.
The experiment was carried out at the Research
Farm of ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Mizoram Centre, Kolasib, Mizoram in the 20072008 and 2008-2009 cropping seasons. The tomato
cv. ‘Avinash-2’ (Syngenta India Ltd.) has high yield
potential, uniformity in shape and size, attractive
and excellent color, persistent calyx and excellent
marketing potential. The soil type is an Alfisol and
acidic (pH 5.8). The experimental Farm lies at
24.12º N latitude and 92.40º E longitude with an
altitude of 650 m above mean sea level and has a
mild-tropical climate. Following was the range of
variation for monthly mean temperature and
monthly mean relative humidity (RH) during the
crop growth period (November-March), Tmin-max
(oC) 14.6-27.3 and RH (%) 40-83. Cumulative
rainfall during the growth period ranged from 24215 mm. The terraced field was tilled and divided
into plots. A 60 cm wide space was left between
plots. Plot size for each treatment was 3×3 m and
inter- and intra-row spacing was 60×50 cm having
30 plants in each. The experiment was laid out in
randomized complete block design with three
replications. Eight treatment combinations (T-1:
mulch only, T-2: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha and
mulch; T-3: mulch and irrigation at 10 days interval;
T-4: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha, mulch and irrigation
at 10 days interval; T-5: mulch and irrigation at 6
days interval; T-6: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha, mulch
and irrigation at 6 days interval; T-7: irrigation at 3
days interval; and T-8: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha and
irrigation at 3 days interval) were used to undertake
the present study. Each plot (9 m 2) received
approximately 250 lit of water (2.8 cm) during each
irrigation. Locally available dried grasses and crop
residues were used as mulch. Vermicompost was
prepared from crop residues and 15 day-old cow
dung in 1:4 ratios using red crawler earthworm
(Eisenia foetida) in shaded beds. The uniform dose
of FYM @ 7.5 t/ ha and lime @ 2 t/ ha was applied
to plots at last tilling. Synthetic fertilizers i.e.
N:P2O5:K2O @ 80:40:40 kg/ ha was supplied by
urea, single super phosphate (SSP) and muriate of
106
potash (MOP), respectively. The full dose of N,
P2O5 and K2O was applied at transplanting. The
FYM, lime, vermicompost and fertilizers were
incorporated into the top 15 cm of soil. One-monthold uniform seedlings rose under a polyhouse and
having 4-5 leaves were transplanted during the 2nd
week of November in each year. Transplants were
watered uniformly, three times in a week for 3.5
weeks. A 5 cm thick mulching was applied at 25
days after transplanting. Four irrigation intervals,
0 (no additional irrigation) and 3, 6, and 10 days
were used.
Observations were recorded on 15 randomly
chosen plants in each treatment and replication.
Plant height, and stem diameter at the root collar
were measured at the last harvest. To estimate the
leaf area, leaf fresh weight and specific leaf weight
of the 4th, 5th and 6th leaves from top were sampled
at full-bloom stage in each replication. Marketable
fruit were harvested at hard ripe stage, counted,
measured and weighed to determine total yield.
Forty-five fruits, three from 15 marked plants (in
each treatment and replication) were harvested at
hard ripe stage to estimate fruit size, weight and
density. Fruit size was calculated by multiplying
the equatorial and polar diameters. Fruit density
was estimated by ratio of fruit weight and volume
(by water displacement). Rotten and unmarketable
fruits were counted as damaged fruits. Thirty fruits,
two from 15 marked plants, were harvested at red
ripe stage to estimate the total soluble solids (TSS)
and post-harvest life. TSS was determined by
convex refractometer, while fruits were kept at
room temperature to determine the post-harvest life.
Data were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and Duncan’s multiple range test
(DMRT) using IRRISTAT software (Version 3/93)
to identify homogeneity of data between treatment
combinations.
The partitioning of mean squares into
replications, combinations, treatments, years and
treatment × year interactions revealed that mean
squares due to replication, year and treatment × year
interaction were non-significant for all the traits
which are indicating the homogeneity of
measurements for various traits in both years. All
the traits; other than stem diameter, specific leaf
weight and fruit number; were significantly affected
by various combinations of vermicompost, organic
mulching and irrigation level revealing the
importance of organic inputs in sustainable and
integrated production system.
Effect of vermicompost, mulching and irrigation
level on plant growth of tomato
Plant height, leaf area and leaf fresh weight
showed significant differences among the various
treatments; while differences for stem diameter and
specific leaf weight were insignificant (Table 1).
The average plant height ranged from 90.1-106.6
cm (T-1 and T-6). The plant height was measured
maximum in T-6 treatment which was at par with
Table 1: Response of tomato to vermicompost, mulching and irrigation
Treatment
Plant height
(cm)
07-08
T-1
T-2
T-3
T-4
T-5
T-6
T-7
T-8
T × Y CD at
5%
88.9c
90.4bc
103.8a
105.2a
102.1a
106.0a
100.0ab
98.7ab
Stem diameter
(mm)
Leaf area
(cm2/ leaf)
Leaf fresh weight
(mg/ leaf)
Specific leaf weight
(mg/ cm2)
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09 Pooled 07-08
08-09 Pooled
91.4b
92.2b
104.1a
106.9a
108.3a
107.3a
98.8ab
102.2a
90.1b
91.3b
103.9a
106.0a
105.2a
106.6s
99.4a
100.5a
17.1a
15.1a
17.4a
17.1a
15.6a
17.0a
15.4a
15.9a
16.3a
15.1a
17.1a
17.3a
15.9a
17.3a
16.0a
16.3a
34.1bc
35.1bc
36.7abc
40.7a
37.9ab
41.1a
32.1c
33.4bc
32.3d
34.7cd
35.4cd
39.6ab
36.7bc
40.6a
31.8d
34.8cd
1081b
1103b
1082b
1321a
1127b
1308a
997b
1104b
32.2a
31.4a
29.5a
32.8a
30.4a
31.9a
31.4a
33.1a
9.3
15.5a
15.2a
16.9a
17.5a
16.1a
17.6a
16.5a
16.7a
30.5c
34.3bc
34.2bc
38.5ab
35.5abc
40.1a
31.5c
36.1abc
4.4
5.1
1039bc
1074bc
1133bc
1199ab
1175ab
1294a
1004c
1070bc
143
1060bc
1089bc
1107bc
1260a
1151b
1301a
1001c
1087bc
34.2a
31.5a
33.4a
31.2a
33.2a
32.3a
31.9a
29.7a
33.2a
31.4a
31.5a
32.0a
31.8a
32.1a
31.7a
31.4a
6.3
T: treatment, Y: year, Means followed by common letter are not significantly different by DMRT.
T-1: no vermicompost + mulch + no irrigation, T-2: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha + mulch + no irrigation, T-3: no vermicompost + mulch + irrigation at 10 days
interval, T-4: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha + mulch+ irrigation at 10 days interval, T-5: no vermicompost + mulch + irrigation at 6 days interval, T-6: vermicompost @
5 t/ ha + mulch + irrigation at 6 days interval, T-7: no vermicompost + no mulch + irrigation at 3 days interval and T-8: vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha + no mulch +
irrigation at 3 days interval
107
T-4, T-5, T-3, T-8 and T-7. This finding indicates
that irrigation plays more important role than
vermicompost and mulching for plant height which
might also be due to low nitrogen content in organic
inputs (Sharma et al. 1999). Similarly, leaf area was
also measured highest in T-6 having at par value
with T-4, T-5 and T-3 treatments. The treatments
without irrigation and non-mulching showed
minimum leaf size. The result infers that mulching
together with reduced quantity of water for
irrigation (6-10 days interval i.e. 30-60 % less) may
provide maximum area for assimilation of CO2.
Significant gain in leaf fresh weight was observed
in T-6 and T-4 indicating that application of
vermicompost, organic mulching and only 30 %
water is sufficient to grow the tomato crop having
higher source assimilation efficiency. These results
showed that increase in plant growth (plant height,
leaf area and leaf weight) could probably be due to
improvement in the physio-chemical properties of
soil; increase in enzymatic activity; increase in
microbial population, diversity and activity; easy
availability of macro- and micro-nutrients; and also
increase in plant growth hormones by application
of vermicompost and organic mulching (Albiach
et al. 2000; Arancon et al. 2006; Azarmi et al. 2008;
Ekinci and Dursun 2009; Singh et al. 2010; Singh
et al. 2011). Zinc is part of several enzymes such
as carboxypeptidase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
carbonic anhydrase, etc. and mediates leaf
formation and auxin synthesis (Cheng 1947) which
might have also played an important role in plant
height, leaf area and leaf weight. Hernandez et al.
(2010) also estimated higher content of Mg, Fe,
Zn, and Cu, and lower Na in lettuce leaf through
vermicomposting. Further, non-significant of
specific leaf weight among the treatments revealed
that the increase in leaf weight was only due to
increase in leaf area and not due to leaf diameter
and accumulation of photo-assimilates. The finding
clearly showed vermicompost and organic
mulching play indirect role in partitioning of photoassimilates from source to sink.
level on fruit and yield of tomato
The significant differences were also estimated
for fruit size, number of fruits, fruit weight, fruit
yield and damaged fruit percentage among various
treatment combinations (Table 2). No-irrigation
treatments (T-1 and T-2) showed significantly
reduced measurements for fruit size, fruit weight
and fruit yield. The lower measurement of fruit size
for no-irrigated treatments was an indicative that
fruit growth is mainly accelerated by cell expansion
rather than cell division. The application of
vermicompost and mulching has no effect either
on cell expansion and or cell division of fruits. In
our own experiment carried out by applying various
doses of vermicompost and NPK fertilizer in tomato
also revealed the non-significant value for fruit size.
Cell division in pericarp (flesh) of tomato is limited
to a short period of fruit development; once cell
division ends, cell expansion becomes the dominant
way to increase tomato fruit size (Bertin 2005).
Number of fruits/ plant was harvested more in T-4,
T-5 and T-6 treatments which showed at par result
with T-3, T-7 and T-8 indicated that irrigation at 610 days interval instead of 3 days interval along
with application of vermicompost and mulching is
suitable to produce maximum numbers of fruits/
plant. This might be due to enhanced activity of
Table 2: Effect of vermicompost, mulching and irrigation on fruit and yield of tomato
Treatment
T-1
T-2
T-3
T-4
T-5
T-6
T-7
T-8
T × Y CD at
5%
Fruit size (cm2)
No. of fruit/ plant
Fruit weight (g)
Fruit yield (kg/ plant)
Damaged fruit (%)
07-08
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09
Pooled 07-08
08-09
Pooled
07-08
08-09 Pooled
24.8b
26.0b
33.0ab
32.6b
32.9ab
35.0a
31.2ab
32.5ab
26.0b
27.6ab
33.3ab
34.2ab
34.7a
33.5ab
30.0ab
31.9ab
25.4b
26.8b
33.2a
33.4a
33.8a
34.2a
30.6ab
32.2a
36.7a
33.7a
40.3a
40.1a
41.9a
41.7a
37.4a
38.6a
34.1ab
33.8b
40.0ab
41.5ab
43.4a
43.4a
37.1ab
37.4ab
57.5b
61.1b
84.8a
91.1a
91.5a
93.7a
82.6a
83.9a
56.4 c
59.7c
84.2ab
92.2ab
92.1ab
92.9a
83.1b
84.4ab
2.055b
2.048b
3.383a
3.680a
3.845a
3.864a
3.012ab
3.265a
1.893d
2.018d
3.347abc
3.848ab
4.001a
4.013 a
3.043c
3.164bc
9.8b
8.3b
10.5b
11.3b
11.6b
12.2b
21.5a
22.8a
8.2b
9.5b
11.1b
10.7b
13.2b
12.8b
23.4a
21.4a
7.2
31.5b
33.8ab
39.7ab
43.0ab
44.8ab
45.1a
36.9ab
36.1ab
55.2b
58.3b
83.6a
93.3a
92.7a
92.0a
83.7a
84.9a
11.9
11.7
1.731c
1.988c
3.311ab
4.017ab
4.157a
4.162 a
3.074b
3.063b
0.936
9.0b
8.9b
10.8b
11.0b
12.4b
12.5b
22.4a
22.1a
5.8
T: treatment, Y: year, Means followed by common letter are not significantly different by DMRT.
108
flowering and fruit setting hormones in mulching
and vermicompost applied plots. Naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA), an auxin, plays a very crucial
role in flowering and fruit setting of tomato. As
like number of fruits/ plant; single fruit weight and
fruit yield/ plant were found to be higher in T-3, T7 and T-8, and lower in T-1 and T-2. The percentage
of damaged fruits was counted almost double in
non-mulched treatments (T-7 and T-8). Significant
increase in fruit weight and fruit yield/ plant was
observed for treatments such as T-4, T-5 and T-6.
The increase in fruit weight is mainly because of
more accumulation solid matters and not due to
higher size of fruit. The result inferred that
vermicompost and or mulching improve the
partition of photo-assimilates from source to sink
and thereby increases the fruit weight. However,
the yield difference among T-4, and T-5 and T-6
treatments (irrigation at 10, 6 and 6 days interval,
respectively) is at par which revealed that
vermicompost and mulching play a crucial role in
moisture conservation. The finding has also been
supported by Marinari et al. (2000). Ultimately,
application of vermicompost and organic mulching
not only saves irrigation water (40-70 %) but also
increases the productivity (26-31 %). The increased
yield potential of vegetables through application
of vermicompost and mulching has also been
confirmed by Liasu et al. (2008); Singh et al. (2010);
Singh et al. (2011); Suthar (2009); and Yadav and
Choudhary (2012). Significantly higher percentage
of damaged fruits in non-mulched plots is very
obvious because of higher fruit rotting resulted by
contact of fruits with moistened soil.
level on fruit quality of tomato
The quality parameters such as fruit density, TSS
and post-harvest life articulated significant
differences among the treatments. The mentioned
traits of economic importance were found to be
higher in T-4 and T-6 treatments, while lower
estimate was observed in T-7 (Table 3). All the
studied quality parameters were found to be higher
in vermicompost treated plots as comparison to nonvermicompost plots. As like fruit weight, higher
fruit density and more TSS is only due to more
accumulation of reserve substances in fruits. The
quality parameters were more affected by
vermicompost than mulching. The vermicompost
applied plots revealed that the higher values for
quality parameters than non-vermicompost plots.
Higher the TSS (> 4.5 %) is advantageous to
processing industries for harnessing the more
processed product. Tomato being a climacteric fruit,
ethylene release is an obvious to start fruit ripening.
The moisture content and ethylene concentration
play an important role in post-harvest life of tomato
fruits. The present study revealed that more solid
content in fruits might have contributed for longer
shelf-life. Reddy et al. (2013) have reported a
positive correlation between TSS and shelf-life
among 59 genotypes of tomato. Furthermore, postharvest life of fruit has increased by 25-106 % with
the application of vermicompost. Also,
vermicompost promotes the development of the
outer covering (pericarp), strengthen fruit firmness
of tomato which could lead to a longer shelf-life
(Mena-Violante et al. 2009; Chaterjee et al. 2013).
Table 3: Response of vermicompost, mulching and irrigation on quality of tomato
Treatment
Fruit density (g/ cc)
07-08
T-1
0.840b
T-2
0.857b
T-3
0.861b
T-4
0.965a
T-5
0.870b
T-6
0.965a
T-7
0.808b
T-8
0.870b
T × Y CD at 5 %
TSS (° Brix)
08-09
Pooled
07-08
08-09
0.846bc
0.862bc
0.883b
0.979a
0.879b
0.975a
0.796c
0.834bc
0.064
0.843bc
0.860b
0.872b
0.972a
0.875b
0.970a
0.802c
0.852b
0.7
4.4c
4.6abc
4.6abc
5.2ab
4.5bc
5.3a
4.3c
4.7abc
4.2
4.2a
4.5a
4.7a
5.0a
4.8a
5.1a
4.3a
4.9a
Post-harvest life (day)
Pooled
4.3c
4.6bc
4.7abc
5.1ab
4.6abc
5.2a
4.3c
4.8abc
07-08
08-09
10.8ab
12.0ab
10.3bc
14.4ab
10.5bc
15.4a
6.3c
13.73ab
9.8bc
13.7ab
10.7abc
15.2a
9.6bc
14.6a
7.0c
13.4ab
Pooled
10.3c
12.9abc
10.5bc
14.8a
10.1c
15.0a
6.6d
13.6ab
T: treatment,
Y: year,
TSS: total soluble solid.
Means followed by common letter are not significantly different by DMRT
109
Therefore, it is advisable to apply vermicompost
especially in summer tomato and processing tomato
to enhance the shelf-life of fruits as well as recovery
of processed products, respectively. In our own
experiment carried out on various doses of
vermicompost and NPK fertilizer in tomato
revealed that fruit density, post-harvest life and TSS
are increasing with increase in rate of vermicompost
application (Singh et al. 2010). Additionally, the
increased amount of humus in soil through
application of vermicompost and decomposition of
organic mulches by earthworms would certainly
help favourable change in physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil, and in enhancing the
water-holding capacity.
In conclusion, the present study shows that
application of vermicompost @ 5 t/ ha, 5 cm thick
mulching with dried crop residues, 2/3rd dose of
NPK fertilizer (80:40:40 kg/ ha) and 30 % irrigation
is the most suitable and sustainable strategy for
improving growth, yield and quality of tomato and
soil health of mild-tropical climate during dry
season.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to express their special
thanks to the Director, ICAR-RC-NEH Region,
Umiam, Barapani-793103, Meghalaya for his
financial support to the present research.
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E (2010). Effect of vermicompost and compost on
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soil supplementation with fortified tithonia mulch and
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Influence of organic and mineral fertilizers on soil
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110
Collection and Evaluation of Some Underutilized
Leafy Vegetables of Meghalaya
J. BURAGOHAIN1*, V. B SINGH2, B. C. DEKA3, A. K. JHA1, K. WANSHNONG1, T. ANGAMI4
ABSTRACT
The state of Meghalaya is blessed with unique flora and is considered to be the home of many leafy
vegetables, which remain underutilized. Considering the importance of these crops in the nutrition
and livelihood of the local population, twenty five underutilized leafy vegetables were collected
from different parts of Meghalaya and were evaluated for physical and chemical parameters. Among
them, Passiflora edulis recorded the highest number of leaves. High dry matter content was recorded
in Diplazium esculentum, Fagopyrum cymosum, Eryngium foetidum and Piper longum. Centella
asiatica, Chenopodium album, Amaranthus viridis were found to be rich in crude protein. Rumex
nepalensis was found rich in pigment content.
Key Words: Leafy vegetables, nutrition, physicochemical properties
INTRODUCTION
The state of Meghalaya in the northeastern
region of India is located between 20° 1' N & 26°
5' N latitude and of 85° 49' E & 92° 52' E longitude;
and is endowed with unique physiography and
enormous plant genetic resources and diversity. The
state is blessed with remarkably unique and rich
flora due to its wide variation in climatic and
ecological diversity. It is considered to be the home
of many leafy green vegetables, which remain
underutilized and unexplored. These vegetables,
grown in wild and semi-wild conditions without
much care and attention, are lesser known outside
the local population and less in demand in the
market; however, have great promise for
contributing to nutritional security and income
generation.
These leafy vegetables play an important role
in the life of rural people; they form an important
part of food and nutrition of local population as
many of them are traditionally been esteemed for
their utilization in terms of medicinal, therapeutic
and nutritional values since time immemorial and
are consumed either as raw or as cooked vegetables
as traditional delicacies and the sales from the
surplus of these vegetables add to the income of
many rural families. Moreover, their consumption
gives diversity to daily food intake, adding flavours
to the diet (Asfaw 1997).
These vegetables are rich in various nutritive
elements, which can compensate for the dietary
deficiencies of vitamins and minerals necessary for
human diet. Malnutrition and subsequent food
shortage among the poor rural population are
conspicuous. Besides other crops, cultivation of
these vegetables will not only increase food
production but also provide balanced nutrition, food
security, health security and poverty alleviation to
the deprived section. So, these leafy vegetables have
the potential to become an important alternative to
usual agricultural crops.
Since little work has been done on the qualitative
and physicochemical properties of these vegetables
1
ICAR (RC) for NEH Region, Umiam - 793103, Meghalaya
SASRD, Nagaland University, Medziphema
3
ICAR (RC) for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre
4
KVK Hailakandi (ICAR), Assam
* Corresponding author’s E-mail: juri.bgohain@yahoo.com
2
Short communication
111
in this part of the country, the present study was
undertaken to study morphological and nutritional
values of twenty five underutilized leafy vegetables
to assess their potential in the nutritional security
of the poor farmers.
Twenty five underutilized leafy vegetables
(listed in Table 1) were collected from different
parts of Meghalaya and were introduced in the
Experimental Farm, Division of Horticulture, ICAR
Meghalaya during the period of 2009 – 10 and 2010
– 11. A total rainfall of 2377.60 mm during 200910 and 2829.30 mm during 2010-11 were received
during the experimental period, and the average
maximum and minimum temperature during the
growth season were 26.35°C and 14.61°C
respectively. The experiment was laid out in
randomized block design.
The collected leafy vegetables were planted
during the month of February. Morphological and
chemical analyses were done at different stages of
maturity. The data collected include number of
leaves/plant, plant height (cm), dry matter content
(%), crude protein content (%) and total chlorophyll
content (mg/g) content, etc. The dry matter content
was determined by the oven dry method by drying
the samples at 60°C until constant weight of the
sample was obtained (Rangana 1997). The crude
protein content was determined by modified ‘microKjeldhal Method’ (Subbiah and Asija 1956). Total
chlorophyll was extracted with 80% acetone, and
the absorption at 663nm and 645nm were read in a
spectrophotometer. Using the absorption coefficient the amount of chlorophyll was calculated
(Witham et al. 1971).
The average data of two years were analyzed as
per the method of Gomez and Gomez (1984). The
critical difference at 5% level was used for testing
the significant differences.
Table 1: List of underutilized leafy vegetables used
in the study
Sl. Scientific Name
No.
Family
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Apiaceae
Plantaginaceae
Sauraceae
Polygonaceae
Apiaceae
Commelinaceae
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Centella asiatica (L.)
Plantago major (L.)
Houttyunia cordata (Thunb.)
Fagopyrum cymosum (Meissn.)
Eryngium foetidium (L.)
Commelina benghalensis (L.)
Polygonum alatum
(Buch. – Ham. Ex Spreng.)
Hibiscus sabdariffa (L.)
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.
Colocasia esculenta (L.)
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.
Mentha arvensis (L.)
Spilanthes acemella (L.)
Oxalis corniculata (L.)
Basella rubra (L.)
Alternanthera philoxeroides
(Mar.) Grisep.
Passiflora edulis (Sims.)
Allium hookeri (Thw.)
Rumex nepalensis (L.)
Amaranthus viridis (L.)
Justicia adhatoda (L.)
Piper longum (L.)
Rumex acetosa (L.)
Brassica juncea (L.)
Chenopodium album (L.)
Polygonaceae
Malvaceae
Athyriaceae
Araceae
Asteraceae
Lamiaceae
Asteraceae
Oxiladaceae
Basellaceae
Amaranthaceae
Passifloracea
Liliaceae
Polygonaceae
Amaranthaceae
Acanthaceae
Piperaceae
Polygonaceae
Brassicaceae
Amaranthaceae
The different leafy vegetables analyzed showed
high variability for the plant attributes investigated.
The numbers of leaves per plant and plant height
(cm) of the crops during 2009 – 10 and 2010 - 11
are presented in Table 2 which ranged from 4.17 –
181.30 leaves/plant and 11.91 – 85.65 cm,
respectively among the different leafy vegetables.
Leaf number was found to be maximum in
Passiflora edulis, (181.35 leaves/plant) followed
by Justicia adhatoda (128.01 leaves/plant) and
Alternanthera philoxeroides (103.59 leaves/plant),
whereas Colocasia esculenta recorded the
minimum number of leaves per plant (4.17). Since
leafy vegetables are mainly grown for fresh leaves,
the number of leaves per plant along with leaf size
determines total yield. Passiflora edulis also
recorded the maximum plant height (85.65 cm),
followed by Justicia adhatoda (80.61 cm). Plant
height was found to be lowest in Rumex acetosa
(11.91 cm).
Wild species may have a great potential as a
source of unusual colours and flavours, bioactive
compounds and also as sources of dietary
supplements or functional foods (Sánchez-Mata et
al. 2011). The different type of vegetables had
significant variations in the dry matter content as
112
Table 2: Mean comparison of number of leaves per plant and plant height of the leafy vegetables during
2009-10 and 2010-11
Sl. Crop
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Centella asiatica
Plantago major
Houttyunia cordata
Fagopyrum cymosum
Eryngium foetidium
Commelina benghalensis
Polygonum alatum
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Diplazium esculentum
Colocasia esculenta
Emilia sonchifolia
Mentha arvensis
Spilanthes acemella
Oxalis corniculata
Basella rubra
Passiflora edulis
Allium hookeri
Rumex nepalensis
Amaranthus viridis
Justicia adhatoda
Piper longum
Rumex acetosa
Brassica juncea
Chenopodium album
SEM
CD 5%
Leaves/plant
Plant height (cm)
2009-10
2010-11
Mean
2009-10
2010-11
Mean
12.78
6.85
10.81
42.81
11.92
80.67
51.07
40.37
19.52
4.00
10.41
42.41
19.67
13.85
18.59
103.70
185.00
20.26
20.33
20.07
128.14
71.00
29.33
15.67
35.00
2.86
8.14
13.12
6.93
11.74
41.89
11.44
83.89
48.11
40.70
21.22
4.33
10.52
45.11
19.89
15.70
20.85
103.48
177.69
19.85
19.74
20.26
127.88
69.33
27.44
17.22
36.07
2.41
6.85
12.95
6.89
11.28
42.35
11.68
82.28
49.59
40.54
20.37
4.17
10.47
43.76
19.78
14.78
19.72
103.59
181.35
20.06
20.04
20.17
128.01
70.17
28.39
16.45
35.54
—
—
12.91
19.76
13.14
56.32
11.98
35.48
36.29
68.17
44.97
19.60
29.79
23.14
34.68
10.56
55.92
48.46
76.16
19.64
32.73
30.64
76.04
23.94
11.62
31.18
33.27
1.85
5.26
13.01
20.71
13.88
52.71
12.91
35.17
40.20
63.38
49.73
18.76
29.81
23.14
31.42
13.63
59.26
45.29
95.14
17.12
33.21
28.92
85.17
27.39
12.20
54.06
33.44
2.27
6.47
12.96
20.24
13.51
54.52
12.45
35.33
38.25
65.78
47.35
19.18
29.80
23.14
33.05
12.10
57.59
46.88
85.65
18.38
32.97
29.78
80.61
25.67
11.91
42.62
33.36
—
—
presented in Table 3. In general, leafy vegetables
with low dry matter content are tender and
succulent, while those with high dry matter content
have a harder texture. The dry matter content of
the vegetables analysed ranged between 8.11% 23.32%. The highest dry matter content (23.32%)
was recorded in Diplazium esculentum, followed
by Fagopyrum cymosum (21.67%). Rumex acetosa
recorded the minimum dry matter content of 8.11%
due to its high moisture content. Eryngium foetidum
and Piper longum were also found to be high in the
dry matter with values of 21.18% and 20.08%,
respectively. These results are in conformity with
the range (7% - 29%) reported (Guil et al. 1997,
Escudero and de Arellano 2003) for dry matter
content of different species of wild leafy vegetables.
Significant variation in crude protein content was
found among the different vegetables (Table 3),
with Centella asiatica recording the maximum
crude protein content of 24.48%, while Oxalis
corniculata recorded the lowest crude protein
content (10.28%). Some other plants rich in crude
protein content were Brassica juncea, Rumex
acetosa, Amaranthus viridis and Chenopodium
album, which recorded crude protein content of
23.83%, 23.73%, 23.70% and 23.54%, respectively.
The higher crude protein content of these leafy
vegetables suggests their richness in essential amino
acids. These amino acids serve as alternative
sources of energy when carbohydrate metabolism
is impaired via gluconeogenesis (Iheanacho and
Udebuani 2009). Similarly total chlorophyll content
also varied significantly among the different
vegetables under study (Figure 1). The content of
pigments in plants is important, not only for
colouration and physiological function, but also
because of their acknowledged roles in health (Liu
et al. 2007, Niizu and Rodriguez-Amaya 2005).
Highest total chlorophyll was found in Rumex
nepalensis (1.58 mg/g), followed by Justicia
adhatoda (1.53 mg/g), whereas the lowest total
chlorophyll content was recorded in Basella rubra
(0.57 mg/g). The total chlorophyll was also found
to be high in Passiflora edulis (1.39 mg/g),
113
Table 3: Mean comparison of dry matter content (%) and crude protein (%) of the leafy vegetable
during 2009-10 and 2010-11
Sl. Crop
No.
Dry matter (%)
2009-10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Centella asiatica
Plantago major
Houttyunia cordata
Fagopyrum cymosum
Eryngium foetidium
Commelina benghalensis
Polygonum alatum
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Diplazium esculentum
Colocasia esculenta
Emilia sonchifolia
Mentha arvensis
Spilanthes acemella
Oxalis corniculata
Basella rubra
Passiflora edulis
Allium hookeri
Rumex nepalensis
Amaranthus viridis
Justicia adhatoda
Piper longum
Rumex acetosa
Brassica juncea
Chenopodium album
SEM
CD 5%
SEM for 2009- 10 = 0.09
19.60
18.89
18.10
22.95
20.41
17.51
17.59
14.99
23.05
19.30
15.81
18.02
18.22
10.22
16.48
15.07
18.92
9.30
13.49
14.51
20.51
20.96
8.86
10.30
15.47
0.54
1.53
Crude protein (%)
2010-11
Mean
2009-10
2010-11
Mean
17.78
19.09
16.54
20.39
21.95
17.94
15.84
14.21
23.59
19.37
16.46
17.38
15.69
11.62
13.10
16.59
19.60
12.33
14.15
13.41
19.33
19.20
7.35
9.84
15.68
0.70
2.00
18.69
18.99
17.32
21.67
21.18
17.73
16.72
14.60
23.32
19.34
16.14
17.70
16.96
10.92
14.79
15.83
19.26
10.82
13.82
13.96
19.92
20.08
8.11
10.07
15.33
—
—
25.56
12.33
13.92
21.08
21.19
20.73
15.07
15.50
13.93
20.54
16.53
18.10
14.59
9.94
20.34
20.11
21.78
14.42
20.67
24.04
15.04
24.90
23.92
24.33
23.46
1.02
2.89
23.39
12.25
15.12
20.79
20.43
21.90
15.44
15.79
13.30
20.60
16.86
17.76
15.15
10.62
19.23
20.13
21.40
14.24
19.87
23.36
14.76
20.63
23.53
23.33
23.61
0.93
2.66
24.48
12.29
14.52
20.94
20.81
21.32
15.26
15.65
13.62
20.57
16.70
17.93
14.87
10.28
19.79
20.12
21.59
14.33
20.27
23.70
14.90
22.77
23.73
23.83
23.54
—
—
SEM for 2010 - 11 = 0.07
CD for 2009 – 10
= 0.27
CD for 2010 - 11 = 0.20
Note: 1-25 represent the different leafy vegetables under study in the order: 1=Centella asiatica, 2= Houttyunia cordata, 3
= Plantago major, 4 = Fagopyrum cymosum,5 = Eryngium foetidium,6 = Commelina benghalensi, 7 = Polygonum alatum, 8 =
Hibiscus sabdariffa , 9 = Diplazium esculentum,10 = Colocasia esculenta, 11 = Emilia sonchifolia,12 = Mentha arvensis, 13 =
Spilanthes acemella, 14 = Oxalis corniculata, 15 = Basella rubra, 16 = Alternanthera philoxeroide, 17 = Passiflora edulis, 18
= Allium hookeri , 19 = Rumex nepalensis, 20 = Amaranthus viridi, 21 = Justicia adhatoda, 22 = Piper longum, 23 = Rumex
acetosa, 24 = Brassica juncea, 25 = Chenopodium album
114
Spilanthes acemella (1.37 mg/g), Piper longum
(1.21 mg/g) and Amaranthus viridis (1.20 mg/g).
CONCLUSION
Considerable variations existed in the different
leafy vegetables in terms of leaf number, plant
height, dry matter content and total chlorophyll
content. It can be concluded from the present study
that the underutilized leafy vegetables are rich
sources of dry matter, crude protein and total
chlorophyll contents. These vegetables can
constitute an inexpensive source of these nutrients
in the diet of the local people which are missing
from the commonly consumed staple foods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Director, ICAR
Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam for
providing facilities and for his encouragement and
constant guidance throughout the experiment.
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York, p 680
Guil JL, Rodríguez I, Torija ME (1997). Nutritional and toxic
factors in selected wild edible plants. Plant Foods Hum
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Iheanacho Kizito, Udebuani Angela C (2009). Nutritional
composition of some leafy vegetables consumed in Imo
State, Nigeria. J Appl Sci Environ Manage 13(3): 35 –
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Liu YT, Perera CO, Suresh V (2007). Comparison of three
chosen vegetables with others from South East Asia
for theit lutein and zeaxanthin content. Food Chemistry
101:1533–1539.
Niizu PY, Rodriguez-Amaya DB (2005). New data on the
carotenoid composition of raw salad vegetables. J Food
Comp Anal 18:739–749
Rangana S (1997). Hand Book of Analysis and Quality Control
of Fruits and Vegetables Products. 2n edition, Tata
McGrow Hill Publ Co Ltd, New Delhi
Sánchez-Mata MC, Cabrera Loera RD, Morales P, FernándezRuiz V, Cámara M, Díez Marqués C, Pardo-deSantayana M, Tardío J (2011). Wild vegetables of the
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115
Effect of Minamil on the Growth Performance and Age at
Maturity of Ghungroo Pigs in Field Condition in Zunheboto
District
RAKESH KUMAR CHAURASIA
ABSTRACT
Vitamin and minerals plays an important role in the growth performances in Pigs reared in traditional
system. Pig farmers depend mainly on the kitchen waste mixed with wheat bran and maize as well as
locally available fodder crops to feed their piglets. Considering the importance of vitamin and mineral
in pig diet an experiment was conducted to find out the effect of minamil on the performance of Pigs.
The result obtained showed that minamil had a significant effect on the age at onset of heat but no
effect on body weight gain.
Key words: Ghungroo, body weight, age at first onset of heat
INTRODUCTION
In Northeastern region of India, Nagaland in
particular pig rearing has significant role in
improving the socio-economic status, livelihood
and nutritional security of the people. By and large,
the pig husbandry in the region is a smallholder
traditional backyard production system. Farmers
raise their pigs on almost zero input production
system where they feed their pigs with locally
available materials like vegetable, plants, left out
of rice and kitchen waste. Moreover, availability
of concentrate feeds in this zone is very limited.
Farmers feed locally available feed materials
without any information on their composition,
nutritional availability and their effect on growth
rate. Due to improper feeding and low nutrient
availability in the feed, pigs do not attain an average
body weight of 80-100kg in a year as well as does
not attain sexual maturity within 8-10 months.
Study conducted by Kumaresan et al. (2006)
revealed that around 80-90% of the of pigs in
Mizoram were deficient in Manganese and Zinc.
Cline and Mahan (1992) reported that deficiency
of minerals and vitamins caused low growth rates
when compared with various vitamin and mineral
levels in diet for growing finishing pigs.
Considering the importance of mineral and
vitamin, the study was conducted to determine the
effect of supplementation of Minamil (feed
supplement containing mineral and Vitamins
recommended for pets) on growth performance and
age at maturity in Ghungroo pigs in the traditional
low input system.
A total of twenty Ghungroo piglets of eight
weeks of age obtained from ICAR, Jharnapani pig
breeding centre were selected for the present study.
The pigs were divided into two groups i.e. 10 piglets
were on Minamil (Brihans Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. detailed composition available at www.brihans.in)
supplementation (Treatment) @15 gms /day and
rest 10 piglets without Minamil supplementation
(control). The piglets were given to the selected
farmers in Akuluto block of Zunheboto district of
Nagaland. Each farmer was given a pair of pigs,
one male and one female. The animals were kept
in the pig sties, which is made of locally available
wooden plank and bamboo with either tin or
thatched roof. The pigs were kept at an altitude of
600 m above msl having subtropical climatic
Programme Coordinator, KVK, Zunheboto, Nagaland University
Email: rchaurasia_2004@yahoo.co.in
Short communication
116
condition. Locally available fodder along with
kitchen waste mixed with broken rice were fed to
the pigs. Deworming was done regularly and proper
health care management was taken. During the
experimental period data pertaining to growth rate
was calculated based on the formula provided at
www.thepigsite.com/article/541, age at first sexual
maturity was calculated based on the day when the
pigs came into first heat and mortality rate was
collected at monthly interval. Statistical analysis
was done using SPSS software. (SPSS 10.0.1,
1999).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Vitamins are complex organic compounds that
function as parts of enzyme systems essential for
the transformation of energy and regulation of body
can perform better in low input system) to feed
supplementation.
Age at first onset of heat was significantly
(P>0.01) lower in treated groups as compared to
control. It is mainly due to essentials minerals
and vitamins in the minimal, since the minerals and
vitamins are essentially required for sexual maturity
and onset of estrus as suggested by Smith and
Akinbamijo (2000). It is clear from the present
experiment where non supplemented group could
not attained the maturity on similar days which
clearly explain the role of mineral and vitamins in
pigs diet. The result obtained in the present study
is well corroborated with the findings of Chae et
al. (2009) who suggested that both vitamins and
trace minerals may affect growth performance of
pigs. No mortality was reported during the entire
period of study. Hence, it is concluded that pigs
supplemented with Minamil (vitamin and mineral
Table.1: Effect of Minamil on growth performance and age at first sexual maturity
Parameters
Treatment
Control
Male
Female
Male
Female
Initial body weight (weaning)
6.02±0.24
6.73±0.33
6.24±0.23
6.79±0.25
Final body weight at 12 months of age
59.59±1.63
74.72±4.77
57.02±0.90
69.25±1.185
Body weight gain (kg per day)
0.17±0.04
0.22±0.11
0.17±0.02
0.21±0.03
Age at first one set of heat
Mortality
220±3.538*
247±3.74*
Nil
Means bearing superscripts in a column differ significantly (P>.0.01)
metabolism. Vitamins are required in minute
amounts for normal growth, production,
reproduction and normal health. Mineral
deficiencies cause metabolic disturbances and can
produce specific deficiency diseases and infertility.
Smith and Akinbamijo (2000) suggested that
reproductive well-being and performance of farm
animals is largely dependent on their nutritional
status, which is often less than optimum in
developing tropical countries. More often than not,
they are malnourished, particularly with regards to
micronutrients. Result obtained in the present study
as presented in Table 1 shows that there was no
significant difference in the initial body weight,
final body weight and body weight gain in
Ghungroo pigs between Minamil supplemented
group and control group. The non-significant effect
of minimal on body weight gain may be attributed
to inherent low response of Ghungroo pigs (which
supplement) performed better than nonsupplemented group in terms of age at onset of heat.
REFERENCE
Chae BJ, Choi SC, Cho NT, In K Han, Sohn KS (2009).Effects
of inclusion levels of dietary vitamins and trace
minerals on growth performance and nutrient
digestibility in growing pigs. Asian-Aus J Animal Sci
13:1440-1444.
Cline JH, Mahan DC (1992). Effects of nutrition deletion in
practical swine diets. J Animal Sci 35:1109 (Abstr.)
Kumaresan A, Pathak KA, Bujarbaruah KM, Das Anubrata
(2006). Pig Production in Mizoram. Research Bulletein
No.50. Published by ICAR Research Complex for
NEH Region, Barapani.
Smith OB, Akinbamijo OO (2000). Micronutrients and
reproduction in farm animals. Animal Rep Sci 60 :
549-560.
SPSS. (1999). SPSS ® user’s guide, release 10.0.1. Edition.
SPSS Inc. USA.
117
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Indian Journal of Hill Farming

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