The Iranian EFL Journal June 2015 Volume 11 Issue 3 The Iranian

Transcription

The Iranian EFL Journal June 2015 Volume 11 Issue 3
ISSN On-line: 1836-8751
ISSN Print: 1836-8743
The Iranian EFL Journal
June 2015
Volume 11
Issue 3
Chief Editors:
Dr. Paul Robertson
Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh
Iranian EFL Journal
1
Publisher
ELE Publishing under the SITE Group
Senior Associate Editor
Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
Mashhad, Iran
Dr. Roger Nunn
Professor Dr. Z.N. Patil
The Petroleum Institute
Dr. John Adamson
Central Institute of English and
Abu Dhabi
Shinshu Honan College
Foreign Languages
UAE
Japan
Hyderabad,
India
Senior Statesmen
Professor Rod Ellis
University of Auckland
New Zealand
Iranian EFL Journal
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Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Dan Douglas
Dr. Reza Pishghadam
Dr. Behzad Ghonsooly
Iowa State University
Ferdowsi University of
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
USA
Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
Mashhad, Iran
Prof. Dr. Rana Nayar
Dr. Abdolmahdy Riazi
Dr. Masoud Sharififar
Panjab University
Shirza University
Shahid Bahonar University of
India
Iran
Kerman, Iran
Editorial team
Dr. Pourya Baghaii
Dr. Zohre Eslami Rasekh
Dr. Azizullah Fatahi
Islamic Azad University,
Texas A & M University,
Shar-e Kord University,
Mashhad Branch, Iran
USA
Iran
Dr. Parvaneh Tavakoli
Dr. Mohammad Reza Hashemi
University of Reading,
Dr. Seyyed Ayatollah Razmju
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad,
Humanities and Social
Shiraz University,
Mashhad, Iran
Sciences Building White
Iran
knights England
Dr. Shamala Paramasivam
Dr. Manizheh Yuhannaee
Dr. Antony Fenton
University of Putra, Malaysia
University of Isfahan, Iran
Soka University, Japan
Dr. Esma’eel Abdollahzadeh
Dr. Ingrid Mosquera Gende
Iran University of Science and
Bettatur University College of
Technology, Iran
Tourism, Tarragona, Spain
Dr. Christopher Alexander
Dr. Robert Kirkpatrick
Dr. Abbas Zare’ee
University of Nicosia,
Shinawatra International
Kashan University,
Cyprus
University, Thailand
Iran
Dr. Masood Khoshsaligheh
Dr. Masoud Sharififar, Shahid
Dr. Naser Rashidi
Mashhad, Iran
Bahonar University
of
Kerman, Kerman, Iran
Iranian EFL Journal
Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh
Torghabeh
Ferdowsi University of
Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
Shiraz University,
Iran
3
The Iranian EFL Journal Press
ELE Publishing under the SITE Group
http://www.Iranian-efl-journal.com
Iranian.efljournal@yahoo.com
This E book is in copyright.
No reproduction may take place without the express written permission of the
Iranian EFL Journal
No unauthorized copying
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Iranian EFL Journal.
Chief Editor: Dr. Paul Robertson
Senior Associate Editor:
Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh,
Mashhad, Iran.
ISSN On-line: 1836-8751
ISSN Print: 1836-8743
Iranian EFL Journal
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Table of Contents
Foreword: Dr. Paul Robertson and Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh
8 - 10
1-Violation of Conversational Maxims: Drivers' Excuses toward Traffic Police's Questions
Saman Ebadi, Ahmed Rawdhan Salman and Abdulbaset Saeedian
11 - 21
2- Contrastive Analysis of Sentence Patterns in English and Persian: A Review Article
Mahdieh Noori and Ali Akbar Jabbari
22 - 33
3-The Effect of Using Creative Drama on Developing Oral Proficiency of Iranian Advanced EFL Learners
Ahmad Mohseny and Delaram Firooz
34 - 48
4- Investigating the Relationship between Anxiety and Writing Performance among Iranian EFL Learners
Naghmeh Jebreil, Akbar Azizifar, Habib Gowhari and Ali Jamilinesari
49 - 60
5- A Gender-Based Study of Compliments and Compliment Responses in Persian Movies
Maliheh Khodabakhshi and Moslem Zolfagharkhani
61 - 79
6- The Effect of Massed/Distributed Sentence Writing on Perception of EFL Learners: A Qualitative Study
Elaheh Sotoudehnama and Fattane Maleki Jebelli
80 - 93
7- Responses to mediation for six levels of reading comprehension questions based on Bloom's taxonomy
Nava Nourdad
94 - 112
8- Contribution of SLA to the Brain Study: A Plausible Look
Nima Shakouri and Marzieh Rezabeigi
113 - 122
9- Chaos/Complexity Theory in Applied Linguistics
Adel Dastgoshadeh and ShahinAhmadishad
123 - 131
10- Bilingual vs. Trilingual; The Case of Learning Strategy Use in an EFL Context
Ali Asghar Ahmadishokouh, Muhammed Parviz and Masud Azizi
132 - 143
11- Iranian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Implementing Computer Assisted Language
Learning in Writing Classes
Sedighe Vahdat and Atusa Gerami
144 - 168
12- Iranian EFL Learners’ Notions of the Role of Imagery in Learning Idiomatic Expressions
and its Application in Pedagogical Contexts
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab
169 - 188
Iranian EFL Journal
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13- Enhancing Listening Comprehension: The role of Metacognitive strategy Instruction
Jafar Izadpanah, Abuzar Momen and Mohsen Chenari
189 - 200
14- Investigating a Relationship between Computer Literacy and Language Proficiency:
A Survey of EFL Students in Sanandaj
Reza Khani and Mohsen Kamangar
201 - 208
15-A Comparison between Distance Education and Conventional University EFL Students
Regarding Their Use of Meta-cognitive Strategies
Saman Khaksefidi and Habib Shirzaei
209 - 223
16- The Impact of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retention of Iranian Monolingual
and Bilingual EFL Students
Abbas Bayat and Muhammad Oveidi
224 - 234
17- Task-Induced Engagement among Iranian EFL Learners’ Vovabulary Retention
Mousa Faramarzzadeh Khaneqah and Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh
235 - 251
18-Manipulation in Poetry Translation: A Case Study of Shakespeare’s Selected Sonnets
Masoud Sharififar and Asma Sabermahani
252 - 260
19- The Effect of Teaching Paraphrasing Strategy on Reading Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners
Akram Shayani and Mehran Davaribina
261 - 269
20- Exploring Role of Academic Backgrounds in EFL Teachers' Language Assessment Literacy
Zahra Shafiee
270 - 293
21- The Role of Negative Evidence in First Language Acquisition
Ashraf Haji Maibodi
294 - 313
22- TQA of Morgan’s International Construction Contract Management Based on House’s Model
Kourosh Akef and Zhila Afshin
314 - 330
23- Cohesion Shifts and Explicitation in English Texts and Their Persian Translations:
A Case Study of Three Novels
Azita Salimi and Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh
331 - 348
24- A Contrastive Pragmatic Study of Speech Act of Complaint between American
Native Speakers of English and Iranian EFL Learners
Javad Khalilpour and Ali Zolfagharian
349 - 369
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25- Issues in Implementing a Task-Based Methodology
Reza Bagheri Nevisi
370 - 381
26- A Sociopragmatic Study of Discourse Markers’ Use across Different Genders:
Case Study of Iranian EFL Learners
Javad Ahmadi Fatalaki
382 - 401
27- Appraisal in Applied Linguistics Research Articles Written by Native and Nonnative
English Speakers over the Course of Time
Aasa Moattarian and Gholam Reza Zarei
402 - 415
28-The Effects of Teaching English Skills in Public Schools and Private Institutes on
Student’s Language Abilities
Nader Assadi Aidinlou and Saeed Mojarradi
416 - 422
29- Investigating the Notion of Face in Asking for a Favor in Everyday Conversations
via SMS; A Case of Persian
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab and Abbas Eslami Rasekh
423 - 442
30- A Comparative Study of Idioms Translation in three English-Persian Dictionaries
with an Orientation of Naturalness, Quality, and Style
Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani and Atefeh Mashayekhi Kerahroodi
443 - 454
31- Apology Strategies Used by Azeri-Persian Bilinguals in Persian
Ali Akbar Ansarin and Abdolreza Khalili
455 - 474
32- Absurdism in Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett
Mahdieh Noori
475 - 493
33-The Effect of Paradigmatic Presentation of Pronominal System on EFL Learners
Ali Reza Bakhshi Haddadan, Ali Asghar Ghasemi and Mehdi Moharami
494 - 517
34- Target Language and Reading Comprehension; The Study of Different Proficiency Levels
Mahmoud Mehrabi and Nafise Radi
518 - 535
Iranian EFL Journal
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Foreword
Welcome to volume eleven and the third edition of 2015. We are happy to announce that our readership is
increasing day by day. For a journal examining the topics of EFL/ESL, Literature and Translation studies,
the growth and readership has been pleasing. Our bi-monthly Journal has attracted many readers not only
from the Middle East but also from different parts of the world. In this edition, we have presented thirty
five articles, discussing different issues of EFL/ESL, literature and translation studies. The first article of
the issue is Violation of Conversational Maxims: Drivers' Excuses toward Traffic Police's Questions and is
studied by Saman Ebadi, Ahmed Rawdhan Salman and Abdulbaset Saeedian. In the second article of the
issue, Mahdieh Noori and Ali Akbar Jabbari have studied Contrastive Analysis of Sentence Patterns in
English and Persian. In the third article of the issue, The Effect of Using Creative Drama on Developing
Oral Proficiency of Iranian Advanced EFL Learners is presented by Ahmad Mohseny and Delaram Firooz.
In the next article, Investigating the Relationship between Anxiety and Writing Performance among Iranian
EFL Learners is studied by Naghmeh Jebreil, Akbar Azizifar, Habib Gowhari and Ali Jamilinesari. In the
fifth article of the issue, Maliheh Khodabakhshi and Moslem Zolfagharkhani have presented A GenderBased Study of Compliments and Compliment Responses in Persian Movies. The next article which is The
Effect of Massed/Distributed Sentence Writing on Perception of EFL Learners: A Qualitative Study is done
Elaheh Sotoudehnama and Fattane Maleki Jebelli. In the seventh article of the issue; Nava Nourdad has
studied Responses to mediation for six levels of reading comprehension questions based on Bloom's
taxonomy. In the eighth article of the issue, Contribution of SLA to the Brain Study: A Plausible Look is
done by Nima Shakouri and Marzieh Rezabeigi. In the next article, Adel Dastgoshadeh and
ShahinAhmadishad have studied Chaos/Complexity Theory in Applied Linguistics. In the tenth article,
Bilingual vs. Trilingual; The Case of Learning Strategy Use in an EFL Context is studied by Ali Asghar
Ahmadishokouh, Muhammed Parviz and Masud Azizi. In the eleventh article of the issue, Sedighe Vahdat
and Atusa Gerami have presented Iranian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Implementing Computer
Assisted Language Learning in Writing Classes.
Iranian EFL Journal
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The twelfth article of the issue is Iranian EFL Learners’ Notions of the Role of Imagery in Learning
Idiomatic Expressions and its Application in Pedagogical Contexts and is done by Fatemeh Ghanavati
Nasab. In the next article, Enhancing Listening Comprehension: The role of Metacognitive strategy
Instruction is done by Jafar Izadpanah, Abuzar Momen and Mohsen Chenari. In the fourteenth article of
the issue, Investigating a Relationship between Computer Literacy and Language Proficiency: A Survey of
EFL Students in Sanandaj is presentd by Reza Khani and Mohsen Kamangar. In the fifteenth article of the
issue, A Comparison between Distance Education and Conventional University EFL Students Regarding
Their Use of Meta-cognitive Strategies ispresented by Saman Khaksefidi and Habib Shirzaei. In the next
article, Abbas Bayat and Muhammad Oveidi have studied The Impact of Cognates on Target words in
vocabulary retention of Iranian Monolingual and Bilingual EFL Students. In the seventeenth article of the
issue, Task-Induced Engagement among Iranian EFL Learners’ Vovabulary Retention is presented by
Mousa Faramarzzadeh Khaneqah and Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh. The next article of the issue is
Manipulation in Poetry Translation: A Case Study of Shakespeare’s Selected Sonnets and is done by
Masoud Sharififar and Asma Sabermahani. In the next article of the issue Akram Shayani and Mehran
Davaribina have done a research on The Effect of Teaching Paraphrasing Strategy on Reading
Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners. In the twentieth article of the issue, Exploring Role of Academic
Backgrounds in EFL Teachers' Language Assessment Literacy is presented by Zahra Shafiee. In the twenty
first article of the issue The Role of Negative Evidence in First Language Acquisition is done by Ashraf
Haji Maibodi. In the next article of the issue Kourosh Akef and Zhila Afshin have done a research on TQA
of Morgan’s International Construction Contract Management Based on House’s Model. In the twenty third
article of the issue, Cohesion Shifts and Explicitation in English Texts and Their Persian Translations: A
Case Study of Three Novels is done by Azita Salimi and Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh. In the next article,
Javad Khalilpour and Ali Zolfagharian have done A Contrastive Pragmatic Study of Speech Act of
Complaint between American Native Speakers of English and Iranian EFL Learners.
Iranian EFL Journal
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In the next article of the issue, Issues in Implementing a Task-Based Methodology is studied by Reza
Bagheri Nevisi. In the twenty sixth article of the issue, A Sociopragmatic Study of Discourse Markers’ Use
across Different Genders: Case Study of Iranian EFL Learners is studied by Javad Ahmadi Fatalaki. In the
twenty seventh article of the issue, Appraisal in Applied Linguistics Research Articles Written by Native
and Nonnative English Speakers over the Course of Time is done by Aasa Moattarian and Gholam Reza
Zarei. In the next article, The Effects of Teaching English Skills in Public Schools and Private Institutes on
Student’s Language Abilities is presented by Nader Assadi Aidinlou and Saeed Mojarradi. In the next
article of the issue, Investigating the Notion of Face in Asking for a Favor in Everyday Conversations via
SMS; A Case of Persian is done by Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab and Abbas Eslami Rasekh. In the thirtieth
article of the issue, A Comparative Study of Idioms Translation in three English-Persian Dictionaries with
an Orientation of Naturalness, Quality, and Style is done by Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani and Atefeh
Mashayekhi Kerahroodi. In the thirty first article of the issue, Apology Strategies Used by Azeri-Persian
Bilinguals in Persian is done by Ali Akbar Ansarin and Abdolreza Khalili. In the thirty second article of
the issue, Absurdism in Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett is presented by Mahdieh Noori. In the thirty
third article of the issue, Ali Reza Bakhshi Haddadan, Ali Asghar Ghasemi and Mehdi Moharami have
done a research on The Effect of Paradigmatic Presentation of Pronominal System on EFL Learners.
In the last article of the issue, Target Language and Reading Comprehension; The Study of Different
Proficiency Levels is presented by Mahmoud Mehrabi and Nafise Radi.
We hope you enjoy this edition and look forward to your readership.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
Violation of Conversational Maxims: Drivers' Excuses
toward Traffic Police's Questions
Authors
Saman Ebadi (Ph.D)
Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
Ahmed Rawdhan Salman (M.A Student)
Abdulbaset Saeedian (M.A Student)
Biodata
Saman Ebadi, assistant professor of applied linguistics at Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran. His
areas of interest are sociocultural theory, dynamic assessment, CALL, discourse analysis, language
acquisition, and syllabus design. He has published and presented papers in international
conferences and journals.
Ahmed Rawdhan Salman, M.A student in TEFL at Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran. He is
interested in discourse analysis, testing and teaching skills.
Abdulbaset Saeedian, M.A student in TEFL at Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran. His research
interests include dynamic assessment, discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics.
Abstract
This study deals with the paradox of the communicative nature of drivers' excuses when
they are caught red-handed by traffic police due to different violation of driving
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regulations. This qualitative study aimed to find out which conversational maxims the
drivers in Kurdistan province in Iran, driving from Sanandaj to Marivan and vice versa,
violated when they infracted driving regulations and were stopped by police. Two DVDs,
each containing one-hour traffic police interviews with a total of 10 infringing drivers, were
analyzed to investigate the aim of the study. The data analysis of the study shows that all
of the stops were for speeding and in most of the interviews the maxims of quality and
quantity were violated by the infringing drivers while the maxims of manner and relation
were observed.
Keywords: Conversational maxims, violation, traffic police, quantity, quality, relation,
manner
1. Introduction
This study is concerned with the excuses that drivers make to answer traffic police's questions.
The conversations between the infracted drivers (those who break the rules while they are familiar
with them and know that disobeying them is a crime) and traffic police are analyzed in this study
to find out if the conversational maxims are violated. The term "violating" has been preferred over
the other terms such as flouting, opting out, and infringing because almost all drivers want to
deceive traffic police when they are stopped. The distinction between them will be noted in the
Literature Review.
Paul Grice who introduced the Cooperative Principles states, "Make your contribution such as
it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged (Grice 1975, pp.41-58)." Though phrased as a prescriptive
command, the principle is intended as a description of how people normally behave in
conversation. It can be stated, hence, that the Cooperative Principle describes how people interact
with one another.
According to the Cooperative Principle, both speaker and hearer converse with the willingness
to deliver and interpret a message. The speaker and hearer cooperate and that is why they
communicate efficiently (Thomas, 1995). In order to show how we interpret meaning which Grice
presented, in addition to the Cooperative Principle, four conversational maxims were introduced
by him to show how we communicate efficiently in the light of certain rules. Thanks to Grice’s
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maxims, we can interpret and understand the underlying implication of an utterance (Thomas,
1995).
Therefore, in order to show what goes on in conversation, Grice introduced four conversational
maxims. A speaker might fail to observe a maxim but still get the intended meaning through to the
hearer. Failing to observe a maxim is often referred to as ‘breaking a maxim’. Breaking these
maxims may have several reasons such as creating "humor", emphasizing a message, creating
irony or avoiding unpleasant situations; in other words, to communicate effectively (Dornerus,
2006), but in this article the reason for breaking maxims is "not being fined" by police traffic.
In this article the researchers examined how infracted drivers use these conversational rules in
order not to be fined and to evoke traffic police's feelings to at least reduce the amount of fine. In
this study, the main focus was on the reasons the infracted drivers give why they have driven too
fast. We explored which maxims were most frequently violated in the different infracted drivers'
responses to the traffic police's questions.
2. Literature Review
Violating, flouting, infringing, and opting out are the main key terms that while discussing Grice's
maxims are used. Providing a distinction between these key terms is of utmost importance in this
study in order to show which one has been focused upon and why.
2.1. Violating and Flouting
According to Thomas (1995) and Cutting (2002), there is a difference between violating and
flouting in terms of speaker's intention. If a speaker attempts to deceive a listener on purpose or
intentionally, they are, in fact, violating a maxim. While flouting occurs if there is no sign of
deception in what a speaker states, that is, the speaker may unintentionally misleads the listener.
For instance, Cutting (2002) provides an example of a person (girl or boy) whose mother has gone
on a short vacation to reconsider her situation if it is better for her to divorce or not, but the speaker
internally states that she has gone somewhere to relax. In this case, the speaker intentionally
intends the listener not to understand the truth; therefore he violates (not flouts) the maxim of
quality.
2.2. Infringing and Opting out
Infringing a maxim happens when a speaker does not have sufficient linguistic capacity to answer
a question. This is more evident for those students who, for whatever reason, have not studied well,
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and when they are asked by their teacher to answer a question, they fail to do it. In this case they
don't intend to mislead or deceive the listener, but their failure to answer the question is due to lack
of information or linguistic knowledge. There are also some other cases when a person rejects to
answer a question or says something. In this case that person is "opting out" of a maxim. This can
be seen among spies who are caught by their foe but also do not want to give any information to
them. Researchers also use (should use) "opting out" when they are asked to provide their
participants' personal information. This should be taken into consideration since it is concerned
with "confidentiality agreement they have with someone" (Paltridge 2006, p.65).
In this study, "violating" has been preferred over the other terms because infracted drivers, in
general, try to convince traffic police not to fine them by begging them or, in a clearer sense,
deceiving them intentionally. Before going any further, a short discussion of the four
conversational maxims can be helpful in understanding what the infracted drivers' violations of
maxims were based on. The four conversational maxims are as follows:
The maxim of quantity
The maxim of quantity requires the speaker to give the right amount of information when s/he
speaks. The provided information should not be either less or more than what is required (Thomas,
1995). An example of non-observance is when a speaker says: “I’m feeling good today, but
yesterday I was very ill, and the day before that, even worse”, when someone asks, by way of
greeting, “How are you doing today”? In the greeting context the utterance contains too much
information and the maxim is not being observed or it is violated (Dornerus, 2006).
Of course, this is not the one and only rule, that is, providing less information than what is
required to convey the intended message is also regarded as violation of this maxim. For instance,
in a study conducted by Engelhardt et al. (2006), they reported that speakers and hearers were not
sensitive to over-informativeness but their sensitivity to under-informativeness was crystal clear.
But in an empirical response to Engelhardt et al. (2006), the findings of Davies and Katsos' study
provided evidence that "speakers and hearers are sensitive to both Quantity maxims" (2013, p.78).
This has not been the end of the story, in a more interesting study, Engelhardt disagreed with
Davies and Katsos' understanding of their study and encourages further discussions to "a better
understanding of the situations in which people do and do not follow the Maxim of Quantity"
(2013, p.107).
The maxim of quality
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The maxim of quality is a matter of giving the right information. The speaker says nothing that
s/he knows to be false or for which s/he lacks sufficient evidence (Thomas, 1995). The other
maxims are dependent on this maxim since, if a speaker does not convey the truth then the
utterance is false, even if the right amount of information is given or the speaker is clear and orderly
when speaking (Finegan and Besnier, 1989). An example of non-observance is: “you look good
with your new haircut” when one actually believes the opposite. The statement is then an untruth,
the speaker fails to observe the maxim in order to be polite (Dornerus, 2006).
The maxim of relevance
The maxim of relevance requires the speaker to be relevant to the context and situation in which
the utterance occurs (Thomas, 1995). For instance, a speaker should not say “I am on the phone”
when someone asks if s/he wants dinner. Here the utterance meaning is irrelevant and the speaker
fails to observe the maxim (Dornerus, 2006).
The maxim of manner
The maxim of manner is a matter of being clear and orderly when conversing. The speaker
describes things in the order in which they occurred and avoids ambiguity and obscurity (Thomas,
1995). A speaker fails to observe the maxim of manner when s/he says “I went to bed and got
undressed” when, of course, s/he undressed first and then went to bed.
There are some studies which have just taken one of these maxims into consideration to
scrutinize the maxim under investigation more closely. For instance, taken the maxim of quantity
into consideration, Young (1999) carried out a study under the title of "Using Grice’s maxim of
Quantity to select the content of plan descriptions". The findings of that study showed the more
the participants followed instructions produced by the cooperative techniques, the less and fewer
execution errors they made and could achieve more of their goals. The three interesting studies of
Engelhardt et al. (2006), Davies and Katsos (2013), and Engelhardt (2013) which have carried out
in response to each other, have only taken maxim of quantity into consideration. Unlike these
studies, this study investigates all four Gricean maxims, i.e., it does not specifically takes only one
of them into consideration.
These maxims have been proved to be effective in teaching. For example, Lazăr (2013), in his
study indicated that those students who had problems regarding comprehension of the authors'
intended meaning while studying absurd literature had better performance if a transgressive point
of view with regard to Grice’s conversational maxims is used to the absurd dramatic discourse.
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3. Methodology
This is a qualitative study whose aim is to help the present researchers understand what excuses
the infracted drivers give to the traffic police's question regarding overspeeding. In this qualitative
study, ten such cases have been investigated closely
while taking Gricean maxims into
consideration. It is also worth mentioning that the transcription conventions which have been used
in this study are made by the present researchers and have not been adopted or adapted from any
specific study.
In order to illustrate how maxims are violated in the infracted drivers' responses, the present
researchers first watched the recorded videos and then having transcribed them, they analyzed
carefully the drivers' responses. Due to the scope of this study, only each driver's main response
and the traffic police's suggestions are written here. For convenience, in all of the ten examples
"D" stands for "Driver" and "TP" for "Traffic Police". Since all of these drivers have been stopped
by traffic police for overspeeding, the police officer's question which was as follows "Excellency,
why are you overspeeding?" was only written here and should be applied to all ten conversations.
It is also worth mentioning that all of these conversations have been synopsized to a large extent,
i.e., to save time and place only the most important statement of the infracted drivers has been
written in this section.
D1. I am late for an important appointment and I have to arrive on time.
TP: Always leave enough time for your journey. You have to remember that if you drive too fast,
you may be stopped by police and this will certainly cause you to be late.
D2. I am late and behind schedule. I have to arrive in my destination on time.
TP: What schedule? If you want to continue to have a schedule, SLOW DOWN [our
capitalization]. Allow enough time for your journey.
D3. I didn't realize what the speed limit was.
TP: There is a reason for determining these speed limits. It's your responsibility to be aware of the
limit you are in and to drive within it. Please remember just because the speed limit is, for example,
80 KPH it doesn't mean that you should drive this fast; it may be safer to drive more slowly and
adjust your speed with road conditions.
D4. I was affected by other drivers' performance. The traffic was moving faster than I
normally drive.
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TP: Just because they do it do you need to do it too? Take control. You decide the speed you travel
at.
D5. I was feeling stressed because of something.
TP: It is one of the driving regulations [in Iran, our words] that you shouldn't drive while you think
you are not OK or you are angry because of something. Stress can make the situations even worse.
D6. It was all because of the driver behind me who was driving too close to me.
TP: Tailgating (following an automobile very closely) is a serious problem but speeding up simply
puts you more at risk.
D7. I was overtaking a vehicle, with slow speed, in front.
TP: What if he has been driving within the speed limit. You should not be affected by others either
inside or outside the car. Overtaking isn't an acceptable reason for speeding.
D8. I was listening to loud/fast tempo music.
TP: You can't go fast when listening to hospital radio! Research has shown that listening to loud
or upbeat music tracks can influence your speed. No-one is asking you to stop listening to your
favorite tracks in the car - but be aware of your speed when you are driving.
D9. I was distracted by other people in the car.
TP: Their safety is in your hands! Don't allow yourself to be distracted. If necessary, stop the car
and deal with whatever is distracting you.
D10. I was searching for the right direction because I was lost.
TP: Make sure you don't get to the wrong destination in break speed time. If you're lost, going
faster isn't going to help. It simply isn't an excuse for breaking the speed limit. Slow down, stop
and ask.
What has been discussed in the Results is the summary of negotiation between the drivers and
traffic police. It is of utmost importance to note that only the gist of the conversations has been
written here because each conversation took about 15 minutes which needs a lot of place to be
transcribed wholly. Hence, in some parts, mostly regarding maxims of quality and quantity, the
results have been written based on what is said in conversations and has not been written here.
4. Results and Discussion
In this part the results of the ten above-mentioned conversations, though summarized, were
discussed in separate paragraphs for each case as follows:
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In the first conversation, the maxims of relation and manner are observed because the driver
responds to the police in a relevant way and also he is not ambiguous at all, i.e., the reason for
overspeeding is stated by this driver. However the maxims of quantity and quality are violated
because he provides too much information which most of it is not necessary for the meaning to be
conveyed and it was clear that he was not telling the truth because in one of his sentences he said
that his wife is giving birth to a child which is not in line with being late for an appointment.
Though concise, the police's tip was also as informative, relevant, unambiguous, and true as is
required; hence it observes all the maxims too. The results of the first conversation is in line with
the findings of Davies and Katsos (2013) but in contrary with those of Engelhardt et al. (2006)
who reported that both speakers and hearers are sensitive to under-informativeness but not to overinformativeness.
The same description is true about the second conversation too. That is, the maxims of relation
and manner are observed but the ones of quantity and quality are violated. The maxim of relation
is observed because the driver's answer is in line with the traffic cop's question. Again providing
a reason by the driver shows the observance of the maxim of manner. The police's tip observes all
Gricean maxims as well. The aforementioned comparison between the results of this study and
those of the mentioned studies is also true about this conversation.
In the third conversation the driver is absolutely violating the maxim of quality by stating that
he didn't know the speed limit because he intended to mislead the hearer (the traffic police). The
maxims of manner and relation are observed but the one of quantity is again violated due to the
unnecessary speech of the driver. The police' tip violates the maxim of quantity by telling too much
information such as an example, details, etc. but the other maxims are observed.
Regarding the fourth conversation it is worth mentioning that the driver tries to convince the
traffic police that it's been other drivers' fault that he has driven too fast, though it may not to a
large extent be true, hence he violates the maxim of quality. In harmony with the previous
conversation, in the fourth conversation the maxims of manner and relation are observed but the
one of quantity is again violated. In this conversion all of the maxims are observed by the police's
tip.
In the fifth conversation the traffic police's sardonic response indicates that what the driver says
is nonsense, ambiguous, and irrelevant. This shows that all four conversational maxims of relation,
quality, and quantity, and manner are violated. Regarding the police's tips, it can be stated again
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that all of the maxims are observed. As in conversation five, the police's tip in this conversation is
in line with the observance of the maxims.
The sixth conversation is like the fourth conversation in which the driver tries to convince the
traffic police that it's been other drivers' fault that has influenced on his performance, hence he
violates the maxim of quality. In this conversation, the maxims of manner and relation are observed
but the one of quantity is again violated. The police's tip also observes all of the maxims in this
conversation.
The seventh conversation is the only one, so far, that has observed the maxim of quality, i.e.,
the driver stated that he had driven too fast because he wanted to overtake a vehicle. What he said
is related to the question and it is not ambiguous at all. The maxim of quantity, though, is violated
again due to the driver's resolute attempt to satisfy the police not to fine him. The cop wants to
make the driver aware of his mistake and the driver seems to be confused because after "What if
he has been driving within the speed limit.", the driver asked: "What do you mean?" Accordingly,
it can be stated that the police's tip does violate the maxim of manner by being ambiguous and
making the driver confused, but it observes the other maxims.
Unlike the fifth conversation, in the eighth conversation, all of the maxims are observed, i.e.,
none of them is violated. It seems that all of the maxims in this conversation are observed by the
police too. In the ninth conversation the maxims of quantity and quality are violated and the other
two are observed. The police's tip observes all of the maxims in this conversation and also in the
tenth one.
In the last conversation the maxim of quality is violated because of "If you're lost, going faster
isn't going to help." The maxim of quantity is again violated but this time because of brevity. The
maxims of relation and manner are also violated in harmony with the fifth conversation. The results
of the last conversation, that is, the violation of the maxim of quantity because of brevity
corroborates with the findings of Engelhardt et al. (2006) but it contradicts the findings of Davies
and Katsos (2013) which was a response to the previous study. The findings of Engelhardt (2013)
are in line with the results obtained in this section.
In summary it can be stated that the most frequently violated maxim is the maxim of quantity.
They drivers tried to convince the police not to fine them by expatiating. The second most
frequently violated maxim is the one of quality. The drivers lie when they find no other way out
of the discussion and they want to save face. The maxim of relation and manner are the least
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frequently violated maxims in these conversations. Since all of the drivers were male in this study,
it can be a good idea to do further research on cases in which the drivers are females and see what
maxims they mostly observe and violate and if there is difference between them.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, since our material consists of a small amount of data no generalization can be made
as to which maxims are most frequently violated in drivers-traffic police conversations in general.
However this study shows that being aware of maxims is important for traffic police in order to
control their feelings and reactions toward what the drivers say and not to feel pity for them. In the
conversation which we examined, maxims were violated in almost every interaction. Therefore, it
is necessary for traffic police not to be deceived by the drivers who break the maxims in order to
evoke the officers' feeling in their verbal interactions. Nearly all of the maxims are observed in the
police's tips to these drivers which shows that they are trained enough how to deal with people
properly, help them with their update information, and finally don't waste people's time either by
asking them irrelevant questions or through elaborating on unnecessary and long responses. In a
nutshell, without the help of Grice’s maxims, we would not be able to properly describe the
dynamics of interaction and understand the phenomenon of cooperation and non-cooperation.
It is highly recommended for future researchers who are interested in this area to investigate the
violation of maxims based on gender (male and female drivers) and also include other reasons why
drivers are stopped by traffic police. In this study, the only question which the traffic police asked
was regarding overspeeding which is not enough to overgeneralize the findings to other reasons of
infringing driving regulations. Because this study was qualitative, the number of investigated cases
was only ten. In future studies, the number of involved cases to investigate can be more those of
this study to make the obtained results more generalizeable.
References
Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students. London: Routledge.
Davies, C., & Katsos, N. (2013). Are speakers and listeners ‘only moderately Gricean’? An empirical
response to Engelhardt et al.(2006). Journal of Pragmatics, 49, 78-106.
Dornerus, E. (2006). Breaking maxims in conversation: A comparative study of how scriptwriters break
maxims in Desperate Housewives and That 70’s Show (Doctoral dissertation, Karlstad University).
Iranian EFL Journal
20
Engelhardt, P. E. (2013). Are listeners ‘fully’Gricean?: A comment on Davies and Katsos (2012). Journal
of Pragmatics, 49(1), 107-113.
Engelhardt, P. E., Bailey, K. G., & Ferreira, F. (2006). Do speakers and listeners observe the Gricean Maxim
of Quantity?. Journal of Memory and Language, 54(4), 554-573.
Finegan, E., & Besnier, N. (1989). Language: Its structure and use. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Grice, Paul (1975). "Logic and conversation". In Cole, P.; Morgan, J. Syntax and semantics. 3: Speech acts.
New York: Academic Press. pp. 41–58.
Lazăr, A. (2013). Teaching Absurd Literature–A Pragmatic Approach to Ionesco's Transgressive Dramatic
Discourse: The Conversational Maxims. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 76, 441-445.
Paltridge, B. (2006). Discourse Analysis: An Introduction. Continuum International Publishing Group.
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. London: Longman.
Young, R. M. (1999). Using Grice's maxim of quantity to select the content of plan descriptions. Artificial
Intelligence, 115(2), 215-256.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
Contrastive Analysis of Sentence Patterns in English and Persian:
A Review Article
Authors
Mahdieh Noori (M.A)
Yazd University, Iran
Ali Akbar Jabbari (Ph.D)
Yazd University, Iran
Biodata
Mahdieh Noori, M.A in TEFL from Yazd University, Iran. Her main interest is applied linguistics,
ESP, needs analysis, psycholinguistics, and English teaching methodology. She has published
some articles in these respects.
Ali Akbar Jabbari, associate professor of applied linguistics at Yazd University, Iran. His main
research interest includes second language acquisition and phonology.
Abstract
Hajizadeh (2011) in his article entitled as ‘Contrastive analysis of sentence patterns in
English and Persian’ aims at presenting a general classification of clause structure in
Modern Persian. To this aim, transitive and intransitive structures in Persian are discussed;
five canonical Persian constructions based on valency and transitivity are enumerated, and
the ways in which complements and adjuncts are distinguished from each other are
analyzed. In addition, similarities and differences between English and Persian are
described. However, the author’s contention in terms of the basic functions in Persian and
English clause and sentence structure; transitivity, intransitivity, and ditransitivity in
Persian; core and non-core complements in Persian do not seem to be well substantiated.
Keywords: Adjuncts, Complements, Intransitive, Predicate, Transitive
1. Introduction
Contrastive analysis as a branch of linguistics deals with the comparison of two or more languages
or subfields of them in an attempt to identify their similarities and differences (Fisiak, 1981).
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Though the field is concerned with the identification of both similarities and differences between
languages, it mainly deals with the differences rather than similarities (James, 1980).
Correspondingly, it is believed that the more differences exist between the two languages, the more
difficult it is for the learners to learn a second language; on the other hand, the more similarities
exist between them, the easier it is to do so. In the case of differences, either transfer would be
adopted or language learning may be inhibited.
Accordingly, there are some significant similarities and differences between Persian and
English. One of the areas of most difficulties for language learners of English or Persian is
syntactic differences. This syntactic difference is mainly striking in terms of the clause structure
i.e., complements, adjuncts and predicator in the respective languages. In addition, there are some
significant differences in terms of canonical structures, order of the elements in the clause,
accompanying elements with the indirect object, position of the predicate, flexibility of the word
order in Persian but not in English, and ditransitivity.
On the other hand, there are some significant similarities between the two languages. In both
languages, the basic functions of the clause are the same. The subject is the first element of the
clause in both cases. Both English and Persian have the same behavior in terms of intransitivity,
monotransitivity, and valency. Complements in the two languages are distinguished by factors of
licensing, obligatorness, category, and prepositional phrase which can differentiate complements
from adjuncts.
In the following part, different functions of the clause structure i.e., complements, adjuncts, and
predicator in English and Persian are elaborated. The next section deals with the canonical
intransitive and transitive structure. The subsequent section illustrates the concept of valency.
Different factors distinguishing complements from adjuncts are enumerated in the Section 5. The
following section concerns the strengths and weaknesses of the article written by Hajizadeh (2011)
entitled as ‘Contrastive analysis of sentence patterns in English and Persian’, which aims at
presenting a general comparison and classification of clause structures in Persian and English
based on valency and transitivity. The current review article ends with the concluding remark.
2. Clause Functions in English and Persian
In Persian and English, there are three basic functions in the clause i.e., complements, adjuncts,
and predicator. The most central function in the clause is the predicator. Complements, which can
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be distinguished based on their semantic grounds, are more closely related to the verb than
adjuncts. Adjuncts can be classified to adjuncts of frequency, time period, and location i.e., har
rUZ, do sâ ât, and dar xane, respectively.
In Persian, as in English, complements are classified into core and non-core appearing in the
forms of NPs and PPs, respectively. NPs functioning as core complements (e.g., payâm / name râ)
are directly related to the verb, but PPs functioning as noncore ones (e.g., be maryam) are only
indirectly related to the verb:
C
C
C
P
(1) a. payâm / name râ / be maryam / dâd-ø.
b. Payam gave the letter to Maryam.
The NP maryam which is governed by a preposition is traditionally called oblique. The preposition
be 'to' in be maryam determines the semantic role of maryam with regards to the verb dad.
In English the deciding factor determining a complement as core or non-core is the type of the
category of the complement (NP vs. PP) rather than its position in the clause.
(2) a. Kim gave Alice the letter. → core complement
b. Kim gave the letter to Alice. → non-core complement
The following example shows a significant difference between English and Persian.
(3) a. Payam gave Ali the money/ Payam gave the money to Ali.
* b. payâm ali pul râ dâd-ø. / *payâm pul râ ali dâd-ø.
Sentence (3.b.) is nonequivalent in Persian because Ali should have been preceded by the
preposition be ‘to’. In English, a canonical structure can contain an intransitive verb with three
NPs as core complements but this is not the case in Persian. To express an equivalent clause in
Persian, we have to use two NPs and one PP, as in the following sentence:
(4) paâym pul râ be ali dâd-Ǿ.
Claiming that a non-core complement i.e., PP does not appear as an object, so there is no
ditransitive clause/verb in Persian (at least in the sense used in English).
Among the complements, the subject (e.g., payam) is external to the VP; however, the other
complements (e.g., be ali and pul ra) are internal to the VP. Unlike English, in Persian, the subject
mayor is not absent because the person/number ending is always attached to the verb in Persian.
(5) a. man âmad-am.
b. I came.
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Any canonical clause has a subject as an external complement. However, based on the nature of
its verb, a clause mayor may not contain a direct object as an internal object. So, clauses are
classified as transitive and intransitive. A transitive verb takes an object while an intransitive does
not. A clause containing a transitive verb is called transitive while a clause containing an
intransitive verb is called intransitive. On the other hand, there are verbs appearing in both
(in)transitive patterns. These verbs are called dual-transitive.
(6) a. livân Šekast-ø.
b. The glass broke.
(7) a. puyâ livân râ Šekast-ø.
b. Puya broke the glass.
Some verbs appear in patterns containing just a direct object. They are called monotransitives.
Some other verbs appear in patterns with both a direct object and an indirect one. They are called
ditransitives.
(8) a. u /name/ ra/xand-ø. → monotransitive verb
b. S/he read the letter.
(9) a. man/ sib râ / be hasan/ dâdam-ø. → ditransitive verb
b. I gave the apple to Hasan.
On the other hand, some verbs (e.g., goftan ‘tell’) appear in both monotransitive and ditransitive
clauses.
(10) a. nimâ/ haqhiqhat /râ/ goft-ø.
b. Nima told the truth.
(11) a. nimâ/ haqhiqhat/ râ/be /man/ goft-ø.
b. Nima told me the truth.
Some intransitive verbs take a predicative complement, but this complement is more like
predicators than ordinary complements i.e., it's subject-oriented. Similarly, some transitive verbs
take a predicative complement which is more related to the direct object of the clause. i.e., it's
object-oriented. Such verbs and clauses use PCs for complex-intransitives and PCo for complextransitive.
S PCs P → complex-intransitive
(12) a. hamid bâhuŠ ast-ø. → related to the subject (Hamid)
b. Hamid is sharp.
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S DO PCo P → complex-transitive
(13) a. mehdi hamid râ bâhuŠ pendâŠt-ø. → related to the direct object (Hamid)
b. Mehdi considered Hamid as intelligent.
Oblique can also be used as predicative complements.
(14) a. man to râ be onvân-e modir bargozid-am.
b. I elected you as the manager.
3. Canonical Structures
In terms of intransitive and mono-transitive structures, both languages contain the same elements
but in different orders. In English, the predicator occurs in the second position of the clause while
in Persian it occurs in the final position. Unlike English, Persian does not contain an intransitive
structure because in Persian verbs like dâd-an 'give' obligatorily take a NP (core complement) and
a PP (non-core complement). So, according to the proposed framework, a PP cannot function as
an object.
4. Valency
The above classification is based on the objects and predicative complements. Another
classification is based on the number of complements which is referred to as valency. So, a verb
is monovalent if it takes just one complement, bivalent if it takes two complements, and trivalent
if it takes three.
5. Factors Distinguishing Complements from Adjuncts
Five factors distinguish complements from adjuncts: (a) licensing, (b) obligatorness, (c) anaphora,
(d) category, and (e) prepositional phrases. The following two subsections elaborate two of these
distinguishing factors i.e., licensing and obligatorness.
5.1.Licensing
The verb as the decisive element of the clause determines (licenses) the permissible complements.
(15) a. rezâ xâne râ sâxt-ø. → licenses a direct object (xane ra)
b. Reza built the house.
But not:
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(16) a. *reza xane ra rasid- ø. → does not license a direct object (xane ra)
b. Reza reached the house. → licenses a direct object (the house)
In contrast to the verbs, adjuncts are used with different types of verb. Subcategorization shows
the dependence between the verbs and their complements. Therefore, verbs like raft-an (to go) and
xord-an (to eat) are classified as intransitive and mono-transitive, respectively. Some verbs (e.g.,
seda kard-an ‘call’) may take different complementation patterns: in SOP as well as in S O PC P.
(17) a. man pesar ra seda mi-kon-am.
b. I call the boy.
(18) a. man pesar ra ali seda mi-kon-am.
b. I call the boy Ali.
In Persian, there are some verbs (e.g., xastan) that are used in four different patterns: in monotransitive pattern, complex transitive, ditransitive, and in a pattern without any label i.e., a PP + a
clause as complements.
(19) a. Man an ketab ra mi-xah-am. (mono-transitive)
b. I want that book.
(20) a. man an qatel ra zende mi-xah-am. (complex transitive)
b. I want that murderer alive.
(21) a. man in xane ra baray-e to mi-xah-am. (ditransitive)
b. I would like you to have this house.
(22) a. man az payam mi-xah-a ke ketab ra be-bar-ad. (PP + a clause as complement)
b. I ask Payam to take the book.
In the context of forms like the above-mentioned, two significant points need to be highlighted:
the choice of preposition and the choice of subordinate clause. Concerning the choice of
preposition, the verb determines which preposition can accompany it e.g., ‘goft’ takes the
preposition ‘be’ but not ‘dar’.
On the other hand, in any complex sentence, it is the verb of the main clause which determines the
type of the subordinate clause i.e., declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamative, finite,
nonfinite, etc.
(23) a. farid porsid ke/ hasan/ che goft-ø.
b. Farid asked what Hasan said.
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5.2.Obligatorness
In Persian and in English, complements are sometimes obligatory because their absence makes the
clause ungrammatical whereas adjuncts are always optional. The complements in (24.a.) and
(24.b.) are obligatory while the complements in (25.a.) and (25.b.) are not.
(24) a. hamid ketab ra avard-ø.
b. Hamid brought the book.
(25) * a. hamid/aVard-ø.
* b. Hamid brought.
6. Strengths and Weaknesses
In general, we are mostly in agreement with the author. The materials presented in this article are
very interesting. As our search on the Internet showed, the article written by (Hajizadeh, 2011)
which was entitled as ‘contrastive analysis of sentence patterns in English and Persian’ was the
first and the only article written on the contrastive analysis of sentence patterns in English and
Persian. The findings of this research can help EFL teachers to understand the problems that their
Persian students may have in learning English as a foreign language. On the other hand, this article
can give a better view of English structures and their differences with Persian ones to EFL Iranian
students and hence facilitate their English learning. Moreover, this research can give some insights
to researchers in both languages leading them to further research while revealing more similarities
and differences between the two languages.
The authors’ contention in terms of canonical structures (i.e., intransitive, mono-transitive, and
ditransitive patterns), same elements in different orders in the two languages, and flexibility of
Persian in terms of word order seems quite acceptable. In addition, the author well argues the
difference between English and Persian in terms of their indirect object behavior and the five
factors distinguishing complements from adjuncts.
However, there seems to be some discrepancies in the above-mentioned article, which seems
to be because of the few literature on the sentence pattern in English and Persian used. We are not
sure that the author’s claim in terms of the same three basic functions in the clause in English and
Persian is correct. Hajizadeh (2011) claims that in both Persian and English, there are three basic
functions in the clause i.e., complements, adjuncts, and the predicator. However, in Persian, there
are two basic functions in the clause and sentence structure: subject and predicate. In addition,
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there are three more significant functions in the Persian sentence i.e., complement, object, and verb
(Farshidvard, 1382). In English, object, predicate, and subject are considered under the category
of complements (Anvari, 2012). Therefore, there remain two basic functions in the English sense:
complement and verb (having the same function as predicate). Predicator refers to the function of
the main verb in a sentence. Nevertheless, in the case of to be verb acting as the main verb of the
sentence, other elements in the predicate play the role of a predicator (Farhadian, 2012).
(26) Mehdi saw him. → Predicator
vs.
(27) Mehdi is in the garden. → Predicator
(28) Mehdi feels fine. →Predicator
To us, the authors' claim in the sense of the two basic functions of the clause (complements and
predicator) seems fine; however, the claim of adjunct as an optional element in both English and
Persian modifying the verb as a basic function of the clause seems odd to us. On the other hand,
the author has failed to recognize that there are significant differences between complements in
English and Persian. The next two sections elaborate the ways in which the most common
complements in English and Persian can be contrasted, respectively.
6.1. Complements in English
Complements are the part of the sentence which follows the verb and thus completes the sentence.
According to Longman (2002), they can be classified into the following categories:
6.1.1. Subject complement
The complement linked to a subject by be or a linking verb.
She is a doctor.
6.1.2. Object complement
The complement linked to an adjective.
We made her the chairperson.
6.1.3. Adjective complement
The complement linked to an adjective.
I am glad that you can come.
6.1.4. Prepositional complement
The complement linked to a preposition.
They argued about what to do.
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6.2. Complements in Persian
Complements are Ns or NPs that add something to the meaning of another word, or completes its
meaning by means of a preposition as a complement maker. The difference between complements
in Persian and English is that complements in Persian should take a preposition but the ones in
English need not. Different complements in Persian are described as follows:
6.2.1. Verb complement
It completes the meaning of the verb by means of a preposition. It can be divided into two
categories: a) object and b) adverbial complement. The object complement in Persian acts the same
as its counterpart in English.
6.2.1.1. Adverbial complement
It is N or NP acting as an adverbial by means of a preposition adding something to the meaning of
the verb. The difference between adverbial complement and object complement is in their meaning
because both of them have a preposition. The adverbial complement is a kind of adverbial. The
difference between an adverbial complement and an adverb is that an adverb does not have a
preposition but an adverbial complement does have. Based on their meaning, they can be classified
into some kinds i.e., a) place, b) time, c) quality and manner, d) reason, e) purpose, f) tools and
means, g) nature, h) agreement, i) luck, j) accompaniment, k) privation, l) exception, and m)
exchange. In our opinion, in some parts, adverbial complements and in other parts, adverbials in
Persian correspond to adjuncts in English in which all of them modify the verb of the sentence in
which they occur. Verb complement in Persian does not have an English counterpart.
6.2.2. Noun complement
It is an N or NP which adds to the meaning of an N by means of Ezafe construction. This
complement does not correspond to any of the complements in English.
Adjective complement
Some adjectives either like N complements take an Ezafe construction (e.g., Nazire to ‘like you’,
Negahdere Iran ‘guardian of Iran’) or take a preposition (e.g., Bikhabar az hameye Alam ‘ignorant
of all the world’) or take both (e.g., Mokhalefe ba an ‘opponent to it’). Objects and Adverbial
complements can be adjective complements. This complement in Persian can correspond to its
English counterpart.
6.2.3. Adverb complement
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Adverb complement acts like adjective complement because in Persian both adjectives and
complements act as adverbs. This complement in Persian does not have an English counterpart.
(29) a. U bikhabar az hame ja vared shod.
b. He came in while he was ignorant of everything.
6.2.4. Sound complement
‘Sout’ or sound acting as a verb or a sentence sometimes takes a complement like a verb e.g.,
‘Salam bar shoma’ Hello, ‘Vai bar man’ Woe to me, ‘Afarin bar to’ Bravo (Farshidvard, 1382).
This complement does not have a counterpart in English.
Anvari (2012) claims that complements in Persian are related more closely to the verb or the whole
sentence by means of a preposition but the adjunct acts as supplementary to the whole meaning of
the sentence.
(30) Ali be khaneh raft. →
complement
However, Hajizadeh (2011) claims that complements are divided into core and non-core ones and
just the noun phrases functioning as core complements are directly related to the verb but those in
the forms of PPs are only indirectly related to the verb. In our opinion, in Persian we have just
non-core complements in the forms of PPs.
Another discrepancy is in the authors' claim that there is no ditransitive verb (at least in the
sense used in English) in Persian. On the other hand, in another part of the article (Hajizadeh, 2011,
p. 6), he gives an example of a ditransitive verb ‘dadan’ in Persian.
Besides, the author fails to mention that there is ditransitive verb in Persian (e.g., dadan,
gereftan) but this ditransitivity is different from English sense of ditransitivity. Fallahi (2007)
argues that in English, an optional transformational rule can be applied to the ditransitive pattern
to reverse the direct and indirect object and delete the accompanying preposition with the indirect
object. But, in Persian, such an object switch transformation is not applicable. This means that we
cannot delete the preposition in order to leave the two objects in sequence in the surface Persian
structure. Consider the following contrast:
S/ IO / DO / P
(31) * a. man/ hasan /sib râ / dâd-am. → unacceptable in Persian
b. I/ Hasan/ apple comp/ give.
ps-1sg
√ c. I gave Hasan the apple. → acceptable in English
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In fact, Persian verbs are considered as ditransitive just because they take a DI and one or two IOs.
However, in English in addition to the following criteria, another criterion is the acceptability of
object transformation. In addition, Persian has a freer word order, which English does not have.
So, Persian ditransitive verbs cannot be considered as their English counterparts.
Also, the author fails to mention that the intransitive verbs in Persian can be transitivized by adding
‘andan’ or ‘anidan’ to the infinitive form of the verb e.g., Dow + andan = Davandan. On the other
hand, the transitive verb can be further transitivized (Anvari, 2012). Consider the following
example:
(32) Push+ andan = Pushandan → Madar lebas ra be bache pushanid.
Another discrepancy seems evident when the author in contrast to the ordinary and complex
intransitive structures, which he has given on the same page (Hajizadeh, 2011, p.7), claims that
unlike English, Persian does not contain an intransitive structure. He contends that this is because
in Persian verbs like dâd-an 'give' obligatorily take an NP and a PP (non-core complement) which
cannot function as an object. Nevertheless, in Persian, there is an intransitive structure. Some
intransitive verbs (e.g., amadan) necessarily need a place adverbial complement to complete their
meaning when object (NP) and adverbial complement (PP) come together. The verb needs both of
them (Farshidvard, 1382).
The last discrepancy seems to be in the author’s claim of obligatorness as a distinguishing factor
differentiating complements from adjuncts. He argues that complements are obligatory but
adjuncts are optional. In the first section, he mentions that there are three basic functions in the
clause: complements, adjuncts, and predicator. How it is possible that something, which is optional
in both English and Persian, can be the basic function of a clause! In contrary to our expectation,
this question was unanswered during the whole article.
7. Concluding Remark
Overall, Hajizadeh (2011) successfully contrast English and Persian sentence patterns although in
some parts, there seems to be discrepancies, failures, and little evidences found in its
argumentation. However, it is essential not only for this author but also for any author especially
in the field of contrastive analysis to support his claims with more evidences found in the literature.
Iranian EFL Journal
32
References
Anvari, A. (2012, June 13). Persian sentence structure. Retrieved from http://www.farsisugar.persianblog.ir
Fallahi, M. (2007) Contrastive Linguistics and Analysis of Errors. Tehran: Iran University Press, 69-70.
Farhadian, M. (2012, May 5). Persian sentence structure. Retrieved from http://www.farhadian.blogfa.com
Hajizadeh, R. (2011). Contrastive analysis of sentence patterns in English and Persian. 1-12.
James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis. Longman.
Richards, J. C., Schmidt R. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics.
London: Pearson Education.
‫منبع فارسی‬
‫ شامل پژوهش های تازه ای درباره ی آواشناسی و صرف و‬:‫ دستورمفصل امروز بر پایه زبانشناسی جدید‬.)2831( .‫ خسرو‬،‫فرشید ورد‬
.‫ انتشارات گلرنگ یکتا‬.‫نحو فارسی معاصر و مقایسه آن با قواعد دستوری‬
Iranian EFL Journal
33
Title
The Effect of Using Creative Drama on Developing Oral Proficiency of
Iranian Advanced EFL Learners
Authors
Ahmad Mohseny (Ph.D)
Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
Delaram Firooz (M.A)
Islamic Azad University-South Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Ahmad Mohseny, assistant professor at Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch. He has
translated, and edited a number of books and articles. He is interested in teaching courses such as
methods and principles of writing research papers, teaching L1 and L2 theories of learning and
acquisition, teaching language skills, essay writing ESP/EAP, the history of translation in Iran, and
seminar in Translation Studies and TEFL. He is appointed as an invited professor at American
global university-college of Education in the state of Wyoming, USA from 2002 up to now.
Delaram Firooz, M.A in TEFL at Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch. She is interested
in teaching courses such as Reading Comprehension, and Speaking/Listening Skills. She has
seven years of experiences as a teacher in Tehran.
Abstract
Improving oral proficiency in EFL classroom is usually a major goal for the most EFL
instructors and an effective approach in teaching oral skill is the use of creative drama.
This study aimed to examine the effect of using creative drama on developing oral
proficiency of advanced EFL learners. This paper argues that using creative drama is more
appropriate than using traditional method in teaching English in classrooms. It is also
investigated how using drama effect their cooperative interaction.
The forty-one
homogeneous English students who were studying English at Hermes institute were
selected as the as the participants of this study. This study utilized control & experimental
group with two instructional hours per week for eight week and applied creative drama in
experimental group. Before the teaching, the present researcher implemented an IELTS
speaking as a pre-test to examine learners oral English proficiency and at the end of
Iranian EFL Journal
34
experimental, a post-test and post-survey were carried out to examine whether significant
difference existed or not. In addition, an attitude questionnaire about using drama was used
at the end of treatment in experimental group. The data were analyzed by SPSS. The result
of this study indicated that the participants had better learning outcomes in English
speaking proficiency in experimental group. According to the results, this researcher
suggested that using creative drama in the language classroom is generally a rewarding
learning experience for EFL students and teachers; therefore, this researcher recommended
creative drama as an effective technique in helping students in the process of improving
their oral proficiency as well as their cooperative interaction.
Keywords: Creative Drama; Cooperative Interaction; Oral Proficiency
1. Introduction
This research explores the positive effect of using creative drama on oral proficiency of Iranian
advanced EFL learners. By conducting this study, the present researcher wishes to explore the
value of using creative drama on developing oral proficiency of learners.
Sun (2003) reported that “By doing creative drama in class, great benefits are found: It provides
very comfortable classroom atmosphere where the students can open up their senses, and express
themselves physically, emotionally, and verbally with spontaneity” (p.74). It creates a perfect
environment to build communicative competence, and language learning occurs through making
mistakes. It also allows more students to become involved in the learning process and guides them
to experience emotional and non-verbal aspect of language. Therefore, teaching and learning are
more enjoyable and fun for most of all.
In the dynamic and interactive process of communication (O Neill & Lambert, 1982), the
meaning of drama is “built up from the contributions must monitored, understood, accepted, and
responded to by the rest of the group”. Creative drama teaching opens a new way for English
learning, but Traditional learning focuses on memorization, repetition, drill practice, and so on.
Students learn English in order to pass the exams. Therefore, most of the students lose the interests
of learning English.
Although English language now plays an important role in Iran, some problems that should not be
ignored, still exists in the learning and teaching English. From student perspectives, English is
regarded as a foreign language in Iran that many people have limited opportunities to use. After
Iranian EFL Journal
35
all, it is not a necessary tool for daily communication for people in Iran. It is noteworthy using
drama to teach English results in real communication, because it is involving ideas, emotions,
feeling, appropriateness, and adaptability (Barbu, 2007).
The major consideration is that students even after years of English learning cannot gain enough
confidence in speaking fluently in front of their classmates and teacher or speaking outside the
classroom. The conventional English class hardly gives the students an opportunity to use
language in this manner and develop fluency in it, because students lack the adequate exposure to
spoken English outside the class as well as the lack of exposure to native speakers who can
communicate with the students on authentic matters.
Another point is that most of the teachers emphasize on writing answers for assigned works
and on producing grammatically accurate sentences in order students to pass exam. Thus, they do
not find opportunities to use language orally from a teacher’s perspective. Many Iranian students
are used to sitting quietly with limited opportunities to speak in the class. They mostly show a
reluctance to speak English, due to their fear in losing face when making grammatical and
pronunciation errors .Chen and Chang (2008) suggested that through using drama, students use
language without feeling a shame to make mistakes in the class. Thus, they are enhancing their
linguistic ability mainly their cooperation together during dramatic activities and oral production
skill. In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the present researcher has arranged the
following questions:
RQ1. Does the use of creative drama improve the Iranian advanced EFL learners’ oral proficiency?
RQ2. Does the use of creative drama develop the Iranian advanced EFL learners̓ cooperative
interaction?
2. Review of the Related Literature
According to Byron (1986), drama is the most significant model of learning and a basic activity
for learning. It is the way of helping learners to think about their individual or social problems.
Learners can learn to explore issues, events, and connections by means of drama. In drama,
learners draw on their knowledge and experience of the real world in order to create a make-believe
world. Thus, drama is one of the few areas of the curriculum, built on dreams and voices.
Fleming (2006) also said that drama being action, the verbal element in drama must also function
primarily as action. In other words, drama as action is something of over simplification and within
Iranian EFL Journal
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the field of drama in education something of a cliché, according to Bolton (1984), mischievously
highlighted in his title for a conference addressing: ʺDrama is not doing". Commenting on this,
he goes on to invite readers to accept a paradox that is the central component of good drama
generally and of good improvised drama in particular. It means that, when an action in drama
achieves a moment of heightened significance, it does so because the meaning created is largely
released from its dependence on that action.
O’toole (1992) proposed that writers on drama in education have recognized this as the embryo
of drama in education and explored it in terms of the continuing dialectic that exists between the
concrete and the abstract, the particular and the universal. They noted too that the meanings that
emerge are to some extent collective. Drama, according to Maley and Duff (1978), released
imagination and energy and this could be considered as an educational objective. It encourages
students to exercise their sensitivity and imagination and thus makes learning more realistic and
meaningful. As an educational tool, the use of drama fosters the social, intellectual, and the
linguistic development of the child.
Moreover, Dougill (1982) concurred that drama centers around language development,
personal awareness, group co-operation, sensory awareness, and imaginative growth. Drama
increases motivation and provides the incentive to work hard. The activities using drama tend to
be purposeful. Stern (1980) also believed that the student sees the need to communicate and
concentrates on how to go about a task, because drama provides him with a meaningful context.
Drama fosters a sense of responsibility and cooperation among the students. Drama activities
normally take the form of group work and students cannot afford to stay passive for too long.
There is a need to belong to the group and to complete the task. The students develop a sense of
self-Worth of themselves, as they work together.
Brown (1994) defined learning to speak a foreign language requires more than knowing its
grammatical and semantic rules. Learners should also acquire the knowledge of how native
speakers use the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange, in which many
factors interact. Therefore, it is difficult for EFL learners, particularly adults to speak the target
language fluently and appropriately.
In order to provide effective guidance in developing
competent speakers of English, it is essential to examine the factors, affecting adult learners’ oral
communication, components underlying speaking proficiency, and specific skills or strategies used
in communication. Nunan (1989) defined speaking a language is particularly difficult for foreign
Iranian EFL Journal
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language learners, because effective oral communication needs the capability to use the language
completely and perfectly in social interactions. Moreover, various cultural assumptions about the
goal of special interactions and expected results of encounters also affect communication,
consequently owing to minimal exposure to the target language and contact with native speakers.
Nunan (1989) further maintained that many people feel that speaking in the new language is more
difficult than reading, writing, and listening skills to learn for two reasons. Unlike reading or
writing, speaking occur in real time, i.e. The person you are talking to is waiting for you to speak
right then. In addition, when you speak, you cannot edit and revise what you want to say, as you
can if you are writing.
3. Methodology
Forty-one EFL learners, about 17-22 years of age who are currently studying English in Tehran
participated in this study. Their L1 of participants was Persian and they were thirty-eight female
and three male. After they took the Nelson Proficiency Test, the students whose scores fell within
one standard deviation above and below the mean were chosen as homogeneous participants in
this study. They were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups with twenty and
twenty-one participants, respectively. The proficiency level of participants was advanced.
Three sets of test were administered to the participants, respectively, the Nelson proficiency
Test (1978), and IELTS Speaking (Cambridge University Press, 2009) as the pretests, and a
posttest contained five selected questions from the one Shakespearian Drama entitled Othello. An
attitude questionnaire based on Likert scale by Inozu, Tuyan, and Surreli (2007), toward learners’
attitude about the Nelson Proficiency Test was administered to the population of the study for the
purpose of homogeneity and measuring the participants’ level of proficiency. The Nelson
proficiency test consists of 50 multiple-choice items, although the questions are not separated to
different parts, they measure the examinees’ general knowledge on grammar as well as vocabulary
and meaning.
IELTS speaking was administered as a pretest to both groups of students and they had 10 to 15
minutes to answer all the questions. The researcher asked seven general questions in the first part
and students had one to two minutes to think and answer each question carefully that was recorded
by the researcher. The instruction of the second part of IELTS speaking test was that students
handed topics “Describe one of your school day, and they answered to different questions that
Iranian EFL Journal
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related to that subject and had one minute to think about it and made some notes if it needed then
they spoke about it one to two minutes. Inter-rater reliability of speaking IELTS at pretest and
posttest was 84.
Five questions based on Othello, a play by Shakespeare, were administered as a posttest to both
experimental and control groups. Again, participants had 10 to 15 minutes to answer each question
orally and the researcher recorded their voice.
Finally, an attitude questionnaire toward students’ opinion in using drama and its effect on their
interaction was designed in a way that included, 15 parts in order to be a tool to collect the data
related to the participants, before it was piloted and validated by some of professional professors
at Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch then it was administered to the experimental
group at the end of treatment. The reliability of the attitude scale was calculated by using the SPSS
method. The participants were given the opportunity to answer the questions based on a Likert
scale of five levels ranging from Strongly Agrees, Agree, Undecided, Disagree to Totally Disagree.
Both the experimental and control groups received instruction over the eight-weeks of study in
regular English classes. The general experimental procedures for both groups were administered
to the 60 students in the following sequence and 41 homogeneous students were chosen through
the Nelson Proficiency Test as advanced EFL learners for this study. The Nelson test consisted of
50 multiple-choice questions and the allotted time was 45 minutes.
The aforementioned participants were randomly split into two intact groups, there were 20
students in the control group and 21 students in the experimental group, and then an IELTS
Speaking Test was used as pretest for both groups. During the administration of this test, students’
voice was recorded and they had 10 to 15 minutes to answered all questions, IELTS Speaking was
estimated based on Weir's (1993) analytical speaking criteria and according to its fluency,
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical accuracy &interactional strategies , considered in
speaking as a pretest. Next, in an eight-week course that used a Shakespeare's play entitled
Othello, It was taught by the researcher who adopted using creative drama for the experimental
group and the traditional method of teaching Othello for the control group, it means without using
drama.
After the instructional period, a posttest , consisted of 5 questions from Othello for both groups
was administered, the researcher asked the participants to answer all questions separately in 10
to 15 minutes and recorded their voice, in order to estimate students’ oral proficiency based on
Iranian EFL Journal
39
Weir’s criteria as it was mentioned in pretest. Finally, an attitude questionnaire based on LikertType scale was adopted from a scale by Inozu, Tuyan, and Surreli (2007). It was piloted by some
professional professors then it was given to the students in experimental group, in order to find out
their attitude toward using drama and its effect on their interaction.
4. Result and Discussion
To ensure the homogeneity of the participants, the Nelson Proficiency Test was administered to
60 participants. Those students (N=41)whose Nelson score fell within one standard deviation
above and below the mean were selected as homogeneous participants for this study. The
descriptive statistics of the participants’ scores on this test are set forth in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Nelson Proficiency Test
N
Range
Min.
Max.
Mean
Median
Mode
SD
60
27
17
44
30.45
30.00
29
5.893
The average mean, median, and mode score for Nelson Test were 30.45, 30, and 29,
respectively. These central parameters are not far from each other revealing normal distribution
of the scores. The range was 27, and standard deviation was 5.89, showing a large dispersion of
scores around the mean. Distributions of scores of the participants on the Nelson Test are
displayed in Figure 1.
Figure1. Normal Curve of Scores of the Participants on Nelson Test
In order to arrive at an answer to the first question that stated “Does the use of creative drama
improve the Iranian advanced EFL learners’ oral proficiency”? First, two null hypotheses are
used. In order to analyze the data to investigate the first null hypothesis one, two raters assessed
the participants’ performances on oral proficiency pretest and posttest of control and experimental
groups. Table 2 represents descriptive statistics of the scores of control and experimental by two
raters on oral proficiency pretest and posttest.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Scores of Control and Experimental by Two Raters on Oral proficiency
Pretest and Posttest
Source
Group
Rater
N Range Min. Max. Mean SD
Rater 1 20 4
10
14
11.95 1.191
Rater 2 20 5
10
15
12.25 1.446
Rater 1 21 5
10
15
12.43 1.326
Rater 2 21 6
9
15
12.52 1.569
Rater 1 20 6
11
17
13.65 1.663
Rater 2 20 6
10
16
13.60 1.729
Experimenta Rater 1 21 7
11
18
14.95 2.085
11
19
15.24 2.143
Control
PRETEST
Experimenta
l
Control
POSTTES
l
Rater 2 21 8
*Note. The average mean scores are out of 20 points.
The table 2 manifests the raw scores of two groups on oral proficiency pretest and posttest. The
inter-rater reliability between two raters marking oral tests was estimated using Correlation
Coefficient. The results of this analysis are manifested in table 3.
Table 3. Inter-rater Reliability between two Raters on Oral proficiency Pretest and Posttest
Source
Pre-test
Pearson
Group
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Control (R1-R2)
.833**
.000
Experimental(R1-R2)
.848**
.000
Control (R1-R2)
.827**
.000
Experimental(R1-R2)
.853**
.000
Post-test
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The inter-rater reliability between rater 1 and rater 2 in control and experimental groups at
pretest were .83 and .84, respectively. In addition, the inter-rater reliability between rater 1 and
rater 2 in control and experimental groups at posttest were .82 and .85, respectively.
Iranian EFL Journal
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The oral proficiency pretest means scores of control and experimental were 12.10 and 12.48,
respectively. On the other hand, posttest mean scores of two groups were 13.63 and 15.10,
correspondingly. The oral proficiency mean score of experimental group exceeded the control
group. Figure 2 graphically depicts the comparison between oral proficiency pretest and posttest
means score of control and experimental groups.
Figure 2 .Oral Proficiency Pretest and Posttest Means Scores of Control and Experimental
Shapiro-Wilk Test also was utilized to test the normality of the oral proficiency scores of two
groups at pretest and posttest. Table 4 represents the information on Shapiro-Wilk test of normality
for scores of two groups on oral proficiency pretest and posttest.
Table 4. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality for Scores of Two Groups on Oral proficiency Pretest and Posttest
Source
Pre-test
Group
Statistic
Df
Sig.
Control
.947
20
.320
.965
20
.644
.971
20
.768
.968
20
.720
Experimenta
l
Control
Post-test
Experimenta
l
As it is obvious in table 4-8, the normality test results showed insignificant Sig. of .32 and .64 for
control and experimental at pretest. In addition, at posttest, the result of normality test revealed
no significant Sig. of .76 and .72 for control and experimental.
The Sig. for both groups at pretest and posttest were more than selected significance, i.e. .05 (p>
α). Thus, it can be stated that four sets of scores have a normal distribution. As a result, the
parametric Independent Sample Test was applied to compare the oral proficiency mean of two
Iranian EFL Journal
42
groups at both pretest and posttest; otherwise, the nonparametric Mann Whitney U Test would be
used.
An independent-sample t-test was used, because Mackey and Gass (2005) believed that “The
independent t-test is used when one wants to determine if the means of two independent groups
are significantly different from one another” (p. 272). The results of independent samples test to
compare the oral proficiency pretest scores of control and experimental are set forth in table 5.
Table 5. Independent Samples Test to Compare the Oral Proficiency Pretest Scores of Control and
Experimental
Levene's
Test
for
Equality of Variances
95%
t-test for Equality of Means
Confidence
Interval
of
the
Difference
Mean
Sig. (2- Differenc Std. Error
F
Sig.
T
df
.077
.782
-.905 39
tailed) e
Difference Lower Upper
.371
.4157
-.3762
-
.4646
1.2170
Independent Samples Test results did not show any significant difference between control and
experimental (t = .90, p = .37, p> α), in which the t-observed was less than the t-critical of 2.02,
and the p value was more than .05.
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances in Table 6 demonstrates that the hypothesis of equal of
variances between the oral proficiency pretest of control and experimental was proved, because
Sig was .78 which is greater than the .05 significance level for this study (p>α).
Table 6. Independent Samples Test to Compare the Oral Proficiency Posttest Scores of Control
and Experimental
Iranian EFL Journal
43
95%
Levene's
Test
for
Equality of Variances
Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Sig. (2- Mean
F
Sig.
t
df
1.082
.305
-2.551 39
Std.
Error
Uppe
tailed)
Difference Difference Lower
.014
-1.4702
.5764
-2.6362
r
.3043
Independent Samples Test detected significant difference between the two groups at posttest (t
= 2.55, p = .01), in which the t-observed was more than the t-critical of 2.02, and the p value was
less than .05. Therefore, the first null hypothesis that stated that the use of creative drama does
not improve the oral proficiency of Iranian advance EFL learners was rejected. Therefore, with
high degree of confidence, it can be claimed that the use of creative drama improves the oral
proficiency of Iranian advance EFL learners.
In order to arrive at an answer to the second question that stated “Does the use of creative drama
develop the Iranian advanced EFL learners' cooperative interaction”? The second null hypothesis
was used.
In order to test this null hypothesis, the participants’ performances on attitude
questionnaire were firstly assessed. Table 7 represents descriptive statistics of the scores obtained
on attitude questionnaire.
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of the Scores Obtained on Attitude Questionnaire
N
Range Min.
Max.
Mean Median
Mode
SD
21
1.21
4.47
4.0219 4.06
4.20
.31232 .098
3.26
Variance
The mean, median, and mode of the participants’ responses on attitude questionnaire were 4.02,
4.06, and 4.20, respectively, which are very close to each other suggesting normal distribution.
Furthermore, the range and standard deviation were 1.21 and .31which are relatively small
showing small dispersion of scores around the mean. The figure 3 graphically demonstrates the
relate results participants’ responses on interaction questionnaire.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Figure 3.Participants’ Responses on Interaction Questionnaire
In order to figure out whether the data is normally distributed, the present researcher used
Shapiro-Wilk test. Table 8 manifests Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality for scores obtained on
interaction questionnaire.
Table 8. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality for Scores Obtained on Interaction Questionnaire
Statistic
Df
Sig.
.954
21
.400
The Sig. showed .40 based on the data which this researcher may consider that the scores are
normally distributed, because p value is more than.05 (p< α). Therefore, the parametric OneSample Test was performed to analyze the results.
Table 9 clarifies one-sample test for
participants’ responses on interaction questionnaire.
Table 9. One-Sample Test for Participants’ Responses on Interaction Questionnaire
Test Value = 3
95% Confidence Interval of
T
Interaction 14.994
Df
20
Sig.
tailed)
.000
(2- Mean
the Difference
Difference
1.02190
Lower
Upper
.8797
1.1641
One Sample Test results showed statistically significant difference (t =14.99, p= .000, p<α)
between the participants’ responses to five choices of the interaction questionnaire. The t-observed
of 14.99 was more than the t-critical of 2.08, and the Sig. was less than .05. Consequently, the
second null hypothesis that predicted that the use of creative drama does not develop the
cooperative interaction of Iranian advance EFL learners was rejected. With high degree of
confidence, it can be asserted that use of creative drama develops the cooperative interaction of
Iranian advance EFL learners.
Iranian EFL Journal
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As to the first research question, in using drama, the major benefits might be seen in the fact
that it can promote natural communication in the classroom and provide meaningful context for
speaking. The basic elements that form the context are setting, role, feeling and shared knowledge
, as the researchers’ work with the use of quasi-experimental research, by applying two groups of
control and experimental. As it was mentioned before, in both groups, one of Shakespeare’s plays
entitled Othello was used. In experimental group, dramatic techniques, action, and role-play are
used. Therefore, this researcher proved the students' improvement in speaking in a fun and relaxed
environment.
This is in consistent with the finding from Sun(2003) in which stated“ By doing creative drama
in class, great benefits are found: It provides very comfortable classroom atmosphere where the
students can open up their senses, and express themselves physically, emotionally, and verbally
with spontaneity”(p.74). It creates perfect environment to build communicative competence, and
language learning occurs through making mistakes.
In control group, the present researcher did not apply any drama, role-play in teaching Othello
and it was taught in traditional way. Students performed weak when they speaking English, this
is in consistent with the finding from Chen (2001) in which proposed that traditional method is
learning in one-way (teacher to student). Therefore, students speak little and just teacher is
dominant in speaking. Keiny (1994) also believed that the only way to improve students speaking
ability, however to make them speak more with classmates. Under traditional method, such as
grammar translation method, not all students receive enough feedback to speak as much as needs.
As to the second research question, the finding from an attitude questionnaire toward using creative
drama on students’ interaction revealed that dramatic techniques were effective on developing
students’ cooperative interaction. This incident is in accordance with Davis’ study (1997) posed
that group work is defined as an activity consisting two or more students in which, for a time, the
teacher does not have to directly intervene. Bruffee (1984) also defined that collaborative work as
a form of indirect teaching in which the teacher poses a problem and organizes the students to
solve problem collaboratively. Furthermore, according to Brook (1992); pica & Doughty (1985),
recognizing that the negotiation of meaning and the expression of personal ideas most naturally
occur in-group situations.
Iranian EFL Journal
46
It can be concluded that using creative drama and dramatic activities are effective on developing
oral proficiency (speaking) of advanced EFL learners. In addition, it can be applicable for the
teacher of English seeking to improve cooperative interaction among students.
5. Conclusion
The findings showed by participants, were the combination of the sense of community and the
freedom to express their feeling. Therefore, they could produce spoken language in order to
complete the tasks given. Working in team as a group work leads to better communication among
students. It can develop opportunities to talk about their ideas, remember more than writing things
down, get feedback for their thinking, and hear other points of view. Therefore, many students
were found highly interested in doing drama in English.
Group work and collaborative interaction could help to increase speaking ability. It is also
suggested that students do dramatic activities in order to be familiar with one another personally
outside the classroom such as having lunch (Words, 2003). The finding of the questionnaire study
toward the attitude of students in using drama also indicated that working in groups had a positive
impact, because the students generally worked in groups like in all scenes of Othello by
Shakespeare. It helped them to speak more easily and enabled them to acquire knowledge by
seeing others behaviors, receiving different opinions, and understanding others points of view.
When students helped each other, they learn more; therefore, working in-group as a team leads to
the better communication among students.
References
Barbu, L. (2007). Using Drama Techniques for Teaching English. Retrieved on 17/7/2010 from http://
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48
Title
Investigating the Relationship between Anxiety and Writing Performance
among Iranian EFL Learners
Authors
Naghmeh Jebreil
Islamic Azad University of Ilam, Iran
Akbar Azizifar
Habib Gowhari
Ali Jamilinesari
Biodata
Naghmeh Jebreil is a graduate student in Teaching English Language at Islamic Azad University
of Ilam, Iran. Her research interests include applied linguist, discourse, conducting research,
language teaching.
Habib Gowhari is a faculty member at Islamic Azad university of Ilam, Ilam Branch, Iran. His
research interests include biolinguistics, clinical linguistics, discourse analysis and phraseology.
Akbar Azizifar is a faculty member at Islamic Azad university of Ilam, Ilam Branch, Iran. His
research interests include narrative intelligence, IELTS studies, psychology of language learning,
and phraseology.
Ali Jamalinesari is a faculty member at Islamic Azad university of Ilam, Ilam Branch,Iran. His
research interests include literary criticism, postmodernism, deconstructive reading, Jungian
psychoanalysis studies.
Abstract
The current study attempted to explore the relationship between the students’ anxiety and
their writing performance among Iranian English Foreign Language students. This study
was conducted with men and women EFL learners. Using random sampling, a number of
55 EFL learners were selected as the participants. The instruments to collect data were: a)
Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory (SLWAI) (Cheng, 2004) b) writing
Iranian EFL Journal
49
performance test. Both descriptive and inferential statistics including Pearson Correlation
formula were run to analyze the data. Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS). The results of the study showed a significant negative
correlation between anxiety and writing performance. Accordingly, students who reported
higher anxiety had lower writing proficiency grades than those who reported lower writing
anxiety. The results suggested that by taking advantage of the facilitative aspect of anxiety,
the students’ writing performance will be improved.
Keywords: Anxiety, Writing Performance, EFL Learners
1. Introduction
The affective aspect that has received the most attention in SLA is anxiety. (see, for example, fulllength books by Horwitz and Young (1991), Arnold (1991) and young (1999). Teachers and
learners found that anxiety is an important factor in second language learning. Chorpotia and
Barlow (1998, P.3) mentioned that anxiety is “a state of conceptual or central nervous system
characterized by activity of the behavioral inhibition system”. Language is an effective way of
communication of our thoughts. Writing is one of the four main skills of the English language.
Good writing was done from a set of roles and principles. Providing a classroom under a worryingfree environment has become many teachers’responsibilities. Moreover, although it is asserted that
writing anxiety is common among first, second, and foreign language writers (Cheng, 2004; Daly&
Miller, 1975a; Daly & Miller, 1975b). However, far too little studies have been attached on the
relationship between subcategories of writing and subscales of writing anxiety. Therefore, the
current study attempted to explore the relationships among subcategories.
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Definition and Types of Anxiety
Anxiety as “a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with
an arousal of the automatic nervous system” (Horwitz et al, 1986, p. 125).
In psychology, anxiety is broadly defined as, “the awareness of threat” (Tyrer, 1999, p. 11).Cope
and Horwitz (1986) defined anxiety as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings,
and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language
learning process” (P.128).
Iranian EFL Journal
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A distinction can be made between: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety.
Trait anxiety is relatively stable personality characteristic, ‘a more permanent predisposition to be
anxious’ (Scovel, 1978). While state anxiety is a transient anxiety, responses to a particular anxiety
provoking stimulus such as an important test (Spielberger, (1983): cited in Horwitz, (2001)). It is
a combination of trait and situation-specific anxiety. This later type consists of the anxiety which
is aroused by a specific type of situation or event such as public speaking, examinations, or class
participation. This kind of anxiety related to language learning context and it can play a main role
existing individual differences in language learning. In the field of language learning, situation
specific anxiety refers to apprehension caused by learners’ inadequate knowledge of language
(Macintyre & Gardner, 1991). This kinds of anxiety related to language learning context and it can
play a key role in existingone’s differences in language learning. In general, anxiety has been
found to have a negative and positive effect on performance. Facilitative anxiety leads to enhanced
willingness with concomitant advantages for learning. On the other hand, debilitative anxiety
motivates learners in assuming an avoidance attitude, tending to escape from the learning task
(Scovel, 1978).
2.2 Definition and Types of SLWA
Writing anxiety, as asubject and situation specific anxiety was defined as “a general avoidance of
writing behavior and of situations thought to potentially require some amount of writing
accompanied by the potential for evaluation of that writing” (Hassan, 2001, P.4).Cheng (2004)
offered a multidimensional L2 writing scale – the Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory
(SLWAI) which conforms to a three-dimensional conceptualization of anxiety, such as Somatic
Anxiety, Cognitive Anxiety, and Avoidance Behavior. Somatic Anxiety refers to one’s perception
of the physiological effects of the anxiety experience, as reflected in increase in state of unpleasant
feelings, such as nervousness and tension (Cheng, 2004). Cognitive Anxiety refers to the cognitive
aspect of anxiety experience, including negative expectations, preoccupation with performance
and concern about others’ perception (Cheng, 2004). Avoidance Behavior refers to the behavioral
aspect of the anxiety experience, avoidance of writing (Cheng, 2004). Cheng (2004) also pointed
out that the negative relationship between test anxiety and L2 writing performance is primarily
due to the negative components rather than somatic components or avoidance behavior. Studies
by Chen and Lin (2009) and Saito and Samimy (1996) indicate that writing anxiety is negatively
related to performance on writing tasks.“score lower on writing portions of standardized tests,
Iranian EFL Journal
51
write less, write less effectively, and create written products that are evaluated as lower in quality
than less anxious writers” (Daly & Wilson, 1983, p. 328).Saito and Samimy (1996) conducted a
study on the anxiety levels and the language performance of 257 American undergraduates
studying Japanese at three proficiency levels. The results of this study confirmed the theory that
anxiety has a negative effect on performance. Additionally, results showed that this effect became
more pronounced at levels of more advanced language instruction (Saito & Samimy, 1996).
2.3. Research Question
Despite the many findings cited above, there is still pressing need to conduct research on anxiety
and writing performance in EFL contexts. The study aims to answer the following research
question:
1) Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and their writing
performance?
3. Methodology
3.1 Sample
A total number of 45 male and female students constituted the subjects of this study. The
participants were English language students majoring in English language teaching from Azad
University in Ilam, science and research branch (a city in Iran).
2.2. Instrumentation
In the present study, two instruments were used, with the purpose of collecting questionnaire data.
The first questionnaire was Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory (SLWAI). It consists of
22 items, based on the SLWAI (Cheng, 2004), which was design to assess if there is ESL writing
anxiety among Iranian EFL learners and to what level. The next instrument was writing
performance based on IELTS writing which was measured by subjects’ grade. Regarding the
reliability of the questionnaire, the internal consistency of the SLWAI reported Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha of .91(Cheng, 2004).
3.3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
After the introductory studies and needs analysis, above mentioned instrument was selected to
glean the data. Then, a pilot study was run to revise the questionnaire. After that, the necessary
revision and modifications were done and some factors were added to make the items more clear
and detailed. Then, after permission was given by the university in February, 2013, the
Iranian EFL Journal
52
questionnaire was administrated in Ilam. In general, it took two weeks to distribute and collect
data. The time allocated for completing questionnaire was roughly 15 minutes, and about writing
performance, the participants were asked to write an English composition within 60 minutes in
class, which was administrated and evaluated by their teacher. Each composition was graded on a
5-point scale which includes five aspects: Scrawl, Misspell, Grammar, Neat writing, and
Punctuation.
In order to increase the credibility of the responses, the researcher asked the students to be
sincere in their responses and provide genuine answer to each of the items on the questionnaires.
Finally the participants were assured that the results of the questionnaire will be kept confidential.
Data from all returned surveys were entered into and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS).To compare relationship among variables Pearson Product-Moment correlation
was used. To ensure the quality of the analysis and interpretations, consultations with statiscians
were made.
4. Results
4.1 Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 reveals the descriptive statistics gained regarding the learners’ scores on the two scales
used in the study, as well as their performance on each of the five subscales of writing performance
questionnaire.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for the students’ Performance on the Sub-scales of Writing Performance and
Anxiety Questionnaires
Anxiety
Writing
Variables
Scrawl
Misspell
Grammar
Neat writing Punctuation
N
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
Mean
12.73
12.31
10.04
10.55
9.53
55.9111
50.31
6.66
6.96
6.13
4.66
5.83
10.30186
22.13
Variance
44.3
48.4
37.5
21.7
33.9
106.12
489.99
minimum
.0
.00
2
3
.0
24.00
5.00
maximum
20
21
19
20
20
68.00
91.00
Sum
573.00
554.00
45
47
42
45
2264.00
Standard
deviation
Iranian EFL Journal
Performance
53
As illustrated in this table, the mean scores gained by the participants on the sub-scales of scrawl,
misspell, grammar, neat writing, and punctuation equal 12.73, 12.31, 10.04, 10.55, and 9.53
respectively. Additionally, the mean score gained on the entire scale of writing performance is
50.31; whereas the one relevant to anxiety questionnaire equals 55.911.
4.2 Investigating the research question of the study
The significance of this study is that it can shed light on Iranian EFL students’ problems regarding
anxiety and writing performance. Any relationship between these two variables (anxiety and
writing performance) can help both learners and teachers in the process of learning and teaching.
RQ1: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and their writing
performance?
To address this research question in a proper manner, the researchers need to first go about the
analyses of its five subdivisions. Thus, in what follows an attempt is made to provide a sufficient
account of how each of these five questions were dealt with and how their collective result helped
come up with a generalized view regarding the research question.
4.2.1 The Relationship between Anxiety and Scrawl
RQ1a: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and scrawl?
As table 2 reveals, there exist a significant correlation between the participants’ degree of anxiety
and their scrawl (r= 001< .05 ), this piece of findings is parallel with what might hold true in
reality as anxious students are more likely to be characterized as inclined toward possessing higher
levels of scrawl.
Table2. Correlation between students’ Anxiety and their Scrawl
Writing
Scrawl
Anxiety
Writing
Pearson
Anxiety
Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.028
.001
45
45
4.2.2 The Relationship between Anxiety and Misspell
RQ1b: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and misspell?
Iranian EFL Journal
54
and their scrawl (r= 000< .05), so that students with high degrees of anxiety were tended to take
high misspell in their writing performance.
Table3. Correlation between students’ Anxiety and their Misspell
Writing
Misspell
Anxiety
Writing
Pearson
Anxiety
Correlation
1
-.016
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.000
45
45
4.2.3 The Relationship between Anxiety and Grammar
RQ1c: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and grammar?
In keeping with the gained upshots (summarized in table 4), the researchers are drawn to claim
that learners’ anxiety does significantly correlate with their grammar in writing performance (r=
0.000< .05).
Table4. Correlation between students’ Anxiety and their Grammar
Writing
Grammar
Anxiety
Writing
Pearson
Anxiety
Correlation
1
-.145
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.000
45
45
4.2.4 The Relationship between Anxiety and Neat writing
RQ1d: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and neat writing?
and their neat writing (r= 004< .05). Therefore, under normal circumstances, it is expected that
higher levels of anxiety should correlate with a less level of neat writing.
Table5. Correlation between students’ Anxiety and their Neat Writing
Writing
Neat writing
Anxiety
Iranian EFL Journal
55
Writing
Pearson
Anxiety
Correlation
1
-.424
Sig. (2-tailed)
.004
N
45
45
4.2.5 The Relationship between Anxiety and Punctuation
RQ1e: Is there any significant correlation between Iranian EFL students’ anxiety and punctuation?
Pearson- Moment correlation analysis provided the researchers with another piece of favorable
finding (Table 6), implying that students’ anxiety does significantly correlate with their
punctuation in writing performance(r= 015< .05).
Table6. Correlation between students’ Anxiety and their Punctuation
Writing
Punctuation
Anxiety
Writing
Pearson
Anxiety
Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.038
.015
45
45
5. Discussion and Conclusion
The results of statistical analysis showed a significant negative correlation between writing anxiety
and writing performance. The results analysis in Table 2 to 6 reveal that there is a meaningful
negative relationship between Scrawl (r= -.028, p<.05), Misspell (r= -.016, p<.05), Grammar (r=.145, p<.05), Neat Writing (r=-.424, p<.05), Punctuation (r=-.038, p<.05)and anxiety. Given the
significance of the negative relationship between Scrawl, Misspell, Grammar, Neat writing,
Punctuation and anxiety, it can be said that students with higher anxiety had lower writing
proficiency grades than those with lower writing anxiety. This finding is in part in line with the
results of (Cheng, 2004; Hassan, 2001; Horwitz et al., 1989; Horwitz, 2001; MacIntyre & Gardner,
1991) indicating that high levels of anxiety could have negative effects on students’ language
performance overall and for specific language skills. It should be pointed out that ESL writing
anxiety can have other negative effects, for example on learners’ behavior; it may also cause
physical symptoms. Studies by Chen and Lin (2009) and Saito and Samimy (1996) indicate that
Iranian EFL Journal
56
writing anxiety is negatively related to performance on writing tasks. More specifically, anxious
writers: “score lower on writing portions of standardized tests, write less, write less effectively,
and create written products that are evaluated as lower in quality than less anxious writers” (Daly
& Wilson, 1983, p. 328). According to Naveh-Benjamin (1991) the deficit model is based on the
argument that anxious learners display low performance due to deficiency in the acquisition stage,
that is, they are deficient; therefore; they are more anxious. As for correlation analysis, anxiety
correlated with all dimensions of writing performance such as Scrawl, Misspell, Grammar, Neat
Writing, and Punctuation. This means the subjects were affected by the anxiety. The present study
provided specific evidence for the negative effects of ESL writing anxiety on EFL students’ grades
on their writing performance.
One of the main axioms underlying the current survey was the researchers’ fervent endeavor in
catering for the concerns of a fairly neglected group of individuals in classroom settings, i.e.
anxious learners. High Anxiety can lead to students' discouragement, loss of ability, and escaping
from participation in classroom activities. Studies have shown that learners with high anxiety often
show low achievement which in turn can lead to more anxiety about learning. The researchers’
quest for the possible correlation between anxiety and writing performance ended up with there is
significant correlation between the components of writing performance questionnaires and
anxiety. A piece of findings which seems consistent to expectations. Although the study is
correlational, it may be concluded that most of the students need some degree of anxiety and
suggest that writing requires some kind of concentration that facilitate anxiety. So, it is suggested
that the teachers may pay more attention to students’ levels of foreign language anxiety that this
is associated with the class environment, employing more affect-friendly approaches in order to
help lower students’ anxiety. Also teachers might revise their writing procedures in a way to put
the learners in a more relaxed state, hence the improvement of their performance. After all, it ought
to be asserted that since the current survey was done with a fairly low number of learners, the
results gained can’t be utterly generalizable to other contexts, and hence other similar studies are
called for to investigate different other noteworthy aspects of the issue at hand.
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Title
A Gender-Based Study of Compliments and Compliment Responses in
Persian Movies
Authors
Maliheh Khodabakhshi (M.A)
Kavian Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran
Moslem Zolfagharkhani (Ph.D)
Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran
Biodata
Maliheh Khodabakhshi, M.A in TEFL from Hakim Sabzevari University in 2012. Her main areas
of interest include ELT, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics and she has presented and published
some papers in these domains.
Moslem Zolfagharkhani, assistant professor of English language and literature at Hakim
Sabzevari University, Iran. Being a Conrad scholar, his main research interests include Literary
Criticism, Discourse Analysis, Novel and Sociolinguistics. He has published many papers in
different international journals.
Abstract
This study aimed at investigating frequency distribution patterns of complimenting among
characters of Persian movies. It also elaborated on the contrasts between males and females
in their use of compliment and compliment responses. In order to gather most authentic
data, 15 Persian movies with family or social themes were analyzed. The results indicated
that gender would impact on the complimenting patterns of Persian speakers. It was
revealed that while appearance was the most frequent topic in male-female compliments,
it was ability which was used mostly as compliments in female-male interactions.
Moreover, men tended to praise other men’s ability but women preferred to compliment
each other’s appearance. At the same time, the findings of the study suggested that “No
acknowledgement”, “Appreciation token” and “Formulaic expression” were three major
response types of both males and females, respectively. Finally, it was observed that their
responses to compliments were mainly influenced by cultural norms.
Keywords: Compliments, Compliment responses, Gender, Persian movies
Iranian EFL Journal
61
1. Introduction
Language is affected by our social life. It means that the way people talk is influenced by the
social context in which they are talking. Over the last few decades, the study of speech act behavior
(such as apology, request, compliment and compliment response, refusal and complaint, etc) has
increased our understanding of pragmatic norms of different cultures. The speech event of
compliment and compliment response has been extensively explored because in this way useful
information can be obtained about the rules of language use in a speech community and the value
system of individual speakers as well as the context of culture and situation (Cheng, 2003).
Holmes (1988) defines a compliment as “a speech act which explicitly or implicitly attributes
credit to someone other than the speaker, usually the person addressed, for some ‘good’
(possession, characteristics, skill, etc.) which is positively valued by the speaker and hearer.”
(p.55). In analyzing the American data, Manes and Wolfson (1981) pointed out that the primary
function of compliments is “the reinforcement and / or creation of solidarity” between the speaker
and addressee (p. 124). However, Holmes (1988) proposed that while complimenting usually
regarded as a positive action, it could actually be a face-threatening act if not being used or
interpreted appropriately. Farghal and Haggan (2006) also maintained that many factors such as
the complimenter’s intention, complimentee’s perception and cultural norms would be influential
in interpreting compliments as a face-threatening act or a face-saving behavior. To maintain a
mutual social relationship among interlocutors, it is evident that a compliment should include a
compliment response, too. Compliment responses can be uttered in different forms based on
different situational and socio-cultural factors. Thus, people require both linguistic and
sociolinguistic skills in order to give compliments or respond to them appropriately in different
social contexts.
The investigation of compliments and compliment responses in general, and female/male
differences in particular, can provide language learners with the necessary information about the
cultural values of the society. For example, the high frequency of compliments on personality in a
particular country is an indication that moral goodness is highly valued in that culture. Several
studies revealed that there were some differences between males and females in their realization
patterns of compliments and compliment responses. Two important studies that focused on gender
differences in complimenting and responding to compliments were those by Holmes (1988) and
Herbert (1990). They found that men and women used different syntactic patterns and lexical
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choice in their speech. Based on the findings, they assumed that females used compliments for
keeping solidarity while males regarded compliments as potential face threatening acts (FTAs) or
actual assertions of praise.
Although a lot of research has been carried out on compliments and compliment responses but
they were mainly conducted in English-speaking countries. There have been few investigations in
this domain in Persian context (e.g. Beeman, 1986; Sharifian, 2005; Yousefvand, 2010) but there
is no study which analyzed compliments and compliment responses across gender in Persian
movies. For these reasons, the present study aimed at investigating the frequency distribution of
different patterns of complimenting among a group of characters in Persian movies. Accordingly,
the observed compliments and compliment responses were classified and analyzed based on using
Holmes (1986) classification of compliments and Herbert’s (1986) taxonomy of compliment
responses. Compliments and compliment responses were investigated with a focus on the gender
of the characters. More specifically, the purpose was to investigate the following research
questions:
1.
What kinds of compliments are being used among a group of characters in
Persian movies?
2.
What kinds of response strategies do the characters use when they receive
compliments?
3.
Does gender affect the compliment and compliment response patterns of
characters?
2.1. Compliment
Wolfson and Manes (1980) conducted early studies on compliments, examining a corpus of
compliments uttered in daily conversation in American English. They observed that compliments
seem to fall naturally into two general categories with respect to topic—those which refer to
appearance and/or possessions, and those which have to do with ability and/or accomplishments.
Based on their data, the greatest number of appearance/possession compliments were given and
received by acquaintances, colleagues, and casual friends, especially by females. Upper-status
males rarely received compliments, and these were nearly never associated with appearance. By
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63
contrast,
women
were
the
recipients
of
the
great
majority
of
compliments
on
appearance/possession.
In subsequent studies, Holmes (1986/1988) and Herbert (1990) incorporated Wolfson and
Manes’s (1980) general findings, focusing on the gender difference in compliment forms. They
both found that women used the I like/love NP formula much more than men, and that women’s
compliments were more personal in focus, while men complimented on ability and performance.
In her study on compliments in New Zealand, Holmes (1986) identified that the vast majority of
compliments were about few topics such as appearance, ability /performance, possessions and
some aspect of personality or friendliness, with the first two accounting for 81.3% of the data. So,
her study showed that people in both New Zealand and America had the same topics of
compliments in their speech. In another study, exploring the distribution of compliment topics
across gender, she (1988) observed that while 61 percent of the compliments between women were
found to be appearance-based, only 36 percent of men complimented each other based on
appearance. So, women rather than men liked to compliment each other based on appearance most
often. Men rarely complimented each other based on appearance in both the New Zealand and
American data. Instead, men favored to compliment each other based on possessions more often
than they complimented women based on possessions.
In addition, Holmes and Brown (1987) identified that cultural differences were also influential
in what constitutes a socially appropriate topic for a compliment. For instance, in their study, while
a Pakeha woman [New Zealander of European descent] interpreted weight loss as a compliment,
it was an expression of concern for a Tokelau woman [a territory of New Zealand].
Research indicated that most compliments occur between status equals. As Wolfson (1983)
puts it, “the overwhelming majority of all compliments are given to people of the same age and
status as the speaker” (p.91). Many other researchers also reported the same pattern (Knapp,
Hopper & Bell 1984; Holmes 1988; Herbert 1990). However, compliments also occur in
encounters between status unequals. In New Zealand data, Holmes (1986) found that higher status
females were twice as likely to receive compliments as higher status men, and that men were even
more likely to compliment women of higher status than women were. Thus, in New Zealand, it
was more acceptable to compliment high status women than high status men since according to
Holmes (1988), higher status women were perceived as more receptive to compliments than men
and moreover women were generally regarded as socially subordinate and less powerful and
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influential than men in society as a whole. Based on the results, Holmes (1988) concluded that in
New Zealand, women tended to use compliments as solidarity signals, but men liked to treat them
as FTAs.
2.2. Compliment Responses
The first study which examined compliment responses in an English speaking context was
Pomerantz’s (1978). She claimed that responding to a compliment is a challenging act for the
complimentees since they were required to choose among two opposing conversational maxims:
“agreeing with and/or accepting compliment” or “avoiding self-praise”. Likewise, Herbert and
Straight (1989) pointed that “compliments pose a dilemma. Accepting compliments means
engaging in self-praise, while rejecting them means engaging in other-disagreement” (p.41).
Having being studied across different cultures in the last few decades, there exists a number of
categorization of response types.
Holmes (1986/1988) developed three main categories of compliment responses: “accept”,
“reject”, and “deflect or evade”. Herbert (1986, p.71) also distinguished 12 types of compliment
responses which were subsumed within three broad categories: “agreement”, “non-agreement”,
and “other interpretations”. While the “agreement” part subsumed into appreciation token,
comment acceptance, praise upgrade, comment history, reassignment and return; the “nonagreement” category includes scale down, question, disagreement, qualification and no
acknowledgment. The category of “other interpretation” contains only the subcategory of request
interpretation.
Based on Herbert’s (1989/1990) contrastive study on American and South African compliment
responses spoken by college students, it was found that Americans used a high frequency of
compliment-expression but a low frequency of compliment-acceptance. Conversely, South
Africans exhibited a low frequency of compliment-expression but a high frequency of
compliment-acceptance. He explained that the source of contrast was rooted in the ideological
differences between Americans and South Africans. That is, the high frequency of compliments
and the low rate of acceptance in the U.S. data reflect American notions of equality and democratic
idealism, whereas the low frequency of compliments and the high rate of acceptance are tied to
elitism in South Africa.
Examining the compliment response strategies used by American English speakers and Chinese
speakers, Chen (1993) declared that based on Leech’s (1983) Agreement Maxim, the American
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English speakers tended to use acceptance strategies in their responses, whereas the Chinese
speakers’ strategies were characterized by rejection motivated by Leech’s (1983) Modesty Maxim.
According to Chen (1993), this could be explained by social values in the two cultures: The norm
in American society expected them to accept the compliment gracefully but the social norm in
Chinese context was to appear humble. In another study, Ye (1995) applied Discourse Completion
Test (DCT) in order to explore compliments and compliment responses between interlocutors of
equal status and those in close relationships. Based on her data, she found that while males
preferred to use acceptance with amendment as their first compliment response to both males and
females, females tended to use the same strategy toward females but acceptance toward males.
Moreover, she concluded that Chinese rejection of compliments is not a real denial but a cultural
choice of modesty.
3. Method
3.1. Materials of the Study
To carry out the investigation, the researchers made use of 15 Persian movies (see appendix A).
In this study, Persian movies were selected randomly among many films with social and family
themes. Movies, rather than texts, were chosen because they have the potentiality of offering
utterances created by interlocutors within the context of informal relationship. Furthermore, as
Rose (2001) claimed, language in movies is undoubtedly the most representative of naturallyoccurring speech forms, especially from a pragma-linguistic perspective. It should be also pointed
that “movie” is primarily an unexplored resource of research on discourse and pragmatics.
3.2. Design of the Study
This study followed non-participant observation research method which is predicated on the
ground of qualitative research design. In non-participant observation, the researcher only observes
but does not participate in the activity being observed (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 1996). To be more
precise, this investigation applied content analysis research method which is one type of nonparticipant observation. In content analysis, written or visual materials are investigated for the
purpose of identifying specific characteristics of the materials (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 1996).
Here, not only qualitative descriptive approach was used to conduct the study, but also it provided
some statistics accompanying with figures in order to make the readers understand better.
Iranian EFL Journal
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3.3. Procedure
The procedure of the analysis was started by observing and listing all the compliments and
compliment responses produced by all characters of the observed movies. Next, being separated
across gender, all the data were classified and tabulated based on Holmes (1986) topics of
compliments and Herbert’s (1986) types of compliment responses. After that, the frequencies of
each type of compliments and the compliment responses were counted and listed in both tables of
findings. Finally, the types of compliments and the compliment responses produced by the
characters were revealed and discussed by determining the most frequent types produced.
4.1. Compliment Topic
In this study, compliments fall into four main categories: those having to do with “appearance”,
those comment on “ability/skill”, those on “personal traits” and those on each other’s
“possessions”. The researcher observed very limited number of compliments which were not
related to these main topics or were a mixture of them, so she added one additional category named
“other”. For more clarification, examples of the observed compliments on each topic are
mentioned below:
A. Appearance [Chaharshanbeh Souri (Fireworks Wednesday), 2006]
Male (Abdolreza): “Chi kar kardi? Che khoshgel shodi!?”, “What did you do? You become
so beautiful”.
Here, the husband realizes that his wife has changed a lot and then compliments her beauty.
B. Ability [Bazi (Game), 2008]
Male (Shopkeeper): “Maloomeh shoma to kare atigheh khaili khebreh hastid…, “It is
evident that you are an expert in antique affairs…”.
The context here is an antique shop in which the shopkeeper admires a male customer’s skill in
recognizing antiques because of his choice of an ancient statue at first glance. However, the
shopkeeper’s intention is not a real compliment but to deceive the customer to buy a forged statue
not a real antique one.
C. Personality [Kafeh Setareh (Star Café), 2006]
Male (Suitor): “Khanoom, najib, ba shakhsiat”, “Ladylike, noble and personable”.
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67
In this case, a male character compliments his beloved personality in order to attract her attention
and satisfy her to get married with him.
D. Possession [Kalagh Par (Flying of Crow), 2007]
Female (Mrs. Darayi): “Che angoshtare zibayi!”, “What a nice ring!”.
The context here is a party in which a female character compliments a woman’s possession of a
nice ring. They have acquainted with each other just a few minutes ago and this expression utters
after their greeting in order to start and maintain the conversation.
E. Other [Herfeiha (Professionals), 2009]
Female (Sara): “To behtarin pedare donyayi”, “You are the best father of the world”.
This expression of praise utters in the context of a restaurant where a girl constantly admires
her father because they have recently found each other after years of separation. In this movie and
also in Sara’s view, he is a rich, successful and also a man who gives her comfort. She believes
that his father is exactly the same as the image of her imaginary man. Thus, the researcher
categorized this compliment as “Other” since it includes a mixture of compliment topics
(possession, ability and personality).
Table 1 illustrates the distribution of compliment topics given by both male and female characters
of observed movies (For more clarification, see also Figure 1).
Table 1 Gender and Topic Distribution
Gender
Female-Male
Male-Female
Male-Male
Female-Female
Appearance
20.93% (9/43)
38.09% (8/21)
30.76% (8/26)
41.66% (5/12)
Ability
32.55% (14/43)
23.80% (5/21)
38.46%(10/26)
25% (3/12)
Personality
16.27% (7/43)
28.57% (6/21)
23.07%(6/26)
8.33%(1/12)
Possession
13.95% (6/43)
4.76% (1/21)
7.69%(2/26)
8.33%(1/12)
Other
16.27% (7/43)
4.76% (1/21)
0
16.66%(2/12)
42.15%(43/102)
20.58% (21/102)
25.49%(26/102)
11.76%(12/102)
Compliment
Topics
Subtotal Number
Of Compliments
Total Number of Compliments :102
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50%
Gender
40%
30%
F-F
M-F
M-M
F-M
M-M
F-M
M-F F-F
20%
M-F
M-M
F-M
F-F
10%
F-M
F-M
F-M
F-F
F-F
M-M
M-F
M-F
M-M
M-F
M-M
F-F
0%
Appearance
Ability
Personality
Possession
Other
Compliment Topics
Figure 1. The percentage of compliment topics
As it can be seen, “appearance” and “ability” are two major topics being complimented by both
male and female Persian speakers in this study. In other words, more than half of the compliments
(60.78% containing appearance 29.41% and ability 31.37%) being uttered by both genders are
related to these two categories and the remaining compliments refer to the other three categories
(personality 19.60%, possession 9.80% and other 9.80%). This finding is in line with what other
researchers (Wolfson & Manes, 1980; Wolfson, 1983; Holmes, 1988) found in both U.S and New
Zealand data that the vast majority of compliments fall in two categories of appearance and ability.
As Table 1 indicates, women tend to compliment others more than men with the percentage of
(53.91%) for females against (46.07%) for males. This finding was expected since the main
function of compliments is to keep solidarity and interest among others and due to the fact that
women as opposed to men tend to be more cooperative and friendly, rather than competitive and
hostile. Wolfson (1983) found the same pattern in both the American and New Zealand data that
women tend to give and receive compliments much more frequently than men do. As it is observed,
while female-male compliments are the most frequent of all compliments (42.15%), female-female
compliments are the least (11.76%). It means that women tend to compliment men more than
women. Moreover, the findings show that (42.15%) of all compliments are given by females to
males while (20.58%) of males’ compliments are received by females. It is also revealed that men
compliment each other more than women does; in other words, while (25.49%) of male
compliments are received by other males, women compliment other women only with (11.76%)
of all compliments.
Regarding the distribution of compliment topics across gender, it should be pointed out that
while appearance is the most frequent complimentary topic given by males to females; it is the
ability which is complimented most in female-male relations. However, it can be seen that
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possession is regarded as the least frequent topic in both male-female and female-male
compliments. Likewise, it is revealed that men mostly compliment other men’s ability while
women’s appearance is the most frequent topic in complimenting each other. These observed
findings could be explained by various existent cultural, situational and also religious norms in
Iran. First, since it is a general expectation among both genders that women place greater emphasis
on physical appearance, it is more likely expected that women should be given and received
compliments based on this quality. Second, based on some cultural and religious beliefs, women
tend to be more cautious in complimenting other men’s appearance, for the fear of not being
interpreted as being too forward and romantically assertive. Next, due to the fact that men have
the dominant role in managing and supporting the family for years and since they are always
encouraged, even in childhood, to be severe, powerful and skilled, it is evident that they are mostly
complimented based on the ability.
These topic distribution patterns are more or less consistent with those discussed by previous
authors in other cultures, such as Wolfson (1983), who found that women usually received the vast
majority of compliments on appearance as opposed to men whose compliments were not usually
appearance-related. However, it was observed that New Zealand men also receive some
compliments on appearance (40% of all) but they were mainly given by women rather than men.
American men rarely received appearance compliments and it occurred only when the male were
much younger than female ones. Similarly, Holmes (1988) found in the New Zealand data that
twice as many male-to-female compliments were about appearance.
4.2. Types of Compliment Responses
In daily conversations, when people give compliment to each other, they would also receive the
response. Among English speakers, it is generally agreed that the polite thing to do is to accept the
compliment. In practice, however, compliments are not always accepted. People have to juggle
two conflicting conversational rules: “Agree with the speaker” or “Avoid self -praise”. In Persian
movies, it was found that there were two major types of compliment responses used by different
characters base on their specific gender: “No Acknowledgement” and “Appreciation Token”. The
researcher also observed some culture-specific formulaic expressions which are not included in
Herbert’s (1986) taxonomy of compliment responses, so another category was added named
“other”. The results are illustrated in Table 2 (For more clarification, see also Figure 2).
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Table 2 Gender and Compliment Response Types
Gender
Female
Types of CR
No.
Token
%
5
Appreciation
No.
15.15
%
%
12
17.39%
Comment
2
Acceptance
2
Praise Upgrade
Male
6.06%
1
6.06 1.44%
%
1
Comment History
0
0 1.44%
Reassignment
0
0
0
0
Return
1
3.03
0
0
0
0
2
2.89%
0
0
Scale Down
%
2
Question
Disagreement
6.06
%
Qualification
1
3.03%
0
0
No
0
0
0
0
Acknowledgement
0
0
46
66.66%
Request Interpretation
16
Other
1
48.48%
Subtotal
1.44%
0
0
4
12.12
%
6
8.69%
69
67.64%
Total
33 32.35%
102
102
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71
Gender
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
M
F
FM
FM
FM
F M F M FM
F M F
M F M F M
F
F M
M
Female
Male
Types of Compliment Response
Figure 2. The percentage of the compliment responses
As it is shown in Table 2, in this study, No Acknowledgement responses occur most frequently in
both males (66/66%) and females (48/48 %) compliment exchanges. According to Herbert (1989),
No Acknowledgement is one of the types of compliment responses in which the addressee gives no
indication of having heard the compliment. The addressee either responds with an irrelevant
comment (i.e. topic shift) or gives no response (p. 208). For example: [Herfeiha (Professionals),
2009]
Female (Sara): “To behtarin pedare donyayi”, “You are the best father of the world”.
Male (Pedar): “Ghazato bokhor”, “Eat your meal”.
The second frequent type is Appreciation Token which makes up (17/39%) of all males responses
and also (15/15%) of all females one. Appreciation Token is one type of compliment responses
that refers to the acceptance of the compliment by saying “Thanks” and “Thank you”. For
example: [Herfeiha (Professionals), 2009]
Male (Behrooz): “Che fresh shody, Azin!”, “You become so fresh, Azin!”.
Male (Azin): “Moteshakeram, Moteshakeram”, “Thanks, Thanks”.
In this study, (12/12%) of all women’s and (8/69%) of all men’s responses are related to a category
named Other. This category includes a set of culture-specific utterances or formulaic expressions
which can not be fit into Herbert’s (1986) categorization of compliment responses. For example:
[Mehman (The Guest), 2006]
Female (Madar): “Ghado balaye shah damado beram!”, “You look very handsome as a groom”
Male (Majid): “Nokaretim”, “I am at your service”.
As it is observed, other kinds of compliment responses constitute only a few portions of total
compliments used by Persian characters. Scale Down is another type of compliment response with
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the percentage of (6/06%) for females and (2/89%) for men. It is a type of compliment response
in which the addressee disagrees with the complimentary force, claiming that the praise is
overstated. In fact, it is used instead of rejecting the compliment by saying flat no and reveals
people’s modesty. Here, female characters are more modest than men that might be originated by
the fact that in Persian culture, especially ancient Persian culture, women are subordinate to men.
The conversation is mentioned below: [Az Ma Behtaroon (Better than Us), 2009]
Male (Ahmad): “Matlabetton khaili jaleb bood”, “Your press release was very attractive”.
Female (Nasim): “Albate chize khasiam nist” , “Of course, it is not very especial”.
Another type found in Persian movies is Praise Upgrade which includes only (6/06%) of males
and (1/44%) of females’ responses. In this case, the addressee accepts the compliment and asserts
that the compliment force is insufficient. Females use this strategy more since they naturally want
to be praised more especially by men; again, it might relate to their subordinate status in Persian
culture. For example: [Herfeiha (Professionals), 2009]
Male (Pedar): “Khoob bood,khoob ” , “It was good, good”.
Female (Sara): “Faghat khoob?!”, “Only good?!”.
It can also be recognized that a male character use the strategy of Request interpretation in
responding to a compliment. In this case, the addressee interprets the compliment as a request
rather than a simple compliment. Here is the conversation: [Faseleh (Distance), 2009]
Female (Maryam): “Bezanam be takhte az har angoshetoon ye honar mibare! Che booye kababi
miad.”, “You have a lot of arts, What a pleasant kebab smell!”.
Male (Ostad) : “Naghabele,Tashrif dashte bashid” , “It is trifling, stay here”.
As it is shown, Question is another type of compliment response being used by only a female
character in responding to another female one. It is used when the addressee are not sure about the
truthfulness of the compliment. For example: [Chaharshanbeh souri (Fireworks Wednesday),
2006]
Female (Mojdeh): “Taze shodi aroos”, “Now, you become a real bride”.
Female (Rooh Angiz): “Avaz shodam?”, “Am I changed?.
It is also revealed that one female character responds to a male compliment by a Return. In this
case, the addressee agrees but responds to a compliment by prasing the same quality being
complimented. For example: [Herfeiha (Professionals), 2009]
Male (Pedar): “To dokhatare bahooshi hasti”, “You are an intelligent girl.”
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Female (Sara): “Khob be shoma raftam”, “Since I am alike you.”
Finally, as you can observe in this analysis, four types of compliment response are not used by
characters such as Comment History, Reassignment, Disagreement and Qualification.
In the analyzed data, the three most frequent compliment responses among both male and
female characters are No Acknowledgement, Appreciation Token and Other (formulaic
expression). Thus, regarding gender differences in compliment response manners, there is no
difference in choosing the appropriate response to the complimenter in Persian speakers. However,
it can be seen that, based on quantity, men choose “No acknowledgment” and “Appreciation
Token” a little more than women but women instead tend to use other types of compliment
responses, too. Interestingly, in this study, women rather than men use more formulaic expressions
in their responses.
Silence or shifting the topic is the most frequently used strategy by Persian speakers which
reveal their inclination to be modest based on Leech’s (1983) Modesty Maxim. Persian speakers
also respond to compliments more by saying “Mamnoon or Moteshakeram”, “Thank you”. This
can be explained by the fact that Persians prefer to agree with complimenter. They think that it
might be rude not to accept and reject others’ idea or compliments. Sometimes, Persian speakers
use some formulaic expressions in response to a compliment in order to avoid mere rejection or
acceptance. Responding to a compliment, Persian speakers rarely agree or disagree with the
compliment in a flat way, but tend to make a comment to show their modesty or politeness. A most
frequent culture-specific expression in responding to a compliment is “Cheshmatoon ghashang
mibine”, “Your eyes see beautifully” which is used mostly by Persian women in responding to a
compliment about appearance and possession and again reveals the respondent’s tendency to be
modest and polite. “Nokaretam” or “Chakeram”, “I am at your service” are other examples being
used in responding to compliments, especially by men. Yousefvand (2010), pointed to some of
these expressions in her study: “Khahesh mikonam”,”shoma lotf darin”, “Khejalatam nadin”,
“Sharmande mikonid”. She believed that these terms generally mean no. Here, the quality of the
object or content of the compliment is only denied, but not the illocutionary force of
complimenting. In other words, the speaker tries to reject the proposition but accepts the
complimenting force, thus emphasizing the value of modesty (Yousefvand, 2010). Therefore, it
can be concluded that Persian speakers inclined to respond to compliments with non-agreement
terms that reflects their modesty. However, they tried to disagree with the complimenter in a polite
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manner with their silence or shifting the topic not with the mere No. These findings thus give
weight to Sharifian’s claim that Persians have a strong tendency to deny or downplay a compliment
in line with the cultural schema of shekasteh-nafsi (Sharifian, 2008).
Regarding cultural differences in this respect, the findings presented here indicate more or less
discrepancy to Herbert’s (1990) findings for American English speakers’ compliment responses.
Herbert (1990) in his study on American college students, indicated that the proportion of
agreement responses, (66%, comprising 29.4% appreciation token, 6.6% comment acceptance,
0.4% praise upgrade, 19.3% comment history, 3% reassignment and 7.3% return), was much
higher and made up two-thirds of the total responses. On the other hand, the findings of this study
are in line with what other researchers (Chen, 1993; Daikuhara, 1986; Gajaseni, 1994; Holmes,
1988; Shih, 1986; Ye, 1995) found in East Asian speakers (Chinese, Japanese, Malay, and Thai).
They observed that compliments were usually not accepted among speakers of these countries but
they were mainly rejected as compared to English speakers (as cited in Yousefvand, 2010).
5. Conclusion
Since the speech act of complimenting is very crucial in social and interpersonal relations, it should
be regarded and handled carefully by interlocutors. Moreover, it has been claimed that
compliments reflect cultural values and norms of behavior (Manes, 1983). Despite the fact that the
main function of compliment in Iran is to keep solidarity, maximize friendship and minimize the
probable interpersonal distance, the researcher in this study encountered with a situation when the
produced compliment created negative feelings in the complimentee. In this case, the compliment
is used as sarcasm in that the speaker’s aim is not to compliment the listener but to criticize him
indirectly for some fault or inability in doing something. For example, in this study, a person whose
driving was awful was praised and entitled as “Schumacher” (a German Formula One racing
driver). This kind of compliment which is occurred mostly between close friends and members of
the family might have both positive and negative outcomes. Although it might discourage the
listener and as a result impact their relationship destructively, it can have the advantage of
persuading the listener to try his best to improve his weakness or lack of skill in something.
Naturally, responding to this kind of compliments is more challenging than a real compliment. In
this study, the complimentee tried to ignore it and responded politely with shifting the topic of
speaking. In real life, it was also observed that this kind of compliments will be answered by
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referring and pointing to the complimenter’s own faults. Thus, the act of complimenting is so
complicated that might be investigated and discussed in different dimensions.
The present study on compliments and compliment responses uttered in Persian movies
indicated that while Appearance was the most frequent topic in male-female compliments, it was
ability which is used more as compliments in female-male interactions. Moreover, men tended to
compliment other men by referring to their ability and skill in a specific domain. As rooted in their
gender, female characters complimented other females’ beauty and appearance more.
At the same time, results revealed significant features in Persian participants which supported
the argument that modesty, an important component of Persian politeness, plays a significant role
in Persian speakers’ complimenting and compliment (Beeman, 1986; Sharifiyan, 2005). To be
more precise, in the present study, No acknowledgement, Appreciation token and Formulaic
expression were the three (out of 13) major response types being observed. Moreover, it was
observed that both males and females used No acknowledgement as their first compliment response
preference. We can conclude that “non-agreement”, which is meant to avoid self-praise, is the
driving force behind Persian speakers’ responses to compliment. For the second frequent type of
compliment response, both male and female Persian characters in this study used “Appreciation
token” in order to agree with the complimenter. It was also found that for the third frequent kind,
both men and women preferred some compliment patterns in Persian movies which were culturespecific. Hence, one must bear in mind that the speech event of complimenting, and responses are
“dependent on shared beliefs and values of the speech community coded into communicative
patterns, and thus can not be interpreted apart from social and cultural context” (Saville-Troike,
1982, p. 44). Therefore, the results show the strong effects of both culture and gender on
responding to a compliment.
Owing to cultural differences in complimenting patterns in different countries, the findings of
this study might be helpful for foreign tourists, students or whoever decides to live in Iran
temporarily or permanently. Establishing a good social interrelationship in society, a thorough
knowledge of appropriate norms of complimenting is required for peoples of each society.
Moreover, everyone should be aware of existent gender differences in their complimenting or
responding to it if he/she wants to have a good influential communication in family or society. As
Yousefvand (2010) declared, the information obtained about compliment response patterns, should
provide a useful source for a teacher of second language to raise students’ awareness of cultural
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similarities and differences between L1 and L2. Moreover, the conflicting patterns should be
explained and regarded in order to avoid any probable communication breakdown or offence.
Finally, we should also remind that since this study was only carried out in the context of some
Persian movies, generalizing should be performed with great care. This study also did not take into
account the character’s age, ethnicity, educational background and social status. Thus, a more
extensive study which includes these variables might be useful in understanding the compliment
patterns of Persian speakers.
References
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Beeman, W. (1986). Language, status and power in Iran. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Chen, R. (1993). Responding to compliments: A contrastive study of politeness strategies between
American English and Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 20(1), 49-75.
Cheng, W. (2003). Intercultural Conversation. Amsterdam : John Benjamins.
Farghal, M., & Haggan, M. (2006). Compliment behaviour in bilingual Kuwaiti college students.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9(1), 94-118.
Herbert, R. K. (1986). Say "Thank You” or something. American Speech, 61(1), 76-88.
Herbert, R. K. (1989). The ethnography of English compliments and compliment responses: A contractive
sketch. In W. Oleksy (Ed.), Contrastive Pragmatics (pp.3-35). Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Herbert, R. K. (1990). Sex-based differences in compliment behavior. Language in Society, 19, 201-224.
Herbert, R. K., & Straight, H. S. (1989). Compliment-rejection versus compliment-avoidance: Listenerbased versus speaker-based pragmatic strategies. Language and Communication, 9(1), 35-47.
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Holmes, J. (1988). Paying compliments: A sex-preferential positive politeness strategy. Journal of
Pragmatics, 12, 445-465.
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Knapp, M. L., Hopper, R., & Bell, R. A. (1984). Compliments: A descriptive taxonomy. Journal of
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Manes, J. (1983). Compliments: A mirror of social values. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistics
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Manes, J. & wolfson, N. (1981). The compliment Formula. In F .Coulmas (Ed), Conversational routine
(pp.115-132).The Hague: Mouton.
Pomerantz, A. (1978). Compliment responses: Notes on the cooperation of multiple constraints. In J.
Schenkein (Ed.), Studies in the organization of conversational interaction (pp. 115–132). New York:
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Rose, Kenneth R. (2001), Compliments and compliment responses in film: Implications for pragmatics
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(IRAL), 39, 309-326.
Saville-Troike, M. (1982). The ethnography of communication. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sharifian, F. (2005). The Persian cultural schema of “shekasteh-nafsi”: A study of compliment responses
in Persian and Anglo-Australian speakers. Pragmatics and Cognition, 13(2), 337-362.
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R. Dirven, T. Ziemke & E. Bernardez (Eds.), Body, language, and mind: Sociocultural situatedness
(Vol. 2, pp. 109-136). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
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Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Socioloinguistics and language acquisition (pp.82-95). Rowley, U.S:
Newbury House.
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Ye, L. (1995). Complimenting in Mandarin Chinese. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native
and target language (pp. 207-295). Manoa, Hawai'i: University of Hawai'i Press.
Yousefvand, Z. (2010). Study of compliment speech act realization patterns across gender in Persian.
Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching, 17, 91-112.
Appendix
List of Persian Movies
Name
Director
Date
1. Agar Bararn Bebarad [If It Rains]
Seyyed Rouhollah Hejazi
2008
2. Atashbas [Cease Fire]
Tahmineh Milani
2006
3. Az Ma Behtaroon [Better than Us]
Mehrdad Farid
2009
4. Bazi [Game]
Soroush Sehat
2008
5. Chaharshanbeh Souri [Fireworks Wednesday]
Asghar Farhadi
2006
6. Damade Khosh Ghadam [ Happy Feet Groom] Kazem Rastgoftar
2009
7. Dokhtar Milioner [Millionaire Girl]
2008
Akbar Khamin
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8. Faseleh [Distance]
Kamran Ghadakchian
9. Herfeiha [Professionals]
Pooran Derakhshandeh
10. Kafeh Setareh [Star Cafe]
Saman Moghadam
11. Kalagh Par[ Flying of crow]
Shahram Shahhosseini
2007
12. Koodake Madar [Mother’s Child]
Matin Babaee
2011
13. Mehman [ The Guest]
Saeed Asadi
2006
14. Parkway [Way Park]
Fereydoon Jeirani
2006
15. Sandalie Khali [Empty Chair]
Saman Sterki
Iranian EFL Journal
2009
2009
2006
2008
79
Title
The Effect of Massed/Distributed Sentence Writing on Perception of EFL
Learners: A Qualitative Study
Authors
Elaheh Sotoudehnama (Ph.D)
Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
Fattane Maleki Jebelli (M.A)
Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Elaheh Sotoudehnama, associate professor of English Language Department of Alzahra
University where she has been teaching for more than 20 years. Her area of interest is teaching
skills in general and language learning strategies, culture, and motivation specifically.
Fattane Maleki Jebelli, M.A graduate student of Alzahra University. Her research interests
include English skills and sub skills such as writing and vocabulary.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the massed/distributed sentence
writing as the post task of a noticing activity on the perception of Iranian EFL learners.
Forty female adult upper-intermediate English students from a state university in Tehran
in 2 groups participated in noticing the words whose production was not as easy as their
comprehension. Then, they were involved in a 4 weeks process of massed/distributed
sentence writing; the participants’ perceptions regarding the treatment were explored by
triangulation through interviews with all the participants of the study and the 3 professors
of that university observing the process of the study. The participants were also asked to
write a journal about the process at the end of each week of the treatment phase about how
they experienced the process in that week in class or out of that. The researchers’ field
notes were used, too. The data were coded systematically and analyzed through content
analysis. As the participants mentioned, conducting the post task of noticing activity was
effective in enhancing their productive lexical knowledge. Also, they considered the
dictionary’s examples useful to do a productive task. As they stated, the distributed way of
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practice was boring, and the massed way of learning was easier than the distributed way to
handle a task. However, they believed the distributed way of learning caused more attention
to learning.
Keywords: Massed, Distributed, Sentence writing, Perception
1. Introduction
Presenting a task as a productive task and adhering to its effect on facilitating more noticing and
learning is the issue of some controversies (Alizadeh Kolagar, 2012; Mirab, 2009; Song & Suh,
2008) that requires more investigation. On the other hand, regarding the effect of
distributed/massed ways of learning (i.e. spaced presentation of materials to the learners or
learning the materials through the crammed and intensive courses), some controversies are seen in
the literature. As Scott and Conrad (1992) stated, tension and tiredness are considered as bothering
factors among the learners receiving massed and intensive learning, but the learners experiencing
these types of learning showed more concentration on the learnt materials. Contrary, Ausubel
(1966) mentioned that distributed practice draws the learners’ attention and concentration more to
the process of learning. Moreover, Willingham (2002) believed that the distributed learning
increased the learners’ memory of learnt materials.
Considering the literature, the present study as a new research in this field explored the effect
of a productive task (i.e. massed/distributed sentence writing) as the post task of noticing activity
from another view. Indeed, one of the features distinguishing this study from the previous literature
is qualitatively exploring the effect of presenting a single task as the post task of noticing --different
in time interval-- on perception of the EFL learners. Also, it was tried to qualitatively investigate
which way of learning (massed vs. distributed sentence writing) was more effective in drawing the
learners’ attention to learning and consequently in enhancing the effect of noticing the learners’
comprehended vocabulary knowledge and its conversion to their productive lexical knowledge.
Related to the aforementioned point, the present study tried to answer the following question:
-How do the participants perceive, prefer, and experience vocabulary learning through the
massed/distributed ways of sentence writing?
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
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The participants of the study were 40 Iranian female upper-Intermediate B.A students of English
of two intact classes from a state university in Tehran with age range of 18-40 years old. They
participated in the study in two homogenous groups of massed vs. distributed. The distributed
group included 21 participants out of 28 and the massed group contained 19 participants out of 29.
To decrease the problem of biased conclusions (Maxwell, 2005), and to be assured of
“trustworthiness” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 290) regarding the techniques of “credibility”,
“transferability”, “dependability” and “confirmability” (p. 300) of the study, the researchers
conducted the qualitative study through triangulation which includes utilizing several techniques
and views in the process of the study (Dornyei, 2011).
2.2.1. Semi-Structured Interview
A “semi-structured interview” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 173) was used as the main way of data
collection in the study.
2.2.2. Audio Recording
Not to miss any single point, every interview was recorded, listened to over and over and
transcribed carefully.
2.2.3. Journal Entries
Journal entries including the participants of both groups’ reflections about how they experienced
the process of sentence writing in every week of the treatment were utilized as a complementary
source to collect data.
2.2.4. Observations
In the process of the study, the researchers could participate in 10 treatment sessions for the group
who experienced the distributed treatment and in 4 sessions for the group who experienced the
massed treatment.
2.2.5. Field Notes
Following every session of interview, observation, and after reading the journal entries, a
collection of “field notes” (Friedman, 2012, p. 184) were written by the researchers.
2.3. Data Collection
Since the study was conducted in a state university in Tehran, the process of the research lasted
for about one university semester. In this regard, at first, a TOEFL test (2004) which was retrieved
from Ebteda Publication (2010) was conducted to ensure the participants were homogeneous. In
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other words, after taking a TOFEL test (2004), 40 participants of two intact classes at upperintermediate proficiency level were assigned to two groups. To do so, 28 of the participants in one
group and 29 of them in another group were checked for their homogeneity, and 21 participants of
one class and 19 participants of the other class whose scores were in the range of 1 SD above or
below the mean of every group were selected for the study.
One week later, the noticing phase was conducted; a passage taken from Acklam and Crace
(2006), named (i.e. who comes first?) was given to the learners of both groups. They were asked
to select 25 of the most problematic words in the text that they could not produce well. In other
words, all participants were consciously aware of the words in the text which they comprehended
well, but were not able to produce appropriately in that text. Thus, in this way, noticing was
conducted equally among all the participants.
Indeed, the procedure conducted up to this level, is similar to what Abednia and Tajik (2012)
did in their quantitative study, considered as a prerequisite for the treatment (i.e. massed sentence
writing vs. distributed sentence writing) of this qualitative study. Then, redoing the noticing phase
was essential for the treatment procedure.
One week after the noticing phase, the treatment phase for both groups started to be carried out.
The participants of both groups made sentences with the noticed words. As a result, not only were
the participants aware of the noticed words but also they practiced the noticed words. This process
for both groups was conducted 4 times during 4 weeks. Hence, the participants of both groups
were treated and they were involved in the process of sentence writing as the post task of a noticing
activity, but the difference was in the kind of the treatment.
In fact, every week, the participants of one group were asked to write 4 sentences with the
noticed words without any time interval in the process of their sentence writing. To ensure that the
time factor was not involved in their treatment, every week, the researchers participated in one of
the classes that the participants of this group were present and asked them to write the sentences
in the class and then deliver them to the researchers. Since some of the students were absent in
some sessions, the researchers informed them about those words via email after the class, and
asked them to send the sentences in that day. Therefore, every week the researchers received the 4
written sentences, once in one day, i.e. this kind of writing was considered to be the massed
sentence writing. However, the members of the other group wrote every 4 sentences with time
interval; every day they wrote only one of the sentences and delivered it to the researchers in that
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day. Then, every week, the process of the treatment in the distributed group took 4 consecutive
days.
It is necessary to note, during the process of the study, the researchers tried to participate in one
of the participants’ classes to collect the sentences and to observe the participants while they were
writing the sentences. As a matter of fact, the time of observation in each session was so short.
Also, because the researchers presented the sentences to the participants and then merely they
observed them during the process of sentence writing to see what happened in those moments, a
“nonparticipants” or “unstructured observation” (Dornyei, 2011, p. 179) was conducted leading
the researchers to take detailed field notes. As it was observed, some of the participants checked
the dictionaries to help them write the sentences. Indeed, as the researchers were not allowed to
participate in some of the classes (i.e. due to the time limitation of the class), they waited out of
the class and then collected the sentences after the time of the class or by the help of the professor
of the class. Thus, they asked all the participants to write the sentences by referring to their own
knowledge and not by copying the dictionary examples.
As some of the participants were absent from the class in some sessions of the treatment, the
researchers could not observe them during the process of sentence writing to know how they wrote
the sentences (i.e. whether they thought about the sentences that they wrote or they wrote them
only by referring to the dictionary). Therefore, the researchers asked every participant of both
groups to write a journal about how they experienced the treatment and about their perceptions
regarding this process at the end of every week of the treatment.
At the beginning of the fourth week of the treatment, the researchers started to have interview
with the participants of both groups about the process of their writing, about how they had written
the sentences in every week of the treatment, during 4 days or in 1 day, and also their perceptions
about this process. As Friedman (2012) suggested, the researchers, based on the observations and
field notes, prepared some questions, and then piloted the questions in some of the first interviews
to edit the problematic questions. In other words, after piloting the questions in the first 4-5
interviews, the participants were asked about the following points:
- Their perceptions regarding boredom vs. enjoyment with continuing the process of
sentence
writing.
- Their perceptions regarding effectiveness of the method of the treatment in improving their
lexical knowledge.
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- Their preference about selecting a type of learning (massed vs. distributed).
- Their perceptions regarding the type of learning easier to deal with (massed vs. distributed).
- Using/not using a source to help them write sentences, and how they experienced it.
Then, all of the participants were interviewed individually or through “focus groups” (Boeije,
2010, p. 63) including 4-6 participants. Every interview conducted individually took about 15-20
minutes and every group interview lasted up to 1 hour. In short, the interview process lasted for 3
weeks. The 3 professors of English department of the university who were present at the time of
the process of sentence writing in the class and were observing this process or were dealing with
the participants of the study at the time of conducting the study were interviewed, as well. Needless
to say, all the interviews were recorded and transcribed carefully.
3. Data Analysis and Discussion
To consider the similarities and differences between the gathered data (i.e. the tape scripts of
interviews with the participants, as the main gathered data, and the tape scripts of interviews with
professors who observed the process of the study, the journals entries written by the participants
of the massed/distributed groups weekly during 4 weeks, the observation notes, and the field notes
written by the researchers), the qualitative data were coded systematically, i.e. by “initial coding”
(Dornyei, 2011, p. 251), and “second-level coding” (Dornyei, 2011, p. 252), and were investigated
through “content analysis” (Dornyei, 2011, p. 245); the instances of the common points were
counted and categorized into special classifications.
One of the points, common in the answers to the questions in the interviews, in the journal
entries, and in the observations was bout the participants’ boredom vs. enjoyment with continuing
the process of sentence writing. As the result of the interviews with all the participants, 81% of the
participants of the distributed group and 63% of the participants of the massed group mentioned
that the process of the treatment bored them.
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Figure 1. Perceptions of the Participants Regarding the Process of Treatment (Boredom vs.
Enjoyment)
Possibly, these results were due to point that the process of the treatment (i.e. sentence writing)
lasted for 4 weeks, in which the participants of the distributed group were involved 4 days in each
week, but the massed group experienced this process once in every week. The following example
would clarify this point more.
The process of sentence writing in this week was good like the previous weeks; I
learnt how to use the words. But, it was a little bit boring because it was the 4th week
that we wrote sentences.
Sample excerpt, distributed group, journal
As one of the reasons causing boredom, the participants further stated that since the process of the
treatment was the same during 4 weeks and no variety was included in each week of the treatment,
it led them to boredom. The following instance is helpful, in this regard.
The process was good, but if there was included a kind of variety in the 4 weeks, it
would be better. For example, if [in] one week a sentence is written for each word,
and [in] the next week, a sentence is written with the 4 words, it provides a sort of
variety.
Sample excerpt, massed group, interview
As a matter of fact, being so involved with the courses and projects at university caused some of
the participants not to enjoy the study, and possibly to become bored with the process of the
treatment. The explanatory excerpt is as follows:
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Possibly, if it was the last semester, this would not be the situation. But, [because] in
this semester, we had lots of thing [to do], concentrating on this process was a bit
boring.
Sample excerpt, distributed group, interview
As another source indicating that the participants of both groups, especially those of distributed
group, became tired and bored at the end of the last two weeks of the process of the treatment, the
statements of the 3 professors can be mentioned.
- Basically, when these kinds of things [the researches] happened; [you] would
confront the students’ objection. They do not like very much to mix their classes with
these things.
- I do not suppose that the students liked it at all; none of them, I suppose. They
always said “we have a lot of other things [to do], we don’t have time.” Some [of
them] said that it took the time of their class.
- Either one night, or four nights. One night is boring, four nights is more boring.
Sample excerpts, the 3 professors, interview
In fact, this issue was observed by the researchers, too. As it was observed, the students of the
distributed class were more bored at the end of every week after the second week of the treatment
than the students of the massed class. It is necessary to mention, on the basis of this finding, the
curriculum developers of the university courses will be informed that the EFL learners at university
level would not like to prolong any type of activity, since it makes them bored.
Another perception of the participants regarding the process of the treatment (i.e. the
massed/distributed sentence writing), common in 72% of answers to questions in the interviews
with participants of the distributed group and 69% of those with the participants of the massed
group and also in the other collected data, was about the effectiveness of the method of the
treatment in improving lexical knowledge.
Figure 2. The Effectiveness of the Method of the Treatment in Improving Lexical Knowledge
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As a matter of fact, they mostly believed that the process of the treatment was effective, in general.
The following excerpts of both groups’ journal entries would clarify this point more.
- To do the process, I had to realize their part of speeches; then I started to make
sentences with them. This process helped me a lot to learn the usage of the words in
the sentences.
- Of course there was a good feeling inside me, because in making sentences, we
became aware and noticed more precisely if they were nouns or adjectives. In
addition, my vocabulary knowledge increased because I learnt how to use them in a
context.
Sample excerpts, distributed/massed group respectively, journal
The positive aspect of working with sentence was referred to in the interview as follows:
- I think what is important is that if an individual knows one thousand words; he/she
knows how to use them in a sentence. Because of that it is so good that you tell us
[that] they [the words] should be used in a sentence.
- There were some words that I did not know their usages and it caused my vocabulary
knowledge to be increased, and also I understood that how I could make a sentence
with a word grammatically. So this was a good experience.
Sample excerpts, distributed/massed group respectively, interview
As this finding indicated, both types of sentence writing as the post tasks of noticing activity
were influential in promoting the effect of noticing and in enhancing the learners’ productive
lexical knowledge. It is worth noting, this finding could help the EFL teachers know that the
learners have positive view regarding experiencing sentence writing as a type of post task of
noticing activity to activate their passive lexical items.
After mentioning their perception about the treatment of the study, 80% of the participants of
the distributed group and 73% of the participants of the massed group in their interviews stated
that if they had the opportunity to select one class whose activity included massed or distributed
sentence writing, they would have the preference for the distributed class over the massed one.
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Figure 3. Having the Preference for a Way of Learning (Massed vs. Distributed)
The common reason to support their claim was the issue that through the distributed way of
learning, more attention and concentration would occur. The following excerpts of the interview
with the distributed group would explain this point more.
- I prefer some days in the week, because if we tend to experience four words in a day,
we wouldn’t specify time for that, [and] we wouldn’t concentrate. But, if we would
like to have beautiful sentence, these all depend on the method. I think, in that way
[the massed way], we only tend to write to finish it and to let it go.
- I preferred one word in each day. Because learning is less with four words. But, with
one word, I concentrate only on that one word, and I can learn more.
Sample excerpts, distributed group, interview
In this vein, the following example of the participants of the massed group is worth exploring.
[In the method] with one word, the attention would be increased. Because [in that way]
I would only write one sentence, so it should be better. Because of that I take part in
the class [which would] be held 4 days in the week.
Having received the participants’ comments regarding their preference for the massed/distributed
ways of learning, to make this common point more clear, the researchers interviewed with one of
the professors, present at the time of the treatment, too.
I suppose, when the words are one in each day, possibly, more concentration would
be devoted to every sentence; when the words are not related to each other, learning
each of them once in every day causes the students to concentrate more on those
words. But, [with] 4 [words], possibly, they [the students] would devote less time to
concentrate and to know how to put the 4 words in the 4 sentences.
Sample excerpt, the professor, interview
Indeed, what she mentioned was in line with the ideas of the participants in both groups regarding
their preference for the distributed way of learning over the massed way and also with the
researchers’ observation; as it was observed, mostly, the participants of both groups preferred the
distributed way of learning, because they believed that the distributed way of learning led them to
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more concentration, and drew their attention more to the learning --productive vocabulary learning
in this case-- than the massed way of learning.
In fact, this finding will guide the EFL teachers to select an effective type of learning technique
which could draw the learners’ attention more to the process of language learning, especially for
acquiring productive vocabulary items. As the researchers asked the participants to explain more
about their preferences, the participants added some points about the type of learning (massed vs.
distributed) easier to deal with; nearly all the participants, (i.e. 91% of the participants of the
distributed group, and 95% of the participants of the massed group in their interviews), considered
the massed way easier than the distributed way to cope with.
Figure 4. The Ideas of the Participants of the Both Groups Regarding the Way of Learning (Massed
vs. Distributed) Easier to Deal with.
As the participants’ comments indicated, since the task can be handled in shorter time in the
massed way than in the distributed way, this type of learning was easier and less challenging than
the distributed way, and it caused less tiredness. The following excerpts of interview with the
massed group would be more explanatory.
- The task that is done once is easier; the task that takes less time. I mean, once a
week that takes less time.
- The task done once is easier. In other words, four words in one day are better.
Sample excerpts, massed group, interview
Besides, the following examples of the interview with the participants of the distributed group are
worth investigating.
- Four days in the week are more challenging. Because I thought that I got so tired.
But, once in a week is easier, and less tiring.
- I was more satisfied with one day in a week. I suppose, it would be easier due to
time. [In this way], we wouldn’t be involved in each day. We would do it in one day
and it would finish.
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Having analyzed the data, the researchers could clearly observe a common point among them about
using/not using a source to guide the participants to write sentences, and also about the issue that
how they experienced it, for this aim. As a matter of fact, what most of the participants in the
interviews (i.e.77% of the participants of the distributed group, and 64% of the participants of the
massed group), and in journal entries named as a source helping them to write sentences was
dictionary.
Figure 5. The Ideas of the Participants of Both Groups about Using/Not Using a Source to Write
Sentence
As the participants mentioned, they used the English to English dictionary to check its sentence
examples, the part of speech, the prepositions, and the collocations of the words to know how the
words could be used in the sentences. They stated that they did not try to copy or to deliver the
same examples in the dictionary to the researchers but they merely used the dictionary as a source
helping them write the sentences. What they stated was in line with the observations of the
researchers. Some excerpts indicating the perception of the participants of the distributed group
are as follows:
- All in all, I used the dictionary twice. I intended to check the word that you said
with the context that I had in my mind, to see if it was right or not. Because of that
I checked it with the dictionary to see if the dictionary used that context or not. Then,
I wrote myself [my own sentence].
- I checked some of them [the words]. I saw the dictionary’s example. I didn’t like
it [to copy the sentences]. I’m that much creative that if I see the examples, I write
my own sentence.
The perception of the participants of the massed group is indicated in the following example.
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For example, I knew what [the meaning of the word] was, but I didn’t know how I
should use it, so I checked how the word was used in an example, then I paid attention
to it, after that I wrote my own sentence. I liked to know how a word having other
meanings was used with those meanings in sentences.
The following document of the journal entries denotes this point, as well.
I used online dictionary and also mobile phone dictionary to get some clues for
writing and also I used them to know about related information to those words and
specific information about the structure and the suitable collocations.
Sample excerpt, distributed group, journal
As this finding indicated, despite the researchers’ insistence on not using the dictionary, they
mostly used English to English dictionary to check the syntactic features of the words, the
collocations of the words, and also to see how each word was used in the sentence. Therefore, they
believed checking the dictionary’s examples could be helpful to do a productive task. This finding
will guide the teachers to know about the positive view of EFL learners regarding using dictionary
to do a productive task.
4. Conclusion
According to the findings, the process of the treatment was effective, in general. But, the
distributed way of learning led to more concentration and more learners’ attention to the process
of doing the task. Besides, most of the participants, especially those of the distributed group
considered the process of the treatment boring. Therefore, it can be concluded that the long
duration of process especially in the distributed group, and also the pressure of university courses
can be the issues leading to the boredom. In fact, although the participants called the distributed
way of learning boring, they mentioned that they mostly preferred the distributed way of practice
due to the effectiveness of the distributed method in providing the learners with more concentration
and attention to the process of learning. However, they believed that the massed way of learning
was easier than the distributed way to cope with a task. Furthermore, most of the participants
considered the dictionary’s sentence examples useful in using the vocabulary items in a productive
task.
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Title
Responses to mediation for six levels of reading comprehension questions
based on Bloom's taxonomy
Nava Nourdad (Ph.D)
University of Tabriz
Biodata
Nava Nourdad, assistance professor at University of Tabriz where she teaches courses at B.A.
and M.A. levels. Her areas of interest include language testing and assessment, curriculum
development, ESP, and reading.
Abstract
This qualitative study reports on an investigation of interactive dynamic assessment (DA)
undertaken by 47 adult EFL learners. It aimed at finding out how mediations provided
through DA for six types of reading comprehension questions classified according to
Bloom et al.'s (1956) cognitive taxonomy affected the readers' development. It was
revealed that mediations were more beneficial for higher order questions than the lower
order ones and as the cognitive level of the questions raised mediations led into more
development and transcendence of the reading ability. Due to high instructional value
inherent in DA these findings can be used by language teachers and assessors in developing
and applying appropriate mediations for questions with different cognitive loads to
improve higher order thinking ability of EFL readers.
Keywords: Reading comprehension ability, Interaction, Mediation, Dynamic assessment,
Bloom's taxonomy
1. Introduction
Reading has been invented by human beings only a few thousand years ago, and it has certainly
changed our means of communication as well as our intellectual abilities. People's abilities in
reading may vary from reading basic text to much higher level of comprehension, learning new
conceptual information, synthesizing, critic reading, and even reinterpreting texts. Reading is a
complex and incremental process in which readers attempt to comprehend the text through
decoding the writer's intended meaning. Comprehension is not a unitary phenomenon but its basis
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is on the ability to mentally interconnect events in the text and reach to a coherent representation
of the whole text (Kendeou, et al, 2007, p.28-9). That is to get the meaning of the text the reader
goes through various processes at the word-, sentence- and text-level. The reader first tries to
identify a series of letters as a word, access the meaning of words, and integrate individual word
meanings or sentence meanings into coherent sentence- and text-level representations (Best, Rowe,
Ozuru, & McNamara, 2005).
The problem is not just the complexity of the reading comprehension process but also the
complexity of choosing the most appropriate instructional method, teacher orientation and learner
engagement among the various possibilities. Determining the most efficient and effective
instructional approach for reading improvement which can achieve the institutional goals is one of
the major issues facing teachers, teacher trainers, curriculum developers, administrators, and
materials writers (Grabe, 2008, p.329). There are many contexts in which foreign language learners
develop their reading abilities. As Grabe (2008) correctly puts it L2 learners learning reading in
different settings and institutions with varying levels of training and different goals can't have a
single " one size fits all' reading instruction and curriculum, therefore, "L2 reading instruction
should be sensitive to the students' needs and goals and the larger institutional context" (p.19).
2.1. The Importance of Reading Assessment
Considering the higher sensitivity of assessment the above mentioned fact about sensitivity to
needs, goals and context is true and even more required for reading assessment. All assessments
have consequences and regardless of their contexts should be handled with care, purpose, and
expertise. Since assessment practices can both benefit the learning environment or inflict great
harm, great care, attention, and respect is required. Teachers are to understand the uses and aspects
of the reading assessment and consider its consequences, because reading assessment has a great
power to inform researchers, teachers, administrators, and policy makers (Grabe, 2008, p.352). It
is essential for all teachers and in particular teachers of reading to gain an understanding of the
principles and uses of assessment. (Snow, Griffin, & Buns, 2005, p.179).
Reading assessments are used for many purposes .Grabe (2008, p. 353) identifies five purposes
for the reading assessment:
1. Reading-proficiency assessment
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2. Assessment of classroom learning
3. Assessment of curricular effectiveness
4. Assessment of research purposes
5. Assessment for learning
Among these five the last one is more in line with the scope of the present study. It aims at
supporting and improving student learning. In the case of reading assessment it is intended to
improve reading abilities. The goals is not evaluating students' ultimate performance or recording
the outcome but the main purpose is providing immediate feedback on tasks and teaching learners
to engage in more effective learning. The key property in this kind of assessment is the follow-up
feedback, and the interaction between the teacher and the students. It engages learners actively in
their own learning and responds to indicators of nonunderstanding or weak understanding with
continuous support, remediation, and fine-tuning of mediation and instruction. Assessments for
learning can double the rate of student learning (William 2007-8). It uses assessment information
as major opportunities for learning and the development of more effective skills over time. Among
various types of assessment for learning, dynamic assessment (DA) is considered as the most
prominent and flourishing type.
2.2. Dynamic Assessment
One of the most successful approaches to assessment for learning as opposed to assessment of
learning is dynamic assessment. DA with its broad outlook toward instruction and assessment
meets the requirements of the both poles simultaneously and kills two birds with one stone. It is,
in fact, more of a philosophy toward teaching and student learning than a separate set of assessment
practice.
While traditional assessment is product-oriented and identifies just the level of student
performance, dynamic assessment aims at both product and process. The focus, therefore, is not
only on the level of learning but also on the rate of the learning. So through its wider and deeper
student observation DA provides detailed information about students' current competence and next
steps so that students are not evaluated unfairly. An assessment procedure set out to particular
needs of individual learners can be accomplished solely through dynamic assessment. Timely
instruction can save many poorly performing learners from falsely being interpreted as
unsuccessful learners. In fact data from dynamic assessment can help identify the type and amount
of required mediation for academic success. The point is not that non-dynamic assessment (NDA)
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is inappropriate but that DA is a means of learning about difficulties and then working to address
these difficulties.DA is not limited to assessing the individuals but is also an instructional activity
provided that appropriate mediation is presented to the learner. The basis of prediction about future
performance in. DA is on the kinds and amount of mediation required and learners' responsiveness
to the mediation.
2.3. Mediation
The main and unique feature of dynamic assessment which distinguishes it from traditional nondynamic assessment is mediation. For Vygotsky (1978) mediation is the main driving force of
development. He claimed that the secret of effective learning lies in the nature of the social
interaction between two or more people with different levels of skills and knowledge. This
involves helping the learner to move into and through the next layer of knowledge or
understanding. Individual's performance in cooperation with others is an indication of their future
independent performance because when the performance with mediator is internalized they form
the individual's abilities. Therefore, mediation is an indispensable part of the procedure to reveal
the full range of abilities. Mediation can be defined as the assistance provided to the testees during
the assessment session to better understand and more accurately measure the ability of learners
and at the same time help them improve abilities within their zones of proximal development
(ZPD).
ZPD is considered as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined
by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky,
1978, p.24). ZPD, in fact, captures the learners' cognitive skills that are being matured and this is
possible by the assistance of a more skilled person. So to be effective, mediation "must be aimed
at those abilities that are in the process of ripening" (Poehner & Lantolf, 2010, p.317).
According to Kozulin & Grab (2002) Vygotsky introduced the following parameters of
dynamic assessment: (a) interactivity (b) emphasis on developing functions (c) the gain score
based on comparison of the results of aided and independent performance. Poehner (2008, p.15)
believes that collaboration with individuals during the completion of assessment tasks is necessary
to have a complete picture of their abilities and also extending independent performance to levels
they could not reach by themselves. Collaboration with the examinee which is crucial to learning
can range from prompts and leading questions to hints and explanations (Poehner, 2005). In DA
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an atmosphere of teaching and helping replaces the conventional attitude of neutrality which was
prevalent in traditional non-dynamic assessment (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2002, p.29). Therefore,
one of the major roles of the assessor in DA procedure is to identify the participants' actual and
potential levels of development in order to provide them with appropriate mediation which may
eventually lead to their development. In DA, the relationship between the examiner and examinee
is thus transformed, with the examiner intervening during the assessment (Poehner, 2008, p.15).
This modified role of the assessor has caused the terms "examiner" and "examinee" to be replaced
by "mediator" and "learner".
Dynamic assessment can, therefore, promote learner abilities through appropriate
mediation and graded support. Block and Pressley (2002) believe that "instruction should include
modeling, scaffolding, guided practice, and independent use of strategies so that students develop
an internalized self-regulation of comprehension processes" (p.3).
2.4. Characteristics of Effective Mediations
Not any kind of support, help, or guidance forms the mediation because the mediation should be
appropriate in level and type to move learners toward internalization and independent
performance. Mediation in DA is defined as any move made by a mediator that focuses on learner
development, but Poehner and Lantolf (2005) argue that interactions do not always lead to
development.
In order to provide the most effective mediation, mediators' correct and comprehensive
understanding of development theories is required. If not the mediation provided to the learner
may lead to results other than cognitive or linguistic knowledge or ability development. In some
cases false mediations may support the learners affectively which makes them feel good about
their performance and has many positive effects on them but mediation which is limited to the
interaction with words of encouragement and affective support deviated from original kind of
mediation defined in DA does not lead into individuals' cognitive development. The main reason
of this unfulfillment is inability of these mediations in explaining the reason of learner performance
failure and offering the appropriate remedial instruction for a better performance in future (Poehner
& Lantolf, 2005).
Another type of false mediation is in which the focus of mediation is on supporting
individuals in getting through the task rather than developing abilities that transcend any later
given task. As experienced by everyone many tasks can be completed with others' support and
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guidance but the point is that whether the mediation has been of a kind to successfully coconstruct
the learners ZPD and result in their cognitive development and independent performance of a
similar task which is called transcendence.
To this end responses from teachers should (a) address skills needed to improve learning,
(b) encourage greater student awareness of what successful outcome would look like, and (c)
provide opportunities to help students become more successful (Grabe, 2008, p.364). The key is
not to provide answers but to enhance learning, to work through misunderstandings that are
apparent from student performance, to develop effective learning strategies and to encourage
student self-awareness and motivation to improve. The appropriate mediation should guide the
learner toward autonomy by inviting the individuals to challenge and think on their responses, and
discussing the concepts and principles. Mediations should be discussed explicitly and encourage
learners to provide reasons for any step taken during task completion procedure. Learner autonomy
as the ultimate goal of mediation can be achieved through learner’s ability to develop cognitively
and reach to higher order thinking ability. Bloom was the first psychologist to introduce the
hierarchy of cognitive development as the basis of identifying educational goals and objectives for
teachers. His taxonomy therefore can form the most suitable basis for both mediation and
scaffolding.
2.5. Bloom’s Taxonomy
In 1948 Benjamin Bloom the American psychologist defined three domains of cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor to be important in the learning process. He provided a taxonomy as a
classification of different learning objectives that educators set for students. The subcomponents
of his taxonomy are as follows:
2.5.1. The affective domain
This domain is based on feelings, emotions, and attitudes. It focuses on learners’ emotional
reactions and emphasizes on feeling others’ joy and pain. Affective domain includes the following
five levels from the lowest to the highest.
1. Receiving: This is the most basic level of affection which is limited to passive attention of the
learners in order to receive the presented data.
2. Responding: At this level learners not only attend to the stimulus, but also have reactions to
them in some way.
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3. Valuing: Learners identify a value for the observed objects, events, or received pieces of
information.
4. Organizing: Learners order various pieces of information, values, and ideas within their schemas
through comparing, linking, and elaboration.
5. Characterizing: The beliefs and values held by learners direct their behaviors and turn to be a
characteristic.
2.5.2. The psychomotor domain
This domain is related to physical skills mainly done by body. Psychomotor objectives focus on
the development of psychical skills but, unfortunately, no specific subcategory is identified for it
by Bloom.
2.5.3. The cognitive domain
Years after presenting the main classification by Bloom, a group of his colleagues headed by
Bloom himself investigated the cognitive domain more deeply. They presented their taxonomy of
educational objectives as a basis for planning educational objectives, teaching-learning activities
and assessment items. This taxonomy can help teachers move their teaching practices in direction
of higher levels. Bloom et al. (1956) defined these six levels for the cognitive domain.
1. Knowledge: As the lowest level of cognitive domain, knowledge is defined as just remembering
previously learned material without any additional thinking process.
2. Comprehension: It is the ability of the learner to grasp the meaning of the material by explaining,
summarizing, or predicting the result.
3. Application: Through application learners use the acquired knowledge in a new situation by
applying rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories in a related situation.
4. Analysis: Analysis includes identifying the component parts of the given material to understand
its organizational structure. It is fulfilled through identifying the parts, analyzing the relationship
between them and recognizing the principles organizing them.
5. Synthesis: Synthesis is the ability to assemble the constituent parts to form a new whole, the
result of which is creative behavior or formulation of a new structure or pattern.
6. Evaluation: Through evaluation learners can judge the value of the presented materials based
on some internal or external criteria. This ability is the highest in hierarchy and specifies the ability
in the previous five levels as its prerequisite.
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Considering the detailed and clear explanation of each hierarchical layer of the taxonomy
and focusing on its educational orientation it can be concluded that Bloom’s taxonomy can form
the basis of planning educational objectives at various stages from curriculum development to
teachers’ actual teaching practice in the classroom and even to its following assessment
procedures. Course designers can consider the learners’ developmental stages in preparation of
text books and developing tasks, teachers can take the advantage of them in their class activities
and tasks based on needs of the particular groups of learners and their developmental stage, and
testers can have a more vivid and valid picture of learner abilities by developing their test items or
assessment tools based on classifications of this taxonomy and even provide a positive washback
effect by driving the teaching practices in direction of higher order thinking abilities.
Considering the monoistic approach of dynamic assessment toward teaching and
assessment the importance of applying this taxonomy increases even more. Mediations of dynamic
assessment, if based on Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy, can lead to the development of higher order
thinking abilities and transcendence of them in the learners. Unfortunately, dynamic assessment
as a result of its relatively short history in the language assessment has not benefited from theorydriven frameworks in its mediations. The domain of reading competence, on the other hand, has
rarely been subject to investigations in the framework of dynamic assessment. Besides, despite the
research evidence suggesting that automatic comprehension processes play a critical role in
reading success and the acknowledgement that mediation must become efficient, little attention
has been devoted to developing instructional and assessment methods that might foster
automaticity of comprehension process and autonomy of readers.
There have been a limited number of qualitative and quantitative studies on the effect of
DA on reading comprehension (Brown & Palincsar, 1989; Grab & Kozulin, 1998; Kozulin & Grab,
2002; Ajideh, Farrokhi, & Nourdad, 2012; Ajideh & Nourdad, 2012a & b; 2013); however, as far
as the researcher is concerned, there is almost no study on the quality and quantity of appropriate
mediations for various reading tasks. The present study as a response to this need in the related
literature aimed at taking the cognitive taxonomy of the Bloom as the basis of interactional
mediations and finding out to what extent the interaction with readers for various levels of
comprehension tasks would be efficient and whether or not these interactions would lead to
transcendence in them.
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3. Method
3.1. Participants
The participants of the present qualitative study were nine adult male and female EFL learners
with high, mid and low proficiency levels. The selection procedure of these participants was as
follows: 47 EFL learners who were the researcher’s students at university voluntarily took part in
a PBT TOEFL test. These learners were classified into three proficiency levels of high, mid, and
low based on their scores. Three learners in each proficiency group were then selected randomly
to undergo the mediation sessions and interviews making up the nine participants.
3.2. Instruments
A PBT TOEFL test was used at the beginning of the study to classify the learners into three
proficiency levels. Then during mediation sessions appropriate reading comprehension tests were
given to the participants based on their proficiency levels. The tests were selected from IBT
TOEFL for high group, and from advanced and intermediate levels of reading test books published
by National Organization of Educational Testing which conducts university entrance exams in Iran
for the other two proficiency groups.
3.3. Research Design
Since dynamic assessment is mainly process-oriented, this study applied qualitative data gathering
procedures. And to reach into an in depth understanding of the processes interactionist model of
dynamic assessment was used in mediations, interviews, and think-aloud procedures.
3.4. Procedures
PBT TOEFL test was given to a group of 47 EFL learners who were the researcher’s students at
university and voluntarily took part in the exam. These learners were classified into three
proficiency levels of high, mid, and low based on their scores. Those whose scores were 1DS
above and 1SD below the mean score of the test were grouped respectively as high, and low
proficiency and the ones with scores between these band scores were those of the mid proficiency.
Each participant had an interview with the researcher during which the nature and purpose
of DA were introduced briefly. The participant was then asked to take a reading comprehension
tests based on his/her proficiency level. To address particular needs of individual learners the oral
mediation provided to the participants was individualized due to ZPD differences among various
individuals. Dynamic assessment with interactionist mediations by the researcher herself included
five sessions each session lasting 30 to 60 minutes. Each session focused on one layer of Bloom
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et al.’s (1956) cognitive taxonomy with the first and second layers combined for the first session.
Each participant was required to go through the test as if s/he is doing it by him/herself but utter
whatever goes on in the mind. During the first interview this think-aloud procedure was introduced
in detailed and modeled to each participant with a two-paragraph text following five multiplechoice comprehension questions. The researcher mediated the participant whenever facing a
problem in any stage of comprehension. These mediations were related to general comprehension
strategies applicable to various texts regardless of the vocabulary range or grammatical structures
of specific texts. Required guidance and support were provided to the learners in any language
they preferred. The mediation was limited to development and did not include affective support
or task-completion assistance. That is the focus was on developing reading comprehension ability
rather than solely aiming at successful task completion. Later the learners were asked to participate
in a private interview with the researcher to reflect on the dynamic assessment procedures, and
mention their feedback about DA presenting their idea, feelings, and experiences.
All the 45 mediation sessions for the nine participants which included 270 reading
comprehension test items were voice recorded, transcribed according to He's transcription
conventions (1998, cited in Soria, 2001) and later coded. Cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy
(Bloom et al., 1956) was used to categorize the reading comprehension questions. It is one of the
three domains that were introduced by Benjamin Bloom in 1950s and has been widely accepted as
a guideline in designing reasonable examination questions belonging to various cognitive levels.
This taxonomy is very welcomed and widely used in educational fields (Chang & Chung, 2009),
constructing questions (Lister & Leaney, 2003), and to ensure balancing and student cognitive
mastery (Oliver et al., 2004). Findings of the analysis which identify the amount of learners’
responsiveness to dynamic assessment mediations in each reading task type are provided in the
following section.
4. Findings and discussion
The goal of the researcher in this study was to imply dynamic assessment and as a result treat the
process of reading as a product. The challenge was to provide the required and appropriate
mediation for each reading question to explore a new way of capturing the readers' interactions
and processes and retaining them as products. Considering the complexity, uncertainty and
representation of multiple realities in reading process, continuous interactions and required
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mediations matched to the needs of each reader in specific reading comprehension question were
provided. In the case of unsuccessful trials, the assessment included a sequence of mediations with
increasing explicitly and well-defined useful strategies which gradually led to the correct answer
if it was within the reader’s ZPD.
This study included analysis of 270 reading comprehension items of which 154 items were
answered correctly by the participants without any need for mediation. The reasons for correct
choices were asked to control guessing or chance factors. Mediations adjusted to the needs of
readers were provided for the remaining 116 problematic items. Indeed, not all the mediations
provided to the participants resulted in development because due to the nature of the problem in
some mediations development was not the case and the focus was just obviating the barriers. These
items included the ones with vocabulary items without any clues in the texts for inferring the
meaning or items answered wrongly not due to lack of knowledge but as a result of carelessness.
In the remaining cases, which made up almost 65 items; however, learners were able to take the
advantage of mediations and develop their reading abilities if the task and the provided mediation
were within their ZPDs. Transcendence also was not the case in all problematic items because it
could only make sense for the items with positive development. Therefore the items with no
development or the ones for which development was not possible or meaningful were not
considered in transcendence analysis. Table 1 presents the amount of responsiveness to mediations
during development and transcendence stages.
Table 1 Learners’ responsiveness to mediations
Responsiveness to mediation Frequency Percentage
Development
46
70.77
Transcendence
29
87.88
As presented in Table 1 in most cases (i.e., 70.77 percent) the mediation resulted in examinee
development and only 29.23 percent of the mediations did not lead into internalization of the point.
The provided percentages can be indicative of the efficiency of DA in development of reading
ability. Also most of the mediated points (i.e., 87.88 percent), led into independent performance
of the participants in other similar or even more difficult tasks and only 12.12 percent failed to do
so.
Bloom et al.'s taxonomy (1956) was used in this study to distinguish each question type
and provide the proper mediation. It is a classification system that identifies different levels of
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cognition defining both lower and higher order thinking. It consists of the following six levels: 1.
knowledge, 2. comprehension, 3. application, 4. analysis, 5.synthesis, and 6.evaluation. Table 2
represents the percentages of the learners' responsiveness to mediation in terms of both
development in reading comprehension ability during dynamic assessment of each question type
and transcendence of the developed ability.
Table 2 Learners' responsiveness to mediations in each question type
Question type
Development
Transcendence
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
1. Knowledge
5
10.87
3
10.34
2. Comprehension 6
13.04
3
10.34
3. Application
7
15.22
4
13.79
4. Analysis
8
17.39
6
20.69
5. Synthesis
10
21.74
5
17.24
6. Evaluation
10
21.74
8
27.59
Total
46
100
29
100
As presented in Table 2 the development and transcendence percentages are almost increasing
from lower order question type (1) to higher order question type (6). The reason may be related to
the nature of each question type.
Interaction in knowledge questions resulted in 10.87 percent development and 10.34
percent transcendent which are the lowest percentages among question types. Knowledge
questions are those that deal with manifesting memory of the learned materials by recalling facts,
terms, basic concepts and answers. It includes specific facts or pieces of information provided in
the text, the ways and means of dealing with them in categories, hierarchies, sequences, methods,
etc., and major principles, generalizations, rules, and structures mentioned explicitly by the author.
A question like “Which of the following is NOT mentioned in text?” can be a representative of
knowledge type question.
Comprehension questions as the second order questions aim to reflect the reader's
understanding of facts and ideas through organizing, comparing, contrasting, linking, giving
descriptions and interpreting. A sample comprehension question may be “The primary idea of the
passage is …”. Development and transcendence percentages as a result of mediation for these
questions were13.04 and 10.34 respectively which were higher than and equal to the percentages
of the first order questions.
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Mediations in application questions resulted in better results both in terms of development
(15.22 percent) and transcendence (13.79 percent). Application questions require the reader to use
the acquired knowledge to provide solutions for problems in new situations. It is fulfilled by
applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in new and different ways. A question
like “Which of the following facts can be true in this context?” is considered as this kind of reading
question.
Analysis questions force the reader to go through the text and break information into parts
based on stated or implied reasons or causes. The reader is then to make his/her inferences and
identify evidence to support the ideas. Questions such as “What are different types of …” and
“Which one is considered as the most efficient one?” are considered as analysis type questions. As
a result of interaction percentages of both development (17.39 percent) and transcendence (20.69
percent) were higher than the previous question types.
Synthesis questions make readers compile information together in a new way by combining
elements in a different pattern or reaching into new solutions. An example question can be “The
mentioned commonly believed idea is rejected by the fact that …”. Mediations for these questions
resulted in better development (21.74 percent) than their lower order questions but the
transcendence percentage (17.24 percent) was lower than that of analysis question type. It indicates
that the participants were not that much autonomous in applying the appropriate strategies for
synthesizing the provided information in later similar tasks by themselves without mediation.
Development rate in evaluation questions was the same as synthesis questions and the
highest (21.74 percent) but transcendence of these questions was the highest among all question
types (27.59 percent). In evaluation questions the readers are to identify and criticize opinions by
making judgments about information and validity of ideas not on personal taste but based on a
criteria or evidence provided by the author. A question like “What is most probable about this
issue?” is considered as an evaluation type.
All in all as presented the effects of mediations were more articulated in difficult questions
than in easy ones. The degree of development in reading comprehension ability was higher in
higher order questions than in lower order questions. Mediations provided for higher order
questions also resulted in more transcendence than for lower order questions and readers were able
to internalize the skills and mechanisms required for higher order thinking questions and to use
them in other similar reading questions with no need for any further mediation.
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The findings of this study can be interpreted in several ways. First the lower development
and transcendence percentages of easier questions can be attributed to the less need for mediation
in these questions. That is even students with poor reading comprehension skills were able to
answer concert questions of knowledge and comprehension type because the answers to these
questions are almost explicitly presented by the author and readers can recall them or easily find
the required details in the text. As the most basic reading ability finding the stated information is
usually less difficult for readers. However, the number of readers having difficulty in summarizing
information, comparing and contrasting the pieces of information provided in different parts of the
text, using new information to make inferences and reach into new conclusions, identifying the
totality of the concept provided in the text, distinguishing opinions from facts, identifying the
author’s tone, perspective, and view, also realizing basics in the written material are normally
higher. These reading questions are usually difficult for most readers and in cases impossible to
answer. Therefore, the number of readers benefiting from mediations in terms of development and
transcendence is higher for these question types.
The second aspect can be related to the nature of the questions and the value of the provided
mediations. In higher order thinking questions readers go beyond rote memorization of facts and
knowledge. They are actively doing something different with the acquired facts. They attempt to
understand the text deeply and view the information from a new perspective. To answer higher
order questions, readers have to manipulate the text, find connections between facts, and combine
the pieces in various ways applicable in multiple problems to find new solutions. These question
types required not only knowledge and understanding of the text which is a prerequisite for lower
order questions, but also making sense of the read text and using the new information to make
sense of the world through analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Unlike the first reason which deals
with the number of required and possible mediations, here the success of mediation in relation to
question type is considered. As the reading questions become more demanding the readers try to
take the most advantage of the mediations. They consider the provided cognitive guidance
carefully and try to develop proper responses both in the given question and later coming questions
of the same nature. The result is therefore more development and transcendence in highly complex
and difficult questions after mediation.
The third explanation can be related to the processes and strategies undertaken in answering
the question by poor and successful readers. Since successful readers are more familiar with
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cognitive, metacognitive, and socioaffective strategies of language learning in general and reading
comprehension in specific, mediations provided to them is more in line with their previous
experience and more familiar to them and are therefore more rapidly decoded
and applied by
them than by poor readers. The results will consequently be more flourishing in terms of both
development and transcendence for higher order questions which are answered mainly by
successful readers.
The last reason for the findings is rooted in the Feurestein’s (1990) criteria for selection of
assessment tasks. According to him the selection of assessment task is based on the assumption
that generally tasks are divided into two major types based on the resources required for solving
them. The first type tasks are those that mainly depend on more concrete and conservative
functions such as memory, automatized skills and background knowledge. The second type tasks
are those performing of which depends on learners’ cognitive strategies. These two task types can
be parallelized with Bloom et al.’s (1956) six level categorization of thinking applied in this study.
The success of mediation in higher order questions can be attributed to the learners’ cognitive
strategies required in performing these tasks. Because according to Feurestein (1990) the tasks of
second type appear to properly fit into mediations of dynamic assessment.
As explained in findings the flexible nature of dynamic assessment made it possible to
capture unanticipated outcomes. As Stake (1979) rightly puts it, traditional tests are insensitive to
much of the issues educationally important especially with regard to teaching purposes. In this
study the nature of the readers’ involvement in reading process, their responses to mediations in
various reading comprehension questions as they were creating, inhabiting, and maneuvering
within the text worlds were analyzed. It was revealed that the higher the cognitive level of the
task, the more the improvement on that task. The researcher was able to mediate the rules and
strategies for solving specific problems on an individual basis, and assess the level of development
as well as transcendence to other similar tasks with an increased level of complexity, novelty, and
abstraction. And the success of mediations were more for higher order question types.
Unlike passive acceptance of a reader's disability in non-dynamic assessment, dynamic
assessment considered the complexity of the reading process, emphasized on cognitive aspects of
reading and through appropriate mediations made active modifications and proved to be successful
in revealing the readers' disabilities in various question types and developing learning and thinking
skills on the one hand and problem solving ability on the other hand. Due to its inherent nature DA
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managed to assess the cognitive process of reading comprehension at both micro and macro levels.
At micro level which dealt with the surface structure (to use Chomskian terms) of the
comprehension the scope was mainly intrasentential or between a limited number of adjacent
sentences. It mainly dealt with facts or ideas presented by words of a single sentence. At macro
level which was totally intersentencial and required inferring, deep structure (again borrowing
Chomskian terminology) of the comprehension was considered. At this level the readers’ attempt
to connect several ideas presented across the test and applying background knowledge to complete
the missing pieces of the comprehension puzzle were assessed. Providing appropriate and efficient
mediations within dynamic assessment of reading requires analyzing the above mentioned micro
and macro level cognitive processes and considering priority of the readers’ needs at these levels
to reach into both assessing and instructional goals in a more direct way within less lime. All these
findings prove high instructional value of the DA reflecting that it can enhance the delivery of
instruction in learner populations.
The results of after mediation interviews indicated that DA encouraged the participants’
self-awareness, control of learning to read for comprehension and motivation to improve. In line
with Grabe’s (2008) idea on the great power of reading assessment in informing researchers,
teachers, and policy makers, a kind of task analysis was conducted in this study through transparent
body of dynamic assessment and the results reflected DA as an appropriate instructional method
for the complex nature of reading comprehension which can help language teachers, teacher
educators, curriculum developers and material designers to be more sensitive to the needs of
learners and goals of educational institute. Because this assessment type has the great ability of
transforming the covert aspects of cognitive ability which are usually lost between the lines of text
into overt and identifiable ones. It not only evaluates ultimate performance of the participants, their
skill knowledge, and learning potential, but is also beneficial in supporting and improving reading
abilities especially for cognitively higher order questions. It can identify the conditions under
which improvement can be made through activating and applying effective reading strategies.
Results of DA can provide during assessment information as a major source of teaching
and fostering learning in terms of level of learning, rate of learning, and also aspect of learning.
Teachers can benefit from these results in identifying the amount and type of cognitive support for
academic success of their learners, considering the particular needs of the learners in teaching the
skills needed to improve learning, and creating conditions conductive of progress in reading and
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overcoming text comprehension problems. This can help them in developing appropriate
instructional and assessment materials and methods that leads into learner autonomy which is the
concern of the present post method era in the specific domain of reading ability as well as the
general domain of language leaning.
To put it in a nutshell, the goal of dynamic assessment is to reveal the readers’ learning
potential through an ongoing analysis of the reading process and to formulate optimal educational
intervention. The assessor should be sensitive to readers’ underlying potentials, cognitive
modifiability, specific needs, problems, questions, responses, pauses, wrong responses and
responsiveness to mediation. Reading ability can be fostered with the help of good quality training
programs. Readers need to be provided with the most appropriate mediation and learn to apply the
acquired points beyond here-and-now given task. The precise differentiation among readers’
responsiveness to various reading questions can very effectively help smooth the process of
planning the proportionate remedial tutorials for improving reading ability. Applications of
dynamic assessment in reading domain has traditionally focused on mediation sessions which are
embedded between a pre- and a post-test. But there has been no priority in the nature of the
mediations. With regard to a reader’s responsiveness to hints and feedbacks findings of this piece
of research can suggest an arrangement of mediation sessions based on question type so that better
results can be achieved in a one session or time-limited train-within-test framework.
5. Conclusion
Content areas such as reading are usually described as “crystallized” (Carroll, 1993) and resistant
to short term changes. Considering the complexity of reading process finding relatively immediate
solutions for reading comprehension problems can be of great importance. Based on Kozulin and
Grab’s (2002) emphasis on the importance of and great demand for domain specific DA in cases
such as reading, the prime concern of this study was to investigate the extent of responsiveness of
EFL learners to mediations provided through dynamic assessment for different types of reading
comprehension questions. The precise differentiation among question types can help smooth the
process of planning appropriate remedial tutorials for different individual learners. In fact the basic
goal of dynamic assessment is to reveal the hidden aspects of learning processes and potentials in
order to formulate optimal educational intervention. Based on these underlying potentials specific
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needs of the learners, their cognitive modifiability and responsiveness to mediations and
interactions are recognized.
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Title
Contribution of SLA to the Brain Study: A Plausible Look
Authors
Nima Shakouri
Roudbar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Marzieh Rezabeigi
Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Nima Shakouri is currently the faculty member of IAU. He has taught English courses for over a
decade at different universities. Moreover, he has published nationally and internationally.
Marzieh Rezabeigi, teaches different English courses as well as teacher training courses. She is
an instructor of TEFL at Shahid Beheshti University and Islamic Azad University. She has
published nationally and internationally.
Abstract
Presumably, streams of research devoted to the structural change of the brain are
voluminous.
However, little has been paid to the contribution of second language
acquisition (SLA) to the brain study. Although disagreement among SLA experts has
frustrated second language (L2) practitioners (Yazan, 2012), this paper proposes thatby
understanding the stance of SLA in the brain study, L2 teachers can be better able to
enhance the effectiveness of their instruction in the classroom. In this regard, the present
paper makes an endeavor to reflect upon the contribution of SLA to the brain studies.
Keywords: Bilingualism, Brain, Neuroplasticity, SLA
1. Introduction
Later exposure to SLA is better! It seems a myth to state that early exposure to two languages can
cause delay and confusion in SLA.In fact, evenbeing compatible with such a myth results in
underestimating the role and stance of SLA in the structure and function of the brain. Werker
(2012), in this regard, asserts that there is little evidence of language confusion. Although
bilinguals perform the processing of L2 more slowly and make more mistakes than monolinguals,
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they show considerable advantages over monolinguals in executive functions (Werker, 2012).
Executive function, also known as cognitive control, is an umbrella term for the regulation
of cognitive processes, including working memory, reasoning, and problem solving (Elliott, 2003).
In fact, the benefits of learning a second language are much broader than simply the ability to
speak in another language. As Skehan (1989, cited in MacIntyre, 2003) notes, the idea that one
must talk in order to learn a second language has been presupposed yet elusive for researchers.
From the 1970s,SLA, like most human accomplishments, has become a complex
phenomenon that cannot be explained by looking onlyatone aspect of it (Sanz, 2005).Nevertheless,
understanding "the epistemological disparity existing in the realm of SLA research contributes to
the explanation of the considerable differences in the ways SLA scholars understand how an L2 is
learned" (Yazan, 2012, p. 14).In a sense, Yazan goes on to hold that different research orientations
in SLA which undergirds the notion of knowing from positivistic to poststructuralist epistemic
perspectives leads to the same disparate methodologies in SLA.
Although less has been paid to the contribution of SLA to brain activities, interest in
neurolinguistic aspects of SLA is not a recent phenomenon. To several scholars, notably Klein
(1998) "second language researchers are bottom dwellers in the language sciences" (p. 529). Klein
argues that this low status is not due to the weakness of methodology, but the field rates low
because it has nothing to say to people in other areas. Nevertheless, the purpose of the present
paper is to create a dialogue about the possible potential contribution of SLA to the brain study.
The study takes a somewhat different stance from thosestudies conducted in the brain field.
Mostly, researchers are interested in locating what changes both structurally and functionally in
the brain occur when one is learning L2. The present study, in contrast, is keen on investigating
what contributions SLA has to brain changes.
2. Theoretical Background
SLA is a deep puzzle that theories and machines struggle to solve. And in the same line, the brain
is a complex organ; theories and machines struggle to discover how it works. So much is known
about the brain and SLA, but, as to Hatch (1983, cited in Spolsky, 1989, p. 85), "while we have
learned to name all the parts [of the brain], we still do not truly understand what happens to
language input or how language output is formed". Coltheart (2006) claims that neuroimaging
studies about the brainhave not provided us with a tool to distinguish between competing
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psychological theories. SLA scholars are flooded with neurolinguistic findings difficult to
assimilate. Seliger (1982) warns "often guilt for the misapplication of such research must rest with
the researchers who present findings as if they are absolute and conclusive and ready for direct
application to the language classroom" (p. 307).
2.1. Neuroplasticity of the Brain and SLA
In recent years, neuroscience of SLA has become a heated debate. However, regarding the
contribution of SLA to the plasticity of brain hemispheres is less taken heed of.That SLA can
contribute to the plasticity of the brain is conceivable (Doidge, 2007; Gur et al., 1999; Mundkur,
2005). Plasticity of the brain refers to the same structural and functional changes in the brain
resulted from experience and training (Mundkur, 2005). The question that still remains
unanswered is that how SLA contributes to the plasticity of the brain.
Understanding brain plasticity is of considerable interest to both understanding the
development of the brain and enhancing insights into the contribution of SLA to the same complex
system. The plastic changes in the nervous system, as to Gur et al. (1999), can be investigated from
two dimensions: structural and functional. Structurally, what makes the females' brain distinct
from males' is that the density of white and grey matters in females' corpus collasum makes the
process of language acquisition easier and faster than males (Gur et al., 1999). In this regard, Gur
et al. contend that the female brain has a higher percentage of grey matter in the left hemisphere
which aids language skills.
From the other side, the functional perspective, investigating brain differences
physiologically, maintains that female brains have been found to metabolize glucose at higher rates
and to experience greater blood flow in comparison to males (Gurrian & Stevens, 2004, cited in
Magon, 2009). Because the structure and function of the human brain is not readily available for
empirical studies at the physiological level, there has been amazing growth and vitality in the field
of human brain function (Posner & DiGirolamo, 2000).
Tjokro (2010), in this regard, asserts "[brain] hemispheres are shaped by our daily
experiences" (p. 83). As to Tjokro, the experience of new word learning shapes the activity of the
brain, for instance. Generally speaking, "new word learning is a crucial skill that helps define us
as human beings" (Tjokro, 2010, p. 83).
Unfortunately, afew neuroimaging studies, as to Van dent Noort et al.(2010),can be counted
regarding the contribution of SLA to brain structural change. Among them we can refer to Mechelli
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et al. (2004) and Coggins, Kennedy, and Armstrong (2004). The former (i.e., Mechelli et al.) found
structural variations between L1 and L2 individuals in the inferior parietal cortex, while Coggnis
et al. (2004) observed the structural changes in the L2 learners. Klein (1998) puts forth, "[SLA]
status within the various linguistic disciplines is very low" (p. 527). Also, Maftoon, Shakouri, and
Nazari (2013) assert "the impact of SLA on human brain organization is poorly studied" (p.36).
Still, in the recent decade, several scholars (e.g., Osterhout et al., 2008; Wilson, 2013) make
endeavor in order to pave the way towards consolidating the contribution of SLA to the brain.
Osterhout et al (2008)indicate that "the brain of an adult L2 learner is a highly dynamic place, even
during the earliest stages of L2 learning" (p. 519). And the study of the very complex system entails
comprehensive reflection upon what happens to the brain when one learns L2.
Recently, Li, Legault and Litcofsky (2014) carry out a study dealt with how structural
neuroplasticity of the brain occurs as a result of SLA.What the research shows is the fact that the
brain ability to change occurs in relation to the input received from the environment (Shaw &
McEachern, 2012). In fact, the neuroplasticity of brain reduces if the brain is not mediated by
experience. As Doidge (2007) puts forth “if we stop exercising our mental skills [for instance], we
do not just forget them; the brain map space for those skills is turned over to the skills we practice
instead” (p. 59). Marian and Shook(2012) assert that to hold the relative balance between two
languages, the bilingual brain focuses on executive functions, a regulatory system of general
cognitive abilities that includes processes such as attention and inhibition. Due to the fact that a
bilingual person’s language systems are constantly active and competing, that person uses these
control mechanisms every time he or she uses the languages. This ceaseless practice makes the
control mechanisms stronger and changes the related brain regions.
Regarding SLA, therefore, it is plausible to contend "the more we use and practice the L2
we want to learn, the more brain map space is allocated to it. The less we use our L2, the more
brain map space goes to other activities that we practice more" (Maher, 2013). In fact, when SLA
occurs, “a learned response… has been built up through the consistent mapping of the same input
to the same pattern of activation over many trials” (McLaughlin & Heredia, 1996, p. 214). Also,Li
et al. (2014)go on to hold "second language experience-induced brain changes, including increased
gray matter density and white matter integrity, can be found in children, young adults, and the
elderly; can occur rapidly with short-term language learning or training" (p. 301).
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Maftoon et al. (2013) assert that language experience, inevitably, has a tremendous effect
on the function of the brain. Put differently, "our brains shape and reshape themselves in ways that
depend on what we use them for throughout our lives" (Hawley, 2000, p. 4). In a nutshell, changes
in bilinguals' brains are an example of plasticity. In the same line, Li, et al. (2014) are steadfast in
their belief that neuroplasticity of brain results from SLA. Schlegel, Rudelson, Tse (2012), also,
showed that "white matter reorganizes progressively across multiple sites as adults study a new
language" (p. 1664). "Their results indicate that plasticity of white matter plays an important role
in adult language learning"(p. 1664).
Although the impact of SLA on the anatomy of the cortex is not yet clearly understood
(Richardson & Price, 2009), there appear to be several L2 factors including age of acquisition
(Mechelli et al., 2004) and attained proficiency (Perani et al., 1998) that influence cortical
differences. Mechelli et al. (2004), having used a whole-brain unbiased technique, known as voxelbased morphometry (VBM), found out that the gray matter density in the left inferior parietal
cortex was greater in bilinguals than monolinguals, and that a higher L2 proficiency and an earlier
age of acquisition correlated with greater GMD in this region.
2.2. SLA Functions as Software
Seen from this stance, it is a truism that the brain, per se, acts as a hardware system. In effect, any
hardware system, itself, cannot be conducive to any change (Maftoon et al., 2013) and function.
As to Maftoon et al. (2013) "most of the changes that contribute to the efficiency of brain
functioning are because of the employment of an appropriate software" (p. 36). The study done by
the writers of Neurolinguistics Approach: A Plausible Paradigm in SLA indicates that SLA, as a
software system, can contribute to changes in brain functioning.
The increase in gray matter among bilinguals compared to monolinguals can, also, be
astrong evidence that bilinguals take advantage of structural changes (Mechelli et al., 2004). In the
study carried out by Kovelman, Baker, andPetitto (2008), the findings indicate that the processing
of L1 and L2 occur in much the same tissue. However, the study shows that when an L2 starts
learning a language more activity in the right hemisphere bilinguals are reported, especially in the
dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex. Nevertheless, one of the central issues that has been criticized by
contemporary neurololiguists is lack of attention given to the right hemisphere (Poeppel & Hickok,
2004; Stowe, Haverkort, & Zwarts, 2005).Presumably, since the right hemisphere does not appear
to be doing much more than watching the left one, it needs to be activated (Seliger, 1982). The
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research carried out by Genesee (2001) pursues the issue that there is an increase in the activity of
right hemisphere in early language learning, but the involvement gets less in later learning. Along
the same vein, Wilson (2013) concluded that the SLA can enlarge one's hippocampus, the part of
the brain that also helps long term memory forming.
Wilson's study, in line with the findings of several scholars (e.g., Munte, Altenmuller, &
Jancke, 2002; Osterhout, et al., 2008), maintains that SLA can change both the function and the
structure of the brain. Coggins et al. (2004), also, in the study conducted in order to investigate the
structural variations between monolinguals and bilinguals found out that corpus callosum is
specifically engaged in the process of SLA. Von Plessen et al. (2002, cited in VandenNoort, et al.,
2010) puts forth that the fibers from the language areas in the Wernickes' area which exist in the
superior temporal gyrus travel through a specific part of the corpus callosum, namely, the isthmus
of the corpus callosum engaged in language processing. Coggins et al. (2004) were among the first
to investigate the significant differences in the corpus callosum of monolinguals and bilinguals. In
their investigation 19 right-handed male and female teachers participated.
There were 12
bilinguals and seven monolinguals. The findings indicated that there is a significant differencein
their corpus callosum. On a word, the anterior mid body to total corpus callosum midsagittal area
was significantly larger in bilinguals in comparison with that of monolinguals.
It goes without saying that brain neuroplasticity generally decreases as a person gets older;
that is, the brain gets less able to change itself in response to experiences. Several studies (e.g.,
Alladi, et al., 2013) in the field of neurolinguistics suggest that SLA can slow this inevitable agerelated cognitive decline or delay the onset of dementia. In the study conducted by Alladi et al. the
medical records of 648 Alzheimer's patients in Indian city of Hyderabad were investigated. The
findings showed that the bilinguals developed dementia later than monolinguals, by an average of
four-and-a-half years.
Neurobiology of bilingualism also shows that SLA increases a person's ability to concentrate.
Brain scans of bilingual individuals done by Mechelli et al.(2004) found out that grey matter
density in the inferior parietal cortex in the brain left hemisphere is greater. As to Mechelli et al.,
the density of grey matter is high in people who are more proficient in L2. Although bilinguals
have lower formal language proficiency in comparison with monolinguals (e.g., they have smaller
vocabularies and weaker access to lexical items), they exhibit enhanced executive control in
nonverbal tasks (Bialystok &Craik, 2010).In most cases, bilinguals perform better on tasks, such
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as stroop tasks, that need conflict managementskill. In a classic stroop task, individuals usually see
a word, and then are expected to name the color of the word’s font. When the color and the word
match (i.e., the word “red” printed in red), people correctly name the color more quickly than when
the color and the word don’t match. The reason behind this is the word itself (“red”) and its font
color (blue) conflict (Marian & Shook, 2012).
In the study done by Garcia-Penton et al. (2014), the anatomical connectivity in early
Spanish-Basque Bilinguals and native Spanish monolinguals is investigated. The study, using
DTI-based tractography technique and network-based statistics, revealed that the level of
connectivity among bilinguals is high. The connectivity in two networks is between, frontal,
parietal, and temporal and another involves left occipital, temporal, and parietal regions as well as
right superior frontal gyrus. As put by Stein, Winkler, Kaiser, and Dierks (2014), the connectivity
in brain networks contributes to the more efficient information flow.
3. Conclusions
The benefits of SLA extend from early childhood to old age. Although bilinguals face certain
linguistic limitations (e.g., increased naming difficulties and weaker access to lexical words), L2
learners are associated with improved metalinguistic awareness. Besides, as Winkler, et al. (1999)
contend SLA "gives rise to long-term plastic changes of the brain mechanisms of phonetic analysis
in adults" (p. 640).
In a sense, the impact of SLA on a person's ability to concentrate, for instance, is highly
correlated with higher gray matter volume in the left inferior parietal cortex. Wecertainly hope that
all L2 researchers will try to remain abreast of some of the major findings that are being discussed
in neurolinguistics, especially those results which may offer keener insights into how language
learning might be enhanced and accelerated.That SLA acting as software has a tremendous role
on the structure of the brain is plausible; henceforth, it is a myth to state that later exposure to SLA
is better. Last but not the least, the brain cannot prescribe what we teach but can illuminate our
insights in order to make provisions for individual differences in learning styles by providing
alternative grouping arrangements, instructional materials, and so forth.
In a nutshell, what the paper has addressed is the vestiges of change that occur in the brain
when one learns L2. Although considerable attention has not been paid to the structural and
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functional changesin brain related to SLA, more future studies are needed to strengthen the existing
evidence and to directly measure the impact of SLA on the plasticity of brain structure.
More importantly, future studies might be able to address important issues, including,
which neural paths do females and males pursue in SLA? Moreover, such a question that entails
neuroimaging study reminds us of the study done by Niyogi (2006) that no SLA theory is going
to be complete until it can fully incorporate the evolutionary aspects of language learning.
Investigating the evolution of a phenomenon entails an optimal period of time. In other words, as
to Van dentNoort et al. (2010), neuroimaging studies appear to be conducted in a short period of
time result in an imperfectly acquired language knowledge, which again reduces the average
fitness. And if the learning period is too long, it reduces the reproduction rate due to learning costs
(Komarova & Nowak, 2001, cited in Van dent Noort et al. 2010).
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Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 19-23.
Coggins, P.E., Kennedy, T.J. & Armstrong, T.A. (2004).Bilingual corpus callosum variability Brain and
Language, 89, 69–75.
Coltheart, M. (2006).What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)?Cortex,42,323-331.
Doidge, N. (2007). The brain that changes itself. New York: Penguin Books.
Elliott, R. (2003). Executive functions and their disorders. British Medical Bulletin, 65, 49-59.
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Kovelman, I., Baker, S. A., Petitto, L.A. (2008). Bilingual and monolingual brains compared: A functional
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Title
Chaos/Complexity Theory in Applied Linguistics
Authors
Adel Dastgoshadeh (Ph.D)
Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran
ShahinAhmadishad (Ph.D Candidate)
Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran
Biodata
Adel Dastgoshadeh, assistant professor of TEFL at Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran. His
research interests include Teacher Education, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics.
Shahin Ahmadishad, Ph.D. Candidate of Linguistics at Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran.
His research interests are morphology, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics and IELTS studies.
Abstract
One of the reasons for complexity is that language is a complex system consisting of
various interrelated and interacting components and also language learning is a complex
and unpredictable process. Fortunately, a new concept, complexity science, literally the
study of system with multiple interrelated parts is an over-growing approach. Complexity
science`s true emergence is with the rise of computers, advances made in mathematics after
world war II. On the other hand, some principles of the theory such a dynamical, non-linear
development, and self-organization which are in common with those of SLA process will
be discussed later in the article.
Keywords: Chaos, Complexity, Applied Linguistics
1. Introduction
It is better to start with answer of a very important question to find what the complexity means and
indeed why. There are a lot of reasons to express the reasons for complexity, first of all language
is a complex system consisting of various interrelated and interacting components and also
language learning is a complex and unpredictable process. Similarly, language teaching is a
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complex and dynamic profession requiring knowledge of language, communication, learning
process, testing and researching language, etc. consequently, whoever we are: linguists, language
learners, language teachers, language testers, syllabus designers, language researchers, etc. We
need to know what a complex system is and how it works.
In Applied Linguistics, lack of knowledge of complexity of these different but interrelated areas
has resulted in proposing various specified and fragmented and sometimes conflicting theories and
approaches of language, language acquisition, and in turn, language testing and research.
2. Conflicting Theories
-
Do learners have Chomsky’s built in language acquisition device (LAD)?
-
Do learners require Krashen’s (1985) i+1 level of input in order to learn, or perhaps
Schmidt’s (1992) noticing?
-
Does the brain operate more like a computer, storing and processing information
accordingly
(McLaughlin
&
Heredia,
1996)?
(non-symbolic
theories:
PDP,
Connectionism, emergentism)
-
And what aspect of a language learner (LL) is most appropriate for investigation, their
physical brain (psycholinguistics), how they formulate and produce grammar (generative
linguistics/syntax), how they conceive of and construct language (cognitive linguistics),
how they form meaning (semantics), or the role of context (pragmatics) or society
(sociolinguistics)?
As you found SLA approaches are reductionist, atomizing the object of concern and then
studying one atom at a time, often through single treatment, pre-testpost- test designs. Identifying
the causal factor in SLA e.g., comprehensible input at an i+1 level. Such approaches considered
variability as noise or measurement error or attributed it to “outliers.” They treated context as an
irrelevant construct, removed from the main action. They failed to observe the dynamicity of
processes. They perpetuated the practice of dichotomizing: form versus meaning (a false
dichotomy) or social vs. psychological (Larsen-Freeman, 2007).
Fortunately, a new concept Complexity science, literally the study of systems with multiple
interrelated parts, is an ever-growing approach being applied to ecology (Wu & David, 2002) and
epidemiology (Galea, Riddle, & Kaplan, 2010) to economics (Westerhoff, 2003) and sociology
(Hoffer, Bobashev, & Morris, 2009), and many more besides. In addition, over the past 20 years a
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steadily increasing load of activity regarding this approach in the field of applied linguistics has
been observed as well.
3. Background of the theory
Complexity science’s true emergence is with the rise of computers, advances made in mathematics
after World War II. (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008), leading to catastrophe theory and chaos
theory, as well as work on cybernetics (Wiener, 1948)and artificial intelligence (Ashby, 1960). In
applied linguistics, one of the first published works concerning complex systems was Mohanan’s
(1992) work on emergent complexity in phonological development. A short time later, LarsenFreeman (1997) published her seminal paper formally introducing complex systems to the field of
applied linguistics.
4. Principles of the Theory
First of all, defining principles in complexity theory seems really beneficial and indeed crucial.
Complexity is a variety of multiple interconnected parts which connect and interact in different
and changing ways. Secondly, dynamical this is changing over time, becoming rather than being.
As the third principle, Sensitive dependence on initial conditions isone of the most distinctive
characteristics of dynamic systems is their sensitive dependence on the initial condition. In chaos
theory this feature is called the ‘butterfly effect’ and refers to the fact that relatively small
differences in the initial conditions can in theory cause surprisingly large variations on the behavior
of the system. e.g., changing the first items on a test might cause significant changes in test takers’
performance on the test.
Then, the next principle is Non-linear nature of development, non-linear, means that a change
in one element does not produce a proportional change in other elements. In other words, the
resultant system behavior is disproportionate to its causal factors (Larsen-Freeman and Cameron
2008).
After them, one of the other principles is self-organization that refers to ‘the spontaneous
formation of patterns and pattern change in open, nonequilibrium systems.(Piaget’s assimilation
& accommodation).New input destabilizes the system and creates chaos and then the system
attempts to get to a new but balanced status-attractor- through self-organization. And, Attractor
and repeller states which is finding that even in highly complex systems that display a great deal
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of variation and change over time, there are times of seeming stability, but If an outside influence,
or perturbation, that is sufficiently strong, well-timed, or well-placed enough (within the learner’s
ZPD) to disrupt the entire system, subsystems will most often adapt to the change by entering a
new attractor state while the overall system ecology remains relatively stable. (Vygotsky’s
ZPD).This new state indicates a qualitative shift in the system’s functioning, and, indeed, every
dynamic system can be viewed as a series of shifts between periods of stabilization and periods of
destabilization (Howe &Lewis, 2005).
In addition, historicity means that complex systems display behavior over a range of timescales.
Language learners acquire the ability to communicate not only with other human beings (native
speakers, nonnative speakers, students in the same classroom, teachers), but also with imagined
and remembered interlocutors (imagined selves in their diaries, imagined and remembered others
on line, on face-book, over the phone, constructed others in novels, plays and poems). That is, the
learner operates on different timescales: the adult relearns the ways of the child and at the same
time learns to become a multilingual adult (Kramsch, 2009). The next one is feedback sensitivity
that refers to a specific feature of any system in which the output or the result affects the input of
the system, thus altering its operation. A feedback does not greatly influence a linear system, while
it can generate major changes in a nonlinear system.
Noise is important. The highly individualistic nature of CCT would suggest that in traditional
quantitative statistical methods of data analysis group means and not idiosyncratic details were
important In contrast, in the dynamic systems t such details are crucial for the understanding of
what really happens. De Bot, Lowie, and Verspoor (2007) also concluded that:
“It is very well possible that if we look closely enough, we find that the general developmental
stages that individuals go through are much less similar than we have assumed thus far.”
This means, in effect, that what has been considered as ‘noise’ in quantitative studies does
matter and should not be eliminated through the quantitative focus on the central tendency at the
group level.
5. CCT Resolves SLA Problems
In complex systems, processes are more important than products, for their dynamic nature prevents
them from reaching a final state. This characteristic of complex systems questions the possibility
of SLA ever reaching a final state, that of the so-called ultimate attainment, or native-likeness.
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Rather, complex systems theory views SLA as an ongoing, dynamic and never-ending process.
Even the term target language is questioned in a dynamic perspective, for complex systems simply
do not have an end-state target.
Fossilization, for instance, may be seen as an attractor. Although demanding a lot of energy, it
is always possible to get out of this attractor state. Fortunately, and contrary to what is implied by
the jargon fossilization, attractor states are not an end in themselves; they are potentially temporary
and transitory. Consequently, it results in interlanguage development which is gradual and, at
times, has abrupt changes, which show the (re)structuring attempts of the system through selforganization and/or attractors.
Some attractors for L2 learners might reflect L1 influences (an attractor) or generalizations of
L2 rules (an attractor), but they cannot be predicted or explained by these characteristics, for
attractors are the result of the constant changes and interactions of each learner’s variables.From a
more qualitative approach, research on motivation as part of an ongoing longitudinal study,
showed the variation of student motivation in an EFL setting at the university level. From their
complexity-based research, the researchers found that many interacting factors, not just one,
contributed to change in student motivation. This is not surprising, but supporting language
learning as a CCT. A model of LL motivation which captures the dynamic change exhibited by
learners was made by Csizér, Kormos, and Sarkadi (2010).
Looking at past research on Critical Period, we find a lot of noise in the results and not enough
empirical research supporting the existence of a critical period. Because of the interaction of a host
of internal and external factors and conditions, our parallel chronological, biological, and cognitive
ageing/development can be seen as the most complex system dynamics in the whole SLA domain,
characterized by a great deal of seemingly unpredictable individual-level variation.
Therefore; a basic premise of CCT is that in complex systems nothing is permanent or absolute,
and even seemingly solid equilibrium states are changeable as they can be moved from their
preferred positions by a large enough push. The ‘younger-is-better’ tendency is not only cancelled
out but is completely reversed under certain environmental conditions (by changing the learning
context from naturalistic SLA to formal school learning) (Dornyei 2009).
A dynamic systems approach seems attractive in that it is able to accommodate several of the
issues concerning individual differences namely their lack of stability, their context dependence,
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their genetic base, their multicomponential nature, and their multiple interactions with each other
and the environment, resulting in non-linear dynamics.
6. CCT in language classroom
From CCT’s perspective the language classroom highlights interaction across interconnected
levels of organization – from individual minds up to the socio-political context of language
learning – and interconnected timescales – from the minute-by-minute of classroom activity to
teaching and learning lifetimes.
In class, the language that is the aim and content of instruction is a moving target for learners.
Moving targets are difficult to hit, so students must be assisted in several ways so that they can
cope with the dynamism and complexity of the target language through the provision of feedback
– implicitly or explicitly, through teacher-initiated, peer-initiated or self-initiated means, in a
manner that is affectively and socially supportive while being judiciously targeted. Intervention to
increase learning is a perturbation to a system stuck in an unhelpful attractor, attempting to move
it into new paths on its landscape of potential.
7. CCT and Critical Applied Linguistics
CCT challenges the excessive emphasis placed on individual, competitive performance in the
name of freedom and democracy. It also challenges the increasing pressure to standardize the
criteria of performance for greater economic profitability and for greater control of the workforce,
in the name of efficiency and productivity. Complexity theory also presents a threat to a scientific
community in search of credibility and legitimacy. While it enhances the validity of SLA research,
it makes the findings of such a research less reliable and ultimately less predictable because it
makes it more difficult to isolate variables and to establish causal relationships between the
phenomena under study.
8. CCT and Research
The issue of cause–effect relationships: within a dynamic systems framework there are no simple
cause–effect explanations between variables examined in isolation, which is a common focus in
most quantitative applied linguistic research. As Larsen-Freeman and Cameron (2008) emphasize,
dynamic systems are by definition not fully predictable and, therefore, rather than pursuing a
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reductionist agenda, the processes of self-organization with regard to the whole of the
interconnected system should be emphasized.
Focus on context and environment: we have seen above that CCT takes a socially grounded
approach in which neither the internal development of the organism nor the impact of the
environment is given priority in explaining behavior and its change—the context is part of the
system (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron 2008). Accordingly, research paradigms need to extend
beyond focusing merely on the L2 learner and his/her L2 learning achievement so that we can also
gain adequate measures of the role of the context and the environment.(3) qualitative research is
particularly useful for the ‘longitudinal examination of dynamic phenomena’ (Dörnyei 2007)
(language development is longitudinal); and (4) qualitative research takes an individual-level
analysis.
For these reasons, Larsen- Freeman and Cameron (2008) conclude that ‘In many ways,
qualitative research methods, such as ethnography, would appear to serve the understanding of
language as a complex dynamic system.’ providing a ‘thick description’ by also offering analysis
and explanation.
Focus on mixed methods research:
mixed methods research, that is, the meaningful
combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, offers a new strand of research
methodology that suits the multi-level analysis of complex issues, because it allows investigators
to obtain data about both the individual and the broader societal context. (For an example of a
mixed-methods study of dynamic L2 development, see Larsen-Freeman 2006.)
Focus on longitudinal research: Menard (2002) argues that longitudinal research should be seen
as the default when we intend to examine any dynamic processes in the social sciences. Such
dynamic processes are obviously involved in human learning/growth or social change, but they
can also be associated with various interactions of different levels of an issue (e.g.Intra and inter,
micro and/or macro) or of different types of variables (e.g. learner traits and learning task
characteristics).
9. Conclusion
CCT perspective on the limited end state typical of adult L2 learners results from dynamic cycles
of language use, language change, language perception, and language learning in the interactions
of members of language communities (Ellis, 2008). Any new language learning, teaching,
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research, use, identity, and Needs Analysis model should at least account for the dynamicity, nonlinearity, complexity, both locality and universality of the language development. In other words,
a theory about theory-meta-theory like CCT.
As language teachers:
1. We need to cater for the jargon of “multiple” multiple intelligences, multi-literacies,
multilingualism, multiculturalism and multiple critical periods in our syllabus design, teaching and
assessment.
2. Our input should be well-placed, well-timed, and strong enough, i.e., within ZPD.
3. We need to use different mediation and scaffolding mechanisms like teacher, peer, and artifacts,
maximum use of the ecology principles.
4. Dynamic assessment system (testing & teaching simultaneously) should be employed.
5. Teachers need to expand their knowledge of appliedlinguistics, psychology, sociology,
neuroscience, and communication and information technology.
6. Teachers should develop and establish the most powerful attractor for the system and that
attractor I think should be transforming self and community- self-actualization.
We think the theories and models which account for complexities of human mind, brain, and
behavior should be applied to study natural sciences not vice versa
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Title
Bilingual vs. Trilingual; The Case of Learning Strategy Use
in an EFL Context
Authors
Ali Asghar Ahmadishokouh ( M.A student)
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
Muhammed Parviz ( Ph.D candidate )
Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz,Iran
Masud Azizi (Ph.D)
University of Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Ali Asghar Ahmadishokouh, M.A student at Tarbiat Modare University, Tehran, Iran. He has
been teaching English as a foreign language for the past 8 years. His area of interest includes SLA,
teaching and teacher education. He has published on his main area of research interest.
Muhammed Parviz, Ph.D candidate at Shahid Chamran University. His area of interest includes
SLA, Discourse analysis, and Pragmatics. He has presented papers both nationally and
internationally. He has also authored and translated some books. He has received awards as top
scholar and the most successful teacher for 4 consecutive years.
Masoud Azizi, Ph.D in applied linguistics from University of Tehran, Iran. He is now the Head
of Language Center at the International College, Tehran University of Medical Sciences. He has
been teaching English as a foreign language for the past 14 years, and he has published in national
and international journals, mostly addressing controversial issues in the field by suggesting new
perspectives. Teaching and assessing writing is his main area of interest.
Abstract
Learning strategies have been extensively studied before, but it seems that the difference
between bilingual and trilingual learners of English in the use of such strategies has not
been appropriately investigated so far. A total number of 64 Iranian undergraduate learners
of English as a foreign language, selected using convenience sampling took part in the
present study. From among them, 33 learners (12 male and 21 female with a mean age of
20.43) were learning English as their second language with Persian being their L1 or
mother tongue. For the other 31 learners (13 male and 18 female participants with a mean
Iranian EFL Journal
132
age 21.26) Persian was their L2 with Kurdish or Azari being their mother tongue, making
English their third language. Oxford’s (1990) 50-item Likert scale Strategy Inventory for
Language Learning (SILL) was used for data collection. The results of the analysis
revealed that the two groups significantly differed from each other in the use of all types
of strategies, with trilingual reporting significantly more uses of all learning strategies
examined by SILL. However, for both groups, metacognitive and social strategies were the
most commonly used strategies. Learners for whom English is the third language seem to
already have more opportunities to practice such strategies when learning their second
language. As a result, their strategic competence has already been sufficiently developed
and they are quite experienced in facing the problems they may face during the process of
learning a third language.
Keywors: Bilingual, Trilingual, Learning Strategy, SILL
1. Introduction
Until the mid-1970s, the primary focus of research in applied linguistics and education was the
classroom-based language teaching methodology, with the possible signiﬁcance of alternative
learning contexts and individual learner variables such as motivation, learning style, and language
learning strategies being largely overlooked. Since the mid-1970s, there has been a shift of focus
from methods and products of language teaching to language learners, with an increase in the line
of scientific inquiry into how language learners process, store, retrieve, and use target language
materials. One dimension of this inquiry involved attempts to discover how language learners
could manage their own learning and the strategies they employed as a means of enhancing their
target language competence (Hurd & Lewis, 2008).
Researchers in Iran have conducted numerous studies on the language learning strategies
(Alavi& Kaivanpanah, 2003; Riazi& Rahimi, 2005; Yamini& Dehghan, 2005; Ziahossein&
Salehi, 2008; Zare& Nooreen, 2011), but they mainly focus on the links between strategy use and
gender, success, language proﬁciency, motivation, etc. and very few studies so far, to the best of
the researchers’ knowledge, have addressed the type of strategies preferred by bilingual and
trilingual students. Hence, considering the limited number of studies on contrasting language
learning behaviors and thoughts of bilingual and trilingual learners and due to the fact that a great
number of students attending Iranian universities are bilingual EFL learners, there is a need for
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133
information on how instruction in English is best facilitated for bilingual and trilingual groups of
learners. Thus, the present study attempted to cast light on this issue by addressing the gap felt in
the literature.
The findings of the present can contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the variables
affecting learners’ choice of strategies in the EFL context. Moreover, the results of the present
study can help teachers and practitioners improve their teaching methods, develop appropriate
teaching methodologies, and raise their awareness of their language learners’ strategy use and
needs in order to be able to facilitate the language learning process more effectively.
In so doing, the following research questions were posed:
1. Is there any significant difference between Iranian learners of English as the second and third
language in terms of employing language-learning strategies?
2. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian learners of English as the second language
in employing language learning strategies?
3. Is there any significant difference among the Iranian learners of English as the third language,
in terms of employing language learning strategies?
Learning strategies and learner strategies as two key variables affecting language learning are no
longer new terms to many teachers and educators. Today, learning strategies are becoming widely
recognized through education in general and language learning in particular. These strategies are
"specific behaviors or thought processes" (Oxford, 1990a) that language learners can employ to
promote their language learning. Learning strategies are defined as “specific actions, behaviors,
steps, or techniques such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to
tackle a difficult language task used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella&
Oxford, 1992, p. 63). Oxford (1990) believes that appropriate language learning strategies enhance
proficiency and boost learners’ self-confidence. According to her, language learning strategies are
among the main factors helping to determine how and how well our language learners learn a
second or foreign language (Oxford, 2003). Therefore, to promote students’ language learning and
to facilitate learner autonomy, language-learning strategies are key factors for teachers and
instructors which should receive enough attention. Chamot (2005, p. 112) defines learning
strategies broadly as “procedures that can facilitate a learning task.” According to Chamot,
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134
strategies are most often “conscious and goal-driven, especially in the beginning stages of tackling
an unfamiliar language task” (p. 112, 2005). In a rather similar vein, Cohen (2012) defined
language learning strategies as “thoughts and actions, consciously chosen and operationalized by
language learners, to assist them in carrying out a multiplicity of tasks from the very onset of
learning to the most advanced levels of target-language performance” (p. 136).
Different lists and taxonomies of strategies have been developed as a result. O’Malley and
Chamot’s (1985) distinction between metacognitive, cognitive and socio-affective strategies, and
Oxford’s (1990a) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), which consists of two
different but related groups of strategies; direct strategies (memory, cognitive and compensation
strategies) and indirect strategies (metacognitive, affective and social) are among the most famous
and commonly used typologies in the literature. Chamot (2005) argues that most descriptive
studies have been based on Oxford’s (1990a) classification. More recently, Cook (2008) stated
that SILL is a benchmark for strategies research for many years. Hence, Oxford’s classification of
learning strategies as an instrument has been extensively used to gather data on large numbers of
language learners (see Cohen, Weaver, & Li, 1998; Olivares-Cuhat, 2002; Oxford, 1990; 1996;
Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995; Wharton, 2000). Based on Oxford and Crookall’s classification
(1989, p. 404), these strategies can be described as follows:

Cognitive Strategies: skills that involve manipulation or transformation of the language
in some direct way through reasoning, analysis, note taking, functional practice in
naturalistic settings, formal practice with structures and sounds, etc.

Memory Strategies: techniques to help store new information in memory and retrieve it
later.

Compensation Strategies: behaviors used to compensate for missing knowledge of
some kind such as guessing while listening or reading, or using synonyms or
circumlocution while speaking or writing.

Metacognitive Strategies: behaviors used for centering, arranging, planning, and
evaluating one’s learning. These strategies are used to provide “executive control” over the
learning process.

Affective Strategies: techniques like self-reinforcement and positive self-talk which
help learners gain better control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related
to language learning.
Iranian EFL Journal
135

Social Strategies: actions involving other people in the language learning process.
Examples are questioning, cooperating with peers, and developing empathy.
Supporting the importance of learning strategies, Chamot (2005) maintains that learning strategies
in second language learning are important for two major reasons. First, by examining the strategies
used by language learners during the language learning process, we gain insights into the
metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective processes involved in language learning. The
second reason supporting research into language learning strategies is that we can teach less
successful language learners new strategies, thus helping them become better language learners.
Today, many experts believe that language learners could benefit from employing strategies to
compensate for what they do not know or are unable to perform in the process of language learning.
More recently, Goh (2013) asserts that by employing strategies language learners can attain their
learning potential and become individuals who could learn and use language flexibly and
independently. Goh (2013, p. 69) further adds that by employing strategies, “language learners
could become more self-regulated in their own learning by making decisions about how and when
to plan, monitor, and evaluate what they learn and the ways they learn”.
A number of studies have also been carried out regarding Iranian learners’ use of learning
strategies. However, they reported radically different results. Amini Farsani, Nikoopour and
Neishabouri (2011) found out that Iranian EFL learners preferred to use metacognitive strategies
more frequently than other types of strategies. Mahbudi, Shokrpour, Rafatbakhsh, and Mahbudi
(2013) reported that Iranian EFL learners preferred to use cognitive strategies more frequently
with affective strategies being the least frequently used strategy. In another study among Iranian
learners, Rizaei and Rahimi (2005) observed that the proficiency level and motivation were major
predicators of the use language learning strategies. They also reported that the difference between
learners’ use of SILL’s six major strategy types was found significant. In a comparative study
between successful and unsuccessful Iranian EFL students, Gerami and Ghareh Baighlou (2011)
reported that successful EFL students often used metacognitive strategies whereas unsuccessful
EFL students tended to use surface level cognitive strategies. Their study also showed that the
Iranian EFL students used affective strategies least frequently. In a more recent study, Qasimnejad
and Hemmati (2014) found evidence for differences between monolinguals and bilinguals in terms
of learning language use. They reported that monolingual Persian and bilingual Azari-Persian EFL
students employed a variety of language learning strategies when learning English. As a result, a
Iranian EFL Journal
136
great need is felt for having more studies being carried out to examine the type of learning
strategies Iranian learners use in general and bilingual and trilingual learners’ of English use in
particular. The present study was an attempt to address this gap.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
A total number of 64 Iranian learners of English as a foreign language took part in the present
study. They were all undergraduate students of English Language Teaching (TEFL) studying at
Islamic Azad University in Tehran, Iran. They were selected using convenience sampling. From
among them, 33 learners were learning English as their second language with Persian being their
L1 or mother tongue. For the other 31 English learners, Persian was their L2 with Kurdish or Azari
being their mother tongue, making English their third language. The bilingual group consisted of
12 male and 21 female participants with a mean age of 20.43 (Range = 19-24, SD = 1.63). The
trilingual group was comprised of 13 male and 18 female participants with an age range of 19 to
25 (Mean = 21.26, SD = 1.81).
Oxford’s (1990) 50-item Likert scale Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was used
for data collection. SILL asks learners to react to a series of five-point Likert scale strategy
descriptors by indicating the frequency with which they use such strategies. Respondents’ answers
could range from ‘never or almost never’ (representing the score of 1 in the data analysis) to
‘always or almost always’ (represented by the score of 5 in the data analysis). This questionnaire
consists of six subcomponents, with each component being examined by a number of items:
Memory strategies (9 items), Cognitive strategies (14 items), Compensation strategies (6 items),
Metacognitive strategies (9 items), Affective strategies (6 items), and Social strategies (6 items).
According to Oxford and Ehrman (1995), the internal consistency of SILL is usually found to be
above .90. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was observed to be .914.
In addition, SILL was accompanied by another questionnaire collecting data on learners’
demographical information including their age, sex, mother tongue, language used at home, and
the language used in interaction with friends.
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The first research question was about whether there were any significant differences between the
two groups of participants (bilingual and trilingual) in the frequency with which they used each
learning strategy type when learning English. The descriptive statistics of learners’ reported use of
each strategy type, presented in Table 1, revealed that Iranian learners’ of English as their third
language generally used each strategy type more frequently.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for the Two Groups’ Use of Learning Strategies
Std.
Strategy type
Group
N
Mean
Deviation
Memory
Bilinguals
33
3.00
.44
Trilinguals
31
3.35
.49
Bilinguals
33
3.00
.46
Trilinguals
31
3.78
.57
Bilinguals
33
2.97
.61
Trilinguals
31
3.76
.72
Bilinguals
33
3.36
.69
Trilinguals
31
4.02
.52
Bilinguals
33
2. 90
.56
Trilinguals
31
3.49
.54
Bilinguals
33
3.37
.83
Trilinguals
31
3.83
.67
Cognitive
Compensation
Metacognitive
Affective
Social
However, in order to check whether the observed differences could reach statistical significance,
a number of independent samples t tests were run. The results of this analysis revealed that the two
groups significantly differed from each other in the use of all types of strategies, with trilinguals
reporting significantly more uses of all learning strategies examined by SILL: Memory strategies,
t (62) = - 3.02, p = .00; Cognitive strategies, t (62) = - 6.07, p = .00; Compensation strategies, t
(62) = - 4.75, p < .005; Metacognitive strategies, t (62) = - 4.30, p < .005; Affective strategies, t
(62) = - 4.33, p < .005; and Social strategies, t (62) = - 2.41, p = .02. Table 2 presents the results
of the comparison of the two groups.
Table 2. Results of the Independent Samples T Tests
Iranian EFL Journal
138
Levene's Test
t-test
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig.
Memory
Equal variances assumed
.085
.771
-3.02
62
.004
Cognitive
.458
.501
-6.07
62
.000
Compensation
1.196
.278
-4.75
62
.000
Metacognitive
1.967
.166
-4.30
62
.000
Affective
.152
.698
-4.33
62
.000
Social
2.363
.129
-2.41
62
.019
The next research question addressed the question whether each group of participants had a
particular interest in the use of one or some particular strategy types, or all strategy types were
used similarly by each groups. To answer this question, two one-way repeated measure ANOVAs
were run among different strategy types reported by each group of learners. In the case of the
Iranian monolingual learners of English, the result of the repeated measure ANOVA was found
statistically significant for Time, Wilk’s Lambda = .66, F (5, 28) = 2.89, p = .03, multivariate
partial eta square = .34, indicating that bilingual learners had a particular interest in and preference
for some types of strategies over the other types, entailing the use of post hoc analysis. The pair
wise comparison showed the existence of a significant difference in the frequency of use only
between Metacognitive strategies and affective strategies.
As in the case of Iranian monolingual learners of English, the bilingual learners showed a
significant difference in their interest in the use of different types of learning strategies, Wilk’s
Lambda = .38, F (5, 26) = 8.38, p < .005, multivariate partial eta square = .62. Memory strategies
Iranian EFL Journal
139
were found to be significantly different from Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Social strategies, and
Metacognitive strategies were found to be statistically significant from Affective strategies.
It was observed that those learners for whom English was their third language reported
significantly more uses of learning strategies in comparison with the monolingual learners of
English. In addition, both groups of learners were found to prefer some types of strategies over the
other types, i.e. they used some of them significantly more than others. Learners of English as
second language reported making more uses of metacognitive and social strategies, with the rest
of the strategies being used almost similarly. Likewise, metacognitive and social strategies were
the most commonly used types of learning strategies by learners of English as their third language
with memory and affective strategies being the least frequently used types of strategies for them
(See Table 1).
The fact that bilingual learners of English were observed to make more use of learning strategies
than monolinguals may stem from different variables. However, it seems that the main reason must
be the previous experience and background of learning another language, in this case Persian
language, before attempting to learn English. It is argued that strategies are formed and mastered
in an individual’s L1 acquiring. However, learners need to be made conscious about using such
strategies in the L2 learning context, and they should be given opportunities to practice them in L2
in order to be able to develop their strategic competence (Dornyei, 1995). Therefore, it seems
plausible to conclude that learners for whom English was their third language have already had
more opportunities to practice such strategies when they were learning their second language.
Their strategic competence had already been sufficiently developed and since they had already
gone along the way from their L1 to L2, they were quite experienced in facing the problems they
had during the process of learning an L2. As a result, they had learned how to deal with the
problems they may face during the learning process. They have devised and developed their
repertoire of strategies to enhance their learning.
However, for those learners for whom English is the second language, the problems they face
in the learning process sound quite new and they need to cope with them using a trial and error
approach. They have not fully developed their repertoire of strategies yet, and for those strategies
they have already developed knowledge of, their use is far from being automatic. Still they need
more opportunities to practice those strategies to be able to automatically resolve their learning
problems when they arise.
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The next point concerns the most and the least frequently used types of strategies by each group.
Interestingly enough, the most frequently used strategies for both groups were the metacognitive
and social strategies. While metacognitive strategies address the whole process of learning by
doing planning for and evaluating one’s learning, social strategies involve others such as the peers
and interlocutors in the learning process (Oxford, 1990). Based on the definition of different
learning strategies, it seems logical to state that these two strategy types and more specifically the
metacognitive strategies have a central role in the learning process, determining the success of the
learner. While metacognitive strategies determine the success of the learning process, the social
strategies decide and judge the success of demonstrating one’s learning outcomes as they involve
interaction with others and showing what one has already mastered and is able to make use of. The
metacognitive strategies seem to play a central role in one’s internal processes of learning and
social strategies appear to be concerned with the processes, which involve one’s external image of
learning in the form of success in interacting with others. As such, it seems that both groups of
learners have truly recognized the importance of each and have done their best to make the best
use of those aiding tools, with bilinguals managing to outperform the monolinguals in this case.
5. Conclusion
Regarding the least frequently used strategies, both groups were found to use affective strategies
the least frequently. Affective strategies involve gaining control over one’s emotions, attitude, and
motivation in the learning context. This could indicate that learners may have not still mastered
such strategies sufficiently because they need more time to find their way into one’s repertoire of
strategies. Affective factors are known to be the most influential variables in learning an L2
(Krashen, 1985), gaining control over which takes a lifetime. Therefore, both groups were
observed to make less use of them in comparison with other types of strategies, though still the
bilinguals could use them significantly more.
5.1. Findings
It seems that while both monolingual and bilingual learners of English use the same strategies in
learning English as their L2 and L3, respectively, the frequency with which they use such strategies
can significantly differ from each other, with the bilinguals making significantly more use of them.
This can be mainly due to their experience in dealing with common problems in second language
learning and developing their repertoire of strategies as a result. It must be noted that the results
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141
of the present study can be generalized only to the learners at the intermediate proficiency level.
Learners of different proficiency levels may be observed to use different strategies.
5.2. Suggestions for Further Research
The participants of the present study were undergraduate students of TEFL, who might have been
somewhat familiar with the notion of learning strategies as part of their education in TEFL.
Therefore, some of what they reported as their frequency of strategy use might be due to their
being conscious about such a notion. Other studies may find their frequency of use slightly lower
or at least different, but since this was the same for both groups of participants, it cannot question
the general pattern of results observed in this study. More importantly, it could be a good idea to
examine other factors that could be involved in the use of strategies especially those variables
under the category of individual differences including age, motivation, attitude, and other affective
factors.
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Title
Iranian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Implementing Computer
Assisted Language Learning in Writing Classes
Authors
Sedighe Vahdat (Ph.D)
Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran
Atusa Gerami (M.A)
Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz, Iran
Bioatda
Sedighe Vahdat, assistant professor of applied linguistics at Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz,
Iran. Her research interests include computer assisted instruction and EFL teaching and testing in
the Iranian context.
Atusa Gerami, M.A at Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz, Iran. Her
research interests include psychology of language learning and also language teaching.
Abstract
Writing in a foreign language is one of the most difficult tasks which requires considerable
efforts and practice. It seems that traditional approaches cannot help learners reach an
acceptable level of writing. Therefore, the need for educational changes in teaching
approaches is felt. As one of these changes, using computer in teaching writing is referred
to. Since teachers’ attitudes can have a great impact on success or failure of such a reform,
studying their beliefs is necessary. This study investigated the Iranian EFL teachers’
attitudes about applying technology in writing classes. The specific aim was to study
teachers’ personal principles and practices in their own teaching contexts particularly
writing classes. To reach this aim, a teacher attitude questionnaire developed by Thitirat
Suwannasom (2012), was administered to 30 EFL teachers with teaching experiences from
1 to 29 years from Gachsaran high schools, Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad, Iran. Also, an
open-ended interview was conducted to the same participants. After calculating the
percentage and frequency as the statistical analysis method, it was revealed that teachers’
Iranian EFL Journal
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attitudes and their different roles influence using technology in teaching writing in EFL
context positively. The result of this study was beneficial for EFL teachers and learners.
Keywords: Teachers’ Attitudes, Computer Assisted Language Learning, EFL Context,
Writing Classes
1. Introduction
Today we are witnesses to application of computers in our lives and we know that this electronic
device has been changed into a valuable object. These days we can find computers everywhere
around us. In fact, modern world will be incomplete without computers and their applications. It
is almost impossible to even imagine the modern facilities without the use of computers. As such,
computers can be considered as a unique tool in human life history.
Presently due to the triumphal entry of computers into education system, they have changed
into a brilliant aid in teaching. Instruction by means of this new teaching aid is a method which
needs to be studied, analyzed and interpreted in real contexts. Every day we can see the increasing
number of teachers who have the tendency towards the use of new technologies in their classrooms.
The adoption of technology into the education has often been premised on the potential of the
new technological tools to revolutionize an outmoded educational system, better prepare students
for the information age and accelerate national development efforts (Pelgrum, 2001).
One of the needs of all people is the need to write for different reasons. For example,
communicating with a friend, writing to or for a magazine, preparing information and so on.
Writing is generally a group of letters or symbols written or marked on a surface as a means of
communication (Collins, 2003). This definition suggests that writing is the activity of producing a
piece of written language which is more than being a matter of transcribing language into symbols,
but it is used for communication. In terms of pedagogy, writing is a central element in the language
teaching as students need to write down notes and to take written exams. Harmer (2004) agrees
that writing should be learned because it could not be naturally acquired like speaking, though, he
provides more reasons to teach writing for English as a foreign language (EFL) learners which
include reinforcement, language development, learning style and more importantly, writing as a
skill in its own right.
In this research, the researchers focus on using technologies to teach this important skill. New
digital media have played an important role in the teaching of writing, through both the cognitive
Iranian EFL Journal
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era that began in the 1980s, in which word processing was emphasized as a tool for revision
(Pennington, 1993) and the socio cognitive era that began in the 1990s, in which computermediated communication was emphasized as a tool of social construction of meaning (Kern &
Warschauer, 2000). “The advantage of computer-based writing instruction for students is that they
can practice writing often. They can interact with each other through the Internet and develop
mutual communication and understanding” (Cheng, Chen & Lee, 2007, pp. 225-244).
The present research explores teachers’ attitudes towards using technology in teaching writing.
The decision regarding whether and how to use computer technology for instruction rests on
teachers’ shoulders. If we are to achieve fundamental changes in classroom teaching practices we
need to examine teachers themselves and the beliefs they hold about teaching, learning and
computer technology. Full integration of technology into educational system is a distant goal
unless there is reconciliation between teachers and computers (Pourhossein, 2012). To understand
how to achieve integration, we need to study teachers and what makes them use computers
(Marcinkiewics, 1993).
This study is going to answer the following questions:
1. How can EFL teachers’ attitudes about the use of technology in EFL writing instruction be
important?
2. In what ways can teachers’ roles in computer assisted instruction impact the learners’ writing
ability?
As computer assisted language learning (CALL), technology-based language teaching, teachers’
attitudes towards this kind of language teaching, benefits of technology uses in EFL writing classes
and at last teachers’ roles in this area are the key concepts in the present study, the researchers
point to the related studies.
2.1 Computer Assisted Language Learning
CALL as a whole has been concisely defined as “The search for and study of applications of the
computer in language teaching and learning” (Levy, 1997: p. 1). CALL embraces a wide range of
information and communication technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning
foreign languages, from the traditional drill and practice programs that characterized CALL in the
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1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestation of CALL, e.g. as used in virtual learning
environments and web-based distant learning.
2.2 Technology-based Language Teaching
One of the main sectors of any society is education. These days it is tried to transform technology
projects into this important sector. As a reason for this transformation, teaching English language
easier and more effective is referred to. According to Singhal (1997), technology and English
language education are related to each other. One of these projects that can be integrated into
teaching is smart school projects. “The aim of using technology in schools is preparing children
for the information age” (Smart School Project Team, 1997. p.10).
Wernet, Olliges and Delcath (2000) believe that technology-enhanced education is becoming
an increasingly important part of higher and professional education. Crystal (2001) indicates that
technology-based language teaching offers all students opportunities to learn in ways not
previously possible. Its innovations have gone hand-in-hand with the growth of English and are
changing the way in which we learn. Technology not only gives learners the opportunities to
control their own learning process, but also provides them with ready access to a vast amount of
information over which the teacher has no power or control (Lam & Lawrence, 2002). Research
findings have supported the use of technology in teaching language. First, technology has positive
influences on students’ motivation. Second, technology programs have been encouraged as cost
effective ways that could be used to replace or enhance direct human input (Ware & Warschauer,
cited in Tsou, 2008). There is no doubt that computer-based instruction will occupy a more central
role in the second language classroom in the future.
2.3 Teachers’ Attitudes towards Technology-based Language Teaching
In recent years, the rapid evolution of information and communication technology has made great
changes in societies and education. The Internet particularly has become a useful tool for
communication. Along with the impact of the Internet, the extensive use of computers at schools
has made a critical influence on educational environments. In this regard teachers and their beliefs
about using technologies in classrooms can have a great impact on technology-based instruction.
As Woodraw (1991) mentions teachers are active agents in the process of changes and
implementation of new ideas (using technology) because their beliefs and attitudes may support
or impede the success of any educational reform.
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Several researchers like Campoy (1992) claim that teachers’ beliefs about the role of
technology are the most essential factors that determine the content and scope of their use of
technology in their classes. Believing that teachers, not computers are the essential factor for
integrating computer technology, Miller and Olson (1994) assert the need for studying teachers
and their purposes for using computers.
Teachers’ attitude towards computer is a means for effective development of teacher training
that will prepare teachers to face the challenges in the information gap (Fisher, 2000). Lam (2000)
emphasizes that teachers’ personal beliefs of the advantages of using technology for language
teaching influence teachers’ decisions regarding technology use.
By taking teachers’ beliefs into consideration and studying them we conclude that their attitudes
play the most important role in making decisions about technology use in classrooms.
2.4 Studies on Benefits of Computer in Writing
Daiute (1985) summarizes some of the benefits of computers in the writing process as follows:
1. They enable writers to focus on the point.
2. They help learners see the spelling mistakes by highlighting the incorrect words.
3. They provide students with the communication channel through which they
intercommunicate with their friends and colleagues.
4. They make learning fun and stress-free.
In this regard Dirkzwager and Mol (1987) noted that students are more motivated and work with
greater concentration and are more likely to revise texts.
According to Carrasco (1991), computers can help learners with different stages of the writing
process; some can be useful in the pre-writing stage by helping build up good basic structures of
the foreign language. Other programs such as word processor are best suited for the writing stage
where they can facilitate the task of producing drafts. And for the last stage, those related to
polishing the final copy or good graphics quality which can be integrated with other final copies
to produce, for example a school newspaper of professional quality.
Trenches (1996), while performing a case study, used electronic mail as a medium of instruction
to improve writing in the students’ second language. In this regard, Singhal (1997) declares that
electronic mail is a modern way for writing and transferring messages through the Internet. Using
e-mail can be a very effective means for improving writing skills. Students can use e-mails to learn
how to respond to the incoming messages using some formal statements and meaningful language.
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Warschauer (1997) explored the use of e-mail between a teacher and her students in a graduate
of English as second language (ESL) writing classes. He found that using e-mail enables teacher
to provide students with detailed and rapid feedback on the immediate problems and questions
they had.
Text chatting is another important technical method for developing writing ability. It provides
an on-line and quick tool for writing and expressing thoughts, transferring ideas and responding
with the other side writer.
2.5 The Role of Teachers in Technology-based Writing Instruction
The roles and skills of teachers provided in earlier studies have indicated that teachers’ roles have
a great impact on students’ learning via computers as they are needed to provide students with
typical support and guide them to participate actively and critically in the learning process.
The research of Grasha (1994) summarizes several patterns that describe the role differences of
teachers: expert, formal authority, personal model, facilitator and delegator. He gives the following
examples to describe these different roles:
1. Expert: Teachers should have abundant knowledge about the domain they teach and should
play a role of knowledge source for the students.
2. Formal authority: Teachers should assume themselves as authors in knowledge domain and
students should follow the standards the teachers set for them.
3. Personal model: Students do what teachers say or demonstrate.
4. Facilitator: Teachers should guide students to learn new things based on what they already know
and facilitate the learning process for them.
5. Delegator: teachers give students assignments and encourage them to work independently or in
a self-directed manner.
Although a lot of studies have been done on computer assisted language learning and writing,
few researches have conducted on this subject in Iran. For this reason, the researchers have decided
to work on it and present it to the world of education and computer so that it can contribute to
language teaching.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
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The research was carried out with 30 EFL teachers from Gachsaran high schools, 15 males and 15
females with 1 to 29 years of teaching experience which is not exclusively in teaching writing, but
teaching this skill shapes a part of their experience. Among them, 25 hold bachelor’s degree, while
5 had a master’s. A study by Khanalizade and Allami (2012) revealed that teachers’ orientations
to teaching writing were not affected by their level of education, year of experience and gender.
The participants’ computer use ranged from 1 to 10 years. All of them used the Internet at home
or school or both.
3.2 Instruments
The data for this study were taken from qualitative and quantitative instruments. Qualitative data
were collected via a questionnaire and quantitative data from an open-ended interview.
3.2.1 Questionnaire
The questionnaire (See Appendix A for the full version) was extracted from a thesis named The
Technology-Mediated EFL Instruction in the Thai Tertiary Context by Thitirat Suwannasom
(2012) in order to explore the participants’ opinions towards technology application in general and
writing in particular. The original questionnaire was piloted during November 2007-January 2008
and was modified based on the comments received from the pilot-test participants about the length
of the questionnaire and unnecessary instructions. In this way, the reliability of it was computed
acceptable. The mentioned questionnaire was modified to be adapted to the Iranian language
teaching context. After modification, there were two main sections. The first section consisted of
four parts: in part A the respondents were asked to answer the demographic questions followed by
two open-ended questions based on Delphi research method. Part B included questions which were
asked to identify the teachers’ frequent use of computers and the Internet in their classes and also
they were asked to choose statements representing their beliefs about technology use in EFL
instruction. Part C and D contained 3 questions about teachers’ attitudes and behaviors towards
EFL writing instruction. In order to answer the questions of each part of this questionnaire the
participants should select as many answers as they like.
Section 2 contained a questionnaire of Likert type with 26 questions about the extent of
teachers’ usage of computer in their teaching activities. At the end of the questionnaire, there were
2 open-ended questions about computer application in EFL writing classes.
3.2.2 Open-ended Interview
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The open-ended interview was used in this study to find out teachers’ ideas about technologybased activities in Iranian EFL writing instruction. In this kind of interview, the interviewee feels
more comfortable in expressing his or her idea. The interview allowed for a two-way
communication and was conducted face to face. Before starting the interview, the participants were
informed about the research objectives. They were encouraged to talk freely and clarify views.
3.3 Procedure and Data Analysis
The data were collected from the time span of September-December 2013. At the beginning, the
participants were asked to complete the questionnaire to present their attitudes about the under
studying topic. The instruction was clearly given to make sure that they would answer the questions
correctly. It took 20 minutes to answer the questionnaire. For analyzing the responses, SPSS
software was used. After that the teachers participated in an open-ended interview. Each interview
took about 30 minutes. All interviews were recorded and transcribed in text format. Each interview
was started with a warm up then open-ended questions. Follow-up questions were asked during
the interview to obtain additional information. After gathering the participants’ answers and in
order to compare their attitudes statistically, rating of ordinal type was done. A list of 30 statements
about the research topic was produced by the researchers. The estimated reliability using Alpha
Cronbach test was .785 and acceptable. Then a five category scale was devised to show how much
the interviewees agree or disagree with the statements. Categories which were strongly disagree,
disagree, no opinion, agree and strongly agree were coded from 1 to 5 and responses were put in
these categories. At the end the total scores were divided by the total persons responding. The
obtained number showed interviewees’ agreement or disagreement with the given item. (See
Appendix B for the full version).
4. Results and discussion
In order to analyze the data collected from the questionnaire, percentage and frequency were
computed. Coding and categorizing were used to analyze the results of the interview.
4.1 Descriptive and Inferential Results of Participants’ Beliefs about Technology Integration
in the Iranian EFL Classrooms
In order to obtain the descriptive statistics resulted from the analysis of participants beliefs about
technology integration in the Iranian EFL classrooms (Part B of the questionnaire); percentage and
frequency were computed (table 4.1)
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Table 1 Percentage and Frequency of Participants’ Beliefs about Technology Integration
Item
Frequency
Percentage
Item
Yes
No
Yes
No
1
4
26
13.3
86.7
15
2
1
29
3
96.7
3
27
3
90
4
2
28
5
16
14
6
21
9
7
21
8
Frequency
Yes
Percentage
No
Yes
No
10
20
33.3
66.7
16
4
26
13.3
86.7
10
17
11
19
36.7
63.3
6.7
93.3
18
10
20
33.3
65.5
53.3
46.7
19
1
29
3.3
96.7
70
30
20
8
22
26.7
73.3
9
70
30
21
1
29
3.3
96.7
4
26
13.3
86.7
22
2
28
6.7
93.3
9
29
1
96.7
3.3
23
8
22
26.7
73.3
10
4
26
13.3
86.7
24
2
28
6.7
93.3
11
4
26
13.3
86.7
25
8
22
26.7
73.3
12
24
6
80
20
26
5
25
16.7
83.3
13
29
1
96.7
3.3
27
0
30
0
100
14
8
22
26.7
73.3
28
16
14
53.3
46.7
The obtained results in the above table (4.1) revealed that although the participated teachers in the
questionnaire believed that using computer programs in their classrooms, chatting and exchanging
e-mails for communication, creating weblogs and working collaboratively on on-line projects were
not used in an extensive level, they could have a positive effect on students’ learning. So, they
encouraged students to use them.
4.2 Descriptive and Inferential Results of the Analysis of the Participants’ Behaviors in EFL
Writing Instruction
The following table revealed the descriptive statistics of the analysis of the participants’ beliefs
about EFL writing instruction (part C of the questionnaire with 18 items).
Table 2 Percentage and Frequency of Participants’ Behaviors
Item
Frequency
Yes
Percentage
No
Yes
No
Item
Frequency Percentage
Yes
No
Yes
No
29
29
1
96.7
3.3
38
29
1
96.7
3.3
30
28
2
93.3
6.7
39
28
2
93.3
6.7
31
25
83.3
16.7
40
25
5
83.3
16.7
5
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32
12
18
40
60
41
12
18
40
60
33
27
3
90
10
42
27
3
90
10
34
25
5
83.3
9
21
30
70
35
27
3
90
10
44
27
3
90
10
36
9
21 30
70
45
5
25
16.7
37
7
23
7
76.7
23
16.7 43
23.3
76.7 46
83.3
23.3
Based on the above table (2) the results of this part of the questionnaire (part C) showed that
participants used behaviors and practices in their writing classrooms to encourage students to write
better and create good written texts.
4.3 Descriptive and Inferential Results of the Analysis of Participants’ Beliefs about Teaching
Writing with the Use of Technology
The participants responded to the 15 items about teaching writing with technology in part D of the
questionnaire (table3).
Table 3 Percentage and Frequency of Participants’ Beliefs on Teaching Writing with Technology
Item
Frequency
Percentage Item
No
Yes
47
6
24
20
80
55
23
48
28
2
93.3
6.7
56
1
49
29
1 96.7
3.3
57
28
2 93.3
6.7
50
29
1
96.7
3.3
58
25
5 83.3
16.7
51
27
3
90
10
59
26
4 86.7
13.3
52
29
1
96.7
3.3
60
27
3 90
10
53
27
3 90
10
61
21
9 70
30
54
15
50
Yes
Percentage
Yes
15
No
Frequency
No
Yes
7 76.7
29 3.3
No
23.3
96.7
50
According to the participants’ beliefs, their students showed a great interest in using technology in
learning writing. They liked exchanging e-mails to improve the quality of their own writing. They
were interested in practicing writing and communicating with friends and teachers on line and
finally, they wanted to develop autonomous language learning.
4.4 Descriptive and Inferential Results of the Analysis of the Participants’ Frequency of
Using Technology in Writing Classes
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Responses to part E of the questionnaire which consisted of 26 questions of Likert type was
analyzed. To analyze the questions of this part, the first two and the last two scales were combined.
Never and rarely were considered as one scale (No) and often and very often as another scale
(Yes). Table 4displays the descriptive statistics obtained from the analysis of the data of this
section.
Table 4 Percentage and Frequency of Participants’ Using Technology
Item
Frequency
Percentage
Item
Frequency
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
62
1
29
3.3
96.7
75
11
19
36.7
63.3
63
17
7
56.7
23.3
76
1
29
3.3
96.7
64
2
28
6.7
93.3
77
9
21
96.7
3.3
65
18
12
60
40
78
22
8
73.3
26.7
66
4
26
13.3
86.7
79
22
8
73.3
26.7
67
26
4
86.7
13.3
80
6
24
20
80
68
1
29
3.3
96.7
81
1
29
3.3
96.7
69
1
29
3.3
96.7
82
4
26
13.3
86.7
70
6
24
20
80
83
2
28
6.7
93.3
71
23
76.7
23.3 84
6
24
20
80
72
9
21
30
70
85
5
25
16.7
83.3
73
9
21
30
70
86
5
25
16.7
83.3
74
8
22
26.7
73.3 87
5
25
16.7
83.3
7
Yes
Percentage
No
By observing the obtained results in table (4.4), it was concluded that the participated teachers
rarely used technology and web to exchange ideas, to communicate with students and give
feedback to them.
4.5 The Results of the Analysis of Open-ended Interview
As mentioned before, another research instrument which was used in this research was an openended interview. After gathering the participants’ answers to the given questions and in order to
compare their attitudes statistically, rating of ordinal type was done. To rate, a list of 30 statements
about the research topic was produced. Then a five-category scale was devised to show how much
the interviewees agree or disagree with the statements. Categories which were strongly disagree,
disagree, no opinion, agree, and strongly agree were coded from 1 to 5 and responses were put in
these categories. At the end, the total scores were divided by the total persons responding. The
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obtained number showed interviewees’ agreement or disagreement with the given items. The result
more than 3 shows agreement and less than 3 shows disagreement with the items. There is a
separate table for each item as follows. (See Appendix C for full version).
Table 4 Interview Rating for Question 1
Score
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
0
1
3
16
10
30
Percentage
0
3.3
10
53.3
33.3
100
2
9
64
50
125
ScoreFrequency 0
125
= 4.16
30
The findings of this study revealed a great motivation in using technology in writing classes and
interests in technology integration in EFL classrooms. They showed that teachers tried to use
behaviors and practices in their classrooms to help students create good pieces of writings, feel
accomplishment, improve their English, have more chances to use authentic English and
encourage them to be good writers.
Teachers’ attitude was discussed as an important variable in this study. A positive relationship
between it and using technology in writing classrooms was found. The ultimate goal of studying
teachers’ attitudes about using technology in EFL context is how to teach with technology.
By studying teachers’ beliefs it was found that how their use of technology in EFL writing
instruction and their teaching method were influenced by their perceptions. Teachers’ attitudes
showed that they had a positive insight towards using technology in improving learners’ writing
skills.
The most influential domain of teachers’ beliefs and thoughts was perceived benefits of
technology in language instruction. It was found that teachers’ use of technology was formed by
their insights about students’ needs and their motivation.
5.2 Teachers’ Roles in Technology-mediated EFL Writing Instruction
Iranian students have limited exposure to authentic materials. So, teachers play the main role to
provide this exposure for them. Teachers provide them with appropriate models, resources,
strategies and any necessary scaffolding in using technology in language learning.
Many students require close supervision and guidance from their teachers. So, teachers’
physical presence and participation in students’ learning process is crucial.
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To be successful writers, students should receive extensive practice and input. Students should
read a lot, practice a lot and use English every day. They should know what they want to learn and
what they should do to achieve the learning goals. If they are aware of their own language needs,
they will learn better. So, they should receive appropriate input and be exposed to a wide range of
texts which support language learning and skills development. In this regard this research showed
that it was the teacher who could give his or her students language resources and extensive
practices.
5. Conclusion
5.1 Findings
With the assumption that what teachers think has a great impact on classroom instruction and
students’ learning processes, this study aimed to discover what teachers perceive, believe and think
about technology in teaching writing in EFL contexts or in other words using computer, Internet
programs and on-line practices
In this research it was found that participating teachers supported the use of computer and
information technology as a tool for providing students with more learning resources, enhancing
instructional activities for writing, submitting assignments and facilitating classroom
communications between teachers and students. Therefore, they were eager to accept a form of
technology-mediated instruction that helped them achieve their teaching goals which were
influenced by their own instructional beliefs and students’ needs and backgrounds. Participating
teachers in interview believed that the advantages of using computer in writing classes are more
than its disadvantages. Changing the traditional teaching methods, more controlling over learning,
saving time, connection with the world, creating opportunities to practice English, enhancing
students’ motivation and being creative in writing were some of these advantages. Interviews
revealed that teachers were responsible to provide their students with more opportunities to
practice the language skills that were considered necessary for their academic and future
requirements. Also it was perceived that technology had a great potential in promoting
communicative and social language learning.
Based on the data obtained throughout the study, it can be concluded that writing ability can be
developed through exchanging e-mails, positive responses and encouraging feedbacks which can
promote interests in writing.
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It was revealed that computer applications could bring changes to writing classes. Using this
tool made teaching easier and more interesting, learning might turn into a more interactive process,
teachers’ activities could be encouraged, learners’ autonomy might be enhanced and they could
write in a greater amount of diversity, format and quality.
The conclusion of studying teachers’ attitudes which focus on teachers’ previous experiences,
personal principles and what they believe about the impact of technology in their language
teaching and writing instruction offered a practical understanding of teaching writing with
technology in Iranian EFL context. It was revealed that teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward
CALL were generally positive. Teachers’ responses to the questionnaire and interview showed all
teachers considered the technology use as a necessity in new learning contexts.
It was obtained that increasing an understanding of teachers’ beliefs as a part of efforts to
increase teachers’ computer technology, skills and uses was necessary.
So, it became obvious that technology-mediated instruction is not just a set of strategies, but a
result of insightful perceptions and critical thinking that investigates and evaluates this kind of
teaching and learning within a particular environment.
5.2 Applications and Implications
Computer assisted language learning has implications for teachers and learners. These implications
can be useful for future applications in the area of language learning by using technology.
Computers offer teachers the unique ability to collaborate with other educators. Teachers can
get teaching plants and new ideas from the internet. Technology application and instructional
integration gives teachers a sense of security and allows teachers to effectively use technology for
teaching(Strudler, 1995). With the assistance of technology, teachers can improve their teaching
and even their learning. Through professional development and support, teachers can provide the
valuable classroom instruction needed for learners to succeed.
CALL implementation has been developed in the area of learner training along with the more
general movement in the language teaching profession towards developing learner autonomy.
CALL is considered to be a productive tool for EFL or ESL learning (Barson, Frommer &
Schwartz, 1993). This study and studies of this type can help learners teach themselves. By using
technology, students can decide about their studies and learn in a better way. They can work in
more supportive environments, seek help from others and share their learning experiences in a
productive fashion. Students’ motivation increases when technology is used to assist a teacher in
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facilitating a particular lesson. Students may lose interest when their teacher stands at the front of
the classroom just lecturing.
5.3 Suggestions for Further Research
The first suggestion is that the research would conduct with a larger number of participants. It will
be valuable to put more time and energy so as to conduct longitudinal studies with different groups
of teachers in various educational settings to extend the results into schools and language
institutions. If larger number of teachers from different parts of the country participate in the study
and share their technology-based teaching experiences with others, more findings will emerge and
better results will be obtained. It is recommended to understand teachers’ beliefs and backgrounds
and to know how they apply computer in their teaching contexts. To generalize the findings of
such a research to larger teaching contexts, using more observation methods is suggested and more
time should be given to get richer information. It is good to ask teachers to design instructional
methods that enhance language learning for students of the digital age.
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Appendix A
The aim of this questionnaire is to elicit Iranian high school teacher’s beliefs about using IT (information
technology) in high school EFL writing instruction. This questionnaire has two sections and each section
has some parts. Section 1 contains four parts and section 2 contains one part.
Section1
Part A: Questions about participants’ personal information and beliefs about technology in EFL instruction.
Part B, C and D: Questions about participants’ beliefs and experiences in using technology in EFL writing
instruction.
Part A: participants’ personal information and beliefs about technology in EFL instruction. Directions:
Please put a check mark (√).
A1: Gender
male
female
A3: Teaching experience 1 – 5 years
A2: Degree
6 – 10 years
B. A
M.A
11 – 15 years
Ph. D
Other:
15 – 20 years
More than
20years
A4: Please complete the sentence.
In my opinion, the advantages of integration IT in high school EFL instructions are ………….…
A5: Please complete the sentence.
In my opinion, the disadvantages of integrating IT in high school EFL instructions are……………….
Part B: Beliefs about technology integration in the Iranian EFL classrooms.
B1: Please put a check mark (√) to select technology uses that describe your most frequent EFL
instructional behavior. (You can select as many as you like).
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1 Use E-mail to communicate with students.
2. Use chat to communicate with students.
3. Use computer program (e.g. Word, Power Point) to prepare teaching materials.
4. Create a weblog or website for EFL learner.
5. Have students create weblogs.
6. Have students word process their assignments.
7. Have students exchange their electronic writing with peers.
8. Have students do language exercises or tests on recommended websites.
9. Have students work collaboratively on an online project.
Other (Please specify):…………………
B2: How much is the use of IT in English language instruction supported or encouraged at your instruction?
10. Not really supported /encouraged
11. Somewhat supported /encouraged
12. Supported/ encouraged
13. Strongly Supported / encouraged
B3. Directions: Read the following statements about technology integrations; put a check mark (√) to
choose up to 7 items that you want to integrate in your EFL instruction, and finally underline only one
statement of your most preferred instruction.
Statement of Beliefs
Select
14. Students word process their written assignments or essays to reduce spelling and mechanical mistakes.
15. E-mail, chat, and web discussions are used to provide students with greater opportunities to practice
English language.
16. Students use online references such as dictionaries or translation tools to improve their written texts.
17. Students are encouraged to join social network sites or online groups such as face book to exchange
ideas with others in English.
18. Students do language exercises like pronunciation practices, or choosing the correct verb forms in the
CD-ROMs or websites according to their proficiency level.
19. Computers are used to deliver multimedia lessons like shopping in order to promote learners’
motivation.
20. Students go online to get corrective feedback on their language from more competent English language
speakers.
21. Students practice online authentic communication such as sending e-mails.
22. Students work on online tasks using websites to develop critical thinking (e.g. identifying facts from
opinions).
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23. Students study native speaker’s language in academic English websites as a model of academic genres
such as essays, reports, and summaries.
24. E-mails and chat rooms are used to promote knowledge construction through inquiring, exchanging
ideas, and discussion.
25. Students use chat and e-mails to establish intercultural competence (i.e. understanding one’ s culture
and others’ cultures).
26. Online authentic English sources such as television or newspaper websites (e.g. BBC, and VOA) are
used to stimulate students’ verbal or written communication
27. Students publish their academic or personal web pages to connect themselves to a broader community.
28. Students individually or collaboratively create an English web sites to promote their communities or to
serve local organizations (e.g. schools)
PART C: Beliefs about EFL writing instruction
C1. Direction: Please read the following statements about teachers’ behaviors and put a check mark (√) to
choose 5 items which you think are the most important features for EFL writing instruction.
29. Teachers encourage students to write grammatically correct sentences.
30. Teachers give feedback on the students’ drafts .
31. Teachers exchange ideas about their students’ writing.
32. Teachers are aware of the readers’ expectation about the students’ writings.
33. Teachers encourage students to develop relationship with others through written texts.
34. Teachers usually help each students individually to complete their drafts.
35. Teachers usually guide all students once to complete their drafts.
36. Teachers encourage students to develop different kinds of writing (e.g. letters, reports, and essays).
37. Teachers ask students to study focused structures in model texts before they write their own.
C2. Direction: Please read the following statements about teacher behaviors and put a check
Mark (√) to choose 5 items which you think are the most important for Iranian EFL instruction.
38. Teachers help students to develop the content and ideas of the writing.
39. Teachers encourage students to write for a friend.
40. Teachers provide writing exercises for students according to their proficiency.
41. Teachers facilitate group collaborative writing tasks.
42. Teachers give corrective feedback about the students’ language in their drafts.
43. Teachers provide students different types of texts as models of good writing.
44. Teachers create a positive environment for students to do a lot of writing.
45. Teachers encourage students to exchange their writing with penpals or keypals.
46. Teachers encourage students to write in response to questions or feedbacks.
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PART D
D1. Direction: Please read the following statements about writing instruction and Put a check mark (√) to
choose up to 7 items that are the most relevant to your beliefs in teaching writing with technology.
Statement of beliefs
Select
47. Your students are more motivated to write in a technology-based writing activity.
48. Practicing writing e- mails improves students’ writing quality.
49. Practicing writing in a chat improves students’ writing quality.
50. Writing for real online audiences improves students’ writing quality.
51. Practicing writing online increases students’ writing fluency.
52. Teacher involvement is important for students’ technology-based writing development.
53. Peer involvement is important for students’ technology-based writing development.
54. Your students develop higher-level thinking skills such as critical thinking from technology-based
writing.
55. Your students gain confidence in writing in technology-based tasks (e.g. sending e-mail)
56. Technology-based writing supports equal participation among students.
57. Technology-based writing encourages students to develop autonomous language learning.
58. Writing electronic correspondence prepares students for their professional skills.
59. Technology-based writing instruction meets the students’ needs for academic skills.
60. CMC ‫ ٭‬tools offer students more interactions among peers and teachers.
61. Students develop language from technology-based writing tasks.
‫٭‬CMC stands for computer-mediated communication ( e.g. e-mail, chat, web discussion, web conferences).
Section2
PART E
E1. Direction: Please read the statements and put a check mark (√) in the box to answer this question. How
often do you do these technology-based writing activities?
Teachers’ technology based writing activities
Never
Rarely
Often
Very Often
62. Teachers send e-mail to communicate with the students in English
63. Teachers join web discussion exchanging ideas in English
64. Teachers chat online with other teachers in English
65. Teachers ask students to submit writing assignments by sending e-mails
66. Teachers ask students to submit writing by posting them on the class webpage
67. Teachers write e-mails to other people for information
68. Teachers give feedback on the students writing by e-mail
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69. Teachers give feedback on each other teachers’ electronic drafts
70. Teachers chat online or exchange e-mails with native or nonnative speakers of English
71. Teachers ask students to use technology-based references (dictionaries) to improve their writing
72. Each Teacher creates a web page or blog to post their written work
73. Each Teacher creates a web page or blog to post their written work in pair or group
74. Teachers’ feedback causes students to improve their web-based writing
75. Teachers ask students to go online searching before writing paragraphs, reports, or essays
76. Teachers communicate with readers visiting their web pages
77. Teachers themselves engage in technology-based writing according to their own interests or
communicative purposes
78. Teachers read EFL writing websites or journals about tech-based writing instruction
79. Teachers download online teaching materials to use in the classroom
80. Teachers have students e-mail to communicate with them
81. Teachers upload classroom materials on a webpage or virtual classroom
82. Teachers keep a technology-based writing log about your teaching
83. Teachers chat online with students based on classroom sessions or general issues
84. Teachers exchange e-mails with students based on classroom sessions or general or general issues
85. Teachers participate in a web discussion with students
86. Teachers exchange ideas about web-based teaching with other EFL or ESL teachers online
87. Teachers create or have a website or blog created for classroom communication
E2. What do you think is the most effective way to integrate web-based activity in your current
EFL class? ………………………………………………………………………………………….
E3. Please write anything that you want to share about your opinion related to computer application in EFL
writing teaching in the Iranian high schools………………………………………
Appendix B
Dear Teacher,
Please circle one of the numbers from 1 to 5 according to your perceptions of each item on the use of
computer technology in EFL writing classes.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. No Opinion 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree
1. In my view, computer technologies are more powerful tools of teaching and research than more
traditional tools. 1 2 3 4 5
2. All computer technologies (referring generally to computers, videos, hardware, software and networks)
increase my knowledge and skills as a teacher. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Computer programs can be used as advanced instructional tools in writing instruction.1 2 3 4 5
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4. Computer can be used to effectively manipulate instruction. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Computer is more effective for teaching writing than paper and pencil. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I can avoid problems like handwriting when I use computers. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Computer can help keep track of my progress. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Computers enable me for more interest and creative work. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I have limited experiences in using computer technology for my EFL writing courses.1 2 3 4 5
10. I am familiar with the word processors like Word. 1 2 3 4 5
11. It is good to be familiar with writing tools like Write Board. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Using a computer gives me more chances to use authentic English. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Using a computer gives me more chances to practice English. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Using a computer gives me a feeling of accomplishment. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Communicating by e-mail is a good way to improve my English. 1 2 3 4 5
16. I can write better essays when I do them by computer. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Revising my paper is a lot easier when I write them on computer. 1 2 3 4 5
18. I enjoy seeing what I write printed out. 1 2 3 4 5
19. I enjoy using the computer to communicate with my students. 1 2 3 4 5
20. I am afraid to contact people by e-mail than in person. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Writing papers by hand saves time compared to by computer. 1 2 3 4 5
22. E-mail helps people learn from each other. 1 2 3 4 5
23. Using E-mail and the internet makes me feel part of a community. 1 2 3 4 5
24. An advantage of using e-mail is you can contact people any time you want. 1 2 3 4 5
25. Writing to others by e-mail helps me develop my thoughts and ideas. 1 2 3 4 5
26. Writing by computer makes me more creative. 1 2 3 4 5
27. Using a computer gives me more control over my learning. 1 2 3 4 5
28. I enjoy the challenge of using computer. 1 2 3 4 5
29. I can learn English faster when I use a computer. 1 2 3 4 5
30. I want to continue using a computer in my English class. 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix C
S stands for Score, F stands for Frequency, P stands for Percentage, SF stands for ScoreFrequency and
T stands for Total
Question1
125:30=4.14
Question 2
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
1
3
16
10
30
119:30=3.63
Iranian EFL Journal
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P
0
3.3
10
53.3
33.3
100
SF
0
2
9
64
50
125
Question
Question 4
3
108:30=3.60
118:30=3.93
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
1
2
10
12
5
30
P
3.3 6.7
33.3 40
16.7
100
SF
1
4
30
25
108
Question
5
Question 6
105:30=3.50
48
106:30=3.53
1111
1111 2222
3333 4444
5555
Total
S
1
3
5
T
FFFF
0000 1111
3333 1611
1099
3033
F
0
8
9
30
pppP
0000 3.333 1010 53.34 33.33 1001
P
0
SFS
0000 2222
SF
0
2
1
3.3
4
12
26.7
2
40
30
100
9999 6444
5044
1251
24
48
45
119
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
2
7
12
9
30
P
0
6.7
23.3 40
30
100
SF
0
4
21
45
118
48
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
1
3
10
11
5
30
F
1
3
10
12
4
30
P
3.3
10
33.3
36.7
16.7
100
P
3.3
10
33.3
40
13.3
100
SF
1
6
30
44
25
106
SF
1
6
30
48
20
105
Question 7
118:30=3.93
Question 8
120:30=4
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
1
0
3
12
9
30
F
0
1
7
13
9
30
P
3.3
0
26.7
40
30
100
P
0
3.3
23.3
43
30
100
SF
1
0
9
48
45
118
SF
0
2
21
52
45
120
Question
9
112:30=3.73
Question 10 83:30=2.77
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
1
1
9
13
6
30
F
4
7
11
8
0
30
P
3.3
3.3
30
43.3
20
100
P
13
23
36.7
26.7
0
100
SF
1
2
27
52
30
112
SF
4
14
33
32
0
83
Question 11
124:30=4.13
Question 12
119:30=3.97
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
0
8
10
12
30
F
0
2
7
11
10
30
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P
0
0
26.7
33.3
40
100
P
0
6.7
23.3
36.7
33.3
100
SF
0
0
24
40
60
124
SF
0
4
21
44
50
119
Question 13
126:30=4.20
Question 14
119:30=3.97
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
0
5
14
11
30
F
0
2
6
13
9
30
P
0
0
16.7
46.7
36.7
100
P
0
6.7
20
43.3
30
100
SF
0
0
15
56
55
126
SF
0
4
18
52
45
119
Question 15
125:30=4.17
Question 16
93:30=3.10
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
0
5
15
10
30
F
2
4
13
11
0
30
P
0
0
16.7
50
33.3
100
P
6.7
13.3
43.3
36.7
0
100
SF
0
0
15
60
50
125
SF
2
8
39
44
0
93
Question 17
127:30=4.23
Question 18
124:30=4.13
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
0
4
15
11
30
F
0
1
4
15
10
30
P
0
0
13.3
50
36.7
100
P
0
3.3
13.3
50
33.3
100
SF
0
0
12
60
55
127
SF
0
2
12
60
50
124
Question 19
98:30=3.27
Question 20
!05:30=3.5
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
5
4
8
4
9
30
F
2
3
8
12
5
30
P
16.7
13
26.7
13.3
30
100
P
6.7
10
26.7
40
16.7
100
SF
5
8
24
16
45
98
SF
2
6
24
48
25
105
Question 21
107:30=3.57
Question 22
124:30=4.13
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
1
5
6
12
6
30
F
0
1
6
11
12
30
P
3.3
16.7
20
40
20
100
P
0
3.3
20
36.7
40
100
SF
1
10
18
48
30
107
Iranian EFL Journal
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Question
Question 24
23
122:30=4.07
SF
0
2
18
44
60
124
123:30=4.10
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
1
8
9
12
30
F
0
1
7
10
12
30
P
0
3.3
26.7
30
40
100
P
0
3.3
23.3
33.3
40
100
SF
0
2
24
36
60
122
SF
0
2
21
40
60
123
Question 25
123:30=4.10
Question 26
121:30=4.03
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
1
5
14
10
30
F
0
2
5
13
10
30
P
0
3.3
16.7
46.7
33.3
100
P
0
6.7
16.7
43.3
33.3
100
SF
0
2
15
56
50
123
SF
0
4
15
52
50
121
Question 27
116:30=3.87
Question 28
114:30=3.8
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
1
7
17
5
30
F
0
1
10
13
6
30
P
0
3.3
23.3
56.7
16.7
100
P
0
3.3
33.3
43.3
20
100
SF
0
2
21
68
25
116
SF
0
2
30
52
30
114
Question 29
114:30=3.80
Question 30
109:30=3.6
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
S
1
2
3
4
5
T
F
0
2
10
10
8
30
F
2
2
8
11
7
30
P
0
6.7
33.3
33.3
26.7
100
P
6.7
6.7
26.7
36.7
23.3
100
SF
0
4
30
40
40
114
SF
2
4
24
44
35
109
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
Iranian EFL Learners’ Notions of the Role of Imagery in Learning Idiomatic
Expressions and its Application in Pedagogical Contexts
Authors
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab (M.A)
Department of English, Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Isfahan, Iran
Biodata
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab, M.A in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) from the
University of Isfahan in 2014. Her areas of interest include second language acquisition,
sociolinguistics and cognitive linguistics.
Abstract
Having the genius for the proper use of formulaic language in general and idioms in
particular is crucial to native-like fluency. Iranian EFL learners are proven to have highly
positive attitudes towards English idioms; however, rarely are EFL learners asked to voice
their opinions on issues regarding the specific strategies for comprehension and retention
of these expressions. The present study is primarily an attempt to investigate the attitude
of the Iranian EFL learners towards learning idioms in general and, the specific strategies
to master these expressions in particular. The article reports answers to an attitude
questionnaire given to 64 second-year adult learners of English. Analysis of data revealed
that (a) EFL learners regarded idioms as an indispensible part of language learning and, (b)
they were in favor of etymologies and pictures as didactic tools for better comprehension
and retention of idioms. The study is also to determine the relationship between the
attitudes of EFL learners towards imagery as a strategy to learn new idioms and their
learning styles. To this aim, a learning style questionnaire was adopted from Boers' (2009)
study. The results revealed that there is a statistically significant relation between the
students' learning styles on the one hand and their attitudes towards the application of
imagery-supporting elements on the other.
Keywords: Idioms, Attitudes, Imagery, Learning style
Iranian EFL Journal
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1. Introduction
All living languages have phrases which cannot be realized literally even if all the component parts
are lexically and semantically known. English is a language rich in idioms- the expressions without
which English language would lose much of its fun and humor. Idioms are a double-edged sword
which may ease or ruin communication in a given discourse. Idioms are full of culture, poetry and
history. Failure to recognize the figurative meaning of these expressions may generate downright
misunderstanding between the interlocutors.
Native speakers of any language use an abundant number of idioms without realizing that they
are actually doing so. It indicates that communication can be a confusing experience for those not
fully familiar with the language. It is to state the obvious that not all expressions are easy to
decipher. Some are derived from popular activities such as golfing, hunting and sailing. Some
others contain archaic words which appear to be quite obscure in today's language
(http://www.linguarama.com/).
Oxford English Dictionary defines an idiom as "a form of expression, grammatical
construction, phrase, etc. peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the
usage of a language, and often having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one"
(1996). Langlotz (2006) on the other hand, defines it as a fixed construction made up of two or
more lexical items with the structure of a phrase or a semi-clause whose meaning cannot be
inferred from the meaning of its component parts.
Two disparate views explain for idiom representation in the mental lexicon. The first view, the
orthodox view, regards idioms as unanalyzable and non-compositional strings which are processed
by direct lexical retrieval. In this view, the internal semantic patterning of idioms has nothing to
do with the process of these expressions in the mental lexicon. The second view, the compositional
view, attributes the representation of idioms in the mental lexicon to their internal semantic
structures. This view regards idioms as analyzable strings which are processed compositionally.
Therefore, idioms are not long linguistic units but are complex mental representations with the
potentiality to be unfolded at various levels of semantic representations (Langlotz, 2006).
Lakoff (1987) was in the belief that a key component to make figurative language decipherable
is the creation of an appropriate image based on the literal meaning of the expression. As he asserts,
language learners best learn the meaning of idiomatic expressions by resorting to either a concrete
or a mental image. Mental imagery is based on associations to build up a vivid picture of the
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underlying concept (Smith & McCarthy, 2009). Davis (1988) considers imagery as a highly
effective strategy to retrieve and recall information. Clark and Paivio (1991) also claimed over the
effectiveness of an imaginistic component in the process of information. Concrete pictures and
etymological elaboration can be considered as effective strategies to trigger imagery during the
process of idiomatic expressions. As Boers (2007) claims etymological elaboration is an effective
strategy for the realization of a mental image based on the original use of the expression. Imagery
refers to the mental pictures or images generated by words and sentences. It is a well-established
belief among scholars that mental images accompanied by captions enhance retention. Therefore,
imagery can be signified as an effective strategy to facilitate triggering the recollection of
information in pedagogical contexts.
2.1 The Mental Lexicon
The mental representation and the process of idioms has always been an issue worth considering.
Sprenger et al. (2006) conducted a number of experiments to investigate the way idioms are stored
and produced in the mental lexicon. Mental lexicon is where one contents the mental storage of
words along with their meanings and associations. It is also the place where the knowledge of fixed
expressions is stored. It is however, devoid of knowledge of form for every single word, knowledge
of verb inflections, knowledge of tense and plural forms. The standard or canonical forms
designated as lexemes are the only abstract entities stored in the mental lexicon. The canonical
form is referred to as lemma. For example, the canonical form 'come' is a lemma for other forms
like 'to come', 'is coming' and 'came'. All the information about meaning, form and syntactic
properties of words are stored in the mental lexicon (Jackendoff, 1995 as cited in Brouwer, 2011).
To learn new words, one must recognize the linguistic and conceptual units and make a link
between the two (Waxman & Lidz, 2006). Therefore, it is the meaning relationship of a lexeme
that is stored in the mental lexicon. Levelt (1994) presents a model consisting of conceptual, lemma
and the sound level. The conceptual level encompasses similar concepts related to one another in
a network. The lemma level refers to the syntactic properties of words which are stored in a
network frame. This level encompasses word categories like verbs and nouns. The sound level
points to the relation between all the constituent sounds of a word. Her hypothesis was that the
idioms are retrieved from the mental lexicon by comprising the figurative meaning of a set of
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words. Cutting and Block (1997) observe that the meaning that is represented in the mental lexicon
is first composed of individual words. Her experiment was based on the idea that separate
processing of individual words contributes to the process of whole phrase production.
The fact that the meaning of an idiomatic expression cannot be worked out through direct
stipulation of its component parts bears witness to its unit status. However, the role of the literal
meaning of the idiom cannot be ignored in the actual process of its meaning. On the other hand,
idioms are compositional strings with the potentiality to be analyzed and unfolded with a view to
their literal meanings. For instance, the meaning of the expression 'spinning one's wheels' can be
retrieved from the image of the wheels stuck in the mud and the engine troubled to move the car.
The meaning of highly transparent idioms like 'shake a leg' is not hard to come by; however, to
retrieve the meaning of an expression like 'a red herring' one needs to trace back the meaning of
the expression to the original context which it first came from (Langlotz, 2006).
The way new idioms are presented influences their storage in the long run. Richards and
Schmidt (2002) believe that in pedagogical contexts, retention relies up on the meaningfulness of
the material (the cognitive domain) and the interest of the learners (the affective domain). The
'working memory' is responsible for the temporary storage of the material just learned. This
memory is composed of two distinguishable storage systems; the articulatory loop and the
visuospatial sketchpad. While the first is in charge of the storage of verbal input (verbal
explanation of words and phrases), the second is responsible for the storage of visual information
(pictures).
The storage of visual information is made easy with imagery as a valuable asset (Lakoff, 1987).
Imagery is generally associated with mental pictures with its basic function being the generation
of a vibrant representation of a scene in order to appeal to the learners' senses
(http://literarydevices.net/imagery/).
Therefore, teaching idiomatic expressions along with their pictures and etymologies to be stored
in the learners' memory is considered useful.
2.2 Previous Studies on Attitudes
Gardner (1985) regards attitudes as an evaluative reaction to a referent or object based on
individuals' opinions and beliefs. It is a psychological construct which supports and explains the
rather consistent patterns in one's behavior (Baker, 1992).
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Attitudes are defined as the internalized predispositions developed by learners' experiences with
positive or negative orientations subject to change over time (Baker, 1988). Teachers, learners and
researchers believe that success in a second language is not only related to language aptitude but
also to a high motivation and a positive attitude toward the second language (De Bot et al, 2005).
Learners' attitudes are assumed to be influential factors on the success or failure of the students in
a particular course (Tezbacaran, 1998). Language attitude has a crucial role in language learning
and teaching to the point that Prodromou (1992) directly relates learners' positive attitudes to
successful learning.
Language attitude in particular, accounts for linguistic behaviors and persistent feelings people
have for their native language or second/foreign languages (Crystal, 1991). It is actually what
makes people to assume a language as sweet, prestigious, easy or as harsh, difficult and local.
The bulk of research on language attitudes has investigated various dimensions with a narrow
focus on constructs and changes of attitudes over time. Language attitude as a widely studied
phenomenon in sociolinguistics gains prominence as it contributes to the preservation, restoration,
decay or death of a language (Baker, 1992). In pedagogical contexts, attitudes have been mainly
enquired into from two main dimensions; integrative and instrumental. Brown (2000) defines
integrative attitudes as the desire to know and become part of the target culture. Instrumental
attitude on the other hand, refers to the desire to use language as a means for better achievements.
In one study, the integrative motive among Filipino college students toward English was
scrutinized. The results rendered proof for the existence of positive attitudes and integrative
motivation among students as they identified themselves with the target culture (BorromeoSamonte, 1981). Similar results were reported among Brazilian adolescents who showed
dispositions toward English language regarding status and solidarity as they considered English as
the prestigious language.
In 2000, the students' attitudes toward Hebrew language was checked out with a focus on the
instrumental motive. The results revealed the existence of religious and national motives as
indicators of instrumental orientation (Al-Haq, 2000). Wide discrepancies were found in HongKong regarding the integrative/instrumental motive for English, Putonghua and Cantonese. While
most students ranked Cantonese as the first, English as the second and Putangua as the third
language from an integrative perspective, the same students believed in English as the language of
power, education, job opportunities and upwards mobility (Lai, 2009).
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173
Chalak and Kassaian (2010) investigated attitudes and motivation of Iranian EFL learners at
IAUKB with a narrow focus on the motivational orientation of non-native students toward learning
English as a forging language, English speaking people and the English culture. The findings
revealed that EFL learners at IAUKB were both extrinsically and intrinsically motivated. Their
findings also rejected the idea that Iranian EFL/ESL learners are just instrumentally motivated.
Students' learning achievements is often dependent up on the environmental components which
finally influences their success or failure in the process of language learning (Stern, 1983). It is
also claimed that positive attitudes are closely related to the ease of learning another language with
an enhanced proficiency level (Chamber, 1999).
Apparently, attitude has become the focus of both first and second language researchers since
it constitutes an integral component of learning and second language pedagogy. Research on the
students' attitudes gains prominence in that it can influence one's inner moods and decisions in
choosing, studying and speaking in a second or foreign language (Weinburgh, 1998).
2.3 Learning Styles
The preferred ways of learning applied by the learners to learn and remember new information is
referred to as 'learning styles'. Brown (2000) defines learning styles as the manner in which
individuals process information in the learning situation. There are no good or bad learning styles.
It is simply the method which learners learn best with. Felder (1996) was among the first
researchers who differentiated the ways in which learners suck up new information. As he puts it
while some learners learn best through acting and performing, some others prefer reflecting and
reasoning, and still some others take advantage of seeing or visualizing. While students may take
advantage of all their senses to learn the new material, they have personal preferences in the ways
they learn best. It is assumed that if the learning environment is adjusted to the learning preferences
of the learners, academic achievement will be increased (Babadogan, 2000). Moreover, it is
believed that identifying learners' styles can assist teachers to prepare the most appropriate medium
of instruction for their learners (Sunbul, 2004).
2.4 Significance of the Study
As Gardner (1985) asserts, the goal of any second language program is not just confined to
linguistic ones. The linguistic goal is responsible for extending and developing the individuals'
competence to do the four major language skills. The non-linguistic goal on the other hand mainly
focuses on such aspects of language as the desire and interest in learning and communicating in
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other languages, the apt to study in another language and the integration into second language
community just to mention a few.
Identifying the ways in which students think and learn is critical for the application of the right
educational system to ease the learning process. Accordingly, students' attitudes and preferred
styles of learning stand to attention (Guven & Kurum, 2006). The concept of attitude has long been
one of the most examined research topics conducted in the area of idiom acquisition in Iran.
However, no study to date has aimed to uncover Iranian EFL learners' opinions towards idiom
teaching and learning or the strategic use of imagery in idiom classes. This study is aimed to
explore this gap. This study therefore, is spurred by a number of motivations. First, it is an attempt
to find out about the attitudes of Iranian EFL learners toward learning English idioms. It also aims
at finding an answer to whether or not Iranian EFL learners are satisfied by the way idioms are
treated in English classes. If so, secondly, it is the researcher’s desire to determine whether the use
of imagery-supporting elements (pictures and etymologies) is considered useful by the students.
The researchers also intend to determine whether the students' learning styles and their attitudes
toward the application of specific strategies to learn new idioms are correlated.
3. Method
3.1 The Research Questions
1. What are the students' attitudes toward learning idioms and the specific strategies (etymological
notes & pictures) to master these expressions?
2. Is there a statistically significant relationship between the attitudes of the students towards
imagery as a useful strategy and their preferred styles of learning?
3.2 Participants
A total of 64 B.A Iranian students majoring in English at the University of Isfahan took part in the
study. The participants were chosen randomly. They were all male and female students aged 19 to
23. 84.37% of the participants were female and 15.6% were male. Table 3.2 summarizes the
descriptive statistics of the participants.
Table 3.2. Descriptive Statistics of The Participants
N
Age
64
Valid N
64
Min
19
Max
23
Participants
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Female Participants
Male Participants
Figure 3.2.1 Male/ Female Distribution of the Participants
3.3 Instrumentation
3.3.1 The Attitude Questionnaire
The fourteen items in the questionnaire were the modified version of Gardner's (2004) and Liontas'
attitude questionnaire (2002) in order to assess the students' attitudes toward both English idioms
and the specific strategies to learn such expressions. The questiones aimed at investigating the
students' interest in learning English, their estimated difficulty of English idioms, their satisfaction
with their present knowledge of idioms, and their orientations toward specific strategies to master
these expressions. All the items on the questionnaire used a five-point likert scale ranging from
'strongly disagree' (1) to 'strongly agree' (5) as follows:
(1) Strongly disagree
(2) Disagree
(3) Unsure
(4) Agree
(5) Strongly agree
A pilot study was run to ensure the reliability and the validity of the questionnaire. Given the fact
that the target audience was B.A University students of English, volunteers were sought from
among the students with the same major at the same university. Finally, five volunteers were
surveyed to ensure the length, relevance and the language level of the items. After rewording a
few items in terms of language level for the sake of clarity, the questionnaire was administered to
the target participants. The calculated Cronbach Alpha was 0.71. The items were then classified
into six distinct categories. These categories are presented in table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1 Categories of classified questionnaire items
Orientation toward
I'm interested in learning English idioms (1).
English and the
In my opinion, knowledge of idioms is essential in everyday conversation (2).
student's assigned
Idioms should be included in EFL/ESL classes (4).
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importance to learn
English idioms
Difficulty in learning
I often have difficulty in understanding and using English idioms in daily
idioms
work and study (5).
And the student's
I'm satisfied with my knowledge of idioms (3).
satisfaction with
their present
knowledge
The satisfaction of
I'm satisfied with the way idioms are treated in English classes (6).
the learners with the
The traditional way of teaching idioms is acceptable (10).
way idioms are
presented in English
classes
The students'
Students should be provided with specific strategies to learn and remember
assigned importance
new idioms (7).
to the role of
Origin of phrases should be included in the study of idioms (8).
imagery as a strategy
Idioms should be supported by pictures (9).
to learn idioms
The role of imagery
Origin of phrases helps retention of idioms (11).
for the sake of
Pictures contribute to the retention of idioms (12).
retention
Imagery as a fun
Origin of expressions makes idiom classes fun (13).
element in idiom
Pictorial illustration make idiom classes fun (14).
classes
3.3.2 The Learning Style Questionnaire
The participants' preferred styles of learning was checked through a learning style questionnaire
adopted from Boer's study (2009). The respondents were invited to indicate the degree to which
the 20 items of the questionnaire applied to them for the purpose of self assessment. The statements
were to estimate the degree of the visuality of the learners along a continuum. Finally, each student
was given a score on the image continuum. The questionnaire is provided in Appendix B.
3.4 Data Analysis
The gathered data was analyzed by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 21
software. The students' responses to the items of the attitude questionnaire were analyzed in terms
Iranian EFL Journal
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of descriptive and inferential statistics. All the items were applied to fulfill the aims of the study.
Chi-square was run to make sure that the distribution was not based on chance and that the
observed frequencies were statistically significant. To discover the relationship between the
students' attitudes towards imagery as a useful strategy on the one hand and their learning styles
on the other, Pearson Product Moment correlation was employed.
To answer the first research question, the participants' responses to the items in the questionnaire
were analyzed in terms of descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings based on percentage
(%) and mean value are presented in tables 4.25 and 4.26. The analysis was to determine the
participants' attitudes toward idioms and their preferred learning context. The frequency of each
item was based on a likert scale; strongly agree (5), agree (4), unsure (3), disagree (2), strongly
agree (1). Table 4.1 shows the obtained results from the questionnaire.
Table 4.1. The Percentages for the Items in the Questionnaire
Strongly
Disagree
Unsure
Agree
Strongly agree
disagree
Q1
3.3
10
13.3
26.7
46.7
Q2
8.3
6.7
21.7
28.3
35
Q3
3.3
31.7
28.3
28.3
8.3
Q4
5
15
21.7
35
23
Q5
0
18.3
26.7
40
15
Q6
18.3
35
38.3
6.7
1.7
Q7
3.3
6.7
15
25
50
Q8
3.3
21.7
15
38.3
21.7
Q9
6.7
8.3
8.3
35
41.7
Q10
3.3
10
20
23.3
43.3
Q11
5
8.3
40
26.7
20
Q12
1.7
10
26.7
23.3
28.3
Q13
1.7
11.7
20
33.3
33.3
Q14
3
5
13.3
23.3
55
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50
40
30
20
10
0
Strong Agreement
Strong Disagreement
Item 7
Item 8
Item 9
Figure 4.1 Participants Strong Agreement and Disagreement to Items 7, 8 and 9
For the ease of interpretation, the 14 items were categorized into 6 distinct categories:
(1) Orientation toward english and the student's assigned importance toward learning english
idioms, (2) Difficulty in learning idioms and the student's satisfaction with their present
knowledge, (3) The satisfaction of the learners with the way idioms are presented in english
classes, (4) The students' assigned importance to the role of imagery as a strategy to learn idioms,
(5) the Role of imagery for the sake of retention, and (6) Imagery as a fun element in idiom classes.
Table 4.2 contains the categories, number of the items and mean scores of the students’ responses
to the items of the questionnaire.
Table 4.2 Categories of classified questionnaire items
The Attitude Questionnaire
Mean
Orientation toward English and the student's assigned importance to learn
Item (1)
4.03
English idioms
Item (2)
3.75
Item (4)
3.57
Difficulty in learning idioms
Item (5)
3.52
And the student's satisfaction with their present knowledge
Item (3)
3.07
The satisfaction of the learners with the way idioms arepresented in English
Item (6)
2.38
classes
Item (10)
3.93
The students' assigned importance to the role of imagery as a strategy to
Item (7)
4.12
learn idioms
Item (8)
3.53
Item (9)
3.97
Item (11)
3.48
The role of imagery for the sake of retention
Iranian EFL Journal
179
Imagery as a fun element in idiom classes
Item (12)
3.77
Item (13)
3.85
Item (14)
4.22
Some interesting patterns emerged from the careful inspection of the results. Item 1 tried to
examine the participants' interest in learning English idioms. The majority of learners (73.4%) with
the average of 4.03 were widely interested in idioms.
Item 2 sought to explore the students' assigned importance to the role of idioms in everyday
speech. An average of 3.75 viewed idioms an essential part in everyday speech. An average of
3.07 for item 3 indicates that the students are not satisfied with their knowledge of idioms. This
item gained the lowest mean score compared to the other items of the questionnaire. Item number
4, with an average of 3.57, shows the students' interest for the inclusion of idioms in EFL/ESL
classes. Only 5% of the students were strongly against the idea. Item 5 with an average of 3.52
indicates that the students often run into difficulties when using English idioms. A considerable
number of the students (40%) agreed with the statement.
Item 6 tried to explore the students' satisfaction with the way idioms are treated in English
classes. An average of 2.38 mentions the students' dissatisfaction with the current trend (the
traditional way of instruction with standard entries) in English classes. Items 7, 8 and 9 concerned
the students' views about the specific strategies to learn idioms. The relatively high average scores
revealed that the students had a positive view regarding specific learning contexts for acquiring
idioms. Item 10 was to discover the students' attitudes towards the traditional ways of teaching
idioms. The results revealed that while many students considered the traditional ways acceptable,
still a considerable number were having doubts (20%).
Items 11 and 12 focused on the students' assigned importance to the role of specific strategies
for idiomatic retention. The results revealed that while a considerable number were undecided
about the advantages of pictorial illustrations or etymological notes for idiomatic retention, still a
considerable number of students favored the idea. It yielded an average of 3.48 and 3.77 for each
item respectively. The results of the last two items of the questionnaire (items 13 and 14), which
yielded relatively high average scores, indicated that learning idioms with the aforementioned
strategies was considered good fun by the students. A noticeable number of the students (55%)
concurred with the idea of having pictorial illustrations for a highly enjoyable experience.
Iranian EFL Journal
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To investigate the second research question, the following null hypothesis has been formulated:
There is no significant relationship between the attitudes of the students towards imagery as a
useful strategy and their learning styles. In order to test the null hypothesis, Pearson Product
Moment Correlation was run between the students' learning styles and their responses to items
8,9,11 and 12 of the attitude questionnaire. The amount of p-value (p 0.05) as presented in table
4.3 indicates a positive relationship between the two variables under study. Therefore, according
to the statistics the null hypothesis is rejected as a strong relationship was found between the
attitudes of the students towards imagery as a useful strategy and their learning styles.
Table 4.3 Correlation between Students' attitudes and Styles
Q1.Q14
Learning
Styles
Q1.Q14
Pearson Correlation 1
.468*
Sig. (2-tailed)
.018
N
64
64
Pearson Correlation .468
Learning
Styles
Sig. (2-tailed)
.018
N
64
*
1
64
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Language learning can not be set apart from the psychological and social aspects. Therefore, the
students' attitudes to second language learning largely influences their mastery of a language. In
other words, learning is considered an emotional process which is affected by the learners' likes
and dislikes of their surrondings (Choy & Troudi, 2006). As the affective domain, among a number
of other variables, affects the relative success or failure of students in an EFL context, the present
questionnaire was designed with an attempt to explore Iranian language learners' attitudes toward
learning second language idioms.
Overall, the participants' insights revealed that they hold specific beliefs about learning idioms
in English classes. Their viewpoints were likely to be reflected by their learning styles.
Moreover, it looked as if they all hold strong beliefs about the significance of idioms or how best
they can be taught in English classes. It gives the impression that their viewpoints which is partly
Iranian EFL Journal
181
influenced by their learning styles may to some extend determine what approaches to take to make
the learning process more fruitful.
The participants' responses discloses their unanimous desire toward what they consider an
enjoyable pedagogical context. It is to suggest that learning idioms can be an enjoyable experience
with a focus on the accumulation of a set of factors which best satisfies the needs of the learners.
To go in to more detail, we can state that Iranian EFL learners were eager to learn English idioms
and were in favor of the systematic teaching of idioms for the sake of retention. The transcribed
data showed that, overall, Iranian students were neither satisfied with their present knowledge of
idioms, nor with the way that these expressions are treated in English classes. The students also
showed strong tendencies to be equipped with specific strategies to learn and remember new
idioms.
The data can be discussed in various ways by taking the main points of the study into account.
The findings of the present study indicated that the learners were genuinely interested in learning
English idioms and attested to the importance of idioms in everyday communication. However,
they were dissatisfied with their present knowledge of idioms or the way that idioms are dealt with
in English classes and considered the current trend of little or no avail. Moreover, they expressed
their positive attitudes for idioms to be catered for in EFL classes. They also acknowledged to the
difficulties they faced in both comprehension and production of idioms in the daily discourse.
Items 8 and 9 addressed the students' views with respect to the strategies to master idioms. A
huge number of students expounded on the merits of specific strategies to learn and recall new
idioms. As regards the students' perceived utility of specific strategies, both etymological notes
and pictorial illustrations gained support; however, comparing the two strategies, the inclusion of
pictures seemed to be of paramount importance to the students. As Fu (2003) also points out,
visualization is one of the important strategies that second language learners use. He also argued
for the importance of pictures for language learners as a way to reassure their understanding of
what they are learning. The overall percentage of the responses to items 8, 9 and 10 indicated that
mnemonic devices can be considered as acceptable and agreed-up-on approaches to arouse the
learners' interest in the process of learning.
The students' relative awareness of the mentioned strategies concerning the use of specific
strategies for the sake of retention (items 11 & 12), was credited for prudently, as still a
considerable number of the students were unsettled on the issue.
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The last two items (13 & 14) indicated that a vast majority of the students consider learning idioms
accompanied by either pictures or the origin of phrases a fun experience.
The results of the questionnaire were in line with Liontas' findings (2002) which indicated the
positive attitudes of the learners toward learning English idioms. As the researcher states the
findings provided big support to carry out his study. Most of his participants regarded idioms as a
significant part of natural discourse and commented on the role of idiomatic knowledge in speech
fluency. As with respect to the learners' motive to acquire English idioms, except a few numbers
who considered grammar and vocabulary build-up as the bare essentials in a foreign language, the
majority regarded English idioms as an integrated part of the foreign language. However as Rohani
(2012) points out, their study was conducted among European students studying in America which
may allude to the immersion of the students in the target culture rather than their attitudes to
learning idioms.
Based on the results of the second research question, it has been determined that there is a
positive and strong significance between the learning styles of students and their attitudes towards
imagery as a useful strategy. Accordingly, it can be stated that students with visual learning styles
prefer the use of imagery-supporting elements to learn new idioms. Moreover, it can be estimated
that the learning style preferences of Iranian EFL learners can be regarded as an important variable
in their attitudes towards learning the subject. It can be concluded that the visual learning style
preferences of students have a positive influence on their attitudes toward the use of imagerysupporting elements to learn new idioms.
The desire for the inclusion of meaningful contexts in idiom classes is not far from being
satisfied since strategies are teachable (Brown, 2000). This attainable goal burdens the
responsibility of researchers to accommodate the needs of the learners by more investigation on
the most practical ones suitable to cater for the needs of all learners.
The present piece of research has implications for syllabus designers, material developers,
teachers and learners. Teachers should integrate the most successful language learning strategies,
among all the possible ones, according to the interests of the learners. Learners should be given
the opportunity to talk about their prefered language strategies for a more effective language
learning enviornment. Moreover, syllabus designers and marterial developers should focus more
on what has a motivating effect on the learners for the purpose of facilitating the learning process.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Concerning the limitations of the study, the analysis of the attitude questionnaire totally relied up
on the respondents' personal estimates and beliefs. Therefore, caution is needed for making general
assumptions and further research may be essential to be carried out on the correspondence of the
students' estimation and performance in the actual achievement tests.
This study took a qualitative approach to examine students' attitudes in regards to idioms. Thus
cause and effect relations were not taken into account. Further research can investigate the
causality between students' attitudes and their achievements.
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The Oxford English Dictionary (1993). New York: Oxford University Press.
Waxman, S., Lidz, J. (2006). Early word learning. In D. Kuhn & R. Lerner, Handbook of child
psychology (p. 299). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Weinburgh, M. H. (1998). Gender, Ethnicity, And Grade Level As Predictors Of. Middle School Students’
Attitudes Toward Science.
Www.Ed.Psu.Edu/Ci/Journals/1998aets/S5_1_Weinburgh.Rtf (accessed
time: 23.02.2004).
Appendix A
Attitude Questionnaire
This questionnaire is designed to gather information on your attitude toward English idioms and how best
to teach and learn them in the second language context. Read each item and mark one of the answers from
1 to 5 (with 1 being strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 unsure, 4 agree and 5 strongly agree).
1. I'm interested in learning English idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
2. In my opinion, knowledge of idioms is essential in everyday conversation.1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
3. I'm satisfied with my knowledge of idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
4. Idioms should be included in EFL/ESL classes. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
5. I often have difficulty in understanding and using English idioms in daily work and
study.1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
6. I'm satisfied with the way idioms are treated in English classes. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
7. Students should be provided with specific strategies to learn and remember new
idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
8. Origin of phrases should be included in the study of idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
9. Idioms should be supported by pictures. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
10. The traditional way of teaching idioms is acceptable. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
11. Origin of phrases helps retention of idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
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12. Pictures contribute to the retention of idioms. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
13. Origin of expressions makes idiom classes fun. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
14. Pictorial illustration make idiom classes fun. 1.□2.□3.□4.□5.□
Thank you
Appendix B
Learning Style Questionnaire
Read each item and mark one of the answers from 1 to 4 (with 1 for almost never, 2: sometimes, 3: often
and 4: very often). There is no right or wrong answer.
I try to remember new words or expressions …
1. by saying them out loud a couple of times (or by doing so silently, in my head)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
2. by creating a mental picture of what they refer to
1.□2.□3.□4.□
3. by associating them with their translation equivalent
1.□2.□3.□4.□
4. by analyzing the building blocks of longer words, e.g. prefix + root
1.□2.□3.□4.□
5. In the case of action verbs (e.g. squeeze), by “acting out” their meaning
(physically or just in my imagination)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
6. by inserting the word or expression in a story or scenario
1.□2.□3.□4.□
7. by associating them with another word because of a similar sound,
e.g.
when learning 'jeopardy' (= danger), I might think of the sound of leopard
1.□2.□3.□4.□
8. by associating them with another word because of a similar spelling, e.g.
when learning 'jeopardy', I might think of the written word leopard
1.□2.□3.□4.□
9. by associating them with a particular place (e.g. where they first struck you)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
10. by focusing on how a word is written (or by actually writing it down)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
11. by organizing sets of words in diagrams
(e.g. connecting words
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187
belong to the same field) Or scales (e.g. placing lukewarm on a line
between cold and hot)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
12. by “playing with” the sound of the words, e.g. creating rhymes
1.□2.□3.□4.□
13. by recalling a song, a spoken slogan, or so, in which they are used
1.□2.□3.□4.□
14. by using them in a sentence (that I encountered them in or one I invent myself)
1.□2.□3.□4.□
A few more general questions:
15. in the case of figurative expressions, by imagining their literal meaning,
e.g. when learning Close ranks, I might picture soldiers shoulder to shoulder on a battlefield; when
learning
'Rat Race', I will picture real rats; etc.
1.□2.□3.□4.□
16. I’m good at remembering how people speak (e.g. I can imitate them).
1.□2.□3.□4.□
17. I’m good at remembering what someone said, i.e. her/his precise words.
1.□2.□3.□4.□
18. I’m good at interpreting diagrams in a manual; I don’t need to read the text.
1.□2.□3.□4.□
19. I think aloud or “say” things internally.
1.□2.□3.□4.□
20. When I draft an outline of an essay or a presentation, I use arrows and other symbols to
signal the connections.
1.□2.□3.□4.□
THANK YOU
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
Enhancing Listening Comprehension: The role of Metacognitive
strategy Instruction
Authors
Jafar Izadpanah (M.A)
Islamic Azad University, Dehdash Branch, Iran
Abuzar Momen (M.A)
Islamic Azad University, Dehdash Branch, Iran
Mohsen Chenari (Ph.D)
Shahid Baheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Jafar Izadpanah, M. A from Science and Research Branch-Ahvaz in 2008 and a faculty member
also lecturer in Islamic Azad University (IAU) Dahdasht branch, Dahdasht, Iran. He is especially
interested in areas of EFL/ESL material design and evaluation, teaching of four skills, and
classroom interaction.
Abuzar Momen, M.A in TEFL from Yasuj University, Iran. His areas of interests and research
include second language acquisition, language learning strategies, ESP, and contrative rhetoric.
Mohsen Chenari, Ph.D candidate of higher education curriculum at Shahid Baheshti University,
Tehran, Iran. His research interests are ESP, discourse analysis, and vocabulary teaching to EFL
students.
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of explicit instruction of meta-cognitive learning
strategies on the listening comprehension achievement of EFL learners. After
administering a TOEFL test from Barron's TOEFL (1994), 60 homogeneous intermediate
male and female students were selected and randomly assigned to two groups: an
experimental and a control. The experimental group received explicit instruction in line
with meta-cognitive strategies, whereas the control group was instructed via the
Conventional Instruction (CI) method which followed an individualistic instructional
approach based on the exercises in their regular text book. A post test was administered
and its results were analyzed through one-way ANOVA and t-test. The results revealed
that the explicit instruction of meta-cognitive learning strategies proved ineffective. A
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possible explanation is that language learners at the intermediate level draw on these
strategies unconsciously. Findings suggest that meta-cognitive learning strategies could be
introduced at suitable levels that conform to the listeners' actual potential in cognition to
help them comprehend the listening materials better.
Keywords: Metacognitive, Strategy Instruction, Conventional Instruction, Listening
Comprehension
1. Introduction
Language learning strategies are referred to as the choices which language learners make while
they are involved in learning or utilizing a second language (Cook, 2001). Brown (1994) states
that as the knowledge of second language acquisition increased noticeably during the 1970s,
teachers and researchers realized that no single research finding and no single method of language
teaching would commence an era of utopia of absolute, predictable success in teaching a second
language. The methods or techniques of teaching notwithstanding certain learners seemed to be
successful. The importance of individual variation in language learning was spotlighted, and
certain learners appeared to be endowed with abilities to develop in a successful way, others not
possessing those abilities.
Grounded upon the above-mentioned proposition, traditional methodologies were considered
dreary and poor in value for the language learners because they did not take into account individual
learning differences. The 1970s henceforth witnessed the drastic changes in language pedagogy
throughout the world. This period could be deemed a great triumph for language teaching and
learning since some preeminent amendments in the era of language pedagogy occurred. One of the
changes was the application of language learning strategies.
The notion of good language learners provoked language authorities to launch extensive
investigations into learning strategies (Brown, 1994). Language learning strategies have been
spotlighted so that they may spur learners on to their effective learning. Cook (2001) states that
those who are considered good language learners might deal with L2 learning in different ways
from language learners who are less good or they might deal with language learning in the same
way but more efficiently.
As a result of these onward, thoughtful movements, language pedagogy underwent some
fundamental shifts in its methodologies and approaches to teaching languages. Language learners
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were encouraged to draw on the learning strategies to enhance their language learning skills, the
listening comprehension skill being one of them. Recognizing good language learners' ability in
language learning sparked a number of studies carried out by researchers on language learning
processes. Along the same line, this study is motivated to find out the effect of explicit instruction
of meta-cognitive learning strategies on promoting intermediate language learners' listening
comprehension skill.
2. Research Questions and Hypotheses
In order to draw up the boundaries of research, this study intended to pursue the following
questions:
1. Does explicit instruction of meta-cognitive language learning strategies enhance intermediate
language learners' listening comprehension skill?
2. To what extent are meta-cognitive language learning strategies salient in the listening
comprehension skill at the intermediate level?
Following the above questions are the hypotheses upon which the present research has been
conducted:
Hypothesis 0: Explicit instruction of meta-cognitive language learning strategies does not
influence intermediate language learners' listening comprehension skills.
Hypothesis 1: Explicit instruction of meta-cognitive language learning strategies promotes
intermediate language learners' listening comprehension skills.
Hypothesis 2: Explicit instruction of meta-cognitive language learning strategies hinders
intermediate language learners' listening comprehension skills.
Since the 1970s, a host of researchers have fussed over learners and changed their stance on
teaching methods. In this regard, quite a number of studies were conducted to elucidate the
relationship between learning strategy use and successful learning.
Brown states that strategy use helps language learners achieve language competence and he
emphasizes the effectiveness of a variety of learning strategies (Brown, 1994). O'Malley, Chamot,
and Kupper (1989) maintain that the application of monitoring, elaboration, and inferencing
strategies has made second language learners develop effective listening skills.
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Liu (2004) argues that the cognitive view of learning which regards language learning as a
dynamic, creative process and the learner as an active strategy user and knowledge constructor has
influenced the researchers. He launched an investigation into EFL learning strategy use among a
group of 428 technological institute English majors in China. In his investigation, Liu made use of
Oxford's SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, 1990, version 7.0). Throughout the
research, the frequent use of EFL learning strategies and its two influencing factors were
spotlighted. The two factors were gender and language proficiency. The descriptive statistics
revealed the fact that the Chinese technological institute students majoring in English made
medium use of strategies. Statistically speaking, the overall strategy use mean was 3.25 and the
standard deviation was 0.53. The students most frequently employed meta-cognitive strategies and
the mean for the use of meta-cognitive strategies was 3.74 and the standard deviation was 0.64.
The students made least frequent use of memory strategies of which the mean was 2.91 and the
standard deviation was 0.61. The independent sample t-test manifested that those learners who had
higher EFL proficiency utilized the overall strategies and the six categories of strategies more
frequently than learners who had lower EFL proficiency. In this investigation, females did better
than males in using overall strategy use, memory strategies, and affective strategies.
In her study, Liu (2004) did not show for which skill English majors have used most metacognitive strategies, and whether the meta-cognitive strategies proved helpful for promoting the
listening comprehension skill. She did not mention whether females' success was in making use of
meta-cognitive strategies in listening comprehension or some other areas and skills.
The research carried out by Bialystok on 10th and 12th grade students who were learning French
in Toronto revealed that monitoring strategies and strategies for functional practice impacted on
learning outcome positively. She achieved such results through administering achievement tests
in writing, listening, reading, and grammar (Bialystok, 1981).
In Bialystok's (1981) research, the extent to which meta-cognitive strategies had been made
use of in the listening comprehension skill was not shown.
O'Malley (1987) investigated the effect of different types of strategy training (cognitive,
meta-cognitive, and socio-affective) on different language skills and found that the strategy
training did not impact on the listening comprehension skill, but on the speaking skill.
According to Anderson (2002), meta-cognitive strategies are conceived of as the strategies
which differentiate between effective and ineffective learners. In his classification, successful
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learners are those who have an awareness of effective learning. Anderson (2002) argues that metacognitive strategies create critical but healthy reflection and evaluation of individuals' thinking and
they lead to some changes in how to learn better.
Anderson's (2002) claim respecting meta-cognitive strategies, however, did not manifest the
language skills in which learners could improve their learning.
Rahmatollahpour's (2006) investigated the effect of memory, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, affective, and social learning strategies on language proficiency among ninety
elementary, intermediate, and advanced university students majoring in TEFL at Masjed Soleiman
Azad University. Findings of his survey revealed that students at intermediate level made use of
meta-cognitive learning strategies the most while the elementary students made the least use of
these strategies.
All the afore-mentioned studies were carried out to demonstrate the relationship between
learning strategy use and success in learning process. The researchers have made attempts to
scrutinize whether learning strategies particularly meta-cognitive strategies accelerate the process
of language learning. However, these studies did not depict specifically to what extent the use of
meta-cognitive strategies impacted upon and improved the listening comprehension skill.
Additionally, they did not focus thoroughly on the explicit instruction of meta-cognitive learning
strategies in promoting the listening comprehension skill. With the gap existing in the literature,
the present study is aimed at discovering the effect of explicit instruction of meta-cognitive
strategies on promoting the listening comprehension skill at the intermediate level.
4. Method
This part describes the methodology that was employed to carry out the research and it embraces
the information regarding the participants, instruments, and procedure.
4.1.Participants
A sample of 60 male and female junior students majoring in TEFL at Shiraz Azad University was
chosen based on a systematic random sampling from 90 students. They were divided into two
groups – each 30 students – an experimental group, and a control group.
4.2. Instruments
As to collect the required data, two TOEFL tests were used: one taken from Barron's TOEFL
(1994) which was administered to the participants to measure their proficiency level in English;
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and a listening comprehension proficiency test containing 25 multiple-choice items extracted from
How to prepare for TOEFL test (Sharpe, 2001) used for the pre-test and posttest. The reliability of
the test was .732 based on KR-21 method.
4.3. Procedure
The explicit instruction on the use of meta-cognitive learning strategies for the experimental group
took place in five stages based on CALLA model (Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach) by Chamot and O'Malley (1994) as follows:
Preparation: at this stage, the teacher expatiated on the language learning strategies,
particularly meta-cognitive learning strategies which were paramount in conducting this study.
The subjects were debriefed on meta-cognitive strategies in language learning and especially the
listening comprehension skill and their values were discussed. The subjects in the experimental
group were also told that the use of meta-cognitive learning strategies could expedite their listening
comprehension ability.
Presentation: the subjects were provided with meta-cognitive learning strategies after they
were thoroughly acquainted with their nature. They were instructed on how they could make
optimal use of these strategies. For instance, they learned to have a discussion regarding the
listening materials that they were going to listen to. Or the subjects, as instructed, attempted to
attend to a listening task and disregard the irrelevant parts, e.g. the parts which did not contribute
to their comprehension. For example, there were some questions raised about the listening task in
their textbooks and they had to focus on them before working on the listening comprehension
activity. Thus, their attention was directed toward the parts which included the answers to the
questions. Throughout this study, the subjects in the experimental group were instructed to
supervise and monitor their listening comprehension processes. The supervisory and monitoring
procedures were accomplished by the self-monitoring strategy which is one of the meta-cognitive
learning strategies the subjects in the experimental group were instructed in.
Practice: at this stage, the subjects were exposed to some listening tasks and activities and they
were asked to perform them by incorporating the meta-cognitive learning strategies. They
practiced the listening comprehension tasks and activities with the help of the meta-cognitive
learning strategies presented and the teacher was present to give whatever help they needed. The
subjects were also instructed to use the appropriate meta-cognitive learning strategies suited to the
listening task and activity in focus. For instance, they made use of the selective attention metaIranian EFL Journal
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cognitive strategy to attend to specific information that had been specified prior to the listening
task.
Evaluation: At this stage, the subjects learned to evaluate their progress in their listening
comprehension skill. As trained, they asked themselves questions on whether they had
comprehended the listening input. They were debriefed on the completed listening comprehension
tasks and activities and the meta-cognitive learning strategies they had used.
Expansion: finally, the subjects were encouraged to apply the meta-cognitive learning
strategies for appropriate listening comprehension tasks and activities. They were instructed that
they could make use of some other meta-cognitive learning strategies which were suitable to their
listening comprehension skill.
Since the participants in the experimental group were determined to enhance their listening
comprehension ability, one could fathom out that they had been employing the meta-cognitive
learning strategies in their listening tasks and activities.
The listeners in the control group, however, did not receive any training in meta-cognitive
learning strategies. Therefore, they followed the listening comprehension instruction before which
they had not received any strategy training, and no preparation as a pre-listening task was provided
for the control group listeners.
Instruction lasted a whole academic semester. Throughout this period, the participants in the
experimental group endeavored to practice and apply the meta-cognitive learning strategies to
promote their listening comprehension skill. Another point to state is that the participants in the
experimental group were constantly reminded of the meta-cognitive learning strategies during the
whole semester when they were engaged in listening comprehension practice.
Table 1. Group means and standard deviation for homogeneity test.
Groups
N
Maxi Mini Mean Std.
Deviation
Experimental Group
30
18
6
10.92
10.98
Control Group
30
17
6
10.83
9.13
5. Results
5.1. The analysis of the participants' post test scores in the two groups
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The same descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to the data obtained after the posttest
was administered. The mean score of the experimental group was slightly greater than that of the
control group. However, in order to compare the two mean scores, the statistical t-test was
calculated. Table 2 displays the descriptive and inferential statistics applied to the data.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics pertaining to the posttest
Group
N
Mean
Std.
T-Test
Deviation
CG
30
52.9333
11.5398
EG
30
53.0667
11.7882
.047
Armed with this information (t-test = .047), the researchers moved to the table of critical value.
The critical value was 1.671 which meant that the difference was not significant. Therefore, the
null hypothesis was sustained which alleged that explicit instruction on the use of meta-cognitive
learning strategies did not influence the listening comprehension skill when language learners
wanted to regulate and self-direct their learning process. Results of the present study failed to
accept one of the directional hypotheses.
In other words, the t-value revealed that the two groups performed almost equally on the
posttest which was indicative of the fact that meta-cognitive strategy instruction did not afford the
participants in the experimental group any privilege and as such had no effect on promoting the
listening comprehension skill.
The results of the present study are in conformity with those of O'Malley (1987), Bialystok
(1990), and Rahmatollahpour (2006) concluding that intermediate language learners are aware of
meta-cognitive learning strategies and no instruction of these strategies is required. However,
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) showed that meta-cognitive learning strategy training was effective
for some listening tasks.
Results indicated that the explicit instruction on the use of meta-cognitive learning strategies
did not result in promoting the listening comprehension skill of the participants in the experimental
group.
The reason behind this might be that conscious instruction and use of meta-cognitive learning
strategies distracted the participants in the experimental group from the listening contents. The
results of this study challenge the ideas in Consciousness Raising Theory presented by Rutherford
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196
and Sharwood-Smith (1985). Through consciousness-raising, language learners are encouraged to
attend to language forms, thus helping them acquire language in an indirect way.
On the other hand, the outcomes of this study might be more in line with Vygotsky's (1978)
Zone of Proximal Development which claims that learners must reach a certain cognitive maturity
before which instruction is not effective. Ellis (2004) states that "Vygotsky' ZPD explains the
difference between an individual's actual and potential levels of development" (p. 179).
6. Discussion
This section discusses the results of the research by direct reference to the questions raised in the
study. Question One: does explicit instruction of meta-cognitive language learning strategies
enhance intermediate language learners' listening comprehension skill?
The present study shows that intermediate language learners are aware of meta-cognitive learning
strategies and utilize them unconsciously. This is because instruction could not bring a change in
the experimental group. This is in line with the suggestion by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) that
intermediate language learners in general employ more meta-cognitive learning strategies.
Therefore, instructing intermediate language learners in these types of strategies to promote their
listening comprehension ability would not be effective.
As regards the participants in the control group, they might well utilize meta-cognitive
learning strategies in their listening comprehension process unconsciously since, pedagogically
speaking, learning strategy use is customary among intermediate language learners. Thus, the
reason why both groups did almost the same on their posttest is that the two groups had made use
of meta-cognitive learning strategies and it could also be true that the participants in the control
group might have used other language learning strategies.
Question Two: to what extent are meta-cognitive language learning strategies salient in the
listening comprehension skill at the intermediate level?
Preceding studies have suggested that it is the use of meta-cognitive learning strategies which
differentiate between effective and ineffective learners (e.g. Anderson, 2002). Taking into account
the results of the studies carried out in this regard, one could decide that meta-cognitive learning
strategies are paramount in language learning in general and in improving the listening skill in
particular. O'Malley et al (1990) manifested that meta-cognitive learning strategies improved most
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EFL students' speaking ability. They contended that these strategies had positive effect on some
listening tasks.
However, the results of the present study revealed that explicit instruction has not been
effective to intermediate language learners. That is to say, intermediate language learners use these
strategies unconsciously in their listening comprehension skill.
Following the above questions are two claims which were touched upon earlier:
Claim One: intermediate language learners, especially listeners, had better not be instructed by
teachers on the use of meta-cognitive learning strategies.
To underpin this contention, Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal Development theory would
prove fruitful to be referred to. The theory alleges that when language learners have reached their
actual potential in cognition, they are ready to receive instruction. The present study showed that
intermediate language learners had already passed this stage. Therefore, instruction on the use of
meta-cognitive learning strategies became ineffective.
Grounded upon this theory, one can hold that intermediate language learners in this study had
reached their cognitive maturity. They were able to draw on meta-cognitive learning strategies on
their own and no explicit instruction on the part of the teacher was required. This study revealed
that intermediate language learners employed meta-cognitive learning strategies during their
efforts to solve their listening problems. Accordingly, their cognitive development was at a level
that made them able to use these strategies.
Therefore, teaching intermediate language learners on how to apply meta-cognitive learning
strategies while they are aware of them to improve their listening comprehension skill could not
contribute to the enhancement of their learning.
Claim Two: consciousness-raising in employing meta-cognitive learning strategies for
intermediate language learners could not foster their listening comprehension skill.
Language learners move along certain predetermined stages which cannot be manipulated as
a result of instruction. That is, intervention does not foster acquisition of second language in
general. As revealed in the present study, intermediate language learners were taught to make
conscious use of meta-cognitive learning strategies but no striking progress was witnessed.
Pedagogical intervention to instruct intermediate language learners in using meta-cognitive
learning strategies did not prove productive in results.
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Thus, making listeners with intermediate language ability level develop an awareness of metacognitive learning strategies through explicit instruction does not impact on promoting their
listening comprehension ability. Whether instructed or not, intermediate language learners apply
these strategies in an unconscious fashion. This claim is not in agreement with the theory of
consciousness-raising proposed by Rutherford et al. (1985) stating that language learners can be
encouraged by techniques to take heed of language forms. This proposition argues that awareness
of language forms will contribute in an indirect way to language acquisition.
7. Conclusion
This study began with the assumption that teaching meta-cognitive learning strategies could
enhance the intermediate language learners' listening comprehension ability. The instruction lasted
for a whole academic semester. During this time, the researchers employed meta-cognitive
learning strategies and taught the subjects in the experimental group how to use them in their
listening comprehension. The participants in the control group, on the other hand, did not receive
any instruction on the use of these strategies during their listening comprehension practice.
After the posttest, the results indicated that the instruction of meta-cognitive learning
strategies did not affect the intermediate language learners' listening comprehension skill. That is,
the listening comprehension ability of the experimental group who had made use of meta-cognitive
learning strategies did not surpass that of the control group.
Results of this study conform to a number of studies. O'Malley (1987) studied the effect of
different types of strategy training (cognitive, meta-cognitive, and socio-affective) in different
language skills. O'Malley's study revealed that strategy training impacted on the speaking skill
significantly, but it had no significant impact on the listening skill. Bialystok (1990) argues in
favor of training which helps the students be generally aware of learning strategies rather than
teaching the specific learning strategies. O'Malley et al. (1990) maintain that the use of learning
strategies varies according to the level of students. Intermediate language learners draw on slightly
fewer learning strategies in total but they employ proportionately more meta-cognitive learning
strategies. Finally, Rahmatollahpour (2006) showed that intermediate language learners are aware
of meta-cognitive learning strategies.
The studies mentioned above reveal the fact that instruction of meta-cognitive learning
strategies for intermediate language learners is pedagogically ineffective and does not precipitate
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strategy use. If strategy training to promote the listening comprehension skill is felt advantageous,
it should be limited to notifying intermediate language learners of meta-cognitive learning
strategies which they are applying to make them develop an awareness of these strategies.
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Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge: MA: MIT Press.
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Title
Investigating a Relationship between Computer Literacy and Language
Proficiency: A Survey of EFL Students in Sanandaj
Authors
Reza Khani (Ph.D)
Ilam University, Ilam, Iran
Mohsen Kamangar (M.A student)
Ilam University, Ilam, Iran
Biodata
Reza Khani, associate professor of applied linguistics at Ilam University, Iran. His research
interest include computer assisted language learning (CALL).
Mohsen Kamangar, M.A student at Ilam University, Iran. His research interests include CALL
and Discourse analysis.
Abstract
This article presented the results of a study which examined the level of computer literacy
of language students and also the relationship between their language proficiency and
computer literacy. A total of 53 EFL students were chosen from different language
institutes of Sanandaj, Iran. They were given two questionnaires. The first questionnaire
was second version of Oxford Placement Test and the second questionnaire was an adapted
version of Computer Literacy Questionnaire. It took one session to complete the
questionnaires. T-test was run to determine the relationship between the two variables. It
was revealed that there is a direct relationship between language proficiency and computer
literacy of students. Those who were more proficient in English had been able to use
computer more easily. This study has limitations in the size of participants and the
condition of data collection. It is obvious that the findings of the study cannot be
generalized to all Iranian EFL students.
Keywords: computer literacy, language proficiency, EFL student, gender
1. Introduction
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With the technological advances in our century, the dependence of different professions on
computer is increasing. Language education is not an exception, so that the importance of teachers’
computer knowledge and competency in online environments has been discussed in many studies
(e.g., Atkins & Vasu, 2000; Cunningham, 2000; Johnson, 2002; Lam, 2000; Oh & French, 2007;
Park & Son, 2009; Rakes & Casey, 2000; Shin & Son, 2007; Konan, 2010; Son, Robb, &
Charismiadji, 2011).
The increasing use of electronic texts has expanded the definition of the word ‘literacy’ and has
invented some “new literacies such as ‘computer literacy’, ‘electronic literacy’ and ‘information
literacy” (Son, Robb, & Charismiadji, 2011, p. 27). As Reinking mentions, educators and
educational policy makers must now expand their definition of literacy to include the reading and
writing not only of printed texts but of electronic texts (Reinking, 1994). Based on the "US
Congress of Technology Assessment’s book (1984)" computer literacy is defined as the knowledge
and ability to utilize computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering
levels from elementary use to programming and advanced problem solving. It can also refer to the
comfort level someone has with using computer programs and other applications that are
associated with computers. As noted by Reid (1997) computer literacy is essential in higher
education. In this regard it is a crucial knowledge to be gained by students.
Since computer provides an environment to create, transfer and share any kind of information
it can be used to foster language learning. According to Konan (2010) in this virtual environment,
getting the necessary information fully and on time and making use of the obtained information in
personal and professional development are directly related to the competency to use the computer
effectively.
In the field of TEFL, “computer literacy involves the development of knowledge and skills for
using general computer applications, language-specific software programs and Internet tools
confidently and competently. It comprises a number of aspects, including technological awareness,
technical vocabulary, components of a computer, concepts of data and programs, ways of
computing, working on files, documents and pictures, working with multimedia, evaluating
resources and communicating with others” Son et al., (2011).
As mentioned in this review, most of the studies have been conducted to determine the
computer literacy of the teachers and their ability and tendency to use computer in their classrooms,
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however the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the language level of EFL
students and their computer proficiency level.
The purpose of this study is to find if there is any significant relationship between the computer
literacy and language level of EFL students chosen from different institutes of Sanandaj, Iran.
Accordingly the results of this study will answer the following questions:
1. Is there any significant relationship between computer literacy and language proficiency
of EFL students of Sanandaj?
2. Is there any significant relationship between gender and computer knowledge?
2. Method
Participants of the study were a total of 53 EFL students (N(male)= 31, N(female)=22) chosen
from different institutes of Sanandaj, Iran. As it is shown in table 1 the average age of participants
was 17.64 years. They had all the experience of studying English from 1 to 8 years. Almost
everybody had access to computer and internet.
Table 1: Participant profile (N=53)
Male
31 (58.5 %)
Gender
Female
22 (41.5 %)
Average age
17.64 years
Access to compute
Access to internet
Yes
100 %
No
0%
Yes
100 %
No
0%
The participants were asked to complete two questionnaires. The first questionnaire was second
version of Oxford Placement Test. It consists of 60 questions to determine the current level of
students English language ability. The second questionnaire was an adapted version of Computer
Literacy Questionnaire. The questionnaire was originally used by Son et al. (2011). It was
consisting of three sections: Section I (background); Section II (computer-related questions – Do
you & Can you?); Section III (computer knowledge test – 20 questions). The reliability of the
questionnaire is shown in table 2.
Table 2: Reliability Statistics
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Correlation Between Forms
.833
Spearman-Brown
Equal Length
.909
Coefficient
Unequal Length
.909
Guttman Split-Half Coefficient
.421
Obtained from the application of the developed inventory, the data was recorded on computer and
were analyzed through SPSS 22 statistical package program.
3. Results
SPSS 22 was run to analyze the gathered data. The findings are as follows:
Most students rated their computer literacy as good (41.5 %). The remaining rated their literacy as
poor (15.1 %), adequate (34 %), and excellent (9.4 %). Table 3.
Table 3: Self-rating computer literacy
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Poor
8
15.1
15.1
15.1
Adequate
18
34.0
34.0
49.1
Good
22
41.5
41.5
90.6
Excellent
5
9.4
9.4
100.0
Total
53
100.0
100.0
In order to demonstrate if there is a significant difference between the computer knowledge of
males and females, a t-test was conducted. The results, as shown in table 4, show that there is a
significant difference between the male and female participants’ computer knowledge in favor of
male participants.
Table 4: T-Test
Group Statistics
Computer Knowledge
Gender
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Male
31
17.0645
2.22014
.39875
Female
22
12.4091
4.50036
.95948
Independent Samples Test
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Levene's Test for
Equality
of
Variances
Sig. (2- Mean
Computer Equal variances
Knowledge assumed
F
Sig.
t
5.055
.029
4.981 51
Equal variances
not assumed
df
Std.
Error
tailed)
Difference Difference
.000
4.65543
.93457
4.481 28.290 .000
4.65543
1.03904
Pearson correlation coefficient was used to calculate the relationship between the computer
knowledge and language proficiency of participants. As can be seen in table 5 the Correlation was
significant at the 0.01 level (.633). This result shows that there is a significant relationship between
participants’ language proficiency and their ability to use computer. In other words those with
higher language level are more knowledgeable in computer.
Table 5: Correlations
Computer
Computer Knowledge
Pearson Correlation
Knowledge
Language Level
1
.633
Sig. (1-tailed)
Language Level
.000
N
53
53
Pearson Correlation
.633
1
Sig. (1-tailed)
.000
N
53
53
. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
According to the participants’ responses, among the 53 students, 51 students (96.2%) have a
computer connected to the Internet at home; 50 students (94.3%) have their email account; 20
students (37.7%) have a personal homepage on the Web; 23 students (43.4%) think that they
understand the basic functions of computer hardware components; 12 students (22.6%) use
keyboard shortcuts; 18 students (34.0%) use a computer connected to the Internet at school; 16
students (30.2%) use the computer for teaching purposes; 39 students (73.6%) find it easy to learn
something by reading it from the computer screen; 26 students (49.1%) use CDROMs to
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supplement their learning/teaching; and 50 students (94.3%) use Websites to supplement their
learning/teaching (see Table 6).
Table 6: Computer-Related ‘Do You’ Questions (N=53)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Yes
Do you have a computer connected to the Internet at home?
51 (96.2%)
Do you have an e-mail account?
50 (94.3%)
Do you have a personal homepage on the Web?
20 (37.7%)
Do you understand the basic functions of computer hardware components?
23 (43.4%)
Do you use keyboard shortcuts?
12 (22.6%)
Do you use a computer connected to the Internet at school?
18 (34.0%)
Do you use a computer for learning purposes?
16 (30.2%)
Do you find it easy to learn something by reading it from a computer screen? 39 (73.6%)
Do you use CD-ROMs to supplement your learning?
26 (49.1%)
Do you use Web sites to supplement your learning?
50 (94.3%)
No
2 (3.8%)
3 (5.7%)
33 (62.3%)
30 (56.6%)
41 (77.4%)
35 (66.0%)
37 (69.8%)
14 (26.4%)
27 (50.9%)
3 (5.7%)
The students also showed their capability to use the computer by responding to the ‘Can you’
questions listed in Table 7. While most students indicated that they are able to do various
computer-based tasks, over 50 percent of the students indicated that they are not able create a
simple Web page and use a video conference tool on the Web.
Table 7: Computer-Related ‘Can You’ Questions (N=53)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Can you properly turn on and shut down a computer?
Can you start and exit a computer program?
Can you change monitor brightness and contrast?
Can you minimize, maximize and move windows on the desktop?
Can you perform file management including deleting and renaming files, etc.?
Can you use a ‘search’ command to locate a file?
Can you install a software program?
Can you scan disks for viruses?
Can you move a file from a hard drive to a USB drive?
Can you write files onto a CD?
Can you resize a photograph?
Can you record and edit sounds?
Can you print a document using a printer?
Can you create a basic Word document?
Can you copy, cut and paste text in a document?
Can you change font style and size in a document?
Can you create a basic Excel spreadsheet?
Can you create a simple database using Access?
Can you create a simple presentation using PowerPoint?
Can you create a simple Web page?
Can you send and receive attachments through e-mail messages?
Can you search for information online using a Web search engine?
Can you download and save files from the Web (e.g., text, graphic, PDF files)?
Can you use a video conferencing tool on the Web?
Iranian EFL Journal
Yes
50 (94.3%)
51 (96.2%)
49 (92.5%)
51 (96.2%)
51 (96.2%)
51 (96.2%)
37 (69.8%)
50 (94.3%)
51 (96.2%)
51 (96.2%)
50 (94.3%)
51 (96.2%)
49 (92.5%)
51 (96.2%)
51 (96.2%)
50 (94.3%)
34 (64.2%)
26 (49.1%)
50 (94.3%)
16 (30.2%)
50 (94.3%)
51 (96.2%)
51 (96.2%)
10 (18.9%)
No
3 (5.7%)
2 (3.8%)
4 (7.5%)
2 (3.8%)
2 (3.8%)
2 (3.8%)
16 (30.2%)
3 (5.7%)
2 (3.8%)
2 (3.8%)
3 (5.7%)
2 (3.8%)
4 (7.5%)
2 (3.8%)
2 (3.8%)
3 (5.7%)
19 (35.8%)
25 (47.2%)
3 (5.7%)
37 (69.8%)
3 (5.7%)
2 (3.8%)
2 (3.8%)
43 (81.2%)
206
The results of the study provide several points and issues that need to be discussed. First, self-rated
competency is not equal to actual levels of computer knowledge and skills for using a variety of
applications. Although there might be the possibility of influence from their unfamiliarity with
technical vocabulary, the students in the study indicated that their self-evaluation of basic
computing skills are generally high but their frequency of using computer applications is very
limited to few types of applications such as word processing. They seem to have little knowledge
and use of databases and computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools in particular. As shown
in the frequency of using computer applications the students had very diverse experiences with
computer applications. There were also great individual differences in the level of computer
literacy.
Answering research question 1, the correlation between computer literacy and language
proficiency was significant. It means that the knowledge of English language affected the students’
ability to use computer. In other words those who were more proficient in English had been able
to use computer more easily. This can be explained by the fact that the language of computer is
English.
Regarding research question 2, the difference between male and female’s computer knowledge
was significant. Based on the results the male’s knowledge of computer was significantly more
than that of females. As women are not interested in technical affaires, this finding can be justified.
This study has limitations in the size of participants and the condition of data collection. It is
obvious that the findings of the study cannot be generalized to all Iranian EFL students. Results
can be useful for stakeholders of computer and language training centers.
References
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Cunningham, K. (2000). Integrating CALL into the writing curriculum. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(5),
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Johnson, E. M. (2002). The role of computer-supported discussion for language teacher education: What
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Konan, N. (2010). Computer literacy levels of teachers. Social and behavioral sciences.
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Educational Technology, 7(4), 201-213.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
A Comparison between Distance Education and Conventional University EFL
Students Regarding Their Use of Meta-cognitive Strategies
Authors
Saman Khaksefidi (M.A)
Higher Educational Complex of Saravan, Iran
Habib Shirzaei (M.A Student)
University of Sistan and Baluchetstan, Zahedan, Iran
Biodata
Saman Khaksefidi, M.A in TEFL from Shiraz University. He has taught general English, ESP
courses, Language teaching methodology, and translation. He has been teaching in University of
Sistan and Baluchetan, Payam e Noor University in Zahedan, and also Higher Educational
Complex of Saravan in Iran. He is currently an academic member of Higher Educational Complex
of Saravan. His areas of interest include teacher effectiveness, teacher evaluation, language
assessment, and corpus linguistics.
Habib Shirzaei, M.A. student in TEFL at University of Sistan and Baluchestan. He has taught
different language courses such as IELTS courses in several language institutes. His areas of
interest are distance education, vocabulary, pronunciation, and MALL.
Abstract
The present study aims at investigating the comparison between Distance Education and
Conventional university EFL students regarding their meta-cognitive strategies. To this
end, 40 EFL students including 21 males and 19 females from both DE and Conventional
universities in Zahedan were selected through stratified sampling to participate in this
study. The instrument of the present research is a Likert scale questionnaire named the
Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) that was distributed among the
participants to elicit their responses. The results of Mann-Whitney U test through SPSS
revealed that type of universities affects the use of meta-cognitive strategies by EFL
learners. By answering all 9 items, DE students made more use of meta-cognitive strategies
than their counterparts in conventional universities. Due to the features of DE universities,
Iranian EFL Journal
209
DE students strive more to be autonomous and independent since their system of education
provides little feedback and face to face interaction.
Keywords: Distance education, Conventional university, Meta-cognitive strategies, SILL
1.Introduction
Any system of education has some distinct features that make it different from others. Distance
education and conventional type of education that is a classroom and teacher-based system are
among the major ones. These differences can be so deep to affect the way that students learn during
their study. These two types of universities have different characteristics. Some of their features
are discussed below. Also, scholars’ views on meta-cognitive strategies which include learning
about learning are brought as follows.
The advances of technology have had great influences on the educational system of
governments. This advancement has moved a lot of people toward distance education, especially
those with job or family commitments and responsibilities, those who have difficulties partaking
in the conventional mode of instruction.
Distance education has a long history. Its history can be traced back to more than one century
ago. Taylor (2001) suggested five generations of distance education: First, the Correspondence
Model based on print technology; Second, the Multi-media Model based on print, audio and video
technologies; Third, the Tele-learning Model, based on applications of telecommunications
technologies to provide opportunities for synchronous communication; Fourth, the Flexible
Learning Model based on online delivery via the Internet; and Fifth, Intelligent Flexible Learning
Model based on the interactive nature of the Internet.
Keegan (1990) also identifies five main elements of distance education: 1- the separation of
teacher and learner; 2- the influence of an educational organization; 3- the use of technical media
(usually print) to unite the teacher and learner and to carry educational content; 4- the provision of
two-way communication so that the students may benefit from or even initiate dialogue; 5- and
the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes. Keegan (1986)
stated that distance education emerged in response to the need of providing access to those who
would otherwise not be able to participate in face-to-face courses. It encompasses those programs
that allow the learner and instructor to be physically apart during the learning process and maintain
communication in a variety of ways. The characteristics of DE are also mentioned by Garrison
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210
(2003) as: 1. Distance education implies that the majority of educational communication between
a teacher and his/her student(s) occur non-contiguously. 2. Distance education must involve twoway communication between (among) teacher and his/her student(s) for the purpose of facilitating
and supporting the educational process. 3. Distance education uses technology to mediate the
required two-way communication.
Holmberg, B. (1989) defined distance education as follows: Distance learning, like any kind of
learning, can serve different ends, but distance learning appears mainly to serve those who cannot
or do not want to make use of classroom teaching, and the reasons why adults choose distance
education are primarily "the convenience, flexibility and adaptability of this mode of education to
suit individual students' needs" (Holmberg, 1989, p. 24). According to Maxwell, 1995 DE is "a
student-centered approach to education that removes all barriers to access while providing a high
degree of learner autonomy" (Maxwell, 1995, p. 43).
Distance study is self-study, but the student is not alone. As Holmberg (1989, p.27) describes
it, "A kind of conversation in the form of two-way traffic occurs through the written or otherwise
mediated interaction between the students and the tutors and others belonging to the supporting
institution". He goes on to state that, "conversation is brought about by the presentation of the
study matter if this is characterized by a personal approach…and causes the students to discuss the
contents with themselves".
According to the aforementioned issues, more and more people have accessibility to distance
education which has had a huge progress in the last decades. A great number of distance education
learners have family and job responsibilities so that there is less time available for studying and
participating in the classes as contrasted with the conventional learners. Payam-e-Noor University
is the only distance education In Iran in which the students are not obliged to attend the class
sessions. It is of semi-attendance or free-of-attendance mode. In addition, their attendance is
optional for theoretical units and mandatory for practical ones. The foundation of Distance
Education can be traced back to the late 1800s. One of the first forms of distance education was
correspondence course study.
Distance Education has experienced dramatic growth both nationally and internationally since
the early 1980s. It has evolved from early correspondence education using primarily print based
materials into a worldwide movement using various technologies. The goals of distance education,
as an alternative to traditional education, have been to offer degree granting programs, to battle
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211
illiteracy in developing countries, to provide training opportunities for economic growth, and to
offer curriculum enrichment in non-traditional educational settings. A variety of technologies have
been used as delivery systems to facilitate this learning at a distance. Perhaps the most striking
difference between a distance education university and a conventional university is the class
attendance. Class attendance is not obligatory in distance education while it is mandatory in
conventional education.
Probably the most common definition of distance education is the separation of teacher and
students geographically. Student's assiduous work does not always lead to success. Students
sometimes assert that despite their efforts they haven't been able to succeed in their studies. This
problem is partly related to the way they learn. In other words, they should learn how to learn or
teachers should learn how to teach. In order to do so, the following certain strategies are needed.
These strategies are called meta-cognitive strategies. John Flavell defined meta-cognition as
thinking about thinking and he believed that meta-cognitive knowledge refers to the individual's
beliefs about oneself and about others as learners and of the requirements involved in the learning
process (Flavell, 1979).
Scholars have emphasized the use of these strategies by students and have reported positive
effects of applying meta-cognitive strategies for better learning. Rahimi and Riazi (2005) stated
the reason why the Iranian EFL learners mostly used meta-cognitive strategies as the fact that Iran
is an EFL context and language learners are not highly exposed to the target language to acquire
it unconsciously. Rahimi and Katal (2012) mentioned that according to research, meta-cognitive
learners who take conscious steps to understand what they are doing when they learn tend to be
the most successful learners.
A study by Gerami and Madani Ghare Biaghlou (2011) determined that successful EFL students
used a wider range of learning strategies and different from those often preferred by their
unsuccessful peers. The former often used meta-cognitive strategies while the latter tended to use
surface level cognitive strategies. Hence, the use of meta-cognitive strategies may lead to
successful learning provided that other criteria for successful learning are met.
Meta-cognitive strategies are not considered as one way or method to enhance learning. In fact,
they are divided into different categories. O'mally and Chamot (1990) have categorized them into
three major groups called planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Planning includes the use of
learning strategies such as advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, selfIranian EFL Journal
212
management, and functional planning. Monitoring is comprised of self-monitoring.Self-evaluation
is a learning strategy applied in the evaluation group. If these strategies are applied by the students
it is said that they are meta-cognitively competent. Oxford (1990) has also classified metacognitive strategies into some subgroups. Firstly, indirect strategies are considered as a main group
in which meta-cognition is a subgroup. Centering one's learning, arranging and planning one's
learning, and evaluating one's learning are the strategies under the category of meta-cognition. She
has broken these strategies into more detailed subcategories.
Firstly, centering your learning includes over viewing and linking with already known
materials, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening. Secondly,
arranging and planning your learning is categorized into finding out about learning, organizing,
setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful 4 skills)
arranging and planning your learning, planning for a language task, and seeking practice
opportunities. Thirdly, evaluating your learning involves self-monitoring and self-evaluating.
A great bulk of studies have been conducted on features of universities either conventional or
DE, and also many scholars have conducted research on the use of meta-cognitive strategies by
EFL students. Few studies have tried to examine the effect of these two factors on each other,
especially a comparison between the two universities in order to determine which one is a more
successful user of metacognitive strategies. The following questions are addressed in order to
determine the effect of the use of meta-cognitive strategies on EFL learners in DE and conventional
universities.
•
Do DE students apply meta-cognitive strategies for learning English?”
•
Do Conventional university students apply meta-cognitive strategies for learning
English?
•
How effective is the use of meta-cognitive strategies comparatively in DE and
Conventional university EFL students?
2.Method
2.1. Participants
In this study, 40 EFL students were selected from among Iranian universities either conventional
ones or distance education universities. Stratified random sampling was applied to select the
Iranian EFL Journal
213
participants in both conventional and DE universities. The EFL students were chosen according to
their type of university and gender.
2.2. Instruments
(The instrument used in this study was Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
developed by Oxford (1990). SILL was used in the current study to collect data on DE and
Conventional University EFL students of how they use meta-cognitive strategies in their studies.
Only part D of the aforementioned questionnaire (Items 30-38) was taken into consideration.)
Oxford's (1990) SILL questionnaire was distributed among the participants to answer it wholly but
just part D that was directly related to meta-cognitive strategies was considered for analysis.
2.3. Procedure and data analysis
The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Part D of
Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was used which is related to
meta-cognitive strategies was taken into consideration. The questionnaire uses five point Likertscale for which the participants were asked to reveal their response (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) to a strategy
explanation (1. Never or almost never true of me; 2. Usually true of me; 3. Somewhat true of me;
4. Usually true of me; 5. Always or almost always true of me). Part D is about Meta-cognitive
strategies which is at the focal of this study. There was no time limit for the participants to complete
the questionnaire. Two variables including type of university, and their answers to the Oxford's
questionnaire along with gender were considered by SPSS using Mann-Whitney U test in order
to find the effects of applying meta-cognitive strategies on gender and type of university.
3. Results
The students’ answers to the questionnaire revealed different responses. Cross-tabulation through
SPSS depicted that one DE student answered never or almost never to Item1 while 4 conventional
students answered to it. Eleven conventional students replied usually not while 3 of them were DE
students. 7 DE students somewhat agreed with Item1 while 4 conventional students just answered
somewhat true. No conventional students replied usually true for me for Item1 but five DE students
checked usually true. Three DE students totally agreed with Item1 while 2 conventional students
complied with Item1. Most of DE students namely 16 students agreed with Item2 while 9 students
out of 21 students of conventional universities were in agreement with this item. The majority of
DE students had a positive answer to Item 3 but almost half of conventional university students
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214
agreed with this item. Almost the same result as in item 3 was repeated for other items including
items 4,5,6,7,8, and 9 i.e. most DE students agreed with items but only a few proportion of
Conventional university students were in agreement with those items. Crosstab tables are brought
in the appendices. According to Table1, showed that the items are affected by type of .universities.
From item1 to item9 with the levels of significance of .003 for item 1, .035 for item2, .016 for item
3, .015 for item4, .001 for item 5 , .005 for item6, .016 for item 7, .029 for item 8, and .043 for
item 9. The results revealed that based on the type of university, the students made use of metacognitive strategies differently.
Table 1 Between meta-cognitive items and type of university
Mann-Whitney
Item1
Item2
Item3
Item4
Item5
Item6
Item7
Item8
Item9
94.500
125.500
113.00
112.50
84.500
99.000
113.00
122.0
127.000
0
0
0
00
344.00
343.50
315.50
330.00
344.00
353.0
0
0
0
0
0
00
-2.420
-2.429
-3.197
-2.837
-2.419
-
U
Wilcoxon W
Z
325.500
-2.947
356.500
-2.110
358.000
-2.019
2.181
Asymp. Sig. (2- .003
.035
.016
.015
.001
.005
.016
.029
.043
.044a
.019a
.017a
.001a
.006a
.019a
.036a
.050a
tailed)
Sig. .004a
Exact
[2*(1-tailed
Sig.)]
4. Conclusion and discussion
The findings of the study showed that DE universities and Conventional ones bear some
differences regarding the use of meta-cognitive strategies. Their answers to the 9 items of the
questionnaire clarify the point.
The answers to the research questions are as follows
•
As for the first question “Do DE students apply meta-cognitive strategies for learning
English?” The fact is that DE students’ method of learning is totally affected by the
meta-cognitive strategies that they apply.
Iranian EFL Journal
215
•
Do Conventional university students apply meta-cognitive strategies for learning
English? The use of meta-cognitive strategies by Conventional university students
seems to be somewhat limited and not extensive.
•
How effective is the use of meta-cognitive strategies comparatively in DE and
Conventional university EFL students?
DE students seem to be more affected by meta-cognitive strategies since they applied a wider
variety of these strategies to a great extent to learn English. Considering the first item, the results
showed that DE students try to find more ways to use English language and that might be because
conventional universities’ curriculum is more fixed and organized than DE universities. As a result
DE students try to find different ways to use English since there are few or no classes to be able to
use the language.
The second item goes to paying attention to the mistakes the students make the how to do better.
In conventional universities, teachers mostly provide the feedback and that is why these students
do not actually contemplate a lot about their mistakes and the way to improve them, whilst DE
students receive no feedbacks. Thus, they really have to look for their mistakes and how to correct
them because they can’t receive enough feedback from their teachers. Due to lack of practice in
oral skills in DE universities, the students try to pay more attention when someone is speaking
English than conventional students. That is why DE students were more in agreement with item4.
Planning one’s schedule to have enough time to study is what item5 includes. DE universities
normally cover a whole book or a great bulk of materials for their students and most of them are
self-study materials, so DE students must have a well-planned schedule in order to be able to learn
the materials. According to the results, Conventional university students also try to be as planned
as possible to study but since a great part of learning and instruction can happen in classes they
won’t need more time and planning than DE students to cover their materials.
Regarding item 6, dearth of regular classes and the speaking chance for DE students makes
them look more for people to talk to in English than conventional university students.Item 7
discusses the opportunities to read as much as possible in English. Again, a great deal of materials
for DE students and also lack of appropriate instruction has made DE students look for more
opportunities to read as much as they can than conventional university students.
Having clear goals for improving English language skills in item8 is what both type of students
have paid attention to, although DE students have agreed more to have clear goals for improving
Iranian EFL Journal
216
their English language skills. That might be because they need to have clear goals to be successful
since their curriculum seems somewhat broad and there’s also lack of enough direct instruction.
Thinking about one’s progress in English is done more commonly by DE students due to the fact
that they do not receive enough feedback from the teacher and they should think more to see if
they have made headway or not in learning English. All in all, this study indicates that metacognitive strategies were more applicable by DE students and conventional university students
applied less meta-cognitive strategies in order to learn English.
4.1. Pedagogical Implication
According to the results of the present study conventional university EFL students seem to be less
familiar with the use of miscellaneous strategies in their studies. It is the responsibility of language
teachers to familiarize them with the strategies of language learning in order to gain more
autonomy. Teaching learners how to learn is deemed to be of great importance in making learning
more efficient in general and language learning in particular. By taking the aforementioned
strategies into consideration, the learners become more independent of their teachers. Strategy
learning is believed to develop a sense of independence in the learners so that ultimately they
become independent of their teachers.
References
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Meta-cognition and cognitive monitoring”. American Psychologist, 34 , 906-911.
Garrison, R., Terry, A., Walter, A. (2003). A Theory of Critical Inquiry in Online Distance Education. In
Handbook of Distance Education, edited by M. Moore and W. Anderson. New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Gerami, M.H., & Madani Ghare Biaghlou, S. (2011). Language learning strategies used by successful and
unsuccessful Iranian EFL students. Procedia- Social and behavioral sciences, 29, 1567-1576.
Holmberg, B. (1989). Theory and practice of distance education. New York: Routledge.
Maxwell, L. (1995). Integrating open learning and distance education. Educational Technology NovemberDecember, 43-8.
O´Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: Heinle
& Heinle.
Iranian EFL Journal
217
Rahimi, M. & Katal, M. (2012). Metacognitive strategies awareness and success in learning English as a
foreign language: an overview. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 73-81. Keegan, D.
(1990). Foundations of distance education (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Rahimi, M., & Riazi, A. (1987). Iranian EFL learners’ pattern of language learning strategy use. The
Journal of Asia TEFL, 2, 103-129.
Taylor, J. C. (2001). Fifth generation distance education. e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology
(e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.
Appendix A
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item1
DE
Conventional Total
never or almost never
1
4
5
usually not
3
11
14
somewhat true
7
4
11
usually true
5
0
5
3
2
5
19
21
40
always or almost always
true
Total
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item2
DE
Conventional Total
usually not true
2
11
13
somewhat true
1
1
2
usually true
12
4
16
4
5
9
19
21
40
true
Total
Iranian EFL Journal
218
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item1
DE
Conventional Total
1
4
5
usually not
3
11
14
somewhat true
7
4
11
usually true
5
0
5
3
2
5
true
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item3
DE
Conventional Total
0
6
6
usuall y not true
0
3
3
somewhat true
5
2
7
usually true
6
6
12
always or almost always 8
4
12
21
40
Total
19
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item4
DE
Conventional Total
0
3
3
usually not true
1
7
8
Iranian EFL Journal
219
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item1
DE
Conventional Total
1
4
5
usually not
3
11
14
somewhat true
7
4
11
usually true
5
0
5
3
2
5
true
somewhat true
3
3
6
usually true
8
3
11
5
12
21
40
Total
19
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item5
DE
Conventional Total
0
5
5
usually not true
4
8
12
somewhat true
4
5
9
usually true
6
2
8
1
6
21
40
Total
19
Crosstab
Count
Iranian EFL Journal
220
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item1
DE
Conventional Total
1
4
5
usually not
3
11
14
somewhat true
7
4
11
usually true
5
0
5
3
2
5
true
typeofUni
Item6
DE
Conventional Total
0
3
3
usually not true
2
9
11
somewhat true
9
6
15
usually true
4
0
4
almost or almost always 4
3
7
21
40
Total
19
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item7
DE
Conventional Total
2
6
8
usually not true
4
10
14
somewhat true
6
2
8
usually true
4
1
5
Iranian EFL Journal
221
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item1
DE
Conventional Total
1
4
5
usually not
3
11
14
somewhat true
7
4
11
usually true
5
0
5
3
2
5
true
Total
19
2
5
21
40
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item8
Total
DE
Conventional Total
1
2
3
usually not true
5
10
15
somewhat true
3
6
9
usually true
6
2
8
1
5
21
40
19
Iranian EFL Journal
222
Crosstab
Count
typeofUni
Item9
DE
Conventional Total
1
4
5
usually not true
1
3
4
somewhat true
4
7
11
usually true
7
3
10
4
10
21
40
Total
19
Appendix 2
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
This form of the strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) is for students of a second
language (SL). Please read each statement and fill in the bubble of the response (1, 2, 3, 4, or
5) that tells HOW TRUE THE STATEMENT IS.
1. Never or almost never true of me
4. Usually true of me
2. Usually not true of me
3. Somewhat true of me
5. Always or almost always true of me
Answer in terms of how well the statement describes you. Do not answer how you think you
should be, or what other people do. There is no right or wrong answers to these
statements.
Part D
30. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
31. I notice my SL mistakes and use that information to help me do better. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
32. I pay attention when someone is speaking SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
33. I try to find out how to be a better learner of SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
34. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
35. I look for people I can talk to in SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
36. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
37. I have clear goals for improving my SL skills. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
38. I think about my progress in learning SL. 1 □2 □3□ 4□ 5□
Iranian EFL Journal
223
Title
The Impact of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retention of Iranian
Monolingual and Bilingual EFL Students
Authors
Abbas Bayat (Ph.D)
Islamic Azad University, Borujerd, Iran
Muhammad Oveidi (M.A Student)
Islamic Azad University, Borujerd, Iran
Biodata
Abbas Bayat, assistant professor of TEFL at Islamic Azad University of Borujerd, Borujerd, Iran.
His research interests include biolinguistics, discourse analysis and phraseology.
Muhammad Oveidi, M.A Student of TEFL at Islamic Azad University of Borujerd, Borujerd,
Iran. His research interests include narrative intelligence, psychology
Abstract
Vocabulary is one of the most important tools in second language learning process. It is
important to know a good range of vocabulary in order to have good reading
comprehension in a foreign language. In Addition, it is important to know strategies such
as cognates, to have a better vocabulary retention. For that reason, when people do not
know a high range of vocabulary in the second language, or when people do not know the
strategies (cognates), they face a problem to vocabulary retention. This fact encouraged the
researcher to give implicit instruction on such strategies and on the words that are similar
between languages and have the same meaning. The instructions were given with the
purpose of making the students aware of the cognates. The experimental group (n= 70)
received cognate method as the treatment, whereas the control group (n= 35) received noncognate method as the treatment. This study used three instruments, one works as a cognate
test, a vocabulary pretest, and a vocabulary posttest. The vocabulary pretest and posttest
do not have the same format as the cognate test. The data from this study indicated that
students in experimental group (monolinguals and bilinguals) significantly outperformed
the students in control group in vocabulary learning.
Iranian EFL Journal
224
Keywords: Cognate, Strategy, Monolingual, Bilingual
1. Introduction
Teaching English vocabulary is an important area worthy of effort and investigation. Recently
methodologists and linguists emphasize and recommend teaching vocabulary because of its
importance in language teaching. Vocabulary is needed for expressing meaning and in using the
receptive (listening and reading) and the productive (speaking and writing) skills. “If language
structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs
and the flesh” (Harmer, 1991,p.153).
Vocabulary is not a syllabus, i.e., a list of words that teachers prepare for their learners to
memorize and learn by heart. Memorizing may be good and useful as a temporary technique for
tests, but not for learning a foreign language. Language students need to learn vocabulary of the
target language in another way. If we are really to teach students what words mean and how they
are used, we need to show them being used together in context. Words do not just exist on their
own; they live together and they depend upon each other. Therefore, teaching vocabulary correctly
is a very important element in language learning.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
One of the major problems of Iranian students in learning a foreign language, especiallyEnglish is
their low knowledge of cognate strategy. Vocabulary is an essential element in L2 reading
comprehension (Garcia, 2000). Because vocabulary helps students tounderstand texts, it
constitutes an essential tool that learners should have to reach high levels of reading
comprehension (Reed, 2009). In addition, having a poor vocabulary is a hindrance to succeed in
reading (Chall, Jacobs, &Baldwin, 1990; Cunninghan&Stanovich, 1997; Hirsch,2003;
ScaborOugh, 1998). Bloom (1976) draws that there is a direct connection between the Learners’
vocabulary and the results they obtain in reading comprehension tests. Moreover, Thorndike
(1973) evidenced in an analysis of Achievement test data in 15 different countries, a meaningful
and strong connection between vocabulary and comprehension in the reading tests. Besides,
students must be familiarized with the most frequent words that are found in the school materials
if they want to avoid mistakes and evade failing in the understanding of a reading text.
Indeed, if the students are exposed to a text that is meaningful to them since the Content of the
reading is related to their daily life, it is more probable to encounter words (cognates) that will take
Iranian EFL Journal
225
the learner to have a better vocabulary retention. (Graves, 2006). For that reason, it is fundamental
that teachers provide students with tools for acquiring their own approaches to vocabulary.
According to Learsted and Gender (2005), students unconsciously take advantage of the L1, Using
their knowledge for the comprehension of L2 text. Particularly, students take advantage of the
words in their native language that are similar in script and meaning to words in the Second
language. Those words are called “cognates” (Richards & Schmidt, 2002).
Despite the problems identified, very few studies have been done on effect of Cognates on
Target words in vocabulary retention. Moreover, little attention has been paid to explorethe
significant difference between different groups of students with different proficiency Levels in
terms of the effect of cognate on Target words. A few Studies have investigated the topic of interest
in an EFL context. monica Viviana(2011)Indicated cognate recognition through reading strategies
instruction for written Comprehension among ninth grade students,Vilmar Ferreira De Souza
(2003) indicated the Role of cognates in reading comprehension: a cognitive perspective.
This study, in general, aims at investigating the effect of the cognate on Target wordsof Iranian
EFL learners. In other words, this study is to find out whether instruction of cognate helps EFL
learners on Target words. Finally, this study aims at finding out whether or not there is a difference
between different groups of Students with different proficiency levels in terms of the effect of
cognate on Target words.This Investigation aims at analyzing the effect of Cognates on Target
words in vocabulary retentionof Iranian monolingual and bilingual EFL students.This study set
out to pursue answers to the following two research questions:
a) What is the effect of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retention of Iranian Monolingual
and Bilingual EFL Students?
b) What is the effect of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retentionof Iranian Bilingual EFL
Students?
In order to provide a reliable answer to the previously-stated research questions, the following
hypotheses are proposed:
H01: there is no significance effect of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retention of
Iranian Monolingual and Bilingual EFL Students.
H02: there is no significance effect of Cognates on Target words in vocabulary retention of
Iranian bilingual EFL Students.
Iranian EFL Journal
226
2. Literature review
In today’s globalizing world, borders between people are disappearing one by one and languages
share more day by day leading to an increase in the number of cognates in all languages. Defined
as the vocabulary items in two different languages that are similar both orthographically and
semantically (Holmes & Ramos, 1995), cognates constitute an important part of the vocabulary
even in languages differing dramatically from each other such as Japanese and English. It is crucial
to make a distinction between true cognates and false cognates. Although both types of cognates
have the same or very similar form in two languages, only true cognates have the same meaning.
As false cognates, or deceptive demons (Reid, 1968) deserve a different focus.
Research on cognates focuses mainly on two main topics: the facilitating role of cognates in L2
vocabulary activation, and the use of cognates as a learning strategy in second/foreign language
learning. The investigation of cognates as a learning strategy in EFL/ESL settings aims to foster
listening and reading comprehension. ComesanaSoares and Lima (2010) focused on the role of
cognate and non-cognate words on second language learning methods.
The results of their study suggest that cognate words are easier to learn than non-cognate words
because of the stronger lexical links, and the authors add that the sentence processing of new words
in novice learners is mediated by the lexical representations of L1(p. 203). In their study, Nagy,
Garcia, Durgunoglu and Hancin-Bhatt (1993) found out that Spanish learners of L2 English
resorted to making a connection between their native languages And target language when they
were exposed to a new word in English and used positive transfer of cognates as a reading strategy
in English. Jimenez, Garcia and Pearson (1996) and Garcia (1998) pointed out that use of cross
linguistic strategies played a crucial role in reading comprehension. Jimenez et al (1996)
encouraged low-literacy Latina students to search for cognates and resolve unknown vocabulary
making inferences based on cognates.
The authors concluded that using cognate’s strategy resulted in the students producing extended
discourse about the text and it augmented their reading engagement (Jimenez et al, 1996). Hammer
and Madeleine (1978) highlighted the role of cognates in L2 learning, and suggested that cognates
are easy to pick up not only in reading and but also in Listening.
Hammer and Madeleine (1993) also compared the identification of cognates in reading and
listening, and found out that English speakers of French performed better on visual identification
than aural identification. There were even some attempts to develop students’ use of cognate
Iranian EFL Journal
227
strategy in the language classroom. Garcia (1996) for example, concluded that upon receiving an
individualized scaffolded instruction on cognate recognition and use in reading, majority of
Mexican-American students could access cognates to infer unknown vocabulary.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
The majority of the participants volunteered to take part in the study. All participants are from an
Islamic Azad university in Shushtar City. The experimental group, monolinguals native language
is Farsi and bilinguals’ native language is Arabic. The control group, other participants’ native
language is Farsi. Nearly all participants are young adults with an average age of 20. The subjects
of the study are classified into two different classes. One class is randomly assign to be the
experimental groups and the other class are assign to be the control group. The experimental group
(n= 70) received cognate method as the treatment, whereas the Control group (n= 35) receive noncognate method as the treatment.
This study used three instruments, one works as a cognate test, a vocabulary pretest to assess
participants background knowledge before the treatment, a vocabulary posttest assess participants’
ability to recall and retention the new words after a week from the treatment sessions. Thus, each
participant completed a total of three different protocols. The vocabulary pretest and posttest for
the main experiment not have the same format as the cognate test. This study used three
instruments, one works as a cognate test, a vocabulary pretest to assess participants background
knowledge before the treatment, a vocabulary posttest assess participants’ ability to recall and
retention the new words after a week from the treatment sessions. The vocabulary pretest and
vocabulary posttest for the main experiment not have the same format as the cognate test.
3.2.1. Cognate test
Before the actual learning experiment, the researcher performed a cognate test in order to select
50 cognate words used in the study. The cognate test consisted of 35 English words. The researcher
use of multiple-choice format test. Each of the 53 English Words was provided with four different
Arabic words. The participants were asked to choose one answer from the four choices given.
From the 53 multiple – choice questions, 50 words which had the highest percentage of correct
answer were chosen to be used in the main experiment. The 50 words are as follow: Alcohol,
Iranian EFL Journal
228
Alcoholic beverage, Algebra, Allah, Imam, Arabs, Bedouin, Burnous, Caramel, Caraway, Cipher,
Cotton, Dinar, Dirham, Emir, Fellah, Gazelle, Ghoul, Harem, Hashish, Henna, Hegira, Hookah,
Houri, julep, Muezzin, Mufti, Mullah, Muslim, Islam, Attar, Jihad, Jinn, Kaaba, Sultan, Sumac,
Sunni, Sura, Vizier, Myrrh, koran, Safari, Salaam,Khamsin, Lemon, Lilac, Macramé, Wadi,
Mohammad, mosque. The vocabulary pretest and vocabulary posttest for the main experiment did
not have the same format as the cognate test.
3.2.2. Vocabulary pretest
A vocabulary pretest held during this study. For the bilingual group (from experimental group),
the participants gave the English texts with words (cognate words) and they asked to answer to the
questions. For the monolingual group (from experimental group), the participants gave the English
texts with words (with cognate words) and they asked to answer to the questions. The monolingual
group (from control group) has a vocabulary pretest where they gave the English texts with words
(without cognate words) and they asked to answer to the questions. The aim of this test is to assess
the participants’ background knowledge before the treatment sessions.
3.2.3. Vocabulary Posttest
The bilingual group (from experimental group) had a vocabulary posttest where they gave the
English texts with words (with cognate words) that taught at that particular session and they asked
to answer to the questions and the monolingual group (from experimental group) had a vocabulary
posttest where they gave the English texts with words (with cognate words) that taught at that
particular session and they asked to answer to the questions. The monolingual group (from control
group) had a vocabulary posttest where they gave the English texts with words (without cognate
words) that taught at that particular session and they asked to answer to the questions. The
vocabulary posttest consisted of all 50 words that taught at the treatment sessions.
3.3 Procedure
All participants in both groups met with the researcher in seven 45 minute sessions. At the first
session, the participants received an introduction to the study and take a cognate test. The purpose
of the cognate test is to form a list of words unknown to the participants to take part in the study.
The participants received a sheet of 38 English words and they asked the questions. The instruction
of the test wrote in English and Farsi to ensure that the participants understand what they supposed
to do. Moreover, an example provided to ensure that the participants understand how to answer
the test. After two days from the cognate test the researcher need enough time to correct the cognate
Iranian EFL Journal
229
test and choose the words and participants which used in the study, at the second session, the
participants take a vocabulary pretest, the next sessions are the treatment sessions. Each of these
treatment sessions lasted for about 45 minutes. At these sessions, the new lexical items, which
choose from the cognate test, taught to the participants.
During these sessions, the experimental group taught the vocabulary via 3 C’s approach, also
the control group taught via the 3 C’s approach. Each treatment session for both the experimental
and control group last for 45 minutes. In the experimental group (both monolingual and bilingual),
each English word presented with its equivalent Arabic word (that are cognate with English word)
with the English pronunciation of the word. In the control group, each English word presented
(that are not cognate with Arabic word) with the pronunciation of the word. The presentation
repeated for three times because repetition is necessary for elementary learners in order to master
the oral and form of the lexical items (Gairns& Redman, 1986, as cited in Ramachandran & Rahim,
2004).
At the last session, the participants in both groups gave a post-test. In the experimental group,
the participants gave the English texts with words (that are cognate with English word) and they
asked to answer to the questions. In the control group, the participants gave the English texts with
words (that are not cognate with English word), and they asked to answer to the questions. In the
post-test, all of the 50 words which taught at the treatment sessions tested using the same format
which used in the vocabulary pretests.
3.4 Data analysis
The analysis of the data was quantitatively. For the vocabulary pretest, the total score for the test
is 50. Each correct answer considered one point.For the vocabulary posttest, the total score for the
test is 50. Each correct answer considered one point. The vocabulary posttest include all of the
words that taught at the treatment sessions in order to measure how much the participants learn
during the treatment sessions.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Descriptive statistics of vocabulary pretest
Descriptive statistics were computed to summarize the participants’ scores on the vocabulary
pretest and on the vocabulary posttest. These descriptive analyses can help identify the overall
Iranian EFL Journal
230
patterns of students’ scores in both groups in order to address the first and the second research
questions.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics ofvocabulary pretest were computed to summarize the participants’ scores
on the vocabulary pretest. Descriptives
score
95% Confidence Interval for
Std.
Mean
Std.
N Mean Deviation Error
Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
monolingual(fars) 35 25.91 0.405
1.759
22.34
29.49
7
50
bilingual(arab)
35 25.69 12.172
2.057
21.50
29.87
5
50
control
35 23.89 10.194
1.723
20.38
27.39
8
46
Total
105 25.16 10.892
1.063
23.05
27.27
5
50
Mean score for the monolingual condition (M = 25.91, SD = 10) was not significantly different
than the bilingual condition (M = 25.69, SD = 12). And also, the control condition (M = 23.16, SD
= 10) was not significantly differ from the monolingual and bilingual conditions.
4.2. Descriptive statistics of vocabulary post test
Table 2.Descriptive statistics such as, means and standard deviations of vocabulary pretest were computed
to summarize the participants’ scores on the post-test. Descriptives
score
95%
Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std.
Lower
Upper
Deviation Std. Error Bound
Bound
N
Mean
Minimum Maximum
monolingual(fars)
35
35.1143 10.42839
1.76272 31.5320 38.6966 7.00
50.00
bilingual(arab)
35
31.8000 10.53510
1.78076 28.1811 35.4189 12.00
50.00
control
35
24.6857 10.28068
1.73775 21.1542 28.2173 8.00
46.00
Total
105 30.5333 11.20274
1.09328 28.3653 32.7013 7.00
50.00
Mean score for the monolingual condition (M = 35.11, SD = 10) was not significantly different
than the bilingual condition (M = 31.80, SD = 10). And also, the control condition (M = 24.69, SD
= 10) was significantly differ from the monolingual and bilingual conditions.
The questions addressed in this study was whether the use of cognateeffect on Target wordsof
Iranian monolingual andBilingual EFL Students. To capture the initial differences between the
Iranian EFL Journal
231
several means, a one-way ANOVA: post hoc multiple comparisons was applied. It should be
reminded that ANOVA: post hoc multiple comparisons is a statistical test which is employed to
make sure whether significant differences can be found between several means or not. The results
appear in Tables 3.
Table 3 presents Post Hoc Test for multiple comparisons that is a statistical test which is employed to make
sure whether significant differences can be found between several means of experimental group and control
group. Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: score
Tukey HSD
Mean
95% Confidence Interval
Difference (I(I) name
(J) name
J)
Std. Error Sig.
Lower Bound Upper Bound
3.31429
2.48972
.381
-2.6073
9.2359
10.42857*
2.48972
.000
4.5070
16.3501
monolingual(fars) -3.31429
2.48972
.381
-9.2359
2.6073
7.11429*
2.48972
.014
1.1927
13.0359
2.48972
.000
-16.3501
-4.5070
2.48972
.014
-13.0359
-1.1927
monolingual(fars) bilingual(arab)
control
bilingual(arab)
control
Control
monolingual(fars) -10.42857*
bilingual(arab)
-7.11429*
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
There was a statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way
ANOVA (F (2, 102) = 9.161, p = .000). A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the cognateon Target
wordswas statistically significantly higher after taking the monolingual (35.11 ± 10 min, p = .381)
and bilingual (31.80 ± 10 min, p = .381) treatment compared to the control group (24.68± 10 min).
There were no statistically significant differences between the monolingual and bilingual (p =
.381).
5. Conclusions
The data from this study indicate that students in experimental group (monolingual and bilingual)
significantly outperformed the students in control group in vocabulary learning through the
cognate method. In other words, the treatment given to the experimental group had affected this
group to some extent. Therefore, the first hypothesis and second hypothesis stating that cognate
strategy has no effect on Target words was rejected.
Iranian EFL Journal
232
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Title
Task-Induced Engagement among Iranian EFL Learners’ Vovabulary
Retention
Authors
Mousa Faramarzzadeh Khaneqah (M.A)
Department of English Language and Literature, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh (M.A)
Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Biodata
Mousa Faramarzzadeh Khaneqah M.A in TEFL from Tabriz, Iran. He is founder and manager
of International language institute. His research interests include Task, Discourse, and Genre
Analysis. He currently teaches IELTS and TOEFL at the International language institute.
Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh M.A in TEFL from Tabriz, Iran. He was University Lecturer
at Sahand Technical University (IELTS Instructor). His research interests include learning
strategies, metacognitive strategies, content related listening, and input enhancement. He currently
teaches IELTS and TOEFL at the International language institute.
Abstract
Conspicuously, vocabulary acquisition is regarded as an essential issue in second language
learning. Taking into consideration about learning a foreign or second language requires
the acquisition of thousands of words. Obviously, language learners look for efficient
methods to enhance chances for keeping new words as a significant factor in long-term
memory, but they often complain forgetting new words soon after learning. As a matter of
fact, task plays an important role in classroom work which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their
attention is mainly focus on meaning rather than form (Nunan, 1991). Therefore, 50
volunteer university students which were advance students in the International Language
Institute were chosen as experimental n=25 and control group n=25, then, an important
task was applied to experimental group as pre and post-tests in reading comprehension
passages. Having finished collecting data, analysis of covariance was applied for data
coding. Based on the hierarchy efficiency in the development of vocabulary retention, the
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235
efficiency of checking difficult words from dictionary and writing them down on the flash
cards in order to memorize them and keep them in the long term memory and finally,
vocabulary retention task was verified as one of the most efficient tasks.
Keywords: Task, Vocabulary Learning Problems, Rote Learning, Task induced
Involvement, Memory, Long-term Retention of the Words
1. Introduction
Vocabulary knowledge is considered as a necessary issue in second language development. It must
be taken into consideration that learning a foreign or second language at intermediate and advanced
levels of proficiency requires the acquisition of hundreds of words. So, language learners look for
influential ways to grow up opportunities for retaining new words in long-term memory; but
forgetting is considered as a significant problem. Obviously, vocabulary acquiring needs some
challenges for instructors. They like to know in what ways instructional programs might promote
the acquisition of so many words. It is remarkable that in foreign language learning, formal
instruction is the primary source of input and consequently can be the source of much
misunderstanding and wasted effort. Consequently, special attention must be given to
demonstrating, practicing, and producing new vocabulary items.
Research Question: Does task induced engagements have a significant impact on the Iranian EFL
learners' vocabulary engagement in terms of their vocabulary knowledge promotion?
2.1. Students’ Vocabulary Learning Problems
Vocabulary learning problems may be seen as hindrance to successful language learning. That is,
solving these problems may be of great help to both students and teachers. If we want to supply
guidelines and solve vocabulary acquisition problems, it is fundamental to discover those problems
and perceive their nature, and finally eliminate them.
2.1.1. Misconceptions
Misconceptions are considered as wrong assumptions or understandings which are among the
problems that have serious learning consequences in the long run. Learners often have
misconceptions concerning the processes and strategies for learning the elements of language such
as the lexicon. For instance, Iranian learners are often bewildered when English speakers refer to
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two or three types of cooking vessels using the word pot while Iranians have different names for
them.
Farjami (2001) asserted Misconception Analysis for dealing with language learning
problems. It comprises discovering and understanding misunderstandings and uncovering false
assumptions. Obviously, one seemingly trivial misunderstanding may have serious learning
consequences in the long run; consequently, teachers should apply Misconception Analysis at
different points in their teaching process.
There are various ways of discovering students’ misunderstandings. The teachers’ observations
can supply a rich source of information about students’ misunderstandings. Tests can also give
some ideas about misunderstandings and illusions. Normally, two types of problems about
misunderstanding of words are attributed to the students, those that arise from lack of knowledge
or ability, and those that arise from misunderstanding. Of course, the teacher should discriminate
between these two types of problems. In the former case, the teacher should provide affirmative
instruction, that is, illustrate the item in terms of what it is, while in the latter case s/he should
uncover false assumptions and illuminate the item in terms of what it is not or negative instruction
(Farjami, 2001).
2.1.2. Rote Learning
Undoubtedly, forgetting should be considered as an annoying problem. Most of the students
complain that they forget words soon after learning them. Why does forgetting take place? This
fundamental question could be answered by taking into consideration the importance of
meaningful learning theory. David Ausubel (1968, in Brown, 2000) differentiated between
meaningful and rote learning. Rote learning includes the mental storage of items having little or
no association with existing cognitive structure; it is the process of acquiring material as discrete
and relatively isolated entities. On the other hand, meaningful learning may be illuminated as a
process of relating the new material to relevant entities in cognitive structure.
Besides, the significance of the distinction between rote and meaningful learning becomes
evident when we think of efficiency of the two kinds of learning in terms of retention, or long term
memory. It is assumed that materials learned by rote are forgotten easily, while meaningfully
learned materials are more efficiently retained. In the case of meaningful learning, forgetting takes
place in a much more intentional and purposeful manner, that is, according to Brown (2000),
forgetting is systematic. It is the eradication of unnecessary materials and a clearing of the way for
more material to enter the cognitive field.
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Consequently, we should clarify our statement and say that one of the students’ problems may be
rote learning of the vocabulary, not forgetting. Hence, learners must have a meaningful learning
set whereby they can link the new learning task to what they already know, so the following
sections deal with meaningful learning and meaningful teaching of new vocabulary items.
2.1.3. Lack of Sufficient Input
Another problem that hinders efficient vocabulary learning is attributed to the lack of exposure to
the foreign language. The major sources of input for foreign language learners are the teacher and
the textbooks, so these sources of input are not adequate to guarantee successful language learning
or at least vocabulary acquisition. We have not been taught the majority of words that we know. It
is obvious that beyond a certain level of proficiency in a second language, vocabulary learning is
more likely to be mainly implicit obtained through reading or listening (Carter, 2002).
Furthermore, implicit or incidental vocabulary learning occurs when the mind is focused
elsewhere, such as on understanding a text or using language for communication purposes.
Besides, multiple exposures is significant for incidental learning, but a common problem facing
language learners is lack of such exposure. A good way to combat this problem is to expose
students to extensive reading, in which reading is done consistently over a period of time.
2.1.4. Lack of Output
Undoubtedly, output also serves a significant role in second language acquisition. Krashen (1997,
in Brown, 2000) asserted that in the language classroom output is too rare to make any important
influence on language development. On the other hand, Swain and Lapkin (1995, in Brown, 2000)
proposed persuading evidence that their output hypothesis was at least as significant as input in
explaining learner success. If learners do not apply new words in speaking or writing, lack of
production may result in forgetting, so learners should seek opportunities to use words, which they
have already learned inside or outside of the classroom.
2.1.5. Memory
Usually the discrimination between a successful and unsuccessful language learner has to do with
memory. Memory plays a rudimentary role in learning a new language. Consequently, the type of
remembering has a place too. We store ideas in our mind on a short-term or long-term basis; our
aim in language learning is to move things into our long-term memory, ready to use. Unfortunately,
forgetting is part of the process of sorting and trying to retrieve items from our memory. Plenty of
words are forgotten immediately after they have been filed, but we can replace the items in our
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memory. Learners forget things because some factors impact on their memory and since they have
not learned helpful ways of remembering. Below is a list of factors that affect our memory (based
on Lewis, 1999).
2.2. The task of vocabulary learning
One way to see the overall task of vocabulary learning is through the distinction between knowing
a word and using a word. In other words, the aim of vocabulary learning should include both
remembering words and the ability to use them automatically in a wide range of language contexts
when the need arises (McCarthy, 1984). In fact, evidence suggests that the knowledge aspect (both
breadth and depth) requires more conscious and explicit learning mechanisms whereas the skill
aspect involves mostly implicit learning and memory (Ellis, 1994). Consequently, vocabulary
learning strategies should include strategies for "using" as well as "knowing" a word. On the other
hand, another way to view vocabulary learning is to see it as a process of related sub-tasks. When
learners first encounter a new word, they may guess its meaning and usage from available clues.
Some learners might proceed to look it up in the dictionary. Others might take down notes along
the margins, between the lines, or on separate vocabulary notebooks. Some learners will repeat the
new word a number of times until they manage to overcome with it. Others will go beyond simple
rote repetition to transmit the word to memory. Some would even try to apply the word actively.
Each of these task stages demands metacognitive judgment, choice, and deployment of cognitive
strategies for vocabulary learning. So, each strategy a learner uses will determine to a large extent
how and how well a new word is learned.
2.3. Task-dependent Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Nowadays, most of the empirical researches on vocabulary learning strategies in second language
have crucially concentrated on different sub-tasks of vocabulary learning. Fewer studies can be
found on person-related vocabulary learning strategies. Likewise, learning context has been merely
noted in passing in discussions.
2.3.1. Guessing and Vocabulary Learning
There is a commonly believed idea which asserts that the vast majority of words in L1 come from
extensive and multiple exposures through use rather than direct instruction, and therefore,
vocabulary learning in a second language should follow the same route (Coady, 1993). A number
of questions have often been proposed in the literature: could guess lead to incidental vocabulary
learning in second language? How many exposures are required to learn a word incidentally? Is
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incidental vocabulary learning better than intentional learning? And finally is guessing could be
regarded as sufficient devise for vocabulary development in a second language? Each of these
questions is dealt with below.
2.3.2. How many exposures are needed to learn a word?
Unfortunately, very different research results have been achieved in this issue. Nation (1990)
concluded that 5-16 exposures are required in order to learn a word from context. Meara (1997)
proposed 0.01 hypothesis (1 uptake every 100 exposures) for L2 learners, arguing that these
learners are normally unable to be exposed to large quantities of text. A more recent study (Horst,
Cobb, & Meara, 1998), which featured low intermediate EFL learners reading a 109-page book
over a ten-day period, achieved a 20% pick-up rate. They also observed that words which appeared
over eight times in text were more likely to be learned than words that were repeated less.
However, researchers do seem to have come to an agreement that the number of exposures needed
for the mastery of a new word depends on many other factors such as the salience of the word in
context (Brown, 1993), the richness of contextual clues, the learner's interest and the size and
quality of his/her existing repertoire of vocabulary (Laufer & Hadar, 1997; Nation & Hwang,
1995).
2.4. L1 vs. L2 Glosses
Researchers have investigated the efficiency of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning
(Hulstijn, 1993; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Jacobs, Dufon, & Hong, 1994; Paribakht
& Wesche, 1997). On the other hand, comparison of gloss conditions with non-gloss conditions
has manifested the advantage of having glosses for increasing incidental vocabulary learning.
Therefore, the question has changed to which gloss type is most effective. Accordingly, attempts
to compare the effectiveness of L1 and L2 glosses have brought mixed results, some indicating no
difference between the two types and others proposing the advantage of one gloss type over the
other (Chen, 2002; Jacobs et al., 1994; Miyasako, 2002).
2.5. Long-term Retention of the Words
According to Waring (2002), one of the most challenging problems with vocabulary learning, and
which all the second language learners have experienced, is that what we learn today will be
forgotten tomorrow. On the other hand, language learners require all the information of the
language to be learned transferred into long-term memory (LTM). Therefore, it has been of interest
to the cognitivists how this encoding process could be achieved, how LTM operates, and how
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information can be retrieved from this store, reversing the path and transferring information from
LTM to STM (short-term memory) (Hauptmann, 2004), so learners need appropriate strategies to
achieve success. The main way of transferring from working memory (WM) to LTM is by finding
some pre-existing information in the LTM to attach the new information to. Due to the significant
role of vocabulary learning, finding some important elements that were already present in the
mental lexicon to link to the new lexical information (Schmitt, 2000, p.132). The native keyword
is such an element. People have often experienced not being able to remember a word that they
are normally familiar with, although they can remember many of its characteristics, e.g., meaning,
gender, number of syllables, etc. (Brown & McNeil, 1966). It is only when they put all this
information together that there will be complete retrieval at last.
3. Method
3.1. Design of the study
The following research was conducted as quantitative study in order to find out the effects of
variables. After administrating Oxford University and Cambridge University (2001) placement
test as a standardized test in order to find out the homogeneity of learners, they were classified as
advance level learners. Then, the study was carried out and to reach the suggested research
question to measure the effects of tasks on the learners’ awareness in memorizing of vocabulary
and transferring them into the long term memory, two groups as experimental and control groups
of male university students were devoted to find the influence of certain task on vocabulary
retention; especially, providing some passages and asking students to read the passage thoroughly
and then looking up the meaning of difficult words from dictionary and writing them on the flash
cards in order to keep the new vocabulary in the long term memory. It contained a pre-test and
post-test for control and experimental groups. The experimental group was received treatment in
tasks such as distributing reading comprehension passages among students and asking the learners
to highlight the difficult words and check them from dictionary, then write them down on the flash
cards due to memorizing them and transferring the new words into the long term memory to recall
them when learners are in a real need, but no treatment was given to the control group in contrast
to the experimental group one. In order to conducting the research and reaching to a conclusion,
pre-test was given before the treatment. In addition, the post-test was administered after the
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241
treatment in two weeks. Besides, the influence of task induced and its relationship with vocabulary
memorizing were respectively considered as the independent and dependent variables of the study.
3.2. Context of the study
International Language Institute in Tabriz, Iran was the place that the research was carried out.
IELTS, TOEFL, PASSAGES, AMERICAN ENGLISH FILES volumes, are taught in this high level
English institute. Each term covers 20 sessions including midterm and final exam in two times a
week, 90 minutes in each session. Participants of the study were chosen from Advance level of
male learners that were university students of medical science major and were attending in advance
classes. The age ranges of learners were above 20 years old.
3.3. Procedures
The most important subject in the development of every language is related to the vocabulary
knowledge which resides in every one’s mind. Furthermore, vocabulary learning plays an
important role for both L2 learners and instructors. It is obvious that nobody could be a master in
vocabulary knowledge unless his/her expansion and elaboration extends during the lifetime.
Accordingly, words represent complex and often multiple meanings. Zimmerman (1997) believes
that word knowledge has linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic aspects, which should be
paid attention more in terms of exact vocabulary meaning. So, lexical competence is more than
the capability to clarify a given number of words; it includes knowing a large amount about each
word, including information about its general frequency of use, the syntactic and situational and
contextual restrictions on its use, its generalizability, its collocational probabilities, its underlying
form, its derived forms, and its semantic features (Zimmerman, 1997, 122).
Nation (1990) proposed three different factors which have a great effect on making a word
difficult to learn. The first one goes back to the learners’ earlier background of English and their
mother tongue. The second one is related to the way a word is learned or taught. The third aspect
is attributed to the intrinsic difficulty of the word which mainly means some words are harder to
learn than others. Nation (2006, p. 498) also says that “the vocabulary component of a language
course will be more effective if it is based on well-supported principles that are clearly known by
both teachers and learners”. Next, in order to measure the usefulness of each task as promoting
means in vocabulary retention of L2 learners, the descriptive statistics were taken in to account.
Having administered and evaluated the test, each group’s mean scores were found apart from the
other ones. In the end, the results of reading comprehension tests accompanied with some
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242
important tasks such as reading comprehension with marginal glosses, using dictionary, and using
context were employed by using SPSS software. These tasks were adapted from Laufer and
Hulstijn (2001) and Martinez Fernandez (2008), which have been used in different similar studies.
Therefore, the researchers intended to demonstrate the impact of these tasks on the degree of
vocabulary retention.
4. Results
4.1. Data Analysis and Results
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Two Groups’ Homogeneity
Group Statistics
GROUP
experimental
control
placement test score
N
25
25
Std.
Deviation
7.68613
6.98880
Mean
33.0800
31.4800
Std. Error
Mean
1.53723
1.39776
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of independent sample test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances
F
placement test score
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
.340
Sig.
.563
t-test for Equality
of Means
Sig.
(2-tail
t
df
ed)
.770
48
.445
.770
47.6
.445
Table 1 and 2 demonstrates a total number of 50 homogeneous male university students assigned
to present study. They were divided randomly into two groups as experimental and control groups
consisting of 25 participants for each group.
Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test in two groups
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
N
Normal Parameters
a,b
Most Extreme
Differences
Mean
Std. Deviation
Absolute
Positive
Negative
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
a.
Test distribution is Normal.
b.
Calculated from data.
Iranian EFL Journal
PREMARK
25
13.4000
1.73205
.165
.165
-.133
.823
POSTMARK
25
17.5200
2.06398
.192
.115
-.192
.960
.508
.316
243
Table 3 illustrates descriptive Statistics of one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test in two groups
both control and experimental groups and shows that distribution of test is normal and it has been
distributed well.
Table 4: Paired Sample Statistics of Two Groups
Paired Samples Statistics
Pair
1
Mean
13.4000
17.5200
PREMARK
POSTMARK
N
25
25
Std.
Deviation
1.73205
2.06398
Std. Error
Mean
.34641
.41280
Table 5: Paired Sample Correlations in the Two Group
Paired Samples Correlations
N
Pair 1
PREMARK & POSTMARK
25
Correlation
.219
Sig.
.293
Table 4 and 5 demonstrates the efficiency of task-induced activity in experimental group as it is
clear in pre and post-tests. That is, the use of task-induced activity causes to a highly influential
vocabulary retention which could be understood by comparing scores, also the achieved scores of
some important tasks in both pre- and post-tests has been manifested.
Table 6: Paired Sample tests' results in the Two Groups
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
Pair 1
Mean
-4.1200
PREMARK - POSTMARK
Std.
Deviation
2.38607
Std. Error
Mean
.47721
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-5.1049
-3.1351
t
-8.633
df
24
Sig.
(2-tailed)
.000
Table 6 clarifies the paired differences in pre and post tests and shows that sig is .000 and it is less
than 0.05 and accompanied with p<0.05.
Table 7: Descriptive Statistics of One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test in Two Groups
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
N
Normal Parameters
a,b
Most Extreme
Differences
Mean
Std. Deviation
Absolute
Positive
Negative
PREMARK
25
12.6800
2.07605
.148
.148
-.092
.742
POSTMARK
25
13.6000
1.80278
.230
.230
-.107
1.152
.641
.141
a. Test distribution is Normal.
b. Calculated from data.
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244
As it is clear, in order to achieve the comparison of different tasks in terms of their efficiency in
pre and post-tests, one-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test was applied which is shown in table 7.
Furthermore, all tasks were given significant positions in the development of vocabulary learning
and retention of them.
Table 8: Descriptive Statistics of Posttests in different Tasks Between-Subject Effects
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: POSTMARK
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
PREMARK
GROUP
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III
Sum of
Squares
232.875a
86.904
40.795
153.878
139.445
12478.00
372.320
df
2
1
1
1
47
50
49
Mean Square
116.438
86.904
40.795
153.878
2.967
F
39.246
29.291
13.750
51.865
Sig.
.000
.000
.001
.000
Partial Eta
Squared
.625
.384
.226
.525
a. R Squared = .625 (Adjusted R Squared = .610)
Table 8 manifests the efficiency of task-induced activity in the enhancement of vocabulary
learning. In other words, comparing of employed important tasks in terms of achieved mean scores
revealed that all tasks-induced activities are considered as influential factors in the development
of vocabulary learning.
Table 9: Statistical Results of Dependent Variable in Posttest between Groups
GROUP
Dependent Variable: POSTMARK
GROUP
experimental
control
Mean
17.346a
13.774a
Std. Error
.348
.348
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
16.647
18.046
13.074
14.473
a. Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the
following values: PREMARK = 13.0400.
Table 9 reveals the differences between control and experimental groups' post-test in dependent
variable. It is obvious that due to the application of treatment in the experimental group, the
achieved mean score of experimental group is more than the achieved mean score of control group
which has noticeable impact on the development of vocabulary learning.
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245
18
17
16
15
14
GROUP
13
experimen tal
12
control
1
2
FACTOR1
Figure 1: Mean Plots of Pre and Post-test Results among the Groups
Figure 1 manifests the efficiency of task-induced activity in the enhancement of vocabulary
learning in the pre and post-tests of both groups. In other words, means plots of applied tasks
disclosed that task activity is considered as influential factor in the development of vocabulary
learning.
Table 10: Statistical Results of frequency among Groups
Statistics
N
Valid
Missing
Mean
Std. Deviation
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
PREMARK
25
0
13.4000
1.73205
-.052
POSTMARK
25
0
17.5200
2.06398
-.958
.464
.464
6.00
10.00
16.00
8.00
12.00
20.00
Table 11: Statistical Results of frequency in pre-test among Groups
PREMARK
Valid
10.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
16.00
Total
Frequency
2
6
5
7
5
25
Percent
8.0
24.0
20.0
28.0
20.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
8.0
24.0
20.0
28.0
20.0
100.0
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Cumulative
Percent
8.0
32.0
52.0
80.0
100.0
246
Table 12: Statistical Results of frequency in post-test among Groups
POSTMARK
Valid
12.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
Total
Frequency
1
1
3
1
4
6
5
4
25
Valid
Percent
4.0
4.0
12.0
4.0
16.0
24.0
20.0
16.0
100.0
Percent
4.0
4.0
12.0
4.0
16.0
24.0
20.0
16.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
4.0
8.0
20.0
24.0
40.0
64.0
84.0
100.0
Table 13: Statistical Results of frequency among Groups
Statistics
N
Valid
Missing
Mean
Std. Deviation
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
PREMARK
25
0
12.6800
2.07605
.314
POSTMARK
25
0
13.6000
1.80278
.798
.464
.464
8.00
9.00
17.00
7.00
11.00
18.00
Table 10, 11, 12 and 13 manifests the frequency of scores in control and experimental group. It is
clear that due to the usage of treatment in the experimental group, the achieved mean score of
experimental group is rather higher than the achieved mean score of control group which has
remarkable influence on the development of vocabulary learning.
Table 14: Statistical Results of frequency in pre-test among Groups
PREMARK
Valid
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
Total
Frequency
1
3
3
6
4
3
2
2
1
25
Percent
4.0
12.0
12.0
24.0
16.0
12.0
8.0
8.0
4.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
4.0
12.0
12.0
24.0
16.0
12.0
8.0
8.0
4.0
100.0
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Cumulative
Percent
4.0
16.0
28.0
52.0
68.0
80.0
88.0
96.0
100.0
247
Table 15: Statistical Results of frequency in post-test among Groups
POSTMARK
Valid
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
Total
Frequency
2
5
8
3
3
2
1
1
25
Percent
8.0
20.0
32.0
12.0
12.0
8.0
4.0
4.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
8.0
20.0
32.0
12.0
12.0
8.0
4.0
4.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
8.0
28.0
60.0
72.0
84.0
92.0
96.0
100.0
The results of comparison are manifested in the above tables (14 and 15); they disclose significant
differences in the task efficiency. In addition, according to the table for frequency of scores in pre
and post-tests, frequency tables showed the differences. Therefore, the results demonstrated that
compared with task impact. These results led the researchers to conclude that providing taskinduced activities have positive effect on learners’ performance in general.
5. Conclusion
It should be noticed that the earlier results of related studies were taken into consideration. That
is, Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) made a conclusion that the implementation of task-induced activity
has significant and positive effects on the retention of vocabulary. Besides, the findings of present
study have verified the usefulness of other related studies. Vocabulary acquisition is considered as
a basic issue in second language acquisition. It should be taken into consideration that learning a
foreign or second language in advance and TOEFL levels of proficiency necessitates the
acquisition of millions new words. Obviously, language learners look for efficient methods to
enhance opportunities for transferring new words from short term memory to the long-term
memory. As a matter of fact, forgetting is considered as a common problem. Language learners
often complain that they forget new words soon after learning them. Having managed the study,
the manifestation of pedagogical implications would be stated. That is, two main pedagogical
implications as vocabulary acquisition and task-induced activity would be illustrated.
5.1. Suggestions and Recommendations
It is clear that in administration of every research the explanation of findings mainly for
pedagogical implication are regarded as inseparable part of each research. That is, the
Iranian EFL Journal
248
implementations of the findings in every study are considered as problem solving issue in the
eradication of EFL learning problems. Consequently, dealing with unknown words has been
considered as a dilemma in the process of L2 learning. Both L2 instructors and learners are peeved
when they encounter with unknown words. A variety of problem solving methods have been
recommended for elimination of these problems. The manifestation of task-based approach has
triggered new paths to come up with vocabulary learning problems mainly vocabulary retention.
To sum up, the type of task is considered as a representative of vocabulary retention development
in dealing with unknown vocabulary in the process of L2 learning, so the significant and
undeniable role of task as a facilitator of vocabulary retention should be much more emphasized.
Acknowledgements
The Alliance for Excellent Education would like to thank the following experts in English
Language Teaching (ELT) for sharing their knowledge of the ELT with us:
Farahman Farrokhi Ph. D, University of Tabriz
Mohammad Ali Torabi Ph. D, University of Tabriz
Hossein Sabouri Ph. D, University of Tabriz
Mohammad Zohrabi Ph. D, University of Tabriz
Without the time, effort, and energy they put into conceptualizing the material in this report, and
their willingness to review several drafts of it, this publication would not exist.
Finally, sincere thanks to our families, who worked closely with us over the hot summer and cold
winter months to produce this paper.
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Title
Manipulation in Poetry Translation: A Case Study of
Shakespeare’s Selected Sonnets
Authors
Masoud Sharififar (Ph.D)
Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran
Asma Sabermahani (M.A)
Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran
Biodata
Masoud Sharififar, assistant professor of translation studies at Shahid Bahonar University,
Kerman, Iran. His research interests include contrastive analysis, functionalist approach,
prescriptive approach, semiotics, issues of linguistics and applied linguistics.
Asma Sabermahani M.A in Translation Studies from Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran.
Her research interests include discourse analysis and literary translation, especially poetry
translation.
Abstract
The present study attempted to examine whether Moqaddam’s Persian translation of
Shakespeare’s sonnets is effective in doing justice to the true image of Shakespeare and his
sonnets through investigating the extent of manipulation applied by the translator in his
translation. For this purpose, the content of all the translated sonnets and their
corresponding translations were analyzed. Using the ideological manipulation theory of
Zauberga as the theoretical framework, the results of the study indicated that deletion was
the most frequently applied manipulative strategy by the translator. Moreover, the results
demonstrated that the Persian translation of Shakespeare’s sonnets has been subjected to
ideological manipulations, and the translator has distorted Shakespeare’s true image.
Keywords: Translation, Ideology, Manipulation, Zauberga’s manipulation theory,
Shakespeare’s sonnet
1. Introduction
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Manipulation might refer to the manifestation of manipulative strategies in translation (Dukāte,
2009). The reason is to conceal the author’s good and/or bad intentions. Generally speaking, it is
assumed that there are two types of manipulation, conscious and unconscious (Farahzad, 1999).
Manipulation as a result of the ideological, economic, and cultural considerations is considered
conscious manipulation. However, manipulation ascribed to the features of human psychology and
manipulation due to ignorance or lack of language or world knowledge might be termed
unconscious manipulation. The topic of translation as manipulation and attitudes towards it is very
wide, while the scope of the present study is limited. Therefore, only some aspects of the problem
are investigated in this study.
In fact, every nation’s literature and culture are inter-related. In conveying this culture,
translation of its masterpieces plays a significant role. Unfortunately, in the process of translation,
many formal and semantic aspects of the work were ignored through the ideological manipulation
applied by the translator, even to such an extent that it culminated in the distortion of the author’s
intention and ideology; consequently, the true image of the author presented to other nations was
altered. Therefore, based on the translator’s own ideology or the dominant ideology of his time, a
manipulated image of the author of the ST was presented.
A lot of studies have been inspired by the concept of manipulation in the past decades. For
instance, the studies done by Hermans (1985), Bassnett (1987), Bassenett & Lefevere (1990),
Venuti (1992), etc. Most of these studies have focused on the role of manipulation in translation
and its effects on the target text as a product as well as the roles the manipulated target texts play
in the target language community. The present study investigated the extent of manipulation
applied by Moqaddam (2000) in Persian translation of Shakespeare’s sonnets.
In general, translational manipulation has not been widely discussed by the scholars; therefore,
there is no mention of manipulation in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2001).
Moreover, the Dictionary of Translation Studies (1997) provided no definition, explanation or
sample of manipulation as a term in translation studies. Scholars writing on the manipulative
aspects of translation concentrated on particular text types, mostly literary texts, or they focused
on one particular type of manipulation, usually ideological manipulation or cultural manipulation.
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Katan (1999) was of the opinion that manipulation is a part of a translation. He believed that
“the very act of translating involves skillful manipulation” (ibid., p. 140). He also believed that
some faithful translations can be more devious than free translations. According to the traditional
translation theory, equivalence to the original is the fundamental and most important quality that
a translated work should have. Manipulation refers to the translator’s role and different constraints
to achieve one’s purpose rather than the equivalence to the source. The Manipulation School
represented an approach to translation as manipulation or more precisely as rewriting of texts for
a specific target audience in conformity with target language norms and under various constraints.
Some of its most prominent members were Holmes (1988), Lefevere (1992), Hermans (1985),
Bassnett (1987), Even-Zohar (1997), and Toury (1985).
According to Hermans (1999, p.8), the name was proposed by Lefevere (1992) who attempted
to investigate translation from a sociological perspective, i.e. how translational activities operate
and function in the target society. He believed that ideology and poetics are the two major factors
that constrain the production and the reception of translation. He considered society as the supersystem or system of systems and considered literature as one of the subsystems of society.
According to him, there are two control factors influencing the interaction between literary system
and other systems. Lefevere’s theory of manipulation successfully placed translation within a
larger social, political and cultural context and allowed us to observe the way in which translation
interact with the target environment.
Farahzad (1999) distinguished two types of manipulation, e.g. conscious and unconscious. She
accordingly described two types of processes which result in manipulation of texts in translation:
The conscious process leads to conscious manipulation intentionally carried out by the translator
because of various social, political and other factors. The unconscious manipulation is mostly a
psychological phenomenon, and occurs under the influence of psychological factors. (p. 156)
Moreover, she (2007) worked on ten male and ten female English to Persian translations. The
text chosen for the study was a feministic text. The translation of the male translators of the words
‘feminist’ and ‘feminism’ showed a type of negative attitudes, while female translation of them
showed positive views. Thus, their choices were ideological and caused manipulative shifts. The
paper concluded that translation shifts are one type of manipulation. If a translator tries not to
translate a lexical item, he manipulates the text. It is the case even in cases where the translator is
not conscious of his choice.
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Shafiei (2012) did a study on ideological manipulation applied by Fitzgerald in English
translation of Khayyam’s quatrains. Her study was theoretically based on Zauberga’s (2004)
manipulation theory. The results of her study revealed that deletion was the most frequently
applied strategy by Fitzgerald. Moreover, the study demonstrated that Fitzgerald’s translation of
Khayyam’s quatrains has distorted Khayyam’s true image since it was subjected to ideological
manipulations applied by the translator.
2.1. Ideology in Translation
Ideology has been defined in several ways by translation scholars. For instance, according to
Lefevere (as cited in Gentzler, 2004), ideology is “a set of discourses which wrestle over interests
which are in some way relevant to the maintenance or interrogation of power structures central to
a whole form of social and historical life” (p. 136).
Lefevere (2004) didn’t consider ideology limited to the political sphere. He pointed out,
“Ideology would seem to be that grillwork of form, convention, and belief which orders our
actions” (p. 16). He introduced his theory of manipulation in which ideology was the key notion.
It referred to either the translator’s ideology which he/she willingly accepts or the ideology
imposed upon the translators by patronages. Moreover, Lefevere (1992) developed the idea that
translation can be regarded as a form of rewriting. He considered translation as an act influenced
by the norms and categories constituent to systems in a society. The most important of these are
patronage, ideology, poetics, and 'the universe of discourse' (ibid., p. 13). Therefore, translators
sometimes rewrite the source text (especially literary and religious ones) in the light of their
personal ideologies.
2.2. Theoretical Framework
As mentioned previously, this study is theoretically based on Zauberga’s (2004) theory of
ideological manipulation. He (as cited in Dukāte, 2009) introduced the following forms for the
ideological manipulation:

Deletion: this strategy was frequently used during the Soviet rule. It was used due to
political or moral considerations.

Substitution: It was used due to ideological and moral considerations.

Addition: a word is non-existent in the source text but is added to the translation.

Attenuation: this strategy was applied widely due to “moral considerations to mitigate
taboo words or “upgrade” standard language” (ibid., p. 59).
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With regard to the aforementioned data, the present study focused on ideological manipulation in
translation of some of Shakespeare’s sonnets and was aimed at answering the following questions:
1- To what extent was the ideological manipulation applied by the translator in the selected corpus?
2- What is the most evident form of manipulation in Persian translation of Shakespeare’s translated
sonnets by Moqaddam?
3. Methodology
3.1. Design of the study
This study was a descriptive quantitative research, as findings were based on the analysis of the
selected corpus and it sought to measure the extent of imposing ideological manipulation
statistically. It was a research to identify the manipulative strategies applied by the translator to
make the target text look like the original one.
3.2. Data collection procedure
The data needed to carry out the research was gathered from Shakespeare's sonnets and their
Persian renderings by Moqaddam (2000). Only the translated sonnets were investigated. For the
purpose of brevity, only one translation was examined.
3.3. Data Analysis Procedures
The aim of this study was to investigate the ideological manipulation in translation of some of
Shakespeare’s sonnets to analyze the manipulative strategies applied by the translator. To achieve
the purpose of the study, the following steps were taken:
1. The lines of the ST and TT were compared and contrasted
2. The comparison took place by taking the theoretical framework into account
3. The extent of ideological manipulation applied to the TT was measured with
regard to the application of the four manipulative strategies by the translator
As mentioned before, for the purpose of this study, the manipulation theory of Zauberga (2004)
was selected as the theoretical framework. The following samples were extracted for the purpose
of more clarification.
3.3.1. Deletion
Sonnet 53
On Helen’s cheek all art of beauty set,
And you Grecian tires are painted new
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[Helen] [rɐː] [t͡ʃehre’iː] [ziːbɐː] [ʃomɐːrænd]
[væliː] [æz] [ɐːne] [to] [bæs] [nonævɐːr] [æst]
In line 8, “Grecian tires” which means Grecian costume is omitted by the translator.
Sonnet 44
But ah! thought kills me that I am not thought,
To leap large lengths of miles when thou art gone,
[dær] [zæd͡ʒre] [modɐːmæm] [mæn] [æz] [iːn] [fekr] [ke] [t͡ʃerɐː] [fekr] [næbɐːʃæm]
[tɐː] [rɐːhe] [derɐːziː] [rævæm] [ɐːngæh] [ke] [to] [guː’iː][bedruːdæm]
In these two lines “ah” and “miles” are omitted by the translator.
3.3.2. Substitution
Sonnet 104
Three April perfumes in three hot Junes burned,
Since first I saw you fresh, which yet are green.
[væ] [gærmɐːje] [se] [xordɐːd] [ætre] [færværdiːn] [besuːzɐːnd]
[væliː] [sæbz] [væ] [d͡ʒævɐːn] [hæstiː] [ze] [ævvæl] [tɐː] [be][ælɐːn]
In these two lines the word “færværdiːn” was substituted for “April” and “xordɐːd” was substituted
for “June”.
Sonnet 55
And broils root out the work of masonry,
Nor Mars his sword, nor war's quick fire shall burn
[nɐːbuːdiːje] [ʃe’ræm] [ke] [por] [æz] [xɐːtereje] [tost]
[nei] [dær] [kæfe] [Bæhrɐːm] [væ] [næ] [bɐː] [ɐːtæʃe] [ɐːn] [æst]
In Roman mythology “Mars” is the god of war and the most important Roman god after Jupiter.
The translator has substituted “Bæhrɐːm” for it which refers to Iranian god of victory.
3.3.3. Addition
Sonnet 65
Or what strong hand can hold his swift foot back?
Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid?
[kodɐːmiːn] [dæste] [puːlɐːdiːn] [negæh] [dɐːræd] [zæmɐːn] [rɐː]
[kodɐːmiːn] [huːriːjɐːn] [æz] [dæste] [jæqmɐːjæʃ] [goriːzænd]
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The word “huːriːjɐːn” was added by the translator. In target culture, it refers to extremely attractive
and beautiful women in Paradise.
Sonnet 8
Whose speechless song, being many seeming one,
Sings this to thee: ‘thou single will prove none.’
[væ] [t͡ʃoniːn] [næqmeje] [ɐːnhɐː] [ke] [bæsiː] [æst] [væ] [jekiː]
[be] [to] [xɐːnæd] [ke] [ægær] [jeke] [tæniː] [dær] [kæfæniː]
In line 14, the translator has added the word “kæfæniː” which does not exist in the ST. According
to target culture, the word “kæfæn” refers to a simple plain cloth in which a dead body is wrapped.
3.3.4. Attenuation
This strategy which can be used to mitigate taboo words or upgrade substandard language was not
applied by the translator.
Taking into account the aforementioned data, it can be concluded that the translator’s opinions and
preferences have influenced his rendering. The following chart demonstrates the frequency of each
applied manipulative strategy based on percentage:
Figure 1.Frequency of application of each manipulative strategy.
With regard to the first research question, it can be pointed out that the ideological manipulation
was applied to a great extent by the translator. He has mostly deleted those words which had no
equivalent in the target language or culture and it might be due to the translator’s ideology. Taking
the second question into account, the most frequently applied manipulative strategy was deletion
Iranian EFL Journal
258
and the frequency count was 45%. Substitution occupied the next position and the frequency count
was 34%. However, addition was the least frequently applied strategy (21%) and attenuation was
not applied by the translator. The present study sought to demonstrate that the translator has
manipulated the source text due to his own ideology and sometimes without any reason. The
manipulation which was applied consciously or unconsciously has resulted in the distortion of the
image of Shakespeare’s sonnets.
5. Conclusion
In fact, manipulation is the result of adaptation of the text for the target audience. According to
Dukāte (2007), there are two types of manipulation, i.e. text-external and text-internal
manipulation. In this study, text-internal manipulation which includes manipulation of cultural
words was investigated. There are three further types of manipulation under each category:
manipulation as improvement, manipulation as handling and manipulation as distortion. Distortive
manipulation is unacceptable because it misrepresents the reality and changes the true image of
the original author. In the present study, the analysis of translation indicated that the translator has
manipulated the original in favor of the target culture and has tried to substitute the TL cultural
words for those of the SL as much as possible. This study was theoretically based on the ideological
manipulation strategies of Zauberga (2004). The results of the study demonstrated that deletion
was the most frequently applied strategy by the translator. The true image of Shakespeare was
manipulated by the translator’s own ideology. He has mostly made an attempt to make his
translation look like an original text by addition, deletion, substitution of cultural terms. He has
even adapted a TL poetic form. It might be indicative of the fact that the translator has not only
manipulated the content, but also manipulated the poetic form. The present study also
demonstrated that the translator’s opinions and preferences influenced his achievement and he was
not successful in providing a translation that presents a true image of Shakespeare to the TT
readers.
As manipulation has not been widely discussed by theorists, the first challenge was finding an
appropriate theory applicable to the corpus of the present study. Lefevere’s theory of manipulation
used by many scholars has been really fruitful. However, with regard to the selected corpus, the
one proposed by Zauberga (2004) was more appropriate for the purpose of this study. Finding and
collecting material as well as finding renderings of those sonnets appropriate for the selected
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corpus can be mentioned as the other challenges of this study. Moreover, for the purpose of brevity,
only one translation was investigated in the present study
References
Baker, M. (2001). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. London & New York: Routledge.
Bassnett, S. (1987). Sylvia Plath. London: Macmillan.
Bassnett, S., & Lefevere, A. (1990). Translation, history and culture. London & New York: Pinter.
Dukāte, A. (2007). Manipulation as a specific phenomenon in translation and interpreting. (Doctoral
dissertation).
Dukāte, A. (2009). Translation, manipulation and interpreting. Germany: Peter Lang
Even-Zohar, I. (1997). The making of culture repertoire and the role of transfer. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins B.V.
Farahzad, F. (2007). Manipulation in Translation. Retrieved September 10, 2014, from:
http://www.shvoong.com/humanities/linguistics/1726979manipulation-translation/(2009).
Farahzad, F. (1999). A gestalt approach to manipulation. Copenhagen: Museum tusculanum press.
Hermans, Th. (1985). Introduction: Translation Studies and New Paradigm.In: Hermans, Th. (ed.) The
Manipulation of literature: Studies in literarytranslation. London and Sydney: Croom Helm.
Holmes, J. (1988). Translated! papers on literary translation and translation studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Katan, D. (1999). Translating cultures: An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators.
Manchester: St. Jerome.
Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. London & New York:
Routledge.
Moqaddam, B. (2000). A sonnet cycle of Shakespeare: Verse translation and illustration of selected poems.
Tehran: Naqsh-o-Negar.
Shafiei, Sh. (2012). FitzGerald or Fitz-Omar: Ideological reconsideration of the English translation of
Khayyam’s rubaiyat. Retrieved September10, 2014, from:
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ells/article/view/15238
Shuttleworth, M., & Cowie, M. (1997). Dictionary of translation studies. Manchester: St. Jerome.
Toury, G. (1985). A Rationale for descriptive translation studies. In: Hermans, Th. (ed.) The manipulation
of literature. London and Sydney: Croom Helm.
Venuti, L. (1992). Introduction. In: Venuti, L. (ed.) Rethinking translation: Discourse, subjectivity,
ideology. London & New York: Routldge.
Zauberga, I. (2004). Theoretical tools for professional translators. Rīga: N.I.M.S.
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Title
The Effect of Teaching Paraphrasing Strategy on Reading
Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners
Authors
Akram Shayani (M.A)
Department of English, Ardabil Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
Mehran Davaribina (Ph.D)
Department of English, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
Biodata
Akram Shayani, M.A student in TEFL at Science and Research Branch of Islamic Azad
University, Ardabil. She has been teaching English for more than 6 years.
Mehran Davaribina, assistant professor of TEFL in the Department of English at Islamic Azad
University, Ardabil Branch. His research interests include negotiated feedback, L2 reading
comprehension, and the application of sociocultural approachesto second language acquisition.
Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of explicit instruction of paraphrasing strategy on
reading comprehension. Research has found that often students have heavily on decoding
texts and fluency with less work on understanding text, affecting outcomes in
comprehension and their strategies for comprehension texts are often underdeveloped.
Samples of eighty students were selected from two Foreign Languages Institutes. The
effect of this instruction was measured by the students’ performance in reading
comprehension. Then students were randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups. Students in experimental groups received RAP paraphrasing strategy instruction
and those in control groups were instructed traditionally. After 10 sessions a post-test was
administered and its results were analyzed through a T-Test. Results indicated that the
experimental group achieved significantly better results than the control group. The use of
the RAP paraphrasing strategy improved reading comprehension ability of the learners.
The result of the present study has confirmed that reading comprehension could be
developed through systematic instruction in paraphrasing RAP strategy. It means
Iranian EFL Journal
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experimental groups’ scores, who received paraphrasing strategy as a treatment, were
significantly better than those of the control groups, who received traditional instruction.
Keywords: reading comprehension, reading strategy, paraphrasing, RAP
1. Introduction
Reading is regarded as an important part of the four necessary language skills for acquiring
knowledge, gathering information and the main skill that students need for their success at various
levels of education.Readingis an active process by that readers use their mental activities during
reading. According Nunan (2001) this skill as an interactive process in which readers in which
reader transfers constantly between top-down and bottom-up process, not only decode the words
meaning, but also activate the prior knowledge of content and relevant schemata.To understand a
text of several sentences, the reader must retrieve the meanings of individual words, compute the
sense of each sentence, integrate the meanings of successive sentences, and incorporate
background knowledge to construct a representation of the text.
The main focus of instructing this skill is on comprehension (Schunder, 1992).Reading
comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from a text and involves the complex
coordination of several processes, including “decoding, word reading, and fluency along with the
integration of background knowledge and previous experiences” (Klinger &Geisler, 2008, p. 65).
There are students who are fluent readers who experience difficulties with reading comprehension.
They are unable to process and comprehend what they read. One way to improve these students’
comprehension skills is by teaching them effective comprehension strategies.One of these
strategies is paraphrasing strategy.Paraphrasing appears to be quite a simple process on the surface,
but, in fact, is complex. Paraphrasing for comprehension is an excellent tool for reinforcing reading
skills such as identifying the main ideas, finding supporting details and identifying the author’s
voice.This study wants to investigate the effect of teaching paraphrasing strategy on reading
comprehension in Iran and answer the following question.
RQ1: Does teaching paraphrasing strategy have any effect on the reading comprehension
of the learners?
Comprehension is the reason for reading; it encompasses the learning, growing, and evolution
of ideas that occur as one reads. Reading which involves both proficient decoding and skilful
comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading instruction.Dechant states that comprehension relies
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on two types of information: that which is received from the text (the surface structure of the text)
and that which is retrieved from the reader’s memory.According to Meyer and Ray (2011) reading
comprehension involves actively constructing new understanding by building relationship among
the parts of text and between the text and one’s pre-existing knowledge.
When learners
comprehend, they interpret, integrate, critique, infer, analyze, connect and evaluate ideas in texts.
They negotiate multiple meanings not only in their heads but in the minds of
others.Comprehension takes the learner to a new level of active understanding and insight.Good
readers use lots of strategies before, during and after reading (Dogan, 2002). Strategy instruction
is the best method to improve comprehension skills. Explicit instruction in comprehension
strategies can be an effective way to help students overcome difficulties understanding
text.Onofrey and Theurer (2007) agree, stating that if students are going to become proficient in
comprehension, teachers, need to equip them with skills and strategies that are independently
transferable. Students who do not have strategies for making meaning from the text are at a
disadvantage. Hardebeck (2006) defines reading comprehension strategies as tools or plans for
facilitating and extending comprehension.
In paraphrasing it is important for students to identify the author’s voice before beginning the
process of paraphrasing. Paraphrasing involves putting the text into the reader’s own words. The
reader must carefully read the text, think about the text and then transfer the author’s message into
the reader’s own words. Reading comprehension strategies can help readers remember the key
points, distinguish the necessary and unnecessary information, think about the main idea and
comment on the subject matter. It means that if the original text is written with passion, the
paraphrase should also be passionate, if the text is humorous, the paraphrase should be, too. This
process helps students identify with the characters in their reading.One of the reasons paraphrasing
for comprehension works so well is because it integrates all the models of communication, reading,
writing, listening and speaking, which leads to a deeper understanding of the text (Fisk & Hurst,
2003).Paraphrasing will help learners to understand the meaning of a difficult passage. When you
go on to make your own argument, it will allow you to refer to another writer's thoughts while you
maintain control of the focus and tone of the argument. Paraphrasing incorporates four ways for
students to interact with the text: they hear it read aloud, they read it and make notes; they write it
in their own words and talk about their paraphrased text with their peers.Hagaman and Reid (2008)
also report the successful improvement of comprehension through teaching the RAP paraphrasing
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strategy. This particular strategy has an easily understandable process and acronym mnemonic
which can be taught through scaffolding, giving support to those students who need more
assistance in learning ‘how to think’. The RAP strategy is grounded in information processing
theory using chunking and paraphrasing procedures to help improve memory of main ideas and
details in text. The strategy requires students to break reading passages into smaller units or
“chunks” (i.e., paragraphs) and remember information from these smaller units of text (Schumaker
et al., 1984).
2. Methods
Participants 2.1.
The original participants of this study were 90 female Azeri learners of English at some language
institutes in Ardabilwho were unfamiliar with RAP paraphrasing strategy. From 90 subjects, 10
students were randomly selected for pilot study to determine the reliability of the test and the
remaining 80 ones participated in the main study. In order to establish the homogeneity of the
subjects in terms of language proficiency, Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was given to the
subjects.They had scores ranging from 31 to 63. The participants’ age were15-23and based on
their performance on this test80 participants were randomly assigned to two equal groups,one
experimental and one control group. Experimental group (n=40) was assigned to receive
paraphrasing strategy instruction and students in control group were exposed to the same texts
without such instructional treatment.
3. Materials
The materials used in this study included a packet that consisted of an Oxford Placement Test
(OPT), a reading comprehension test which served as a post-test, and some reading passages for
treatment sessions.
3.1 Reading comprehension Texts
This text that was used as a posttest of the study was adopted from their course books. Care was
taken to select those passages, which were not covered during their mainstream course. During
treatment, some reading comprehension texts from the “Facts & Figures” fourth edition by Patricia
Ackert and Linda Lee were selected for the instruction. Readability was calculated using Flesch
Reading Ease in Microsoft Word 2007to make sure that the texts suited their levels. This
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readability turned out to from 60 to 75.After reading the passages, students were asked to answer
multiple-choice questions and finding the main idea. Taking into consideration the scoring system
of the reading comprehension test, each correct answer received 1 point earning 25 points as a
whole.
4. Data Collection Procedures
This study comprised 10 sessions and was conducted during the winter semester of 2013. Several
steps were taken in order to accomplish the purpose of the study. First, to make sure of students'
proficiency level, Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered to 90 participants.
As
mentioned above, 10 students were randomly selected for pilot study and 80 of them were selected
to take part in the main phase of the study. Then they were randomly assigned to two groups:
experimental group and control group. In the second session, after making sure of the students’
homogeneity in both groups the teacher familiarized experimental groups with paraphrasing RAP
strategy and its advantages in reading comprehension.participants were provided with an extensive
introduction to this type of strategy enabling them to understand how this type of strategy works
and aids comprehension.
The instruction for the control groupwas in traditional way. In this group the teacher asked
students to read the text silently and answer the reading comprehension questions. After 10
sessions, some passages with related questions were presented as post-test to both experimental
and control group.
As mentioned above, to make sure of the participants’ proficiency level, Oxford Placement Test
was administered. Table 4.1 illustrates the descriptive statistics for proficiency test scores for the
original pool of participants.
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for Scores on the Proficiency Test
N
Mean
SD
Min
Max
80
46
9.56
31
63
Homogeneous participants (n=80) were assigned to two equal groups.
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Table 4.2 Normality Check for the Scores on posttest Test
Kolmogorov - Smirnov
Statistic
Df
Sig.
.092
80
.091
In order to select the appropriate statistical analysis, test of Normality was run.the researcher
also used one-sample Kolmogorov - Smirnov (K-S) which tries to determine the normality of
the scores. The result of the K-S Test (table 4.2) indicated that the scores of the posttest were
normally distributed. (Sig=.091).
Table 4.3
Descriptive Statistic for the Score on Posttest Test
N
Posttest 80
Mean
SD
Min
15.6750
4.28354
Max
9.00
25.00
Independent Samples T-testwas run among two groups of students, Table 4.2 shows descriptive
statistics for these passages and Table 4.4 depicts the result of t-test, which reveals no statistically
significant difference in the mean scores of two groups of texts sig=.0.000
Table 4.4 Independent Samples T-test to Compare Posttest of Reading Comprehension
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances
F
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal variances not
assumed
Sig
.737 .393
T
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
4.333
78
0.000
4.333
77.068
0.000
6. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the participants’ use of paraphrasing strategy while
they read English texts. There appears to be a link between the paraphrasing strategy (RAP)
instruction and reading comprehension. Positive results were gained; this instruction method
indicates that using this strategy in a longer period of time will improve students’ reading
comprehension. With regard to the first research question, which addressed the effects of
paraphrasing strategy on the reading comprehension, the result obtained from this study confirmed
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paraphrasing strategy has positive effect on reading comprehension. With respect to these findings,
the null hypothesis saying that “Teaching paraphrasing strategy has no effect on the reading
comprehensionof the learners” was adequately rejected, implying that paraphrasing strategy has a
significant effect on reading comprehension of students. The findings of this study conformed to
the Katims & Harris (1997) result. They found that teaching paraphrasing using the RAP was a
powerful procedure in improving the reading comprehension. The results of the analyses supported
the findings of previous study by Ellis and Graves (1990) who found positive effects of RAP on
reading comprehension. Similarly, Hagaman and Reid (2008) investigated effect of RAP strategy
on reading comprehensions’ of students. All participants improved in percentage of text recalled
and accuracy when answering comprehension questions after receiving RAP instruction.
The findings of this study conformed to Fisk and Hurst (2003) study who noted that paraphrasing
was an effective strategy to develop good reading comprehension as it reinforced other key reading
skills. They found teaching paraphrasing reinforced skills like identifying main ideas in texts and
finding supporting details.
7. Conclusion
This study examined the effect of paraphrasing strategy on reading comprehension Iranian students
of English language who study English as a foreign language. All the students in treatment group
have gained some paraphrasing awareness which can help them understand what they read. The
experimental group achieved significantly better result than the control group. The result of the
present study have confirmed that reading comprehension could be developed through explicit
instruction in paraphrasing language learning strategy. Systematic explicit instruction about the
concept of paraphrasing strategy helped students of the experimental group to better comprehend
this new approach and how to apply it on reading. The findings of this study revealed that students
who used paraphrasing RAP strategy outperformed those who received Traditional instruction.
The result of the current study showed that there were statistically significant differences between
the control groups and the experimental groups on reading comprehension. These studies all
indicated that there was significant effect of independent variable, paraphrasing, on reading
comprehension. It means experimental groups’ scores, who received paraphrasing strategy as a
treatment, were significantly higher than those of the control groups, who received traditional
instruction.
Iranian EFL Journal
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References
Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills theory and practice (3rded).United States of
America, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, publishers.
Dogan, B. (2002). The effects of strategy teaching on reading comprehension, motivation and retention in
cooperative and traditional classes. Unpublished Doctorate Thesis, DokuzEylul University, Institute
of Educational Sciences, Izmir.
Eillers, L. H., &Pinkley, C. (2010). Metacognitive strategies help students to comprehend all text. Reading
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Ellis, E.S., & Graves, A.W. (1990).Teaching rural students with learning disabilities: A paraphrasing
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Fisk, C. & Hurst, B. (2003).Paraphrasing for Comprehension. The Reading Teacher.57 (2), pp. 182- 185.
Graham, L., &Bellert, A. (2004).Difficulties in reading comprehension for students with learning
disabilities. In B. Wong (Ed.), Learning about learning disabilities (pp. 251-279). San Diego, CA:
Elsevier Academic.
Hardebecek, M. M. (2006). Effectiveness and usage of reading comprehension strategies for second grade
title 1 students. Unpublished Master Thesis, Minesota State University, Education Department,
Minnesota.
Hagaman, J. L., & Reid, R. (2008).The effects of the paraphrasing strategy on the reading comprehension
of middle-school students at-risk for failure in reading. Remedial and Special Education, 29, 222-234.
Katims, D. S., & Harris, S. (1997). Improving the reading comprehension of middle school students in
inclusive classrooms. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 41, 116-123.
Kintsch, W. (1998) Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kletzien, S.B. (2009). Paraphrasing: an effective comprehension strategy.The reading teacher, 63(1), 7377.
Klinger, J. K., &Geisler, D. (2008). Helping classroom reading teachers distinguish between language
acquisition and learning disabilities. In J. K. Klinger, J. J. Hoover, & L. M. Baca (Eds.), Why do English
language learners struggle with reading? Distinguishing language acquisition from learning
disabilities (pp. 57-74). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Meyer, B.J., &,Ray, R.O. (2011).Individual differences in children’s knowledge of expository text
structures: A review of literature. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(1), 6782.
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Munro, J. (2004). The use of reading comprehension strategies at multiple levels of text processing.
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Onofrey, K. A. &Theurer J. L. (2007). What’s a teacher to do: Suggestions for comprehension strategy
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Iranian EFL Journal
269
Title
Exploring Role of Academic Backgrounds in EFL Teachers'
Language Assessment Literacy
Author
Zahra Shafiee (M.A)
Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Zahra Shafiee, M.A in Applied Linguistics from Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran. Her areas of
research interest include Reflective Teaching, Teachers' Cognition, Language Teachers'
Assessment Knowledge Base, and Technology-enhanced Language Instruction.
Abstract
Recent transitions in language assessment paradigms highlight the importance of
improvement of language teachers’ awareness, perspectives, and knowledge regarding
language assessment. To this end, the present study reports on exploring assessment
literacy of 10 (N=10) language teachers, and analyzing this knowledge and literacy as a
function of academic background. Divided into two groups (n=5), five participants held
Bachelor of Arts in language related majors (ELT Group) and five held Bachelor of Arts
or sciences in majors unrelated to languages (Non-ELT Group). The data were collected
through focus group interviews, semi-structured individual interviews, and observation of
actual test writing practices in meetings during a semester. Thematic analysis of data
revealed three major areas of assessment knowledge, namely, ‘Theoretical Knowledge’,
‘Practical Skills’, and ‘Sociocultural and Critical Concerns’. In addition, statistical
measures revealed significant differences between the two groups in terms their reported
thoughts corresponding to the themes ‘Theoretical Knowledge’ and ‘Practical Skills’.
However, comparing groups regarding the theme ‘Sociocultural and Critical Concerns’
revealed to be non-significant. The findings contribute to promotion of language teacher
development programs and language assessment courses.
Keywords: Language Assessment Literacy (LAL), Assessment Knowledge Base
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1. Introduction
Language assessment paradigms and testing related debates witness a heightened attention to
dissemination of a core knowledge underlying assessment practices and evaluative decisions on
the part of all language instruction and assessment stakeholders (e.g., Fulcher 2012; Inbar-Lourie,
2008; Taylor, 2009, 2013). This upsurge of interest is believed to be the outcome of a transition
from the psychometrically-driven prescriptive of objectively measuring language proficiency,
towards the dialogical process of a “socially constructed activity embedded in the local context
with teachers, students and other community members” (Inbar-Lourie, 2008, p. 386). To this end,
Inbar-Lourie (2008) calls for the formation of an ‘assessment culture’ which incorporates
development of classroom teachers' interpretive epistemologies regarding the process of
knowledge formation. Development of this knowledge base, according to Taylor (2013), arrives
at its optimal success “when it reflects a dynamic and iterative process informed by a collaborative
ongoing dialogue taking place at the interface between language testing experts and non-specialist
test stakeholders” (p. 411). Hence, the transition in language assessment initiatives remarkably
increases language teachers' responsibility to gain knowledge, awareness, and literacy for
evaluative practices (Fulcher 2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2008; Rea-Dickins, 2008; Taylor, 2013). This
knowledge base and awareness which underlies language assessment literacy (LAL), as defined
by Inbar-Lourie (2008), is the conceptual framework, theoretical knowledge, and practical
competency for understanding and analyzing the data collected from the learners' classroom
performances. Such conceptualization and analysis is then, followed by examining the process of
application and implementation of these sets of data (Inbar-Lourie, 2008).
Highlighting the role of academic background and teacher development programs (e.g.,
Almarza, 1996; Borg, 2003; Freeman, 2002, 2007), recently related literature records a
considerable emphasis on application of appropriate methodology and materials to develop
language assessment knowledge base among assessment stakeholders (e.g., Fulcher, 2012;
Malone, 2008, 2013; O'Loughlin, 2006, 2013; Pill & Harding, 2013; Scarino, 2013; Stoynoff,
2012; Taylor, 2009, 2013). However, in spite of the importance of academic background and
theoretical knowledge as the backbone of teachers’ pedagogical and evaluative decisions makings
(Borg, 2003; Freeman, 2002, 2007; Fulcher, 2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2008), there is a paucity of
research on how language assessment knowledge is classified among language teachers as one of
the groups of stakeholders (Taylor, 2013). Moreover, to date, undue attention has been paid to the
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role of academic background in language teachers’ assessment knowledge. To fill this gap, the
present study set out to classifying language assessment knowledge base among Iranian English
as a foreign language (EFL) teachers. This study also attempted to compare language assessment
knowledge and literacy of EFL teachers with and without academic background in majors related
to English Language Teaching (ELT).
2. Review of Related Literature
Formation of the concepts of language assessment literacy is tracked down the Lado's (1961) work,
'Language testing: The construction and use of foreign language tests'. In this book, Lado
highlights the importance of maintaining a less technical language for disseminating language
assessment knowledge among non-professional test constructors such as pre-service and in-service
language teachers. More specifically, this book signifies assessment knowledge as a requisite to
enhance the effectiveness of instruction, assessment of the language instructed, and evaluation of
the language use. Although Lado raised this issue more than half a century ago, it is only around
two decades that the term ‘assessment literacy' has appeared in the work of language testing
scholars such as Stiggins (1991, 1997) and Brindley (2001). In 1990, the American Federation of
Teachers attempted to specify a set of language assessment competencies for classroom language
teachers. These competencies incorporated selection and development of tests for classroom
administrations, scoring interpretation and decision making, and considering ethics of the tests. In
a decade, the concept of language assessment literacy further developed when Brindley (2001)
called for a focus on assessment with regard to curriculum rather than standardized tests which are
not directly relevant to classroom performances and related decision makings. Subsequently,
attempts for investigating language assessment literacy addressed assessment knowledge among
all assessment stakeholders, especially professional testers (e.g., Brown & Bailey, 2008; Malone,
2008, 2013; O’Loughlin, 2006; Taylor, 2000; Walters, 2010).
As demonstrated by Inbar-Lourie (2008), the attainment of a higher efficiency in ELT requires
its stakeholders to gain the knowledge and competency regarding the concepts, skills, and
strategies “to choose and develop assessment tools, to match instruction to the skillful
administration, scoring and interpretation of externally and internally administered assessment
procedures” (p. 389). Aligned with this view, language assessment knowledge base has recently
integrated knowledge, skills, and competence for application of a set of principles to gain language
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assessment competence with regard to construction and analysis of tests (Davies, 2008). In
addition, this knowledge base incorporates setting criteria for using data emerged from assessment
for various instructional decision making purposes (Inbar-Lourie, 2008). Held in a broader social
perspective, “teachers as professionals should try to protect, guard, and use tests as pedagogical
tools as part of the process of preserving and perpetuating democratic cultures, values, and ethics”
(Shohamy, 2005, p. 110). Consequently, becoming geared towards assessment literacy entails "the
capacity to ask and answer critical questions about the purpose for assessment, about the fitness
of the tool being used, about testing conditions, and about what is going to happen on the basis of
the results" (Inbar-Lourie, 2008, p. 389).
Characterization and classification of assessment knowledge, skills, and competencies have
been reported in a coherent line of inquiry (e.g., Fulcher, 2012; Malone, 2008; Pill & Harding,
2013; Taylor, 2013). For instance, Taylor (2013) classified eight areas of assessment knowledge
base underlying language assessment literacy. These areas are categorized as, ‘knowledge of
theory’, ‘technical skills’, ‘principles and concepts’, ‘language pedagogy’, ‘sociocultural values’,
‘local practices’, ‘personal beliefs and attitudes’, and ‘scores and decision making’. Taylor (2009,
2013) also differentiated between the assessment literacy required for the four different assessment
stakeholder namely, test writers, classroom teachers, university administrators, and professional
language testers. To avoid the dichotomous comparisons which classify stakeholders' assessment
knowledge on the ground of being either assessment literate or assessment illiterate, Pill and
Harding (2013) suggested a deferring and progressive state for language teachers’ assessment
literacy along a continuum. This characterization, according to Taylor (2013), caters for
progression of assessment literacy through “designing modular courses in language testing and
even in certificating levels of achievement as part of a broader professional development program
for certain stakeholder groups” (p. 410).
A relatively recent avenue of research continues to examine the role of classroom teachers'
assessment knowledge on students' achievement and progress (e.g., Davison & Leung, 2009;
Fulcher, 2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2008; Malone, 2008, 2013; Rea-Dickins, 2008; Scarino, 2013).
Regarding the increase in language teachers’ responsibilities for testing and assessment, Fulcher
(2012) developed a comprehensive needs analysis of language teachers' assessment training as a
survey instrument. He pinpointed the importance of assessment knowledge "in the creation of new
pedagogic materials and programs in language testing and assessment to meet the changing needs
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of teachers and other stakeholders for a new age" (p. 113). In addition, the role of classroom
teachers' language assessment knowledge and literacy was further highlighted by Scarino (2013)
through addressing the prevailing conflicts between traditional assessment paradigms and
sociocultural theories. As stated by Scarino (2013), language assessment knowledge base pursues
“the dual goals of transforming teacher assessment practices and developing teacher understanding
of the phenomenon of assessment itself and themselves as assessors” (2013, p. 309). Furthermore,
Malone (2013) underscored the importance of a reciprocal relationship between the teachers’
sufficient knowledge of language pedagogy and the proper implementation of language assessment
in classrooms. Accordingly, the spiral process of language teaching and learning arrives at a
desirable result when classroom teachers can integrate their pedagogical practices with test
development, selection, and use, as well as fair and ethical interpretation of the results (Malone,
2013). The above mentioned instructional, sociocultural, and epistemological goals of improving
language assessment literacy (Inbar-Lourie, 2008; Scarino, 2013) highlight the importance of
investigating language teachers’ assessment literacy. Given the paucity of empirical evidence
addressing role of academic background (i.e. major of study) in Iranian language teachers’
assessment knowledge and literacy, the present study sought answer to the following research
questions:
1. What are the dominant areas of knowledge underlying EFL teachers’ language
assessment literacy?
2. What are the potential variations in EFL teachers’ language assessment literacy as a
function of academic backgrounds?
3. Method
3.1 Specification of Context of the Study
The present study was carried out at a private language institute in Tehran, Iran. It was part of a
bigger research project aiming at improving English language teachers’ assessment knowledge,
especially regarding classroom assessment. More specifically, this program focused on
empowering Iranian EFL teachers to construct, revise, administer, and interpret scores of their own
tests. That is, the teachers who participated in this program attended weekly meetings in which, as
group work, they wrote short quizzes which were administered in classrooms on a weekly basis
with an instructional purpose. Meetings also provided opportunity for discussing and reflecting on
assessment related issues.
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3.2 Participants
The participants of the present study consisted of 10 Iranian, female, EFL teachers (N=10). Due
to confidentiality of their identity, hereafter, the participants are referred to as T1, T2 …, and T10
(i.e. Teacher 1, Teacher 2..., and Teacher10). The participants were selected, from among
volunteers, based on purposive sampling according to their academic background. Thus, they were
divided in two groups, namely, ELT Group and Non-ELT Group. That is, Non-ELT Group (n =
5) included teachers holding Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) in majors nonrelevant to English language instruction. Participants of this group met the required professional
qualifications for language teaching at the institute based on holding language institutes’
certificates approving their advanced level of English language proficiency. They also finished
teacher training courses held by this institute. ELT Group (n = 5) consisted of teachers with BA
degrees in ELT-relevant majors. They also finished the same teacher training courses as Non-ELT
Group did. Table 1 provides a biographical summary of the participants’ academic background
and length of teaching experience.
Table 1. Biographical Summary of the Participants’ Profile
Participants
Length
Teaching
of Education
and
Academic Background
Experience
(5 to 10 years)
T1
6
Sociology
Non-
T2
10
Business Management
ELT
T3
7
Chemistry
Group
T4
9
Mathematics
T5
8
Physics
T6
7
TEFL
T7
10
TEFL
T8
6
English
T9
9
Literature
T10
5
English
ELT
Group
Language
and
Language
and
Literature
English Translation
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In addition to academic background, for homogeneity of the contexts, the participants were
selected from among volunteers with similar context of teaching and materials of instruction.
Accordingly, the teachers were all female, were between 25 to 32 years old, and had 5 to 10 years
of teaching experience. Moreover, all teachers were Iranian with Persian as their first language.
This study was carried out during a semester taking 10 weeks, the materials of instruction included
Top Notch series (books 2A and 2B, and book 3A), and classes ran twice a week.
3.3 Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedure
Prior to the data collection procedure, the participants pronounced their agreement on the
researcher’s presence in their meetings as supervisor of the program. Also they agreed on the use
of the data for research purposes. The data were collected through conducting focus group
interviews, individual semi-structured interviews following classroom test administrations, and
group discussions in weekly meetings. Table 2 summarizes data collection schedule.
Table 2. Summary of Data Collection Procedure
Weekly
Data Collection Procedure
Meetings
Week 1
-
Meeting 1: Focus Group Interviews
-
After First Classroom Test Administration:
Individual Semi-Structured Interview
Weeks 2 to 9
-
Group Discussion in 8 Weekly Meetings
-
After
Week 10
Final
Exam:
Individual
Semi-
Structured Interviews
-
Meeting 10: Focus Group Interview
As preferred by the participants, interviews and meetings’ group discussions were
conducted in English language. Partial lexical and grammatical editions were applied to the
excerpts which are used as example in this paper. All of the discussions in meetings and interviews
were audio-taped and later transcribed. A brief description of collecting data is provided as
follows.
3.3.1
Interviews
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Focus Group Interviews. Focus group research is defined as collecting naturalistic qualitative data
through “engaging a small number of people in an informal group discussion (or discussions),
focused around a particular topic or set of issues” (Wilkinson, 2011, p. 168). This data collection
procedure assigns a mediating role to the researcher, and aims at facilitating an interaction among
the group members. This interaction, in effect, encourages detailed elicitation of authentic data
(Wilkinson, 2011). To this end, focus group interviews were carried out with each group in the
opening and the closing sessions of the semester (see Table 2). These interviews addressed the
participants’ knowledge, beliefs, and concerns about classroom assessment, their objectives of test
constructions, and their views about scoring issues and interpretation. The participants were also
encouraged to go further to large scale and standardized tests as well as issues like ethics, fairness,
and social impact of tests. They were asked to reflect on these issues from their viewpoint as either
language teachers, test writers, test administrators, or as previously test-takers with reference to
their learning background.
Individual Semi-structured Interviews. A more detailed inquiry into the participants’ practical
aspects of assessment knowledge base could be obtained through classroom observation. However,
due to the institute’s policies, during test administration, classroom observations were not allowed.
Instead, immediately after the first and the last test administration sessions in the semester (see
Table 2), conducting semi-structured individual interviews provided the opportunity for the
participants to express and discuss their assessment-related concerns. These interviews led the
participants to reflect on their classrooms’ atmosphere during test administration, their perceptions
of the aim behind test tasks, their score's interpretation, their evaluation of the students based on
the results, and the feedback students would receive on these results.
3.3.2
The Weekly Meetings and Group Discussions
During the semester, teachers discussed classrooms’ instructional and assessment-related issues in
weekly meetings. On meeting days, the two groups participated in group discussions which took
between 45 to 60 minutes. Due to the participants’ schedule at the institute and their convenience,
each group was formed separately with a two-hour interval. Thus, the researcher could fully
participate in both meetings and group discussions to provide supervision, mediation, and feedback
when necessary. As assigned by the program, the participants examined learners' progress and
evaluated their own teaching and testing methods. They also developed and edited their quizzes,
then modified, revised, and edited them in group discussions. That is, after test items were written
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and checked in the groups, the participants reflectively gave and received feedback on the newly
written quizzes and decided how to develop them for future administrations. Meanwhile, if
necessary, the potential problematic points were discussed and modified by the
supervisor/researcher. Subsequent to administration, the participants were encouraged to archive
the quizzes after editing potential problems. This kept them aware of their assessment and
instruction processes, and allowed for future use of the quizzes depending on classrooms’
instructional needs. The following example represents one of the researcher’s interventions when
a participant chose a test from the archive without evaluating its content.
Example 1:
“It is ok if you want to use tests from the institute's archive or bring tests from other institutes or
schools. But I have already seen some mistakes in them, and some of the tests have been given in
other institutes with different textbooks. If you want to use them, let’s first check and edit them;
then, adjust them to your own students’ level, to your own goals; to what you have taught in your
classrooms; and what you want your students to know at the end of the semester…”
3.4
Data Analysis
To arrive at a detailed representation of the participants’ assessment knowledge and literacy, the
audio-taped interviews and group discussions were transcribed. Then, content analysis of the
transcripts was applied through segmentation to identify and label units of analysis, and applying
coding scheme, that is, open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Units of analysis constituted any assessment-related thought extracted from the participants’
interviews and meetings. Next, statements were coded based on the shared concerns indicating a
core underlying knowledge. Subsequently, the inferred codes were best fitted into Taylor’s (2013)
model of language teachers’ language assessment literacy mentioned above (see 2.1). However,
the grounded approach adopted in this study allowed for the emergence a new characteristic
addressed as ‘autonomy and agency’. This category represented the teachers’ actions which were
not demanded by the curriculum, or attempts that they did to improve the institute’s instructional
programs in spite of limitations. Finally, these areas were further categorized forming three major
themes, namely ‘Theoretical Knowledge’, ‘Practical Skills, and ‘Sociocultural and Critical
Concerns’. Accordingly, the categories ‘knowledge of theory’, ‘language pedagogy’, and
‘principles and concepts’ constituted the theme ‘Theoretical Knowledge’. The categories
‘technical skills’, ‘scores and decision making’ and ‘local practices’ formed the theme ‘Practical
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Skills. The categories ‘sociocultural values’, ‘personal beliefs and attitudes’ and the newly
emerged category ‘autonomy and agency’ comprised the theme ‘Sociocultural and Critical
Concerns’. Definitions and examples for these categories are provided in the following sections.
The following conversation provides an example of the segmentation and coding procedure.
Example 2: (Adopted from) Week 5, ELT Group
T5: “For this week’s production test, I have to write questions from this part of the lesson (1) but
it is a new lesson and many of them [the learners] haven't learnt it well and need more practices
(2). How should I write the items?”
T8: “Look, you can write fill-in-the-blank items. Then, in the next quiz ask them to make sentences
in the way that book wants (3). I usually do it in this way that after the quiz, while checking the
answers, I repeat the lesson to make sure they have learned it (4).”
As shown above, this conversation was segmented into four units. More specifically, unit (1)
represents T5’s concern for following lesson plans and schedule, and unit (2), indicates her
attention to cognitive aspects of learning process. These two units were later classified under the
category ‘language pedagogy’. Regarding T8, unit (3) indicates her test writing abilities and skills,
which was later classified under the category ‘technical skills’. Unit (4) reveals T8’s strategy for
the instructional aspect of assessment and the principles she has developed in this regard. This unit
was later classified under the category ‘principles and concepts’.
To ensure reliability of the findings, a second coder, holding Ph.D in TEFL, experienced in
content analysis, and specifically trained for the present study, coded 10% of the randomly-chosen
transcripts. Results revealed inter-coder reliability of 91%. Subsequently, the diverging points
were discussed and the coding procedure was revised accordingly. For instance, in the case of
Example 2, unit (2) was interpreted as a concern for the learners’ motivation by one coder, and as
a concern for learning process by another. Given that overall conversation’s context, no clue
indicating motivation and affective domain was found. Thus, the two coders agreed that this unit
indicated learning process.
To address research questions, both qualitative analysis and statistical measures were employed.
First, thematic analysis of data led to the emergence of nine categories or areas of language
assessment knowledge and literacy. Next, based on the results from content analysis of transcripts
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of group discussions, statistical procedures examined variations in this knowledge between ELT
Group and Non-ELT Group.
4.1 Dominant Areas of Assessment Knowledge
The first research question addressed the dominant areas of assessment knowledge underlying the
groups’ language assessment-related practices during the semester. To provide answer to this
question, the entire data adopted from interviews and meeting’s group work and discussions were
analyzed. As mentioned above (see 3.4), nine categories were inferred which were categorized
into three major themes ‘Theoretical Knowledge’, ‘Practical Skills, and ‘Sociocultural and Critical
Concerns’. The following sub-sections elaborate on the thematic analysis of major themes and
their corresponding categories as well as groups’ particular concerns regarding each category. It
should be mentioned that these themes and categories encompassed the participants’ assessment
literacy as a unified knowledge base. Thus, there seems a degree of overlap between them.
However, this categorization classified and analyzed statements and practices based on their
contextual characteristics as the most representative of different aspects of this knowledge base.
4.1.1
Theoretical Knowledge
The first theme incorporated categories indicating the participants’ knowledge and approaches to
language assessment and classroom instruction as informed by theories of assessment, teaching,
and learning. The three following categories explained below correspond to this theme.
Knowledge of Theory. This category emerged from statements indicating the teachers’ familiarity
with theories of language teaching and assessment. Analysis of the data indicated the two groups’
different reliance on this area of knowledge in their instruction and assessment practices. That is,
although the institute’s curriculum encouraged adopting a communicative and functional approach
in instruction and assessment, a structural perspective was frequently implied in the reflections
and test construction practices, especially among Non-ELT Group. More specifically, they adopted
a grammar based approach to their weekly quizzes to ensure students’ learning. However,
function-based approaches to test writing were more frequently observed among ELT Group. The
following excerpts indicate these approaches.
Example 3: Week 3, Non-ELT Group
T2: “I want to write items that follow the communicative approaches that we have in textbooks.
At the same time, I think students need to know grammar and vocabulary to become more
successful in their final exams. I should see what type of test is more appropriate.”
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Example 4: Week 8, ELT Group
T6: “I believe items of this grammar quiz should be mixed with language functions, and
collocations. Collocation itself means meaning; means form and function; means how native
speakers talk; theory approves it, too.”
Language Pedagogy. The second category addressed utterances indicating how participants
integrated pedagogical knowledge, classroom practices, and assessing learning process.
Reviewing the data showed the groups’ considerable reliance on classroom experiences and their
pedagogical knowledge. Although this category to some extent overlapped the groups’ ‘knowledge
of theory’, the participants, especially in Non-ELT Group, expressed their increasing interest in
gaining a deeper pedagogical knowledge by studying related books, searching available websites,
and sharing ideas with members in meetings. In addition, both groups expressed their concern for
their effectiveness of instruction and pedagogical practices as they reflected on their test writing
activities.
T3: “It is not enough to go to classes, teach, write quizzes based on the tests available in the
institute’s test bank, then, run and score the quizzes. I see teaching and testing as two sides of one
whole. You should know both to succeed.”
T9: “I evaluate students’ language production through classroom practices, correcting their
errors, what they come and write on the board, book exercises, quizzes, and homework. I also give
tests for the last stage of evaluation.”
Principles and Concepts. This category was inferred from remarks showing maxims and
principles that the participants’ set for themselves based on their conceptualization of assessment
and instruction and the strategies they have developed accordingly. These principles and concepts
guided groups’ goal settings in test writing, related classroom practices, and evaluative decision
makings. Accordingly, succeeding in the final exam with high grades constituted a major goal
behind item writing and related practices, especially in Non-ELT Group. Final discussions and
interviews, however, revealed both groups’ concerns for improving instruction based on the results
of tests. The following extracts further illustrate this point.
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T5: “I want to prepare students for their final [exams], so I try to follow format of these tests...
they should learn how to manage their time and how to answer questions. This makes them more
successful at exam.”
T2: “I agree that we don’t have to forget midterm and final exams, but I think we should work on
their speaking and listening, too.”
Example 10: Final Individual Interview, ELT-Group
T10: “You said tests should make us sure they [students] have learned the lesson. Ok, but what
will you do if your students keep making mistakes in the quizzes?”
T6: “My way is that, when I have recently taught something, say vocabulary, I don’t expect them
too much in quizzes. I test only their recognition. But after a couple of sessions that it has been
practiced in the class, to check whether the process of learning has taken place, I include, for
example, the same words with different contexts ... Then in midterm and final exam, I give
production and function items, or ask them to write a paragraph using these words.”
With regard to the theme ‘Theoretical Knowledge’, examination of reflections and practices of the
two groups indicated different perspectives. As such, ELT Group primarily maintained a
functional view whereas Non-ELT Group more frequently adopted grammar-based approaches to
theories of teaching and assessment. Moreover, the two groups represented different ways of
integrating instruction and assessment and showed various conceptualizations of this link through
setting instructional and evaluative goals.
4.1.2
Practical Skills
The second theme encompassed categories representing the participants’ practical skills and
competence necessary for test writing, administration, scoring, and interpretation. This theme
included three categories which are explained bellow.
Technical Skills. This category emerged from statements addressing the participants’ practical
skills of item writing and their choice of different types of test tasks. Analysis of the data indicated
that groups, especially Non-ELT Group primarily included recognition items, particularly multiple
choice item types. Although the two groups attributed using this test type to the ease of
construction, administration, and scoring, practical test construction revealed to follow relatively
different directions in ELT Group. That is, in this group production items with functional purposes,
or recognition items which required analytic language ability and higher level thinking more
frequently came to focus. The examples below illustrate this variation.
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T1: “I prefer multiple choice items ... You know, class time is limited and when we have production
tests, time of class is lost, and the scoring takes time, too … but writing essay takes a lot of time. I
give them a topic and the number of sentences but I need a fixed way for correcting essays.”
[As participants were discussing how to give a writing test, T8 suggested her own way of running
the writing tests.]
T8: “I usually give them a topic and specify the length of writing. That is, I specify word counts
for the writing not the number of sentences. By word I mean content words not a writing full of
prepositions and pronouns. Then I give them some tips like where did you go, what did you do,
etc. Don’t forget to tell them how you score the writings. They should know it before the exam.”
Scores and Decision Making. This category incorporated utterances showing the groups’
approaches to scoring and score interpretation as well as the consequences of decision making
based on this interpretation. The two groups represented relatively similar concerns for this
category. That is, in early meetings scores were addressed, by both groups, as a sign of the
teachers’ success and the students’ progress. However, during the last meetings the groups added
a direction to interpreting the scores that is as a feedback on teachers’ efficiency of classroom
practices and for modifying their instruction. The following extracts which are told by the same
teacher further elaborate on this process.
T5: “When my students get higher scores, they become more motivated, and this helps them study
harder. Sometimes I give them bonus marks. It makes them really competitive. Also, I see that the
institute’s manager welcomes higher grades. You will be known as a better teacher; students will
be more successful and motivated …”
T5: “Scores of weekly quizzes tell me I haven’t wasted my time but when I saw their [students’]
low scores of midterm exam, first, I lost my confidence. Then, I analyzed the problematic parts of
the exam, and worked on them in the class. Now I expect better results for final exam because
they have learned the lessons more effectively.”
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Local Practices. This category addressed the participants’ attempts to practice their knowledge of
language assessment and technical skills according to the context. Although the category ‘local
practices’ constituted one of the most dominant areas on which both groups relied, analysis of the
data revealed different concerns behind this reliance. That is, as compared with ELT Group, NonELT Group appeared more involved in meeting the requirements of the program including
practicing test writing and administration, discussing related issues in meetings, and receiving
feedback from groups. Although following the same line, ELT Group put more emphasis on
flexibility of assessment practices based on the contextual factors. In this regard, as stated in the
following example, one of the participants reported on different decisions she had to make on the
same technique based on her learners’ proficiency level and the institutional constraints.
T7: “When I wanted to give the quiz last week, students said they weren’t ready. I asked them to
do the quiz in pair, then we discussed the answers with the whole class and I asked them to score
themselves.”
Analysis of the data corresponding to the theme ‘Practical Skills’ indicated the participants’
various assessment goals and approaches leading their choice of test types and score
interpretations. In addition, different degrees of flexibility was observed in making decisions based
on immediate needs of classroom and contextual factors. Although groups represented different
views in choosing test types and local practices, both group stated to adopt a broader view of scores
as a feedback providing clues for teachers for modification of instruction and assessment.
4.1.3
Sociocultural and Critical Concerns
The third theme included areas of assessment knowledge indicating groups’ reflections on and
concerns for tests’ social impacts and ethical issues. This theme also encompassed the participants’
personal conceptualizations and values as well as their individual actions to improve assessment
in their contexts. This theme consists of three categories which are outlined as follows.
Sociocultural Values. This category was inferred from the participants’ remarks representing their
involvement in the social consequences and impacts of assessment, evaluation, and score
interpretations. Moreover, this area of knowledge incorporated the groups’ understanding of
ethics, fairness, and impacts of tests, and reflected their conceptualization of classroom instruction
as a socially-situated practice. Although analyzing early discussions showed little variations in the
groups’ directions towards these issues, both groups appeared to develop new conceptualizations
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across the study. That is, during the early meetings, the pressures exerted from educational system,
society, and students’ families were considered as accepted norms and difficulties of the job.
However, in the ending discussions, the groups more frequently addressed the taken-for-thegranted norms of the society including achieving high ranks and scores as the accepted concept of
educational success. The following excerpts further clarify these directions.
Example 14: Final Focus Group Interview, Non-ELT Group
T5: “I used to think I gave challenging tests but now I understand they weren’t fair. For example,
[after] I taught a word which had several meanings, I brought examples from one of the meanings.
Then in the quizzes, I would give them [students] a fill-in-the-blank item for another meaning. I
thought they should guess the meaning based on the context. Now I see it wouldn’t fulfill my
objective of teaching.”
T6: “When you help students pass IELTS or TOEFL tests successfully, instead of teaching them
how to independently and creatively produce language, you are known as a successful teacher but
maybe students can’t even communicate a sentence.”
T8: “That’s right, and we are under pressure from institute and the students who want good
results. If the students get good grades, the institute ranks higher among other branches, then this
means we teachers have done our job well. They put it all on the teachers’ shoulders… and we are
not paid well.”
Personal Beliefs/Attitudes. This category emerged from statements representing the groups’
reflections and personal expression of assessment-related perspectives, concerns, and beliefs. One
of the frequently expressed common views was that both groups emphasized the importance of a
coherent criteria for their test writing and scoring which was missing in the program then. In
addition, ELT Group highlighted that test construction and administration should be based on
classrooms’ needs and the students’ individual differences. The following excerpts reflect some of
the groups’ beliefs and attitudes.
T2: “In my opinion, our quizzes affect study, learning styles, and strategies of students… so we
need a unified set of rules for writing items and tests, and for scoring production tests, especially
essays.”
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Example 17: Final Focus Group Interview, ELT Group
T10: “When students know there is a purpose behind items, they will study more deeply and
purposefully. But if they see it is always multiple choice, or if they realize the blanks in cloze
passages are random, they will leave everything to chance and don’t set goal in their study.”
Autonomy and Agency. This category consisted of the participants’ voluntary actions which were
not included in the curriculum, or their attempts to improve the institute’s instructional programs
in spite of limitations. In the case of these attempts and actions, the two groups usually cooperated
with each other. For instance, T10, T4, and T2 set to revise the institute’s test archive through
updating and editing quizzes and organizing them based on the students’ needs and curricular
objectives. T6 and T1 cooperated in assigning their students to choose items of their weekly
quizzes. In addition, T8 reported that she had launched a similar program at another language
institute in which she worked as a supervisor. Both groups also suggested that, added to the
completely pre-designed tests that the institute provided in midterm and final exams, each teacher
should add a few items evaluating supplementary activities focused in that classroom.
As indicated in the three categories of the theme ‘Sociocultural and Critical Concerns’,
initial sociocultural and critical concerns were relatively similar across groups. However,
participants of both groups expressed different sociocultural values, beliefs, and attitudes during
the study. Another point to address is the cooperation in voluntary attempts that both groups made
to improve assessment practices at their institute.
Given the instances of knowledge and perspectives inferred from qualitative analysis, the
major themes and their corresponding areas of assessment knowledge were initially delineated
based on the classification proposed by Taylor (2013). In addition, the area ‘autonomy and
agency’, which was not included in Taylor’s classification, emerged from statements and actions
of the participants. As indicated in qualitative analysis of the data, regardless of the frequency of
referring to each theme, groups revealed different perspectives and approaches towards language
assessment. That is, theoretical and practical approaches of Non-ELT Group to assessment implied
as more practically-oriented than theoretically-directed, and indicated structural perspectives
behind remarks and practices. However, statements and practices among ELT Group revealed to
be more theoretically informed, with an inclination towards functional approaches to language
instruction and assessment. With respect to the groups’ sociocultural and critical concerns, in
addition to the groups’ conceptualization of ethics and impacts of tests, both groups revealed their
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autonomy and sense of agency through their efforts to improve the institute’s evaluation policies.
The above-mentioned dominant areas and assessment-related approaches, actions, and
perspectives among the two groups reflect contribution of ELT-related theoretical knowledge and
academic background (major of study). These finding are consistent with the empirical data and
theoretical frameworks addressing role of theoretical knowledge and academic background to
teachers’ pedagogical and evaluative practices and decision makings (e.g., Borg, 2003; Fulcher,
2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2008) as well as their awareness and concerns for sociocultural aspects of
assessment (e.g., Inbar-Lourie, 2008; Pill & Harding, 2013; Shohamy, 2005). However, due to the
focus and short length of this study, the observed instances of change in perspectives and actions
during the course of study require caution.
4.2 Variations in the Groups’ Language Assessment Knowledge
The second research question addressed potential variations among the participants’ assessment
knowledge as a function of academic backgrounds. Although the first research question revealed
nuances in the groups’ perspectives, beliefs, and actions within dominant areas of assessment
knowledge, comparing the frequencies yielded from the content analysis of group discussions and
test writing practices provided clues to more thoroughly answer to this question. The frequencies
and percentages of reported units under each category corresponding to major themes are tabulated
in Table 3.
Table 3. Frequencies and Percentages of Occurrences of the Categories across Groups
Major Themes and
Frequencies and Percentages
Corresponding Categories
Non-ELT
Knowledge
of 95
ELT Group
Total
372
467
Theory
1.9%
7.5%
9.4%
Theoretical
Language
291
534
825
Knowledge
Pedagogy
5.8%
10.7%
16.6%
476
639
9.6%
12.8%
Principles
Concepts
and 163
3.3%
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Technical Skills
Practical Skills
Scores
328
678
1006
6.6%
13.6%
20.2%
547
654
and 107
Decision Making
2.1%
11%
13.1%
Local Practices
216
379
595
4.3%
7.6%
11.9%
84
172
256
1.7%
3.5%
5.1%
153
261
414
3.1%
5.2%
8.3%
93
127
0.7%
1.9%
2.5%
1471
3512
4983
29.5%
70.5%
100%
Sociocultural
Values
Sociocultural
and
Personal
Critical Beliefs/Attitudes
Concerns
Autonomy
Agency
Total
and 34
As indicated in Table 3, of the total number of 4983 reported units, 70.5% of the units were
reported by ELT Group, and 29.5% were reported by Non-ELT Group. In addition, the three
categories ‘technical skills’, ‘language pedagogy’, and ‘local practices’ remained the most
frequently reported areas guiding the two groups’ assessment related practices, reflections, and
decision makings. More specifically, ‘Technical skills’ revealed to be the most frequently reported
area of knowledge among both groups (6.6% reported by Non-ELT Group and 13.6% by ELTGroup). Moreover, the three areas ‘knowledge of theory’, ‘sociocultural values’, and ‘Autonomy
and Agency’ were the least frequently addressed among the two groups. Chi-Square Tests were
conducted to compare frequencies of occurrences of the two groups’ reported units. First, total
frequency of the themes reported by each group, and next, categories corresponding to each theme
were compared. Table 4 summarizes the results of Chi-Square Tests. Accordingly, there was a
significant difference between the two groups (χ²= 9.550, df= 2, sig two-tailed= .008) in terms of
frequencies of referring to the three major themes of language assessment literacy.
Table 4. Results of the Chi-Square Tests Comparing Groups
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Themes
Asymp. Sig.
Value
Major Themes
Theoretical
Knowledge
Practical Skills
Sociocultural and
Critical Concerns
df
sided)
9.550
2
.008
36.881
2
.001
72.674
3
.001
4.730
2
.094
(2- Significant Level
(p)
.05
.05
.05
.05
As reported in Table 4, Chi-Square tests were also employed to compare the two groups against
categories of each major theme. As indicated in the results, (χ² =36.881, df= 3, sig twotailed=.001), there was a significant difference between the two groups in terms of their
frequencies of reported units corresponding to categories of the theme ‘Theoretical Knowledge’.
The results, (χ² =72.674, df= 3, sig two-tailed=.001), also indicated a significant difference
between the two groups with respect to referring to the categories theme ‘Practical Skills’.
Regarding the theme ‘Sociocultural and Critical Concerns’, the results, (χ² =4.730, df= 2, sig twotailed= .094), revealed a non-significant difference between the two groups in terms of frequencies
of reporting each category.
As represented in Table 3 and the results of Chi-Square Tests reported in Table 4, some patterns
revealed among the groups’ reliance on particular areas of assessment knowledge and major
themes. As such, with regard to areas of knowledge, the category ‘technical skills’, with 1006
reported units, incorporated more than 20% of reported statements the most frequently reported
area of assessment knowledge. The second most prevalent area of knowledge, ‘language
pedagogy’ with 16.6% (825 units) reported units, was followed by ‘scores and decision making’
with more than 13% of the whole units (654 units). In addition to analysis of categories, the theme
‘Practical Skills’ revealed to be the most frequently reported theme. The results, as reported in
Table 4, indicate that although there was an extensive reliance on the three mentioned areas and
the theme ‘Practical Skills’ within each group, frequency of referring to them revealed to be
significantly different between groups. This implies that both groups were primarily guided by
practical, technical, and pedagogical knowledge and competence in their assessment initiatives
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289
including their reflections, discussions, actual test writing activities, and decision makings.
However, in addition to frequency of occurrences of referring to areas of assessment knowledge,
,different perspectives indicated in qualitative analysis of data, presented in the results of the first
research question, implied that these practices were informed by theoretical knowledge and
academic background. The variations in perspectives and practices expressed in the utterances of
the two groups are in line with the literature addressing the importance of education and theoretical
knowledge as major factors in improving assessment literacy among classroom teachers (e.g.,
Borg, 2003; Freeman, 2002, 2007; Fulcher, 2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2009).
5. Conclusion
The present paper embarked on exploring language teachers’ assessment literacy and the
knowledge base guiding their test construction, evaluative decisions, and actual classroom
assessment practices. This knowledge base was further examined for the potential variations as a
function of academic background among two groups of Iranian EFL teachers, namely, ELT Group
and Non-ELT Group. Three major areas of assessment knowledge emerged from thematic analysis
of the entire data collected from interviews, group discussions, and actual test writing practices in
weekly meetings. Whereas qualitative analysis of the data revealed views and approaches to
theoretical perspectives, assessment practices, and related social values, statistical measures
compared the two groups for their reliance on each of these areas during their group discussions,
test constructions, and reflections in meetings. The significantly different theoretical and practical
reliance as well as different approaches and views appear to be consistent with the literature
highlighting the role of theoretical and pedagogical knowledge and skills in development of
language assessment literacy and its underlying areas of knowledge (e.g., Almarza, 1996; Fulcher,
2012; Inbar-Lourie, 2008; Malone, 2008; O'Loughlin, 2006, 2013; Pill & Harding, 2013; Scarino,
2013; Shohamy, 2005; Stoynoff, 2012; Taylor, 2009, 2013). These results also highlight role of
materials, methodology, and education “in language testing and assessment to meet the changing
needs of teachers" (Fulcher, 2012, p. 113). With respect to the theme ‘Sociocultural and Critical
Concerns’, in spite of non-significant differences between the corresponding categories and
relatively similar views of the two groups, the qualitative analysis of the data revealed instances
of awareness and reformulations in the groups’ concerns behind referring to these areas. That is,
both groups represented more awareness, autonomy, and sense of agency towards the end of the
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study. This is indicated, for instance, in 4.1.3 as teachers suggested that the institute’s
administrations allow teachers to contribute to construction of their classrooms’ midterm and final
exams. This reconstruction of concerns and concepts is corroborated by Pill and Harding (2013)
who suggest a progressive procedure in improving language teachers’ assessment literacy.
However, as mentioned before, due to the short length of the study (10 weeks), caution is required
in attributing these reconstructions of the perspectives to the role of mediated group work and
discussions. It is suggested that longitudinal replications and follow-up inquiries further
investigate role of mediated supervision in renewal and enhancement of language assessment
knowledge and literacy.
Given the limited domain of inquiry in the present study, the results are suggested to be
interpreted with caution, and replications are required to ensure compatibility of the findings with
the theory. For one thing, longitudinal studies with a focus on dialog between groups are needed
to investigate the above-mentioned transformational role of group activity in EFL teachers’
language assessment literacy. In addition, this research was carried out among a limited number
of EFL teachers to investigate role of academic backgrounds in language assessment literacy.
Thus, investigating contribution of teachers’ academic degree and length of teaching experience,
across bigger groups of participants are suggested. Moreover, examining assessment literacy
across different contexts of instruction (formal education, private sector, English for specific
purposes, etc.) promises potential areas for further investigation and possible exploration of new
areas of knowledge untouched in this study. In spite of its limitations, the results of this study
provide implications for language teacher development programs to improve language teachers’
assessment knowledge and professional development. Thus, given the importance of language
assessment literacy and formation of an ‘assessment culture’ (Inbar-Lourie, 2008), pre-service and
in-service teacher development programs may find it relevant to encourage a coherent curriculum
by considering improvement in these nine identified areas of assessment knowledge in their
programs. Finally, the findings can provide a baseline for researchers to develop teachers’ belief
scales and evaluative measures to investigate teachers’ assessment knowledge base with the aim
of contributing to language teachers’ professional development.
Iranian EFL Journal
291
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Title
The Role of Negative Evidence in First Language Acquisition
Author
Ashraf Haji Maibodi (Ph.D Candidate)
Department of English, Maybod Branch, Islamic Azad University, Maybod, Iran.
Biodata
Ashraf Haji Maibodi is a lecturer and full time faculty member of the English department at the
Islamic Azad University, Maybod branch, Yazd. She is a Ph.D candidate in TEFL at the Islamic
Azad University, Science and Research Center, Tehran. Her main research interests are in teacher
education, testing, methodology, and cognitive psychology.
Abstract
Children understand many words long before they can produce them, and they may find
some aspects of a language easier to master than others. Since language forms part of their
daily communication it regulates what they do and they are encouraged to think of language
as a social activity with rules and also as an activity that everyone engages in intentionally
to communicate with one another. Children must induce the system from the evidence
presented to them. The feedback that children get from adults plays a vital role in language
development. This paper reviews the role and importance of negative evidence in a child’s
first language acquisition.
Keywords:
Negative evidence, Positive evidence, First language acquisition, Child
directed speech, Parental feedback
1. Introduction
Language is a primary vehicle for teaching children how to become members of a society.
Conversations become more elaborate as children understand more and take account of more uses
of language. Infants are born into a social world, a world of touch, sound, and affect—a world of
communication. All children in learning a language starting right after birth face a particularly
intricate task. Although the environmental conditions and languages may vary and also the cultures
and conditions of child rearing may differ with regard to motivations and talents all normal
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children acquire their native tongue to a high level of proficiency within a narrow developmental
time frame (Gleitman and Newport, 1995). They develop and grow up as social beings, immersed
in a network of relationships from the start and language forms part of the daily communication
around them regulating their behavior in the society to a great extent, telling them about the world,
events, actions, objects, and relations within it. In short, language is a central factor in the social
life of infants.
Children understand many words long before they can produce them, and this asymmetry
between comprehension and production is lifelong. According to Clark (2009) languages are
highly complex systems whether one considers just the sound system or the vocabulary or even
the syntactic constructions and word structure. The structural elements are just half of what has to
be learnt; the other half consists of the functions assigned to each element. The language they are
exposed to provides the context in which they become proficient at communicating wants and
desires, affects and interests, requests and instructions, questions and observations, and
commentary on all the contents of everyday life. While all researchers agree that children need to
be exposed to language to start in on acquisition, there is much less agreement on the form that
this exposure must take. Until very recently, children’s acquisition of language was studied without
considering child-directed speech (CDS) because it was assumed that the nature of the CDS made
very little difference to the course of language acquisition (Clark, 2009)
Language acquisition is one of the most impressive and fascinating aspects of human
development and although all languages are learned, some part of the capacity to learn must be
“innate.” A child does not simply reproduce what he hears, but actively creates language,
experimenting with the rules that he has extracted from the input (Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith,
2001). But a major challenge for theories of language acquisition is to explain how children recover
from grammatical errors, such as (1) and (2):
(1) I maked it with water.
(2) And fill the little sugars up in the bowl (Brown, 1973; Pinker, 1989 cited in
Marcus, 1993).
The question does arise: Do children eliminate their grammatical errors solely on the basis of
internal mechanisms, or do they require external feedback from their parents? (Marcus, 1993).
Children produce many errors during acquisition, and researchers have long been concerned with
how they manage to get rid of these errors as they get older (Baker, 1979; Bowerman, 1988, 1996;
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Grimshaw, 1981; Pinker, 1984 cited in Chouinard and Clark, 2001). Some have argued that the
evidence children receive from the speech around them about the forms of language is too
impoverished to account for their (eventual) learning. The first analyses of speech addressed to
children was undertaken in response to the claims that such input was ill-formed and that it was
very complex (Snow, 1986).
Noam Chomsky argued that the language children are exposed to is a degenerate version of a
language (poverty of stimulus) – such speech is full of errors, hesitations, breaks in construction,
retracing, pauses, and other disfluencies, repairs to vocabulary, pronunciation, and so on, to the
extent that children would necessarily have great difficulty both in learning what might be
systematic in a language and in discerning what the structures are. This description assumed that
CDS did not differ in any important way from the language used among adults (Fodor, 1966 cited
in Snow, 1986). Chomsky hypothesized that children are born with a specific innate ability to
discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language on the basis of the samples of a natural
language they are exposed to. Researchers studying language acquisition agree that since all
children acquire the language of their environment, they must have some innate mechanism or
knowledge that allows them to discover the complexities of a language in spite of limitations in
their input. With language so close to the core of what it means to be human, it is not surprising
that children’s acquisition of language has received so much attention.
2. Review of literature
2.1.What is Negative Evidence?
Until recently, a long-standing assumption in the field of child language acquisition research was
that parents do not correct the grammatical errors of their children (Saxton, 2000). Bohannon and
Stanowicz (1988) also believe that “regardless of their differences, recent language learning
theories depend on the axiomatic assertion that children are never informed about the distinction
between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences” (p. 684). While consensus now exists that
potentially corrective responses are often supplied, controversy persists as to whether the child can
identify and exploit such information in practice.
A great deal of debate about the role of negative evidence—for example, whether children have
to be told that certain strings of words are ungrammatical in language acquisition, and its
limitations have been used to justify the existence of innate principles. Learning a language is the
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natural product of the developing human mind and brain and children in acquiring their first
language have to determine which system applies to their native language. That is, they have to
learn to set the principles and parameters as required by that particular language. It is very
important to know whether children get and need negative evidence, because in the absence of
negative evidence, any child who hypothesizes a rule that generates a superset of the language will
have no way of knowing that he or she is wrong (Gold, 1967). If children receive only positive
evidence, the solution to this dilemma must be sought by appealing to the structured properties of
the mind. Evidently, in acquiring language, children go beyond simply learning the new labels that
parents provide. They also analyze the words they hear to see how they function as part of the
wider linguistic context.
One important feature of the way in which the subset principle is formulated deals with the
distinction between positive and negative evidence. Positive evidence is simply the input, that is,
the sentences children hear. It is evidence that a particular utterance is grammatical in the language
that the child is learning; negative evidence is evidence that a particular utterance is
ungrammatical. Negative evidence is parental behavior that provides information about when
sentences are not in the language. Pinker (1990) argues that “at the grammatical level these
constraints are provided by the language itself. According to the subset principle, children begin
to search through possible languages by beginning with the smallest subset available (that is, the
most restrictive language). If there is no evidence from their linguistic input that this is their native
language they then proceed to the next largest subset, until they find a match” (cited in Carroll,
2008, p. 346). However, a variety of studies indicate that negative evidence is not provided in the
linguistic environment. Based largely on conclusions, subsequent research has based its views
solely on how children acquire language from positive evidence (hearing sentences that belong to
a language) and without negative evidence (information about which sentences do not belong to
that language) (Marcus, 1993). Marcus challenges this assumption that without negative evidence,
any model of language acquisition must account for how the child can learn language from positive
evidence alone. Carroll (2008) argues that “children receive negative evidence when someone
indicates that a particular utterance is ungrammatical or inappropriate” (pp. 346-347). But negative
evidence does not tell a child why a particular sentence is ungrammatical. For example:
Child: I eated the food.
Parent: I ate the food.
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This parental reply clearly provides the child with a piece of positive evidence and could serve as
negative evidence only if the child recognizes it as an exemplar of a recast and has mechanisms
that use such information (Marcus, 1993). According to Marcus “A child who does not speak can
receive no negative evidence, aside from explicit metalinguistic statements (e.g., don’t say X).
Negative evidence must respond to a child’s utterance; it can only arise if parents are in some way
sensitive (though not necessarily consciously) to whether their children speak grammatically” (p.
58).
Feedback from adults about children plays a vital role in language development. Children’s
early utterances use the order most frequently modeled in the CDS. The child uses the input to
formulate hypotheses which are revised only when disconfirming evidence becomes available.
Children cannot correct their errors based on the positive inputs they always encounter. They
should also be exposed to some kind of negative evidence which acts as a prerequisite to get rid
of errors. Marcus (1993) believes that “Verbal parental feedback, such as repetitions or expansions,
inherently provides the child with positive evidence, as well as potentially providing
negativeevidence” (p. 59). Sokolov and Snow (1994) argue that “although parents might not
provide explicit negative evidence (in the form of explicit correction), they do provide implicit
negative evidence” (cited in Harley, 2008, p. 83). Examples of parents who tend to repeat more
ill-formed utterances than well-formed ones, and tend to follow ill-formed utterances with a
question rather than a continuation of the topic are some of the cases. Accordingly there are also
regional and class differences where working-class mothers in the USA provide more explicit
corrections than do middle-class mothers. And Marcus (1993, p. 67) believes that:
Since every child learns language, a particular type of parental feedback can be a precondition
for learning language only if it is provided to every child. Many types of feedback may be
sufficient for language acquisition, but if any child manages to learn language lacking that
particular type of feedback, then that particular type of parental feedback cannot be necessary for
language acquisition. (Note that every child receives positive evidence).
2.2. The importance of negative evidence in first language acquisition
Language acquisition is a central topic in cognitive science and learning a first language is
something that every child does successfully in a matter of a few years without formal lessons.
The study of language acquisition can answer many fundamental questions: Do children learn
language using language specific mechanisms, or is language acquisition part of their general
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intelligence? Is language unique to humans? What is the relation between language and thought?
We shall see that it is virtually impossible to show how children could learn a language unless one
assumes that they have a considerable amount of nonlinguistic cognitive machinery in place before
they start. According to Matychuk (2005, p. 303) parents use language to help reveal the world to
their children. However, infants are not born with adult-like language competency with which they
can comprehend the meaning of the language their parents direct at them. So, a question is where
do they get that ability? Though it is likely that children are born with some sort of innate capacity
for language acquisition (the nature of which is only theorized at present) which might play some
role in the language learning process, we know that normal infants successfully manage to acquire
the language(s) of their environment. Exactly how infants become such skilled manipulators of a
communication tool as complex and nuanced as language, and to do it within a relatively short
time frame, still remains a fascinating riddle without a completely satisfying solution.
Innate and environmental factors always interact in the development of complex abilities, and
both are of crucial importance. It is not, however, absurd to ask what proportion of the
developmental variation in some complex ability like language is attributable to innate as opposed
to environmental factors, for it is certainly the case that environmental factors can be relatively
more important in determining an individual’s achievements for one type of ability than for another
type of ability. Based on the assertion that we understand the world through our particular
language, and that speakers of different languages conceptualize the world in different ways,
Pinker (1995) believes that language acquisition would be learning to think, not just learning to
talk. According to Fletcher and Garman (1986) “children are more socially than linguistically
precocious since they come to language learning with a good understanding of what constitutes
communication and they are also capable of interpreting many adult responses other than explicit
correction or total failure of comprehension, as negative feedback” (p. 77).
Matychuk (2005) states that the language children use contains functions which show what
children do with language. These functions are believed to be present in the child’s output system,
and do not, of course, appear fully formed and functioning at birth. The functions (and of course
the language which is used to convey them) must have developmental roots within either the
children themselves or the environment, or perhaps both. Matychuk continues that “if the
environment plays any role at all in the linguistic development of an infant, presumably the parents
or primary caregivers are responsible for a substantial part of the input needed for the infant’s
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linguistic development to commence and then flourish” (p. 305).
Although a complete
understanding of how infants acquire language still eludes researchers while various theories of
language development exist. Many of these theories are based on the assumption that the biological
maturation process of an infant is concomitant with and largely responsible for the relatively rapid
acquisition of language proficiency (p. 307).
Language is universal in the species just because the capacity to learn it is innate. Children
definitely do need to hear an existing language to learn that language. Parents play an important
role in matching the language input to the appropriate level of cognitive and language development
of their children. Proponents of theories emphasizing environmental control over acquisition have
asserted that differential responses to children’s grammatical and ungrammatical utterances are
crucial for fostering learning of syntax (Morgan et al., 1995). But some theories with nativists’
views proceeded to marshal arguments including observations that children commit relatively few
errors and acquire a highly abstract grammatical system on the basis of limited and perhaps
impoverished exposure to language. Fletcher and Garman (1986) believe that the “child is assumed
to operate without benefit of negative evidence, i.e. without ever being told ‘That rule is wrong’
or ‘here is an incorrect sentence’ ” (p. 76). Bohannon and Stanowicz (1988) contend that parents
generally correct only the truth and meaning of children’s utterances and not the sentences that
they produce. On average, parents provided more recasts after ungrammatical than grammatical
sentences. Cazden (1972 cited in Harley, 2008) believes that “parents rarely correct grammar, and
if they try to do so the corrections have little effect” (p. 106). This claim is based on one study
(Brown and Hanlon, 1970) which noted explicit parental corrections or failures to comprehend in
response to child utterances. Explicit corrections occurred in response to child utterances that
contained errors of fact, but not in response to child utterances that were grammatically incorrect
or incomplete, leading to Brown and Hanlon’s identification of a major paradox in child rearing,
that children nonetheless end up speaking grammatically but not truthfully (cited in Fletcher and
Garman, 1986, p. 76).
Parents do not always completely ignore grammatically incorrect utterances. They may provide
some sort of implicit feedback, in that the discourse patterns vary in frequency between parent and
child depending on the grammaticality of the child’s utterances (Bohannon and Stanowich, 1988;
Demetras, Post and Snow, 1986; Hirsh-Pasek, Treiman and Schneiderman, 1984; Moerk, 1991;
Morgan and Travis, 1989 cited in Harley, 2008, p. 107). Marcus (1993) believes that the studies
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that allow examination of individual differences show that different parents provide different, even
conflicting, patterns of feedback. Although it is true that some form of feedback may be sufficient
for those who receive it, any type of feedback that is not available universally cannot be a necessary
type of feedback. (This does not eliminate the possibility that some other form might be necessary).
But recasts that manifest negative evidence serving as corrective feedback sparked further
theoretical interests because as in Bohannon and Stanowicz’s (1988) words “if children’s
conversational partners provide some form of corrective feedback (i.e., negative evidence), then
many of the innate linguistic constraints recently proposed would become unnecessary”(p. 684).
Children with Japanese genes do not find Japanese any easier than English, or vice-versa; they
learn whichever language they are exposed to. One type of feedback according to Saxton (1977
cited in Harley, 2008) is that parents are more likely to repeat the child’s incorrect utterance in a
grammatically correct form or to ask a follow-up question. Marcus (1993, p. 72) too believes that
children attend to all possible reply types, and that those reply types not used in a manner
contingent on grammaticality have no net effect on the child’s grammar. But if, for example, some
parents use repetitions to indicate grammaticality whereas other parents use repetitions to indicate
ungrammaticality, then each child would have to determine whether his or her parents’ repetitions
correlate positively, negatively, or not all with grammaticality. Messer (2000 cited in Harley, 2008)
exemplifies that if the child’s utterance is grammatically correct, the adults just continue the
conversation.
In 1972, McNamara (cited in Fletcher and Garman, 1986, p. 77) argued that this view of
language acquisition was incorrect, and that the acquisition of syntax could be explained only if it
is recognized that children collect information about the relationship between syntactic forms and
semantic structures. In other words, children figure out the rules underlying syntactic structure by
using the cues provided by the meaning of an adult’s utterance. This implies that children must be
able to determine what an utterance means on the basis of non-syntactic information—since it is
the syntax that must be learned precisely. Nevertheless, not only the child must be a good guesser,
but also that the adult must say the kind of things the child expects to hear since the adult and child
share a way of looking at the world. Greenfield and Smith (1976) argue that such a shared view of
the world does exist, and this is what enables adults to interpret children’s early pre-syntactic
utterances (cited in Fletcher and Garman, 1986, p. 77). Adult utterances have no syntactic structure
and children in the early stages of language acquisition must interpret adult utterances in the same
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way as adults interpret children’s utterances, that is by relating the words used to aspects of the
situation being described. Thus, as Pinker (1995) believes language acquisition is ordinarily driven
by a grammatical sample of the target language.
People from different cultures also respond differently to grammatically incorrect utterances,
with some appearing to place more emphasis on correctness (Ochs and Schieffelin (1995 cited in
Harley, 2008, p. 107). Whether this type of feedback is strong enough to have any effect on the
course of acquisition is still controversial (Marcus, 1993). Although Bohannon et al. (1990)
concede, they still argue that: “the absence of a particular form of feedback in a particular
community does not belie its utility for those children who do receive it, nor does it mean that no
form of feedback is necessary for language learning to proceed normally”(p. 224). Saxton (1997
cited in Harley, 2008) says that such feedback is probably too infrequent to be effective; although
others argue that occasional contrast between the children’s own incorrect adult versions do enable
developmental change. We see that children are more likely to repeat adults’ expansions of their
utterances than other utterances, suggesting that they pay more attention to them. For Harley
(2008) the debate about whether or not children receive sufficient negative evidence (sometimes
called the no-negative evidence problem) information about which strings of words are not
grammatical, is important because without negative feedback it is a challenge to specify how
children learn to produce only correct utterances. One possible solution is that they rely on
mechanisms such as innate principles to help them learn the grammar. Further justification for
innateness was made by Gold’s (1967, p. 453) argument that positive evidence alone (i.e., exposure
only to grammatical strings) is not sufficient for a machine learning the types of language. He
found that when he wrote a program in which the computer received only positive evidence, it
failed to acquire the language correctly. The difference between an informant and a text is that the
text will provide only positive evidence, whereas an informant will provide both positive and
negative evidence. Negative evidence is needed so learners can identify ungrammatical strings as
ungrammatical and helps rule out some of the competing grammars. If this argument is extended
to children, as it often is, then they too would need both positive and negative evidence in order to
learn and to get rid of errors. If they didn’t receive any negative evidence, they would have to rely
on some other (innate) source of information for learning (Chouinard and Clark, 2001).
In acquiring some patterns of language, children begin by learning specific instances but apply
it incorrectly by using it in all instances. Only later do they learn the exceptions to the rule. Harley
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(2008, p. 108) calls this type of learning as the U-shaped development—in which performance
starts off at a good level, but then becomes worse, before improving again. U-shaped development
is suggestive of a developing system that has to learn both rules and exceptions to those rules.
Language development appears to be strongly based on learning the rules rather than simply on
learning associations and instances. And this means that the child must generate ungrammatical
sentences that must then be explicitly corrected by the parent. Pinker (1990 as cited in Carroll,
2008) argues that it would be very difficult to acquire a language from positive evidence alone.
Without knowing what is ungrammatical in a language, it is impossible to rule out some of the
various competing grammars. Pinker believes that on the whole parents do not provide sufficient
negative evidence to enable a child to learn a language. Nearly all parental speech is grammatical,
exact repetitions (verbatim repetitions of child utterances) necessarily follow more of children’s
grammatical utterances than their ungrammatical utterances. Thus, internal mechanisms are
necessary to account for the unlearning of ungrammatical utterances (Marcus, 1993).
Although negative evidence is present it is not systematically and consistently available to all
children acquiring a language. Yet all children do acquire a language. Therefore, some innate
linguistic mechanisms, such as the subset principle are needed to constrain the child’s search
process. Fletcher and Garman (1986) believe that the question or model of how language
acquisition proceeds rests on the presumption of semantic limitations on adult utterances—they
describe those aspects of the situation at hand which are most obvious to the child, and that the
adult utterances are limited to those topics about which the child has extralinguistic information.
Pinker (1995) touches upon the same issue arguing that the child would set parameters on the basis
of a few examples from the parental input, and the full complexity of a language will ensue when
those parameterized rules interact with one another and with universal principles. The parametersetting view can help explain the universality and rapidity of the acquisition of language, despite
the arcane complexity of what is and is not grammatical (e.g., the ungrammaticality of “Who do
you think that left?”). When children learn one fact about a language, they can deduce that other
facts are also true of it without having to learn them one by one. Pinker’s (1990) argument follows
that:

Positive evidence alone is consistent with too many competing grammars.

Negative evidence, which could constrain the problem space, is not generally available.

Therefore, some constraints must be innate (cited in Carroll, 2008).
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2.3. The effect of adult’s speech on first language acquisition
Adults’ speeches to children act as the prerequisite environmental factor to trigger their
innatelanguage acquisition device (LAD). Every child has limited exposure to linguistic input and
children do not seem to have access to information about which of their words or sentences are
ungrammatical. According to Pinker (1995) “When learning a language, children have to
generalize from a sample of parental speech to the infinite set of sentences that define the language
as a whole and children are innately guided to the correct solution by having some principles
governing the design of human language built in” (p. 128). One often cited study on this point was
by Brown and Hanlon (1970, p. 47), who examined parents’ responses to various well-and illformed child utterances. The study concluded that, “While there are several bases for approval
and disapproval, they are almost always semantic or phonological.
Explicit approval or
disapproval of either syntax or morphology is extremely rare in our records and so seems not to be
the force propelling the child from immature to mature forms” (cited in Marcus, 1993). On the
other hand, Morgan et al. (1995) believe “Recasts could incrementally reinforce use of particular
grammatical forms, resulting in their immediate increased use. It could make children more selfconscious about their grammar, prompting them to make more self-corrections and it could
competitively strengthen grammatical forms, thereby gradually driving out ungrammatical forms
and increasing overall grammaticality” (p. 184). According to Saxton (1997) negative evidence
and positive input are identical in terms of the linguistic information conveyed to the child and
they differ only in terms of the discourse context in which each occurs, since only negative
evidence creates an immediate contrast between (erroneous) child and (correct) adult forms.
Fletcher and Garman (1986) believe that if one re-analyses maternal speech keeping the model
of semantic matching in mind, then it becomes clear that the semantic content of speech addressed
to young children is indeed severely restricted. Mothers limit their utterances to the present tense,
to concrete nouns, to comments on what the child is doing and on what is happening around the
child (Phillips, 1973; Snow et al., 1976 cited in Fletcher and Garman, 1986, p. 78). Brown (2007,
p. 44) says that the earliest stages of child language acquisition may manifest a great deal of surface
imitation since the child may not possess the necessary semantic category to assign “meaning” to
utterances. But as children perceive the importance of the semantic level of language, they attend
to a greater extent to that meaningful semantic level—they engage in deep-structure imitation. In
fact, the imitation of the deep structure of language can literally block their attention to the surface
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structure so that they become on the face of it, poor imitators. Marcus (1993) says that even when
children understand that they are being corrected, they sometimes make incorrect generalizations,
as McNeil1 (1966, p. 69) shows:

Child: Nobody don’t like me.
Mother: No, say “nobody likes me.”
Child: Nobody don’t like me.
[Eight repetitions of this dialogue follow.]
Mother: No, now listen carefully, say “NOBODY LIKES ME.”
Child: Oh! Nobody don’t likes me (cited in Brown, 2007).
This example suggests that it is the child’s underlying linguistic system, rather than negative
evidence, which forces children to change their grammars (Marcus, 1993, p. 58). Brown (2007)
believes that “the child was looking for the “truth value” of the utterance” (p. 44). Fletcher and
Garman (1986) contend “evidence that children can perform immediate and delayed imitations of
complex adult utterances in situationally appropriate ways provides information about the size and
the nature of the memory capacities young children use in learning language”(p. 89). They further
state that certain forms which are modeled primarily, but not exclusively, within a single speech
act category are acquired for use only to express that speech act implying that children operate
with pragmatic, speech act-based categories during the early stages of language acquisition; and
there is evidence that children acquire and generalize regular forms even when many irregular
forms are also modeled in the input suggesting that the language learning mechanism is frequencysensitive. Saxton (1997) believes that children are far more willing to reproduce the correct
irregular model in their own speech output following negative, rather than positive, input. Several
studies (Hirsh-Pasek, Treiman and Schneiderman, 1984; Penner, 1987) discovered that although
mothers did not overtly correct their children’s language mistakes, mothers of 2 year-olds tended
to repeat their children’s grammatically flawed sentences more often than their well-formed
utterances (cited in Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988, p. 684). For example:

C: The ball falled down.
P: The ball fell down.
Repetition
C: The ball fell down.
P: The ball fell down.
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Saxton (1995, 1997, 2000) in his contrast theory of negative input refers to two distinct kinds of
corrective input: negative evidence and negative feedback. According to this theory, there is no
expectation that the child will be able to identify categories like recast or expansion. Instead, the
child need only be capable of recognizing a relevant point of contrast between child and adult
speeches (Saxton, 1997, 2000). A large number of studies have demonstrated that adults often
respond to grammatical errors with utterances which look prima facie like corrections (HirshPasek, Treiman and Schneiderman, 1984; Demetras, Post and Snow, 1986; Penner, 1987;
Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988; Morgan and Travis, 1989; Moerk, 1991; Farrar, 1992; Furrow,
Baillie, McLaren and Moore, 1993; Post, 1994; Morgan, Bonamo and Travis, 1995; Strapp, 1999
cited in Saxton, 2000). These studies showed that there are some subtle cues in parental responses
to child speech that might assist children in acquiring language. The exchanges below exemplify
the fact:

Child: He shut me out and I telled....
And I telled on him.
Adult: You told on him.

Child: Yeah, so they won’t come to apart.
Adult: Well, they won’t come apart if we put this on.

Child: Does the bike go more quicker?
Adult: No, the car's quicker.
When the child makes a grammatical mistake, it isnormally clear that the error arises from a partial
understanding or misapplicationof the rules of the target grammar. Therefore, the issue of negative
input is language-internal, and pertains only to those situations inwhich the child produces
sentences which transgress the grammatical rulesor principles of the language being learned
(Saxton, 1997). Negative evidence occurs directly contingent on a child grammatical error, and is
characterized by an immediate contrast between the child error and a correct alternative to the
error, as supplied by the child’s interlocutor (Saxton, 1997, 2000).

Child: He was the baddest one.
Adult: Yeah, he sounds like the worst.

Child: He shooted the fish.
Adult: He shot the fish!
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Negative feedback (Saxton, 2000) occurs directly contingent on a child grammatical error, and
provides a non-specific indication that something is amiss within the preceding child utterance,
and is characterized by an immediate contrast between the child’s error and a correct alternative
to the error, as supplied by the child’s interlocutor. This occurs most typically in the form of an
error-contingent clarification request. Naturalistic data have revealed that children aremore
willing to adopt correct adult forms when they are modeled as negative rather than as positive
input (Farrar, 1992 cited in Saxton, 1997).

Child: Why is our car the only?
Adult: The what?

Child: I just blowed on your dinner for a little bit.
Adult: On my dinner?
Demetras, Post and Snow (1986 cited in Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988, p. 684) reported that
mothers tended to “break the flow of conversation” by asking their children for clarification more
frequently after ill-formed utterances than following error-free sentences. Moreover, the following
exchanges suggest that negative feedback can sometimes train the child’s attention specifically on
aspects of faulty grammar. When the child produces an utterance containing an erroneous form,
which is responded to immediately with an utterance containing the correct adult alternative to the
erroneous form, (i.e. when negative evidence is supplied), the child may then perceive the adult
form as being in contrast with the equivalent child form. Cognizance of this contrast can alert the
child to the differing grammatical status of child and adult forms.

Child: Knights have horse, they do.
Adult: They what?
Child: Knights have horses, I said.

Child: Why did they caught him when they ran away?
Adult: Why did they what?
Child: Why did they catch him?

Child: I say it gooder.
Adult: Better.
Child: Better, yeah (cited in Saxton, 2000).
Saxton (2000) believes that negative feedback can therefore be viewed as a special form of cue for
helping in the retrieval of linguistic forms from memory. In the above exchanges, Saxton (2000,
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p. 7) reports both the child and adult, are focused on the same topic of conversation at the same
time. In consequence, the adult’s repudiation of the child form, gooder, is likely to be especially
conspicuous to the child. This repudiation is achieved through the expedient of producing an
alternative to the child form. Critically, the contrast between the two forms, gooder and better, is
rendered especially salient by their immediate juxtaposition in the discourse. If gooder were a
perfectly acceptable form, there would be no reason for the adult to go on to the trouble of selecting
an alternative form. It is conceivable, therefore, that in the above conversation between the adult
and the child, there may be an expectation in the child that the adult will also select gooder in this
context of utterance. The violation of this expectation might then contribute to the child’s
apprehension of the contrast in usage between child and adult forms.
In the direct contrast hypothesis, Saxton (2000) predicts that the discourse context in which
linguistic forms occur can affect the quality of information conveyed to the child about grammar.
The correct adult form may occur quite independent of the child’s erroneous productions.
Alternatively, though more rarely (Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988) the correct adult form may
occur directly following a correct usage of that form by the child. Saxton (2000) in testing the
effects of negative input observes that with respect to the immediate effects of negative input, it
has emerged that children do sometimes drop an erroneous form in favor of the correct alternative
modeled by the adult, as the examples illustrate:

Child: I’m going to Colin’s and I need some toys.
Adult: You don’t need a lot of toys.
Child: Only a little bit toys
Adult: You only need a few.
Child: Yes, a few toys.

Child: He wiped him.
[Reflexive action of a 3rd person]
Adult: He wiped himself.
Child: Yes, he wiped himself.
In the prompt hypothesis Saxton (2000) believes that the negative feedback can prompt the child
to attend to an ungrammatical form in a previous utterance, and apprehend it as such, in just those
cases where the child has prior knowledge of its ungrammaticality. Certainly, negative feedback,
by itself, can do no more than alert the child to the occurrence of a linguistic form which is already
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known to the child as an error from past experience. Children when supplied with negative input
are able to identify and respond to that input in an appropriate manner. Negative evidence supplies
the correct adult model directly following a child error and, only after an overgeneralization has
manifested itself in the child’s speech, while positive input supplies the correct form in all other
discoursecontexts.
Chouinard and Clark (2001) found that parental reformulations of erroneous child utterances
provide children with information about the locus of an error and hence the error itself. Since the
meanings of the child’s utterance and the adult reformulation are the same although the forms are
different, children infer that adults must be offering a correction. Evidence that children attend to
such reformulations comes from three measures: (a) their explicit repeats of such reformulations
in their next turn; (b) their acknowledgements (yeah or uh-huh as a preface to their next turn, or a
repeat of any new information included in the reformulation); and (c) their explicit rejections of
reformulations where the adult has misunderstood them. Roger Brown and Camille Hanlon (1970
cited in Pinker, 1995) attempted to test B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist claim that language learning
depends on parents’ reinforcement of children’s grammatical behaviors. Using transcripts of
naturalistic parent-child dialogue, they divided children’s sentences into ones that were
grammatically well-formed and ones that contained grammatical errors. They then divided adults’
responses to those sentences into ones that expressed some kind of approval (“yes, that’s good”)
and those that expressed some kind of disapproval. They looked for a correlation, but failed to find
one: parents did not differentially express approval or disapproval to their children contingent on
whether the child's prior utterance was well-formed or not (approval depends, instead, on whether
the child's utterance was true). Brown and Hanlon also looked at children’s well-formed and
badly-formed questions, and whether parents seemed to answer them appropriately, as if they
understood them, or with non sequiturs. They found parents do not understand their children’s
well-formed questions better than their badly-formed ones.
Other studies (e.g. Hirsh-Pasek, Treiman and Schneiderman, 1984; Demetras, Post and Snow,
1986; Penner, 1987; Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988 cited in Pinker, 1995) have replicated that
result, but with a twist. Some have found small statistical contingencies between the
grammaticality of some children’s sentence and the kind of follow-up given by their parents; for
example, whether the parent repeats the sentence verbatim, asks a follow-up question, or changes
the topic. But Marcus (1993) found that these patterns fall far short of negative evidence (reliable
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information about the grammatical status of any word string). Pinker (1995) believes that different
parents react in opposite ways to their children’s ungrammatical sentences, and many forms of
ungrammaticality are not reacted to at all -- leaving a given child unable to know what to make of
any parental reaction. Even when a parent does react differentially, a child would have to repeat
a particular error, verbatim, hundreds of times to eliminate the error, because the parent’s reaction
is only statistical: the feedback signals given to ungrammatical signals are also given nearly as
often to grammatical sentences.
Fletcher and Garman (1986, p. 81) believe that a large proportion of maternal utterances are
responses to child utterances, and almost all maternal utterances are directly preceded and followed
by child utterances. In other words, mothers and children carry on conversations with one another.
These are, in fact, very special kinds of conversations, in that the partners are very unequal. The
mother can speak the language much better, but the child nonetheless can dominate the
conversation, because the mother follows the child’s lead in deciding what to talk about. A very
common pattern is for the child to introduce a topic and for the mother to make a comment on that
topic, or for the child to introduce a topic and make a comment and for the mother to then expand
that comment. Thus, at a semantic level, the mother’s speech is very much shaped by the child’s
linguistic abilities, his cognitive abilities, his ideas and interests.

Child: He likes cat.
Adult: Yes, he likes the cat.
Child: He likes cat.
Adult: Yes, and he likes the dog, too.
Saxton (2000) believes that “given the occurrence of this partial overlap, one might want to argue
that the child’s propensity to switch to the correct form is dictated largely by the adult’s modeling
of the correct form in some cases (negative evidence), rather than the pressure exerted by the
clarification request (negative feedback)” (p. 25). And Carroll (2008) believes that “these results
leave the force of the nativist argument largely intact. Although negative evidence is present and
may assist language development, research has not shown that it is necessary.” And “language,
under normal rearing conditions, is quite robust. This contrast between the poverty of the stimulus
and the robustness of the child’s language remains the most soundest justification for innate
mechanisms” (p. 348). Saxton (1997) argues that “while Universal Grammar may or may not
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contributeto the initial learning of linguistic structures, negative input may or may notcontribute
to the subsequent process of ‘unlearning’, that is, the shedding ofungrammatical forms” (p. 159).
From their study Chouinard and Clark (2001) concluded that:

Negative evidence is available in adult reformulations;

Negative evidence is available to children learning different languages, and for different
types of errors; across cultures the form such evidence takes and the way it is presented
may range from reformulations to explicit directions about what to say when.

More reformulations are available to younger children; and

Children detect and make use of the corrections in reformulations.
The possibility that adult responsiveness to children’s errors may be partly determined by the ease
with which the adult can determine that the child’s meaning fits nicely with certain features of
current processing theories of language use (Bock, 1982 cited in Bohannon and Stanowicz, 1988)
and language learning (Bates and MacWhinney, 1982; Nelson, 1981 cited in Bohannon and
Stanowicz, 1988, p. 687).
3. Conclusion
Negative evidence refers to information about which strings of words are not grammatical
sentences in the language, such as corrections or other forms of feedback from a parent that tell
the child that one of his or her utterances is ungrammatical. But it does not tell a child why a
particular utterance is ungrammatical. If children don’t get, or don’t use negative evidence, they
must have some mechanism that either avoids generating too large a language the child would be
conservative -- or that can recover from such over generation (Pinker, 1995).
People do not reproduce their parents’ language exactly. If they did, as Pinker (1995) believes
we would all still be speaking like Chaucer. But in any generation, in most times, the differences
between parents’ language and the one their children ultimately acquire are small. Judging by their
spontaneous speech, we can conclude that most children have mastered their mother tongue. We
hear of some communities with radically different ideas about children’s proper place in society
and people tacitly assume that children aren’t worth speaking to, and don’t have anything to say
that is worth listening to. Such children learn to speak by overhearing streams of adult-to-adult
speech (Heath, 1983 cited in Pinker, 1995). As Marcus (1993) believes, all children do learn
languages; but they appear to do so without requiring negative evidence: complete feedback and
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partial feedback do not exist. With language so close to the core of what it means to be human, it
is not surprising that children’s acquisition of language has received so much attention. Focusing
on the question whether negative input constitutes a necessary component of language acquisition,
Saxton (1995) believes that even if one could demonstrate that negative input was necessary, one
could not thereby reject the concept of innate knowledge of grammar (Bohannon, MacWhinney
and Snow, 1990, p. 222). The simple reason is that the child’s genetic endowmentat birth is entirely
unaffected by the state of the linguistic environment.
Chouinard and Clark (2001) believe that children (like adults) rely on well-established paths
for the retrieval and articulation of forms when they speak. Changing these paths and articulatory
patterns takes time and practice. The fact that children attend to the changes adults make, and the
fact that they repeat or acknowledge these changes strongly suggests that they are adding the
conventional forms to their representations for how to express those meanings. But for this
information to show up in their speech production may take a long time.
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Title
TQA of Morgan’s International Construction Contract
Management Based on House’s Model
Authors
Kourosh Akef (Ph.D)
IAU, Central Tehran, Iran
Zhila Afshin (M.A Candidate)
IAU, Science and Research, Shahre Qods Branch, Iran
Biodata
Kourosh Akef, assistant professor of IAU of Central Tehran, Iran. He teaches M.A courses in
TEFL and translation Studies. His research interests include EFL writing, second / foreign
language teaching and learning, and translation studies.
Zhila Afshin, M.A candidate of translation studies at IAU, Science and Research, Shahre Qods
Branch, Iran. She is working with IOEC Company. Her research interests include translation
practices in the field of oil and gas documentations such as contracts, contract management,
engineering documentation and engineering insurance policies.
Abstract
Translation criticism or assessment is an essential component of translation in translation
studies. The purpose of this study was TQA of D. Bryan Morgan's International
Construction Contract Management by Arbabi based on House TQA model (1997). To
accomplish this purpose the researcher evaluated 56 randomly selected samples, English /
Persian pairs and seven raters evaluated this translation based on this model and their own
experiences as translators, legal / contract persons and PhD students of international
contract management to remove subjectivity from the outcomes of this study. The results
based on these two assessments revealed that however mismatches found in Arbabi’s work,
it was appropriate because it kept the track of original. These results could be used in
translation workshops for training translating students. The researcher, in the process of
assessment faced with some problems about House TQA model. They were sent to Dr.
House through e-mail, she answered them, so this study enjoys having the model author’s
opinion. More information about this article could be found in TQA of Morgan’s
Iranian EFL Journal
314
International Construction Contract Management Based on House’s Model by Zhila Afshin
& Kourosh Akef, Published by LAP Lambert Academic Publishing (April 16, 2015).
Keyword: Assessment, TQA, Qualitative Research, Quality Assessment
1. Introduction
In 20 century, translation is not in artistic form but as means to know about facts and other
communities. Nowadays, people all over the world became interested in translation because being
witness to the impact of translation practices on everyday's life. From Nord’s point of view (1991)
translation is for communication. Bell (1993) introduces a good translator as a good communicator.
Translation is international phenomena (Bates, 1943); it shows the importance of translation in
today's life. Mistranslation leads to misunderstanding, confusion, unpleasant happenings
(Newmark, 1981). This factor highlights the importance of translation roles (Nida, 1964),
competent translator (Newmark, 1988), adequate translation and assessment the quality of
translation (House, 1997). Therefore translation is a great job and it is more complex than
replacement. But how to understand translation is perfect or not? How the merits and defects of a
translation version can be assessed?
2. Review of Related Literature
TQA includes management of the quality of translation in strategies, parameters; and procedures.
It is considered as a sub-field in translation studies. Translation theory is prerequisite of assessment
of translation quality. It is an essential link between translation theory and its practice (House,
2001). Various approaches lead to varied TQA models proposed by scholars such as: Nida (1969),
Newmark (1981), Reiss & vermeer (1984), Bell (1993), House (1997), Williams (2004), Nord
(2006), ect. Two important factors in TQA are the goal of assessment and the valid framework
(House, 1997). TQA needs a valid criterion. This criterion is ST in which TT is compared. In
semantic translation the criterion of assessment is the accurate reproduction of the significance of
the ST. And in communicative translation the criterion of evaluation being the accurate
communication of ST message in the target language (Munday, 2001). Comparison between the
ST and TT must be quantitative and qualitative and a good translation is the one which fulfill its
function (Newmark, 1981). Vermeer’s inquiries lead to Skopos theory (1984) it states that the
appropriate quality is determined by product users, clients or customers, not by society. From
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315
Nida’s point of view (1964), good translation depends on what the purpose of it might be. The
benefits of applying TQA could be found in translation training and improvement of translation
knowledge. TQA expands critics of ST and TT knowledge and understanding of his own and the
foreign language as well the topic, it will help the translator to sort out his ideas about translation
(Newmark, 1988). TQA increases translator’s grammatical competence, socio-linguistic
competence, discourse competence, strategic competence. (Bell, 1993)
Today TQA is the focused of attention of professional translators, client, researchers and those
engaged in translation training courses. The specified translation needs TQA to improve translation
quality (O’Brien, 2012). Offshore industry which fabricates and installs offshore facilities for oil
and gas industry is a good example; it involves international language and international activities.
Affiliated companies enter into international contracts with contractors and sub-contractors to
fulfill the projects. And technical translation precise services are required deeply in this area. The
main purpose of the present study is, in fact, assessment the quality of translated version of
International Construction Contract Management by Arbabi based on House TQA model (1977).
3. Statement of Problem
Translation is not merely an inter-linguistic process, but it is more complex than replacing source
language text with target language text. It cannot be isolated from the context in which the texts
are embedded. In creation of a translated text, not only competency of translator but also factors
such as differences between the languages are involved which makes translation difficult
(Dingwaney & Maier 1995). Translation has to be discussed; assessment the translation quality is
a great of importance. In this study House TQA model (1997) is applied as framework to evaluate
translation quality through comparative analysis by highlighting mismatches and errors. The
purpose of this study is to assess the quality of International Construction Contract Management’s
translation based on House TQA model (1997) and based on seven rater’s opinions. It lead to seek
which strategies and techniques were ignored by translators which results in poor quality of
translation and conversely considering which principles of translation provided a valid and
appropriate translation.
4. Statement of the Research Question
To what extent the quality of translated version of D. Bryan Morgan, International Construction
Contract Management by Arbabi is appropriate based on House TQA model?
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5. The Significance of the Study
“A translator is severely criticized if he makes a mistake, but only faintly praised when he
succeeds” (Nida, 1964). Many studies have been carried out upon different texts of Novels
applying House TQA model (1977), but no investigation about TQA of the translated version of
International Constriction Contract Management based on House TQA Model found by researcher.
Although many inquiries done about the concept of International Contract Management in Iran
and recently PhD degree in international contract management is provided in universities to train
contract engineers but translation practices in this field are extremely rare. So translation and
evaluation the quality of these kinds of texts is a great of importance. Moreover the significance
of this study is in the results of this research, which was attempted to be met such as:
a. Evaluating TQA of Morgan's book by Arbabi based on House TQA model (1997)
b. Displaying how identification of genre helps the translator to focus on special needs,
determining the function of ST and appropriate method for translation
c. Emphasizing that translation of EPCI contract needs technical translators
d. Identifying problematic areas in translation based on House TQA model (1997), using in
technical translation teaching courses
e. Using the ideas of raters to remove subjectivity to make the result valid and tangible
f. Revealing the features of a good technical translation based on House model (1997)
g. Providing the pros and cons of House TQA model
6. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
This study developed under limitation as researcher had no chance to choose another book related
to this topic for the corpus of the study. It was rare to find original books under this title and its
Persian translation in the field of oil and gas in Iran. Morgan's book selected as the ST, it could
not be found in book shops by the researcher; she borrowed it from a colleague. It is technical text
and needs technical translation. There was only one available Persian translation of this book by
Arbabi, his work selected as the TT. Difficulty of finding raters to remove subjectivity from the
result of this study was another challenge, finding those knew linguistics, possessed the domain
knowledge and have time to cooperate. Researcher found them among colleagues
7. Context of the study
The present study was qualitative, comparative, and descriptive study. The qualitative analysis was
needed to identify different text types to identify a number of distinctive features based on genre
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and register. This study carried out in two phases: first phase was comparative analysis of Contract
Management text which was consultative, informative formal text. The second phase was
comparative analysis of contract and legal definitions, with consideration that contracts are the
legal documents and Legal / Contract Language are inseparable. The aim of this analytical
qualitative, comparative procedure was TQA based on House TQA model (1997) which is
qualitative analysis based approach.
8. Method
8.1. Participants
Seven raters including researcher were participants of this study. The corpus of the study consists
of three genres including contract management (consultative text), contract and legal definitions.
For each part two raters were chosen to remove subjectivity of assessment. Raters were technical
translators, legal / contract persons from IOEC company and PhD students of International
Contract Management of Imam Sadeq University.
8.2. Corpus
Morgan's book and its translated version into Persian provided the corpus of this study. The
original text is a practical reference book for construction professionals working on overseas
projects. The author shares his over 40 years' experiences of engineering projects in different
countries to the addresses in consultative formal language. Project managers, claims consultants,
contract administrators and contract engineers use this book. Contract management is successful
implementation of contract. It is appropriate application of legal / contract language in contractual
clauses. It helps to reduce the expanses and cost arising out of the breaches of the contract during
the execution of the contract (Morgan, 2005). Researcher selected this book to emphasis the role
of technical translator in offshore industry. This sort of economic business book is always
welcomed by experts. In Iran translated version of these kinds of books are requested because of
being new science.
8.3. Theoretical framework
This study was conducted in accordance with House TQA Model (1977) as the framework.
8.3.1. Evaluation scheme in House TQA model (1997)
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a. Assessing the translation based on the House TQA model (1997) through three main
dimensions of genre including Field, Tenor, Mode in three aspects of syntactic, lexical and
textual means
b. Finding mismatches and overt errors through comparative analysis of both texts with
consideration of two types of translation overt / covert.
c. Assessing translation (selected English / Persian pairs) by seven raters based on House
TQA model (1997) and their own understandings.
8.3.2. The procedure
8.3.2.1. Data Collection
Having data and raters were based on following criteria:
a. International Construction Contract Management” by D. Bryan Morgan as the source text,
(56 samples selected randomly, and then researcher categorized them based on genres into
contract management, contract and legal definitions. There were 30 contract management,
17 contract and 9 legal definitions samples)
b. Translation version by Arbabi as the target text
c. House TQA model (1997) as the framework
d. Two raters for each part
e. Given the copies of English / Persian pairs of original & translation to the raters
f. The raters were given explanations about the House TQA model features
g. Gathering their assessment and ideas via email
8.3.2.2. Data Analysis, Process of Assessment
To conduct this research these steps were taken: Researcher produced profiles for both texts, first
the analysis of the ST, determined the genre and function including the ideational and interpersonal
components. The same profile created for the TT, the same descriptive process was carried out.
Then translations categorized as overt / covert translations. Later comparative analysis of the
English / Persian texts carried out. Then “mismatches” or “errors” found and categorized based on
the situational dimensions of register and genre, determined dimensional errors, referred to as
“overtly and covertly erroneous errors”. Since House TQA model (1997) did not prepare a
quantitative explanation for measurement of these features, for removing subjectivity from the
outcomes of this study, researcher used raters; they gave the outcome of their analysis with their
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personal ideas to the researcher. These separated assessments together provided the answer to the
question research.
The results of this study are organized in the following sections:
9.1. Analysis of the Original Contract Management (Consultative Text)
9.1.1. Filed: The topic is a contract claims consultant text substantiated by following linguistic
means:
9.1.1.1. Syntactic means: complex syntactic structure including various sentence structures such
as obligatory, imperative, informative, subjunctive, rhetorical, interrogatives, detailed description,
ample use of model auxiliary verbs, archaic verbs. 9.1.1.2. Lexical means: unambiguous,
consultative, legal / contract items, negative legal lexical items to explain contract management
matters, ample use of “otherwise” plays important role in creating appropriate consultant
environment by author, ample use of lexical items such as “suggested, advisable” to make advisory
statements.
9.1.1.3.Textual means: Cohesion achieved by theme dynamic through repetition of contractual
technical words, anaphoric referencing, conjoined phrases and adversative, causal linkage as
coordinating conjunction, conjunction whereas, and temporal linkage.
9.1.2. TENOR
9.1.2.1. Author’s Temporal, Social, and Geographical Provenance: It is unmarked, does not
point to special time or place; it is contemporary and standard American English.
-Author’s personal stance: substantiated by the following linguistic means:
9.1.2.1.1. Syntactic means: complex structure; contractual advices.
9.1.2.1.2. Lexical means: consultative, contractual lexical items.
9.1.2.1.3. Textual means: theme dynamic, casual linkage, iconic linkage casual linkage
9.1.2.2. Social Role Relationship
9.1.2.2.1. Syntactic means: impersonal it / existential there, added the text impersonality.
9.1.2.2.2. Lexical means: consultative tone uses lexical items like “suggested, advisable” to make
advisory statements in consultative language.
9.1.2.2.3. Textual means: theme dynamic, clausal linkage, iconic linkage.
9.1.2.3. Social Attitude
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9.1.2.3.1. Syntactic means: Absence of contractions, elliptical, interjection, use consultative
formal style, complete form of the verb to make formality, impersonal construction using “it” and
“there”.
9.1.2.3.2. Lexical means: items & phrases marked [+abstract] to restrict in formal style by
presence of social distance, absence of gambits, exclamation & other subjectivity makers, use of
qualifying adverbial.
9.1.2.3.3. Textual means: presence of passive voice as means of complexity syntactic linkage for
preserving theme-rheme sequence.
9.1.3. Mode
9.1.3.1. Medium
9.1.3.1.1. Syntactic means: Absence of spoken signals.
9.1.3.1.2. Lexical means: Absence of spoken mode.
9.1.3.1.3. Textual means: Use of consultative language.
9.1.3.2. Participation
9.1.3.2.1. Syntactic means: complex structure, monologue.
9.1.3.2.2. Textual means: etic text.
9.1.4. Contract management genre: It is formal consultative text with contract language.
9.1.5. Statement of the Function: The interpersonal function, as well as the ideational component
is strongly marked through the genre of text and on each of the dimensions.
9.2. Analysis of the Contract / Legal Definitions
9.2.1. Filed: The topic is contract which is a private agreement between the parties within the field
of law.
9.2.1.1. Syntactic Means: Ample use of certain, precise legal / contract terminologies, through
complete structure in contract language. Ample use of “passive voice”, “mandatory verbs” to
convey the obligation, imposed by present or by future tense. Ample use of “Phrasal Verbs” by
author makes legal environment and legal English in contract. The author uses subjunctive
structures in contract clauses to show impersonality nature of the text. Present tense uses for legal
definitions to talk in general. Per formative verbs used to show legalese atmosphere in legal /
contract text. Legal documentation instead of personal pronouns uses common gender-neutral
pronouns to avoid using sexist language. It helps the text to be more formal and impersonal.
Archaic adverbs creates legal environment in contract text. Informative legal language uses model
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auxiliary “may” to show certainty. Archaic “shall” creates legal environment. Conjoined phrases
in contract text are typical of legalese to show contract environment
9.2.1.2. Lexical Means: Contract technical terms, legal items including “purely legal technical
terms”, “semi-technical or mixed legal terms”, Latin words, negative-meaning legal lexical items
play important role in creating suitable contractual world.
9.2.1.3. Textual Means: Contract text is predominantly etic. The text achieves theme dynamics
through repetition of lexical items, adversative, clausal Linkage.
9.2.2. Tenor
In contract there is contractual tone, imperative, subjunctive sentences.
9.2.2.1. Author’s Temporal, Social, and Geographical Provenance: Geographically unmarked,
contemporary middle class Standard English
-Author’s Stance & Provenance: The author emphasizes on the mutual intention of the parties,
their rights and obligations. Author’s writing style is formal / contractual, uses contractual terms
though contractual language substantiated by following linguistic means:
9.2.2.1.1. Syntactic means: Ample use of “shall” and “will”, and present tense with mandatory
connotation is revealed in this text.
9.2.2.1.2. Lexical means: Repetition of contractual lexical items instead of references for restrict
the interpretation of the contractual clauses, frequency of legal terminology.
9.2.2.1.3. Textual means: It is a highly coherence text by linguistic cohesion through cohesive
devices, theme dynamic through repetition of anaphoric, cataporic, references, comparative
reference and clausal linkage through use of additive, adversative such as causal, temporal and
iconic linkage make the text cohere.
9.2.2.2. Social Role Relationship
Relationship between the writer and contracting parties is impersonal and asymmetrical the author
gives instructions about contract duties to the parties.
9.2.2.2.1. Syntactic Means: Lack of the personal pronoun shows impersonality through
subjunctive structures. Author in this way states that if one of the parties fails undertaking and
liabilities, should bear loss and legal consequences.
9.2.2.2.2. Lexical Means: Parties are treated by impersonal [+abstract] terms employer and
contractor.
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9.2.2.2.3. Textual Means: Detailed description of the parties’ obligations presented through
strong textual cohesion, achieved through additive, adversative and iconic linkages.
9.2.2.3. Social Attitude
It is formal and contractual, marked by social distance resulting from this impersonality.
9.2.2.3.1. Syntactic Means: The writer uses contractual language, complex structure and complete
form of verbs to make formality. Ample use of “There” as pronoun and infinitive phrases
emphasizes impersonality of the formal text, using determiner and demonstrative references help
the author to keep track of information.
9.2.2.3.2. Lexical Means: Particular legal / contract language is used and lexical items marked as
[+formal] in contract text.
9.2.2.3.3. Textual means: it is written based on the pre-established plan, strongly elaborate and
coherent, includes clausal linkage through use of adversative and iconic linkage
9.2.3. Mode
Situational dimension which is revealed in this kind of text is analyzed as follows:
9.2.3.1. Medium: It is written to be read, marked as simple. This medium in contract text can be
characterized along Briber’s Dimensions as explicit and abstract presentation of information
including obligations to the parties.
9.2.3.1.1. Syntactic Means: Ample use of subjunctive structures show that the main characteristic
of this text is impersonality, extensive use of mandatory sentences, negative / passive constructions
are syntactic features of this text.
9.2.3.1.2. Lexical Means: Ample use of [+archaic] derivative from adverbs “here” and “there”
such as: “hereof” “herein” to keep formality and legal style of the text.
9.2.3.1.3. Textual Means: Contract is etic text, achieves theme dynamic through repetition of the
lexical items to remove ambiguity, avoid using pronouns to make impersonality of the text. The
text is strongly cohesive due to ample use of cohesion devices.
9.2.3.2. Participation
Text of contract is simple and monologue with imperative eliciting participation. The addressees
directly address for giving obligations and liabilities through sentences with illocutionary force.
Ample use of [+archaic] derivative from adverbs “here” and “there” such as: “hereof” “herein” to
keep formality and legal style of the text.
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9.2.3.2.1. Syntactic Means: In contract text usually presence of obligations and commitment of
the parties through the use of the verbs in present and future tense, mandatory verbs, modal
auxiliaries of obligation, and mandative subjunctive in that clause and sentence with illocutionary
force revealed.
9.2.3.2.2. Lexical Means: Contract is impersonal text includes ample use of lexical items such as
“the sub-contractors”, “the contractor”
9.2.3.2.3. Textual Means: This is a predominantly etic text. Theme dynamics is achieved through
the use of clausal linkage through causal and Iconic linkage.
9.2.4. Legal / Contract Genre: Language of law, its words, syntactic structures and concepts are
closely related to the legal system. The style and pragmatic aspects revealed in legal genre.
Contract is considered as sub-genre of legal text, it is explicit, actual wording of a contract is
important when disputes arise. Style writing like capitalization, bold type words and phrases, legal
/ contract terminologies and concepts are features of this text.
9.2.5. Statement of the Function: Interpersonal and ideational functional components marked
through genre of the text and each dimension.
The same analysis of the situational dimensions carried out for the target text.
9.2.6. Type of translation: Translation of legal document requires functioning translation
(Newmark, 1988). In contract documentation, functional translation is required; translator must
try to provide correct terminologies, technical terms, concept and formal style as the source text
(Sarcevic, 2000). According to ST, translation in contract management, contract and legal
definitions realized as overt one. Translation carried out without applying localization and
corresponding with the regulations of our country and legal system. According to House (1997)
being overt or covert translation is not based on text types but the purpose of translation determines
it. The purpose of this translation was giving information about contract management. Legal
system, articles, cases of constitution of claims in court, dispute settlements regarding to legal
system, governing law of contract, remained without applying cultural filter. Through comparative
analysis mismatches found in different dimensions and parameters, some considered as overt
errors as follows:
9.2.7. Mismatches
9.2.7.1. Mismatches of Contract Management Samples
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9.2.7.1.1. On Field dimension: lexical, syntactic mismatches changed impersonality of the
original text, textual mismatches were found.
9.2.7.1.2. On Tenor dimension: textual mismatches found which changed author’s stance,
translation’s tone is weaker than the original, legal tone is lessened and lexical, syntactic, textual
mismatches changed the social role relationship, relationship between author and addresses
changed from symmetrical to asymmetrical and lessen consultative language and affected
interpersonal functional component.
9.2.7.1.3. On Mode dimension, Medium: Syntactic mismatches changed the form of
communication and textual meaning. For example changes in the form of “if clause” of subjunctive
sentences into declarative ones changed denotative meaning, and massage, ideational function
component is strongly weakened, and interpersonal functional component is affected, making the
text less consultative. Ideational function is changed.
9.2.7.1.3.3. On Province dimension: Lexical mismatches changed consultative contractual
language, sometimes precision is lost in rendering of the technical terms, legal / contract,
engineering, commercial, economical changed ideational functional component.
9.2.7.2. Mismatches of Contract samples: Contract clauses and legal definition mismatches
found as the result of comparative analysis of ST & TT as overtly and covertly erroneous errors
which are discussed as follows:
9.2.7.2.1. On field dimension: mismatches with the original in the case of meaning and verb form
of the legal verb in syntactic parameter found; in this respect translation is rendered less neutrally
and or not powerful in legal point of view. Changes in verb tense and passivisation changed the
meaning aspect of ST. Ideational functional component on field dimension detracted and
interpersonal one on social role relationship changed. Lexical mismatches included mismatches
with the original in the cases of legal / contract terms and religious jurisprudence terms were found.
Textual mismatches including loss of theme dynamic by omission preposition, adverb phrase and
coordinating conjunction revealed.
9.2.7.2.2. On Tenor, Social Role Relationship: Syntactic mismatches including passivisation
changed in the translation, Ideational functional component is changed.
9.2.7.2.3. On Mode, Medium: Syntactic mismatch including wrong legal verb, loss of some parts
of meaning explained of subjunctive sentence which is omitted from the text, lack of formal and
written style is observed.
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9.2.7.2.3.1. On Participation: Lexical mismatches comprising mismatches of legal / contract
terminologies revealed.
9.2.7.3. Mismatches of Legal Definitions
9.2.7.3.1. On Field dimension: lexical mismatches (legal terms and terminologies), syntactic
mismatches (verb tense and modality), textual mismatches (demonstrative adjective) were found.
9.2.7.3.2. On Tenor dimension: In social role relationship syntactic mismatches including model
verb and on Province including legal jargons and terminologies were revealed.
9.2.8. Overtly / Covertly Erroneous Errors: In contract management, contract and legal
definitions samples, some of the errors considered to be as overtly erroneous errors .They were
mismatch of denotative meanings of ST & TT elements or any deviation as a breach of the target
language system as follows:
9.2.8.1. Breaches from source language: Changes of denotative meaning through omissions,
additions, substitutions, wrong selections, and wrong combinations of elements.
9.2.8.2. Breaches of the target language system: Cases of ungrammaticality, and cases of
dubious acceptability.
In legal definitions samples, overtly erroneous errors found on Province dimension in lexical
parameter like legal jargons and terminologies, changed denotative meaning, taken in to account
as breaches of legal language system. Moreover in contract, some of the errors considered to be as
covertly erroneous errors as deviations from functional dimension of ST. Sometimes Legal
concepts in rendering changed, Ideational Functional Component on Field dimension of ST’s
function violated to a considerable extent. In ST impersonality marked but TT is personal, so
denotative meaning changed in translation. On Social Role Relationship, Social Attitude, and
Participation dimensions, Interpersonal Functional Component of the ST’s function changed.
These mismatches considered as covertly erroneous errors or hidden errors on mentioned
parameters; author’s intention changed.
10. Discussion
Pervious parts included analyses of sample investigated based on House TQA model (1977), they
will be discussed below including statement the quality of translated version, assessment by raters,
some points about House TQA model (1997).
10.1. Statement of the Quality of Translation by Arbabi
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The result of comparative analysis based on House TQA model (1977) showed some ideational
and interpersonal changes in translation as follows:
a) In contract management, translation by Arbabi is an overt one; some mismatches and cases
of omission changed the transmission of information, interpersonal functional component
detracted to great extent more than ideational functional component. Despite the loss of
some linguistic aspects of the main book and some overt / covert errors, this translation is
much near to environment and tone of ST.
b) In contract, translation by Arbabi is an overt. Interpersonal functional component was
strongly marked. In some instances omission of commentary parentheses from the ST was
like filtering, omission would not be justified, and interpersonal functional component is
detracted more than ideational functional component.
c) In legal definitions, mismatches along the dimension of Field, Mode and Tenor revealed
that overt errors detracted from ideational functional component. In a few instances
covertly erroneous errors found, the legal concepts, pragmatic meaning changed, so both
components affected. In some instances lexical items omitted from the original which was
like filtering. Since translation of legal documentation type is an overt translation in
accordance with House model (1977), then filtering should not have been applied. In spite
of mismatches by Arbabi’s in contract / legal definitions, translation kept the track of the
original, tone and environment.
10.2. Assessment by raters
In this study assessment by raters includes assessment based on House model and raters’ selfassessment. Based on House model raters found translation as overt one, the same mismatches as
the researcher, for each part they had worthy opinion as follows:
a. Author’s goal was transmission of information to the readers; translation transmitted the
same information for the Persian readers, as ST transmitted for English readers.
b. Translator kept the paragraphing, style and punctuation close to the original.
c. Descriptive statements identified undertakings to the parties; in the contract imperative
provisions consisting of rights and obligation preserved in structures of the clauses as
original, provide appropriate quality in contract clause translation.
d. Translator often tried to use the exact technical terms and terminologies as close as possible
but sometimes had wrong selections, used less prevalent terms, in province dimension
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including legal jargons, contract terminologies, and technical words, used literal translation
for equivalence of a legal jargon. Sometimes legal concepts changed in rendering and exact
equivalences for legal terms were not used.
e. For translation of titles, pragmatic meaning must be considered to choose the best
equivalent often translation of them were not taken care enough by translator.
f. Instead of paraphrasing in his rendering, translator could use translation techniques such
as foot note which is necessity for translation of this scholarly text
g. In contract management samples, as the ST, translator used the complex long sentences in
Persian translation to follow the original as close as possible in form and meaning but made
understanding the Persian translation difficult. Translator could break them down into a
number of shorter ones without shifting the meaning and style which often is a difficult
job. Translator in few instances used this technique, but slightly lost meaning and the style
of the wording of the original.
10.3. Points about House TQA model
Some noticeable points found in this study in the process of performing House TQA model (1997)
by researcher such as:
a) Preferable existence of tables of text type including features and factors
b) Necessity of English explanation for the German parts in House book (1997)
c) Random selection causes ambiguity in assessment of descriptive text
d) Misprinting in translated version is an over error
e) Omissions & additions can be both overt / covert error depending on the analysis
f) Ignorance of strategies and techniques (in overt translation such as footnote)
g) Lack of criteria for assessment the features such as overt / covert translation
h) Lack of determination of criteria for selection of words by translator and its acceptance area by
evaluator
i)
Weigh of the errors
j)
Sampling & overt judgment
k) Lack of translator’s stance on Tenor dimension
11. Conclusion
Particular conclusions obtained from this analysis and interpretation of TQA of the translation by
Arbabi based on House TQA Model (1997). This study was an attempt to put House TQA model
into practice. The main findings will be discussed in following section.
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11.1. Findings
Scrutiny and subtle investigation provided by House TQA model (1997), makes it a good model
to TQA of these texts. In spite of some overt / covert errors and some deviations from functional
components of the ST it could be said that all mismatches are not serious. This model did not
determine manner of decision about the quality at the end of analytical procedure, researcher
decided to count numbers of serious errors in each part to know which part was translated better
but unequal numbers of samples made it impossible. So random selection used for sampling
selection is under question. According to assessors translator tried to follow the tracks of the
original text, function and features in this respect TT is equal to ST. Furthermore this translation
is invaluable because of transmission of information about Management of Contract which was
the intention of the author and the purpose of translation. Regarding to readership, it is highly
respected because representing this information. Demand of the market and rareness the translation
versions of such books increase the significant. With consideration of merits of this translation
practice, assessors could not judge about the translation quality absolutely as good or bad one
according to House TQA model (1997), because good translation is not just replacement
(Dingwaney & Maier, 1995). How evaluators only based on mismatches of some samples, selected
randomly could judge the quality? How evaluators could ignore transmission of information to the
reads and its effect on the readers? Therefore translated version assessed as appropriate one, pro
and cons of House TQA model (1997) remained. It is hoped that the outcomes of this study through
using this model could reveal the strategies, techniques and methods for translation of these kinds
of documents to obtain more reliable translation.
11.2. Applications and Implications
According to practicability of this model based on the result of this study, translators could use
House model (1997) as a correction tool for correcting their translations before publishing.
Translation workshops in universities and translation studies students could benefit from these
features to produce better translations.
11.3. Suggestion for Further Studies
This study was limited to TQA of Morgan's book based on House model (1997).The same study
could be carried out using other text types and genres with application of other TQA models or
combination of them with more raters and scales or with books which translated by different
translators in order to make a comparison between them to judge the appropriate one.
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Reiss. K. & Vermeer H.J. (1984). Toward a general theory of translational action. Skopos theory explained.
London: St. Jerom Publishing
Sarcevic, S. (2000). New approach to legal translation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International
Williams, M. (2004). Translation Quality Assessment: An Argumentation-centred Approach. U.S.A.
University of Ottawa Press
:‫منابع فارسی‬
-)‫ قرار گاه سازندگی خاتم االنبیاء (ص‬،‫ سپاه پاسدارن انقالب اسالمی‬،‫(تهران‬،‫ مدیریت قراردادهای بین المللی ساخت‬،‫ محمد رضا‬،‫اربابی‬
.)2831.‫قرب نوح‬
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Title
Cohesion Shifts and Explicitation in English Texts and Their Persian
Translations: A Case Study of Three Novels
Authors
Azita Salimi (M.A Student)
Department of English, Quchan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Quchan, Iran
Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh (Ph.D)
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
Biodata
Azita Salimi is an M.A Student in Translation Studies in Department of English, Quchan Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Quchan, Iran. Her area of interest is translation studies.
Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh, assistant professor at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad,
Mashhad, Iran. He has presented and published numerous articles in national and international
conferences. His areas of interests are English language and literature, and translation studies.
Abstract
Explicitation as a universal of translation has been one of the important topics in recent
translation studies. It may challenge translation process because of the differences of the
two languages. The explicitation hypothesis used in this study was the first systematic
study of explicitation formulated by Blum-Kulka (1986) and based on the shifts of the
cohesive markers also related to the different grammatical systems. The objectives of the
present study was to examine the issue of cohesion shifts in translating English literary
texts into Persian, considering validate Blum-Kulka's (1986) hypothesis, considering the
inevitability of the occurrence of cohesion shifts through translation because of the
difference of the two language systems. So, two different cohesion systems, also the effects
of these shifts on the level of explicitness of translated texts were considered. In so doing,
the study followed a hybrid design that combines both quantitative and qualitative data
collection and analysis procedures.To examine the frequencies and types of cohesive
devices Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) framework was used. For exploring the effects of
cohesion shifts on the level of explicitness of Persian translated texts, the researchers
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compared the occurred cohesion shifts with the cohesion explicitation list presented by
Gumul (2006), in a descriptive comparative way. The findings revealed that English and
Persian are different in cohesion. It also concluded that because of the differences between
the two languages regarding cohesion, the translators used some shifts in transferring
cohesion that lead to explicitation of the TTs. So, there was an overall tendency toward
explicitation in all target texts. An implication of the study for the teachers, is that,
translators could use these devices as the way of explicating TT also increasing the quality
level of TT.
Keywords: Translation universals, Explicitation hypothesis, ST, TT, Cohesion Shifts
1. Introduction
By the expansion of knowledge and intensifying international communication, translation as a
medium of communication has become important. Thus, Translation both commercial and literary
is an activity that is growing phenomenally in today’s globalized world (Hatim & Munday, 2004).
It provides the interaction between people who have different languages. Thus, communication in
translation becomes its fundamental feature. Raffle mentions that, “as long as the need to know
(other culture) is great; the need for translation will be great” (as cited in Golestany, 2009) .Then,
the advent of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), helped growth interest in text linguistics. As
De Beaugrande (2011) mentions, by the emergence of text linguistics some linguists looked
"beyond the sentence boundary” (p.287). They also believed that a text has some organizational
features which distinguish it from a non-text, that is, from a random collection of sentences and
paragraphs. According to Bell (1991), cohesion is one standards of textuality and as a formal
surface features (syntax and lexis) to interact with underlying semantic relations to create textual
unity. Halliday and Hassan (1976) made noteworthy contributions to the analysis on cohesion.
They described cohesion as a semantic concept that refers to relation of meaning which exist within
the text, and that defines it as a text .They state that cohesion plays an important role in the creation
of a text and makes the continuity in the text. Blum-Kulka (1986) asserts that, depending on the
language into which one is translating, the type of cohesive devices and their distribution would
have to change accordingly. So, shifts in the types of cohesive markers and inserting additional
words done by the translators (based on his/her interpretation of the ST) would lead to redundancy
in target text. This redundancy could be expressed by a rise in the level of cohesive explicitness in
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the TT. She believes that failure to recover cohesion in translation can result in miscomprehension.
Thus, disregarding these cohesive relations in different texts and their translation will lead to
invalidate the TT and misinterpretation of the message. Baker (2001) defines “Explicitation” as
one of the retrievable features which typically occur in translated rather than original texts. For the
purpose of this study, the researcher used the Halliday and Hasan(1976), framework for exploring
the frequencies and types of cohesive devices .Then shift of cohesive devices through translation
of English medical texts into Persian were analyzed, by comparing them with the cohesion related
explication presented by Gumul (2006). For exploring the effect of cohesion shifts on the level of
explicitness of the Persian translated texts, the Blum-Kulka’s (1986) hypothesis was used in a
descriptive comparative manner in the study.
The issue of ‘universals of translation’, as one of the controversial areas of translation studies,
has been examined by so many scholars and translators. Explicitation also as one items of
Translation Universal has been focused across the world. However, the problem is that no one
could be found with the knowledge of all the languages. So, analysis, focused on the two or three
languages. Most of the studies have been done on American and European languages
.Furthermore, Because of the significance of the literary texts and especially their expressive type,
there seems to be an urgent need to focus on literary texts for better understanding and
interpretation of the aims of the authors. The sensitivity and significance of literary texts are the
matters of importance that should be taken into account while translating.
The objectives of this study were to explore the issues of cohesion shifts in translating English
literary texts and their Persian counterparts that would lead to explicitation in Persian translated
texts and promotion of the translation quality also better interpretation of the message.
2. Review of the related literature
2.1. Cohesion
In any successful process of translation, the issue of cohesion is significance for their help in
identifying semantic relation in the text, also interpretation of the text message .Many studies have
been done on cohesion. According to Traugott and Pratt (1980), the earliest study of cohesion in
English was conducted by Jackobson (1960), who analyzed syntactic structure and parallelism in
literary texts with reference to poetry. Bell (1991) also asserts some standard for textuality that can
be traced and measured because it has its obvious identifiable tools. He also adds, any text, in any
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language, exhibits certain linguistic features that allow us to identify it as a text. We identify a
stretch of language as a text partly because we make a sense of it as a unit, and partly because we
get connections within and among its sentences. In 1964, it was Halliday who first divided
cohesion into grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. In 1968, Hassan made a detailed
exploration into grammatical cohesion (as cited in Traugott & Pratt, 1980). Then, Halliday &
Hassan (1976) largely speak of cohesion and do so out of a different perspective. In their view, the
concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text
also as a text-forming component in linguistic system and as a factor that indicates whether a text
is well-connected or merely a group of unrelated sentences. The taxonomy of cohesive devices
proposed by Halliday and Hasan in their popular work Cohesion in English (1976), was used for
the purpose of this study. They provided taxonomy of cohesive devices and, for the first time,
made a distinction between grammatical and lexical cohesion.
2.1.1Grammatical cohesion
Grammatical cohesion can be divided into four kinds:
Reference Reference, in the textual sense, occurs when the reader has to get the identity of what
is being talked about by referring to another expression in the context (Baker, 1992). Halliday &
Hassan (1976) establish three types of reference, namely personal, demonstrative, and comparative
reference.
Substitution. It is used to describe the substitution of a word by a word that has the same structural
function, but is semantically weaker (Halliday & Hasan, 1976).There are three types of
substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal.
Ellipsis, According to Bell (1991), ellipsis is the omission of a previously explicitly expressed
form. So, it could be interpreted by the previous knowledge are three kinds like substitution:
nominal, verbal, clausal.
Conjunction. The fourth grammatical cohesive device in Halliday and Hasan’s model is
conjunction which is considered as "a relation between what follows with what has gone before.
Conjunctions can be categorized according to relations as additives, adversatives, causal and
temporal.
2.1.2Lexical cohesion. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976) lexical cohesion refers to: "the
cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary in a text"(p.274).
There are two types of lexical cohesion: reiteration and collocation.
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Reiteration: Reiteration includes all phenomena which include the fact that one lexical item refers
back to another, to which it is related by having a common referent ( Halliday and Hassan,1976).
It is subdivided into repetition, synonym (or near-synonym), super-ordinate and general word.
Collocation: collocation is the possibility of lexical cohesion between any pair of lexical items
which are in some way associated with each other in the language. Collocation involves the
association of lexical items that regularly co-occur.
This classification used in this study to describe the types of cohesive devices in3 literary English
books and their Persian translations.
2.2. Shifts of Cohesion
Mutesayire (2005) points out that translating is a kind of language use; therefore, shifts in
translation belong to the domain of linguistic performance (as cited in Chung Ling, 2008). Thus,
shifts of translation are different from the systematic differences that exist between source and
target languages and cultures. Generally speaking, any shifts carried out by the translators in
translation have the purpose of making the reader be aware of the content of the source text. BlumKulka (1986) argues that the process of translation includs shifts both in textual and discoursal
relationships. She points out that these shifts occur on two levels, i.e. cohesion and coherence. On
the level of cohesion that is the focus of this research, Blum-Kulka (1986) points out two shifts on
the level of cohesion:
a) Shifts in the level of explicitness,
b) Shifts in the text meaning
The first one mentions that the translated text is more explicit than the original text. The latter
means the meaning of the source text changes through translation. Blum Kulka (1986) commented
that, the changes committed by the translator are so necessary to get the textual equivalent across,
because they are due to differences in the grammatical systems between the two languages. So, in
any translation, cohesive devices are manifested differently in different languages, so it is common
to find some shifts in the internal cohesion of the text.
2.3. Explicitation
In all translations, the translators do their best to transfer the meaning as well as they can.
Explicitation is the way of achieving this goal to transfer what is ambigious in the original text.
Explicitation has been defined variously by different schoolars .
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335
Pápai (2001) states that explicitation is technique of translation involving a shift from the source
text (ST) concerning structure or content (as cited in Mauranen & Kujamak, 2004). Morever, he
belives elucidation, and adding linguistic information as explicating procedures required by target
readers. Baker (1996) asserts that explicitation is "the tendency to spell things out in translation,
including the practice of adding background information" (p. 180).The first systematic study of
explicitation done by Blum-Kulka (1986) . According to her, the interpretation of the translator on
the source text might lead to the target text which is more redundant than the source text.She also
express that this redundancy can be expressed by a rise in the level of cohesive explicitness in the
target text called “explicitation hypothesis”.
2.4. Related studies
Indeed, Cohesion is an important stratum in the organization of the discourse .So, the numbers of
researchers have incorporated the issue of cohesion and cohesion shifts when they go through a
translation process. Researchers have shown that cohesive markers through translation are not
quite the same among various languages. There are some works on cohesion in translation as well.
Levenstone (1976) has contrasted English and Hebrew, and noted the preference of Hebrew for
lexical repetition or pronominalization. Levenston claims that given the choice between repetition
as the lexical cohesion and pronominlization, Hebrew writers tend to prefer the former while
English writers tend to choose the later. He revealed that lexical repetition is far more frequent in
Hebrew than in English. In the domain of language teaching, some researchers focus on cohesion
and its beneficial effects. Rassouli and Abbasvandi (2013) investigated the effects of explicit
Instruction of Grammatical cohesive devices on Intermediate Iranian learners' Writing to examine
the effectiveness of explicit teaching of cohesive devices on Iranian EFL learners‟ use of these
features and the extent to which it can improve the learners‟ writing quality. The findings of the
present study suggested writing teachers to have instruction of cohesive devices alongside
improving learners‟ knowledge in vocabulary, grammar and other filed that may affect quality of
writing in their writing courses.
Many scholars performed some investigations on the shifts of cohesive markers and
explicitation phenomenon in translation. It has also been one of the contentious issues in translation
studies in current decades.For example, in 1998, Øverås investigated the number of different
cohesive markers in translations between English and Norwegian and found that added
connectives and replacement of connectives with more explicit ones are forms of cohesive
Iranian EFL Journal
336
explicitation in translation. According to Øverås, additions, specifications, neutralizing
metaphorical expressions and shifts from metaphor to simile are instances of explicitation in
English- Norwegian translation. In 2009, Palavannejad investigated four different kinds of
explicitation: obligatory, optional, pragmatic and translation-inherent explicitation in ten stories of
Gulistan to find different kinds of explicitation in three English translation by: Rehatsek,Ross, and
Eastwick. The researcher concluded that translators used all types of explicitation with different
freuencies. This study revealed that, all translators also used explicitation in cohesion translation
.In (2013), Monshi Toussi and Jangi also carried out a study on Cohesion Shifts in English Medical
Texts and their Persian Translation to explore the issue of cohesion shifts in translating English
medical texts into Persian, with a view to Blum-Kulka's (1986) hypothesis, regarding the
inevitability of the occurrence of cohesion shifts through translation, as well as the consequences
of these shifts on the level of explicitness of translated texts. The data of the present study revealed
that shifts of cohesion were evident in translation English medical texts into Persian, and cohesion
was an area where explicitation was evident.
2.5 Research Questions
Based on the mentioned research objectives, the following research questions can be posed:
1. What are the discrepancies between English literary texts and their Persian translations
regarding quantity and types of cohesive devices based on Halliday and Hassan's (1976) model?
2. How are cohesive devices in English literary texts shifted in their Persian translation?
3. Is there any relationship between shift of cohesion and explicitation as a universal of translation
in literary texts translation according to Blum-Kulka (1986)?
3. Method
3.1. Corpus
Mutrsayir (2005) belives, the number of investigation done on translation within descriptive
approaches point to some regularities in translated texts and mention that there are some recurrent
features that are typical of translated language. According to Toury (2008), since translators belong
to the literary systems, three popular novels were selected as the corpus of the study and some
examples were extracted from these books. The reasons for choosing these samples were:
reputation and accessibility and quantity.
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337
In terms of reputation, each book is adopted from original materials which were written by popular
authors. In terms of accessibility, the selected books are available in many bookstores in different
cities in Iran. At last; their quantities were enough to allow the researchers to arrive at valid
generalization .In other words, the texts represented a variety of authors and translators to
minimize the influence of individual preference in translation. The corpus of the present study
entails three popular English novels and their Persian translations.
The corpus used in this study was selected from three books:

“A farewell to arms” by Hemingway which is translated by Daryabandari (1392);

“Pride and Prejudice” by Jean Austen, translated by jamei (1372).

” Great Expectations “by Dickens translated by Hadadi (1380).
3.2. Procedures
Cohesive ties are used as the most distinctive medium to study the degree of explicitation because
they are observable .In this study, the procedure consists of two main steps: The first step was
collecting the paragraphs as the unit of analysis and the second part was the process of data
collection. Instances of the five categories of cohesive ties, namely, ellipsis, reference,
conjunction, substitution, and lexical cohesion, are analyzed, based on their shifts in translation,
by the researcher. They are counted out by the researcher manually, in lack of a objective
instrument, followed by the trangulation technique. According to Golafshani (2003), there are four
categories of triangulation. They are: data source triangulation, investigator triangulation,
theoretical triangulation, and methodological triangulation. In the present study, the researcher
used two types of them, namely, investigator triangulation and methodological triangulation. For
investigator triangulation, two other M.A investigators, one in translation studies, and the other in
teaching English, analyzed the shifts of cohesion on the same sample, using the same theoretical
framework and similar procedure, as the main researcher. For triangulation of the research method,
the researcher looked into the data twice by using the same method but on different occasions.
Doing this, helped the researcher to be sure of the answers and also increased the reliability of
research findings. The total shifts occurrences were then calculated based on the types of shifts
and types of devices being shifted. Lastly, based on Blum-Kulka's (1986) hypothesis, the level of
explicitness of Persian texts is evaluated. This was done according to the types of shifts as
mentioned by Gumul (2006), and the total number of words in ETs and TTs.
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4. Results
Shifts in the cohesive devices, following Blum-Kulk’s (1986) explicitation hypothesis, can cause
shifts in the levels of explicitness. The data analysis of this study consists of two main parts:
Quantitative analysis and Comparative analysis.
Quantitative analysis:In order to find the frequency of English and Persian cohesion in literary
texts, the researcher used quantitative analysis. In order to do this, the researcher found each type
of cohesion to be counted. Then the researcher calculated the percentage of each type of cohesion.
The occurrence frequencies of each types of cohesive device is calculated. The highest percentage
shows that particular type of cohesion devices is the most commonly used types of cohesion in
each language.
Comparative analysis: After calculating all English and Persian cohesive devices, each category
of them was analyzed for their differences in two languages.
The last step of this study was based on Blum-Kulak’s (1986) explicitation hypothesis for
analyzing shifts of cohesion in translation. Shifts of cohesion in the Persian texts were examined
by considering how cohesive markers were translated in the Persian texts. For exploring the effect
of cohesion shifts on the level of explicitness of Persian texts, the categorized these shifts according
to the list of explicitation phenomena presented by Gumul (2006).
Shifts in Gramatical Cohesive Devices:

Examples regarding instances of Reference shifts:
1) There was the wind came from was the sea….and that small boy becoming afraid of it all,
and beginning to cry was Pip (Dickens, 1992, p. 9).
‫ وپسرکی که از تمام آن عوامل می ترسید و شروع به گریستن کرده بود‬...................‫محلی که باد از ان می وزید دریا بود‬
.)21.‫ ص‬،2831،‫پیپ بود (حدادی‬
In this example, the translator has made a shift by turning the personal reference to
Demostrative+noun. In fact in this example, the translator has inserted additional word in the target
text. This strategy has used to increase the target text's level of explicitness compared to the
corresponding source text.
It (personal reference (
‫( آن عوامل‬lexical cohesion)
2) How did you happen to do that? Why did'nt you join up with us? (Hemingway, 1957, p. 16)
.)41.‫ ص‬،2831،‫چرا به ما ملحق نشدی؟ ( دریا بندری‬................‫چطور شد که رفتین توی ارتش ایتالیا‬
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That (Demonstrative reference)
‫( ارتش ایتالیا‬lexical cohesion)
In this example, the translator, has translated this demonstrative reference to the phrase (‫)ارتش ایتالیا‬.
So, here the translator has made a kind of shit in cohesion to make a unity in the target text and
also avoid ambiguity for the readers. This shift is because of the difference of two systems of
languages.

Examples regarding instances of Substitution shifts:
3) ….. Was angry that the ball closed so early, and talked of giving one himself to Netherfield
(Austen, 1993, p. 17).
‫از اینکه میهمانی زود تمام شد ناراحت بود وصحبت از آن می کرد که خودش در عمارت ندرفیلد میهمانی خواهد داد‬... ..
)21.‫ ص‬،2831،‫(جامعی‬
Different systems of cohesion make the translator use some shifts in translating this type of
cohesion (nominal substitution) to another type (lexical cohesion). Literal translation in Persian
causes ambiguity. To avoid ambiguity, the translator has used lexical cohesion.
‫( میهمانی‬lexical cohesion)
One (nominal substitution)
4) He doesn't want any food (Hemingway, 1957, p.11).
'I thought he looked as if he did ', I said.
.‫او غذایی نمی خواهد‬
.)83.‫ ص‬،2831،‫ فکر میکردم اینطور بنظر میرسید که می خواست (دریا بندری‬:‫گفتم‬
In this sentence, the writer has not repeated want, but the translator repeated it. In comparison with
Persian, English doesn’t use a lot of repetition. Most of the time, Persian translators use repetition
to convey the meaning hidden in substituted and ellipted structures. So, by doing this, the translator
change the grammatical cohesion (substitution) to (repetition)as a Lexical cohesion to explicit the
meaning of did.
‫( انتظار داشتن‬lexical cohesion)
did (verbal substitution)
5) He wanted to ask what the strange silver instrument was for, but before he could do so, there
was a shout…….(Austen, 1993, p.47).
‫او می خواست بپرسد آن ابزار ظریف نقره ای برای چه کاری است اما پیش از آنکه بتواند سوالش را مطرح کند صدای فریاد‬
.)38 .‫ ص‬،2831،‫بلند شنید (جامعی‬
In this example, the verb do so is substituted by the clause (wanted to ask what the strange silver
was for). The translator made some shifts in translation of the grammatical cohesion (clasual
substitution) and replaced it by a phrase ( lexical cohesion).
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340
‫( سئوالش را مطرح کند‬lexical cohesion)
do so (clasual substitution)

Examples regarding instances of ellipsis shifts:
6) It will be no use for us, if twenty such (0) should come since you will not visit them (Austen,
1993, p.51).
‫اگر بیست نفرهم مردانی ازاین قبیل به همسایگی ما بیایند تا مادامیکه تو به مالقاتشان نروی هیچ فایده ای برای ما نخواهد‬
.)33 ،‫ص‬.2831.‫داشت(جامعی‬
In English, ellipse is a kind of leaving something unsaid which is nevertheless understood. The
translator filled the missing part (0) in English sentence by using another categogry of cohesion
(repetition). Here, the translator also used a noun phrase to make the meaning of the sentence clear
for the reader by making some shifts in cohesion.
twenty such (0) )nominal ellipsis)
‫( مردانی از این قبیل‬lexical cohesion)
7) Mr Wopsle said that he would go if Joe would (0) (Dickens, 1992, p. 57).
.)12‫ص‬، 2831،‫اگر جو برود او نیز خواهد رفت (حدادی‬:‫آقای واپسل گفت‬
Here, expansion has used to avoid any ambiguity and make the meaning clear for the reader.
According to Catrord's (1965) taxonomy of textual equivalence, two languages are different at
linguistic level, so, the translator used some shift because of this level difference.
If Joe would (0) (verbal ellipses)
‫( اگر جو برود‬lexical cohesion)
8)"Have you heard that Netherfield park is let at last?"
Mr Bennet replied that he had not (0) (Austen, 1993, p.11 ).
‫شنیده ای که باغ ندرفیلد باالخره اجاره داده شد؟‬
. ) 3.‫ ص‬،2831،‫آقای بنت پاسخ داد که این را نشنیده است (جامعی‬
In this example, there is also a clausal ellipsis in English sentence. The modal verb had'nt is used
instead of repeating the clause (heard that Netherfield is let at lat). But the translator filled the
missing part (clausal reference) by repeating the word. So another shift in cohesion is done:
(clausal ellipses)

‫( اینرا نشنیده است‬lexical cohesion)
Examples regarding instances of Conjunction shifts:
According to Blum-Kulka (1986), Shifts in the types of cohesive markers can cause shifts in the
levels of explicitness. Explicitation devices adopted by the translator to explicate the implicit
marks conjunctive relations of the ST include: a) addition of conjunction, b) replacing punctuation
with conjunctions.The following examples indicate conjunctive shifts for explicitation.
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341
9) That night was a storm. I woke up to hear the rain lashing the window panes (Hemingway, 1957,
p.178).
،2831، ‫ صدای باران را شنیدم که به شیشه های پنجره شالق می زد ( دریا بندری‬، ‫آن شب توفان آمدو من بیدار شدم‬
.)881.‫ص‬
Ziahosseiny (1999), mentios that, while English prefers short sentences, Persian overrides the
sentence boundaries of the ST by the extensive use of conjunctions instead of the full-stop to form
longer sentence. Conjunctions are used as a stylistic feature of Persian. In fact, Persian emphasizes
more on the explicit forms to show semantic relations between sentences or paragraphs rather than
English.
punctuation mark (.)
( additive conjunctions)
In addition,One method for translators to make the meaning of the translated texts so clear is
adding some connective devices. In the following, the translator used shift by adding connectives.
10) ) I rowed in the dark keeping the wind in my face ( Hemingway, 1957, p.183).
.)842.‫ ص‬،2831،‫در تاریکی پارو می زدم و قایق را در جهتی می راندم که بادرو به چهره ام باشد ( دریا بندری‬
One method for translators to make the meaning of the translated texts so clear is adding some
connective devices. In this example, again, the translator used shift by adding connectives.
(0)
‫( و‬adding connectives)
Shifts in Lexical Cohesive Devices:
In every text, lexical cohesion is the result of chains of related words that contribute to the
continuity of lexical meaning. Lexical chains make an easy-to-determine context to help in the
resolution of ambiguity, also narrowing the specific meaning of a word. They help in determining
the flow of ideas and the change in the topics or ideas being discussed.
In Persian, the different categories of lexical cohesion arenot separated from each other like
English. Therefore, facing the translator with these different categories of lexical cohesion would
lead to the lexical cohesion in general that is in the form of repetition of the words in most cases.
So, there is no need to give some examples here.
From the data obtained by comparing these three novels with their Persian translated texts, the
following tables achieved.
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage of Cohesion in English Target Texts ( ETs)
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342
Cohesive
Grammatical Cohesion
Lexical Cohesion
Total
Device
ETs
Reference
Substitution
Ellipsis
Conjunction
Reiteration
Collocation
Frequency
100
22
38
134
186
150
630
Percentage
15.87
3.49
6.03
21.27
29.52
23.81
100
Table 2. Frequency and Percentage of Cohesion in Persian Translated Texts ( PTTs )
Cohesive
Grammatical Cohesion
Lexical Cohesion
Total
Device
PTTs
Reference
Substitution
Ellipsis
Conjunction
Reiteration
Collocation
Frequency
62
14
22
182
286
196
762
Percentage
8.14
1.84
2.89
23.88
37.53
25.72
100
The English corpus of lexical cohesive devices includes 53.33% and the Persian corpus consists
63.25% of all cohesive devices. Comparing ETs and PTTs showes that the grammatical cohesive
devices are more frequently used in the English texts 46.66 %, than in their translations 36.75%.
Accordingly, it shows that English language system has used grammatical cohesive devices more
than the Persian one. However, the percentage difference shows that distribution patterns of both
grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in the English texts and their Persian translations are
different.
Chart 1: Frequency of Different Types of Cohesive Devices in English and their Persian Translated
Texts
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37.53
40
35
29.52
25.72
30
23.81
23.88
21.27
25
English
15.87
Persian
20
15
8.14
6.03
2.89
1.84
3.49
10
5
0
Collocation Reiteration Conjunction
Ellipsis
Substitution
Reference
The frequency of each type of cohesive devices is shown in the above chart to facilitate the task of
comparison and discussion. It is clear from the chart that lexical cohesion concludes the majority
of all cohesive devices. In the subcategories of grammatical cohesion, it indicates that reference is
more common in the English texts (15.87%) than in their Persian translations (8.14%). In
translating English texts into Persian, 38% of references were omitted. So, references were less
frequent in Persian translated texts rather than their English. Regarding the subcategories of
substitution (in English 3.49%, in Persian 1.84%) and ellipsis (in English 6.03%, in Persian
2.89%), it revealed that substitution and ellipsis occur rather more in ETs than in PTTs
respectively. In translating ETs into PTTs, 40% both ellipsis and substitution in English omitted
and shifted into lexical cohesion in Persian texts. It revealed that, these two subcategories in
English texts are filled by lexical repetition in Persian and it shows the Persian translators' tendency
towards explicitation in translation. Reagarding the subcategory of conjunction, in English 21.27%
and in Persian 23.88%, it can be said that Persian translators have tendency to use conjunctions
instead of the full-stop to form longer sentence. Addition is used more frequently in the category
of conjunctions where the Persian translator shows an overrepresentation of this type of cohesive
device. The PTTs contain 35.82% addition of conjunctions which have no counterpart in the ETs
Because, Persian emphasizes more on the explicit forms to show semantic relations between
sentences or paragraphs rather than English.
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Regarding lexical cohesion in ETs and PTTs, it shows that the frequencies of reiteration and
collocation in Persian are more than English texts. The PTTs consists of 63.25% and ET consists
of 53.33%.The PTTs contain 57% addition of lexical cohesion with no English counterpart in the
ET.s It is because in Persian, Reiteration, especially repetition is often used to substitute pronouns
or general words. Catford (1965) points out that, cases of shifts from grammar to lexis are quite
frequent in translation between languages. We have already mentioned an example of level shifts
in translation.Therefore, most of the grammatical ties (pronouns, demonstratives, deictic
expression, etc...), that are used to refer to entities and events in the source text, shift to lexical
terms in the target language.
5. Discussion and conclusion
Based on the data obtained from the total frequency of cohesive devices in Persian texts and their
English counterparts, the first question of this study answered. The findings revealed that, the
higher frequency was for lexical cohesion, followed by conjunction, and then came reference,
ellipsis and substitution respectively. Having different patterns of distribution for cohesive devices
in both languages, may be the result of the different nature of two languages.. Some of the
discrepancies between the use of reference in ETs and PTTs may be due to the differences in the
language system and some by the translator tendency to make the target texts more explicit..As
Ziahosseiny (1999) mentions, the omission of references in the process of translation could be
explained by the fact that in some cases in the Persian language, personal references may be
avoided while in English they are usually necessary. In some cases, the translators replace the
references by lexical cohesion. Thus, using lexical devices makes Persian texts more explicit than
their English ones. Regarding the subcategories of substitution and ellipsis, it can be said that in
many cases, these two subcategories in English texts are filled by lexical repetition in Persian and
it shows the Persian translators' tendency towards explicitation in translation. Having analyzed the
category of conjunction, it revealed that the most common type of shifts in translation of this
category is addition.
According to Ziahosseiny (1999), while English prefers short sentences, Persian overrides the
sentence boundaries of the ST by the extensive use of conjunctions instead of the full-stop to form
longer sentence. In fact, Conjunctions are used as a stylistic feature of Persian. In other words,
Persian emphasizes on the explicit forms to show semantic relations between sentences or
Iranian EFL Journal
345
paragraphs rather than English. To answer the second question, Investigation of the examples from
these three corpora replied to the second question.It indicates that the translators used different
devices and made some shifts in order to make the translation more explicit. As Blum-Kalka (1986)
asserts, the aim of investigating the shifts of cohesion in translation is to examine “the effect of
the use of cohesive features in translation on the TL text’s level of explicitness and on the TL text’s
overt meaning(s), as compared to the SL text”(p.312).Thus, In reply to the third question of the
study,
the researcher
used Gumel's explicitation phenomena list(2006) to validate Blum-
Kulka's(1986) explicitation hypothesis :
a. Adding conjunctions /connectives
b. Shifts from referential cohesion to lexical cohesion
c. Filling out elliptical/substitutional constructions
Accordingly, because of the 35.82% adding conjunction, 38% replacing referential cohesion
with lexical cohesion and 40% filling out elliptical and substitutional constructions for lexical
cohesion through translation of ETs, general levels of explicitness in the PTTs are higher than that
of the English source texts.
The fact that the degree of explicitness in the PTTs are higher than that of the English source
texts. meaning that, the English translator have tendency toward explicitation in translation that is
supported by Blum-Kulka's (1986) hypothesis. So, explicitation is rooted in the structural
dissimilarities between languages, the SL and the TL. In other words, cohesion could be considered
as a significant medium through which explicitation is observable. Changes in the levels of
explicitation occur as a result of differences between two languages. One language showing a
tendency for higher levels of redundancy through cohesion and cohesion shifts that could be
observed in translation suggested to be inherent to translation.
If a translator be conscious of the different cohesion system of languages and explicitation as
the way to promote the quality of translation and better interpretation of the message, he/she could
use some shifts in translation of the cohesive devices in STs in order to have a make the TTs more
intelligible and natural.
Since the focus of the current study was on literary texts, further researches are needed to
replicate the study in other genres such as journalistic and political text. Any researcher attempting
in this area may want to study a larger corpus and use of machine textual analysis that will result
Iranian EFL Journal
346
in more accurate and conclusive findings. Also, such an study can be done on other text types to
determine the higher degree of explicitation by source language and culture.
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‫منابع فارسی‬
.‫ انتشارات نهال نویدان‬:‫ تهران‬،‫ چاپ ششم‬.‫ غرور و تعصب‬.)2831( ،‫ نسترن‬،‫جامعی‬
.‫ انتشارات آرمان‬:‫ تهران‬.‫ آرزوهای بزرگ‬.)2831( .‫ ایاز‬،‫حدادی‬
.‫ انتشارات نیلوفر‬:‫ تهران‬.‫ وداع با اسلحه‬.)2831( .‫ نجف‬،‫دریا بندری‬
‫ بررسی جنبه های شفاف سازی در برخی از ترجمه های فارسی به انگلیسی‬.)2833( .‫ علیرضا‬،‫ محمد رضا و شیرین زاده‬،‫پهلوان نژاد‬
.211 ‫ جستار های ادبی مجله علمی پژوهشی شماره‬.‫گلستان سعدی بر مبنای بافتی متناظر‬
Iranian EFL Journal
348
Title
A Contrastive Pragmatic Study of Speech Act of Complaint between
American Native Speakers of English and Iranian EFL Learners
Authors
Javad Khalilpour (M.A)
Allame Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran
Ali Zolfagharian (M.A student)
Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
Biodata
Javad Khalilpour, M.A in TEFL from Allame Tabataba’i University. His areas of interests are
child language learning, reading and listening acquisition and syntax.
Ali Zolfagharian, M.A student of TEFL at Imam Khomeini International University. His research
interests include neurolinguistics, discourse studies, pragmatics and psychological aspects of
language acquisition.
Abstract
This study aimed to compare the pragmatic competence of advanced Iranian learners of
English (IEFL) to that of native speakers (NS) when performing the speech act of
complaint. The sample of this study involves forty two subjects: twenty eight of them are
Iranian students pursuing graduate program in English at Allameh Tabataba'i University
and the rest are American native speakers of English. To generate data for this study, the
subjects both native and nonnative are given a “Discourse Completion Task” wherein they
are requested to provide their natural responses to five situations denoting the target speech
act of complaint. Responses of native speakers are reviewed to identify common
components of the target speech act to establish a set of baseline responses. The responses
given by the Iranian advanced learners of English are then compared to the native speakers
of English. The statistical procedure used in this study is Chi-square Two-way Design. The
results show that in all five situations of our study, there is no significant difference in the
use of main components of complaint. The most obvious difference is in the level of
directness of the complain.
Iranian EFL Journal
349
Keywords: Speech act, Complaint, mitigation, directness, Chi-square, Significant
difference
1. Introduction
During the last few decades, the importance of communicative competence has been widely
acknowledged in the field of second/foreign language teaching and learning. Hymes (1972), for
instance, maintains that in order to achieve communicative goal, second language learners must
learn to speak not only grammatically, but also "appropriately”.
This concept of "appropriateness" is further explained by Novick (2000) who postulates that
second or foreign language learners must acquire not only linguistic rules such as morphology,
syntax, phonology and vocabulary, but they must acquire socio-cultural rules of language use also.
Acquisition of socio-cultural rules, which is widely known as pragmatic competence, is crucial
to second language learners. Tanck, (2002) says speakers who seem "fluent" in a foreign language
due to their command of the grammatical rules of that language and its vocabulary may still lack
pragmatic competence, and as a result they may not be able to produce language that is socially
and culturally appropriate.
Appropriateness of language use can be realized by acknowledging the social identity of the
listener in terms of the relative social status and the level of acquaintance between participants
(Moon, 2001). Furthermore, appropriateness of specific speech acts is governed by the social
norms involved in language use (Manes, 1983). Unfortunately, nonnative speakers may not be
fully aware of all the sociolinguistic rules governing the appropriateness of speech acts in the
target language (Einsentein & Bodman, 1998). This state may lead some second language learners
to use their first language rules of speaking when using a second language (Beebe, Takahashi, and
Uliss–Welts, 1990; Bergam and Kasper, 1993; Olshtain and Weinback 1993;Weizman, 1993; AlAmar, 2000; Tanck 2002; Umar, 2004.
Since languages are different and their use is governed by community-specific rules, transfer
of language (L1) rules when using a second language could lead to generate pragmatically
inappropriate linguistic forms. Al-Amar (2000) warns that non-native speakers who do not use
pragmatically appropriate language "run the risk of appearing "uncooperative" at the least or more
seriously "rude" or "insulting" (p.4). Scollon and Scollon (1993) also assure that violation of
pragmatic rules is bound to lead to communication breakdowns.
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To avoid such miscommunications and their negative impact on human relations, applied
linguists and more particularly those who are concerned with second language teaching are
expected to address the question of pragmatics and speech act appropriateness more seriously.
Kasper, (1997) affirms that competences, whether linguistic or pragmatic, should be developed
and learned systematically.
It is now generally believed that pragmatic competence could be better acquired through
systematic provision of learning opportunities that enhance its attainment (Novick, 2000). Yet, it
is widely held that material for teaching pragmatics should be based on careful analysis of sociolinguistic deviations that characterize the performance of nonnative speakers when using a target
language (Tanck, 2002).
Along this line, comes this study as an investigation into the differences between native speakers
and Iranian learners of English production of complaints. The results of this investigation will help
to identify the pragmatic deviations that may stain the Iranian learners’ complaints and to provide
examples that the Iranian English Language teachers and syllabus designers can utilize to explain
situations in which students may fail pragmatically and, in turn, to develop material to handle these
problems.
2.1. The Speech Act
This approach that linguistic form and social context are working together in communication has
been reflected most specifically in the concept of the speech act. Hymes (1972) defines it as “the
level [which] mediates immediately between the usual level of grammar and the rest of a speech
event or situation in that it implicates both linguistic form and social norms”(Manes, 1983, p. 96).
When we speak, we perform certain acts within a speech event in a situation. For example, if
you ask someone the time on the street, you would say, ‘What time is it?’ The response would be
‘It’s X.’ finally, you would say ‘Thank you.’ Asking the time (speech event) would happen when
you don’t know the time and want to know the time (a situation). The participants perform three
speech acts in this situation with such language functions as asking the time, giving the time, and
thanking (Scollon & Scollon, 1997, p. 19). As shown in this example, speech acts engage certain
language functions and speakers perform and transfer language functions through speech acts in
communication.
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351
These acts must take place in a specified context of situation in order to be performed
successfully (Murphy & Neu, 1996). Let’s look at the above example once again (Scollon &
Scollon, 1997). Someone asks the time using the linguistic form of ‘What time is it?’ and the other
participant answers with ‘It’s X.’ This time, however, the first participant says ‘Good job!’ instead
of ‘Thank you’ as a response to being told the time. What is the different from the previous
example? First of all, the two participants are a teacher and a student. The speech event is asking
the time and a teacher is checking a student’s ability in reading the time in the classroom. Therefore
in this situation, the speech acts are asking the time, answering the time, and complimenting.
The two situations seem similar in that the same linguistic forms ‘what time is it?’ and ‘It’s X’
are used. However, the two situations are different even though the same exact linguistic forms
are used in both situations. In the first situation, ‘thank you’ is appropriate and in the second one,
‘good job’ is appropriate. If someone performs complimenting with the linguistic form of ‘good
job’ in the first situation, the utterance will not be accepted by the hearer and the relationship with
the hearer will be broken.
As presented in these two examples, the same linguistic forms are not always used in the same
situation for the same function. Rather, they are used in different ways, following pragmatic rules
of language use. Hence, participants in speech acts should know how certain linguistic forms
function differently and appropriately in a specific context for successful communication.
These speech acts also differ cross-culturally (Einstein & Bodman, 1986). The differences can be
recognized according to who the participants are, what they are performing specific speech acts
for, and how often they do it. To what extent, then, is it possible to specify the particular pragmatic
rules of use in a language? How can the appropriateness in use be specified?
These questions can be responded by studying speech acts. The study of speech acts can provide
us with a better comprehension and new insight into the correlation between linguistic forms and
sociocultural context (Olshtain & Cohen, 1983). Also, the research on speech acts is crucial in that
it can provide the appropriate sociocultural rules surrounding the utterances of native speakers
(Murphy & Neu, 1996). This is the most important source and the basis for sociopragmatic rules
governing speech acts in a language.
2.2. Appropriateness
The appropriateness of language use can be recognized by acknowledging the social identity of
the listener in terms of the relative social status and the degree of acquaintance between
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352
participants. Also, the appropriateness can be given within specific situations and contents
(Bardovi-Harlig and Dornyei, 1998; Laver, 1981). Furthermore, specific speech acts are governed
by the social norms involved in language use (Manes, 1983). Hence, speakers should know who
they are talking to, what the relationship with the listener is, what makes them talk, what they are
talking about, and which way of speech fulfills the goal of communication. Nonnative speakers
may not know all these factors governing the appropriateness of speech acts in a target language
and in a target community. Inappropriate utterances have been observed in many studies.
Einsentein & Bodman (1986) and Bardovi-Harlig and Dornyei (1998) state that there are a
considerable number of studies that present nonnative speakers’ failure in communicating in a
target language. The studies argue that the pragmatics of learners and native speakers are often
quite different. Also, the grammatical competence of nonnative speakers does not reflect the same
degree of pragmatic competence that learners should have. The nonnative speakers with a high
level of grammatical competence did not always perform target language appropriately. Rather,
they are more varied in their performance of pragmatic competence than native speakers.
The inappropriate use of language by nonnative speakers with high proficiency level may show
that it is difficult for nonnative speakers to acquire the appropriate ways to communicate language
functions in a target language. What happens when speakers (especially nonnative speakers)
violate the rules of speaking? Bardovi-Harlig, Hartford, Mahan-Tayor, Morgan, and Raynolds
(1991) argue, “speakers who do not use pragmatically appropriate language run the risk of
appearing uncooperative at the least, or, more seriously, rude or insulting (p. 4).”
In order not to be ‘uncooperative,’ ‘rude,’ or ‘insulting,’ nonnative speakers’ utterances must
fulfill the expectations of native speakers of a target language. How can the expectations of native
speakers be specified? To examine how nonnative speakers’ utterances deviate from native
speakers, native speakers rated nonnative speakers performances in several studies done by such
researchers as Olshtain & Cohen (1983), Cohen & Olshtain (1985) (Murphy & Neu, 1996),
Murphy & Neu (1996), and House (1996). In these studies, native speaker raters assessed whether
the nonnative speakers data were acceptable or not. According to Wolfson (1983, 1989), however,
such sociopragmatic rules of language are so “unconsciously held (Mir, 1992, p. 2)” that native
speakers are not aware of “the patterned nature of their own speech behavior (p. 2)” even though
they can use their rules perfectly. On the other hand, other studies focus on what the native
speakers’ conventions are for specific speech acts. The conventions were used as a parameter of
Iranian EFL Journal
353
appropriateness in performing speech acts and used to compare to nonnative speakers’
performance of speech acts.
Each type of research has been of great value in the study of native speakers’ speech talk and
behavior. Their utterances and behaviors in speech acts are very important not only for establishing
a description of how native speakers interact verbally with other native speakers in specific speech
acts, but also for the purpose of making a baseline of information for what language learners should
be taught in the classroom (Boxer & Pickering, 1995).
2.3. Complaint
The word “complain” is defined as “to say that you are annoyed, dissatisfied, or unhappy about
something and someone” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1995, p. 270). In the
speech act of complaint, “the speaker expresses displeasure or annoyance as a reaction to past or
ongoing action, the consequences of which affect the speaker unfavorably” (Olshtain & Weinbach,
1987, p. 195). Sauer (2000) discusses that the speech act of complaints is different from the speech
act of criticism. According to her, criticism is stronger than complaints in that the speaker’s
responses are much more blunt, contemptuous, and direct. Olshtain & Weinbach (1987) also
discuss the prerequisites that are necessary for the speech act of complaints to take place. These
factors present the speech events well that indicate what makes the participants talk, what they are
talking about, and what the purpose of complaining is. The following four prerequisites to be
fulfilled:
a) The speaker expected a favorable event to occur (an appointment, the return of a debt, the
fulfillment of a promise, etc.) or an unfavorable event to be prevented from occurring (a
cancellation, damage, insult, etc.). The action results, therefore, in the violation of speaker’s
expectations by either having enabled or failed to prevent the offensive event.
b) The speaker views action as having unfavorable consequences for the speaker. The action is
therefore the offensive act.
c) The speaker views the hearer as responsible for the action.
d) The speaker chooses to express his/her frustration and disappointment verbally. (pp. 195-196)
The one feature of complaining that is generally agreed on by researchers is that the speech of
complaints involves a face-threatening act (Sauer, 2000; Murphy & Neu, 1996; Olshtain &
Weinbach, 1987). When the complaint is performed directly, that is, when the speaker makes
complaints about someone or something that is present in the speech act scene (Sauer, 2000; Boxer,
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354
1993), the speech act of complaining is inherently face-threatening to the hearer. If the speaker
performs complaints, it may impair the hearer’s face and consequently the relationship between
participants.
According to Sauer (2000), the directness of complaining can be controlled by the speaker. The
speaker can use different linguistic forms and nonverbal signals in order not to threaten the hearer’s
face and to remain polite. The perception of threatening and politeness, however, is not always the
same. It varies cross-culturally. Thus, nonnative speakers may unintentionally perform
inappropriate complaints. They may not know the native speaker’s conventions in complaining
and are not able to choose appropriate linguistic forms or nonverbal signals. Thus, performing the
speech act of complaining is very challenging for nonnative speakers. Their communication
breakdowns are caused by a lack of not only sociocultual competence, but also linguistic
competence. This can lead nonnative speakers to be isolated and alienated in the target community
In order not to be isolated and alienated in the target society, therefore, nonnative speakers should
know the native speakers’ conventions in the speech act of complaints and should be able to choose
the appropriate linguistic forms. What, then, are native speakers’ sociocultural rules in complaints
and the appropriate linguistic forms in complaints? Answering this question is the primary goal of
this study. Based on the native speakers’ conventions in complaints, this study examines how the
complaints of nonnative speakers deviate from the complaints of native speakers.
3. Methodology
The present study is a contrastive pragmatic study of the preferred choice of the strategies of speech
act of complaint by American native speakers of English and Iranian EFL learners. Forty- two (42)
subjects participated in this study. Among these participants twenty- eight (28) were Iranian EFL
learners and fourteen (14) American native speakers. The data for this study were collected through
an open-ended questionnaire in the form of a discourse completion task.
The open-ended questionnaire included two parts: a demographic survey and a discourse
completion task questionnaire. The demographic survey included questions regarding age, gender,
level of study and possible exposure to another language/culture by dwelling abroad for more than
two years. The respondents were given the five hypothetical situations and were asked to write
what they would say in a real conversation.
Iranian EFL Journal
355
Situation 1 (Exam Situation)
Knowing that your room will be vacant over the weekend as you are visiting your family, who
lives in another city, your friend requests to stay in your room over the weekend to prepare for
his/her final exams.
You permit him/her to stay. However, when you come back you find that your friend has behaved
carelessly and messed up the room.
Situation 2 (Ticket Line Situation)
You need to buy a ticket in order to travel to a nearby city to visit your family over the weekend.
You go to the ticket office at the bus station and you have to wait in a long line to get a ticket. The
tickets are almost sold out. You have been waiting there for more than an hour. While you are
standing in line, someone about your age tries to cut in line in front of you.
Situation 3 (Recommendation Letter Situation)
You are applying for a position with a highly reputed company. The interview committee wants
to have a recommendation letter from your previous employer. Your boss agrees to send this letter
directly to the company. A month later you discover that the committee has not received this letter.
You go to your boss's office to find out what has happened.
Situation 4 (Professor Situation)
You received your final grades. You were shocked that your Professor gave you a C. Her class
was one of your favorites and you had studied very hard. You had received an A on your report,
so you don’t understand why your final grade was so low. You knock on the door of her office.
Professor: Come in.
Situation 5 (Noisy Roommate Situation)
You are sharing an apartment with your friend. Recently, s/he comes home very late almost every
night and makes a lot of noise. You and your friend agreed to be quiet after 11.30 pm. when you
first decided to live together. You’ve put up with the noise for several days, but tonight you feel
you should say something.
3.1. Data Analysis
Results of the data analysis are presented below. The analyzed data are present for each situation
in the questionnaire separately. The situations in the questionnaire were different in terms of social
status of the addressee. Looking at each graph we can identify the differences in uses between NSs
and IEFL learners. But to make claims about the relation of variables with some degree of certainty
Iranian EFL Journal
356
the statistical test of Chi-square has been used for each situation. For frequency data an appropriate
statistical procedure to compare the relationship is the Chi-Square procedure.
3.1.1. Situation 1 (Exam Situation)
3.1.1.1. Main Component of Complaint
Among native speakers 8 NSs (57%) used initiators, 11NSs (78.5%) used complaint, and 4 NSs
(28.5%) used request. Among Iranian EFL 12 NNSs (43%) used initiators, 27 NNSs (96.5%) used
complaint and 2 NNSs (7%) used request.
120%
96.50%
100%
78.50%
80%
60%
57%
43%
40%
28.50%
20%
7%
0%
NS
IEFL
initiator
complaint
request
The results show that for both Iranian and American speakers complaint is the most used strategy
and request is the least one. But the question is "is there any significant difference between NSs
and IEFL learners in using main components of complaint?" to answer this question a Chi-square
procedure for two way design has been used. Result indicates that there is no significant difference
between NSs and IEFL learners in using main components of complaint in Exam situation.
3.1.1.2. Patterns of Complaint
One component: 6 NSs (43%) And 15 NNSs (53%) used only one of the main components.
Some examples from the sample are as following:
NS12: would you please help me clean the room before leaving? (Request)
NS4: I would think twice before let you or anyone else uses this room. (Complaint)
NNS3: please tidy up as soon as possible. (Request)
NNS28: It was very rude of you to make such a mess. You made me disappointed.
Two components:
I+C: 5 NSs (36%) and 11 NNSs (39%) used this pattern
C+R: among NSs only 1NS (7%) used this pattern. No NNS used this pattern.
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357
NS1: please fix or repair any damage you have caused. If you do not, I will not allow you to use
this room again.
I+R: only 1NS used this pattern. No NNS used this one.
NS7: what happened/ do you mind cleaning this up?
The results show that for both American NSs and Iranian EFL learners, the most used two
component pattern was I+C (initiator + complaint).
Three components:
Only 1 NS (7%) and 1NNS (3.5%) used the pattern I+C+R.
NS: Oh, my God. Is it my room? Could you please clean it up?
NNS9: oh god. Why have you made such a terrible mess in my room? It takes a long time to tidy
here and I just want you to do it please.
The results show that IEFL tend to use the solo component of complaint more than NSs and the
pattern R less than NSs.
The figure 2 shows the use of pattern clearer.
60%
53%
50%
39%
40%
29%
30%
20%
10%
14%
5%
0%
4%
7%
0%
5%
7%
0%
7%
4%
0
0%
I
C
R
I+C
NS
C+R
I+R
I+C+R
IEFL
The most patterns used by IEFLs in the Exam situation were C and I+C, while the most patterns
used by NSs were C and R.
Result shows that the pattern Complaint(C) is the most used one by both NSs and IEFLs. The
result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that there is significant difference between NSs and
IEFL learners in choice of patterns of complaint in Exam Situation.
3.1.1.3. Level of Directness
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358
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
50%
43%
43%
28%
21%
14%
very direct
somewhat
indirect
NS
IEFL
Three NSs used very direct complaint. Example:
NS1: please fix or repair any damage you have caused. If you do not, I will not allow you to use
this room again.
4NSs used somewhat direct complaint. Example:
NS2: excuse me, but the room is terribly messed up.
(Expressing the offense but not responsibility)
7NSs used indirect complaint. Example:
NS4: I would think twice before let you or anyone else uses this room.
12 IEFLs used very direct, 4 IIEFLs used somewhat direct, and 12 IEFLs used indirect strategy
for complaint.
Result of Chi-square shows that there is significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners in
the directness of complaint. Results show that in Exam situation IEFLs were more direct than NSs.
3.1.1.4. Amount of Mitigation
75%
80%
60%
50%
40%
29%
22%
22%
20%
0
4%
0
0%
0%
0%
0%
0 softener
1 softener
NS
2 softeners
3softeners
IEFL
The softeners used by NSs in this situation were:
Could, please, mind, I think, I thought.
The softeners used by IEFLs in this situation were:
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359
Please, I think, I thought, it seems.
The result shows that NSs used more mitigation than that of IEFLs.
The result of Chi-square shows that there is significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners
in use of the amount of mitigation.
3.1.2. Situation2 (Ticket Situation)
3.1.2.1. Main Components of Complaint
Native speakers: 10 NSs used initiators, 9NSs used complaint, and 7 NSs used Request when
complaining in the ticket situation.
Iranian EFLs: 16 IEFLs used initiators; 23EFLs used complaint and 5 IEFLs used Request when
complaining in the ticket situation.
The result of Chi-square shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFL
learners in using main component of complaint.
100%
80%
82%
71%
64%
57%
60%
50%
40%
18%
20%
0
0
0
0
0
0%
initiators
Complaint
NS
request
IEFL
3.1.2.2. Pattern of Complaint
60%
50% 50%
40%
29%
29%
14%
20%
0%0%
0%
0
0
0%0%
7%
0%
14%
4%
0 0
0%
I
C
R
I+C
NS
C+R
I+R
I+C+R
IEFL
Result shows that with the probability level of 0.1 there is significant difference between NSs and
IEFL learners in using pattern of complaint in the ticket situation.
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Result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that in ticket situation there is significant difference
between NSs and IEFLs in the level of directness.
NSs were more indirect than IEFLs. 79% of NSs used indirect level but 25% of IEFLs used
indirect level in this situation.
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
79%
43%
32%
25%
14%
7%
0
very direct
0
0
somewhat
NS
0
indirect
IEFL
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
46%
35%
50%
36%
14% 14%
0
0softener
1softener
2softeners
NS
0%
4%
0
3softeners
IEFL
The result of two-way Chi- square depicts that there is no significant difference between NSs and
IEFL learners in the amount of mitigation in ticket situation.
3.1.3. Situation3 (Recommendation Letter)
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361
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
100%
100% 96%
72%
64%
18%
0
initiators
complaint
0
request
NS
IEFL
The result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that although there is difference in using R but
as whole there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners in use of main
component of complaint in situation 3.
3.1.3.2. Pattern of Complaint
72%
80%
50%
60%
32%
40%
20%
0% 0%
0%
29%
0
0% 0%
0% 4%
0% 3%
C+R
I+R
11%
0%
I
C
R
I+C
NS
I+C+R
IEFL
The result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that there is significant difference between
American native speakers of English and Iranian EFLs in using patterns in situation 3.
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
64%
50%
36%
21%
very direct
14% 14%
somewhat
NS
indirect
IEFL
Result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners in the level of
directness of complaint in the situation 3.
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362
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
57%
50%
29%
21%
21%
18%
0
0
0
no softener
1softener
2softeners
NS
0% 0%
0
3softeners
4%
0%
4softeners
IEFL
The result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that there is a significant difference between NSs
and IEFLs in using amount of mitigation in situation 3.
3.1.4. Situation 4 (Professor Situation)
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
100%
93%
75%
82%
72%
46%
initiators
complaint
NS
request
IEFL
The result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners in using
main components of complaint in the professor situation.
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363
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
72%
54%
36%
21%
0% 0% 0
7% 4%
I
0%
4%
C
0%
R
I+C
NS
4%
0% 0%
C+R
I+R
I+C+R
IEFL
The result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFL learners in using
pattern of complaint in professor situation.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
93%
46%
29%
7%
11%
0
very direct
0
0%
somewhat
NS
0
0
indirect
IEFL
The result of Chi-square Two-way Design shows that there is no significant difference between
NSs and IEFLs in the level of directness in professor situation. While NSs used only two levels of
three levels (more somewhat direct (93%)), IEFLs used three levels (somewhat direct 46%,
indirect 29% and very direct 11%).
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364
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
50%
36%
21%
18%
14%
14%
14% 11%
0
0
no softener
1softener
2softeners
NS
3softeners
IEFL
The result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFLs in terms of using
softeners.
3.1.5. Situation 5 (Noisy Roommate)
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
100% 96%
64%
50%
29%
initiators
complaint
36%
request
NA
IEFL
The result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFLs in using main
components of complaint.
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
46%
36%
29%
21%
11%
7%
0% 0%
I
18%
14%
0%
C
18%
0% 0%
R
I+C
NS
C+R
I+R
I+C+R
IEFL
The result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFLs in using patterns
of complaint.
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365
But according the graph there are differences in using the patterns of C, I+C and I+C+R.
100%
86%
80%
57%
60%
29%
40%
20%
0
25%
7%
7%
0
0%
very direct
somewhat
NS
indirect
IEFL
In this situation there is no significant difference in the level of directness between NSs and IEFL.
But Native speakers are more direct than Iranian EFL learners.
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
50%
43%
39%
29%
21%
no softener
1 softener
NS
14%
2softener
IEFL
Result shows that there is no significant difference between NSs and IEFLs in amount of
mitigation in roommate situation.
Both NSs and IEFLs tend not to use softener in this situation.
4. Conclusion
The present study investigated the realization of the speech act of complaints among American
native speakers of English and Iranian advanced English learners. Data were collected through
DCT questionnaire. The results show that in situation that requires the highest respect (the
professor situation) and one the rudest one (not observing the rights i.e. noisy roommate situation)
there is no significant difference between American native speakers and Iranian EFL learners. In
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all five situation above there is no significant difference in the use of main components of
complaint. The most obvious difference is in the level of directness of complaint.
There are a number of limitations to the study. First, the findings cannot be generalized to the
wider population due to the relatively restricted number of respondents. Besides, though DCTs are
the most common method of data collection in pragmatic studies, more data with other methods
of data collection are needed to authenticate these findings. However, despite these limitations, the
study presents a number of insights. The responses were analyzed in terms of the main components
of complaints, the level of directness and the degree of mitigation. The findings indicate that
American and Iranian showed different pragmatic behaviors in different situations.
It is anticipated that the findings of the present study will add to the body of literature in
contrastive pragmatic study in demonstrating the differing behaviors of two contrasting cultures
in terms of expressing complaints in formal and informal situations, and the possible implications
of English study on speech acts.
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Title
Issues in Implementing a Task-Based Methodology
Author
Reza Bagheri Nevisi (Ph.D)
University of Qom, Qom, Iran
Biodata
Reza Bagheri Nevisi, assistant professor of applied linguistics at University of Qom, Iran. His
research interests include task-based language teaching in general, and pedagogic task types, task
complexity and language assessment in particular.
Abstract
Task-based language teaching is not a new phenomenon; it has been around for quite a
while now. It has attracted the attention of a lot of teachers, curriculum developers and
language practitioners. This paper investigates the ways in which a language teacher can
best implement a task-based methodology in EFL classrooms. The study is an attempt to
take into account the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of a task-based
approach. In order for a teacher to be able to successfully implement a task-based
methodology, he or she needs to be aware of the following issues: task definitions, task
components, task classifications, critical features of a task, the distinction made between
task and exercise on the one hand, and task and activity on the other, theory of language
and theory of language learning, researches underlying TBLT, principles of TBLT, and
methodological procedures in teaching tasks. Hopefully, this study will shed more light on
the theoretical aspects of task-based language teaching and will familiarize both EFL
learners and teachers with the very basics and fundamentals of TBLT.
Keywords: Task-based methodology, Task definitions, Task classifications, Task
components, TBLT
1. Introduction
With the emergence of communicative language teaching in general, and some alternative
approaches to language learning and teaching in particular, it seems that the focus of language
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learning process has shifted from audiolingualism to more communicative approaches. Though
there are still places where still audiolingualism is being practiced, most language institutes around
the globe have turned their attention to more recent approaches to language learning and teaching
and have adopted more communicative approaches to language teaching and learning. One
approach that has attracted a lot of attention over the past twenty five years is a task-based approach
to language learning and teaching. Nunan (1989) maintains that task-based language teaching
(TBLT) is actually developed out of communicative language teaching (CLT) and even considers
it a strong version of communicative language teaching. Richards and Rodgers (2001) contend that
in a task-based approach the primary focus is away from language forms to negotiated meaning.
Ellis (2003) asserts that a task-based approach engages learners in real-life, authentic,
communicative activities so that the meaning-negotiation is promoted very rapidly. Learners will
be actively involved in the learning process and a key role is assigned to learners in a task-based
methodology. Wills (1996) points out that there is no pre-selected syllabus in a task-based
approach as it is mostly drawn from the learner' needs and interests.
2. Task Definitions
Ellis (2003, p.4) presents a list of the definitions of tasks cited from different individuals
Breen (1989) defines a task as a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement
of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication. Breen
specially states that a task can be a brief practice exercise or a more complex workplan that requires
spontaneous communication of meaning. Long (1985) defines a task as a piece of work undertaken
for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a
fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation,
borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters,
taking a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street destination, and helping someone across
the road. In other words, by task is meant the hundred and one things people do in every day life,
at work, at play, and in between. Tasks are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them
and they are not applied linguists. Richards, Platt, and Weber (1985) define as task as an activity
or an action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language, i.e. as a
response. For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, and listening to an instruction and
performing a command, may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production
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of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful
completion of the task. The use of a variety of tasks is said to make teaching more
communicative… since it provides a purpose for classroom activity which goes beyond practice
of language for its own sake. Prahbu (1987) defines a task as an activity which requires learners
to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows
teachers to control and regulate that process. Crookes (1986) defines a task as a piece of work or
an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work,
or used to elicit data for research. Nunan (1989) says that a communicative task is a piece of
classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or
interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather
than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a
communicative act in its own right. Skehan (1996) defines a task as an activity in which meaning
is primary, there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority;
and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome. Lee (2000) describes a task
as (1) a classroom activity or exercise that has: (a) an objective obtainable only by the reaction
among participants, (b) a mechanism for structuring and sequencing interaction, and (c) a focus on
meaning exchange: (2) a language learning endeavor that requires to comprehend, manipulate, and
produce the target language as they perform some set of workplans. Bygate, Skehan, and swain
(2001) define a task as an activity which requires learners to use language, with an emphasis on
meaning, to attain an objective.
3. Critical Features of a Task
According to Ellis (2003) a task enjoys some critical features. 1) A task can be regarded as
constituting a workplan for the learner, the workplan stipulates what the task performers are to do.
2) A task is meaning-focused; the primary focus is on meaning rather than form. 3) A task engages
the learner in some real-world activities, likely to be faced in the outside world by the language
user. 4) A task can entail the utilization of any of four language skills. 5) Task performance
involves some cognitive processes. 6) A task has a clearly-defined communicative outcome; the
language use elicited by the task performance matches a natural communicative event.
4. Task Components
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According to Ellis (2003), Richards and Rodgers (2001), Richards and Renandya (2002) and
Nunan (1992), the components of a task can be best summarized as: 1) Input: the information or
content of a task is presented to the learner; either verbally or non-verbally. 2) Goal: the general
purpose of the task; the aims could be: communicative, socio-cultural, learning how to learn, and
language and cultural awareness. 3) Setting: whether the task is to be performed totally or partially
outside the classroom; the classroom arrangements; the mode or environment of task performance.
4) Procedures: the methodological procedures to be complied with when performing the task;
either group-work or pair-work is to be followed, or either there is a planning-time for the learner
or there is no-planning time for the learner when completing the task. 5) Predicted outcomes: the
predicted outcomes of a task fall into two subcategories: a) product which springs from task
completion and it could be either open which allows for several possibilities or close which only
allows for one correct solution. b) Process: the linguistic and cognitive processes involved in
performing a task. 6) Conditions: the way in which information is presented to the language
learner. They also fall into two subdivisions: a) split: different conditions are used to present
information to the learner, b) shared: learners are presented the information in the same manner.
7) Teacher roles: teacher is endowed with multiple roles in a task-based methodology; he is the
selector and also the sequencer of the tasks to be presented to the learner, he also prepares the
learners for performing tasks, he could also play the role of a consciousness-raiser in the post-task.
8) Student roles: the students also have several roles to play; first, they are the participants in pair
or group activities, second, the learners can be regarded as risk takers or language innovators, and
third, they perform the tasks and monitor their own progress.
5. Task Classifications
Ellis (2003), Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005), and Prabhu (1987) classify tasks into four types: 1) a
cognitive classification proposed by Prabhu (1987): a) Information-gap activity; a transfer of
information from one person or form to another person or form which generally calls for some
decoding of information. Applying the information of a text to complete a chart or a table can be
regarded as an instance of information-gap activity. b) Reasoning-gap activity: which involves
extracting some new information from given information via processes of inference, deduction,
reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns. A task that requires learners to work out a
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teacher's time table from a set of classroom time tables is an example of reasoning-gap activity. c)
Opinion-gap activity: that involves taking about a personal preference, feeling or an attitude in
reaction to a given situation. Taking part in a discussion or completing a story is instances of
opinion-gap activity. Reasoning-gap activities lead to the most negotiation of meaning, because
they ask learners to express their own meaning but within a context hat provides some back-up.
Information-gap activity resulted in less negotiation of meaning because the students are not
supposed to construct their own meaning, and opinion-gap activities proved the least successful in
promoting the negotiation of meaning. 2) A pedagogic classification proposed by Willis (1996)
that tells us about the sort of operations learners are supposed to do when performing the tasks: a)
Listing in which learners is to present a list as the completed outcome. b) Ordering and sorting:
tasks that entail sequencing, ranking, categorizing, and classifying items. c) Comparing: tasks that
involve working out similarities and differences. d) Problem-solving: tasks that call for intellectual
activity on the part of the learners such as puzzles and math problems. e) Sharing personal
experiences: tasks that allow the learners to express themselves freely and also to talk about their
experiences. f) Creative and innovative tasks: tasks that are created by the language learners and
can be a combination of all the above-mentioned tasks. 3) A rhetorical classification which
distinguishes different discourse domains and linguistic properties by drawing on theories of
rhetoric: a) Narrative b) Descriptive tasks c) Reporting tasks d) Instructions e) Definitions f)
Exemplifications g) Classifications. Such classification often underlies language for academic
purposes. 4) A psycholinguistic classification proposed by Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993): This
kind of classification is based on interactive categories that influence opportunities learners have
to apprehend input, elicit feedback, and to alter their own output. a) Interactant relationship: this
deals with who has the information and who asks for it; it also sets to distinguish between oneway and two-way tasks; negotiation is likely to happen when there is a two-sided relationship of
demand and supply. b) Interaction requirement: this deals with whether the task obliges the
learners to in4eract or whether the interaction is optional on the part of the learner; optional versus
required tasks. When the tasks require interaction, they are more likely to result in the promotion
of meaning. c) Goal orientation: it is concerned with whether the tasks require collaboration
(convergence) or whether the tasks allow for independence on the part of task performers
(divergence). Convergent tasks lead to more meaning-negotiation. d) Outcome options: it refers to
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whether the tasks allow for a single outcome or solution (closed tasks) or they allow for several
possibilities (open tasks).
Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993, cited in; Richards and Rodgers, 2001) presents another
classification of tasks according to the sort of interaction that transpires in task achievement: 1)
Jigsaw tasks: learners are to combine different pieces of information to form a whole. 2)
Information-gap: the transfer of information from one student to another. 3) Problem-solving tasks:
learners are to work out a solution for a given problem. 4) Decision-making tasks: learners are
supposed to decide on a single solution from among a number of possible outcomes through
negotiation and discussion. 5) Opinion-exchange: learners engage in hot debate and share
opinions. In jigsaw gap tasks the relationship is two-way, but the outcome is closed because it only
allows for a single solution and all participants have to cooperate. Problem-solving, decisionmaking, and opinion-exchange tasks differ from jigsaw gap tasks in that the interaction for jigsaw
gap tasks is required of all learners but as for the other types, the interaction is not obligatory, it is
optional. Decision-making tasks require learners to arrive at an agreement but opinion-exchange
does not necessarily do so.
Nunan (1992) divides tasks into two types: 1) Real-world tasks: tasks which turn out to be
important in the outside world. For example, learners listen to a weather forecast and decide
whether to take an umbrella or not. 2) Pedagogical: tasks which don not resemble activities learners
are require to do outside the class. For example learners listen to an oral test and answer the
questions raised by the teacher. Such tasks are rather non-communicative or merely pseudocommunicative activity type. At he beginning tasks appear to be more of a pedagogic nature, then
work their way toward a more real-world type tasks. The rationale behind real-world tasks is
rehearsal and practice, whereas the rational behind pedagogic tasks is a psycholinguistic one.
Reference is made to needs analysis when designing real-world tasks, as for the pedagogic tasks,
reference is made to SLA theory and research.
6. Task, Exercise, and Activity
According to Ellis (2003), an exercise is form-focused, while a task is meaning-focused. An
exercise has a semantic meaning in focus but a task has a pragmatic meaning in focus. An exercise
usually has a limited focus on a single language element, and has a linguistics outcome, whereas
a task is a communicative act with a non-linguistic outcome. An activity has is similar to an
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exercise in that it also has restrictive focus on a single language element, and it also has something
in common with a task because it has a communicative outcome too. Littlewood (2004) also states
that an exercise is an enabling task which focuses on the structures of language, their forms, and
also their meaning such as substitution exercises, discovery and awareness-raising activities. He
also maintains that tasks are communicative tasks that focus on meaning and the use of language
to communicate such as creative role play, problem solving, and discussion. Ur (1996) believes
that there are two types of activities: 1) Topic-based which simply asks the learner to talk about
subject 2) Task-based which requires language learners to perform something.
7. TBLT Background, Theory of Language and Learning
Nunan (1992, 2004) and Ellis (2003) believe that TBLT is an approach based on the use of tasks
as central to language learning and teaching. Learning is enhanced via performing a series of tasks
with a communicative purpose in mind. The emphasis lies not in the language forms but rather in
meaning and communication, the focus is away from decontextualized, form-focused activities to
language use in contextualized, meaning-based language use as a vehicle for authentic, real-world
communication. Within TBLT framework, the language is not pre-determined or pre-selected; the
learners themselves play a vital role in determining the linguistic material needed to carry out the
tasks. It is also learner-oriented in that the knowledge is drawn from the learners. TBLT heavily
depends on students actively using their knowledge and also their skills of deduction, induction,
and reasoning. Activities that entail authentic communication are essential to the learning process;
such activities are utilized for the promotion of meaningful communication. Language which is
meaning-based will provide a supporting framework within which learners are more likely to boost
their communicative skills.
Involving learners in task performance and task realization;
corresponds to providing a better context for them to activate their learning processes. TBLT
makes the language in the classroom memorable; the language being taught is more naturally
processed and recycled. The core unit of planning and the primary focus of classroom activity is
the task and language serves as an instrument in performing and completing the task. The focus is
away from product-oriented language usage to process-oriented language use. The fundamental
elements are activities and tasks whose purpose it to promote meaning-negotiation and real
communication. Learners learn the language through interacting actively and while involved in
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task performance and realization. Those activities are either attained in real-world or carried out
by the language learners in the classrooms.
According to Nunan (1989, 1999, 2004), TBLT first emerged in the vocational practices of the
1950s. There were two early applications of a task-based approach, first, it was used in the
Malaysian communicational syllabus in 1975, and second, the Bangalore project (Beretta and
Davis, 1985, Prabhu, 1987, and Beretta, 1990) has to be mentioned. Task-based is not new at all.
Prabhu used a task-based approach secondary school classes in Bangalore, India, which started in
1979 on his communicational teaching project. American government language institutions also
adopted a task-based approach to language teaching learning and teaching in the early 1980.
Widdowson (2003) believes that TBLT is a new and enhanced way of what language learning and
teaching could bring to bear. Harmer (2001, p.86) states that "The idea of task-based learning
(TBL) was greatly popularized by Prabhu". Prabhu (1987) implements his Bangalore project in
which he worked with students of southern India in Bangalore on his communicational teaching
project. The students were in secondary level .He believed they were more likely to learn the
language when their attention is not focused on language forms but rather on meaning. According
to Richards and Rodgers (2001), TBLT is primarily inspired by a theory of learning rather than a
theory of language. He summarizes the theories of learning as 1) meaning is utmost and primary
and language serves well as instrument to construct that meaning. 2) TBL enjoys several models
of language such as structural, functional, and interactional models of language. 3) Lexis plays a
central role in language use and learning. 4) Conversation also is central to language learning and
teaching processes because most of the tasks involve the use of conversations. The theories of
language learning are best summarized as: 1) tasks provide the input and output necessary for
language learning and teaching processes. 2) Task achievement is intrinsically motivating. 3)
Learning problems can be solved through negotiation of meaning for particular pedagogic
purposes.
8. Researches underling TBLT
Nunan (2004) describes the researches underlying TBLT as: 1) the input hypothesis proposed by
Krashen is the first underlying research of TBLT and it states that we learn a language, when the
input is comprehensible or when the input is slightly above the current level of the language
learner. Understanding input is crucial to language acquisition. 2) The output hypothesis proposed
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by Swain is also the second underlying assumption behind TBLT; the input is needed but not
enough to bring about learning, the learners should be provided to with learning opportunities to
produce the target language or output. 3) The interaction hypothesis put forward by Long, Ellis,
and Nunan is the third one and it maintains that the leaner-learner and learner-teacher interaction
promotes meaning-based learning and enhances communication.
9. Principles of TBLT
Nunan (2004, 1999) and Larsen-Freeman (2000) present the principles of TBLT which are best
summarized as: 1) Scaffolding: the learning is likely to enhance when the learning materials
provide a supporting framework. 2) Task-dependency: tasks build upon one another; the
completion of one task is dependent upon the performance of another. 3) Recycling: the language
that is recycled naturally increases learning opportunities and also activates the learner schemes.
4) Active learning: the active use of language leads to better language acquisition and language
learning. 5) Integration of form and function: the relationship between linguistic forms and
communicative functions has to be clarified when teaching the language and sometimes these
forms and functions have to be integrated. 6) Reproduction to recreation: learners will move from
reproductive tasks whose model is provided by the teacher toward creating tasks of their own;
from the initial dependence on teacher to independence of their own. The reproductive tasks give
learners the mastery of form, meaning, and function and lay the groundwork for creative tasks.
Learners will be able to combine the familiar elements in novel ways when working with creative
tasks. 7) Authenticity: learners will have to be engaged in real-life, authentic situation that
correspond to those of the outside world. 8) Learning strategies: different learning strategies will
be used by the learners to meet both the requirements of learning process and language product.9)
Reflection: learners will also be provided with the opportunities to reflect on what they have
learned and how much progress they have made.
10. Methodological Procedures in Teaching Tasks
Ellis (2003) makes a contrast between course design and methodology; the course design deals
with the selection and sequencing of content, it is concerned with what of teaching, while
methodology addresses the how of teaching. Methodology consists of two parts: 1) lesson design
2) participatory structure. The lesson design is the chronology of a task-based approach which
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includes three stages: a) "Pre-task" which is the first phase; it addresses the kind of activities that
teachers and learners can carry out before the task. b) "During-task which is the second phase and
revolves around the task itself. c) "Post-task" which is the third phase and centers around followup activities on task performance. Of these three stages, Ellis only considers the second, "during
task" to be obligatory; a task-based lesson at least consists of learners performing the task itself.
He also provides examples of options for each stage: 1) Pre-task: a) let the learners to timeplan b)
set a mode for the learners c) carry out a similar task d) per-teach the key language items. 2) The
main-task phase: a) set time for performing the task b) involve the learners in pair-work and groupwork c) include various participants d) bring in a surprise element e) learners will have to get ready
to report to the whole class. 3) Post-task: a) learners will present their report to the class b) the task
will be repeated c) consciousness-activities will be carried out. Participatory structure refers to the
procedures according to which the contributions of both teacher and learners are arranged and rearranged. The participatory structure can be either social or individual; if it is individual, the prototypical form of interaction is private speech or intrapersonal speech. If it is social, the proto-typical
form of interaction is interpersonal which falls into three subcategories: 1) teacher-class 2) studentclass 3) small group or pair work. Richards and Rodgers (2001) also provide the same
methodological procedures to be followed in task-based lesson but only with some small
modifications. They believe that during the pre-task stage, the topic will be introduced and
explored, the useful words and phrases will be highlighted, students will be helped to comprehend
the task, the learners will also be motivated and prepared to perform the task itself, a model will
be provided to set an example for the language learners as how to perform ha task, learning will
be personalized and the learners' experiences will be brought to the learning process. They divide
the ask-cycle or the during-task stage into two subdivisions: 1) Planning: during which the learners
will plan how to report to the class what they have done. 2) Report: during which the language
learners present their own report to the whole class either orally or in written form. The final stage,
post-task, falls into three subcategories: 1) analysis 2) practice 3) language focus. During this stage,
the task will be performed again, and the learners will also be provided with the opportunity to
reflect on the task performance, there will also be a set of form-focused activities as follow-up
activities. There are two points to be born in mind when focusing on form in post-task stage, first,
what forms are to be attended to by the teacher, those forms that were used incorrectly by the
language learners while carrying out the task should be chosen by the teacher. Second, there are
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some ways to handle the target forms: a) A review of learner's errors can prove to be useful. b)
Consciousness-raising activities can be used as follow-up activities on task performance to call
students' attention directly to explicit language forms. c) Production-practice tasks such as
repetition, substitution, jumbled sentences, and guided dialogues can be used. d) Noticing activities
which direct learners to explicitly attend to forms can also be utilized. There is yet another model
proposed by Willis (1996) in his book entitled "A framework for task-based learning". In his
model, we can observer that there are four stages, one stage more than other models proposed by
Ellis (2003) and Richards and Rodgers (2001): 1) Pre-task: during which materials are exploited,
for example, using a picture to lead in to the topic, learners will brainstorm new ideas or
experiences, and the language available to the learner will be activated. 2) Task-preparation: during
which a report is planned, role-play will be practiced, a questionnaire is written to be administered,
issues are thought of to be used in a debate, and also brainstorming and activating language will
again be utilized. 3) Task-realization: during which a poster can be produced, role-play will be
performed, a debate will be held, and a presentation will be given. 4) Post-task: for which we have
several options; language focus, feedback and evaluation, reflection upon task realization,
language reflection, and peer suggestions are among some of those options available to language
learners and teachers.
References
Beretta, A. (1990a). ‘Implementation of the Bangalore Project.’ Applied Linguistics, 11: 321-327.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University press.
Ellis, R. & Barkhuzian,G.(2005).Analyzing Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English Language Teaching. Edinburgh: Pearson Education. LarsenFreeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Littlewood, W. (2004). ‘The task-based approach: Some questions and suggestions. ELT Journal, 58/4:
319-326.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Nunan, D. (1992). Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Learning and Teaching. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Nunan. D. (2001). Action Research in Language Education. In Hall, R.D. &Hewings, A. (eds).Innovations
in English Language Teaching London: Macquaire University.
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Nunan. D. (2004).Task-based LanguageTeaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pica, T. (2005). Classroom Learning, teaching and research: a task-based perspective. The Modern
Language Journal, 89:339-352.
Prabhu, S. N. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Richards, C.J. & Renandya, A.W.(2002). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current
Practice (eds). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, C.R. & Rodgers, S.T.(2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Widdowson, G.H. (2003). Defining Issues in English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Harlow: Longman
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Title
A Sociopragmatic Study of Discourse Markers’ Use across Different
Genders: Case Study of Iranian EFL Learners
Author
Javad Ahmadi Fatalaki (M.A)
Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran
Biodata
Javad Ahmadi Fatalaki, M.A in TEFL at Allameh Tabataba’i University, Iran. His areas of
interest include CALL, intercultural studies, Applied Psycholinguistics, Multilingualism. He is an
instructor and Supervisor at Shoukoh language Institute. He is also a test designer for the
Ghalamchi Foundation.
Abstract
The present study was an attempt to investigate the gender difference in the use of discourse
markers in a foreign language acquisition setting. To do so, two groups comprising 58 male
and 58 female advanced level students were selected. Their speech recorded by a portable
audio-recorder was transcribed. In order to find the significant difference between these
two groups, “Concordance software” was run to calculate the frequency of discourse
markers in the first 10,000 words of both transcribed files to balance the data and having
this result, it was discussed whether males or females are more frequent users of discourse
markers. After a detailed analysis, discourse markers were categorized into two major
classes, that is, Textual and interpersonal discourse markers, by applying Hyland (2005)
model. The Analysis of the participants’ conversations in both groups indicated that
although females used more discourse markers in their speech, detailed analysis showed
that in interactive category of discourse markers the difference between males and females
was not significant. Nevertheless, a higher rate of interactional discourse markers was
observed in females’ speech.
Keywords: Discourse Markers, Gender differences, Interactive discourse marker,
Interactional discourse marker
1. Introduction
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Since 1970s, prominent role of Discourse Markers (hereafter, DMs) became clear for researchers
when it was found that DMs studies not only deal with pragmatics and discourse analytic research
but also with studies related to second or foreign language acquisition. Műller (2004) stated that
although DMs have crucial role in organization of native speaker discourse, their effect on
language learning should be taken into account. During the past few years, great amount of
research have focused thoroughly to the theoretical status of DMs, their classifications, the
attributable meanings, and their function inside and outside of the texts, that is, Integration of
forms, meaning and actions in order to make the discourse understandable by the interlocutor but
the main problem here is that this term has so many definitions and meanings for different
researcher and there is no agreement on its meaning and function because it went under variety of
the labels. These labels have been provided by theoretical works dedicated to DMs and its meaning
that will be discussed concisely in the following sections. However, some newly-made
classifications like Hyland’s (2005) model have been prevailed among different models. Hyland
and Tse (2004) used the term Metadiscourse markers because their focus was on written texts, and
the relation between writer and reader. Being aware of the applicability of this model to the matter
of written texts, the present researcher intentionally utilized this model for oral performance to
prove its generalizabilty .So, what made this study unique is its persistence on the claim that this
model is also applicable to the oral performance.
The increasing trend toward DMs influenced on pedagogical studies and brought along
sociological variable like gender, age and social class into focus. Thus, present study focused on
amount and selection of the type of DMs due to the scarcity of studies which practically discuss
gender differences in foreign language acquisition contexts. Therefore, the issue of the gender
must be discussed in order to prepare the substantial framework for appropriate teaching to
different genders according to their potentials separately.
2.1. Definition of Discourse Marker
Regarding discourse marker, Different definitions and classifications were provided. Traditionally,
discourse markers were treated like a filler or expletive which has no meaning. One of the wellknown definition which has changed the researchers’ perspective on DM is Schifrin’s one.
Schiffrin (1987) stated that DMs are “linguistic, paralinguistic, or nonverbal elements that signal
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relations between units of talk by virtue of their syntactic and semantic properties and by virtue of
their sequential relations as initial or terminal brackets demarcating discourse units” (cited in
Khazaee, 2012, p.1). She just mentioned 11 discourse markers in her survey and also believed that
except for “oh and well”, other discourse markers have meaning.
Fraser ( 1996) described DMs as a subtype of pragmatic markers and comments since a DM
“signals the relationship of the basic message to the foregoing discourse” (cited in Andersen 2001,
P. 40). Lynn and Zic’s (2004) stated that, “discourse marker is a word or phrase that is relatively
syntax-independent and does not change the meaning of the sentence” (p.117).
Levinson (1983) considered DMs as a class worthy of study on its own merits, although he did
not give it a name. Louwerse and Mitchell (2003) defined DMs as those words which “promote
the listeners’ and readers’ conceptions of a coherent discourse by way of a reminder function
embedded in DMs” (cited in Ying, 2007, p.54).
Hellerman & Vergun’s (2007) approach to DMs as they incorporate pragmatic functions in
their definition. As these authors stated, “DMs are words or phrases that function within the
linguistic system to establish relationships between topics or grammatical units in discourse” (cited
in Castro, 2009, p.61).
2.2. Different Terminology
There are different terminologies for DMs including sentence connectives (Halliday & Hasan,
1976), gambits (Keller,1979), pragmatic connectives (van Dijk, 1979; Stubbs, 1983), filler (Brown
&Yule,1983), semantic conjuncts (Quirk et al., 1985),discourse particles (Schorup, 1985,cited in
Fraser,1990), discourse connectives (Blakemore, 1987, 1992; Schiffrin, 1987), pragmatic
formatives (Fraser, 1987),
pragmatic markers (Fraser, 1988, 1990;Brinton,1996), discourse
operators (Redeker, 1990, 1991), phatic connectives (Bazanella, 1990), pragmatic expressions
(Erman, 1992), pragmatic operators (Ariel, 1994), cue phrases (Knott and Dale,
1994),metadiscourse markers(Hyland &Tse,2004).
2.3. Functions of Discourse Markers
Brinton (1990) provided the list of the functions of DMs that is still relevant to current studies of
discourse markers. According to this list, discourse markers are used:
 To initiate discourse,
 To mark a boundary in discourse (shift/partial shift in topic),
 To preface a response or a reaction,
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 To serve as a filler or delaying tactic,
 To aid the speaker in holding the floor,
 To effect an interaction or sharing between speaker and hearer,
 To bracket the discourse either cataphorically or anaphorically,
 To mark either fore-grounded or back grounded information” (p.47).
2.4. Gender Study of Discourse Markers
Lakoff‘s (1975) article on ‘Language and Women’s’ was the most important study that caused
attraction toward the gender studies. Her pioneering work argued that women have a different way
of speaking from men a way of speaking that both reflects and produces a subordinate position for
women in society. In her article she suggested that women’ speech typically displays a range of
features such as:
 Hedges
 Super polite forms
 Tag questions
 Question intonation in declarative statements,
 Speaking in italics
 Empty adjectives
 Hyper-corrected grammar and pronunciation
 Lack of sense of humor
 Direct quotation
 Special lexicon ( cited in Alami et al., 2012)
Escalerah (2009) stated that “There are no significant gender differences when discourse
marker use is examined within a given activity context. Role-play context is the exception to this
general finding” (P.2479). Ädel (2006) also emphasized that gender of the writer determine the
amount of metadiscourse used by the writer. Vanda and Peter (2011) claimed “women use
discourse markers more frequently as well as the hypothesis that men and women use discourse
markers for radically different interpersonal and discourse functions” (p.1).Study by Kim and
Kang(2011) on 65 speakers(men and women) out of Sejong Spoken Corpus showed that woman
use more discourse markers. Matei (2011) discussed the relationship between gender difference
and DMs in casual conversations and her research indicated that women use more discourse
markers than men and they offer more discursive support in conversation. Zareifard (2014) studied
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on 9male and 9 female, who were defending their thesis, claimed that there were statistically
significant difference in the use of interactional metadiscourse markers by male and female
candidates.
Tajeddin and Alemi (2012) investigated the use of interactional metadiscourse markers
between male and female university students. According to their finding, there is no major
difference between male and female students in the use of interactional metadiscourse markers.
Most of the researchers admitted that female speakers have more potentiality to use DMs
within their speech but it is not always true due to the result of the Ostebovik’s (2010) study that
emphasized on more use of the DMs by male speakers.
2.5. Studies in EFL Context
Frequency of discourse markers used in EFL context during oral performance was discussed well
by the different studies. For example, Rieger (2003) examined three proficiency groupsElementary, Intermediate, Advanced- in order to measure the frequency of employed DMs. She
concluded that “intermediate EFL learners hesitate mainly during their conversations and use DMs
for two reasons: to search for a German word or structure, or to think about the content of their
utterance” (p.47).
One of the studies conducted in Iranian context is Khojastehrad’s (2012) one on discourse
markers .She investigated the distribution pattern of hesitation discourse markers produced by EFL
learners in an L2 oral test. Jung (2003) found that DMs play an important role in first language
listening comprehension. She also mentioned that finding this result in second or foreign language
listening comprehension depends on more research in this field. Trillo (2002) coined the
expression ‘‘Pragmatic Fossilization’’ for second and foreign language learners who just pay
attention to the grammar and semantics and fall short of using DMs in their appropriate context.
According to Rounds (1987), lack and misuse of discourse markers caused misunderstanding for
native listeners when they confronted L2 speakers. Liu (2006) conducted a pragmatic analysis on
one Chinese literature class and concluded that teachers’ DMs have five major textual functions:
connect, transfer, generalize, explain and repair(Cited in Yang,2011)
2.6. Classification of Discourse Markers
Chaudron and Richards (1986) classified DMs into macro- and micro markers. They believed that
macro markers at the macro level are to signal the relationship among main segments or to mark
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the major transition points in discourse. Micro-markers according to their function at the micro
level are to indicate inter-sentential relations or to function as pause fillers (e.g., and, so, and well).
Halliday and Hasan (1976) identified five main cohesive devices in English discourse:
“reference, substitution, ellipsis, lexical cohesion and conjunction” (p.226).
Fung and Carter (2007) categorized a core functional paradigm of DMs namely interpersonal,
referential, structural and cognitive dimension into the following Table:
Table 1 Fung and Carter’s classification of DMs:
Category
Subcategory
Interpersonal
1-Marking
Referential
Structural
Examples
shared
knowledge See, you see
2-Indicating attitude
Well, really
3-Showing response
Yeah, I see
1-Cause &Contrast
Because ,But
2-Coordination&Disjunction
And, Or
3-Consequence
So
4-Digression
Anyway
5-Comparison
Similarly
1-Opening and Closing of topics
Right, Lets start
2-Sequence
3-Topic shift
First, second ,Then
4-Summarizing opinions
So now, How about
5-Continuation of topics
So
Yeah, And ,So
Cognitive
1-Denoting thinking process
Well, I think
2-Refomulation/Self correction
I mean
3-Elaboration
Like, I mean
4-Hesitation
Sort of
5-Aseessment
of
listener You know
knowledge about the utterance
2.6.1. Metadiscourse markers’ classifications
The term metadiscourse was coined by Zellig Harris (1959) to offer “a way of understanding
language in use, representing a writer's or speaker's attempts to guide a receiver's perception of a
text” (cited in Hyland, 2005.p.3). The use of metadiscourse markers just was manifested in written
text, while its use in oral performance was neglected.
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Crismore, Markkanen, and Steffensen (1993) introduced new classification for metadiscourse
markers based on interpersonal and textual categories in the following Tables (Table2&3):
Table2 Textural Metadiscourse Markers
Category
Subcategory
Examples
Textual markers
1- Logical connectives
in addition, therefore
2- Sequencers
first, next, finally
3- Reminders
as we saw previously
4- Topicalizers
now, I will discuss
1-Code Glosses
for example, that is
Interpretive markers
2-Illocution
markers
3Announcements
in sum, to conclude
In the next chapter.
Table 3 Interpersonal Metadiscourse Markers
Category
Examples
Hedges
might, possible, likely
Certainly markers
certainly, shows, know
Attributors
Scott claims
Attitude markers
surprisingly, I hope
Commentary
dear reader, please
Vande Kopple’s “Classification System” for Metadiscourse consists of new subcategories (1997)
depicted in Table 4and 5:
Table 4 Textural Metadiscourse Markers
Text connectives
Used to help readers recognize how texts are
organized and how different parts of a text are
connected
to
one
another
functionally
or
semantically. They include sequencers (first, next,
however, but), reminders (as mentioned in Chapter
1), and Topicalizers (with regards to, in connection
with). Logical and temporal relationship markers
are also included (consequently, at the same time).
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388
Used to help readers grasp the writer’s intended
Code glosses
meaning of words and phrases. Often they are
based on the writer’s perception of the reader’s
knowledge of the topic. These devices reword,
explain or clarify semantic relationships (x means
y)
Express the writer’s commitment to the truth or
Validity markers
value of a statement and demonstrate the author’s
commitment to the statement. Hedges (perhaps,
may, might), emphatics (clearly, obviously), and
attributors (according to Willett) are included here.
Narrators
informs readers who said or wrote something
Table 5 Interpersonal Metadiscourse Markers
Illocution markers
used to explicitly target the speech act being
performed at specific points in the text (to sum up,
I hypothesize, we predict)
used to reveal the writer’s attitude toward the
Attitude markers
propositional content (unfortunately, interestingly,
and surprisingly
Communicative
Used to communicate with readers in an implicit
dialogue (dear reader, you may not agree).
Hyland and Tse (2004) mentioned that metadiscourse markers’ categories are intrinsically and
ultimately interpersonal, and one of their main aims was to persuade the reader. They classified
metadiscourse markers into the functional headings of interpersonal and textual markers. Textual
metadiscourse markers refer to the organization of discourse. They also fulfill a persuasive
function and attain a persuasive effect, while the interpersonal reflects the writer’s stance towards
both the content of the text and the potential reader.
Another classification of metadiscourse markers was provided by Hyland (2005) which
showed a good starting point for the analysis of DMs because of its comprehensiveness. In the
following table this taxonomy is depicted:
Table 6 Metadiscourse model according to Hyland (2005)
Category
Subcategory
Function
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Examples
389
1-Transitional
Interactive
Indicates
relations in addition, but, thus
between main clauses
2-Frame markers
Discourse acts, stages finally, my purpose
and sequences
3-Endorphic markers
Indicates information in as noted above,
other part of text
4-Evidentials
Indicates information in Crawford states
other sources
5-Code Glosses
Elaborates definitions of Namely, such as, e.g.
words or phrases
Interactional
1-Hedges
Withholds commitment might, perhaps possible
and open dialogue
2-Boosters
Indicates certainty or in fact, definitely
close dialogue
3-Attitude markers
Express writer’s attitude arguably, unfortunately
to proposition
4-Self-mentions
Explicit
reference
to I, we, my, me, our
author
5-Engagement
Explicitly
builds you can see that, note,
markers
relationship with reader
2.7Research Questions
1-Is there any significant gender difference in the use of DMs between advanced foreign language
learners?
2-what are the preferred DMs manifested in the spontaneous speech of advanced Persian learners
of English across both genders?
2.8Research Hypothesis
To give a tentative answer to the question posed, the following null hypothesis was formulated:
Learners’ gender has no significant effect on frequency and diversity of DMs employed by them.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
In order to carry out this gender-based study, the present researcher collected the data from 116
students comprising 58 men and 58 women of 11classes at Shoukoh institute in Tehran province,
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January-July 2014. Participants were provided with consent form due to the aim of the research in
order to record their speech during class activities. They were Persian native speakers who studied
English as a foreign language (FL) for 5 years before the conduction of this experiment. Some of
these participants also studied English in other language institutes before this study. Their English
language proficiency was estimated by the placement tests according to the policy of the institute
and experienced teachers who were familiar with the target groups to be matched to the Advanced
level of proficiency. The Researcher found those placement tests more reliable than one specific
summative assessment like TOEFL or IELTS tests in order to measure students’ level. These
advanced students were in the last pre-TOEFL classes according to the institution’s pedagogical
system. The age distribution of the participants was between 16 and 20.These students were not
selected randomly due to the scope of the research.
3.2. Instrument
Audio-recordings were
used in this study to gather raw data having the permission of the
participants. Due to the indoor setting of the target institute, the appropriate audio recording system
applied on the target groups. Different kinds of portable audio-recording system utilized in order
to promote the quality of the target groups’ voice. Then, quality of audio files was increased by
Audio converter and transformation of the audio files to MP3 format was conducted by the
Concordance software.
The other instrument that created an easy calculation of discourse markers employed by
participant in the study is Concordance software. Concordance software lets the researcher to
search through the transcribed text based on audio-recording in order to find the target words.
Researcher can search through discourse data for all instances of words inside the given text. There
are also conditions in which researcher can see surrounding context for every instance of the
specific word that has been chosen by the researcher. The result is called a key-word-in- context
concordance. For searching DMs, software make it possible to type that word and see all instances
of the target word neatly and orderly. Sorting of lists of words is also possible in order to make a
clear picture of the findings. In addition, researchers can access to statistics like words that
collocate more frequently with each other and the number of their occurrences inside the text. This
software is sensitive to discourse features as turn completions, discourse particles or vocal noises
word, typically co- occurring with turn beginnings, interruptions and simultaneous speech, and so
on. There are different types of concordance software like MonoConc that searches for key-wordIranian EFL Journal
391
in-context program, designed specifically for Windows. Other Windows concordance software is
Wordsmiths (developed by Oxford University Computing) and Shoebox (developed by the
Summer Institute of Linguistics), namely. The present study used the concordance software
version 3.3 because of its easiness for use and accessibility for users.
3.3. Data Collection Procedure
Researcher quantitatively analyzed the result of audio-recording by descriptive statistics. This
statistical analysis comprising categorizations of DMs and frequency counts so as to measure the
distribution and number of DMs’ occurrences inside the transcribed audio-taped. Considering
females’ transcribed text which comprises 12,165 words and males’ one comprises 12,008 words,
the researcher selected 10,000 words of every one of these texts in order to have a better
comparison between these groups.
The speech of these groups of advanced students was recorded by the researcher during their
oral performance on four different topics introduced by the researcher .These topics extracted from
different forums because these issues were discussed by the groups who had the same background
with the participants of the present study. It is noteworthy to mention that these topics themselves
excerpted among a variety of discussion performed every session inside classrooms because
students showed more interest as well as a desire to participate in these kinds of topics. Females’
class topics were ‘True Love’, ‘Uniforms of Schools’, ‘Best Book’ and ‘Your Dream Job’. Males’
class topics were ’Your Dream Job’, ‘Your Favorite Football Team’, ‘Best Film’ and ‘Your
favorite Car’. Although these topics can create dialogue between students, most of students’ speech
was monologue because of spontaneity of the discussion. In other words, researcher didn’t aware
them about the topics in advance. The most important reason to select monologue was that during
dialogue, students use each others’ DMs that may mislead the researcher for accurate evaluation
of students’ performance and speaker also adjusted their style of speech according to his or her
interlocutor.
Teacher gave students 5 minutes to prepare themselves to take part in conversations.
Participants were also allowed to take note in order to have more comprehensible speech. There
was no pre-teaching of DMs due to the aim of the research to exclude any potential threat to the
natural production of DMs.
45 minutes of every session of this term were devoted to these free discussions and 4 sessions
of these free discussions excerpted with the consent of the target groups. The participants were
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aware about the audio-recording but the exact time of main audio-recordings was not planned
.Researcher tried to choose files related to the last 5 sessions because the researcher was aware
about the effect of observer paradox that is a harmful threat to internal validity of his studies. As
it is clear in audio-recordings, participants started to feel comfortable in front of audio-recorder
because over the time this issue became unimportant and students get used to it. Like other
discourse studies, present study used pseudonyms for the participant to protect their identity.
The researcher had different classes with different levels of proficiency but he focused
thoroughly on one level, that is, advanced level of proficiency. The first reason for selecting this
level was that students had the ability to easily participate in conversations and the second reason
is that these students had more opportunity to listen to the authentic materials, so they were more
familiar with different types of discourse markers and their correct functions in different contexts.
The relationship between the teacher and students was also very important because when students
were more familiar with their teacher, they felt more comfortable and their performance was not
synthetically constructed. According to Miller(2009),when there is intimacy between speakers, the
use of ’ like’ as a DM is more frequent than a situation where two strangers are talking with each
other. Ten Have (1999) also explained that “non- institutional data provides better examples of the
purely local functioning of conversational devices and interactional formats” (p.8).Another
important point was that all students in this study were teenage and some of them young because
previous studies like D’Arcy’s (2007) study on ‘like’ showed that teenagers are the most frequent
users of discourse markers.
3.4. Framework for Data Analysis
List of Metadiscourse markers considered for the present study exactly was taken from Hyland
(2005) study. Since this classification of metadiscourse markers is more comprehensive than
others’, the researcher aimed at choosing this model for analyzing the raw data gained by audiorecordings, even though metadiscourse model is much more related to written text than oral
performance. Hyland (2005), based on his previous models, made a distinction between two types
of metadiscourse markers:
1-Interactive metadiscourse markers which consist of five subcategories:
 transitional markers
 frame markers
 Endophoric markers
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 evidentials
 code glosses
2- Interactional metadiscourse marker consists of 5 subcategories:
 Hedges
 Boosters
 Attitude
 Markers
 Self Mention
 Engagement Markers(see appendix A)
3.5. Data Analysis
Following the transcription, Concordance software was utilized so as to identify DMs, their
frequency of use and their co-occurrences with other elements. Another step was to classify these
discourse markers, so the metadiscourse marker classification of Hyland (2005) comprising two
major categories-Interactive and interactional- was applied. For answering the first research
question, Frequency of discourse markers made by both the female and male speakers was
measured by the researcher to determine whether there is gender difference in the use of DMs.
Then, second research question which thoroughly focused on frequency of occurrence of two
different categories of DMs was discussed according to the Hyland (2005) taxonomy (see Table
6).
While transcribing students’ speech, the researcher didn’t focus on intonation counter,
occasional errors which cause misunderstanding, pauses, and random interruption because the
present study aimed at discussing the difference between genders in the use of DMs and their
distribution. Therefore, the researcher decided to make some amendment to the transcriptions
where necessary to increase the intelligibility of participants’ speech, but he didn’t correct those
errors which didn’t cause misunderstanding.
4. Results
In this section, presentation of DMs’ frequency of use in all conversation was extracted. The results
of this investigation administered on participants presented in the following Table. As shown in
Table7, total number of words in males’ transcribed file was 12,165 and females’ transcribed file
consisted of 12,008 words. In order to make the comparison between these groups more valid,
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researcher selected first 10,000 words of both of these texts to analyze the frequency of DMs.
Overall analysis of the collected data showed that participants used 4,400 DMs in their speech. It
was also found that some DMs in the study were used more frequently within different
conversations like ‘I’ with total occurrence of 1410 times, and ‘And ‘ with total occurrence of
720 times.
According to Table7, frequency of discourse markers in males’ speech was 2,025 and this
frequency in females’ speech was 2,375, so female language learner showed more potentiality for
the use of DMs in their speech.
Table 7 Frequency of DMs in Males’ and Females’ speech
Gender
N
Total words
Frequency of DMs in 2000 words
Male
58
12,213
2,025
Female
58
12,113
2,375
To clarify the types of DMs and their frequency used by the participants who were totally nonnative speakers of English language, researcher put DMs into two major categories, which were
Interactive and Interactional DMs, based on Hyland’s (2005) classification. As shown in Table8,
based on the result of concordance software, females’ speech consisted of 810 Interactive DMs
and the males’ speech consisted of 830 Interactive DMs. In other words, result showed that there
was no significant difference between males and females non-native speakers in the use of
Interactive DMs. On the other hand, result of the study for Interactional DMs showed that female
non-native speakers used 1,545 DMs, while males’ speakers used 1,215 DMs in their speech.
According these results, degree of the use of DMs in these groups dialogues were not the same.
Table8 Frequency of Interactive and Interactional DMs in both Texts
Gender
Frequency of Interactive DMs
Frequency of Interactional DMs
Male
810
1,215
Female
830
1,545
5. Discussion
In this study, researcher aimed at evaluating males’ and females’ speech in order to search for the
trace of DMs and their distribution within the texts that were transcription of students’ performance
on their daily free discussion activities.
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Regarding the first research question, researcher focused thoroughly on the overall frequency
of DMs in order to evaluate the effect of gender on the use of DMs. Based on the result of the
study, it was evident that the female non-native speaker tended to use more DMs, even though in
some categories of DMs, the difference between males and females wasn’t so much salient. These
results seems compatible with the claim provided by Vanda and Peter (2011) who stated that
“women use discourse markers more frequently as well as the hypothesis that men and women use
discourse markers for radically different interpersonal and discourse functions” (p.1).Hence, the
idea that women use a great number of discourse markers in EFL context is credible by the result
mentioned above.
Although the present study took advantages of the previous study in the area of DMs and
metadiscourse markers like Kopple (1985) and Crismore et al. (1993), the classification applied in
this study mainly rested on the Hyland (2005) recent analysis of metadiscourse markers. Hyland
(2005) classified metadiscourse markers into two general classes: Interactive metadiscourse
markers (which indicate the writer’s or speaker’s attention to the audience’s background
knowledge, interests and abilities) and interactional metadiscourse markers (which draw the
reader’s or listener attention to the author’s or speaker’s viewpoint about the main descriptive
content of the texts or speech). This overall classification let us delve into more aspects of
metadiscourse markers in order to answer the second research question specialized to different
categorization of DMs and their distribution throughout the texts. Interactive aspect of
metadiscourse markers showed the eye-catching result because the overall evaluation of the
metadiscourse markers employed by the participants proved that the female non-native language
speakers had more tendencies to use metadiscourse unintentionally in their spontaneous speech.
Result related to this category was also compatible with some previous research in EFL contexts.
For instance, Escalerah (2009) by her experiment on thirty-five young language learners claimed
that there were no significant difference male and female EFL learners in the use of DMs while
they were participating in the given activities. However, interactional aspect of metadiscourse
markers corresponded greatly to the overall result of the present study which emphasized the
higher frequency of metadiscourse markers in females’ speech.
6. Conclusion
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This research aimed at using metadiscourse markers model to indicate that EFL learners’ speech
is totally connected to their writing. Traditionally, it was believed that metadiscourse markers are
just connector in the text, but by the result of this study applicability of this model for oral
performance is proved.
On the basis of the transcribed files, we can conclude that, in concordance with Vanda, and
Peter’s (2011) study, and majority of the gender-based studies, there is substantial overall
difference between males’ and females’
speech, although there is no significant difference in
interactive category of DMs. Both groups used the great deal of self-mentions like ‘I’. The fact
that both groups used a higher degree of self-mentions under the label of interactional category of
DMs highlights their cultural identity. All in all, both groups even females who applied more DMs
in their speech lack knowledge of the complete range of DMs, so this result confirms the need for
explicit instruction of DMs which has been the focus of the studies in recent years.
6.1. Limitations and Delimitations
DMs have been devaluated in pedagogical instructions because of their propositional meanings.
Therefore, students even in advanced levels are not familiar with them in order to use them in their
speech and just some of them have been taken into account where necessary. ‘At first’, ‘secondly’,
‘however’, and ’because’ are some of the most frequent DMs which were part of the instruction in
EFL contexts but others remain uninstructed, so the only way to gain this knowledge is by exposure
to targeted foreign language that is highly related to the personal interest of students. Considering
this factor, true evaluation of males’ and females’ speech would be impeded. The present study
also lacks appropriate topics which deal with pragmatic knowledge of the participants. Considering
different task like suggestion, criticism, compliment, and refusing acts as general topics for
discussion would be very useful because this acts increase the spontaneity of speech. The other
limitation in this study is the matter of narrow statistical society; this study has been administered
on 116 students of Shoukoh Institute which can hardly be the true sample of target groups .
Participant in this study also shared the same ethnicity, religious believes, and social background
which decrease the diversity among these students in order to increase the generalizabilty of the
current study.
Multi-functionality of the DMs makes their evaluation by the researcher even with the use of
concordance software difficult because researcher should go through every line of the texts to
evaluate the role of words when they carry different meaning. Hyland (2005) stated that
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metadiscourse discourse markers serve different functions. Therefore, the researcher didn’t take
subcategories of DMs into account. The focus of the study fully dedicated to the general evaluation
of DMs. In future research, the frequency of DMs can be measured within every subcategory
such as hedges, engagement markers, and so forth.
6.2. Implications of the Study
Frequency and variety of DMs used by students in EFL context shows that there should be
revisiting in the teachability of DMs within pedagogical materials in foreign language acquisition.
Consequently, some recommendation seems practical for the language teachers who have the
highest interaction with foreign language learners:
1-students’ awareness about DMs and their appropriate use should be increased by the higher
exposure to the authentic material which can be provided by the teacher himself or even by the
curriculum developers.
2-There should be enough opportunity for every leaner to actively participate in the speaking tasks
in order to use DMs in real-life activities.
3-As it has been mentioned previously, pragmatic knowledge can interchangeably increase
awareness about DMs .Experienced teachers should take notice of the pragmatic use of DMs due
to the affordance they contribute to setting up more interpersonal relationships in the classroom
setting with students and creating a inviting atmosphere for students.
Instructional programs in EFL contexts should notice the effect of DMs as a vital part of every
conversation
in real life interaction. Unless do educational programs take advantages of
knowledge of DMs, there shouldn’t be any progress in students’ competency to communicate
appropriately with the native speakers of the target language. Although based on the result of the
study, females had a higher frequency of DMs’ use in their speech; just in one major category of
DMs they utilized more DMs. In other words, differences between females’ and males’ speech
existing in “Interactional category” of DMs have influence totally on the overall evaluation of
DMs’ use. Analyzing the pure data in this study shows that limited variety of DMs have been
utilized in all transcribed texts indicating the necessity of instruction both for the male and female
students.
The researcher also insists on the crucial role of teachers in teaching of DMs to the students in
classroom settings, especially when they provide the students with appropriate models. Different
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Samples from every day conversations can also serve the purpose for raising student’s awareness
about the correct use of DMs.
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Title
Appraisal in Applied Linguistics Research Articles Written by Native and
Nonnative English Speakers over the Course of Time
Authors
Aasa Moattarian (Ph.D Candidate)
Foreign Languages Department, Sheikhbahaee University, Isfahan, Iran
Gholam Reza Zarei (Ph.D)
English Language Center, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Biodata
Aasa Moattarian, Ph.D candidate in TEFL at Sheikhbahaee University. She is a lecturer at the
English department of the same university. Her research interests include first and second language
acquisition, discourse analysis, and English for specific purposes.
Gholam Reza Zarei received his Ph.D. in 2002 and is now teaching English at Isfahan University
of Technology, Iran. He is mainly interested in discourse analysis, language, culture, and ESP. He
is currently the director of English Language Centre.
Abstract
The primary aim of the current study was to investigate the use of evaluative expressions
used in applied linguistics research articles written by English native and nonnative authors
during the past seven decades. To this end, 210 research articles were selected from
reputable journals in the field and analyzed for the types of evaluative expressions by
adopting the model of Appraisal suggested by Martin and White (2005). The results of the
study suggest that evaluative tools were frequently used in 2010s; moreover, it was
revealed that the use of Appraisal tools has changed during the time. The findings of the
study not only provide invaluable information for discourse analysts, but also promise
some implications for ESP pedagogy, syllabus design, and material preparation.
Keywords: Appraisal theory, Academic writing, Systemic functional linguistics
1. Introduction
Today, the number of research articles published by a higher education or a research institution is
one of the indicators of institutional prestige and quality assurance. English as the Lingua Franca
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of the world facilitates the interconnection between scholars in this global setting of knowledge
production; in fact, the construction of scientific discourse can textualize science and dialogism in
science can make science evolve. Therefore, language standards need to be established in order to
rule the ways of producing and interpreting texts within and across disciplinary communities.
Hence, studying linguistic and discoursal changes in English can reveal a lot on the influence of
time on use of language (Pérez-Llantada, 2012). Science itself can be considered as a crucial piece
of the globalization mosaic; therefore, understanding “how different varieties of English have
developed linguistically and the ways in which they differ phonologically, lexically,
grammatically, rhetorically and culturally” and understanding “how English has developed in
specific contexts and how it has spread across the world” (Kirkpatrick, 2007, p. 33) is an
invaluable asset to the scientists as well as institutional and governmental policy makers.
Comprehensive accounts of language like the ones proposed by Systemic Functional Linguistics
(SFL) (Halliday, 1994), provide deep and detailed insights to the study of the language functions.
Appraisal system, within SFL, presents theories to explain interpersonal meaning choices in
discourse (Martin, 2000; Martin and Rose, 2003, Martin and White, 2005). The key concept of
Appraisal theories is that evaluative tools are used to negotiate social relations, by telling listeners
or readers about their attitudes and feelings about things and people (Martin and Rose, 2003).
In studies conducted based on pragmatic frameworks (e.g. Hyland, 1996a, 1996b, 2004; Connor
and Mauranen, 1999; Salager-Meyer, 1997), the main focus is on the grammatical components
that acknowledge interpersonal meanings. However, the studies within the SFL perspective mainly
focus on the semantics aspects of intersubjective positioning. One of the main qualities of this
viewpoint is that it provides a comprehensive view of evaluative resources, including instances of
attitude and positioning and the sources of these evaluative tools in discourse. In fact, it provides
a model based on which lexico-grammatical choices can systematically be related to the
construction of different meanings (Martin and White, 2005).
With the main purpose of analyzing the resources of intersubjective stance, and based on this
framework, Appraisal has been defined as “the semantic resources used to negotiate emotions,
judgments and valuations, alongside resources for amplifying and engaging with these
evaluations” (Martin, 2000, p. 145).
The model has been applied to a variety of different text types from different contexts, e.g.
news media texts (Bednarek, 2008), academic writing (Hood 2006; Hood and Martin, 2007), health
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care discourse (Adendorff and de Klerk, 2006), tourism (Kaltenbacher, 2006), narratives (MackenHorarik, 2003) and business discourse (Fuoli, 2012) to mention a few areas. Both qualitative
analyses of entire texts (e.g. Don 2007; Martin 2000) and quantitative corpus investigations
(e.g.Bednarek, 2008; Adendorff and de Klerk, 2006; Kaltenbacher, 2006; Read and Carroll, 2012)
have been carried out using the Appraisal framework. A great number of studies on evaluation of
the academic genre have provided plausible interpretations of the use of Appraisal system in this
specific genre (Hyland, 1998; Liu and Thompson, 2009; Martínez, 2001; Pascual, 2010; Rothery
and Stenglin, 2000; Wang and An, 2013; Hunston, 1993)
The main reason that justifies the choice of this system is the adherence to Bakhtin’s (1981)
notion of dialogism that all verbal communication is dialogic. In academic writing, the authors try
to achieve general agreement within the scientific community (Hood and Martin, 2005). The
second reason refers to the communicative function and highly interactive nature of academic
genre, since authors always try to convince the audience that their work is relevant for the
development of the field.
An important question to be investigated here is how researchers make judicious use of
language to explain and negotiate their findings by referring to their views within their research
articles. A deep understanding of an Appraisal analysis of research articles helps researchers
develop a good mastery over documenting research. Of the different parts of research articles,
discussion and conclusion sections are particularly aimed at forming an alliance between the
researcher and reader to provide grounds for the exchange of opinions. Consequently, these
sections, as an argumentative text, are full of interpretive expressions that the researcher produces.
To present arguments in discussion and conclusion sections, the authors should draw on
appropriate means of expressing their views and representing their judgment in a way that readers
find them persuasive.
2. The Present Study
This study aims at providing readers with an insight into the metadiscoursal make-up of the
discussion and conclusion sections interpersonal and argumentative discourse in relation to the use
of Appraisal tools by native and nonnative authors of English during a seven decade period. The
reason for comparing these two is to observe whether the rhetorical structure of discussion and
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conclusion sections written by nonnative speakers is different from that of native speakers of
English in the course of time.
2.1. The Appraisal Framework
As mentioned above, Appraisal is a comprehensive term including all the linguistic resources to
express affect, judgments, and evaluation and to negotiate stances and ideological positions
(White, 2005). Appraisal framework organizes interpersonal meanings into different systems. The
main three categories are:
1) Attitude involves the linguistic expression of emotional dispositions, and evaluations according
to aesthetic and significance criteria.
2) Engagement comprises the resources by which language users negotiate the arguability of their
utterances.
3) Graduation groups the linguistic means that are used to modulate the intensity of assessments.
Each subsystem is further divided into different subcategories (Figure 1).
Figure 1.An Overview of Appraisal System
2.1.1. Attitude
Attitudinal resources are subdivided into three subcategories of affect, judgment, and appreciation.
Affect concerns the expression of feelings, emotions and states of mind. It may be expressed
through adverbs, adjectives, verbs of emotion, or nominalized forms (Martin and White,
2005).Judgment comprises positive and negative normative assessments of human behavior.
According to Martin (1995), it is usually realized adjectivally; it can also be conveyed through
nominalized forms and prepositional phrases. Appreciation, involves the positive and negative
evaluation of different processes, phenomena, and entities. They are realized not only adjectively,
but also through nominalized structures (Martin and White, 2005).
2.1.2. Engagement
In Appraisal theory, engagement is divided into monoglossic and heteroglossic utterances. The
former are bare assertions, but the latter are those in which the writer’s engagement with alternative
positions is signaled by the use of modal or epistemic markers (Martin and White, 2005).
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2.1.3. Graduation
The system of graduation includes those resources which strengthen or weaken attitude, resources
for “adjusting the volume” of items (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 41). Graduation is subdivided into
force and focus. The former typically applies to categories which are not scalable; these are either–
or categories, while the latter covers assessments as to degree of intensity and as to amount. It can
be operated over qualities, processes, or even verbal modalities of likelihood, inclination, and
obligation (Martin and White, 2005).
3. Method
3.1. Design
This text-analysis study was set to analyze the Appraisal system in 210 conclusion and discussion
sections of Applied Linguistics research articles, published in reputable and authoritative journals
in seven decades. First, the selected articles were analyzed based on a framework developed by
Martin and White (2005), then quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out to shed light
on the findings.
3.2. Material
Previous studies on rhetorical organization have shown that disciplinary variations influence the
rhetorical structure and language use (Swales, 1990). To control such disciplinary variations, this
study mainly focuses on research articles in Applied Linguistics. Since the aim of the study was to
investigate the Appraisal system in discussion and conclusion sections, other sections (i.e.
introductions, methods, and results) fell outside the scope of this study. The data comprised of 210
English research article discussions and conclusion sections taken from reputable and authoritative
journals, indexed in high credit websites such as Elsevier and Sage. Therefore, the rhetorical style,
the quality of English, and the overall level of comprehensibility in these articles have been
considered acceptable. It is, thus, assumed that these articles have employed Appraisal markers in
a skillful and sophisticated manner. The argumentative nature of these sections of the articles
provides a considerable set of data for investigation of evaluative strategies in academic writing.
Some criteria were established for choosing the research articles. First, due to the fact that the type
of article can shape its rhetorical structure (Lin and Evans, 2012), selection of the articles was
limited to experimental and theoretical studies, and consequently, review articles, and book
reviews were not considered in the study. The second criterion was related to the date of
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406
publication. Since the chronological change was one of the main concerns in the present study, the
articles published since 1950 were considered. One more restriction was related to the nativeness
as one of the variables of the study. It is imperative to mention that nativeness was defined in terms
of the authors’ nationality. In case of coauthored or multiple-authored articles the ones whose
authors were all native or all nonnative speakers of English were selected. For each decade (i.e.
from 1950s to 2010s), 30 articles were selected, 15 of which were written by native and 15 by
nonnative speakers of English. Since consistency of the length of the articles is a must to make the
results comparable, and to balance out the problem of peculiarities caused by the length of the
section, the last criteria was set. The conclusion and discussion sections of these articles were all
between 550-600 words.
3.3. Procedure
The discussion and conclusion sections were extracted and finally classified based on the system
of Appraisal (Martin and White, 2005). To analyze the data, the instances of Appraisal markers
were identified and counted. In order to control for bias and subjectivity in the identification of
instances, inter-rater reliability was measured on a sample excerpt from the corpus. To do so, a
small sample of the same articles was analyzed by an M.A. holder of TEFL as a reliability coder
for whom Appraisal items were properly explained. The obtained value of Spearman's correlation
coefficient between the two ratings (r=0.82) indicated a high inter- rater reliability of the judgments
made by the researchers and the rater. Accordingly, it could be assumed that the assessment
provided reliable results and the data analysis procedure was performed in an objective manner.
4. Results
Our primary goal in conducting the current research was to identify the kinds of Appraisal tools
that writers use in the discussion and conclusion sections of their research articles and to see how
Appraisal tools have been used by native and nonnative authors of applied linguistics research
articles during seven decades, i.e. since 1950s. In the following, the numerical analyses of the data
are reported to answer the research questions. First a general view to the use of Appraisal is
presented and then descriptive statistic results in answering research questions are provided.
Analyzing the data based on the Appraisal system defined by Martin and White (2005), the
researchers found 5547 instances of the three main categories of Appraisal system. Close
examination of the data revealed that Appraisal tools were most frequently used to express attitude.
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In fact, 44.49% (2486 instances) of Appraisal tools were used to express attitude while only
25.92% (1438 instances) and 29.58% (1641 instances) were used to express graduation and
judgment, respectively. This distribution of the evaluative tools is clearly presented in Figure 2.
25.92%
Attitude
44.49%
Judegment
graduation
29.58%
Figure 2. Use of Appraisal Tools in Discussion and Conclusion Sections of Research Article
In this study, the focus was not only on these three main categories of Appraisal, but also on their
subcategories. In fact, the researchers aimed at finding out whether the use of evaluative tools
fluctuates by time; therefore, the occurrence of each and every kind of Appraisal tool was identified
and counted. Figure 2 summaries the use of all evaluative tools in the past seven decades, i.e.,
from 1950s to 2010s.
450
400
350
affect
300
judgement
250
appreciation
200
monogloss
150
heterogloss
100
focus
50
force
0
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
Figure 3. Use of Appraisal Tools by Native and Nonnative Authors 1950s- 2010s
As clearly observed in this figure, all Appraisal tools were used more frequently in 2010s compared
to previous decades. Moreover, fluctuations can be observed in use of Appraisal tools during the
years.
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In order to answer the research questions and find out whether the authors’ use of evaluative tools
has become more similar to each other or not, the Appraisal tools used by native and nonnative
authors were identified and counted and then the differences between them were considered to find
out how similar or different their use of evaluative tools has become during the years. Table
1.presents the differences between the number of each evaluative tool used by native and nonnative
authors in discussion and conclusion sections of their research articles during these seven decades.
Table1. The Differences between the Use of Appraisal Tools by Native and Nonnative Authors
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
Affect
8
11
10
6
3
1
31
Judgment
7
13
9
6
7
1
54
40
21
15
13
10
50
Appreciation 10
Monogloss
4
19
17
15
13
6
76
Hetereogloss
7
33
30
30
20
6
74
Focus
0
27
25
20
18
15
75
Force
42
49
45
19
21
1
49
Close examination of the data revealed that native and nonnative authors tried to use Appraisal
tools more similar to each other from 1970s to 2000s; however, during 2010s there were
considerable differences between the use of Appraisal tools compared to the past decades. This
difference can be clearly observed in figure 4.
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Force
Focus
Hetereogloss
Monogloss
Appreciation
Judgment
Affect
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Figure 4. The Differences between the Use of Appraisal Tools by Native and Nonnative Authors
5. Discussion
The findings indicate that the major differentiating factor through time in use of Appraisal
resources is that they were used most frequently in 2010s (Figure 3). In fact, in 2010s, authors
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adopted a more explicit approach in evaluation by using more Appraisal tools. According to
Tirkkonen-Condit (1996), this matter might be attributed to the tendencies of the scholars towards
communication, context-dependence, reticence, reader responsibility, and the value they place on
consensus rather than argumentation.
Another factor worth considering is that in argumentative writing more emphasis is given to
audience awareness through the use of evaluative tools which was seen more noticeable in 2010s.
This seems to accord with the claims made by scholars that when the writers have a clear sense of
audience they are able to present a strong voice in their academic writing (Al-Sharief, 1998; Hoey,
2001; Morley, 1998). Therefore, it can be concluded that during 2010s, more than before, a need
has been felt that in writing research articles what ought to be considered is the idea that written
text is also a kind of dialogue between the writer and the reader; in fact, writing is seen as an
engagement between writers and readers which possess a social and communicative basis (Hyland
and Tse, 2004; Bakhtin, 1981). Knowledge of whom authors are writing to and how to
communicate with the audience is more likely to engender a clearer sense of audience in writers,
in the meantime enables them to develop strong voices.
A writer’s exploitation of Appraisal has a considerable impact on the quality of constructed
arguments (Martin and White, 2005).Thus, the authors’ use of Appraisal resources relates to
promoting solidarity with the reader. Acceptable academic writing can be accomplished through
the convergence of the reader to the writer’s intention (Thompson, 2001).
Frequent use of Appraisal resources in 2010s confirms that an academic argument is no longer
objective, decontextualised, and value-free; rather, it is very contextualized, intertextual, dialogic,
and situated. It is also very expressive, value-laden, and ideological. In other words, recently,
academic writing has shown a clearer interaction with the readers. Writing is nothing but
negotiation, interaction, and dialogic relations with the reader (Grabe and Kaplan, 1996).
When the writer shares knowledge with the (real) reader, implying information is possible; it
is , thus, necessary to be explicit when the writer is aware only of the general audience’s knowledge
(Thompson, 2001). Therefore, textuality and written rhetoric cannot be explained without
considering the social relationship of writers and readers. In fact, if the writers are able to reconcile
the conflicting nature of situational constraints, they could achieve complete persuasion through
solidarity with readers. These are all reflections of tenor relationship exists between academic
writers’ intention to influence the audience.
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As mentioned in results section, attitudinal tools were used much more frequently than other
evaluative tools. Following the observation of a large number of attitudinal tools by international
writers, Hunston (1994) and Thetela (1997) highlight the interactive function of evaluation. In fact,
this frequent use of attitudinal expressions indicates that authors try to interact with the readers,
since attitude involves those meanings employed by texts or speakers to set an intersubjective
value to participants and processes with reference either to value systems or to emotional responses
(Martin and Rose, 2003).
Viewed another way, the higher occurrence of attitudinal expressions (specially during 2010s)
might be rooted in the fact that writers are more reader conscious and aim to satisfy the expectation
of readers in their texts. Appropriate writer-reader interaction formed through proper use of
attitudinal markers which is shaped within the context that allows the assessment of various
expectations. This implies the development of effective writing strategies (Hyland, 2002).
Use of appreciation exceeds that of other attitudinal tools by a fair margin in the whole corpus;
in fact, 61 % of the employed attitudinal tools were used to express appreciation. Judgment is in
the second place with almost 33 % of attitudinal resources, and affect takes up only around 6 % of
attitudinal choices in the corpus of analysis for this study. This rare use of affect is justifiable since
in research articles, authors are not supposed to talk directly about their affections and feelings.
Given the stylistic assumption that authors create research articles to express their own
particular evaluations, one could point to the related stylistic feature of academic articles in
general. In fact, it can be concluded that their works abound with textual devices realizing the
interpersonal semantic system of Appraisal. Therefore, it is expected to find instances of
appreciation more frequently than those of judgment and affect; it is also expected that instances
of judgment exceed those of affect. The results of analysis confirm that these expectations have
been met.
Another important finding in this study was that from 1970s to 2000s native and nonnative
authors attempted to use Appraisal tools more like one another. Very minute differences could be
observed in the use of these resources in 2000s; however, during 2010s there were considerable
differences between the use of Appraisal tools by native and nonnative authors compared to the
previous decades (Figure 4). The researchers tried to find the potential reasons for this specific
similarities and differences in the use of Appraisal tools. They believe that one of the potential
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411
reasons could be specific use of language in this globalized world and how globalization has
affected the use of language in academic discourse.
Castells (1996) considers language use in today’s world as both informational and global. It is
informational because the “competitiveness” and “productivity” of firms and nations mainly
depend upon applying “efficiently knowledge-based information”. It is global because the core
activities of “production, consumption and circulation” are organized on a global scale (p. 66). In
the face of these forces of globalization, education is treated as a social and cultural as well as an
economic policy; therefore, academic discourse has changed under the influence of such views
(Brock-Utne 2000). There has been a tendency among people who adhere to the ideology of
globalization to speak in terms of shared governance, shared fortunes and a sense of community
when they try to explain the dynamics of globalization (Davis and Guppy 1997).
It was brought up that such views in globalization will lead to expansion of capitalism and in
this specific field to language imperialism. The expansion of capitalism has always encountered
resistance from social groups. However, it was not until the mid 1990s and early 2000s that the
notion of resistance to globalization enters the language of the social science. This resistance refers
to struggles and actions of social groups and individuals in response to such neoliberal reforms
and its effects in economy, politics, culture, identity, and language. Therefore, since then, some
clear signs of resistance to globalization have been observed in the use of language specifically in
academic discourse (Amoor, 2005; Gill, 2003; Harvey, 2003).
Therefore, the researchers
concluded that resistance might be considered as one of the reasons for considerable differences
between native and nonnative authors in use of Appraisal tools.
6. Conclusion
This descriptive study was designed to investigate the use of Appraisal resources in discussion and
conclusion sections of research articles in applied linguistics by native and nonnative authors since
1950s. The findings of the study revealed that Appraisal tools were used most frequently in 2010s;
moreover, it was revealed that Appraisal tools were used much more frequently than other
evaluative tools. The most important finding of the study was that native and nonnative authors’
use of Appraisal tools fluctuates in the course of time. There were fewer differences between native
and nonnative authors in use of Appraisal tools in 1970s to 2000s; however, during 2010s
considerable differences were observed.
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The researchers believe that this comprehensive analysis of use of Appraisal tools in discussion
and conclusion sections would lead to a better understanding of the changes in academic discourse
during the past seven decades. Moreover, understanding the use of Appraisal tools might be
important in arguing for particular analyses of interpersonal meaning in texts and for explicating
the evaluative nature of academic argument. This will lead to important pedagogical implication
of this study: some changes in teaching and learning academic writing; for example, emphasizing
the importance of the interpersonal metafunctions in teaching academic writing. Moreover,
language teachers can highlight evaluative tools and their use in the academic discourse which
might provide an effective means by which the construction of academic argument can be made
apparent to novice writers.
Although the research has reached its goal, there were some unavoidable limitations. A notable
shortcoming is related to the corpus. Due to manageability purposes only 30 articles in each decade
was analyzed; moreover, only discussion and conclusion sections were analyzed. If there were
opportunities to analyze articles completely, more valid conclusions could be made.
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Title
The Effects of Teaching English Skills in Public Schools and Private Institutes
on Student’s Language Abilities
Authors
Nader Assadi Aidinlou (Ph.D)
Department of English Language and Linguistics, Islamic Azad University
Ahar Brach, Ahar, East Azerbaijan, Iran
Saeed Mojarradi (Corresponding author)
Department of English Language and Linguistics, Islamic Azad University,
Ahar Branch, Ahar, East Azerbaijan, Iran
Biodata
Nader Assadi Aidinlou, Ph.D. in applied linguistics and assistant professor and a researcher at
Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch. He has published scores of papers and his main research
areas are discourse analysis and teaching methodology.
Saeed Mojarradi, M.A. candidate in TEFL. He has published papers and is a researcher at
department of English Language and Linguistics, Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch, Ahar,
East Azerbaijan, Iran.
Abstract
Private English classes should boost a student’s language ability in a second language
environment and increase student abilities over those students who simply learning English
at school. The present study investigated whether private English classes are effective in
increasing student understanding of the language. Student subjects were divided into two
groups. The first group learned English by taking part in supplemental classes at private
language institutes where they were supposed to be taught additional skills, such as
speaking or writing. The second group comprised students who studied English at school
without taking extra classes. The study confirmed institute English classes did not increase
the abilities of the first group for speaking or writing skills. A number of factors may
prevent them from surpassing the second group, who studied English at school.
Keywords: Language ability, Private English classes, Institutes, Supplemental classes,
Skills
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1. Introduction
Sawyer (2008) stated that authorities recommend different strategies to improve educational
achievements of high school students .One strategy is to encourage them to participate and score
well in rigorous college-preparatory courses. Sawyer recommended specific skills to improve
student academic skills. These included restructuring public educational bureaucracies, forming
charter schools, voucher systems and accountability systems for schools, improved teacher training
and increasing requirements for licensure, accountability systems for teachers, higher salaries for
teachers, special incentives for excellent teaching, improved curricula, new methods of instruction,
greater involvement of parents, special services for at-risk students, and raising requirements for
graduation.
Mukundan states that students improve in reading comprehension and reading speed while
practicing skills such as predicting content, skimming, scanning, drawing inferences and
conclusions, guessing the meaning of new vocabulary from context and summarizing information
(Jayakaran Mukundan, 2012). Students then respond to the reading material in group discussions
and by writing in English.
Shin states that young learners should have fun while learning English (Shin, 2014). The
purpose of Shin’s program is to introduce participants to the theory and practice of teaching young
learners in the EFL classroom. Participants engage in enjoyable activities designed specifically for
young learners, such as songs, chants, finger plays, and storytelling. They also discuss approaches
for teaching language in a meaningful context and share effective techniques to make language
input comprehensible and to encourage student participation. By the end of the program,
participants will be energized and ready to help their young learners have fun with English.
Darus (2008) suggests the use of computers and IT programs as basic elements to advance
the field of teaching in Malaysia. He states that the Smart School Project Team (1997) defines the
Malaysian smart school as a learning institution “reinvented in terms of teaching-learning practices
and school management in order to prepare children for the information age” (Smart School
Project Team, 1997p 20).
1.2 Statement of the problem
Kannan (2009 ) states those 12 years of school study do not provide students mastery over English.
He asserts that English is not taught properly in school. Because the majority of students live in
rural areas, the bilingual method is used language classes.
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Unfortunately, high school students lack motivation to learn English in SL environments.
Gross defines motivation as pushes and prods; whether biological, social or psychological, that
move individuals to take action eagerly or reluctantly (Gross, 1992). Weiner states that social
motivation is determined by what one expects to achieve and the likelihood of getting it (Weiner,
1990). He further adds that attributes of responsibility (controllability, intentionality) produce
different motivational consequences that influence social action and behavior to achieve validation
and interpersonal satisfaction (Weiner B. , 1991).
Ames considered two types of motivation goals (performance and mastery) that involve
different ways of thinking about one self (Ames, 1992). Public recognition that one has done better
than others do or performed in a superior manner is especially important in achieving performance
goals. Kannan (2009) states that teachers should motivate students to participate in learning to
resolve the stumbling blocks before them. Teaching is not a one-way process; it is a multi-way
process. As soon as teaching is over, students should ask questions and for clarification, which
will increase their communication skills. To develop this, sufficient practice must be given to
students in the preliminary stage. Along with classroom management, a learner-friendly
atmosphere should prevail. This ensures students to learn more and participate more. A teacher is
also a friend, guide and a philosopher for students. He/she guides students to pass exams, face
challenges and make the right decisions during times of crisis in life. This is the toughest task for
a good teacher. It is necessary to consider methods that can increase students’ language abilities
as well as their knowledge of English.
1.3 Research question and hypothesis
The present study examined if student participation in private English institute classes affect their
ability to learn English as SL learners. The following research questions were posed:
1. Does student participation in private classes improve student language ability over that of
students learning English only in school?
2. What are the differences between students who also learn English by attending private
institutes in addition to their school assignments and students who only study English in
school?
2. Method
2.1 Participants
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Participants in this study were 60 high school studentsin Parsabad-Moghan in the province of
Ardabil in Iran. The participants were tested before and after intervention. ANOVA was used to
analyze the data.
2.2Instruments and Materials
2.2.1 Analysis of covariance
Analysis of covariance was used to test the hypothesis. The main hypotheses of covariance are that
the data is normal and there is homogeneity of score variance pre-test and post-test.
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov nonparametric test was used to test the normality of the data.
In this test, a value of p > 0.50 indicates that the data distribution is normal. The results shown in
Table 1 indicate that data for both the pre-test and the post-test showed normal distributions.
Table 1 One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (normal test distribution;
calculated from data
Pre-test
Post-test
N
60
60
1.187
.832
.093
.493
Levene's testof equality of error variancetests the null hypothesis that the error variance of
the dependent variable is equal across groups.Table 2 shows that the variances were equal (p =
0.452).
Table 2 Levene's test of equality of error
variancea (dependent variable: post-test)
F
df1
df2
Sig.
1.141
1
58
.452
a. Design: intercept + pre + group
Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the pre-test scores belonging to Groups 1 and
2. Table 3 shows that the pre-test mean for Group 1 was 13.3 and for Group 2 was 8.833.
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics (dependent variable: pre-test)
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group Mean
Std. Deviation N
1
13.3000
1.62205
30
2
8.8333
2.96047
30
Total
11.0667
3.26702
60
Table 4 lists the descriptive statistics for the scores of the posttest for Groups 1 and 2. The
mean for the post-test in Group 1 was 7.1 and the mean for Group 2 for the posttest was 7.13.
Table 4 Descriptive Statistics (dependent
variable: post-test)
group Mean
Std. Deviation N
1.00
7.1000
2.07364
30
2.00
7.1333
4.04060
30
Total
7.1167
3.18413
60
Table 5 shows the main results for covariance. In this table, F = 3.374 and p =0/071. Since
p > 0.05, the scores belonging to Group 1 and 2 were not significantly different from each other.
This means that the first hypotheses that student participation in private classes improves student
language ability over that of students who only learn English at school is not accepted at the 95%
confidence level.
Table 5 Between-subject effects (dependent variable: post-test)
Type III Sum of
Source
Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Corrected Model
64.313a
2
32.157
3.433
.039
Intercept
12.901
1
12.901
1.377
.245
pre
64.297
1
64.297
6.865
.011
group
31.598
1
31.598
3.374
.071
Error
533.870
57
9.366
Total
3637.000
60
Corrected Total
598.183
59
R2 = 0.108 (adjusted R2 = .076)
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The English language students responded to pre-test questions similarly in the first stage
because they all had similar levels English. The post-test was slightly more difficult and showed
that students who had attended English institute classes also lacked sufficient language knowledge
and other language skills, such as conversation. This indicates that private classes were not
effective in strengthening spoken language and other skills. Private students only showed a
stronger understanding of some grammatical points.
3. Conclusions and Implications
The present study examined the assumption that student participation in private English institute
classes increases student language ability over that of students who only study English in school.
The hypothesis tested was that student participation improved a student’s ability to learn the
English language as SL learners. The results did not prove the hypothesis. It is probable that
difficulty with the private English classes relate to the methods and skills used to teach students.
It should be possible for students who take part in private classes at an English institute to learn
English well and develop better skills than those who only study English in school.
Regular school teachers must teach English based on the syllabus prepared for them
according to the accepted educational authority. This is the only accepted teaching method.
Problems that can exist in schools include a shortage of proficient teachers, over-crowding of
classrooms, deficient methods used in books and design of the weekly syllabus, and inexperienced
teachers of other subjects conscripted to teach English. The majority of these problems relate to
management of the schools. Educational problems generally arise from weak management.
Management of a school or inside the classroom can change the outcome of the teaching
process, but the problem is not simply management. The attitudes of both students and teachers
may play a role. Today, most students spend much free time on computers, smart phones, tablets,
and online games in focusing on meaningless content that conflict with learning and sidetrack their
motivation. Many teachers, by contrast, have fallen behind students technologically. In many cases
they lack computer knowledge and they do not try to fill the gap between themselves and their
students. Some teachers lack motivation to teach well.
It was observed in this study that students who attended private classes did not show a
marked improvement in English classes. This may also relate to weak and untested methodological
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and educational politics of the institute their financial goals that overshadow educational targets.
Their priority is to increase enrollment and they soon forget their original educational targets.
The findings of this study will help students, teachers and educational systems decide how
to approach the teaching of English language. Educators must incorporate scientific methods to
achieve educational targets in teaching English. It would be beneficial for educational systems to
adopt a supervisory policy for the process of teaching English in second language environments,
both at educational institutes and at high schools.
References
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures and student motivation. American Journal of Distance
Educational Psychology(84(3)), 261-271.
Darus, S. ,. (2008). INVESTIGATING TEACHERS’ USE OF COMPUTERS IN TEACHIN ENGLISH:
A CASE STUDY. www.tewtjournal.org.
Gross, J. (1992). Special Educational Needs and School Improvement:Practical Strategies for Raising
Standards. London: David Fulton Publishing.
Jayakaran Mukundan, E. H. (2012). The Effect of an Intensive English Program on Malaysian Secondary.
Malaysia: Canadian Center.
Kannan, D. R. (2009 ). Difficulties in learning English as a Second Language. 8(5 (26)).
Sawyer, R. (2008). Benefits of Additional High School Course Work and Improved . ACT, 2.
Shin, J. K. (2014). Teaching English to Young Learners. Baltimore County: University of Maryland.
Weiner, B. (1990). Human Motivation Metaphors, Theories and Research. Newbury Park: Sage
Publications. .
Weiner, B. (1991). Metaphors in motivation and attr (Vol. 46(9)). American Psychologist.
Iranian EFL Journal
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Title
Investigating the Notion of Face in Asking for a Favor in Everyday
Conversations via SMS; A Case of Persian
Authors
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab
Department of English, Faculty of foreign languages, University of Isfahan, Iran
Abbas Eslami Rasekh
Department of English, Faculty of foreign languages, University of Isfahan, Iran
Biodata
Fatemeh Ghanavati Nasab, M.A in TEFL at University of Isfahan in 2014. Her areas of interest
include second language acquisition, sociolinguistics and cognitive linguistics.
Abbas Eslami Rasekh teaches in the Faculty of Foreign Languages at the University of Isfahan.
His areas of research include sociolinguistics and discourse analysis.
Abstract
This paper is an ethnographic case study aimed to examine the notion of face in 'asking for
a favor' among native speakers of Persian. The gathered data is analyzed in terms of age,
gender, social status, social relations, distance, solidarity and the degree of imposition
between the interlocutors mainly within Brown and Lavinson's (1987) politeness model.
The qualitative analysis of the data revealed that the probability of compliance in making
a direct request was understimated by the participants. The data also revealed that asking
for a favor is considered a conditioned and manipulative process which demands resorting
to the right strategy to achieve the intended goals.
Keywords: Politeness Theory, Face, Asking for a Favor
1. Introduction
In our day-to-day interactions, we don't simply talk; we also construct and establish our
relationships, roles and identities when conducting different types of speech acts (Austin, 1995).
It is through SMS that we conduct most of our daily interactions and probably some of the
extraordinary affairs of our lives. SMS sending as one of the easiest ways of communication has
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gained an ever increasing popularity in performing different types of speech acts. Searle (1976)
defines speech act as 'the basic minimal units of linguistic communication'. Basic areas
investigated within the speech act theory are apologies, suggestions, complains, refusals and
requests which just like any other form of conduct are tangible, consequential, real and
fundamental (Drew & Curl, 2007).
Requests are the base of social interaction systems in many philanthropy communities. The
success of any request is considered critical to the success of an intended interaction; yet, the
requirements of making a successful request has been subject to debate. Generally speaking, to
satisfy a request one must be aware of who is being asked, what is being asked, how, where and
when it is being asked. These factors are what make a request to range from small favors to big
ones.
The analysis of speech acts has revealed that the way people formulate their utterances is
affected by rules, conventions and principles of the particular society they live in (Sanders, 1987).
Following the proper conventions of speech acts is one of the welding agents without which
communication breakdown is most prominent (Filho, 1984). 'Requests' and more particularly
'Asking for favors' function as just one of the components of the broader category of speech acts.
The way we perform different types of speech acts, and more specifically requests, is very much
in dept to social factors which set limits on the way interlocutors interact. Asking for a favor can
be examined within Brown and Lavinson's (1987) politeness theory. In Brown and Levinson's
theory (1987) there is an underlying belief that individual's face motivates strategies of politeness
in proportion to the seriousness of the act. As Brown and Lavinson (1987) point out "It is the
mutual awareness of face, sensitivity and the kinds of means-ends reasoning that allows the
inference of implicatures of politeness" (1987).
There are numerous ways to go about getting what we want. In friendly gatherings, we adhere
to use direct and informal phrases. However, we know full well that these phrases have to be
modified when attending a formal situation. As thus, this study is motivated by a general concern
for the visualization of politeness strategies in asking for a favor inspired by the work of Brown
and Lavinson (1987). It is also to seek out whether asking for favors is dependent on social
manifestations of relationships in an Iranian EFL context. The present paper mainly seeks to
investigate the variables which delimit the way people ask favors from one another with a concern
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for the status of the individuals, social distance, degree of imposition, gender and age of the
participants.
2. Review of literature
2.1 Asking for a favor
Searle (1976) defines requests as the desire of the speaker to impinge the hearer to perform an act
that works to his advantage. Searle et al. (1992) claim that this move prepares grounds of contrast
as it involves linguists in various attempts to delimit the speech act theory within the discourse
domain. However, it is done to be able to account for the necessary conditions which are needed
to define the sequence of utterances in discourse. Speech acts are not regarded as isolated moves
but rather appear in more global units called conversations. Speakers are continually involved in
the process of performing speech acts with more or less the same collective intention in order to
pursue success within a specific type of discourse. Therefore, language use is designated as a social
manifestation of linguistic behavior with ordered sequences to achieve discursive goals. These
ordered sequences for terminological convenience are called conversations (Vanderveken, 1994).
'Asking for a favor' as a subcategory of requests is one of the primary forms of social action
conducted through conversations. Goldschmidt (1996) characterizes favors as the performance of
a time consuming task beyond daily life which most often implies future reciprocity. However, it
poses no obligation on the part of the hearer. The tasks involved are resultant from exigent
circumstances with a special need. It can be exemplified by a speaker who asks for a ride to the
airport but does not travel frequently. He further elaborates on favor asking as an emotional
construct since the service is often carried out willingly even with ambivalent emotions. To get the
picture, imagine asking a friend to feed your pet snake while you are away even with a phrase like
'Thanks, I owe you a lot'!
A number of textual and social factors are considered influential in the success of a request.
Among the textual factors, politeness takes utmost importance. Indicators of politeness such as
deference, apologizing, greetings and the use of indirect language are undoubtedly among factors
which help the success of a request. But the question that stands to attention is how influential are
these factors in the process of asking for a favor and to what extend are the interlocutors aware of
the importance of these factors in the process of favor asking.
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2.2 Conversation analysis and politeness
Austin (1962) regards utterances as actions intended to change other people's beliefs and intentions
which must satisfy social goals related to the notion of politeness. He explains indirect speech acts
as the paradigmatic examples that can be explained in terms of rational behavior without which
utterances would appear impolite. Utterances are linguistic manifestations to change other's beliefs
and intentions. Illocutionary acts, however, must satisfy social goals. Generally speaking,
politeness strategies confirm appropriate ways of expressing role relations, social distance and face
saving acts within a speech community (Brown and Lavinson, 1978).
Watt's (2003) notion of linguistic politeness is characterized in terms of formulaic or semiformulaic utterances. Formulaic utterances are realized in ritualized forms of verbal conversation
such as apologizing, expressing thanks, refusing and conventionalized forms of leave-taking.
Semi-formulaic expressions are indirect speech acts which are in congruence with social situations
and consist of structures whose main function is to soften the illocutionary force. The absence of
these ritualized utterances is most often interpreted as impoliteness.
Lakoff (1973) was among the first linguists who took a pragmatic view of politeness. She
defines politeness as the system designed to minimize conflicts and confrontations inherent in all
human interactions. Her proposed system is built up on three basic strategies with varying degrees
of intensity in different cultures. The first strategy is characterized in terms of impersonality or
distance. The second is characterized in terms of hesitancy and third, in terms of camaraderie or
informality. As she claims, while the use of the first strategy is widespread in European cultures,
the second and third strategies are prevalent in Asian and contemporary American cultures.
Leech (1983) examined politeness from the point of view of rhetoric. Leech argues that
politeness principles are responsible for the maintenance of social balance and friendly
relationships which finally avails a stable and appropriate environment for effective discourse. He
considers politeness principles to overweight the cooperative principle as it serves to regulate what
is said to reach a discoursal goal. As Leech claims, politeness principles are not applicable to all
cultures in equal measures. He assumes that these principles are the interplay between cooperative
and politeness principles.
Brown and Lavinson (1978) try to provide an informal explanation for politeness strategies in
terms of means-ends reasoning and social goals. They define politeness in terms of social goals
with scant attention for explaining the parameters that impact the various dialogue situations.
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Politeness strategies are considered as redressive actions which serve to counterbalance the
disruptive impacts of face threatening acts with a concern for the hearer's face. In their definition,
politeness is regarded as the ability to maintain and save the desired conventional values related to
the other person's face. Their theory abstracts away from the actual speakers and gives priority to
their intentions, rationality and face.
Goffman (1967) characterizes face as the positive social values that each individual assumes
for himself during a particular contact. It is also characterized by specific properties which
constructs a person's persona. Face in Brown and Lavinson's (1978) model is defined as the public
self image that every individual wants to claim for himself. The notion of face consists of a set of
goals for which the speaker desires respect from the hearer. As they assert, each and every
individual has a face made up of a number of goals for which he tries to command the respect of
others. Moreover, they consider the notion of face as either negative or positive. Negative face
refers to the desire of the speaker to be unimpeded by others when giving orders, warnings,
suggestions and asking for requests. Positive face, on the other hand, relates to the personality that
both interlocutors wish to be respected and appreciated. In other words, positive face speaks for at
least some degree of shared goals between the speaker and the hearer. This involves people in a
challenge to reach their goals without infringing one another's face. More specifically, it directs
people to redress imposing on others by taking advantage of indirect speech acts. It can clearly be
exemplified in 'Could you pass the salt, please?' instead of 'give me the salt'. Indirect speech acts
can be differentiated from more direct forms (on record acts versus off record acts) in that they
refer to actions we wish our partners to execute. Self-respect and full consideration for the hearer's
face are bare essential elements for a successful interaction without which face is not maintained
or enhanced (Brown and Lavinson, 1978). Mills (2003) claims that recognizing the vulnerability
of the notion of face in social relations helps adjusting the amount of verbal 'work' to lesson or
eliminate potential threats in order to be polite. As he defines it, 'politeness' is the speaker's desire
to mitigate face threats which are resultant from face threatening acts towards others.
Brown and Lavinson (1987) claim that strategies of politeness such as solidarity, restraint and
imposition are dependent on a person's self esteem or face. In their theory, every individual is a
rational agent who tries to choose the best means to satisfy his needs. They point out that all
individuals have a positive and a negative face which has to be maintained either by actions of
mutual interest or satisfied by trickery or coercion. Politeness strategies are therefore, to minimize
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the risk of losing face on the part of either the speaker or the hearer. Their theory is established on
the assumption that speakers have the ability to exploit language to achieve their goals. They relate
language usage to strategies rather than relationships. They claim that as some actions are
intrinsically face-threatening, a large number of strategies are required to afford pay-offs.
In other words, Brown and Lavinson (1978) regard interlocutors as rational actors who try to
realize their speech acts in a way that avoids threats to each other's face. They relate face
threatening acts to illocutionary acts which have the potential to damage the other person's face.
Face threatening acts are either on record or off record. While on record strategies refer to the
unambiguous expression of your intention, off record strategies refer to its indirect expression to
minimize the extent of the imposed threat. Face threatening acts can be modified by on record
strategies whose main function is to give face to the addressee by using appropriate strategies to
redress the threat. In other words, they believe that politeness strategies are intended to save the
hearer's face. Face-saving strategies are attempts made to maintain the hearer's self-esteem in both
public and private situations. As they state, politeness can be explained in terms of conflict
avoidance which serves to minimize the inherent threats to the speaker and hearer's face wants.
Politeness strategies are taken advantage of to deal with face threatening acts which infringe on
the hearer's need to be respected.
They further argue that sociological variables such as the assumed power of the hearer over the
speaker, social distance between the interlocutors and the impositions in a given culture are
determinants of the seriousness of face threatening acts.
Power as an asymmetric discourse instance is associated with notions of control and
submission. Social distance is related to mutual bonding and unfamiliarity between the
interlocutors (Brown & Lavinson, 1978; Mills, 2003) which can be defined in terms of the degree
of frequency of an interaction and the nature of exchange between the hearer and speaker (Brown
& Lavinson, 1978). Solidarity is a reciprocal act and suggests intimacy. It is what allows for a
mutual exchange of the singular second pronoun. In languages with second person pronouns,
varying levels of politeness are identified which are affected and governed by the supposed power
of one interlocutor over the other or the degree of solidarity between the two. Wealth, physical
strength, age and gender are mentioned as the probable sources of power (Brown & Gilman, 1960).
The rank of imposition is identified as the perception of the severity of a speech act which
determines the strategic use of different speech act formulas (Brown & Lavinson, 1978).
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Their theory encompasses four types of politeness strategies which speak for human politeness
behavior: negative politeness, positive politeness, bald on record and off record strategies.
Bald on record strategies entail no effort to minimize threats to the hearer's face. Off-record
strategies involve indirect language and pose no imposition on the interlocutor by taking advantage
of hints, metaphors, tautologies, ironies, rhetorical questions, ambiguity, vagueness and the use of
ellipsis. While on record statements convey no more than the literal meanings, off record
statements convey some kind of indirectness in order to soften or alleviate the inherent face threats.
Positive politeness strategies are those which concern the desire of the hearer to be respected. It is
maintaining the positive face of others intended to mention that both speakers have a common
goal. The use of positive strategies is indicative of a friendly relationship and group reciprocity.
Negative politeness is respecting the right for personal preserves and non-distraction provided by
freedom of imposition and freedom of action. It orients to save the other person's negative face by
showing respect for his time and concerns (Yule, 1996).
Scollon and Scollon (2001) extend the notion of face into three politeness strategies; a)
solidarity politeness system, b) defense politeness system and c) hierarchical politeness system. In
a solidarity politeness system, the interlocutors in equal social positions and close relationships
take advantage of involvement strategies for mutual reciprocity to express a common point of
view. In a deference politeness system, the interlocutors use independent strategies as both realize
themselves in equal social levels with no one exerting power over the other. However, both
conceive a distant relationship. The hierarchical politeness system is based on an asymmetric
relationship as one is in a subordinate position regardless of the existing relationship between the
two. According to their model, the interlocutor in the superordinate position might prefer to choose
involvement strategies while the one in the subordinate position might take advantage of
independent strategies to show respect and minimize threat.
Brown and Lavinson (1978) assume that under normal circumstances people strive hard to
maintain the hearer's face by resorting to politeness strategies. As they point out, requests and
apologies are intrinsically face threatening acts which require people to adopt a variety of strategies
to protect the intrinsic mutual vulnerability of face.
2.3 Universality of the notion of face
Brown and Lavinson (1978) argue for the universality of the notion of politeness by presenting
extensive parallels across unrelated languages. Although the issue of universality in language
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429
remains controversial, connotations of terms to observe the rules of politeness seem to be the same
in different language communities with similar or identical manifestations. Brown and Lavinson
(1978) regard the concept of 'face' a universal one but with its exact content varying across
different cultures. They assert that people in different language communities select the most
appropriate strategies and forms to adjust their utterances to the occasion. Sifianou (1992) argues
that equivalent forms may serve different functions and these same functions can be realized in
different forms. Therefore, it can be concluded that polite speech behaviors may vary across
cultures and languages but with shared rules and assumptions.
In the same line, Strecker (1993) criticizes Brown and Lavinson's model for its disregard of
cross cultural variations. Spencer-oatey (2000) shed light on the notion of culture by defining it as
a set of behavioral norms shared by a specific group of people which finally exerts influence on
the way people's behavior are interpreted. The application of politeness strategies, therefore, is
much in debt to the underlying values within specific cultures which finally determines what is
polite or impolite (Cheung, 2009). Grundy (2000) believes that Brown and Lavinson's (1978)
realization of politeness strategies are considered to be dependent on local cultural differences
which trigger their use. Goffman (1967) votes in favor of the universality of the notion of face.
However, he doesn't sideline the role of cultural differences which are driven from a logically
coherent framework within specific cultures.
2.4 General Data Collection Procedures
While agreement over the most appropriate method of data collection has remained a lasting
concern in the area of pragmatic research (Kasper, 2002), field observation of spontaneous speech,
role plays and discourse completion tests (DCTs) are recognized as the most widely used ones.
Observation of verbal exchanges in daily life along with demographic and contextual information
enables researchers to distance from approximation and conduct a research that reflects authentic
language use (Tran, 2004). Therefore, this method enables researchers to be able to conduct an
ethnographic study in a wide variety of settings (Kasper & Dahl, 1991). Although this method
proves popular with many researchers, it suffers from several shortcomings. First, it is highly time
consuming. Second, gaining control over variables such as age, status and power is not easy to
come by (Yuan, 2001). Third, comparison of data in cross-cultural settings and different languages
is not an easy task (Beebe, 1992). It's considered the best method since it reflects authentic
language use (Tran, 2004). It was originally used in orthographic research in sociolinguistics by
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430
taking advantage of the verbal exchanges between the interlocutors in their daily life. What is
included in this type of observation is all that is said, information about the interlocutors and their
backgrounds. Although beneficial, it's time consuming and difficult to control. Moreover, memory
loss to retain the information necessary for analysis on the part of the researcher is another
drawback.
Role plays are described as the simulations of social interactions with assumed roles in specific
situations (Tran, 2006). Closed role plays refer to a single speech turn initiated by the researcher.
Open role plays refer to multiple turns a participant takes in response to the one played by the
researcher. The elicited data is a good portray of pragmatic features such as politeness and
therefore, a close approximation of authentic speech (Demeter, 2007; Tran, 2004). Although
largely advantageous, this method requires the transcription of a large amount of data which can
be quite time-consuming (Jung, 2004). This method involves the learners in taking a different role
and a different identity from his or her usual life (Tran, 2006). The data gathered is near-authentic
containing politeness strategies and indirectness (Cohen, 1996).
Discourse completion tests (DCTs) are defined as the written or spoken records of the
participants' responses to presented scenarios (Rasekh, 2012). The method is not a reasonable
approximation of authentic discourse (Golato, 2003) and confines the speakers to a single speech
turn which delimits the opportunity for real spontaneous speech features (Cohen, 1996). This
method is advantageous in that age, gender and social status are under control (Kwon, 2004) and
eliminates the problems regarding the number of the participants.
3. Aim and Logic of the study
The aim of this paper is to explicit the awareness of the interlocutors of the necessary and sufficient
conditions to fulfill the speech act of asking for a favor in authentic interactions. Speech acts can
not be considered as separate or isolated moves in communication. But they appear in global units
of communication labled as conversations.
Although 'asking for a favor' is generally classified as a subtype of requests, Goldschmidt
(1993-1996) considers it as a separate speech act worth investigating on its own. 'Asking for a
favor' is considered a face threatening act in that one needs employing the most appropriate
strategies to minimize the involved imposition on the hearer who has the right to claim for his
freedom of action (Blum-kulka et al, 1985). Moreover, 'the favor asking' as a requestive speech
Iranian EFL Journal
431
act represents a risky communicative behavior as it exposes one in an attempt to get others to
perform an act to his benefit. Asking for a favor requires the ability to manipulate politeness
strategies properly in different languages and different cultures and, thus, is an issue worth
considering. To investigate politeness strategies in asking for a favor, this study draws on the
concept of face within politeness theory and interactional sociolinguistics to analyze the data.
4. Data
The widespread use of mobile phones has presented a unique opportunity to collect data in a way
that is more time saving and practical. Its special functionality for sending Short Message Sending
(SMS) has also led to a fertile proliferation of delivering information even while on the move.
Therefore, this study takes advantage of Short Message Sending (SMS) to collect data. In order to
gather the relevant data, a 24-year-old Iranian girl was asked to keep the record of all her SMS
interactions during a period of about six months. She was chosen for the wide range of interactions
she had with different people in different situations. Being a university student, working as a
teacher, and being married required her to be in contact with different people. She had the chance
to exclude the private SMS she didn't want to be included in the data. The researcher also deleted
all the SMS interactions not relevant to the aims of the study. Finally, an acceptable number of
SMS interactions related to favor asking were gathered for further analysis. This method was
considered best as it allowed gathering authentic data in real-life interactions.
5. Data presentation
The purpose of the present study was not just to examine Brown and Lavinson's theory or any
other theory of politeness, but rather to study patterns of politeness in asking for a favor via SMS.
The context for gathering the data was quite natural. The study was conducted with one Persian
speaker as the main subject and other interlocutors who triggered variations in her use of politeness
strategies with regard to the notion of face. The gathered data served as samples presenting the
norms. In these entire samples, subject A was kept constant and the addresses varied. The recorded
data were then analyzed qualitatively mainly with refer to Brown and Lavinson's theory. The
samples are presented successively along with their English translations with the same style and
the same level of formality. Then, the analysis and the comments are discussed in the analysis part.
Iranian EFL Journal
432
Extract 1(subject A & her husband)
‫ زود بیا‬،‫آ) سالم عزیزم قارچ لوبیا رب گوجه فلفل دلمه پالستیك فریزر بخر‬
Extract 1(subject A & her husband)
A: Hi Dear
Buy some mushrooms, beans, tomato paste, green pepper and plastic freezer Come back soon.
Extract 2(subject A & her professor)
‫ ممکنه لطفا چک کنید ببینید به دستتون رسیده یا نه؟‬.‫ من فایل را فرستادم‬.‫عذر می خوام مزاحم شدم‬.‫آ) عصر شما بخیر‬
‫ ممنون‬.‫ لطفا دوباره بفرستید‬.‫ هنوز نرسیده‬:‫ب‬
Extract 2(subject A & her professor)
A: Good evening to you. Sorry to bother you. I've send the file. Would you please check out to see
whether you have received it or not?
B: Not yet, send it again please. Thanks.
Extract3 (subject A & her brother)
‫ به اینترنت دسترسی داری؟‬.‫آ) سالم علی جان‬
‫ب) برای چی؟‬
.‫آ) میخام کارت ورود به جلسه را از اینترنت برام بگیری‬
.‫ یه ساعت دیگه چک می کنم برات‬.‫ب) فعال که قطه‬
Extract3 (subject A & her brother)
A: Hi dear Ali. Do you have access to the internet?
B: What for?
A: I want you to take the entrance exam card from the internet.
B: It's not connected right now. I'll check it for you in an hour.
Extract 4(subject A & her female class mate)
‫آ) سالم پاورپینت ها را برام فرستادید؟‬
.‫ب) برای بقیه فرستادم ولی شرمنده ایمیل شما را نداشتم‬
‫آ) ممکنه لطف کنید امروز برام بفرستید؟‬
.‫اس کنید‬.‫ ام‬.‫ب) حتما آدرس ایمیلتون را اس‬
Salient 68@ yahoo .com:)‫آ‬
.‫ب) شب چک کنید‬
.‫آ) متشکرم‬
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433
Extract 4(subject A & her female class mate)
A: Hello. Did you send the power points for me?
B: I send it for others but sorry, I didn't have your e-mail.
A: Would you mind sending them for me today.
B: Sure. SMS your e-mail address.
A: Saliant68@yahoo.com
B: Check it tonight.
A: Thanks.
Extract5 (subject A & the manager of the institute)
‫ می خواستم در‬،‫متأسفانه مشکلی آمده که نمی توانم به کالس بیایم‬.‫ تماس گرفتم گوشی را بر نداشتید‬.‫آ) سالم آقای احمدیان‬
.‫ از لطف شما بی نهایت ممنونم‬.‫را برای من ساب بگذارید‬4/3-1 ‫صورت امکان فردا‬
Extract5 (subject A & the manager of the institute)
A: Hello Mr. Ahmadian. I called, but you didn't pick up the phone. Unfortunately there seems to
be a problem so that I can't make it tomorrow. If possible, I wanted to ask for a sub from 4/5-6.
I'm really thankful.
Extract6 (subject A to her husband)
‫آ) چرا هر چی زنگ می زنم بر نمی داری؟‬
.‫ سر راهت از مهد کودک بگیرش‬،‫من امروز نمی تونم برم دنبال سامان‬
Extract6 (subject A to her husband)
A: Why don't you answer my calls? I can't pick up Saman today. Pick him up from the kindergarten
on your way.
Extract7 (subject A & her male classmate)
‫ممکنه جزوه های استاد را بیارید تا زیراکس بگیرم؟‬.‫آ) سالم آقای شریفی‬
‫خوب هستید؟ کدام جزوه ها؟‬،‫ب) سالم‬
.‫آ) جزوه های زبان شناسی‬
.‫ب) من فقط همونایی را دارم که اول ترم از استاد گرفتم‬
.‫همونا را می خام‬،‫آ) بله‬
.‫ب) باشه فردا براتون میارم‬
.‫ لطف میکنید‬،‫آ) ممنون‬
Extract7 (subject A & her male classmate)
Iranian EFL Journal
434
A: Hello Mr. Sharifi. May you bring the professor's hand outs tomorrow so that I can make a copy.
B: Hello, how are you. Which hand outs?
A: Linguistic hand outs.
B: I just have those that I took in the beginning of the semester.
A: yes, I want exactly those.
B: Ok. I'll bring them for you tomorrow.
A: thanks. It's nice of you.
Extract8 (subject A & her husband)
.‫ دقیقه دیگه سر خیابون باش‬3 ‫آ) خانومی‬
.‫ب) باشه اومدم‬
Extract8 (subject A & her husband)
A: I'll see you in five minutes missy.
B: Ok. I'm coming.
Extract9 (subject A & her younger brother)
‫ میشه امروز ماشینت را بم بدی؟‬.‫ب) سالم‬
‫آ) میخای چی کار؟‬
.‫ سه ساعت بیشتر طول نمی کشه‬-‫ دو‬،‫ ماشین خودم تعمیرگاهه‬.‫ب) با بچه ها قرار داریم‬
.‫ کالس دارم ماشین را می خام‬3‫ من امروز تا‬،‫آ) شرمنده‬
Extract9 (subject A & her younger brother)
A: Hi. Can I borrow your car today?
B: What do you want it for?
A: we're going to meet up. Mine is in the repair shop, it won't last for more than two or three hours.
B: sorry, I have a class until eight tonight. I need it.
Extract 10 (B: The car company)
.‫ سریعا جهت اخذ کارت اشتراک ایران خودرو با شماره ی زیر تماس بگیرید‬.‫ب) راننده عزیز‬
Extract 10 (B: The car company)
B: Dear driver. To receive 'Iran Khodro' card call the given number as soon as possible.
Extract 11(subject A & her friend)
‫ کتابای تستینگ جیمز براون و بکمن را داری ؟‬.‫ب) سالم گلم‬
‫ امتحاناتون تموم شد؟‬.‫ هیچ کدوم را ندارم‬،‫آ) سالم‬
.‫ب) هفتم آخریشه‬
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435
‫آ) راستی از صاحب خونتون چه خبر؟‬
.‫ب) هیچی لج کرده پولمونو نمیده‬
.‫آ) شاید پشیمون شده‬
.‫ معلوم نیست مشکلش چیه‬،‫ب) نه بابا‬
.‫ می بینمت‬.‫شب به خیر‬
Extract 11(subject A & her friend)
B: Hi darling. Do you have James Brown and Backman testing books?
A: Hi, I have none. Have you finished your term exams?
B: The last is on Seventh.
A: any news from your landlord?
B: nothing, he's just messing around with us and not giving us our money.
A: Maybe he's changed his mind.
B: Nah! Don't know what his problem is.
Good night. See you.
6. Analysis and Discussion
Conversation analysis has recently become the focus of interest in the speech act theory not as a
reactive move but rather as a natural extention of the speech act theory domain. It has therefore
brought about a number of interesting issues whithin the discourse domain.
The interpretation of speech act function is not set apart from the situation which includes all
relevant factors in the environment, social conventions, and the shared experiences of the
participants. On the other hand, no act of politeness can be analyzed without resorting to semantic
and pragmatic factors like making use of modal auxiliaries, lexical choices, endearment terms,
strategies employed in opening and closing conversations and the consideration of culture-specific
norms. Therefore, this study took a qualitative approach to analyze the gathered excerpts according
to the aims of the study.
In the first extract, subject A uses a direct strategy, a want statement, to ask the hearer to perform
a task. The imperative verb indicates the force of the statement. According to Brown and
Lavinson's (1978) theory, it's a Bald-on-record strategy without any redress. Moreover, a time
intensifier is used to increase the force of the request.
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436
A completely different phenomenon is seen in Extract 2. The interaction can be placed at the top
of the hierarchical politeness system as the speaker is quick to put some distance between herself
and the other interlocutor which is reflected in the high degree of elaboration. As a lower ranking
female is addressing a higher rank male, she uses lots of formal words, politeness markers and
plural pronouns to indicate deference. She begins with a greeting alerter as a type of modification
to initiate communication. She then makes an apology which serves as a politeness marker to
express her regret for imposing on the hearer. She finally takes advantage of a question to make a
request. These strategies well match Brown and Lavinson's negative politeness strategies. On the
other hand, subject B uses a short, direct statement, an imperative form, which is actually a bald
on record strategy.
In Extract 3, subject A addresses her brother by an address alerter. She then uses a strong hint,
an off record strategy, to ask for a favor. It's a friendly conversation full of politeness strategies;
using colloquial language, promising and asking for a reason.
Extract 4 begins with a rhetorical question which is a form of an off record strategy. Although
the social status of the interlocutors is the same, there seems to be a high distance which locates
them in the deferential politeness system. This is reflected in the use of negative politeness
strategies like using modal auxiliaries, formal words, plural verb inflections and plural pronouns.
Furthermore, the pre-commitment which is used to get the hearer to commit the request is followed
by a commitment indicator to show her full attention to the hearer. It can be indicated as another
sign of politeness.
In Extract 5, we have another case of hierarchical politeness system with social power and
distance being highlighted. First, a formal address alerter is used for initiation. Her use of the
formal address forms shows that she is well aware of the formality of the context along with her
relationship with the other interlocutor. Then, an implicit excuse is made for sending the SMS.
Finally, it gives a hint which is an off record strategy. She gives a reason to ask for a sub instead
of making a direct request. A hedge performative and conditional clause is also used to modify
and attenuate the force of the request. She takes advantage of an intensifier to express her 'great
thanks' in the most formal way. This strategy can definitely be considered a negative politeness
strategy.
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437
Extract 6 is a clear example of Bald on Record strategy reflected in the use of an imperative
form to state the request directly without any redress. The grammatical mood of the verb also
indicates the force of the claim.
Extract 7 is between a male and a female with the same social status. However, the rather high
distance between the interlocutors contributes to the elaboration of the request which is reflected
in the use of modal auxiliaries and plural inflections. The use of the modal auxiliary can be
considered an indirect strategy. More specifically, it is a query preparatory which asks for the
possibility of performing a task. Subject B uses a small talk for greeting to reinforce social bounds
and then uses positive politeness strategies by showing a concern for his classmates wants. Finally,
he makes a promise. This Extract, intensifies the claim for gender differences as a determining
factor influencing the kind of politeness strategies used.
Extract 8 is another case of Bald on record strategy. It is similar to Extract 6 except for the fact
that presupposition and in-group endearment identity markers serve as other positive politeness
strategies not found in the previous one.
In Extract 9, no distance is perceived between the subject and her younger brother. However,
it's an intrinsically invasive speech act for which politeness strategies can't do much. The modal
serves as a preparatory or indirect strategy to reduce the imposition of the favor asked for. Then,
he applies another type of modification by providing a reason to minimize the imposition on the
hearer. Although 'subject A' rejects his request directly, she provides an explanation so as not to
impact the hearer's self image negatively.
Extract 10 is a pure request which should not be confused with a favor due to the absence of
emotional involvement.
The last Extract (extract 11) is an interaction between close friends full of positive politeness
strategies. An endearment marker, an in group identity marker, is followed by a direct question
with no degree of elaboration. These positive politeness strategies indicate friendliness. The active
involvement of both interlocutors and presupposition also adds to their positive face. At the end, a
plan and a general wish is used to close the conversation. This can also be related to positive
comments and positive politeness strategies. The way the speaker closes the conversation reveals
that the speaker is aware of the potential face threats in closing conversations. She perhaps knows
that in ending a conversation one must risk a series of interpretations like the unwillingness of the
interlocutor to continue. By the same line, the speaker is aware that ending the conversation may
Iranian EFL Journal
438
pose threats to her own face as she may appear to be rude, blunt or impolite (Cameron, 2001).
Like any other smart language user, however, she gets rid of the predicament by resorting to a
statement like 'Good night, see you later' which alternatively respects the notion of face.
7. Conclusion
Previously, philosophy of language was less obsessed with the language use than with its
propositional meanings. But people and words both mean things. One should make a distinction
between the meaning of a given linguistic expression and the speakers' intention in using it. We
should keep in mind that expressions have meanings even if they are not being used; but it is by
using the expressions that one expresses meaning. starting sirst as a unit of communication, it then
turns to a unit of discourse. Performing different speech acts may involve all different kinds of odd
and deviant structures with no strict rules.
In the present study, the gathered data was analyzed to explain the interlocutor's underlying
motivation for using different strategies. These strategies explain for how different variables set
limits on the manipulative process of asking for a favor. Investigating the underlying motivations
in relation to the highly selective speech act of 'asking for a favor' is crucial to account for using
different strategies. The three wh-questions of 'how', 'why' and 'from whom' highlight the demands
of our social structure as how to behave properly. Delving in to the process of 'favor-asking' can
also reflect the social values of the society in which we live in. This, in turn sheds light on how the
surrounding environment generates different patterns of social acts.
The analysis of the data revealed that social power served as a controlling factor to impose
limitations on 'asking for a favor'. The force of the request was strongly determined by the power
hierarchy (having equal, more or less power). Distance, examined in terms of familiarity between
the interlocutors, was another influential factor. Interaction with strangers, with unfamiliarity as a
core element, brought about positive distance. On the contrary, familiarity between friends and
family members caused negative distance. The degree of imposition was another influential factor
affecting the degree of elaboration in asking for a favor. The more the inequality and distance
between the speakers, the more elaboration in asking for a favor. Put it in a nutshell, Persian
interlocutors realized that asking a favor requires applying the right strategies. The interlocutors
were well aware of the importance of correct linguistic forms to observe the rules of politeness.
Iranian EFL Journal
439
This study has its own limitations and leaves open the way for further research in that the number
of factors analyzed were confined to a limited number of recorded SMS. Therefore, increasing the
number of samples under scrutiny can add to the validity of the data. In spite of the fact that the
data elicitation method is authentic, it is by no means the perfect one. In fact, the ethnographic
approach which aims to collect data with a concern for paradigmatic features is considered the
best. Further research can focus on para-linguistic features like voice, intonation and the durance
of the pauses.
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Title
A Comparative Study of Idioms Translation in three English-Persian
Dictionaries with an Orientation of Naturalness, Quality, and Style
Authors
Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani (Ph.D)
University of Tehran, Iran
Atefeh Mashayekhi Kerahroodi (M.A)
Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Iran
Biodata
Ali Akbar Khomeijani Farahani, assistant professor of English and Linguistics in the English
department of University of Tehran. His research interests include Discourse Analysis and
Systemic Functional Linguistics. He has taught extensively in these areas at MA and PhD levels
and has produced many papers with his students and alone.
Atefeh Mashayekhi kerahroodi, M.A in Translation studies from Islamic Azad University, South
Tehran Branch. Her areas of interest are translation form Persian into English and vice versa and
she is an English teacher now.
Abstract
Idioms are normal part of our language use and we rarely notice how vastly we use them
in our everyday speaking and writing. As there are so many idioms in all languages, these
language-fixed expressions are worth studying. The aim of this study was to analyze the
translation of idioms collected from three dictionaries: Aryanpur, Millennium, and Pooya.
The translation of idioms was compared in terms of Naturalness, quality and style. The
analysis has showed that Naturalness feature has got the score of 70 in Millennium, the
Quality 56, and the Style receives the score of 46. In Pooya, Naturalness has received the
score of 82, Quality 67 and Style 53. Finally, in Aryanpur, Naturalness has got the score
of 81, Quality 66, and Style 66. Thus, it can be concluded that the three dictionaries
consider the Naturalness of the idioms as the most important feature. The compilers give
the second priority to the Quality of the translation of idioms. Finally, they consider the
Style of the idioms as the least important factor.
Keywords: Idioms, Naturalness, Quality, Style
Iranian EFL Journal
443
1.Introduction
Despite the extensive research on translation and challenges on translation of figurative language,
in particular idioms, little is achieved to solve the challenges. Idioms are considered to be as one
of the hardest and most interesting parts of English vocabulary. On one hand, they are considered
as one of the most peculiar parts of the language; on the other hand, they are difficult because of
their unpredictable meaning.
Moreover, idioms are culture bound and this may cause great problems for translators.
Therefore, in order to transfer a source language idiom into the target language, translators must
choose the most appropriate strategy. It is noteworthy to state that the examination and evaluation
of strategies applied in translating idioms are very useful for the translators. As idioms are part of
culture, people may not understand the meaning of an idiom because the meaning of an idiom
cannot be determined by knowing the meaning of the words that form it and some translators are
not familiar with methods and strategies of translating idioms. Therefore, they delete some
linguistic elements. Consequently, there is a need to do research in this area of translation.
Why are idioms important and worth studying? Because idioms are common part of normal
everyday language use. They are also fascinating parts of the language. As Fernando (1996, p. 25)
states “idioms not only ensure that our communication is coherent and cohesive, but they also
produce discourse that is socially acceptable as well as precise, lively and interesting”.
2. Translation of Idioms
In all languages, there are a great number of expressions whose meaning cannot be deduced from
the individual words of the phrase. Since each language has its own way of expressing certain
things, idiomatic expressions are always language-and culture-specific. An expression in one
language may not exist in some other languages, or the language may have a very different
expression to convey the same meaning. This is why translation of idioms may sometimes be
problematic.
Due to the language-specific nature of idioms, their translation sometimes can be somewhat
challenging. Idioms must be recognized, understood and analyzed before appropriate translation
method can be considered. One must, first of all, be able to spot idioms from a text. It is very
important that a translator recognizes an idiom when he sees it. The ability to identify idioms is
importance because their meaning should never be understood literally. Concerning the
identification of idioms, Larson (1984, p.143) states that “the first step in the translation of idioms
Iranian EFL Journal
444
is to be absolutely certain of the meaning of the source language idiom”. Therefore, the most
important issue in translating idioms is the ability to distinguish the difference between the literal
meaning and the real meaning of the expression. This is why recognizing and being able to use
idioms appropriately requires excellent command over the source language.
Various ways were suggested for translation of idioms among which Baker’s (1992) strategies
seems more comprehensive. There are mentioned in the following:
• Using an idiom of similar meaning and form
• Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form
• Paraphrasing, where the expression is often reduced to sense and translation loss occurs
• Omission, if the idiom has no close match and paraphrase is either difficult or results in clumsy
style
3. In Which Text and Context Do Idioms Occur?
Idioms are applied in both spoken and written language, and are often used in newspaper articles.
They are frequently used by native speakers, who feel the language at inborn genetic level.
Scott Thornbury believed that idioms apply in specific contexts more frequently than others.
They are being used more often in informal spoken than in formal written language, and often with
an interpersonal function. The written texts which use a lot of idioms are conversational in tone as
in Magazine horoscopes (2006).
4. Use of Idioms
Any kind of language is not always appropriate in all occasions. In case where a writer or a speaker
uses idiomatic language, s/he usually focuses attention on his shared cultural beliefs with the
members of his/her community, and the kind of audience his speech is directed to. In this respect,
s/he knows that it is not at ease to deliver a message using figurative language, and to have the
same effect on the target reader as it is in the SL. This is mainly because unawareness of the
connotations of a given expression or phrase may cause serious problems for the people being
addressed. Idioms are also different and each one has a specific context to occur in. Standard
idioms for example, are suitable for formal situations, while slang and informal ones are used in
normal situations. Native speakers of a language can easily know the different uses of idioms and
avoid the pitfalls of inappropriate ones. In case of non-native speakers, it will be better for them to
learn idioms of the language the way they learn its other vocabularies, and try to master their
appropriate contextual uses.
Iranian EFL Journal
445
5. Naturalness
Naturalness is a reader –oriented approach and can be checked at both macro and micro structural
level (Lambert and Vangorp, 1985). In order to judge about naturalness of translation, the norms
of target language are considered as the scales of evaluation. We can determine the degree of the
naturalness of a translated text by taking into consideration the syntactic structure and collocation
in the target language.
6. Quality
Quality of translation is “the quality of the writing has to be judged in relation to the author’s
intention and/or the requirements of the subject matter” ( , 1998a p.15). In other words, we can
determine the degree of the quality of the translated text by considering the original writer’s
intention.
7. Style
It means everything about your way of presenting yourself in words, including “grace, clarity, and
a thousand indefinable qualities that separate good writing from bad” (Lynch, 2001, p.13).
According to Abram (1993), “Generally style is used as an umbrella term for stylistic features
including connotation, structure, rhythm and general sonic effects together with their interaction
with each other to produce a certain general tone or register” (pp.203-4). To put another way, we
ask the question of whether, the translation of the idioms have the same style (formal/informal) as
the source language.
8. Methodology
8.1 Corpus
The researcher chose three English-Persian dictionaries as the corpus of the study. These three
English-Persian dictionaries are as follows:
1) AryanpurKashani, M. (2002).The aryanpur progressive English-Persian
dictionary. Tehran: Compwrid
2) Bateni,M.R.(2009).Farhangmoaserpooya. Tehran. Farhangmoaser publishers.
3) Haghshenas, A. M. ,Samei, H. ,and Entekhabi, N. (2006). Millennium
English-Persian dictionary. Tehran. Farhangmoaser publishers.
8.2 Design
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446
The method of investigation is a corpus-based study which has a descriptive approach and we did
a contrastive analysis of English idioms with their Persian counterparts and then compared the
frequency of features employed by the translators. To conduct the study, the researcher first
examines three English-Persian dictionaries to compare idioms translation. The source text is
selected purposely.
8.3 Procedure
The current research was done through several steps as follows: firstly, the researcher would
specify thirty idioms from each dictionary. Then, the Persian translation of each English idiom
was found from the corpus. After that in order to compare the English idioms with the Persian
ones, English idioms were put into three separate tables with their Persian equivalence written in
front of them.
In the last step the researcher would show that idioms translation is in qualitative, style and
natural ways.
9. Results and discussion
Having listed English idioms and their Persian counterparts, the researcher launched to analyze
and classify the data. The following tables and figures show the findings and statistical figures
obtained for each dictionary.
Table 1. Idioms translated in Aryanpur Dictionary
No Idiom
Persian Translation
Naturalness
Quality
Style
Total
1
Keep one’s ground
‫استقامت کردن‬
3
3
3
9
2
Split hairs
‫موشکافی کردن‬
3
2
3
8
Be green with envy
‫از شدت حسادت رنگ به رنگ‬
‫شدن‬
2
2
2
3
6
4
Fly into a rage
‫از جا دررفتن‬
2
1
1
4
5
Sit on the fence
‫بیطرف بودن‬
3
3
3
9
Fend for oneself
‫بدون کمک به کار خود ادامه‬
3
2
3
3
1
1
6
7
‫دادن‬
Feather one’s (own) ‫لفت و لیس کردن‬
nest
8
5
8
Without fail
‫البته‬
3
2
3
8
9
Fall for
‫خاطر خواه شدن‬
2
2
2
6
Iranian EFL Journal
447
10
Make a face
‫ادا در آوردن‬
3
1
1
5
11
See eye to eye
‫همعقیده بودن‬
3
3
3
9
12
Ever so
‫بینهایت‬
3
2
3
8
3
3
2
‫کردن‬
3
2
2
13
14
Make
(both)
ends ‫به اندازهی درآمد خرج کردن‬
meet
Dwell upon sth
‫روی چیزی زیاد بحث یا تکیه‬
8
7
15
Drum up
‫بازارگرمی کردن‬
3
2
2
7
16
Go down the drain
‫به هدر رفته‬
3
2
1
6
17
On the dot
‫درست سر وقت‬
2
2
2
6
18
Down and out
‫در فالکت‬
2
2
1
5
19
Do's and don'ts
‫چیزهای موجه و غیرموجه‬
1
2
3
6
20
Die out
‫منسوخ شدن‬
3
3
3
9
21
Day in day out
‫هر روز‬
3
3
3
9
22
Cut and dried
‫مالل آور‬
3
2
1
6
23
Cut corners
‫صرفهجویی کردن‬
3
3
2
8
24
Chicken out
‫ترسیدن‬
3
2
2
7
25
Take advantage of sb
‫از فرصت استفاده کردن‬
3
2
2
7
26
Come of age
‫به سن بلوغ رسیدن‬
3
3
2
8
27
In the air
‫نامعلوم‬
3
2
2
7
28
All in all
‫به طور کلی‬
2
2
3
7
29
Back out
‫عهدشکنی کردن‬
3
3
3
9
30
Be in the clear
)‫آزاد (از قید یا گرفتگی‬
2
2
2
6
Table 2. Idioms translated in Pooya Dictionary
No Idiom
Persian Translation
Naturalness Quality Style
Total
1
Keep one’s ground
‫سر حرف خود ایستادن‬
2
2
1
5
2
Split hairs
‫مته به خشخاش گذاشتن‬
3
2
1
6
3
Be green with envy
‫حسادت ورزیدن‬
3
3
3
9
4
Fly into a rage
‫کفری شدن‬
3
2
1
6
Iranian EFL Journal
448
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫موضع بیطرفی گرفتن‬
‫‪Sit on the fence‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫گلیم خود را از آب بیرون کشیدن‬
‫‪Fend for oneself‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪nest‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بدون استثنا‬
‫‪Without fail‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫عاشق کسی شدن‬
‫‪Fall for‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫به کسی دهن کجی کردن‬
‫‪Make a face‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫موافق بودن‬
‫‪See eye to eye‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫تا دلت بخواهد‬
‫‪Ever so‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫دخل و خرج زندگی را با هم جور ‪ends‬‬
‫)‪(both‬‬
‫‪Make‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫کردن‬
‫‪meet‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫انگشت گذاشتن روی‬
‫‪Dwell upon sth‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫جلب کردن‬
‫‪Drum up‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بر باد فنا رفتن‬
‫‪Go down the drain‬‬
‫‪16‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫ر ًاس ساعت‬
‫‪On the dot‬‬
‫‪17‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بی خانمان‬
‫‪Down and out‬‬
‫‪18‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بایدها و نبایدها‬
‫‪Do's and don'ts‬‬
‫‪19‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ریشهکن کردن‬
‫‪Die out‬‬
‫‪20‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫هر روز خدا‬
‫‪Day in day out‬‬
‫‪21‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بی چون و چرا‬
‫‪Cut and dried‬‬
‫‪22‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫سرهمبندی کردن‬
‫‪Cut corners‬‬
‫‪23‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫جا زدن‬
‫‪Chicken out‬‬
‫‪24‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫از کسی سوء استفاده کردن‬
‫‪Take advantage of sb‬‬
‫‪25‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫به سن قانونی رسیدن‬
‫‪Come of age‬‬
‫‪26‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪449‬‬
‫بار خود را بستن )‪Feather one’s (own‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫(وجود چیزی) در فضا احساس‬
‫‪27‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫شدن‬
‫‪In the air‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫روی هم رفته‬
‫‪All in all‬‬
‫‪28‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫دبه در آوردن‬
‫‪Back out‬‬
‫‪29‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫بیگناه بودن‬
‫‪Be in the clear‬‬
‫‪30‬‬
‫‪Iranian EFL Journal‬‬
Table 3. Idioms translated in Millennium Dictionary
No Idiom
Persian Translation
Naturalness Quality Style
Total
1
Keep one’s ground
‫کوتاه نیامدن‬
3
1
2
6
2
Split hairs
‫ماللغتی شدن‬
1
1
1
3
3
Be green with envy
‫از حسادت ترکیدن‬
1
1
1
3
4
Fly into a rage
‫از کوره در رفتن‬
3
2
1
6
5
Sit on the fence
‫خود را کنار کشیدن‬
1
2
2
5
6
Fend for oneself
‫روی پای خود ایستادن‬
2
2
1
5
3
2
1
Feather one’s (own) ‫جیب خود را پر کردن‬
6
7
nest
8
Without fail
‫بی برو برگرد‬
3
2
1
6
9
Fall for
‫گیر کردن‬... ‫گلوی (کسی) پیش‬
3
1
1
5
10
Make a face
(‫برای کسی( قیافه گرفتن‬
3
3
2
5
11
See eye to eye
‫یکدل بودن‬
3
2
2
7
12
Ever so
‫هر چی بخواهی‬
2
2
1
5
Make (both) ends meet
‫به اندازهی جیب خود خرج‬
‫کردن‬
3
2
1
13
6
14
Dwell upon sth
‫دل مشغول بودن‬
2
1
1
4
15
Drum up
‫دست و پا کردن‬
1
1
1
3
16
Go down the drain
‫ضایع شدن‬
2
2
3
7
17
On the dot
‫سر موقع‬
2
2
2
6
18
Down and out
‫آدم آس و پاس‬
2
1
1
4
19
Do's and don'ts
‫بکن نکن‬
1
1
1
3
20
Die out
‫منقرض شدن‬
3
3
3
9
21
Day in day out
‫روزهای پیاپی‬
2
2
1
5
22
Cut and dried
‫ساخته و پرداخته‬
3
3
3
9
23
Cut corners
‫میانبر زدن‬
2
2
1
5
24
Chicken out
‫منصرف شدن‬
3
3
2
8
25
Take advantage of sb
‫کسی را گول زدن‬
3
1
1
5
26
Come of age
‫بالغ شدن‬
3
2
2
7
Iranian EFL Journal
450
27
In the air
‫پا در هوا‬
3
2
1
6
28
All in all
‫بر روی هم‬
1
2
2
5
29
Back out
‫شانه خالی کردن‬
3
2
1
6
30
Be in the clear
‫تبرئه شدن‬
3
3
3
9
Graph1.
Total score of the features in the Millennium Dictionary.
Dictionary
Naturalness
Quality
Style
Millennium
70
56
46
Millennium
Dictionary
Style
27%
27
Quality
32%
Figure 1. Total score percentages of the features in the Millennium Dictionary
Graph1 and figure1 show the total score with regard to the three features of naturalness, quality
and style in the Millennium Dictionary. The highest percentage goes to naturalness which is 41%.
The quality feature enjoys 32% and the lowest percentage which is 27% belongs to the feature of
style.
Graph2.
Total score of the features in the Pooya Dictionary.
Dictionary
Naturalness
Quality
Style
Pooya
82
67
53
Iranian EFL Journal
451
Figure 2.Total score percentages of the features in the Pooya Dictionary.
Graph 2 and figure2 show the total score with regard to the three features of naturalness, quality
and style in the Pooya Dictionary. The highest percentage goes to naturalness which is 41%. The
quality feature enjoys 33% and the lowest percentage which is 26% belongs to the feature of style.
Graph3.
Total score of the features in the Aryanpur Dictionary.
Dictionary
Naturalness
Quality
Style
Aryanpur
81
66
66
Figure3.
Total score percentages of the features in the Aryanpur Dictionary
Graph 3 and figure3 show the total score with regard to the three features of naturalness, quality
and style in the Aryanpur Dictionary. The highest percentage goes to naturalness which is 38%.
The quality and style features are the same. They are 31%.
Iranian EFL Journal
452
Table 4.Total score of Naturalness, Quality, and Style in 3 dictionaries.
Dictionary
Naturalness
Quality
Style
Millennium
70
56
46
Pooya
82
67
53
Table 4 shows that Naturalness feature has received the score of 70 in Millennium Dictionary, the
score of 82 in Pooya Dictionary, and the score of 81 in Aryanpur Dictionary. This shows that
Aryanpur Dictionary enjoys the highest score for Naturalness feature among the three dictionaries
selected as the corpus of this study. The score of the Quality feature is the highest for Pooya
Dictionary. Finally, the score for the feature of Style is 66 in Aryanpur Dictionary which is the
highest. Based in this result we can conclude that to Pooya Dictionary the most important feature
is Naturalness, and the least important feature is Style. In fact this conclusion also applies to the
other two dictionaries.
10.Conclusion
The aim of this study was to analyze the translation of idioms collected from three dictionaries:
Aryanpur, Millennium, and Pooya. The translation of idioms in each dictionary was compared in
terms of Naturalness, quality and style.
The analysis has showed that Naturalness feature has got the score of 70 in Millennium
Dictionary, the Quality feature 56, and the Style receives the score of 46. In Pooya, Naturalness
has received the score of 82, Quality 67 and Style 53.
Finally, in Aryanpur, Naturalness has got the score of 81, Quality 66, and Style has got the
score of 66. Thus, it can be concluded that the three dictionaries which provided the data of this
study consider the Naturalness of the idioms as the most important feature. The compilers of these
dictionaries give the second priority to the Quality of the translation of idioms. Finally, the three
dictionaries consider the preservation of the Style of the idioms which are translated as the least
important factor.
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Larson, M.L. (1984). Meaning based translation: A guide to cross-Language equivalence. Lanham,
NewYork& London: University Press of America.
Newmark, p. (1998).Paragraphs on Translation. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Limited.
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Title
Apology Strategies Used by Azeri-Persian Bilinguals in Persian
Authors
Ali Akbar Ansarin (Ph.D)
Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Abdolreza Khalili (Ph.D Candidate)
Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Biodata
Ali Akbar Ansarin, associate professor at University of Tabriz. His research interests include
second language acquisition and psycholinguistics.
Abdolreza Khalili, Ph.D candidate in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) at
University of Tabriz. He received his M.A. degree from University of Tabriz. Currently, he is
teaching general English courses at University of Tabriz. His research interests include pragmatics
and discourse studies.
Abstract
Speech act strategies have been extensively researched in the field of pragmatics.
However, few studies have investigated the speech act strategy use of bilingual speakers
in the context of the second language. The present study investigated the realization
patterns of apology (intensification) strategies of native Persian speakers and AzeriPersian bilinguals in Persian. The sample involved 60 native Persian speakers and 60
Azeri-Persian bilinguals. A Discourse Completion Test (DCT) was employed to gather
data from both groups of participants. The results revealed that Illocutionary Force
Indicating Device (IFID) and acknowledgment of responsibility were respectively the
first and the second most frequent apology strategies for both groups of speakers.
Furthermore, based on the results, intensifying expression and expressing concern for the
hearer were the most frequent apology intensification strategies for both native Persian
speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals. However, despite the overall similarity in the
preferences of these groups of speakers, the results of data analysis revealed that there
were statistically significant differences between their uses of apology (intensification)
Iranian EFL Journal
455
strategies. It was concluded that even very advanced learners like Azeri-Persian bilinguals
may not perform apologies like native Persian speakers.
Keywords: speech act theory, apology strategy, apology intensification, Azeri-Persian
bilingual
1. Introduction
Learning the pragmatic aspects of a second or foreign language is a major challenge for learners,
since as Austin (1962) argued it involves the learning of the functions of second language
utterances together with their appropriate uses in different social situations. According to BardoviHarlig and Dornyei (1998, p. 234) “research into the pragmatic competence of adult foreign and
second language learners has demonstrated convincingly that the pragmatics of learners and native
speakers are often quite different. Research has further shown that grammatical development does
not guarantee a corresponding level of pragmatic development”. As they further argued the
pragmatic knowledge of second language learners cannot be determined based on their
grammatical knowledge. This issue suggests a clear need for research regarding the pragmatic
behavior of second language learners in the course of their linguistic development.
According to Ellis (2008) second language researchers have been mostly concerned with speech
acts in pragmatic studies. As Austin, (1962) argued speech acts are actions that language users
perform through the use of language such as requesting, asserting, ordering, or apologizing. The
speech act of apology has attracted a lot of attention in interlanguage pragmatic studies (Ellis,
2008). As Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984, p. 206) stated “by apologizing the speaker recognizes
the fact that a violation of a social norm has been committed and admits to the fact that s/he is at
least partially involved in its cause. Hence by their very nature apologies involve loss of face for
the speaker and support for the hearer”. As Ellis (2008) argued, apology is a face-saving speech
act, and its linguistic realization strategies do not vary among different languages to a large degree.
Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) in a paper reported the Cross-Cultural Study of Speech Act
Realization Pattern (CCARP) project which aimed to determine the patterns for the realization of
request and apology speech acts among different languages, and also tried to reveal the similarities
and differences between the realization patterns of these acts for native and non-native speakers of
the studied languages. This project has motivated a large number of cross-cultural and
interlanguage pragmatics studies regarding the speech act of apology.
Iranian EFL Journal
456
As Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984, p. 196) stated, cross-cultural pragmatics studies aim to
reveal the extent to which it is “possible to determine the degree to which the rules that govern the
use of language in context vary from culture to culture and from language to language”. According
to Kasper and Schmidt (1996, p. 150), interlanguage pragmatics is “the study of the development
and use of strategies for linguistic action by non-native speakers”. In interlanguage pragmatics
“focus is given to the ways non-native speakers’ pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic knowledge
differs from that of native speakers and among learners with different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds” (Kasper & Schmidt, 1996, p. 150).
A number of the cross-cultural studies of apology have investigated the apology strategies used
by native speakers of different languages such as Romanian (Demeter, 2006), Chinese (Hou, 2006;
Shih, 2006) Arabic (Al-Zumor, 2011), British English and Persian (Chamani & Zareipur, 2010),
Persian (Karimnia & Afghari, 2012; Shahrokhi & Mohd Jan, 2012; Shariati & Chamani, 2010),
and Spanish (González-Cruz, 2012; Wagner, 1999).
Considering interlanguage pragmatics studies of apology, a majority of these studies have
explored the similarities and differences between the use of apology strategies of native English
speakers and non-native learners of English from a variety of first language backgrounds (e.g. AlZumor, 2011; Farashaiyan & Yazdi Amirkhiz, 2011; Linnell, Porter, Stone, & Chen, 1992;
Mirzaei, Roohani, & Esmaeili,2012; Tamimi Sa’da & Mohammadi, 2014). Other interlanguage
pragmatics studies have investigated the similarities and differences in the apology realization
patterns of native and non-native speakers of different western languages (e.g. Blum-Kulka &
Olshtain, 1984).
Most of these studies have explored the apology strategy use of different groups of non-native
learners of western languages especially English. However, despite this focus on western
languages as the target languages in interlanguage pragmatics studies, there is a dearth of research
regarding the apology strategy use of the non-native learners of non-western languages, and more
research studies are required to provide information about this issue.
Persian is a non-western language, and as the official language of Iran is spoken and used by
the majority of the country’s people including native speakers of other languages spoken in Iran.
Azeri is one of these languages and is mainly used in the North-West of Iran. Although Azeri
speakers (especially the educated ones) are fluent in the use of Persian, and are mostly referred to
Iranian EFL Journal
457
as Azeri-Persian bilinguals, their pragmatic knowledge and behavior including their use of
appropriate speech act strategies in Persian is open to question.
A review of literature reveals that no research study has been conducted regarding the use of
Persian apology strategies by Azeri-Persian bilinguals and there is an apparent need for research
regarding this issue. Therefore the present study intends to explore the similarities and differences
between the Persian apology strategy use of Persian native speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals.
More specifically, the present study aims to find answers to the following questions:
1. What are the most frequent apology (intensification) strategies used by native Persian speakers?
2. What are the most frequent apology (intensification) strategies used by Azeri-Persian bilinguals
in Persian?
3. Are there any differences between the apology (intensification) strategies used by native Persian
speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals in Persian?
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The participants of this study were 60 native Persian speakers and 60 Azeri-Persian bilinguals
ranging in age from 20 to 32. In both of these groups half of the participants were male and half
female. All of the participants were students of X and were selected from B.A., M.A, and PhD
levels from different majors of this university. The participants were selected from among twohundred informants based on their reported mother tongue in the personal information section of
the instrument of the study. That is only those informants whose reported native language was
Azeri or Persian were selected to be the participants of the study.
2.2. Materials
The following instruments were employed in this study:
2.2.1. Discourse Completion Test
The main instrument of the present study was the original Discourse Completion Test (DCT)
developed by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) for the CCARP project. According to Blum-Kulka
and Olshtain (1984), a DCT is a questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions the answers to
which reveal the patterns for the realization of a certain speech act for the speakers of a specific
language. The employed DCT consists of eight situations which “vary on the social parameters of
+/- social distance and +/- dominance” (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984, p. 198). A personal
Iranian EFL Journal
458
information section was also added to the DCT in which the informants were asked to report their
mother tongue, age, gender, major, and educational level. For the purpose of the study the DCT
was translated into Persian with very slight modifications (see Appendix A), and was distributed
among two-hundred informants from B.A., M.A, and PhD levels of different majors in the *** to
select the participants of the study and also to gather their responses to the DCT situations.
2.2.2. Coding Schemes
Two coding schemes were employed in this study, one was for analyzing the apology strategies of
the participants, and the other for analyzing their apology intensification strategies. From among
the various coding schemes for the speech act of apology (e.g. Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984;
Sugimoto, 1997), the scheme developed by Olshtain and Cohen (1983) was used in this study,
because Olshtain and Cohen (1983) claim that this scheme is based on actual realization patterns
of the apology strategies across the studied languages and as a result is regarded to be a valid
instrument in determining the apology strategy use of speakers of different languages. In this
scheme, there are two possibilities for the speaker in the speech act of apology:
I: If the speaker accepts the responsibility for insulting the hearer, s/he may apologize by a number
of different strategies. These strategies along with examples taken from Olshtain and Cohen (1983)
are provided below. First the transliterated versions of the Persian strategies are provided in
italicized form. Next the literal translations and English equivalents of these Persian strategies are
given below them.
1. An expression of apology
a. An expression of regret, for example:
Transliteration:
moteasefam.
Literal translation:
Sorry I am.
English equivalent:
‘I’m sorry.’
b. An offer of apology, for example:
Transliteration:
ozr/mazerat
mixam.
Apology
I want
English equivalent:
‘I apologize.’
c. A request for forgiveness, for example:
Transliteration:
Lotfan
mano
bebaxshid.
Please
me
you forgive
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459
English equivalent:
‘Please forgive me.’
2. An explanation or account of the situation, for example:
Transliteration:
otubus
dir
kard.
The bus
late
was
English equivalent:
‘The bus was late.’
3. An acknowledgment of responsibility
a. Accepting the blame, for example:
Transliteration:
tagsire
mane.
Fault
my is
English equivalent:
‘It’s my fault.’
b. Expressing self-deficiency, for example:
Transliteration:
havasam
nabud.
My attention was not with me
English equivalent:
‘I wasn’t thinking.’
c. Recognizing the other person as deserving apology, for example:
Transliteration:
hag
ba
shoma hast.
Rightness
with
you
English equivalent:
‘You are right.’
is
d. Expressing lack of intent, for example:
Translation:
Manzuri
nadashtam.
Intention
did not I have
English equivalent:
‘I didn’t mean to.’
4. An offer of repair, for example:
Transliteration:
man
pule
goldane
I
money of
English equivalent:
‘I’ll pay for the broken vase.’
vase
shekastaro
midam.
broken
will pay
5. A promise of forbearance, for example:
Transliteration:
dige
tekrar
nemishe.
Again repetition
English equivalent:
‘It won’t happen again.’
it will not be
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460
II: If the speaker does not accept the responsibility for an apology, s/he may reply by the following
two strategies:
1. A denial of the need to apologize, for example:
Transliteration:
nabayad
Must not
narahat
mishodi.
insulted you became
English equivalent: ‘There was no need for you to get insulted.’
2. A denial of responsibility
a. Not accepting the blame, for example:
Transliteration:
tagsire
man
nabud.
Fault
my
was not it
English equivalent:
‘It wasn’t my fault.’
b. Blaming the other participant for bringing the offense upon him/herself, for example:
Transliteration:
tagsire
khodete.
Fault
is yours
English equivalent:
‘It’s your own fault.’
For analyzing the apology intensification strategies the framework developed by Blum-Kulka and
Olshtain (1984) was selected for data analysis in this study. Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984, p.
208) summarize these intensifier devices along with some examples as follows:
1. An intensifying expression within the IFID,
a. adverbials, for example :
Transliteration:
xeyli
moteasefam.
Very
sorry I am
English equivalent:
‘I’m very……sorry.’
b. repetition or double intensifier, for example:
Transliteration:
xeyli
xeyli
moteasefam.
Terribly
terribly
sorry I am
English equivalent:
‘I’m terribly terribly sorry.’
2. Expressing explicit concern for the hearer—externally to the IFID, for example:
Transliteration:
xeyli
montazer
mundi?
Long
waiting
English equivalent:
‘Have you been waiting long?’
you were?
Iranian EFL Journal
461
3. Using multiple strategies +/- IFIDs and any one or more of the four other strategies.
In this coding scheme IFID refers to an Illocutionary Force Indicating Device which as BlumKulka and Olshtain (1984, p. 206) stated, is “the most direct realization of an apology” and “selects
a routinized formulaic expression of regret” (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984, p. 206). As Ellis
(2008) argued IFIDs are the same devices which are included in the expression of apology category
of the coding scheme developed by Olshtain and Cohen (1983).
2.3. Design
The DCT used in this study consisted of eight open-ended questions which aimed to determine the
realization patterns of the apology speech act of native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian
bilinguals. Considering the data collection and data analysis procedures of the present study, it is
apparent that it followed a survey design.
2.4. Procedures
In order to achieve the aims of the study, first the DCT developed by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain
(1984), was translated into Persian with very slight modifications and was distributed among twohundred students from B.A., M.A, and PhD levels of different majors in the ***. In addition a
personal information section was added to the DCT to gather demographic information of the
participants including their mother tongue, age, gender, major, and educational level. Next based
on the reported mother tongue of the informants, 60 native Persian speakers (30 male & 30 female)
and 60 Azeri-Persian bilinguals (30 male & 30 female) were selected and their DCT responses
were analyzed. SPSS 20 was used for analyzing the data of the study. First the frequency and
percentage of apology strategies used by native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals were
determined. Then chi-square tests were conducted to reveal whether there were any statistically
significant differences in the frequency of apology (intensification) strategies used by these groups
of speakers.
3. Results
The first and the second research questions of the study focused on the most frequent apology
strategy used by native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals in Persian. The frequency
and percentage of the apology strategies used by these groups of speakers are summarized in Table
1.
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462
As Table 1 shows IFID with 300 times of occurrence was the most frequent apology strategy used
by Persian native speakers (62.4%). The second most frequent strategy was acknowledgment of
responsibility with 100 times of occurrence (20.7%). Moreover a closer look at the subcategories
of IFID reveals that offer of apology with 102 times of occurrence (21.2%) was the most frequent
IFID used by these speakers. On the other hand, promise of forbearance as the least frequent
strategy was used 9 times (1.9%).
Table 1 Frequency and Percentage of Apology Strategies of Native Persian Speakers and Azeri-Persian
Bilinguals
Strategy Type
Native
Azeri-Persian
Persians
bilinguals F (%)
F (%)
1. An expression of apology (IFIDs)
a. An expression of regret
36 (7.5)
23 (4.8)
b. An offer of apology
102 (21.2)
98 (20.4)
c. A request for forgiveness
88 (18.3)
106 (22.1)
d. An expression of embarrassment
74 (15.4)
90 (18.8)
2. An explanation or account of the situation
45 (9.6)
22 (4.5)
a. Accepting the blame
13 (2.7)
11 (2.3)
b. Expressing self-deficiency
10 (2.1)
10 (2.1)
3. An acknowledgment of responsibility
c. Recognizing the other person as deserving
5 (1.0)
7 (1.5)
apology
d. Expressing lack of intent
41 (8.5)
36 (7.5)
e. A denial of the need to apologize
12 (2.5)
23 (4.8)
f. Not accepting the blame
5 (1.0)
10 (2.1)
g. Blaming the other participant
14 (2.9)
26 (5.4)
4. An offer of repair
26 (5.4)
12 (2.5)
5. A promise of forbearance
9 (1.9)
6 (1.2)
Total
480 (100)
480 (100)
Furthermore, according to Table 1, IFID with 317 times of occurrence was the most frequent
strategy used by Azeri-Persian bilingual speakers (66.1%). The second most frequent strategy
category was acknowledgment of responsibility with 123 times of occurrence (25.7%). Moreover,
request for forgiveness as the most frequent subcategory of IFID was used 106 times by these
Iranian EFL Journal
463
speakers (22.1%). An examination of the other strategies reveals that promise of forbearance was
the least frequent strategy with 6 times of occurrence (1.2%).
Table 2 illustrates the frequency and percentage of the apology intensification strategies used by
these groups of speakers.
Table 2 Frequency and Percentage of Apology Intensification Strategies of Native Persian Speakers and
Azeri-Persian Bilinguals
Strategy Type
Native Persians
Azeri-Persian
F (%)
bilinguals F (%)
a. Adverbials
65 (51.6)
76 (58.9)
b. Repetition or double intensifier
7 (5.6)
20 (15.5)
2. Expressing explicit concern for the hearer
42 (33.3)
20 (15.5)
3. Using multiple strategies +/- IFIDs
12 (9.5)
13 (10.1)
Total
126 (100)
129 (100)
1. An intensifying expression
The first and the second research questions also tried to reveal the most frequent apology
intensification strategies used by native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals in Persian.
According to Table 2, intensifying expression with 72 times of occurrence was the most frequent
apology intensification strategy used by native Persian speakers (57.2%). Furthermore as the table
shows adverbials with 65 times of occurrence (51.6%) were more frequent in this category of
apology intensification strategies. The second most frequent intensification strategy of these
speakers was expressing explicit concern for the hearer with 42 times of occurrence (33.3%). On
the other hand using multiple strategies +/- IFIDs was the least frequent intensification strategy
for these speakers.
Furthermore, as Table 2 shows, the most frequent intensification strategy for Azeri-Persian
bilinguals was intensifying expression with 96 times of occurrence (74.4%). Moreover adverbials
with 76 times of occurrence (58.9%) were more frequent in this category of intensification
strategies. The second most frequent intensification strategy for these speakers was expressing
explicit concern for the hearer with 20 times of occurrence (15.5%). A look at the other strategies
shows that using multiple strategies +/- IFIDs’ was the least preferred strategy with 13 times of
occurrence (10.1%).
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464
The third research question of the study tried to determine whether there were any differences
between the apology strategies used by native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals in
Persian. A close look at Table 1 reveals that although the overall preferences of the apology
strategies are similar for native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals, there are many
differences between the frequencies of the individual apology strategies (along with their
subcategories) for these groups of speakers. For example although IFID is the most preferred
strategy for both native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals, there are differences in the
frequency of its subcategories for these speakers. That is, offer of apology was the most frequent
subcategory of IFID for native Persian speakers, while the most frequent subcategory of IFID for
Azeri-Persian bilinguals was request for forgiveness.
In order to determine whether these differences reached statistical significance a two-way
group-independence chi-square test was performed. The results of the chi-square test are
summarized in Table 3.
Table 3 Chi-Square Test of Apology Strategies of Native Persian Speakers and Azeri-Persian Bilinguals
Chi-Square
Value
df
Sig
29.377
13
.006
As Table 3 shows the differences between the frequencies of the apology strategies used by native
Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals were statistically significant since the p value .006
(marked as Sig) was less than the level of significance .05. These significant differences are
visually represented in Figure 1.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Frequency of Native Persian
Speakers' Aplogy Strategies
Frequency of Azeri-Persian
Bilinguals' Apology Strategies
Figure 1. Comparison between the apology strategies of native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian
bilinguals
Iranian EFL Journal
465
The third research question also tried to determine whether the differences between the apology
intensification strategies of native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals were statistically
significant or not. A look at Table 2 reveals that although the overall preferences of the native
Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals were similar, there were differences in actual
frequencies of the intensification strategies used by these groups of speakers. For example native
Persian speakers used repetition 42 times, while the occurrence of this strategy was 20 times for
Azeri-Persian bilinguals. In order to determine whether these differences reached statistical
significance a two-way group-independence chi-square test was performed. Table 4 illustrates the
results of the chi-square test.
Table 4 Chi-Square Test of Apology Intensification Strategies of Native Persian Speakers and Azeri-Persian
Bilinguals
Chi-Square
Value
df
Sig
14.931
3
.002
As Table 4 shows the differences between the frequencies of the apology intensification strategies
used by native Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals were statistically significant since
the p value .002 (marked as Sig) was less than the level of significance .05. Figure 2 illustrates
these significant differences.
80
60
40
20
0
Adverbials
Repetition
Explicit concern for the
Using multiple
hearer
strategies +/- IFIDS
Frequency of Native Persian Speakers' Apology Intensification Strategies
Frequency of Azeri-Persian Bilinguals' Apology Intensification Strategies
Figure 2. Comparison between the apology intensification strategies of native Persian speakers
and Azeri-Persian bilinguals
4. Discussion
The first research question of the study tried to determine the most frequent apology
(intensification) strategies used by native Persian speakers. The results of the study revealed that
Iranian EFL Journal
466
IFID with 300 times of occurrence (62.4%), and acknowledgment of responsibility with 100 times
of occurrence (20.7%) were respectively the first and the second most frequent strategies for these
speakers. On the other hand promise of forbearance as the least frequent strategy was used 9 times
(1.9%). These results support the results of studies by, Eslami-Rasekh (2004), Shariati and
Chamani, (2010), and Shahrokhi and Mohd Jan, (2012), who also reported the same rank order for
the frequency of apology strategies in Persian.
There are both similarities and differences between these results and the reported results for
apology strategies in other languages. Olshtain (1989, as cited in Shariati & Chamani, 2010) in a
comprehensive study similarly found that IFID and acknowledgement of responsibility were the
most frequent apology strategies in Canadian French, Hebrew, and Australian English. On the
other hand, explanation was the least frequent apology strategy in his study. In Trosborg’s (1987)
study acknowledgement of responsibility was the most frequent apology strategy and promise of
forbearance the least frequent strategy for Danish speakers. However she reported offer of repair
and explanation as the most frequent apology strategies in English.
Brown and Levinson (1987, as cited in Ellis, 2008) argued that speakers may employ either
positive or negative face-saving strategies in performing various speech acts. As the results of the
present study revealed native Persian speakers mostly preferred direct expressions for apologizing
by the use of different IFIDs. The use of direct apology strategies by these speakers shows their
concern for the negative face of their interlocutors. Therefore, it seems that socio-cultural norms
of the Persian language mostly favor negative face-saving strategies.
The results of the study further revealed that an offer of apology (ozr/mazerat mixam) with 102
times of occurrence (21.2%) was the most frequent subcategory of IFID for native Persian
speakers. The results support Eslami-Rasekh (2004), but not Shariati and Chamani, (2010), and
Karimnia and Afghari (2012) who reported request for forgiveness as the most common IFID in
Persian. The results are also different from Shahrokhi and Mohd Jan (2012) who reported
expression of regret as the most common IFID in the responses of native Persian speakers. As
Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) argued there are many differences among languages regarding
the most frequent type of IFIDs. According to them these differences are related to
pragmalinguistics which as Leech (1983, p. 11) argued deals with “the particular resources which
a given language provides for conveying particular illocutions’’.
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467
The high frequency of offers of apology among native Persian speakers may arise from Iranian
culture in which respect for people is highly valued. Offers of apology seem to be more formal in
Iranian culture in comparison with the other IFIDs; therefore, their use may be regarded as showing
a high level of respect for the interlocutors. Another frequently used IFID of native Persian
speakers was expression of embarrassment (sharmandeam) which was not included in the coding
scheme of Olshtain and Cohen (1983). This strategy, like other IFIDs, is a direct expression of
apology and its frequent use by native Persian speakers supports the idea that negative face-saving
strategies are preferred in Persian.
The results also revealed that intensifying expression with 72 times of occurrence (57.2%) and
expressing explicit concern for the hearer with 42 times of occurrence (33.3%) were respectively
the first and the second most frequent apology intensification strategies for native Persian speakers.
Furthermore adverbials with 65 times of occurrence (51.6%) were more frequent in the category
of intensifying expressions. These results support Karimnia and Afghari (2012) who reported the
same rank order of the intensification strategies in Persian. The frequent use of these strategies
may also arise from Iranian culture in which people make great efforts to appease their annoyed
interlocutors.
The second research question of the study tried to determine the most frequent apology
(intensification) strategies used by Azeri-Persian bilingual speakers in Persian. According to the
results, IFID with 317 times of occurrence (66.1%) and acknowledgment of responsibility with
123 times of occurrence (25.7%) were respectively the first and the second most frequent strategies
used by Azeri-Persian bilingual speakers. On the other hand promise of forbearance was the least
frequent strategy with 6 times of occurrence (1.2%).
An examination of these results reveals that the overall preferences of the apology strategies of
Azeri-Persian bilinguals in Persian were very similar to native Persian speakers. As Ellis (2008)
argued, the learning context and the proficiency level of second languages learners play important
roles in their use of the apology strategies in the second language. Persian is the medium of
instruction in the country. Therefore, as Ellis (2008) noted, it can be argued that Azeri-Persian
bilinguals learn Persian in a natural setting in which Persian is used in different aspects of daily
life. As a result most of them learn Persian along with their mother tongue and become very
proficient in its use. Therefore, the similarity in the overall apology strategy preferences of native
Iranian EFL Journal
468
Persian speakers and Azeri-Persian bilinguals may be related to both the context of Iran and the
bilingual speakers’ level of proficiency in Persian.
The results also revealed that request for forgiveness (bebakhshid) as the most frequent
subcategory of IFID was used 106 times by these speakers (22.1%). Many studies have revealed
that the first language of learners plays an important role in their use of apology strategies in the
second language (Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984; Ellis, 2008). Most of the Persian IFIDs are used
in Azeri language, however, it seems that only requests for forgiveness which are realized as
‘bagishla/baghishlayin’ in Azeri, are native to it and the other IFIDs have been borrowed literally
from Persian and adapted to the phonetic system of this language (e.g. uzr istiram &
sharmandiyam). Since request for forgiveness is native to Azeri language it may be used more
frequently by Azeri speakers, and therefore the frequent use of this strategy by Azeri-Persian
bilinguals in Persian may be the result of its transfer from their first language. Furthermore, like
native Persian speakers, Azeri-Persian bilinguals employed expression of embarrassment
frequently in their responses. As was mentioned previously most of the Azeri-Persian bilinguals
are very proficient in the use of Persian, and this high level of proficiency may account for the
frequent use of expression of embarrassment similar to native speakers of Persian.
Finally the results revealed that intensifying expression with 96 times of occurrence (74.4%)
and expressing explicit concern for the hearer with 20 times of occurrence (15.5%) were
respectively the first and the second most frequent apology intensification strategies for AzeriPersian bilinguals. Moreover, adverbials with 76 times of occurrence were more frequent in the
category of intensifying expressions.
As these results show, the overall preferences of these speakers are very similar to native
Persian speakers. However there were some apparent differences in the frequency of individual
strategies in the responses of these groups of speakers. Azeri-Persian bilinguals used repetition 20
times (15.5%) which is equal in frequency with their use of expressing explicit concern for the
hearer. On the other hand, native Persian speakers used repetition 7 times (5.6%) which is much
less than the bilinguals’ use of this strategy. According to Ellis (2008, p. 185) “the learners’
attitudes about how apologies should be performed cross-linguistically” may affect their use of
this speech act in the second language. It seems that Azeri-Persian bilinguals regarded the use of
repetition as the norm in intensifying apologies in Persian and this perception resulted in their
frequent use of this intensification strategy.
Iranian EFL Journal
469
The third research question of the study tried to reveal whether there were any significant
differences between the apology (intensification) strategies of native Persian speakers and AzeriPersian bilinguals in Persian. Despite overall similarity in the general preferences of these groups
of speakers regarding their apology (intensification) strategies, there were noticeable differences
in the frequency of individual strategies in their responses. Two chi-square tests were employed to
test these differences. According to the results of data analysis there were statistically significant
differences in the use of apology

The Iranian EFL Journal June 2015 Volume 11 Issue 3 The Iranian

Transcription

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