WILLFUL VACILLATION BETWEEN OPPOSITIONS: ANTITHESIS

葉惡作品研究
179
WILLFUL VACILLATION BETWEEN OPPOSITIONS:
ANTITHESIS AND SYNTHESIS IN YEATS'S HOLISTIC VISION
Po
Fang
方珀
n.
The omnipresence of oppositions , sometimes in t e language
of
well-wrought
oxymorons and sometimes in the form of subtly counterbalanced ideas , is a distinctive
feature of Yeats's work. Th ere are traditional dichotomies , physical and spiritual , mortal
and immortal , subjective and objective; there is the opposition of the archetypal male to
archetypal female embodied in his poetry and plays; and there is a personal conflict between the alternatives of devotion to art and enjoyment of an active , fulfilled life. Somehow Yeats assimilates all these antithetical elements into a complex system of aesthetic
symbolism , making them counterbalance each other and also evince , through their synthesis , a higher , more comprehensive vision of reality.
This study will explore how Yeats's synthetic view corresponds to the holism of
scientific and metaphysical philosophy.
It will employ an inductive method , examining
first the sources of his philosophical view which affirms the coexistence of antithetical
principles , then the central iconograph of his systems of
andthe two interpenetrating
gyres一 -which
antitheses一一the
Great Wheel
symbolizes the progress of the universe
as a perpetual alternation of two opposing elements , and then his views of history , individual life , and dramatic ar t. The body of the study concentrates on how this holistic
view is revealed in his idea of “ unity of being," in his view of history as continuous alternative cycles of subjectivity and objectivity , and in his theory of drama as a perpetual
dialectic of opposites.
The later part of the study shows how Yeats uses his favorite
metaphor of the dancer to symbolize the joining of antitheses in a ritual , harmonious
dance.
The penultimate section demonstrates how Yeats's emphasis on organic unity
and single unifying image of a work of art is an important aspect of his holistic vision.
*
*
*
*
*
1ρndraville ， who clarified for me Yeat3's concept of “ vacillation ," his
emphasis on the coexistence of opposite principles, and his debt to Blake.
*1 am indebted to Dr. Richard
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教學與研究第九期
182
The fundamental symbol of Yeatslan myth , his iconograph, expresses this perpetual
movement between the opposing poles embodied at the center of all things. This symbol,
which he calls
“ the
single geometrical conception" (A Vision , 11) , is composed of two
elements: the Great Wheel with archetypes distributed around its rim , opposing pairs
facing each other, and a pair of interlocking cones or gyres (symbolizing the dance and
conflict of the opposites) superimposed upon the Wheel , thereby achieving the unified
image. This “ &eometrical" pattern is not a still, pictorial design. It s component elements,
like active molecules , are always in motion. Yeats imagines that the tension between the
opposites generates great energy and involves the two parts in a perpetual whirl. The two
conflicting elements that reside at the center of everything , like yin andyang, which
Yeats' refers to as
things ，'地 produce
“ those
two forms that whirl perpetually creating and re-creating all
dynamic and regenerating energy for action.
According to Yeats's symbolic system , the Great Wheel represents the twenty-eight
phases of the moon , which in turn symbolize the twenty-eight historical phases in the
Great Year 'or the whole course of an individual's life.
Each wheel is part of a greater
wheel so that' phase one of a cycle may be phase fifteen of a, n even greater cycle. Each
wheel unweaves back into time as soon as it completes one circle , as Yeats explains in
A Vision:
“ Each
age unwinds the thread another age had wound" (A Vision , 270). Thus
contrary phases exist simultaneously, one gyre allowing the penetration of an antithetical
gyre.
The system shows the potential harmony between the opposites, or, rather as
their co-existence indicates, the opposites remain unresolved in perpetual conflict.
Yeats's iconograph which places wheel within wheel within wheel implies endless
possibilities.
His comment on Blake's symbolism can be properly applied to his own
complex design:
All these complex symbols contain the others in miniature within them. All is
wi也in all , and everyone of the twenty 咽ven churches [Blake's symbols for
historical eras] contains the whole twenty-sevenfold symbols in miniature. Thus ,
too , this great circle of day and night contains also many days and nights , many
winters and many summers. 7
6.
7.
Yeats , Introduction to The Resurrection , in Wheels and Butterflies (New York: Macmillan , 1935),
95.
The Works of William Blake , ed. Edwin John Ellis and William Butler Yeats , 3 vols. (Iρndon:
Quaritch, 1983) , I, 308.
葉惡作品研究
183
With this single pattern Yeats attempts to epitomize and grasp the mystery of the universe:
to order the endless flux and reflux of the macrocosm in a single image , and to unite
harmony and conflict in the microcosmiG world of his mind.
The wheel expresses the ideal of Yeats's holistic metaphysics , which corresponds to
the holistic doctrine of “ all in one , and one in all. "8 With this “ vast single design" Yeats
attempts to unify and comprehend the whole range of knowledge about the universe as
well as the human world and thereby offers a key to the mystery of the universe. It is ,
therefore , a central image of his epistemology and a single unifying symbol which represents all types of existence and all possibilities of events. Yeats describes the law of
potentiality and entelechy in termsof “ God's Choice" (i n the form of any single wheel)
and “ God's Chance" (in the form of the multiplied conflicting wheels within wheels)9. In
a note to his “ Calvary ," Yeats explains this theory in the voice of an old Arab poet who
discusses these ideas with Michael Robarts:
Kusta ben Luki hastaught us to divide all things into Chance and Choice; one
can think abou~ 血e world and about man , or anything else until all has vanished
but these two things, for they 缸e 姐deed the first cause of the animate and
inanimate world. They exist in God , for if they did not He would not have freedom , He would be bound by His own Choice. In God alone , indeed , can they
be united , yet each be perfect and without limit or h姐drance. 10
Like Blake's Circle of Destiny which symbolizes all activities from birth to death ,
Yeats's Great Wheel indicates the movement of time in a cyclical pattern.
Since the
sun and the moon are traditionally associated with day and night and light and darkness ,
they make superb symbols for the antinomies' in the cosmic world. Yeats is interested in
astrology in its pristine state.
As he says in A Vision , It is always the “ simpler , more
symbolic form , with its conflict of light and dark , heat and cold , that concerns me most"
(A Vision , 246). More importantly , the changes of the moon signify for Yeats the progress
of the human soul as it moves from absorption in the objective world to subjective realiza-
s-.
9.
10.
Chinese Buddhism also emphasizes this metaphysical holism. The T' ien- t' ai Sect, for example ,
holds that all phenomenal elements are integrated, reaffirming the idea of "all in one , and one in
all." This theory demands one view things in their integrated unity or wholeness. The relationship of
the One Mind (Buddha) to the diverse phenomena (dharmas) is a fundamental concern of many
Chinese Buddhist schools.
For further explanation, see Hazard Adams , Blake and Yeats: The Contrary Vision (New York:
Russell & Russell , 1968), 216.
Yeats , Four Plays for Dancers (New York: Macmillan 1921) , 137-38.
教學與研究第九期
184
tion and back to absorption in the objective world again. He wrote in the introduction to
“ The Cat and the Moon":
Perhaps some early Christian. . . thought as I do , saw in the changes of the moon
all the cycles; the soul realizing its separate being in the full moon , then , as the
moon seems to approach the sun and dwindle away , all but realizing its absorption
in God , only to whirl away once more: the mind of man separating itself from
the common matr 鼠， thr6ugh childish imaginations , through struggle 一 then
Vico's heroic age--to ro~ndne眠 completeness， and then externalizing , intellectualizing , systematizing , until at last it lies dead , a spider smothered by its own
1.. 11
web
Yeats was interested in the Western tradition that associated the moon with man's soul ,
calling “ the increasing moon man's
personality，的 it
fills into the round and becomes
perfect , overthrowing the black night ofoblivion."12 Accordingly he defined the contrast
of the dark and full moon as that
“ between
subjectivity and objectivity , between self and
non-self, between waking life and dreamless sleep."13
Closely related to the image of the Great Wheel is the “ burning wheel of love ," which
appears in the 1906 revision of On
Baile 法 Strand，
and remains a central symbol of Yeats's
view of love. Yeats's concept of the conflict between love and hate is invested with the
bitterness of his personal experience. The 1903 version of the play was near completion
when the news of Maud Gonne's marriage reached him. As Reg Skene points out ,“Maud's
marriage brought Yeats to face some crucial problems of his life he had up
evaded."14
The immediate impact of this new perspective on his work is discernible in
the variations in the two versions of On
“ the
to now
Baile 法 Strand.
In the revised version , Yeats made
burning wheel of love" with its alternate sides of love and hate the central theme.
As suggested in the choral ode of the fire ritual , Cuchulain is under a spell that drives him
to pursue beautiful , indomitable women whose kisses make
taste ," and whose hands
“ shove
“ Hatred
. . . sweet to the
/ At the burning wheel of love / Till the side of hate
comes up" (V Plays , 497). Cuchulain's comment on his experience oflove is characterized
by sharp polarity , featuring the battle between sexes:
I I.
12.
13.
14.
Yeats , Wheels and Butterflies, 95.
Yeats , Preface to “ The Holy Mountain ," Essays 1931-1936 (Dublin: Cuala, 1937) , 114.
Yeats , Essays 1931-1936 , 114.
Reg Skene , The Cuchulain Plays of w. B. Yeats: A Study (New York: Columbia UP , 1974) , 38.
葉惡作品研究
.1 85
I never have known love but as a kiss
In the mid-battle , and a difficult truce
Of oil and water , candles and dark night ,
Hillside and hollow , the hot-footed sun
And the cold , sliding , slippery-footed moon-A brief forgiveness between opposites
That have been hatreds for three times the age
Ofthis long-'stabilished ground. (V. Plays , 489)
百Ie
imagery of sun and moon here carries on the metaphor of the wheel of love and hate.
The theme that love is often mixed with hatred reappears in At the Hawk's Well, a
play he published in 1917.
The Old Man , who has spent his whole life waiting for the
magic spring to flow , tells Cuchulain that their spiritual pursuit might put them under the
mercy of the same curse that
maybe
Never to win a woman's love and keep it;
Or always to mix hatred in the love;
Or it may be that she will kill your children ,
That you will find them , their throats torn and bloody ,
Or you will be so maddened that you kill them
With your own hand. (V. Plays , 407-08)
The few lines recapitulate the themes of Yeats's On Baile's Strand , Purgatory , and his two
plays about Oedipus , as well as Greek tragedies.
In a less bitter sense, the Great Wheel also symbolizes the perpetual conflict between
an archetypal male and female , and a cyclical view of history and the universe. Again we
can trace this idea back to Blake. In his lyric propecy “ The Mental Traveller ," Blake tells
the story of
0凹，
whose spirit is caught and nurtured by an old woman , a nature goddess.
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While Orc turns into the hoary Urizen , the woman slips backward into childhood and
constant conflict erupts between them. Later Urizen is reborn as Orc and thus begins again
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this story of the
“ A,"
“ struggle
perpetually repeated between a man and a woman" (A Vision ,
133 -34) , seeing it an archetypal metaphor for the endless renewal of the universe ,
which is composed of yin and yang, the male and female principles. He therefore called
it the myth of “ the perpetual return of the same thing" (A Vision , “ A," 134). In the
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葉惡作品研究
187
gyres in its upward and downward circling movements.
It is understandable , then , that Yt:; ats imagines his poetry as a microcosm , involving
both the male and female principles which are mutually indispensable for the creation of
all things. More significantly , poetry-writing itself is an act of creation , an expression of
something in the
“ deeps
of the mind ," or a manifestation of
use the words of Coleridge, it is the
creation in the infinite. I AM."16
“ repetition
“ment叫 phenomena."
To
in the finite mind of the eternal act of
In writing poetry , Yeats repeats with his “ conscious
will" the God-like act of creation. Yeats's own comment on Goethe's words r e- emphasizes
the significance of creation for a writer:
“ We
never learn to know ourselves by thought ,
said Goethe , but by action only; and to a writer creation is action." 17
*
*
*
*
*
The coexistence of antitheses constitutes a primary theme of Yeats's literary work
as well as an important part of his outlook on life. Brought into direct contact
with 也e
late nineteenth-century decadent millieu , Yeats was conscious of his role as poet in a world
of turbulence.
Personally acquainted with many of the poets of the late nineteenth
century--Wilde , Lionel Johnson , and Dowson , for exarnple--he was sympathetic with
their viewpoint but wondered whether the dramatic contradiction between their search
for purity in art and their lives of disorder and decadence was caused by the spirit of the
time or by their desire to
“ pursue
antithesis"
(Auto缸，
304).
Yeats incorporated this
concept of double personality , a common theme in many portraits of artist in literature of
the turn of the century , 18 into a theory of the anti-self and mask which becomes a predominant theme of his writing.
Yeats's idea of the maskmay be simply defined as a dramatic persona with an
opposite personality from one's sel f.
For a better understanding of the basis of this
theory , we may trace the idea back to his symbolic system. Regarding life as a constant
war of opposites , Yeats believes , as he postulates in A Vision , that each man's destiny is
worked out in the interaction between Will and Mask , Creative Mind and .Body of Fate.
He relates these “ Four Faculties" to the twenty-eight phases of the moon and explains
16. Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Biographia Literaria (New York: Everyman's LibrarY ,'1965) , 167.
17. Yeats , Samhain , No.7 制ov. '1908), 8.
18. John A. Lester , Jr. Journey Through Despair , 1880 一 1914: Transformations in British Literary
Culture (p rinceton , New Jersey: Princeton UP , 1963), 127-53.
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教學與研究第九期
190
an antithetical gyre , a more complete mask to complement his “ partial mind." Moreover ,
he believes that the projection of a personality contrary to our natural self may enrich
our character and experience and edify our soul , as he says in Estrangement:
. If we cannot imagine ourselves as different from what we are and assume the
second self, we cannot impose a discipline upon ourselves , though we may accept
one from others. Active virtue as distinguished from the passive acceptance of a
current code is therefore theatrical , consciously dramatic , the wearing of a mask.
It is the condition of arduous fulllife. (Autob. , 469)
This explains why Yeats was attracted to certain prominent figures
ranging from political leaders to artists and philosophers.
or intellectual quality missing in
himself，"的 James
“ Always
in society ,
it was some physical
Flannery points out ,“ that attracted
Yeats even when he disagreed with the man in specific aspects of his philosophy."21
Wh en Yeats later became acquainted with Wilde , he ,even went as far as imitating the
aesthete's pose , manner , gesture , and clothes , trying to live “ artistically" like the famous
(or perhaps notorious) artist. Yeats most admired the kind of man who enjoyed both a
rich inner life and a successful public career at the same
time 一一“someone
who had
achieved ," to use Flannery's words , “a measure of inner tranquility while exerting a
powerful public influence as an artist or man of affairs."22 The Irish patriot John O'Leary
represented such a type of man. So did William Morris , whose versatility as poet , painter ,
printer , mythologist , aesthete , and social reformer impressed Yeats greatly. More significant for Yeats , however , was Morris's ability to achieve a harmony among these various
careers and produce “ organization and beauty." In fact , Morris , his living "chief of men ,"
became one of the principal models by which Yeats transformed himself from an introspective dreamer into a man of action who enjoyed his role as a publicly influential man. 23
Here we notice an echo of Nietzsche , whose ideas gave Yeats's t!leory of the mask a
philosophical depth , especially in the emphasis of self-discipline required in order to live
up to one's ideal image of sel f.
Yeats
“ imposed"
a similar kind of “ discipline" upon his own writing. Aware of an
excess of “ soft aestheticism" and femininity of his work of the nineties , he sought to
2 1.
James Flannery , W. B. Yeats and the idea of a Theatre: The Early Abbey Theatre in Theory and
Haven and Lo ndon: Yale UP , 1976) , 10-1 1.
Flannery , 10.
Autob'iographies, 139-54. Cf. Yeats's tribute to Morris in Essays and introductions , 53-64 , 248.
Practice (N ew
22.
23.
葉惡作品研究
191
pursue a more masculine style so that he could bring the masculine and feminine qualities
of his own art into a unified balance.
lyricism in writing for the theater.
He found an antidote for his early effeminate
When he was extensively revising his plays in 1906
he wrote ,“every rewriting that has succeeded upon the stage has been an addition to the
masculine element , an increase of strength in the bony structure" (Exp l., 22). Defending
his diversion to the theater against his friends who were encouraging him to stick to his
lyric poetry , Yeats repli t; d:
to me drama. . . has been the search for more of manful energy , more of cheerful
acceptance of whatever arises out of the logic of events , and for clean outline ,
instead of those outlines of lyric poetry that are blurred with desire and vague
regre t. (V. Poems , 849)
In a reversed manner , Ye闊at臼s tried to counterbalance the overly masculine Irish culture
by introducing to his
蚯ind
k
∞
c ount甘ryfolk Pa
前te
叮r'冶s
more feminine cultural ideal:
produces the most perfect flowers in a few high-bred women. It gives to its sons
an exquisite delicacy"
(Auto缸，
477).
When Yeats was later earnestly involved in the
theater , he proposed to create an Irish theater by an image of the mask (rather than of
the mirror) , the mask of the antithetical self of modern Ireland. As Flannery observes:
“ In
play after play. . . he sought to rid Ireland of sentimentality , by challenging her , as
he challenged himself, with all that by nature he [sic] was no t. "24 In his own dramatic
work , he sought to rid Ireland of sentimentality by creating a new image of Ireland contrary to its tawdry , turbulent present.
Li kewise , Yeats proposed to complement Pater's more feminine cultural ideal with
the “ culture of the Renaissance ," which he characterized as masculine and .energetic. He
saw the contemporary culture as degenerated because it had lost what he called “ classical
morality ," a traditional , pre-Christian morality based on "certaiP1 heroic and religious
truths , passed on from age to age"
(Auto缸，
490).
According to Yeats , this classical
morality dominated the Western cultural tradition during the Renaissance and
“ passed
from Milton to Wordsworth and to Arnold , always grawing more formal and empty until
it became a vulgarity in our
Academicians"
(Auto缸，
time一六just
490).
as classical form passed on from Raphael to the
Consequently he saw the Decadent Movement , which
separated art from life , as an overreaction to a “ formal and empty" morality of the middle
24.
Flannery , 17.
教學與研究第九期
192
class.
He hoped , however , his masculine Renaissance
id 個I
would restore fundamental
human values to the arts and rejuvenate a decadent culture. As typical of Yeats , he saw
the oppositions of masculine and feminine qualities embodied in cultures and proposed a
true fusion of these antitheses into unified beauty and strength. As F. C. McGrath puts it:
In terms of Yeats' system of antitheses , his Paterian ideal represents lunar beau ty
while the more masculine Renaissance ideal represents solar beauty. Beyond
these ideal opposites , however , is the Yeatsian Unity of Being in which the opposites are fused. In striving for a masculine ideal he was striving for the opposite
mask ,“choosing whatever task's most difficult / Among tasks not impossible";
and out of this struggle would result not the rejection of the feminine ideal , but
its fusion with the masculine in unified beau ty ，哎， in terms of culture , an empty
feminine form rejuvenated by a masculine classical morality and both fused into
a new modern cultural unity. 25
Obviously Yeats keeps his theory of the anti-self in mind while creating dramatic
personae for his own work. Among the various characters Yeats presents in his plays and
poems , Cu chulain best exemplifies his idea of the mask.
Yeats makes him a kind of
Irish Achilles , a tragic hero who enjoys a glorious , adventurous life , and his was the mask
Yeats wore throughout his life to counterbalance his sedentary life as poet. He is almost
in every way the opposite of the poet. He is valiant , vital , and indomitable , always ready
to accept any challenge that life presents.
heroic , and romantic love.
Naturally he enjoys a kind of adventurous ,
To accentuate his heroism , Yeats creates another type of
character as an antithesis or a foi l.
In On
Baile 甘 Strand ，
Yeats makes High King Con-
chubar both his contrast and complement. As the hero is passionate , warm-hearted , and
valorous , Conchubar is cold , pragmatic , cunning , and treach e.z:ous. As Cuchulain is a man
of action and passion , Conchubar is a man of circumspection and reason. It is clear then
that Yeats means to make them a contrast of the “ hot sun" and the "coldmoon." Cuchulain is his own master , and will not be bound by other men's law or order; High King
Conchubar is -C oncerned with his social responsibility and takes steps to insure the stability
of his country and the continuity of his lineage. Different from each other as they are ,
each counterbalances the other to make him a more complete person. The sharp contrast
25.
F. C. McGrath,“Paterian Aesthetics in Yeats' Drama ，"詛 Drama in the Twentieth Century: Comparative and Critical Essays , ed. Clifford Davidi.on, C. J. Gianakaris , and John H. Stroupe (New
York: AMS Press , 1984) , 135.
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教學與研究第九期
194
in both of the spheres between which he vacillates. Instead of adopting Christian faith
which would eliminate doubts and set him free from the complexity of life and the necessary vacillation of an artist , Yeats chooses “ Homer. . . and his unchristened heart" for his
model. But even this decision is not final , as he says in his diary:
I am always , in all I do , driven to a moment which is the realisation of myself as
unique and free , or to a moment which is the surrender to God of all that I am.
Could those two 位1pulses ， one as much a part of truth as the other; be reconciled ,
or if one or the other could prevail , alllife would cease. (Diary , 19)
It is a continuous dialectical struggle between self-realization and self-surrender; and it is
through this constant vacillation between extremities that one regains renewed forces for
life.
One of Yeats's devices is to juxtapose different points of view , as in On Baile 's Strand ,
creating a series of fervent debates among different personae. Usually these personae are
distinct dramatic characters with unequivocal , strong-voiced points of view. This particular
technique enables the poet to express opposite ideas with passionate conviction without
falling into the obligation of making the metaphysical choice. Moreover , as Alex
Zwerdling points out , it permits Yeats to remain in suspended vacillation between two
contradictory views without making his poems vague , ambiguous , or confused. 26 Many
of his later poems , like “ A Dialogue of Self and Soul ,"“Michael Robartes and the Dancer;'
“ Ego
Dominus
Tuu丸"
employ this technique to postulate the relative value of two con-
tradictory pursuits.
One of the themes upon which Yeats expresses vacillation is the relative value of
active life versus philosophical contemplation.
In many poems , particularly the seven
lyrics that make up Meditations in Ti me of Civil War , Yeats ponders on the ultimate value
of contemplation: the worth of the isolated poet in his lonely tower when the world
around is threatened by turbulence and destruction. “ A Dialogue of Self and Soul ," on the
othe.r hand , contrasts the self's pursuit of a life of action against the sou l's spiritual quest.
The form of discourse allows the two
in仕insic
opponents一一the
Self and the
Soul一一to
ex plore the
value of each pursuit , and , at the same time , reinforces each opposing argument
by contrast. Hence the mind is allowed , like the wild swans at Coole , to wander in two
26.
Zwerdling , 83.
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教學與研究第九期
196
Child" tells the story of an immortal fairy snatches a “ human child" to her own world.
“ The
Two Kings" implies that man's mortality and the very fact that his happiness and
“ must
passion
end at the dumb stone" make his life more precious than the eternal life
that the gods enjoy. Here Edain tells her immortal husband , when he asks her to return to
the fairyland , that the very fact that the youth and passion of her mortallover will finally
pass away makes their love more cherished:
“. .. Never will I believe there is any change
Can blot out of my memory this life
Sweetened by death , but if I could believe ,
That were a double hunger in my lips
For what is doubly brie f." (C Poems , 436)
The idea that human life is “ sweetened by death" is echoed in the play The Only Jealousy
of Erner
(l別的.
There Cuchulain , the brave mortal hero , rejects the Woman of the Sidhe
for the human world. The Chorus comments:
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此
的話
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Here Yeats echoes a famous saying of his favorite poet, William Blake:
“ Eternity is in love
with the productions of time. "28
It is equally misleading , however , to suggest that Yeats values the human world more
highly than the spiritual one. In fact , he never emphasizes the one at the expense of the
othe r.
The point is not which to choose , but how to avoid the necessity of making an
exclusive choice between the two.
quotes from St. John of the
It
函，
Alex Zwerdling clearly argues this point when he
Cross一一
therefore , supreme ignorance for aI).y one to think that he can ever attain to
the high estate of union with God before he casts away from him the desire of
natural things 一
28.
Blake , 89.
葉茲作品研究
197
in order to show Yeats's “ important quarrel with the traditionally accepted idea" of the
antinomic system of Christianity. 29 Zwerdling concludes that Yeats's later poetry carries
on a fundamental pattern established early in his
career一一 the
"longing for the unattain-
able and scorning the easily attainable." The only difference is that the objectives have
been reversed:
“ In
youth it was abstraction , wisdom , philosophy which one longed for ,
In old age , on the other hand , the physical
because they seemed so difficult to reach.
vigor which has been so prodigally wasted in youth seems much more desirable than the
‘wisdom' which has come."30 The change is shown in the two poems about Byzantium.
In
“ Sailing
to Byzantium ," the poet wishes to abandon the physical world which is subject
to change and decay and sail to the world of “ monuments of unaging intellect." In
“ Byzantium ,"
the eternal world of art is also seen as the world of death and spiritual
purgation. At the end of the poem , the poet is called back to life with the conviction that
art should be nourished by life.
*
*
*
*
*
Vacillation is therefore a means of reaffirming the coexistence of two antithetical
principles by refusing to accept the necessity of commitment to either of them.
But
another way of resolving this dichotomy is to show the possibility of actual communication or fusion between the two elements. A favorite metaphor which Yeats uses to describe the intersection of opposites is that of sex. Yeats depicts the sexual experience as
a moment of ecstasy (he employs the ambiguous connotations of the word) that transforms one mode of existence into anothe r. The two opposite worlds could be that of the
mortal and the immortal , the physical and the spiritual , or the coarse and the refined. In
the poem “ Ribh Denounces Patrick ," eternal creation is seen as sexual reproduction of the
biological world:
Natural and supernatual with the self-same ring are wed. As man , as beast , as an
ephemeral fly begets , Godhead begets
Godhead.
(C Poems , 283)
Yeats's obscure play A Full Moon in March tells the story of a swineherd coming to woo
29.
30.
Zwerdling, 80.
Zwerdling , 88-89.
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199
on “ excess of love" of an ideal , that urged them to action , and defined their fervent action
as heroic. In the play The Death of Cuchulain , Yeats implies that the spirit of Cuchulain
inspired these young heroes' action:
Are those things that men adore and loathe
Their sole reality?
What stood in the Post Office
With Pearse and Connolly?
What comes out of the mountain
Where men first shed their blood?
Who thought Cuchulain till it seemed
He stood where they had stood? (V Plays , 1063)
Here Yeats suggests that man 's imagination is capable of creating an entire realm of reality.
And , as the last two lines indicate , when the thoughts are intense
enou帥，
like the heroic
dreams of the young men , they lead to action. Yeats suggests that their heroic exploit
has united their dream and action into one.
“The Circus Animals' Desertion" develops the same theme from a different perspec-
tive.
Iρoking
at his own work in retrospection later in his life , the poet reasserts that
though all the “ masterful images. . . / Grew inpure mind ," their origin is not only in the
actual world , but in the most downright physical part of it.
Though the "ladders" of
artistic creation elevate poetry and the enchanting dreams to the skies , they must inevitably start from the actual and physical
world一 -from
“ the foul rag-and-bone shop of
the heart" (C Poems , 336). The apparent dichotomy of the actual and the spiritual is seen
therefore as potential harmony , for it is in his real physical state that man “ embodies"
spiritual truth. It is. a harmony achieved not through exclusive selection , nor even so much
through reconciliation , but through the actual iq.tersection or “ marriage" of the opposites.
*
*
*
*
*
As has been mentioned , the conflict of opposites creates great tension and involves
the two parts into a perpetual whirl.
This circling movement joins the two antithetical
parties into a harmonious dance. Later in his career Yeats found dance a superb metaphor
for the unity of antitheses. Though Pater's theory of “ lyric unity" had helped Yeats to
develop , as McGrath demonstrates , a new dramatic aesthetic of greater unity ,32 he later
32.
McGrath, 125.
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時'It單單坦國宙草書
葉惡作品研究
universe.
201
Often the cyclical movement of the conflict is represented as a cosmic dance.
The poem
“ Rosa
dance of the
Alchemica" shows that the rhythm of human life corresponds to the
heavens一一the
alternation of the sun and the moon.
“ Under
the Round
Tower" describes this sun-moon conflict again as a dance. In the dream of the beggar ,
Billy Byrne , the conflict of the sun and moon is expressed in the imagery of lovers' dance:
That golden king and that wild lady
Sang till stars began to fade ,
Hands gripped in hands , toes close together ,
Hair spread on the wind they made;
That lady and that golden king
Could like a brace of blackbirds sing.
(C Poems , 135)
At other times Yeats presents dance as a ritual that joins the two antitheical parties
in a movement of harmony. Dance of this type symbolizes a union of the Self and the
Anti-Sel f . “ The Cat and the Moon" dramatizes the subtle correspondence between the
dance of a cat and the dance of the moon itsel f. Because the changing pupils of the cat's
eyes seem to reflect the waning and waxing of the moon , Yeats thinks of “ the cat as the
normal man and of the moon as the opposite he seeks perpetually. "35 The poem expresses
beautifully the moment when the Self and the Alter-ego are joining in a ritual dance:
“ When two close kindred meet , / What better than call a dance?" (C Poems , 164)
Around the year 1916 , Yeats was introduced to the Japanese Noh , and it was the
time when he began to think seriously of using dance as a proper mode of expression for
the theater. He was especially interested in the slow , attenuated , but intense movement of
the dance in the Noh drama because it exemplified a fine fusion of the time and space
arts. As Makoto Ueda explains:
[The] no , because of its emphasis on intuition ，叫 nimizes the elements of time
and movement; one little movement in a lengthy duration of time is made to
suggest a great deal. In other words , the no drama , primarily a time 訂 t ， is made
ωapproach the space arts. 36
35.
36.
Introduction to “ The Cat and the Moon ," Wheels and Butterflies , 124.
Makoto Veda , Zeami , Basho , Yeats , Pound: A Study in Japanese and English Poetics (Lo ndon
(Lo ndon and Paris: Mouton , 1965) , 28.
教學與研究第九期
202
The restrained , symbolic movements of the Noh dance express the inner conflict a charac-
ter feels or the antagonism he has toward the external world. The Noh plays dramatize
this conflict reflected in the “ deep of the
mind，"的 Veda
observes:
The no drama may be considered as an art which attempts to illuininate internal
and external reality reflected in the deepest depth of the mind's eye , a level of
reality which cannot be known through the ordinary sens的. The world of the no
is primarily that of the subconscious. 37
When the inner conflict grows more intense , it takes the form of dance because dance isa
direct and spontaneous expression of emotion.
The special convention of the Noh allows the subconscious to wander in a realm
outside reality so that two things normally contradictory to each other may co-exist like
the sun shining at midnight. 38 The antithetical elements build up great tension through
the play , and at the climax the major characters start to dance, because, as Veda observes,
“ dancing signifies the most intense form of man's psychical energy. "39
In that final dance ,
the contrary forces in the play are resolved in its rhythmical movement. 40 For the same
reason , Yeats often presents dances at crucial moments of his plays. The battles and duels
in his plays are actually dances which express the intense long-built conflicts while maintaining at the same time the ritual structure of the play.41
In At the Hawk's Well , the
Guardian of the Well starts to dance when the well of eternal life is about to bubble up.
Adventurous as he usually
函，
Cuchulain rises to chase the hawk-woman , but retires from
his fruitless pursuit only to find that he has lost both the woman and the water of immortality.
The chase itself is actually a dance which suggests , as Richard
points out,“a pas de deux ," or ‘ to state more
explicit旬，
Lοndravil1e
the joining of two opposing forces
in a rhythmical and counterpoising movement. “ There is a unity established ," Londravil1 e
37.
38.
39.
40.
Veda , 24-25.
Veda , 25.
Veda , 29-30.
See Earl Miner , The Japanese Tradition in British and American
Literu lU re (Princeton 、 N. J.: Prin1966) , 248.
Yeats wrote in 1910, regarding the antithetical nature of all things: “ I think that all noble things
are the result of warfare; great nations and classes , ofwarfare in the visibleworld , great poetry and
ceton 凹，
4 1.
philosophy, of invisible warfare, the division of the mind within itself, a victory, the sacrifice of a
man to himself." “ J. M. Synge and the Ireland of His Time," The Cutting of an Agate (London:
Macmillan , 1912) , 145-46.
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話也曾#草叢
教學與研究第九期
204
Ran out of my sight;
Though I had long perned in the gyre ,
Between my hatred and desire ,
I saw my freedom won
And all1augh in the sun. (C. Poems, 183)
At such a moment man is able to put aside inner conflict and become one with his true
Sel f.
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perfection of balance of a dance. Thus the dancing body, as well as the spinning mind ,
symbo liZ es a unified mental state achieved at the moment of illumination which discerns
the higher unity of all things.
The spinning-top therefore symbolizes for Yeats a philosophic equipoise between
motion and rest , an idea bearing a close resemblance to Pater's position in the first three
essays of Plato and Platonism. Both Pater and Yeats attempt to reconcile the motion and
rest of reality , to unifyHeraclitus' theory of “ eternal flux" and Plato's “ Doctrine of Rest"
into one. 43 Yeats's image of the spinning-top exemplifies such perfect balance一 -a balance
in which, as Engelberg observes, motion is checked by rest and rest animated by motion. 44
“ Th e
Double Vision" is' set at a crucial moment analogous to that of annunciation ,
foretelling the arrival of a new era and the decline of the old one. As Yeats originally
presented the third stanza of the poem in the first edition of A Vision , he intended to use
it to illustrate the last phase of the Christian cycle:
Constrained , arraigned , baffled , bent and unbent
By these wire-jointed jaws and limbs of wood ,
Themselves obedient ,
Knowing not evil and good; (C Poems, 167)
Yeats commented on the lines: “ Then with the last gyre must come a desire to be ruled
or rather , seeing that desire is all but dead , an adoration of force spiritual or physical , and
society as mechanical force be complete at last" (A Vision , “ A ," 213).
The Resurrection (1931) describes the same kind of dance that symbolizes the turbu-
lence at the transition point between two antithetical cycles. Here the spinning circle has
just lost its delicate balance, and the new era is getting control over the fading one. The
43.
44.
See Engelberg , 180-204.
Engelberg, 185.
葉惡作品研阱
205
dance of the followers of Dionysus in the play does not take place on the stage, but is
described by the Hebrew to the Greek (V Plays, 926). The play is set at the time when
the subjective Dionysian cycle is being replaced by the objective Christian millennium.
It is significant that the worshipers of Dionysus should dance silently and off-stage, for
they adore a god who is now losing his power and gradually fading away.
“ Among
the School Children" demands a more detailed discussion here since it
exemplifies the important role of synthesis in Yeats's aesthetic theory , which is so often
noted for its emphasis on polarity and antithesis.
Yeats's synthetic vision that unifies
disparate elements into an coherent entity is made clear in the final rhetorical questions of
the poem:
o Chestnut-tree , great-rooted blossomer,
Ar e you the leaf, the blossom or the bole?
o body swayed to music, 0 brightening glance,
How can we know the dancer from the dance?
(C Poems , 214)
Here Yeats demonstrates how different parts or disparate elements are unified into an
organic whole in a thing as natural as the tree or the human body. The leaf, the blossom ,
and the bole are all the indispensable parts of the tree, which both prescribes a particular
form for the parts and relates and unites them into an organic whole. Therefore the ideal
world of form intersects , or , more
appropriate旬，
intermingles with the actual world of
the particular, and the two are almost indistinguishable.
We cannot “ know the dancer
from the dance" because they are inseparable. The dance functions as a ritual that unifies
the antithetical
elements一 -body
and soul, intellect and
emotion一一into
a rhythmical
and harmonious movemen t. Another synthesis in the poem is implied in its unified vision
of reality that sees both the actual and the ideal , the form and the tree , and the dance
and the dancer.
It is a synthesis of the Platonic vision of nature as mere appearance
(“ spume"), veiling the spiritual and ideal reality, and an Aristotelian perspective of nature
as embodiment of reality.
*
*
*
*
*
Yeats's synthetic theory corresponds to some fundamental ideas of modern holistic
thinking.
Holism
(from 位λ0<; =
whole) is a scientific and metaphysical philosophy first
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教學與研究第九期
208
to Being, which necessarily has one or the other or both. "so Thus Plotinus~ idea of Being,
like Yeats's metaphor of the dance , unites motion and rest , and time and space. According
to Plotinus , this Unity is achieved by virtue of “ number" and measurement , or by proportioning , through careful calculation , disparate parts into adequate symmetry. He considers
this principle the prerequisite of a work of art , or what he calls
“ Ideal
Form" in The
Ethical Treatises:
All shapelessness whose kind admits of pattern and form. . . is ugly . . .;
an ugly thing is something that has not been entirely mastered by pattern. .
But where the Ideal-Form has entered , it has grouped and co-ordinated what
from a diversity of parts was to become a unity: it has rallied confusion into
co-operation: it has made the sum one harmonious coherence. . . .
And on what has thus been compacted to unity , Beauty enthrones itself,
giving itself to the parts as to the sumY
Yeats endorses Plotinus' premise of organic unity. He believes that an artist should try to
commingle disparate elements and shape them into a unified
“ pattern ,"
so that the final
effect is not simply a sum of all parts but “ one harmonious coherence." Thus a successful
work of art signifies for Yeats , as well as for Plotinus , the triumph of a single unified
object over chaos and discored. s 2 He commends the accomplishment of the anonymous
artificers of Byzantium who collectively create a single unifying image of their culture:
The painter , the mosaic worker , the worker in gold and silver , the illuminator of
sacred books , were almost impersonal , almost perhaps without the consciousness
of individual design , absorbed in their subject-matter and that [sic] the vision of
a whole people. They could copy 'out of old Gospel books those pictures that
seemed as sacred as the text , and yet weave all into a vast design , the work of
many that seemed the work of one , that made building , picture , pattern , metalwork of rail and lamp , seem but a single image. . . (A Vision , 279-80)
Th is passage is one of Yeats's most explicit statements of the organic unity between the
parts and the whole. Th e Byzantine craftsmen impress him because , in spite of the selfsufficiency of their individual w.orks , collectively they form a vast unifying design. Yet it
is typical of Yeats that his emphasis on the whole does not lessen the intrinsic value of
50.
5 1.
Plotinus , On the One and the Good , 143.
Plotinus , The Ethical Treatises , tr. Stephen Mackenna (Lo ndon: Warner , 1917) , 80.
葉茲作品研究
209
the individual; rather , individual talents are made more distinctive by their incorporation
into a larger pattern.
In certain aspects , Yeats's synthetic vision parallels Pater's idea of
“ lyric
unity."
In the same essay quoted earlier , McGrath proposes that Yeats's emphasis of organic
unity , which is shown in the reinforced intensity of his dramatic work , is an “ expansion
and refinement of a somewhat vague notion of lyricism into a more precise and profoundly
Paterian concept of 抄ric unity". 5 3
It is the unity of lyric poetry which Pater would
substitute for the old Aristotelian unities because it preserves ,“in spite of complex structure ," a perfect
“ unity
of impression ," the
“ unity
of a single passionate ejaculation. "5 4
In the concluding passage of “ Shakespeare's English Kings ," Pater reemphasizes this lyric
unity:
It follows that a play attains artistic perfection just in proportion as it approaches
that unity of lyrical effect ，的 if a song or ballad were stilllying at the root of 祉，
all the various expression of the conflict of character and circumstance falling at
last into the compass of a single melody , or musical theme. As historically , the
earliest classic drama arose out of the chorus , from which this or that person , this
or that episode , detached itself, so , into the unity of a choric song the perfect
drama ever tends to return , its intellectual scope deepened , complicated, enlarged ,
but st血 with an unmistakable singleness , or identity , in its impression on the
mind. Just there , in that vivid single impression left on the mind when all is over ,
not in any mechanical limitation of t的1e and place , is the secret of the “ unities"
一一the true imaginative unity 一一 of the drama. 55
This "true imaginative unity of the drama" can be applied to many of Yeats's plays which
tend to" [fall] at last into the compass of a single melody" of the choric song , though
Yeats made no explicit mention of this passage. The concluding choric songs of Yeats's
plays deepen , complicate , and enlarge the “ intellectual scope" explored and unify the
whole play with a “ vivid single impression" on the mind.
It is obvious that Yeats's attempt to keep antithetical elements in an unresolved
dialectic and his desire to achieve an organic unity for his work create an intense conflict.
Yet Yeats somehow manages to solve this paradox. The antithetical forces in his plays
52.
53.
54.
..i
s.
See Engelberg , 200.
McGrath , 125.
Pater , Appreciations (Lo ndon: Macmillan , 1910) , 203 .
Pater , Appreciations , 203-04.
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oftruth: they are both antagonistic and complementary to each othe r. His efforts to keep
a perpetual dialectical struggle between opposites create successfully great intensity and
complexity in his work , but his artist's concern for organic coherence enables him to bring
this complexity into simple unity.
What Yeats enjoys most is seeing the two antithetical elements join in a ritual dance.
The dance itself is a manifestation of the tension or energy engendered by the conflict
between opposites, but in its rhythmical movement the conflict of 'antinomy is resolved.
The ritual dance therefore symbolizes the joining of the contrary elements as counterbalancing forces.
There is a moment when the whirling circle turns into an equipoise
between motion and res t. It is a moment when the spinning mind , like the dancing body
that reaches the perfection of balance , achieves a moment of illumination which discerns
the higher unity of all things. At such a moment Becoming and Being, and the Heraclitusian theory of “ eternal flux" and the PIatonic “ Doctrine of Rest," are one.
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