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The Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project
THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME I By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME I By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague With contributions by Tad E. Allred February 1999 Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME I Management Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………... Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 1. Introduction vi vii viii …………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter 2. Project Background …………………………………………………………………………………. Environmental Setting …………………………………………………………………………………………. Cultural Setting ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Previous Yosemite Archeological Work ……………………………………………………………………. Previous Ackerson Area Archeological Work ……………………………………………………………… Ethnographic Setting ………………………………………………………………………………………… Central and Southern Sierra Miwok ……………………………………………………………………... Northern Paiute …………………………………………………………………………………………... Historical Overview of Yosemite ………………………………………………………………………….. Ackerson Area Historical Contexts ………………………………………………………………………….. Great Sierra Wagon Road ………………………………………………………………………………... Hetch Hetchy and the City and County of San Francisco ……………………………………………….. Miguel Meadow …………………………………………………………………………………………. Smith Meadow …………………………………………………………………………………………. Golden Rock Ditch ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 5 5 6 6 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 13 19 19 19 Chapter 3. Project Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………… BAER Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………………………. General Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………… 21 21 21 Chapter 4. Methods ………………………………………………………………………………………………. Pre-field Research ………………………………………………………………………………………………. Field Methods ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Site Recording ………………………………………………………………………………………………. Fire Effects Documentation ………………………………………………………………………………... Laboratory Methods ……………………………………………………………………………………………. Analytical Methods ……………………………………………………………………………………………. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………... Obsidian Hydration Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………... 23 23 23 23 23 24 25 25 25 25 Chapter 5. Site Descriptions …………………………………………………………………………………….. North Rim of the Tuolumne River ……………………………………………………………………….. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H ……………………………………………………………………………………… CA-TUO-86/87/H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-88 ……..……………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-89 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-102 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3963H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3972H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3973H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3974/H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3975H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3976 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 27 30 30 31 32 33 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 i CA-TUO-3977 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3978 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3979H ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3980 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3981H ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3985 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3990 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3991 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3992 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3993 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... P-55-4604 …………………………………………………………………………………………….…... P-55-4605 …………………………………………………………………………………………….…... P-55-4606 …………………………………………………………………………………………….…... Tuolumne River …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-61/62 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-516 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3986 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3987 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3988 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3994 ……………………………………………………………………………………………... P-55-4602 …………………………………………………………………………………………….……. South Rim of the Tuolumne River ……………………………………………………………………….. CA-TUO-214 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-515 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-929 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-1594 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3995 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3996H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3997 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3998 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4002 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4003 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4004 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4005 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4006/H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4009 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4010H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-4011H ……………………………………………………………………………………………. P-55-4603 ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Cottonwood Creek Drainage CA-TUO-226/H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-227 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-228 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-229 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-230/231 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-232 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-233 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-234/H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-1751H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3982 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3983 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3984 …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-3999H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-4000/H …………………………………………………………………………………………... Ackerson Meadow …………………………………………………………………………………………. CA-TUO-3509H …………………………………………………………………………………………... CA-TUO-4001 …………………………………………………………………………………………... ii 37 37 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 43 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 47 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 54 54 55 56 56 57 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 62 62 CA-TUO-4008 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-4012 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-4013 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-4014 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Aspen Valley ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-517 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-518 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-519 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-520/H ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-521 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-3989H ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-4028H ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Harden Lake ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-28/H ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-207 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-208 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-209 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-210 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Kibbie Ridge ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-3971 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. CA-TUO-4007 ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….. Prehistoric Sites ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Historical Sites ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. 62 63 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 66 67 67 68 68 69 70 70 70 71 71 72 72 72 74 Chapter 6. Artifact Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………….. Historical Material ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Prehistoric Material ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Classifiable Projectile Points ………………………………………………………………………………... Desert Series ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Rosegate Series …………………………………………………………………………………………... Elko Series ………………………………………………………………………………………….……. Concave Base ………………………………………………………………………………………….… Sierra Triangular …………………………………………………………………………………………. Contracting Stem …………………………………………………………………………………. Pinto Sloping Shoulder …………………………………………………………………………………... Large Side-notched …………………………………………………………………………………… Large Corner-notched …………………………………………………………………………………… Unidentifiable ……………………………………………………………………………………………. Unclassifiable Bifaces and Fragments ………………………………………………………………………. Drills ………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… Edge-modified Piece ……………………………………………………………………………………….. Debitage ………………………………………………………………………………………….………….. Hammerstone ………………………………………………………………………………………….……. Shaft Smoother ………………………………………………………………………………………….…… Obsidian Studies Summary …………………………………………………………………………………….. Obsidian Sourcing …………………………………………………………………………………………. Obsidian Hydration …………………………………………………………………………………………. 75 75 75 75 77 80 83 83 85 85 85 85 86 88 88 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 93 Chapter 7. Fire, Fire Suppression, and Post-fire Effects ……………………………………………………... Types of Fire Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………... Direct Fire Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………... Fire Suppression Effects …………………………………………………………………………………….. Post-fire Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………….….. Fire Damage and Threat Assessment Methods ………………………………………………………………… Results ………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….. Direct Fire Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………... 97 97 97 98 99 100 101 101 iii Historical Sites …………………………………………………………………………………………. Prehistoric Sites …………………………………………………………………………………………. Fire Suppression Damages …………………………………………………………………………………. Post-fire Effects and Threats ………………………………………………………………………………... Fire Damage Assessment Recommendations ……………………………………………………………….. Rehabilitation and/or Monitoring ………………………………………………………………………. Monitoring ……………………………………………………………………………….………………. Summary and Recommendations for ……………………………………………………………………... Future Fire-related Archeological Work 101 110 112 113 114 114 114 115 Chapter 8. Project Summary and Preliminary ……………………………………………………………….. Management Recommendations Project Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………... Prehistoric Sites ……………………………………………………………………………………………... Historical Sites ……………………………………………………………………………………………... Threats and Disturbances …………………………………………………………………………………… Preliminary Management Recommendations …………………………………………………………………. Integrity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………... Research Context …………………………………………………………………………………………... Research Potential …………………………………………………………………………………………... Study Needs …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Recommended Treatment ……………………………………………………………………………………… Recommendations for Future Work …………………………………………………………………………….. 117 References Cited 130 ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 117 117 118 118 119 120 123 124 126 127 127 APPENDICES Appendix A. Post-fire Assessment Form Appendix B. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis and Obsidian Hydration Analysis of Artifact Obsidian from Yosemite National Park by Tad E. Allred Appendix C. Report on Lake Eleanor Road (CA-TUO-3963H) Recording and Preliminary Evaluation by Suzanna Montague Appendix D. Summary of Milling Feature Data LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project vicinity map …………………………………………………………………………………….. Figure 2. Historic photos of the tram terminus at Gravel Pit ……………………………………………………... Lake in 1936 Figure 3. Historic photos showing development of …………………………………………………………….. Gravel Pit Lake in 1937 Figure 4. Survey coverage map (oversize, back cover) ………………………………………………………. Figure 5. Mortar depths by frequency ……………………………………………………………………….. Figure 6. Desert series projectile points ……………………………………………………………………….. Figure 7. Rosegate series projectile points ……………………………………………………………………….. Figure 8. Large projectile points ……………………………………………………………………….. Figure 9. Large Side-notched, Large Corner-notched and ………………………………………………………. unidentifiable projectile points Figure 10. Unclassifiable bifaces and drills ……………………………………………………………………….. Figure 11. Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills obsidian sources ………………………………………………………. by frequency and OH value iv 2 17 18 74 78 81 84 87 90 94 Figure 12. Photos showing an aerial tramway tower (Feature 6, CATUO-3973) burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire Figure 13. Photos showing the Smith Cabin remains (Feature 1, CATUO-234/H) burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire …………………………………………. 108 …………………………………………. 109 Table 1. Moratto’s (1996) Proposed Cultural Chronology for ………………………………………………….. Yosemite National Park Table 2. Summary of Site Data ………………………………………………….. Table 3. Frequency of Sites per Number of Milling Features ………………………………………………….. Table 4. Summary Data for Classifiable Projectile Points ………………………………………………….. Table 5. Summary Data for Unclassifiable Bifaces and Drills ………………………………………………….. Table 6. Geochemical Source Ascription of Obsidian Artifacts by ……………………………………………... Type Table 7. Obsidian Hydration Values by Artifact Type and Source ……………………………………………... Table 8. Fire Intensity Definitions …………………………………………….………………………………….. Table 9. Summary of Fire Effects and Recommendations …………………………………………….………… Table 10. Summary Fire Effects Data for Analyzed …………………………………………….………………... Obsidian Artifacts Table 11. Summary of Site-specific …………………………………………….…………………………. Management Recommendations 7 LIST OF TABLES VOLUME II Site records: CA-TUO-23/80/148/H through CA-TUO-3963H Site and isolate location map (back cover) VOLUME III Site records: CA-TUO-3971 through CA-TUO-4028H; Isolates P-55-4602 through P-55-4606 v 28 73 76 89 92 95 100 102 111 120 MANAGEMENT SUMMARY Project Title: Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project Archeological Project Designation: YOSE 1996Q and YOSE 1997I Funding: Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation Funding (primary funding source); Operation of the National Park System Funding Project Implementation: Yosemite Archeology Office Project Archeologists: Timothy M. Keefe and Bruce M. Kahl Project Type: Site recording and post-fire site conditions documentation Fieldwork Dates: YOSE 1996Q: October 31 – November 27, 1996 YOSE 1997I: July 8 – October 30, 1997 Person-Days Expended During Fieldwork: 1996: 41 person-days 1997: 224 person-days Surveyed Area: 1,300 ha (3,212 ac) No. Sites Documented: 77 (36 redocumented sites and 41 previously unrecorded sites) No. Artifacts Recovered: 90 Artifact Accession Information: Yosemite Collections: Site/Isolate Acc. No. Isolates 6225 CA-TUO-28/H 6226 CA-TUO-86/87/H 6227 CA-TUO-207 6228 CA-TUO-210 6229 CA-TUO-226/H 6230 CA-TUO-228 6231 CA-TUO-230/231 6387 CA-TUO-232 6232 CA-TUO-233 6233 CA-TUO-234/H 6234 CA-TUO-520/H 6235 CA-TUO-521 6236 CA-TUO-3977 6237 CA-TUO-3980 6238 CA-TUO-3984 6239 CA-TUO-3988 6240 CA-TUO-3991 6241 CA-TUO-3994 6242 CA-TUO-3995 6243 CA-TUO-3997 6244 CA-TUO-4002 6245 CA-TUO-4003 6246 CA-TUO-4013 6247 vi Cat. No. 98300-98301 98302-98304 98305-98306 98307-98310 98311-98315 98316-98324 98325-98332 102628 98333-98337 98338 98339-98340 98341 98342 98343-98344 98345-98346 98347 98348-98356 98357-98359 98360-98365 98366-98372 98373-98375 98376-98385 98386 98387-98388 ABSTRACT The Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project involved recordation and post-fire conditions assessments of 77 archeological sites within the Ackerson Complex Fire perimeter. The fire burned 24,123 ha (59,606 ac) on Forest Service, National Park Service, and private lands. More than 19,020 ha (47,000 ac) burned within the northwestern area of Yosemite National Park. Fieldwork resulted in the documentation of 36 previously recorded sites, 41 previously unrecorded sites, and five isolated artifacts and features. Additionally, surveyed land totaled 1,300 ha (3,212 ac). Of the 77 sites, 54 are prehistoric, 14 are historical, and nine contain both prehistoric and historic-period components. All sites are located in the Tuolumne River watershed, ranging in elevation from 1,036 m (3,400 ft) in the Poopenaut Valley to 2,286 m (7,500 ft) at Harden Lake. The prehistoric site constituents include numerous artifacts and feature types, although obsidian debitage and stationary milling features occur most frequently. Rock circles, housepits, midden soils, flaked stone tools, and ground stone tools comprise additional recorded cultural materials. Based on limited chronological information from obsidian hydration analysis and temporally diagnostic artifacts, the prehistoric sites span at least the past 3,000 years of time. Obsidian hydration analysis of 69 artifacts resulted in a hydration range of 0.89 to 6.48 microns, although most rims measured between 1.3 and 4.1 microns. Geochemical source analysis of the same artifacts indicated that obsidian from the Bodie Hills source predominates in the project area. Other eastern Sierra sources represented in the tool collection included Casa Diablo, Mt. Hicks, and Mono Craters. Analysis also revealed one unexpected occurrence of Napa Valley obsidian from California’s North Coast Ranges. The historical site constituents include cabin/structure remains, debris scatters, logging camp remains, water conveyance ditches, roads, trails, rock cairns, structure flats, retaining walls, worker camps, aerial tramway remains, and industrial machinery remains. These sites represent use of the area for the past 135 years for livestock grazing, homesteading, logging, water conveyance and road construction for mining, development of the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir System for the City and County of San Francisco’s domestic water and power supply, blister rust abatement and fire control by the Civilian Conservation Corps and National Park Service, and tourism. Post-fire conditions assessments indicate that many sites sustained minor to moderate damage from direct fire effects and fire suppression activities, and that future hydrological threats appear to be relatively minor. However, the study focused on general surface observations while recognizing that the specific effects of fire on certain artifacts and features in Yosemite remain to be researched. Additionally, many sites were previously undocumented or not recorded to current standards, resulting in an incomplete assessment of damages. Fire-related recommendations include treatment for three sites, rehabilitation and monitoring for seven sites, monitoring for 16 sites, and no action for 51 sites. Despite fire-related effects, it is estimated that most sites retain integrity and the potential to contribute information important to understanding Yosemite’s history and prehistory. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people contributed to the successful completion of this work, as with any archeological project. Immediately after the fire was contained, Yosemite archeologists Jane Caputo, Paul DePascale, Steve Jenevein, and John Vittands began recording sites with assistance from Grand Canyon National Park Archeologist Melissa Shroeder and Sequoia National Forest Archeologist Bill Matthews. The bulk of the fieldwork, however, was completed in 1997 by crewmembers Robyn Watkins and Forrest Nelson, who spent months in the field in sometimes adverse conditions. A few people assisted the fieldwork and other elements of the project by sharing their knowledge. Notably, Park Historian Jim Snyder’s Wilderness Historic Resources Survey and his in-depth knowledge of park history were invaluable resources. Jack Knierieman, a long-time Yosemite employee with a great deal of interest in archeology, has documented many sites in the backcountry and very generously shared his notes with us. Aspen Valley residents also spoke with field crew about sites and history of the area. We are grateful to Jose Lopez of the Yosemite trail crew for pointing out sites to us, for avoiding damage to them during trail work, and especially for looking out for our safety in the arena of potentially explosive artifacts. Forrest and Robyn were instrumental in completing and assembling the site records. Both entered site information into various databases, while Robyn also organized and scanned photos, calculated UTM coordinates, helped make site location maps, and typed photo logs. Ron Beckwith of the Western Archeological and Conservation Center autocad drafted more than 200 feature and site maps. Bonnie Lamont Stevens, archivist at the Hetch Hetchy Water and Power Archives, Moccasin, and Linda Eade at the Yosemite Research Library assisted with historical background research. Leroy Radanovich photographed the artifacts under contract. Several Yosemite archeologists–Laura Kirn, John Vittands, Linn Gassaway, and Corey Allen–provided input on the draft report. Jim Snyder, Dames & Moore Archeologist Kathleen Hull, and NPS Regional Archeologist Roger Kelly submitted comments as well. Jim and Kathleen’s long-standing interest in Yosemite Archeology and their willingness to take time from busy schedules to review reports are much appreciated. Without the help of numerous other people, the project could not have been completed. Park Archeologist Laura Kirn secured funding to complete the project and graciously waited and waited and waited for us to finish the thing. Laura also provided perspective on the big picture of fire and archeology. Charisse Sydoriak, Chief of Resources at Bandelier National Park, gave us guidelines for completing the site damage assessments, a necessary tool for this project. Not to be forgotten, Yosemite Ranger Charlie Fullam regaled us with homemade bread and the incredible history of Lake Eleanor and the Hetch Hetchy system during our stay at the Ranger Station. Likewise, the Yosemite trail crew welcomed us to share the Hetch Hetchy dormitory and the efforts of their cook. We value all of these efforts, but we take credit for all mistakes in the report. TK, BK, and SM Yosemite Research Center, 1999 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This report describes the Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project (YOSE 1996Q and 1997I), conducted within the area burned during the Ackerson Complex Fire in Yosemite National Park (Figure 1). It provides detailed information on project setting; field, laboratory, and analytical methods; survey results; artifact analysis; fire effects on archeological sites; and recommendations for future management. The project was carried out as a result of recommendations presented in the Ackerson Complex Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) Plan (Johnson and Fritzke 1996). The BAER plan documented fire-related damages to Yosemite’s resources and infrastructure, provided prescriptions for post-fire rehabilitation and mitigation, and detailed funding requests. Between August 14 and September 13, 1996, the Ackerson Complex Fire burned 24,123 ha (59,606 ac): 19,116 ha (47,234 ac) in Yosemite National Park; 4,489 ha (11,092 ac) in the Stanislaus National Forest; and 518 ha (1,280 ac) on private lands. The fire perimeter measured 129 km (80 miles) in length. Within the park, fire suppression efforts involved 71 km (44 miles) of handline, 125 m (410 ft) of dozerline, 5.5 km (3.4 miles) of trails used as holding lines, 0.8 km (0.5 mile) of wilderness road used as holding line, 16 km (10 miles) of wilderness road used for crew transportation and logistical support, and a total of 2.4 ha (6 ac) of impacted areas used for spike camps, helispots, pump stations, drop points, and pullouts. The fire burned with varying degrees of intensity, resulting in a mosaic of burned and unburned areas. Forest Service and National Park Service (NPS) BAER teams mapped 16,461 ha (40,675 ac, 86 percent) low intensity burn, 619 ha (1,529 acres, 3 percent) moderate intensity burn, and 2,017 ha (4,984 ac, 11 percent) high intensity burn based on soil and watershed conditions. Archeological efforts during the Ackerson Complex Fire focused on avoiding damages to sites as fire suppression activities were conducted. To the extent possible, archeologists surveyed all handlines, dozerlines, and other suppression areas prior to ground disturbance. The general lack of survey data hampered archeological work; approximately 95 percent of the burned area within Yosemite had not been formally inventoried for cultural resources and most known sites were not recorded to current standards. Additionally, the archeological crew observed numerous previously unknown sites and considered it likely that many others were present throughout the burned area. Taking these factors into account, the cultural resources section of the BAER report regarded as major issues possible impacts to known and unknown historical and prehistoric resources from the fire, fire suppression activities, and proposed rehabilitation activities (Johnson and Fritzke 1996:105). To address these issues, BAER fire funding provided for the following objectives as part of the archeological project (Johnson and Fritzke 1996:111): 1) Document the effects of fire, fire suppression, and rehabilitation to known sites in the areas impacted by fire. Initiate monitoring of impacts which may result in long-term data loss or alteration. 2) Identify, prescribe, and conduct stabilization or protection of significant cultural resources affected by fire, postfire, or fire suppression activities. Identify and treat resources with known effects requiring immediate preservation. 3) Record the Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor road/trail as a linear historical resource. 4) Update existing records for the Old Tioga Road (Great Sierra Wagon Road). 5) Conduct a survey of all fire suppression impacts located within the Kibbie section of the Ackerson Fire for cultural resources, documenting their condition and prescribing any stabilization and protection measures. 6) Survey all areas for cultural resources where fire mop-up activities took place, documenting their condition and prescribing any stabilization and protection measures. 7) Revisit all documented cultural resources affected by the fire after the first winter season to look for exposed artifacts and features covered by the heavy ash layer. Although a formal survey of the burned area was not funded as part of the archeological project, the Park Archeologist, in consultation with NPS Fire Program Planning Manager, Steve Botti, directed the crew to document to current standards any previously unrecorded sites encountered in the course of fieldwork, and record fire or fire-related impacts to the sites. The NPS also allocated funding to conduct excavations at CA-TUO-4031H, the location 1 Figure 1. Project vicinity map. of the historic Hodgdon Cabin, as mitigation for impacts caused by fire suppression activities. Results of that work are reported in a separate document. A Yosemite Archeology Office crew completed fieldwork during the fall of 1996 and summer/fall of 1997. Bruce Kahl and Timothy Keefe led the project under the supervision of Staff Archeologist, Suzanna Montague, and Park Archeologist, Laura Kirn. The NPS consulted with the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc., during the fire and as fieldwork and laboratory analysis were underway. The NPS also notified the Tuolumne Me-wuk Tribal Council of events during the fire. 2 Fieldwork resulted in the documentation of 36 previously recorded sites, 41 previously unrecorded archeological sites, and five isolated artifacts and features. Of the 77 sites, 54 are prehistoric, 14 are historic, and nine contain both prehistoric and historic components. Forms used to assess fire-related damages at each site were adapted from the Draft Policy & Implementation Handbook for Cultural Resource Site Condition Assessment and Treatment Process (Department of the Interior [DOI] 1996). In addition to site recordation, the crew surveyed 1,300 ha (3,212 ac) along routes to known sites and in the areas surrounding sites. The archeological project provided information necessary for compliance with Sections 106 and 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) and federal regulations and guidelines pertinent to cultural resources protection (36 CFR Part 800, NPS 28 [NPS 1997a]). Briefly, Section 106 requires federal agencies to take into consideration the effects of any undertakings on cultural resources, while Section 110 requires federal agencies to inventory cultural resources on their holdings. Furthermore, NPS cultural resource guidelines (NPS 1997a) specify that site conditions be monitored as part of a resource management program. As part of Section 106 compliance, the NPS initiated verbal consultations with the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) as the scope of the fire became apparent. Suppression activities and post-fire rehabilitation measures were considered undertakings subject to procedures outlined in 36 CFR Part 800. As such, the NPS attempted to avoid effects to cultural resources through inventory of proposed suppression and rehabilitation areas and protection of any sites in the Area of Potential Effect. With the emergency nature of the fire and the threats to life and property, however, suppression activities resulted in some impacts to cultural resources. This report incorporates the results of the initial inventory work (in addition to the post-fire damage assessments) and lays the groundwork for compliance with NHPA. It does not, however, constitute the final compliance documentation for fire-related work. Data gathered through the current survey, recording, and fire-damage assessment provide the NPS with descriptive and locational information on cultural resources within the project area. These data also permit preliminary consideration of the area, extent, integrity, nature, content, and research potential of identified sites, based on surface observations. The project data will be valuable for future fire-related activities, the site monitoring program, archeological research, and development projects. 3 4 CHAPTER 2 PROJECT BACKGROUND Environmental Setting The Sierra Nevada consists of a granite batholith formed within the earth’s crust. During the Mesozoic Era, this plutonic granite was injected into the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments (shale, sandstone, limestone) and volcanics (basalt, tuff). These sediments were compressed and deformed into metamorphic rocks now found in the western foothills, and as roof pendants along the summit. The immense cohesive mass of granite was uplifted and tilted during the Miocene Epoch, resulting in gradual slopes to the west and extremely steep slopes to the east. Late Cenozoic volcanism, particularly in the northern area of Yosemite National Park, left basaltic lavas, tuff, and mudflows. The deep mountain glaciers of the Pleistocene Epoch left the Sierran granites sculpted into striking peaks, domes, and valleys (Huber 1989). At present, the Sierra Nevada range is over 650 km (400 miles) in length and 100 to 130 km (60 to 80 miles) in width, and attains elevations of over 3,355 m (11,000 ft) for much of its length. Yosemite National Park is located in the central Sierra Nevada, encompassing an area of 302,694 ha (747,956 ac) from the crest to the western foothills of the range. Elevations in the park range from 518 m (1,700 ft) at El Portal to 4,000 m (13,114 ft) atop Mt. Lyell. Because of the north/south orientation and high elevation, the Sierra Nevada forms a major climatic and physiographic boundary. As a barrier to moist air from the Pacific Ocean, the range divides western temperate Mediterranean climates of California from the eastern xeric conditions in the Great Basin. Hetch Hetchy, at 1,160 m (3,800 ft) elevation, has average monthly temperatures ranging from 2.9°C (37.3°F) in January to 22°C (71.6°F) in July (Elford 1970:35). Annual precipitation is 89.3 cm (35.18 inches), with most occurring during the winter months. Monthly precipitation ranges from a low of 0.2 cm (0.08 inch) in August to 16.3 cm (6.40 inches) in December (Elford 1970:35). However, climate change within California for at least the past 10,000 years is well-documented, and conditions were likely quite different during various periods of prehistoric use. Spaulding (1996) summarizes recent paleoenvironmental studies in and around Yosemite National Park, providing a glimpse into climatological and vegetation change over time. During the early to middle Holocene, conditions appear to have been drier and colder than at present, with associated changes in vegetation communities. The onset of cooler and wetter conditions in the Yosemite area varied from as early as 6,000 B.P. to as late as 4,500 B.P. and continued into the late Holocene. Although the overall trend in the last 5,000 years has been toward cooler and wetter conditions, several shorter-duration environmental changes have been documented. Persistent (>20 years) positive temperature anomalies occurred from A.D. 1100-1375, long recognized as the Medieval Warm Period. Additionally, dendrochronological studies of giant sequoia trees within the park have identified periods of frequent, extreme drought, as many as 12 events per century, including the years A.D. 230-380, 700-850, and 1460-1580. Periods characterized by the relative absence of extreme drought were 100 B.C. to A.D. 100, A.D. 400-500, 16001700, and 1850-1950. The Little Ice Age, a 400-year period from A.D. 1450 to 1850, is characterized by temperatures ca. 0.5° C below recent temperatures. It appears from this information that the late Holocene was rather unpredictable. However, Spaulding (1996) observes that the apparent high degree of variability is likely a function of the increased resolution of the paleoenvironmental record and that the early and middle Holocene climates were likely variable as well. Numerous vegetation communities (see Moore 1993) occur in the park with the great elevational variation. Plants in Yosemite National Park number 1,374 known species. Current vegetation zones undoubtedly vary from prehistoric distributions because of climate changes, but also because of the termination of prehistoric and early historic-period human-set fire regimes, logging, fire suppression, cattle and sheep grazing, and agricultural practices. Historic-period fire suppression also has resulted in less frequent, but more damaging, conflagrations due to high fuel loading. The project area is located primarily within the Yellow Pine Forest vegetation community, characteristic of areas between 610 to 1,980 m (2,000 to 6,500 ft) in elevation in the central Sierra Nevada (Munz and Keck 1959:15). Overstory species of this community include ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), sugar pine (P. lambertiana), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), white fir (Abies concolor), and black oak (Quercus kelloggii). Common understory species include Sierra currant (Ribes nevadense), Sierra gooseberry (Ribes roezlii), manzanita (Arctostphylos sp.), thimbleberry (Ribes parviflorus), deer brush (Ceanothus integerrimus), and 5 mountain misery (Chamaebatia foliosa). Although the Yellow Pine Forest vegetation zone predominates within the project area, Lodgepole Pine, Red Fir, and Montane Chaparral vegetation zones are also present in various locations depending on aspect, altitude, and environment. Animals that inhabit the park are diverse and numerous. Large mammals include black bear (Ursus americanus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), mountain lion (Felis concolor), coyote (Canis latrans), and bobcat (Lynx rufus). California grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) formerly occurred in the area until they were hunted to extinction in California by the 1920s. Smaller animals include wolverine, badger, raccoon, ring tail, marmot, porcupine, and various foxes, skunks, weasels, rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, bats, birds, trout, suckerfish, squawfish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and invertebrates (Booth 1968; Storer and Usinger 1963). Unlike vegetation, animals are not tied to specific elevation or environmental zones, but tend to occupy various favorable areas in different seasons. An example of this is the mule deer, which was considered an important animal resource by local Indian groups. Hunting strategies for the mule deer would vary depending on the elevation and season. Mule deer seasonally range throughout all but the highest elevations found within the park. Two major hydrological systems drain Yosemite National Park — the Merced and the Tuolumne rivers. The project area is situated within the Tuolumne watershed, and is drained by several major perennial streams, including Cottonwood Creek, the Middle Tuolumne River, Miguel Creek, and Frog Creek. Abundant unnamed streams are present throughout the area as well. The topography of the project area includes both undulating terrain and deeply incised canyons, ranging in elevation from 1,036 m (3,400 ft) in the Poopenaut Valley along the Tuolumne River to 2,364 m (7,757 ft) at Smith Peak, located on the southern Tuolumne canyon rim above Hetch Hetchy Reservoir. Cultural Setting Previous Yosemite Archeological Work. Nearly 50 years of archeological investigations in Yosemite National Park have contributed to the emerging picture of prehistoric lifeways in the central Sierra Nevada. The first systematic Yosemite study, also one of the earliest regional studies, was initiated by the University of California Archaeological Survey (Bennyhoff 1956; Grosscup 1954). Based on the results of a park-wide survey and limited test excavations at four sites, Bennyhoff (1956) proposed a three-part chronology for the region spanning at least the past 3,000 years. This sequence included the Crane Flat (pre-A.D. 500), Tamarack (A.D 500-1200), and Mariposa (A.D. 1200-1850) complexes, and was defined primarily on the basis of projectile point weight, prevalence of various milling implements, occurrence of non-obsidian lithic materials, and types of flake scrapers. Bennyhoff assigned tentative ages based on comparison of artifact forms with assemblages from central California and the Lake Tahoe region, although he offered no date for initiation of the Crane Flat Complex. During the 1960s, Fitzwater (1962, 1968a, 1968b; Fitzwater and van Vlissengen 1960) excavated several sites in the Crane Flat, El Portal, and Hodgdon Meadow areas of Yosemite. He concluded that the Tamarack Complex was not a distinct assemblage. Instead, Fitzwater proposed a two-part chronology, consisting of the Crane Flat (2000 B.C.A.D. 500) and Mariposa (A.D 500-1850) phases. Examination of data in light of these chronologies was the primary focus of much subsequent archeological work in Yosemite. During the 1970s and early 1980s, two notable projects were undertaken in support of Yosemite’s General Management Plan (GMP; NPS 1980). L. Kyle Napton of California State College, Stanislaus, prepared an archeological overview (Napton 1978) and also conducted a large-scale survey, sampling approximately 5 percent of the park (Napton and Greathouse 1976a). Subsequently, Michael J. Moratto (1981) completed An Archeological Research Design for Yosemite National Park, California. The latter defined six broad research domains for study, and provided direction for archeological work through the mid-1990s. Since the early 1980s, numerous archeological investigations have been conducted in Yosemite, including surveys, test excavations, and data recovery excavations (see Hull et al. 1996). The impetus for virtually all of the archeological work has been for compliance with Section 106 of the NHPA. Much of this work has been related to the GMP. Thus, developed areas of the park, such as Yosemite Valley, Wawona, El Portal, the South Entrance/Mariposa Grove, Tuolumne Meadows, and various road corridors, have been the focus of the Yosemite Archeology program. Most research has focused on the broad domains of chronology, economic patterns, and settlement patterns, as outlined in Moratto’s (1981) research design. Since organic items are not well preserved in the acidic, granite-derived soils of the Sierra, stone tools and debitage have been the chief objects of archeological study. The vast majority of the items are manufactured of obsidian; thus, obsidian hydration and x-ray fluorescence analyses have figured prominently in Yosemite studies. 6 Due to the paucity of suitable materials for radiocarbon dating, construction of relative hydration chronologies has been the primary method of dating site components. Obsidian hydration ranges for projectile points have been well defined for low- and mid-elevation areas of the park and tentatively set forth for upper elevations (Hull et al. 1995; Montague 1996a). A large debitage hydration data set, primarily for Casa Diablo glass, has been amassed as well. Through association of radiocarbon dates and obsidian hydration measurements, hydration rates have been explored for El Portal, the Glacier Point area, and Tuolumne Meadows, although further study along these lines is warranted (Hull 1990a, 1991a; Hull et al. 1995; Riley 1987). X-ray fluorescence analyses have indicated that a variety of eastern Sierra obsidian sources are represented in park assemblages, with specific geographic distributions. In the mid-1990s, Hull et al. (1996) synthesized the past 15 years of Yosemite’s archeological work and recommended new directions for Yosemite research. In a major component of the document, Moratto (1996) proposed a significant revision of Bennyhoff’s (1956) three-part cultural chronology. Table 1 summarizes Moratto’s proposed chronology for Yosemite National Park, which spans at least 10,000 years. The sequence is presented as a model to be tested through future archeological projects, since much of it is based on evidence from surrounding areas. Table 1. Moratto’ s (1996) Proposed Cultural Chronology for Yosemite National Park. Dates A.D. 1945A.D. 1891-1944 A.D. 1864-1890 A.D. 1848-1863 A.D. 1800-1847 A.D. 1350-1800 A.D. 650-1350 1200 B.C.-A.D. 650 3500-1200 B.C. 6000-3500 B.C. 7500-6000 B.C. 8500-7500 B.C. 9500-8500 B.C. >9500 B.C. Periods Historic 4 Historic 3 Historic 2 Historic 1 Protohistoric Late Prehistoric 3 Late Prehistoric 2 Late Prehistoric 1 Intermediate Prehistoric 2 Intermediate Prehistoric 1 Early Prehistoric 4 Early Prehistoric 3 Early Prehistoric 2 Early Prehistoric 1 Complexes/Phases Ahwahnee Sunnyside Rancheria Tenaya Yosemite Mariposa, Klondike? Tamarack?, Baker? Crane Flat, Cowhorn? Wawona Merced, Clyde?, and others (?) El Portal Unknown Unknown Unknown The four periods of the Early Prehistoric encompass a time of pre-Archaic cultural adaptation, recognized elsewhere in the west by complexes including fluted and/or stemmed points. Such artifacts have yet to be identified in Yosemite, although Moratto posits that the El Portal Complex (7500-6000 B.C) is represented locally. Moratto (1996:5.61) defines the complex by “flaked stone crescents; large, broad-stemmed and shouldered points of both obsidian and non-obsidian toolstone; presumed use of the atlatl and dart; and absence or dearth of milling equipment.” Hunting is inferred based on the presence of projectile points. Moratto (1996:5.60) suggests that artifacts from El Portal with obsidian hydration rims between 8.0 and 9.8 microns (Casa Diablo) relate to this period. The two Intermediate Prehistoric periods range from 6000-1200 B.C., and are defined by three complexes. Attributes of the Merced Complex (5000-2000 B.C.) include “Pinto series projectile points; diverse cores, choppers, scraper planes (plano-convex scrapers), scraper-choppers, and flake tools; large, bifacial ‘knives;’ preference for nonobsidian toolstone; inferred use of the atlatl and dart; and abundant grindingslabs and handstones” (Moratto 1996:5.64). Obsidian projectile points have hydration values larger than those of Elko points and types identified include Pinto, Humboldt, Martis, Large Side-notched, Sierra Side-notched, among others (Moratto 1996:5.625.63). The Wawona Complex reflects activity during the last 1,000 years of the Intermediate Prehistoric 2 Period, and “may include Humboldt, Large Side-notched, Sierra Side-notched, and medium square-stemmed points” (Moratto 1996:5.64). Moratto (1996:5.64) also notes that Owens Valley peoples, known archeologically as the Clyde Phase (ca. 3500-1500 B.C), might have utilized the Yosemite area, particularly the crest and escarpment. The Late Prehistoric Period includes the three complexes originally identified by Bennyhoff, although Moratto (1996) proposes some refinements. The Crane Flat Complex (500-200 B.C.-A.D. 650) includes Sierra Concave Base, Eared Concave Base, Sierra Contracting Stem, Triangular Contracting Stem, and Elko series projectile points; large “blades” and bifacial knives; “nubbin” drills; numerous small modified flake tools; choppers; bone awls and 7 beads; Olivella Spire-lopped, Large Saucer and Small Saucer beads; Haliotis ornaments and disk beads; and probable use of handstones and grindingslabs (Moratto 1996:5.65-5.66). The Crane Flat Complex and Chowchilla Phase at Buchanan Reservoir in the foothills have much in common, leading Moratto (1996:5.66) to suggest that the linguistic affiliation for Crane Flat is Yokuts. Large, dense populations at residential bases on perennial streams, vigorous obsidian trade with peoples to the east, and exchange of marine shell items with peoples to the west also characterize the Crane Flat Complex. The Late Prehistoric 2 Period (ca A.D. 650-1350) was a time of environmental and cultural change, characterized by xerothermic climatic conditions, eastern Sierra volcanism, varying biotic distributions, as well as introduction of the bow and arrow (Moratto 1996:5.69). The Tamarack Complex, although proposed 40 years ago by Bennyhoff, is still poorly defined. Rosegate projectile points, scavenging of obsidian artifacts, reworking of tools and flakes may be traits of the Tamarack Complex. Two distinct land-use systems, and perhaps separate populations, may characterize this period, suggesting that the name Tamarack Complex be retained for the westerly, and Baker Phase (Owens Valley) to the easterly adaptation (Moratto 1996:5.72). The Late Prehistoric 3 Period (A.D. 1350-1800) is recognized archeologically as the Mariposa Complex. It is thought to represent the late prehistoric Sierra Miwok, although contributions by neighboring peoples such as the Paiute and Western Mono are evident (Moratto 1996:5.72). The attributes defined initially by Bennyhoff have been confirmed: intensive reliance on acorns; use of the bedrock mortar and cobble pestle; use of Desert series projectile points for hunting; large, dense populations settled in permanent villages near major streams with special-use camps near resources; abundant pieces of obsidian; flake tools; and steatite vessels, beads, and ornaments. Some traits such as the use of cedar bark houses and larger semi-subterranean structures, a basketry industry, and cremation of the dead are inferred from ethnographic practices. Moratto (1996:5.73) proposes the name “Yosemite Complex” to represent a Protohistoric Period (A.D. 1800-1847), although no archeological manifestations are described. Similarly, four historic subperiods are identified, although little historic Native American research has been completed in the park and no archeological data are discussed. Moratto (1996:5.73) offers the name “Tenaya Complex” to indicate the archeological record of “Native cultural transformation brought about by the Gold Rush, ‘discovery’ of Yosemite in 1851, and other contacts with Americans between 1848 and 1863.” The names “Rancheria,” “Sunnyside,” and “Ahwahnee” are proposed for the remaining historic periods. Previous Ackerson Area Archeological Work. Very little previous archeological work has been undertaken in the Ackerson project area. An estimated 95 percent of the area remains unsurveyed. As part of his park-wide survey of drainage corridors, lake shores, meadows, and valleys, Bennyhoff (1956) investigated the Cottonwood Creek drainage, the Miguel Meadow area, the Harden Lake shore, and the Hetch Hetchy vicinity. Archeological crews produced 25 brief site records, and the research assisted Bennyhoff in the development of his landmark three-phase chronology for the Yosemite region. L. Kyle Napton and his staff surveyed areas near Hetch Hetchy, Harden Lake, and Aspen Valley (Napton and Greathouse 1976a, 1977a, 1977b). Survey was conducted in both cursory and intensive modes within these areas, depending on time limitations and the probability of locating prehistoric sites. This probability was determined by factors such as environment, previous inventory, and ethnographic accounts. Within the Ackerson project area, Napton recorded seven new sites and redocumented five of the Bennyhoff sites. In 1985-86, W. Joseph Mundy (1992) led a survey of the eastern Tioga Road corridor, documenting over 100 sites. Although this project is not within the Ackerson project area, its proximity to the Ackerson perimeter suggests that results could be pertinent. A large sample of obsidian tools was submitted for obsidian studies and preliminary hydration ranges were established for diagnostic projectile points. During a significant reservoir drawdown in 1991, Montague and Mundy (1995) conducted a survey of the eastern portion of Hetch Hetchy Valley. This project documented nine previously unknown sites within the reservoir basin and provided the first systematic archeological survey of the eastern Hetch Hetchy Valley. Obsidian hydration studies resulted in the establishment of preliminary hydration ranges for diagnostic projectile points and x-ray fluorescence analysis confirmed Bodie Hills as the obsidian source most frequently represented in the projectile point collection. In other reservoir-related work, Carpenter and Kirn (1988) completed the first formal survey of the Lake Eleanor reservoir basin, recording 28 archeological sites. Several other inventory projects have been conducted in the Ackerson area. Notably, the Park Historian completed a multi-year survey of historical resources in Yosemite’s backcountry, documenting numerous trails, roads, structures, 8 water conveyance systems, tree blazes, and the aerial tramway system in the Ackerson project area (Snyder 1990). Jackson and DePascale (1995) carried out small-scale surveys of backcountry areas in the Hetch Hetchy vicinity, recording several sites. In the past 20 years, a number of smaller compliance projects were conducted in some locations within the project area as well, resulting in the documentation or re-recording of several sites. Ethnographic Setting. At the time of Euroamerican arrival in the Yosemite area, the Central Sierra Miwok, the Southern Sierra Miwok, and the Paiute were the primary occupants of the park. The Southern Sierra Miwok occupied the Merced, Chowchilla, and Fresno River drainages, while the Central Sierra Miwok inhabited the Tuolumne and Stanislaus River drainages. The foothills to the west and the Sierran crest to the east further defined the territories of these two groups. On the east side of the Sierra Nevada crest were a subgroup of a people known today as the Northern Paiute. The Northern Paiute inhabited an area that included almost all of the western half of Nevada, the southeastern quarter of Oregon, and smaller portions of California and Idaho (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986:437). Other groups reported to have traded within the project vicinity include the Washo, the Yokuts, the Plains Miwok, and the Monache. Both the Central and Southern Miwok are said to have traded finished arrowheads, bullpine nuts, salt, and obsidian to the Yokuts and Plains Miwok in exchange for fish and grass seed. Salt was obtained from the Washo in exchange for acorns, shell beads, seashells, and baskets (Davis 1961:32,42). Baskets, bows, and arrows were also traded to unspecified Yokuts groups, while they traded acorns and soaproot fibers to the Washo (Davis 1961:17). The Washo traded pine nuts and rabbitskin blankets to the “Sierra Miwok” in exchange for acorns, beads shells baskets, salt, and manzanita berries (Davis 1961:42). According to Price (1962:26), the Washo trade with adjacent groups was not common due to environmental and linguistic barriers. Contradicting this, Barrett and Gifford (1933:129) indicate that Washo traveled as far south as Yosemite Valley to trade with Miwok groups. The project area falls within the territory of the Central Sierra Miwok, although late prehistoric/early historic use of the area, Hetch Hetchy in particular, may have included the Paiute as well as the Southern Sierra Miwok (see Montague and Mundy 1995:3-4). As such, general discussions of each group’s material culture are provided below. Central and Southern Sierra Miwok. The Miwok occupied year-round villages below approximately 1,220 m (4,000 ft) in elevation, moving to higher areas during the summer (Barrett and Gifford 1933:129). Summer village areas were large occupation sites at higher elevations inhabited between the months of May and October, while seasonal camps were short-term occupation sites used during hunting and gathering (Merriam 1967:47). These camps occurred at various elevations from high on the Sierra crest to low in the river canyons. Although not necessarily restricted to Miwok use, many of the archeological deposits at higher elevations may represent such summer habitation. Summer occupation of the high country provided relief from the heat of the lower elevations, while also facilitating access to seasonally available plant and animal resources. Acorns and deer were important for subsistence, along with a variety of small game, bird, fish, seeds, roots, and berries. Some plants, such as redbud, were managed (i.e. coppiced or burned) to produce the straighter branches suitable for basket making (Anderson 1988). Greens were usually gathered and used in the spring, with ripening acorns collected as people moved to lower elevations in the fall. Acorns and other seed and nut crops were stored for use in elevated structures, called chukah, made of twined foliage and poles. They were processed into flour by pounding with pestles in mortars, although mortars also were used to pulverize small game for older residents. Basketry was pervasive in Miwok everyday life, woven for cooking, storage of foods and water, winnowing, sieves, cradleboards, and trays, among other items (Barrett and Gifford 1933:234-246; Bates and Lee 1990:39). To produce straight shoots suitable for basket weaving, coppicing and burning of certain plants was carried out, and at least 33 plant species were used for making baskets (Anderson 1988). At the turn-of-the-century, a typical Miwok family owned between 30 and 40 baskets (Bates and Lee 1990). Vessels manufactured from steatite were also used for cooking, and could be placed directly in the fire (Barrett and Gifford 1933). The Miwok not only hunted and foraged for their livelihood, but actively managed the landscape to their advantage (Anderson 1988, 1993). Fires were set on an annual basis in the lower elevations of the park to keep the pines and underbrush from encroaching on the oaks, to keep disease down, and to facilitate hunting. Apparently, fires were also set in the upper elevations such as Tuolumne Meadows as groups of people left the area in the fall (Colby 1949:116). Numerous plant species were also tended by coppicing, burning, or pruning to increase yields (Anderson 1988). 9 Seasonal travel between the lower canyons and the Sierra crest also allowed acquisition of additional foodstuffs and non-local materials either directly or through trade with both Miwok and non-Miwok groups. Trade items received from neighboring groups to the south and west include asphaltum, Olivella and Saxidomus shell beads, basketry materials, and dog pups. Materials traded in from the north and east include obsidian, pinyon nuts, rabbitskin blankets, dried fish, pigments, salt, and fly pupae. Archeological evidence suggests that obsidian was very important, as it was a major raw material for the manufacture of stone tools, almost to the exclusion of other types of stone. In exchange, Yosemite Miwok groups traded baskets, manzanita berries, soaproot fibers, acorns, and shell beads (Barrett and Gifford 1933:221, 251, 255-256; Davis 1961; 19-21, 33, 42). The tribelet, containing between 100 and 300 residents, was the foremost Miwok political unit (Levy 1978:398, 410). A tribelet controlled a definite territory and its natural resources, along with several permanent settlements and a greater number of seasonally occupied campsites. Knowledge of Sierra Miwok tribelet membership is fragmentary; however, locations of lineage settlements for many early twentieth-century Miwok peoples have been documented (Levy 1978:399). A tribelet included several lineages. These lineages referred to specific geographic localities, usually indicating the permanently inhabited settlements of the tribelet (Levy 1978:398). For the Sierra Miwok, approximately 25 persons comprised a lineage. The chief resided in the principal settlement within the tribelet and had authority over all tribelet settlements. The position of the chief was heredity, and could be passed to either a man or woman (Bates and Lee 1990:23). Female chiefs existed, but were less common than male chiefs. Northern Paiute. Northern Paiute groups were semi-nomadic and procured their sustenance through a mixed strategy of hunting, fishing, and gathering (Davis 1962, 1965). Group movements were similar to most peoples in the Great Basin, tied to the seasonal availability of plants and animals. The Mono Lake Paiute would have been most active in Yosemite National Park (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986), but the Bridgeport Valley Paiute likely entered the northern park area as well. One of the most important food sources for the Mono Lake Paiute was the larvae of the brine fly (Ephydra hians). These were collected along the shores of Mono Lake, located directly east of Yosemite National Park at the foot of the Sierra Nevada. The enormous quantities of these larvae and their ability to be stored for long periods of time enabled the people to store large amounts until needed in the winter months. An added benefit of the brine flies was that they attracted numerous bird species. The birds, their young, and their eggs were also gathered and utilized (Davis 1965; Heizer 1950; Steward 1933, 1938). Another important food source was the nut of the pinyon pine (Pinus monophylla). These were gathered raw from the cones of the pinyon pine, parched, and ground into meal or eaten whole. The ground meal was mixed with water and could be eaten either cold or hot. Other gathered food sources include the larvae of the Pandora moth (Coloradia pandora), numerous types of grass seeds, the fresh shoots of young plants, a variety of roots, and berries (Davis 1965; Fowler and Liljeblad 1986; Steward 1933, 1938). Hunting of deer, bighorn sheep, and antelope was carried out either by individuals or small groups of men. Deer would begin moving in the spring as winter waned and hunters would position themselves along the known migration routes where kills could be made. At times the use of traps, corrals, and other types of game enclosures were built of sagebrush, rocks, and trees limbs to facilitate the killing of these animals. Other animals hunted for food include hares and rabbits, marmots, porcupines, and ground squirrels (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986). The sociopolitical organization of the Northern Paiute conforms to Steward’s (1955, 1970) family band/nuclear family model. The principal unit is the nuclear family with perhaps the addition of one or two relatives. Beyond this immediate unit, there was the bilaterally based personal kindred (nanimi), or co-people. This was not normally a residence unit. It was an informal linkage of primary relatives whose ties could be put to use if needed (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986). The camp group (nogadi), of which a person’s family was a part, consisted of two or three related families camped together rather continuously. It was from this group that hunting and fishing partners were drawn and from where women managed child care and gathering activities (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986). In winter, larger camp groups were organized, although these functioned less as cooperative units and were only temporary economic alliances (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986). The Mono Lake Paiute associated with their neighbors the Sierra Miwok, the Monache (Western Mono), and the Owens Valley Paiute, although the Mono Lake Paiute and the Yosemite Miwok were not always on friendly terms prior to 1860 (Bates and Lee 1990:23). The exchange of resources between these peoples is well-documented ethnographically (Barrett and Gifford 1933; Davis 1965; Gifford 1932; Steward 1933, 1938). The typical flow of 10 resources involved the western movement of obsidian, salt, pinyon nuts, brine fly larvae, pandora moth larvae, and rabbitskin blankets, with a corresponding eastern movement of clamshell disc beads, acorns, manzanita berries, elderberries, and squaw bush. Historical Overview of Yosemite. Non-native use of Yosemite has been relatively brief in the overall time-line for human occupation of the area. However, during this time many large-scale changes have occurred, which have dramatically altered the landscape and demographics of the region. Some of these changes reflect overall growth in the state and nation, while others are more directly tied to Yosemite and its resources. The first Euroamerican incursion into what is currently known as Yosemite National Park occurred in 1833 when Joseph Walker led a party of trappers west from the Snake River country across the Sierra Nevada into California. This excursion opened a new southerly route to California and brought back important geographical information (Farquhar 1965:32). The party appears to have crossed the Sierra crest at the head of the East Walker River and continued west along the dividing ridge between the Tuolumne and Merced Rivers, possibly following parts of the prehistoric Mono Trail, the precursor of the later Tioga Road (Farquhar 1965:36-37; Hull et al. 1995). The experiences of Joseph Walker and others in California in the 1820s and 1830s opened the door for overland emigration. Although little contact occurred between Native Americans and Euroamericans in the first half of the nineteenth century in the Sierra, local lifeways were disrupted by introduced diseases and relocation to the Sierra of Indians in direct contact with Euroamericans (Bates and Lee 1990:25). With the discovery of gold in California in 1848, the population floodgates opened and people poured into the state to seek their fortune. The population of the state swelled from 2,000 persons in 1848 to over 53,000 by the end of 1849 (Hull et al. 1995). As the gold fields were located in the Central Sierra foothills, many of these miners ended up in the vicinity of Yosemite. This led to the rapid exploration of the region, as well as major disruption of the traditional lifeways of the Native Americans. The rapid transformation of the area resulted in escalating hostilities between the local Native Americans and the miners. The Mariposa Battalion, a State Militia, was created to subdue the native people of the area as a direct result. In March of 1851, a mission to capture Chief Tenaya and his band and relocate them to the Fresno River reservation in the Central Valley was begun. The Mariposa Battalion followed a route that would later become the Wawona stage road, and while camped near present-day Wawona, were met by a group of Yosemites, who had come to surrender. Tenaya was among them and he agreed to lead them to his village. One of the Mariposa Battalion, Lafayette H. Bunnell, impressed by the grandeur and spectacle of the place, proposed the name “Yosemite Valley.” This was the first group of Euroamericans to enter and explore the valley. The Mariposa Battalion escorted 72 Indians out of Yosemite Valley, but the Indians escaped before reaching the reservation and returned to their home (Bates and Lee 1990:27). In May 1951, the Mariposa Battalion mounted a second expedition, resulting in the capture and relocation of 35 Indians to the Fresno River reservation. After a few months, Tenaya and his family were allowed to return to the mountains and, shortly thereafter, others followed (Bunnell 1980). In July 1852, another mission to Yosemite Valley was undertaken as a result of the report that the Yosemite Indians had killed three prospectors and wounded two others on the Merced River. This party, led by Lt. Tredwell Moore of the U.S. Army, headed to Yosemite Valley to find Tenaya and any other Indians they might encounter. During the pursuit, the band of pursuers followed Tenaya and his group along the southern branch of the Mono Trail to Mono Pass and then into the Mono Basin (Fletcher 1987:18-21). The great disruption to the Native American culture and the restricted use of lands hindered a return to traditional lifeways. Dramatic changes occurred in settlement, material culture, and ceremonial life, with rapid acculturation to Euroamerican goods and intermarriage of Indians and non-Indians (Bates and Lee 1990:32). The decimation of the Miwok allowed for Paiute settlement in areas formerly dominated by the Miwok, and the tourist trade drew people from surrounding areas (including Chukchansi Yokuts, Western Mono, and Miwok) to Yosemite (Bates and Lee 1990:32). Many of these people took tourism-related jobs, and their descendants continue to reside in and around the park today. After 1855, tourism and the corresponding infrastructure – roads, trails, hotels, stores, and campgrounds – developed rapidly in Yosemite Valley. Preservation of this scenic wonder became a priority and, as early as 1864, Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were granted to the State of California as a public trust. Yosemite National Park, encompassing a much larger area, was created in 1890, and the lands administered by the State were ceded to the federal government in 1906. During the early days of federal administration, the U.S. Cavalry and a group of civilian rangers managed the park. The NPS began administration of the park in 1916. 11 Ackerson Area Historical Contexts. Historically, the project area experienced a number of dramatic changes, resulting from the transformation of wild places to roads, reservoirs, and park administrative areas. Following are accounts of some of the more prominent historical resources and developments within the project area. Great Sierra Wagon Road. During the last armed conflict between Indians and Euroamericans in 1852, the pursuit party led by Lt. Tredwell Moore reported on discoveries of gold and gold-bearing quartz, obsidian, and other minerals in the Mono Basin (Bunnell 1980). When news of this reached the mining communities on the western side of the Sierra, a flood of people quickly rushed to this area by way of the Mono Trail. In 1852, Lee Vining homesteaded in Lee Vining Canyon to the east of Tuolumne Meadows and built a small sawmill. In 1857, a trail that closely followed the northern branch of the Mono Trail was blazed from Big Oak Flat to Tuolumne Meadows. This short route was used by many from the Mariposa, Coulterville, and Big Oak Flat areas to access the new diggings in Dogtown, Aurora, and Monoville. The descent from the Sierra crest along Bloody Canyon became famous for its treacherous path. The canyon was reportedly named Bloody Canyon because of the amount of blood that was spilled along its path by animals that were cut up on the sharp rocks. Due to the inhospitableness of this route, a toll road was constructed to the north over Sonora Pass in 1863, and this gradually decreased the use of the Mono Pass route until 1878 (Fletcher 1987). In 1859, a small group of miners left Monoville to return to the western side of the Sierra before winter set in. After ascending Bloody Canyon and crossing Mono Pass, they explored the area around Tioga Pass and found what they thought to be a rich silver-bearing lode. Although a claim was laid to this location, no diggings took place since the claim holders decided Aurora was a more likely place to make it rich due to the recent large strikes there. In 1874, William Bruskey relocated the silver vein and named it the Sheepherder Lode. Bruskey worked this claim for four years until he was able to convince others of its worth and have the area organized into the Tioga Mining District. By 1881, this mining district eventually grew to include up to 350 separate claims, mostly concentrated on a major vein system of silver (Fletcher 1987:65). These claims were eventually consolidated into the Great Sierra Consolidated Silver Company in 1881. To facilitate the extraction of the ore from the harsh locale of the Sierra crest, this company determined the most efficient means for mining the silver was through a massive tunnel, the Great Sierra, which would access the veins from a central point. To build this tunnel, special equipment was needed that could only be shipped with great difficulty from the eastern Sierra. It quickly became apparent that only acceptable route would be from the west, where the elevation gain would be much more gradual (Fletcher 1987: 67-68). This resulted in the building of the Great Sierra Wagon Road, which followed the prehistoric Mono Trail for much of its length. Work began on this road in April of 1883 and was finished in September. It began at Crocker’s Station on the Big Oak Flat Road and ran for approximately 65 miles to the Tioga Hill operations. The road passed through Aspen Valley, where Jeremiah Hodgdon had built a small, two-story cabin in 1878; White Wolf, the location of a small ranch; the Tenaya Lake basin; and Tuolumne Meadows. The road was originally designed to pay for itself by charging tolls to those wishing to use it. It is unlikely that any tolls were ever collected along this route and, much to the misfortune of the stockholders of the mining company, little silver ore was ever recovered from the Great Sierra Tunnel. Due to the lack of profits and the numerous expenditures, the mining operation ceased on July 3, 1884, and the mining district was abandoned (Fletcher 1987:69-70; Quin 1992). Since the Great Sierra Wagon Road was well built, it continued to receive limited use through the turn of the century. The creation of Yosemite National Park and the desire of the public to experience the high country ensured that the road gained in popularity. Several areas along the road became popular tourist destinations after the U.S. government acquired the road on April 10, 1915. The most prominent tourist area within the project area is Aspen Valley, the location of Jeremiah Hodgdon’s two-story cabin. Before World War II, this became a popular resort that included a lodge, rooming house, store, gasoline station, sawmill, auto repair garage, laundry, and restaurant (Trexler 1980). The resort remained popular until the present Tioga Road was constructed in 1939 and use of this stretch of the Great Sierra Wagon was discontinued. Due to the increasing traffic loads and extensive maintenance requirements, the NPS reconstructed portions of the road during Mission 66 to better accommodate its users. These reconstruction efforts resulted in the modern Tioga Road route, with short sections and features of the original route still intact off the present roadway. The best-preserved segment is between Aspen Valley and White Wolf, which is now used as a hiking trail. The road still retains the feeling of a meandering wagon road making its way into the deep woods. Features such as rock support walls and a rock-filled causeway can still be seen as evidence of the road built in 1883. A segment of the Great Sierra Wagon Road from the park boundary, near the Evergreen Road, to White Wolf was recorded during the current project as CA-TUO-4028H/CA-MRP-1410H. This section was nominated for listing in 12 the National Register of Historic Places for local significance in engineering, industry, and transportation (Hart 1976), and was listed in 1978. Hetch Hetchy and the City and County of San Francisco. Archeological survey and historic data indicate that Hetch Hetchy Valley was used by Native Americans as early as ca. 3,000 years ago and at least until the end of the nineteenth century, although additional research is necessary to address this issue (Montague and Mundy 1995). The first Euroamericans to enter the Hetch Hetchy area in 1850 were the Screech Brothers, miners from the Groveland (or Garrote area). They blazed a trail to the interior of the valley by the 1860s to graze sheep and cattle (Schlichtmann and Paden 1986). Hetch Hetchy is most famous for its development as a reservoir by the City and County of San Francisco (CCSF). With the Gold Rush in the mid-nineteenth century, San Francisco grew from a small town to a metropolis of over 100,000 people by 1859 (Hanson 1994:8). The amount of water necessary for a city of this size to function quickly sent city planners scrambling for alternatives to the antiquated system that was in place. Local water sources were quickly utilized and proved to be both expensive and inadequate for future expansion. The need for water combined with the scarcity of municipal sources of quality water eventually led to development of grand plans for the securing and transportation of water to San Francisco. Plans initially looked at the development of Lake Tahoe in 1870 and others such as Putah Creek, the San Joaquin, Rubicon River, Mokelumne River and the Blue Lakes. It became obvious that the best available source of clean, replenishible water would be within the Sierra Nevada. The Tuolumne River was first recognized as a possible source of water in 1882. J.P. Dart, a civil engineer for the San Francisco and Tuolumne Water Companies, suggested the possibility of the Tuolumne River, which he advertised as being able to furnish 250,000 gallons of water per day (Wurm 1973). In 1888, George M. Harris made the first proposal to convert the Hetch Hetchy Valley into a reservoir and offered to sell his rights to the Tuolumne River water supply for $220,000 (Hanson 1994). After this point, numerous studies were conducted, all concluding that the Tuolumne River and Hetch Hetchy were a perfect match for San Francisco. The hard part was yet to come, and this would shape the development of the landscape around the Hetch Hetchy Valley as well as the history of public policy in the development of public lands. Due to past problems with water speculators, in 1901 the mayor and engineers of the CCSF put forth their own money in the name of the CCSF to purchase the water and reservoir rights at Hetch Hetchy and Lake Eleanor (Wurm 1973). As would be expected, the city’s goal of building a huge water storage reservoir within a national park was not greeted with open arms by everyone. San Francisco’s first attempt at securing a permit for this development was rejected by Interior Secretary E.A. Hitchcock. The source of most of the opposition was from the conservation groups, but the strongest opposition came from corporate interests hostile to the municipal ownership of public utilities, those interested in rival water-supply schemes, and irrigation districts that were fearful of diminished water flows in the San Joaquin Valley (Wurm 1973). Opposition was so great at first that the project was abandoned in 1906 only to have the effects of the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 awaken people to the dire need for action (Hanson 1994). In 1908, San Francisco again filed for a permit to develop water systems within Yosemite National Park. This time with a new Secretary of the Interior in place, James R. Garfield, and the memory of the smoking ruins of San Francisco fresh in the minds of all, the permit was granted. This became known as the “Garfield Permit” and it allowed for the development of Lake Eleanor first, while reserving Hetch Hetchy Valley for later development. Lake Eleanor is a natural lake located northwest of Hetch Hetchy Valley. Unfortunately for the CCSF, due to the previous problems encountered in developing this area, the permits had lapsed, and William Hammond Hall, a former State and U.S. Geological Engineer, had recognized this and had purchased all the water rights to Eleanor and Cherry creeks. This predicament forced the city to pay $400,000 for the Eleanor holdings and then $625,000 more for the Cherry holdings once it was determined that the former would not be adequate (Wurm 1973). From appearances, the CCSF appeared to be on their way to achieving their goal. Unfortunately the debate over allowing national park land to be used for water conservation purposes still raged. The same interests that had fought the previous permit now began aligning against this proposal. In the case of this battle, the future development of Hetch Hetchy was the contentious issue. John Muir joined the fray with impassioned writings that garnered national attention. This and other conservationist writings declared that San Franciscans were attempting to destroy the wonders of nature in the interest of saving money. The publicity assault gradually gathered some influential ears and in 1910 the CCSF was asked by the new Secretary of the Interior, Richard A Ballinger, to defend the previous decision to allow the future development of Hetch Hetchy Valley. This resulted in yet another study of the need of the Tuolumne watershed to supply San Francisco, this one conducted by an Army board of engineers. This report reaffirmed the choice of the Tuolumne and the development of Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, and the final decision to allow the development of this federal land was put in the hands of Congress. Congress, after 13 long debate from competing interest and conservationist spokespersons, passed the Raker Act, or Hetch Hetchy Grant, which was signed into law on December 19, 1913. Provisions of this Act included the following: 1) Construct miles of scenic roads and trails in Yosemite National Park and donate them to the United States; 2) Enforce sanitary regulations within the watershed area; 3) Recognize prior rights of the Turlock and Modesto Irrigation Districts to receive specified amounts of water for their storage and use; 4) Complete the dam at Hetch Hetchy as rapidly as possible; 5) Develop electric power for municipal and commercial use; 6) Not divert beyond the San Joaquin Valley any water not required for its own domestic or municipal purposes; 7) Not sell or give Hetch Hetchy water or power to a private person or corporation for resale; 8) Pay an annual rental starting at $15,000 and rising to $30,000. This act would have dramatic effects on both regional and national scales. It not only served the needs of the San Francisco population, it set a precedent for the development of a “conservation for use” policy that would have farreaching effects in the development of public lands throughout the U.S. Work began on the building of Hetch Hetchy in 1914. The local communities of Groveland and Big Oak Flat were the first beneficiaries of the project through the numerous new job opportunities and the improvements of the local roads and transportation systems. The road up Priest Grade was reconstructed and the Big Oak Flat Road was rebuilt east of Groveland to reduce the grade of the road from 20 to 6 percent. The largest improvement to the area came with the extension of the Sierra Railroad out of Jamestown, up to Groveland and then out to the reservoir site. The first development in the park was construction of a 9-mile road from Hog Ranch to the reservoir site, which formerly was only accessible by trail. The Utah Construction Company began this project late in 1914, building it to eventually accommodate a railroad on its length. After the road was built, the railroad grade was placed over it, and completed in October 1917. The railroad was not very long in comparison with other lines; however, it was an extremely difficult 68 miles from Jamestown to the Reservoir site. Of the total track, only 5 miles were level, 42 1/2 miles had a combined climb of 6333 ft, 20 miles had a descent of 3415 ft, and it contained 13 wooden trestles and two large steel bridges (Wurm 1973:63). To assist in the lumber needs of the construction project, a lumber mill was constructed alongside the rail route at Canyon Ranch, about 5 miles west of the reservoir site in 1915. Steam donkey engines placed at this site dragged cut logs in trenches and along skid roads from the surrounding area. Trees logged from Hetch Hetchy Valley were likely also milled at Canyon Ranch. The logs were processed into lumber for use in the building of construction camps, the Lower Cherry Flume, a diversion dam, several buildings in Groveland, trestles, railroad cars, and railroad ties. This mill was in existence from 1915 until 1919 when the timber in the area of the mill had been exhausted. The Canyon Ranch Mill produced over 8,000,000 board feet of lumber in its short lifespan. The mill operation for the project was then moved to Camp Mather (formerly Hog Ranch) and placed next to a small lake (Wurm 1973). The remains of the Canyon Ranch Mill were recorded as site CA-TUO-3996H as part of the current project. To access the Lake Eleanor dam site, a road was constructed in 1916-17 between the Hetch Hetchy Valley and Lake Eleanor (Greene 1987:512). This road roughly followed a trail documented on the 1878-79 Wheeler Survey Map (Sheet 56D). The origins of this trail are unknown, but it is likely that Native Americans, sheepherders, and cattlemen used the route before the U.S. Cavalry more formally established it. The 11.5-mile-long road was built to transport materials for construction of the Lake Eleanor Dam. The dam was built between 1917-1918 to provide a reliable source of water for the powerhouse at Early Intake, which eventually would supply electricity for the construction of the dam at Hetch Hetchy (Hanson 1994:34). Today, the Lake Eleanor dam still supplies water for conversion into power for the CCSF. Following the erection of the Lake Eleanor Dam, both the CCSF and the NPS used the road for visitor access, park administrative purposes, and construction of various buildings in the Miguel Meadows vicinity. The Lake Eleanor Road was maintained for park administrative use until 1982, when much of the park was being considered for wilderness designation. In 1984, Congress granted this designation and the road between Hetch Hetchy and Miguel Meadow was permanently closed to all motor vehicles. That segment is now maintained as a wilderness trail, while the Miguel Meadow to Lake Eleanor segment is a “proposed wilderness addition” used for hiking and emergency vehicle access. The Lake Eleanor Road was recorded as CA-TUO-3963H for the current project. On August 1, 1919, a contract was awarded to the Utah Construction Company for the building of the Hetch Hetchy dam (Wurm 1973:85). The dam would block the Tuolumne River at a narrow gorge where the river flowed 14 from the valley. Numerous construction feats were accomplished in the building of this dam and, in the process, many men lost their lives. The dam measured 226 ft above the original streambed with the foundation extending another 118 ft below this point. The crest of the dam was 605 ft long and the maximum thickness of the dam was 308 ft (Ryan 1937). The dam was dedicated on July 7, 1923, as O’Shaughnessy Dam in honor of Chief Engineer Michael O’Shaughnessy. This ended the initial phase of the Hetch Hetchy project. The next steps involved the construction of the massive tunnels that would transport the water from the dam site to the Bay Area. These are not discussed in this report since they have less direct effect upon the continued development of the area in the vicinity of the Hetch Hetchy Valley. The next phase of construction that would have an effect on the area around the dam began in 1935, when the dam was scheduled for enlargement. The first step was to fix the railway lines that had deteriorated considerably due to lack of maintenance since the completion of the dam. With the establishment of the Federal National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) program, which funded 30 percent of the labor on the project, the financial burden of this project was lessened and could proceed. As a result of the State Emergency Relief Act (SERA), 696 men were hired and put to work in rejuvenating the old railroad line from Jamestown to Camp Mather (Wurm 1973:251). The section of railroad between Mather and the dam site had been removed and converted into a road soon after the completion of the dam in 1923 to allow park visitors access to the reservoir. The dam enlargement project resulted in an additional 80 ft at the base and an additional 85.5 ft above the original height. Train and truck brought in cement, the quarry located next to the dam site produced rock aggregate, and sand was excavated from a deposit located in the Miguel Meadows area north of the Tuolumne River. The sand deposit was a total of three air miles from the dam site, posing an obstacle that demanded engineering ingenuity. During the construction of the Lake Eleanor dam and the Hetch Hetchy dam, the CCSF had been using Miguel Meadows as a base. Roads had been constructed between the two projects along with other roads and trails snaking throughout the area. Studies to determine the applicability of this deposit had been going on since at least 1934 when test augers were sunk into the deposit. These augers showed a deposit of great depth that would provide an excellent sand source (CCSF 1934a). Originally it appears that a railroad line was surveved to ship this material to the dam site (CCSF 1934b). However, this was not built and, instead, an aerial tramway was constructed from the sand deposit to the dam site. The tramway terminus was at what is now Gravel Pit Lake (Figure 2). This aerial tramway was constructed with an endless line carrying 42 buckets, each of 32 ft3 capacity, which delivered sand to the dam site at 48 yd3 per hour. The cables were supported by 17 timber towers, which were spaced according to topography. The longest span between towers was 2,727 ft, and elevations varied between 5,040 ft at the deposit, 5,568 ft at the ridge separating the Miguel Meadows area from the Tuolumne River drainage, and 4,085 ft at the dam site. The entire tramway was operated by gravity, with the loaded buckets pulling the empty buckets back to the deposit (Ryan 1937). Once this operation was completed, all equipment and most debris from the deposit were removed and the area was landscaped, leaving a small lake now known as Gravel Pit Lake (Figure 3). Gravel Pit Lake was used as a source of sand at least until the CCSF gave up ownership of the parcel of land around Miguel Meadows. CCSF records indicate that as late as 1958 sand was being collected for work on buildings at Miguel Meadows (Lloyd 1958). The remains of the tramway were originally recorded by Snyder (1990), with updated, formal site records produced for the Ackerson project. Site trinomials include CA-TUO-3972H, which documents the tram terminus at Gravel Pit Lake, and CA-TUO-3973H, which records the remains of nine of the tram towers. The expansion of O’Shaughnessy Dam was completed in early 1938. The director of the federal Public Works Administration, Kenneth Goodwin, dedicated the dam: “It is a notable monument to the wisdom of using public money for improvements which will aid and promote the public welfare rather than to waste our substance on huge preparations to destroy the well being of others as some nations seem prone to do” (Wurm 1973:261). Other additions to the landscape in this area were a series of trails. Correspondence between Michael O’Shaughnessy and Yosemite National Park, dated 9 July 1930, indicates that the CCSF would be building trails as required by the Raker Act. The trails set for construction included the Lake Eleanor to Rancheria Creek trail, the Rancheria Creek to Tiltill Valley trail, and the Tiltill Valley to Lake Vernon trail (M. O’Shaughnessy to Yosemite National Park, letter, dated July 9, 1930, Hetch Hetchy Water and Power Archives, Moccasin, CA). As can be seen from this brief history, the impacts and influence of this project were far reaching and of major importance to local, regional, and national policy concerning hydroelectric development. Engineering feats of vast magnitude enabled developers to harness and utilize resources that had previously been untouchable. Whether this project was the best choice for the landscape is still debated today, but it is unquestionably a landmark whose function has been another key to the development of the American West. 15 16 Figure 2. Historic photos of the tram terminus at Gravel Pit Lake in 1936, courtesy Hetch Hetchy Water and Power Archives, Moccasin (top: neg. A5308; bottom: neg. X325). 17 Figure 3. Historic photos showing development of Gravel Pit Lake in 1937, courtesy of Hetch Hetchy Water and Power Archives, Moccasin (top: neg. A5306; bottom: neg. A5307). 18 Miguel Meadow. Following the initial contact between Euroamericans and Native Americans in 1850, the history of the Hetch Hetchy, Miguel Meadow, and Lake Eleanor areas involved homesteading and cattle and sheep grazing. Horace Kibbie and Herman Wolfe homesteaded areas near the original Lake Eleanor outlet, both applying for patents to their claims in 1881 (Carpenter and Kirn 1988). Kibbie was in the area prior to 1877 until 1913, raising cattle and stocking lakes and streams with fish, while little is known of Wolfe. Seth R. Holmes originally homesteaded Miguel Meadow (sometimes referred to as McGill Meadow) on December 5, 1883. By the 1890s Miguel Errera and Jonas Rusk were the owners, using this location as a base to graze cattle during the summer months. At the homestead, Errera built a cabin and barn around 1890 on a small knoll overlooking the main meadow (Snyder 1990:38; Greene 1987:193). The cabin was eventually razed, but the barn still stands and is in use by NPS packers today. When the cabin was razed is unknown, although a CCSF map from 1954 (CCSF 1954) indicates that the collapsed remains of the cabin still existed at this time. According to Snyder (1990), the barn at Miguel Meadow is the last remaining structure built by a cattle or sheepman in use in the Yosemite high country. It is typical of the smaller cattle operations that existed within the park at one time. The historical buildings, as well as the prehistoric archeological deposit, were recorded as CA-TUO-23/80/148/H for the current project. Ownership of the Miguel Meadows area passed to the CCSF in 1918 during the development and construction of the Hetch Hetchy and Lake Eleanor reservoirs. After the completion of these projects, the NPS and the CCSF jointly administered the property. In 1934 and 1935, four outbuildings (NPS Buildings 2202-2205) and pit toilets (Buildings 2210-2212) were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) at Miguel Meadow (Greene 1987:1119). Two of these, a storage building and the CCC mess hall (Buildings 2203 and 2205) were razed in 1963 (Yosemite Separate Files). The CCSF built the Ranger Station (Building 2200) as part of the O’Shaughnessy Dam raising project in 1935-38, with the contract crew camped at Miguel Meadow. Civilian Conservation Corps crews also constructed the North Mountain Road from Miguel Meadow to North Mountain in 1939-40 (Superintendent’s Monthly Reports 1939, 1940) and accomplished a massive task involving cleanup of the mess left behind by the CCSF contractors. Miguel Meadows was a tourist destination after the completion of the O’Shaughnessy Dam enlargement through the 1940s, when it contained a car campground (Ron Mackie, personal communication 1996). Fishing at the stocked Gravel Pit Lake and Swamp Lake was a primary attraction. The campground was closed by the NPS in 1989 (Laurel Boyers, personal communication 1996). Smith Meadow. The Smith Meadow area contains the remains of an old homestead cabin that dates to 1885 (CA-TUO-234/H). Cyril C. Smith, who grazed sheep and cattle in this area and the Hetch Hetchy Valley, built the cabin. From this meadow, the Screech brothers, the first Euroamericans to visit Hetch Hetchy Valley, blazed a trail from Smith Meadow to Hetch Hetchy Valley for grazing purposes (Snyder 1990). This location was used again in the 1940s for a camp of workers hired to eradicate blister rust disease among the sugar pines of the area. Corner markers for sections were marked on trees at this time and can be found throughout this area. Golden Rock Ditch. The headwaters of the Golden Rock Ditch are on the Middle Tuolumne River about one mile west of the confluence with Cottonwood Creek. This ditch was originally constructed in 1860, with the headwaters at the South Fork of the Tuolumne River near Hardin Flat, to supply water to the dry mining districts around Big Oak Flat and Groveland, called First and Second Garrote at that time (Conners 1990). The ditch was 9 ft wide at the top, 6 ft at the bottom, and 30 inches deep. Local inhabitants quickly put the water to use for other purposes, including household use, field irrigation, timber production (powering sawmills and filling logging ponds), and cattle grazing. With the increased use, the original source of the ditch was not adequate and in the later part of 1860, it was increased in length another 3 miles to connect it to the Middle Tuolumne River (Schlichtmann and Paden 1986). By 1868 the length of the main and subsidiary ditches totaled 100 miles. The ditch remained active until mid-1868 when a major flume (the “Big Gap Flume”) collapsed. After an inverted siphon replaced the flume, it went back into operation in 1869 and remained functional until 1870. Between 1870 to 1875, the ditch was in an unusable state due to a fire that destroyed the flumes along its upper stretches. After it was repaired again, the ditch remained active from 1875 to 1880 when once again the effects of a fire halted its operation (Conners 1990). From 1880 to 1902 the ditch largely went unused except for occasional local use along the upper stretches (Snyder 1990). After 1902, the ditch was again in operation, although this time it was for the purpose of supplying water to generate electrical power. This lasted until World War II and generated numerous bids for control of the ditch. After World War II, the ditch was abandoned. All that remains of the Yosemite segment is the ditch, the earthen berms, and rock support walls, recorded during the current project as CA-TUO-1751H. The remains of a ditch tender’s cabin were documented as CA-TUO-3999H. 19 20 CHAPTER 3 PROJECT OBJECTIVES The Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project addresses two sets of objectives: the recommendations set forth in the BAER plan (Johnson and Fritzke 1996) and general research objectives identified in the revised park-wide research design (Hull et al. 1996). BAER Objectives The BAER plan (Johnson and Fritzke 1996) documented damages to resources and park infrastructure, and provided prescriptions for post-fire rehabilitation and mitigation. The archeological section of the BAER report outlined as primary issues possible impacts to known and unknown historical and prehistoric resources from the fire, fire suppression activities, and proposed rehabilitation activities. To address these issues, the BAER plan detailed the following specific goals: 1) Document the effects of fire, fire suppression, and rehabilitation to known sites in the areas impacted by fire. Initiate monitoring of impacts resulting in long-term data loss or alteration. 2) Identify, prescribe, and conduct stabilization or protection of significant cultural resources affected by fire, postfire, or fire suppression activities. Identify and treat resources with known effects requiring immediate preservation. 3) Record the Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor road/trail as a linear historical resource. 4) Update existing records for the Old Tioga Road (Great Sierra Wagon Road). 5) Conduct a survey of all fire suppression impacts located within the Kibbie section of the Ackerson Fire for cultural resources, documenting their condition and prescribing any stabilization and protection measures. 6) Survey all areas for cultural resources where fire mop-up activities took place, documenting their condition and prescribing any stabilization and protection measures. 7) Revisit all documented cultural resources affected by the fire after the first winter season to look for exposed artifacts and features covered by the heavy ash layer. The project focused on assessing the effects of the fire on the sites and surrounding landscape. To aid in accomplishing this goal, sites were recorded to current standards. Without a current record that indicated all cultural constituents of a site, a complete assessment of damages to a site could not be made. To assess fire-related damages, a document designed by specialists at Bandelier National Monument (DOI 1996) was adapted to address Yosemite conditions (see Chapter 4). General Research Objectives Recommendations for Yosemite research have been outlined by Hull et al. (1996) in Archeological Synthesis and Research Design, Yosemite National Park, California. Several broad research domains are identified, including paleoenvironmental studies, cultural chronology, prehistoric economic patterns, settlement patterns, demography and social organization, historical archeology of Native Americans, and Euroamerican historical archeology. At the inventory level of archeological investigation, several types of data may be gathered to address issues within some of the research domains. These data augment basic items such as site size, location, topography, vegetation, general constituents, and integrity. They include the identification of surface features and artifact attributes that may be of relevance to site research potential and, hence, preliminary assessment of site significance. The feature and artifact attributes recorded in this project are outlined below: 1) Debitage assemblage characteristics: • identification of material types, relevant to prehistoric economic patterns • recordation of maximum debitage density (per m2), relevant to site function and settlement patterns 2) Flaked-stone tool attributes: • notation of material types, relevant to cultural chronology and prehistoric economic patterns • results from x-ray fluorescence and obsidian hydration analysis of obsidian artifacts, relevant to cultural chronology and prehistoric economic patterns • classification of projectile points, relevant to cultural chronology 3) Ground stone artifacts and features: 21 identification of stationary milling features and measurement of mortar depths, relevant to prehistoric economic patterns and cultural chronology • identification of portable milling equipment types, relevant to cultural chronology and prehistoric economic patterns • notation of material types, relevant to prehistoric economic patterns 4) Historical artifact and feature attributes: • relative abundance of artifact types and material types, relevant to historic settlement analysis and economic patterns • maker’s marks, product label information, and manufacturing techniques, relevant to historic cultural chronology and economic patterns • types of features, materials utilized, and construction techniques, relevant to historic cultural chronology and economic patterns • These types of data, considered within the context of fire effects and site condition, permit preliminary assessments of site research potentials and management recommendations. 22 CHAPTER 4 METHODS Pre-field Research Project archeologists consulted a variety of references prior to the initiation of fieldwork. At the Yosemite Research Center references included: archeological site atlases; site records; Geographic Information System maps depicting locations of historical resources; published and unpublished cultural resources reports pertaining to the fire area (Bennyhoff 1956; Carpenter and Kirn 1988; Hart 1976; Montague and Mundy 1995; Napton and Greathouse 1976a, 1976b, 1977a, 1977b; NPS 1979a, 1979b; Snyder 1990); and literature specifically dealing with the history of the project area (Greene 1987; Hanson 1994; Schlichtmann and Paden 1986; Trexler 1980; Wurm 1973). The Yosemite Research Library provided access to historical maps of the area, and Park Historian Jim Snyder furnished detailed information on historical sites. Additionally, the Groveland District of the Stanislaus National Forest provided historic boundary maps and copies of site records. (The boundary was recently resurveyed, and a few sites previously identified within Forest Service lands were determined to be within the park.) Field Methods Fieldwork was directed by the BAER plan and conducted in two distinct phases. The first phase, designated YOSE 1996Q, occurred between September and December 1996, immediately following containment of the Ackerson Complex Fire. Continuing the work that had begun during the fire, crews focused survey and site recording efforts on possible impacts areas, including firelines, hazard tree removal areas, spike camp locations, drop points, established safety zones, helispots, fence construction areas, access roads, mop-up zones, and rehabilitation areas. Archeologists also recorded the Lake Eleanor Road (CA-TUO-3963H) because of the possibility that heavy winter precipitation might affect the severely burned Hetch Hetchy switchbacks segment. Fieldwork ceased following the first heavy winter snow, and uncompleted items were left for the 1997 field season. Yosemite Archeologist Bruce Kahl led the fieldwork under the supervision of Park Archeologist Laura Kirn. Numerous individuals participated in the fieldwork, including Yosemite Archeologists Suzanna Montague, Paul DePascale, Jane Caputo, Scott Jackson, Steve Jenevein, and John Vittands. William Matthews, Sequoia National Forest Archeologist, and Melissa Schroeder, Grand Canyon National Park Archeologist, provided assistance as well. The second phase of fieldwork, designated YOSE 1997I, occurred between July and October 1997. During this phase, known and previously unknown sites were recorded to current standards, fire and post-fire effects at all sites were documented, suppression zones at the Kibbie Fire were surveyed, and a site record for a segment of the Great Sierra Wagon Road was completed. Additionally, small-scale surveys were completed en route to known sites. Yosemite Archeologists Timothy Keefe and Bruce Kahl led the fieldwork under the direction of Park Archeologist Laura Kirn and Staff Archeologist Suzanna Montague. Yosemite Archeologists Robyn Watkins and Forrest Nelson comprised the field crew. Survey. Small-scale surveys were completed throughout the project area, including all suppression zones, mop-up areas, areas en route to sites, and areas surrounding sites (Figure 4, oversize map in back cover). In total, 1,300 ha (3,212 ac) were surveyed, including 45 ha (112 ac) of the Stanislaus National Forest where the management boundary was not indicated. Survey strategies varied depending on the location of the survey. In the vicinity of previously recorded sites or in areas of perceived sensitivity (i.e., meadows, flat areas adjacent to streams, terraces, lake shores, boulder concentrations, soil changes), spacing varied from 5-15 m. Survey along trails or firelines was confined to the trail or fireline, although areas of perceived sensitivity were thoroughly surveyed using 5-15-m transects. Site Recording. Pre-field research indicated that most of the previously recorded sites were not recorded to current standards, with many of the records containing incomplete information regarding site constituents and location. This resulted in field situations where it was unclear whether the sites located on the ground matched those that had been previously recorded. If the site appeared to closely match the record in these instances, then it was assigned the existing trinomial. Sites were defined following criteria applied in previous Yosemite studies (Hull and Mundy 1985:20). At minimum a site must consist of at least five objects within a 500 m2 area, a single feature and one associated artifact, or a stationary milling feature with more than a single mortar or milling slick. Also, historic-period 23 materials had to be identified as at least 50 years old. Site boundaries were defined by the surface extent of cultural material and features, and discrete sites were recognized if cultural materials were separated by a distance of at least 30 m. The increased surface visibility of the ground allowed for accurate site recording of surface materials. Site maps were made using tape and compass, and every site was located on a USGS 1:24,000 topographic map. Site mapping included boundary delineation, location of cultural features, proveniencing of tools and maximum debitage densities, location of surface disturbances, and location of natural features (e.g., trees, rock outcrops, drainages) to assist in site relocation. Site datums were generally distinctive trees marked with an aluminum tag bearing the trinomial (for re-recorded sites) or temporary designation (for previously undocumented sites). Milling features were mapped using tape and compass, and the length, width, and depth of mortars were documented. In some cases, time constraints precluded detailed mapping of features, and this is indicated in the individual site records. While data for mortars were consistently collected, identification and documentation of milling slicks were inconsistent with past Yosemite projects. In past projects, milling slicks were defined as areas on bedrock worn smooth by grinding of foodstuffs (Hull and Mundy 1985:99). During the present project, slicks were identified as discrete smooth areas with an identifiable shape and little or no depth. Slicks were distinguished from “ground areas,” which were indistinct, amorphous surfaces. Slicks were not consistently measured in the field and the “ground areas” were neither measured nor included in slick tallies. Potentially diagnostic artifacts, artifacts at high risk for illegal collection, and artifacts made of unusual materials were recovered for further analysis. Likewise, these items were indicated as collected on the maps and in the site record. Color slides and black/white prints were taken of site overviews and features, with a mapping board identifying the site, feature number, and date for the latter. A photographic record was completed to track all photos, with roll and photo numbers cross-referenced on the site records. In previous Yosemite studies, all sites were recorded on the Yosemite Archeological Site Record, which has resulted in a park-wide database for research. Recently, however, the California Office of Historic Preservation (OHP) issued new forms more conducive to recording all types of cultural resources. Yosemite is currently in the process of creating a new database, which will incorporate both forms. For this project, site type dictated which form was used. To maintain the Yosemite Archeology Office site database, prehistoric sites and sites with prehistoric and historical components were recorded on the Yosemite Archeological Site Record. Historical sites were recorded on the Department of Parks and Recreation Site Recording Forms. Volumes II and III of this report contain site records. Isolates, cultural materials not satisfying the criteria for designation as a site, were also documented. These were recorded on California State Department of Parks and Recreation Primary Record forms only. A location map and a photo page were prepared for each. Fire Effects Documentation. The final step in site recordation involved completing the Post-fire Site Assessment Form, derived from the Draft Policy & Implementation Handbook for Cultural Resource Site Condition Assessment and Treatment Process (DOI 1996). This document describes the cultural resources condition assessment and treatment process in five phases: identifying fire effects to cultural resources, prioritizing problems, prescribing treatments, monitoring/evaluating the treatments, and documentation/closure. Originally designed to address the environment and archeology of the Southwestern United States, the forms were adapted to apply to archeological sites and the environment of the central Sierra Nevada. All crew members participating in the 1997 fieldwork were trained to collect fire effects data and to complete the revised Post-fire Site Assessment Form. The revised form involved collecting data on estimated fire and burn intensity; damage to cultural resources during fire suppression activities; fire effects damage to features or artifacts; evidence of pre-existing and post-fire erosion; and potential hydrological threats. Additionally, the archeology crew made recommendations for each site regarding treatment needs: rehabilitation to curtail, minimize, or mitigate damages; monitoring to evaluate potential threats; or no further work. Post-fire Site Assessment Forms are on file with site records at the Archeology Office, Yosemite Research Center, while Appendix A contains an example of the form. The data are summarized in Chapter 7 of this report. Laboratory Methods 24 Upon completion of the fieldwork, all recovered materials were taken to the Yosemite Research Center in El Portal for washing, cataloging, and analysis. Temporary field specimen numbers were used to track artifacts from field collection through permanent catalog number assignment. Stone artifacts were washed with water and allowed to air dry. Cataloging followed standards established at the Yosemite Archeology Office, with 28 fields documented for each tool or group of artifacts using dBASE IV software. Recorded attributes included specimen type, provenience, metric and morphological descriptions, and material type. Projectile points were typed following Moratto (1972), Thomas (1981), and numerous Yosemite studies (Hull 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1991b; Montague and Mundy 1995; Mundy 1992). For museum storage, the data will be converted to the NPS Automated National Catalog System format, although the original database file will be retained at the Yosemite Research Center for future reference. The artifacts, paperwork, and electronic data will be permanently archived in the Yosemite Collections under Accession Nos. YOSE 6225-6247 and 6387 and Catalog Nos. YOSE 98300-98388 and 102628. Each collected artifact received a catalog number and each site with collected material received an accession number. Analytical Methods After the assignment of permanent catalog numbers, 69 obsidian artifacts were submitted for x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and obsidian hydration (OH) analyses. Pacific Legacy conducted the analysis, and a detailed report of methods and findings is presented as Appendix B. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis. X-ray fluorescence analysis identifies the obsidian source of an artifact through measurement of certain trace elements and comparison with previously measured concentrations for known obsidian sources. The results contribute to elucidation of prehistoric economic patterns, while also aiding in the formulation of source-specific hydration ranges for diagnostic projectile points. Such data are particularly scant for the project area. Obsidian Hydration Analysis. Obsidian hydration analysis is a relative dating technique, although formulas for converting OH values to absolute dates have been proposed for this region (Hall and Jackson 1989; Hull 1990a, 1991a, 1996; Riley 1987). When obsidian is freshly worked, the surface of the artifact absorbs water from the surrounding environment. Through time, this hydration rind increases in thickness. Obsidian hydration analysis consists of taking a thin cross-section of the artifact, grinding it to 30-50 microns thick, and measuring with a microscope how far water has diffused into the artifact. This measurement is the OH value. The OH measurements are expressed to the nearest 0.01 micron; however, as indicated in Appendix B, the precision of the measurement is generally no greater than 0.2 microns. Hydration is not always accurate or precise. An artifact’s condition and environmental setting may alter or make the hydration rind unreadable. For example, an artifact that has been subjected to fire may not have any readable hydration rind. Temperature and relative humidity are additional factors that may affect the rate of hydration. Yosemite studies (Hull 1991a) have demonstrated that artifacts recovered from higher elevations tend to hydrate at slower rates. Different sources of obsidian may also hydrate at different rates (Hull 1991a). Because of these variables and the limited number of artifacts per site within the project collection, conversions of OH values to calendrical dates using rate formulas was not attempted for the current study. For several previous investigations in Yosemite, small pressure flakes rather than thin sections were removed from artifacts to minimize damage to museum display quality artifacts. For the current project it was determined that removal of thin sections would be more appropriate since many artifacts were subjected to fire on at least one surface. This method results in measurement of the hydration rind on both faces of the artifact, thus increasing the probability of obtaining a measurable reading from the unaffected side. The location of the cut on each artifact was determined by which area of the artifact would provide the most information. This is derived by evidence of reworking, location of tool break, or original decortication scar. For some artifacts, cuts included detachment scars as well as worked areas. Two cuts were completed for several artifacts that were thought to be reworked. The existence of multiple hydration rinds may indicate reutilization of an artifact or scavenging of artifacts by later inhabitants. Yosemite archeology has recognized the importance of OH studies since the mid-1980s, and a large comparative database has been compiled. The results of the current study add to this database, aid in defining site chronologies, and contribute to definition of source-specific projectile point hydration ranges. 25 CHAPTER 5 SITE DESCRIPTIONS Fire effects documentation and site records were compiled for 77 sites within the Ackerson Complex Fire perimeter. Thirty-five previously recorded sites were re-documented as 31 site complexes, five sites from the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey (Snyder 1990, 1991) were re-recorded on Department of Parks and Recreation forms and submitted for trinomials, and 41 “new” sites were recorded. Fifty-four of the sites are prehistoric, 14 are historic, and nine contain both prehistoric and historic components. In the process of documenting post-fire effects at archeological sites, it was necessary to re-record or update previously recorded sites within the Ackerson Complex Fire perimeter. Many of these sites had not been revisited since the original recording by University of California Archaeological Survey (UCAS) crews in the 1950s, and the records contained very little information. In some circumstances, it was impossible to relocate sites based on the available location information. In these cases, the existing trinomial was ascribed to the site that correlated best with the original site record. Most of the re-recorded sites were larger and consisted of more features than previously noted. This may be attributed to increased surface visibility due to the fire burning off ground cover, small trees, and brush, as well as the more detailed recording standards used today. The discussion to follow summarizes previous investigations for each site, current results, preliminary site chronology, and disturbances, while Table 2 also provides a summary of selected site data. Chapter 6 presents detailed data on recovered artifacts, while Chapter 7 summarizes fire-related disturbances and threats for each site. Since the Ackerson Complex Fire encompassed a large area-19,116 ha (47,234 ac)-within the park, site information is presented by geographic area, with a brief description of environmental setting for each locale. The eight areas include the northern rim of the Tuolumne River, the Tuolumne River, the southern rim of the Tuolumne River, the Cottonwood Creek drainage, the Ackerson Meadow area, Aspen Valley, Harden Lake, and Kibbie Ridge. Prehistoric site chronologies rely solely on temporally diagnostic surface materials, which generally include very few artifacts and features. Therefore, all site chronologies should be considered preliminary in nature and subject to change based on future surface and/or subsurface information. Obsidian hydration analysis (see also Chapter 6) and cross-dating of artifacts and features are the primary dating techniques. With these sources of data, periods of site use are necessarily expressed as broad ranges. Moratto’s (1996) proposed cultural chronology for Yosemite provides the temporal framework. In general, the recorded prehistoric artifacts and features suggest use during the Late Prehistoric 1 (1200 B.C.–A.D. 650), the Late Prehistoric 2 (A.D. 650-1350), and the Late Prehistoric 3 (A.D.13501850) periods. The primary temporally sensitive artifacts documented in the project area-generally traits of these three periods, respectively-are Elko, Rosegate, and Desert series projectile points. At mid-elevations in Yosemite and for all obsidian sources, Elko projectile points yield hydration rims measuring 3.0-5.5; Rosegate series points generally have rims between 1.1 and 3.7 microns, and Desert series points exhibit between 1.0-2.1 microns of hydration (Hull 1991a). These projectile point hydration ranges and their chronological associations should be viewed as a work in progress. Very few projectile points have been associated with radiocarbon-datable materials in Yosemite and much additional work remains regarding projectile point classification and clarification of hydration ranges. Stationary milling features, ubiquitous throughout the project area, are frequently the only surface indicators of time of occupation at prehistoric sites, but dates for use of these features have yet to be confirmed for Yosemite. Bennyhoff (1956) noted that mortar and pestle technology likely was introduced during the Tamarack Complex (A.D. 500-1200), with widespread and intensive use occurring during the Mariposa Complex (A.D. 1200-1850). In surrounding areas, milling features have been tied to late prehistoric use, post-A.D. 1300, although a gradual replacement of portable grindingslabs between A.D. 550 and 1500 may have occurred (see Moratto 1996:5.46). Dates for artifact manufacturing techniques and maker’s marks, written records, historical maps, and interviews with knowledgeable people provide chronological information for the historic-period sites. Historic documentation 27 Table 2. Summary of Site Data. Site Veg Elev (ft) L (m) CA-TUO-23/80/148/H CA-TUO-0028/H CA-TUO-0061/62 CA-TUO-0086/87/H CA-TUO-0088 CA-TUO-0089 CA-TUO-0102 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0208 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0214 CA-TUO-0226/H CA-TUO-0227 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0230/231 CA-TUO-0232 CA-TUO-0233 CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0518 CA-TUO-0519 CA-TUO-0520/H CA-TUO-0521 CA-TUO-0929 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1751H YP LF YP YP YP YP YP LF LF LF YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP CA-TUO-3509H CA-TUO-3963H YP YP CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3972H CA-TUO-3973H YP YP YP CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3975H CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3978 CA-TUO-3979H CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3981H CA-TUO-3982 CA-TUO-3983 YP YP YP YP YP YP CH YP YP YP 5037 7510 3460 5400 6060 6280 5040 7510 7510 7510 7450 4600 5840 5820 5880 5836 5880 5900 6020 6360 3940 3540 6240 6150 6200 6200 6040 4750 4750 55905440 4740 38145307 6700 5020 55203813 5030 5020 5070 5060 5040 5240 5530 5040 5860 6030 W (m) 330 83 130 250 20 10 85 160 123 54 185 210 460 90 500 190 380 250 150 170 10 137 140 79 45 133 85 52 215 4.0 mi 240 52 50 160 13 18 12 122 80 51 230 120 150 40 50 110 90 90 40 97 20 77 130 91 45 64 40 24 135 2.7 18 11.5 mi 20 3.7 32 65 2.4 mi 50 0.5 mi 35 40 10 0.5 mi 30 1.0 mi 57 230 Area (m2 ) 62172 3388 5103 31400 204 141 801 15323 7724 2162 33402 17100 54165 2826 19625 16407 26847 17662 4710 16490 125 8281 14287 5643 1590 6682 2669 980 22785 17377 Features MF,DE,DU,FO,RA,ST MF,DU,FE MF MF MF MF MF MF MF MF,DE MF,RC MF MF MF,DE MF MF,DE MF,DE,DI,FO,HE,DU MF MF MF MF MF MF,DU,BORROW PIT MF DI, DA,RC 275 DE,DU 68463 RO,RC,FE,BR,DU,FO, DE 20 502 MF 85 4337 DU,FO 5-25 386160 DE,DU,FO,RO 55 4.5 17 68 10 4.5 41 4.5 32 80 2159 389 467 2135 78 389 965 7240 1432 14444 MF,FO RO MF MF,RS MF RO MF RO MF MF # MF # cups 23 1 2 6 1 2 2 6 0 4 16 5 6 2 8 5 9 0 0 3 1 2 5 2 1 1 0 0 5 0 148 3 9 38 15 6 11 23 0 19 101 75 23 4 73 13 93 0 0 10 8 9 51 3 3 17 0 0 118 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 6 0 0 2 0 2 3 1 0 1 0 1 5 9 0 10 22 3 0 4 0 3 29 28 # slicks 11 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 0 11 3 0 0 5 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 Artifacts Debitage Material Disturbances DS,B,PE,PPF,EMP DS,B,PPF,EMP,CA PE,HS DS,BF,PPF,EMP,GL,ME DS DS,PE OB,QU OB,CH,SL DS,PPF,PE,BF,PP DS,EMP DS,EMP,CO DS,PPF,EMP,PE,HSF,ME DS,BF,CO,PPF,EMP,HS DS,PPF,EMP,DRF,PE,HA,BT,ME DS,EMP,BF DS,BF,B,PPF,EMP,PE,PEF DS,PPF,PE,EMP DS,PP,PE,EMP,HS DS,BF,DR,EMP,PPF,UNIQUE DS,PPF DS,PPF,HS,PE,CA,CN,WR,WO,CC,BT DS*,PE BF,PE DS,EMP,PPF,MSF,HSF,PE DS* OB,CA,CH OB,QU,BA OB,CH OB OB,CH OB,BA,CA,CH,QU,QE OB,BA,QU,CH OB,BA,QU,QE,RH OB OB,BA,QU,CH OB,CH,QU OB,CH OB,BA,CH OB OB OB,CA,CH OB DS,BF,PP,CH,ME,CA,GL,CE,WR DS,BF,PR,EMP,PP DS* DS,B,BF,PPF,EMP,MSF,PE ME,CC OB,CH,QU,SL OB,QU,QE OB OB,BA,CH,QU RF,FS,IC,PU FS,IC,PF,RU RF,SE,AD RF,FS,RU,DW RF,FS RF (Frog),RU RF,TR,RU DW DW,FS DW,RU DW RF,DW,FS,RC RF,SE,TR RF,RU,SE,DW RF,IC IC,RF RF,IC,IE RF RF RF,IC,TR,ST PF,RC,ST,AA RF,RC,IN IC,FS,LO,DW FS,LO RF,LO,RC FS,IC,RC DW PF,RC,ST RF,FS,IE,LO RF,SE,DW 0 CA 0 CC,WO,WR,WN,CA,ME,MT,TW,BT, GL 2 DS,PE 0 ME,CA,CC 0 UT,ME,CA,WN,WR,WO,CC 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 CA,BT,WR,BR,CC AS DS,PE DS,PPF,HS,EMP,PE PE OB OB OB OB OB OB DS,PPF,EMP,PE,SC OB DS DS,SC,PE,BF,HS OB OB,CH RF,FS,IC,IE RF,DW,PF,RC, RU,SE RF,DW,IN,FS RF,RU RF,DW PF,RF,RC,TR RF,DW,RU RF,DW DW,RU,RF RF RF,DW,RU RF,RC RF,DW,RU RF,TR,AD RF,RU Site Veg Elev (ft) L (m) CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3986 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3989H CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3992 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3996H YP RF CH YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP 6020 5780 3470 3470 3420 6040 5800 5080 5580 4830 3400 4840 4700 CA-TUO-3997 CA-TUO-3998 CA-TUO-3999H CA-TUO-4000/H CA-TUO-4001 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4004 CA-TUO-4005 CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4008 CA-TUO-4009 CA-TUO-4010H YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP YP OW LF YP CH CH 21 90 120 56 175 160 35 280 90 200 180 108 220 W (m) 25 135 70 60 125 200 15 180 35 120 140 70 430 Area (m2 ) 412 9538 6594 2637 17172 25120 412 39564 2473 18840 19782 5935 74261 Features MF MF MF MF DE,DU,FO,RA,RC MF MF MF MF MF,DE MF,RC DE,DU,FO,RO # MF # cups 1 1 0 1 4 0 3 9 1 3 3 3 0 13 4 0 11 28 0 24 62 1 16 15 48 0 # slicks 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Artifacts Debitage Material Disturbances DS,PPF,PE, DS DS,HA,EMP DS,EMP,PPF,PE DS,B,BF,DRF,PPF,PE,EMP GL,BT,WI,TW,ME,CA,WN,WR,CC DS,PE,PEF,HA DS,B,PPF,EMP,PE,CO DS DS,PPF,PR,EMP,ME DS,B,DRF,PPF,EMP DS,PPF,PE,B GL,BT,WI,ME,CA,WN,WR,CT,BO,CC, TW DS,PPF,EMP DS,EMP CA,GL,BT,ME,TW,UT,CN,CC DS,CA,GL,BT,WI,ME,TW,WN,LB,UT DS,PPF,BF DS,BF,PPF,PE,SC,EMP DS,PPF,PE DS,PE,BF DS,PE DS,PE,GL,BT,ME,CA,WN,WR,WO PE DS,PPF OB OB OB OB OB,BA,CH,QU,QE RF,IN RU,IN SE,AD,IN RF,RU,SE,IN RF,SE,DW FS,LO,PF RF,FS RF,RU,TR RF,TR,DW RF RF,RU,IN,SE RF,IE,LO,DW RF,LO,IC,IE,RC, SE RF,LO RF,LO RF,IC RF,DW,SE,IN RF,DW,LO,RC RF RF RF,SE,TR RF,RU,TR RF,TR,SE,ST OB OB,CA OB OB,CH,QU,BA,SL OB,CH,QU,QE,BA OB 4840 58 105 5972 0 0 0 OB,CH 4840 100 60 4710 0 0 0 OB 5700 35 33 907 FO,DU 0 0 0 5520 276 124 26866 DU,DE,ST 0 0 0 OB 5180 93 120 8760 MF 1 9 0 OB,CH 5590 65 77 3929 MF,DE 3 41 0 OB,BA,CH,RH 5560 20 35 550 MF 1 9 0 OB 5610 260 85 17348 MF 2 11 2 OB 5720 50 50 1962 MF 1 13 0 OB 4360 168 98 12924 MF,DU,FO,RA,TR 1 6 2 OB 6740 8 12 75 MF 1 5 0 4680 160 140 17584 MF 1 8 0 OB RF,FS,SE 4440 15 10 118 RC 0 0 0 52001.0 mi 1.0 1609 TR 0 0 0 RF,DW 4200 CA-TUO-4011H CH 42400.25 mi 1.0 402 TR 0 0 0 RF,DW 4160 CA-TUO-4012 YP 4830 34 26 694 MF 1 10 1 RF,DW,IN CA-TUO-4013 YP 4700 73 103 5902 MF 10 44 7 DS,PP,SS OB RF CA-TUO-4014 YP 4740 11 5 43 MF 4 14 4 RF CA-TUO-4028H YP 812019.5 mi 8.5 266692 RO,DE,RC,BR,AG ME,AS FS,DW,SE,LO, 4995 RU KEY: Veg=vegetation community; L(m)=site length (meters unless otherwise indicated as mi=miles); W(m)=site width (meters); #MF=# of milling features Vegetation Communities: CH=Chaparral; LF=Lodgepole Forest; OW=Oak Woodland; RF=Red Fir Forest; YP=Yellow Pine Features: ; AG=Tree Carving/Blaze; BR=Bridge; DE=Depression; DI=Ditch; DU=Dump/Debris Scatter; FE=Fence; FO=Foundation; HE=Hearth; MF=Milling Feature; RA=Rock Alignment; RC=Rock Construct; RS=Rockshelter; ST=Structure Prehistoric Artifacts: B/BF=Biface or Biface Fragment; CH=Chopper; CO=Core; DR/DRF= Drill or Drill Fragment; DS=Debitage Scatter (*debitage noted in previous recording); EMP=Edge-modified Piece; HA=Hammerstone; HS/HSF=Handstone or Handstone Fragment; MS/MSF= Millingstone or Millingstone Fragment; PE/PEF=Pestle or Pestle Fragment; P/PPF=Projectile Point or Point Fragment; SC = Scraper; SS=Shaft Smoother; Historical Artifacts: AS=Asphalt; BO=Bone; BR=Brick; BT=Glass Bottle/Jar; CA=Can; CE=Ceramic; CC=Concrete; CN= Cut Nail; CO=Ceramic Container; GL=Glass; LB=Light bulb glass; ME=Metal; TW=Ceramic Tableware; UT= Ceramic Utility; WO=Wood; WN=Wire Nail; WR=Wire Debitage Material: ; BA=Basalt; CA=Chalcedony; CH=Chert; OB=Obsidian; QE=Quartzite; QU=Quartz; RH=Rhyolite; SL=Slate Disturbances: AA=Animal Activity; AD=Alluvial Deposition; DW=Downslope Wash; FS=Fire Suppression; IC=Illegal Collection; IE=Illegal Excavation; IN=Inundation; LO=Logging; PF=Park Facilities; RC=Road Construction; RF=Recent Fire; RU=Recreational Use; SE=Stream Erosion; ST=Structure; TR=Trail 29 was available for most of the sites, allowing for fairly accurate identification of site chronology as well as site function. North Rim of the Tuolumne River The landscape between the northern rim of the Tuolumne River and Lake Eleanor consists of a series of glacially carved hills and valleys. The Frog Creek drainage comprises the northern border, the trail from Hetch Hetchy to Beehive is the eastern edge, the rim of the Tuolumne drainage is the southern border, and the park boundary forms the western border. Frog Creek and Miguel Creek are the main perennial drainages in the area, fed by numerous unnamed intermittent streams and ponds. The archeological sites are located between 1,533 and 1,914 m (5,030 and 6,280 ft) in elevation, although the highest point is 2,038 m (6,687 ft). The Yellow Pine vegetation community covers much of the area, with ponderosa pine and incense cedar occurring most abundantly. Black oaks are present at or near all sites and white fir and lodgepole pine grow at the higher-elevation sites. Several sites along the historic gravel conveyance system are in chaparral, in areas dominated by deer brush and manzanita. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H Previous Investigations. This large site complex at Miguel Meadow encompasses three previously recorded sites. CA-TUO-23 was described initially by the Yosemite School of Field Natural History in 1941 (Bennett 1941) and recorded by a UCAS crew in 1952 as a 200-yd-diameter camp with scattered obsidian chips and four bedrock mortars (Bennyhoff 1956). Bennett (1941) also described CA-TUO-80 and CA-TUO-148 as six bedrock mortars and a mortar rock with 21 holes, respectively. In 1984, a Yosemite Archeology Office crew redocumented CATUO-148, noting a milling station, midden, and a light lithic scatter in a 4,200-m2 area (Kirn and Pavlik 1984). The historic elements of the area were described initially by Robert F. Uhte (1956), who mentioned the Miguel Meadow cabin in his article, “Yosemite’s Pioneer Cabins.” At that time the cabin was described as being in a state of collapse. He makes no mention of the barn located in the meadow, but it is clearly visible in an 1896 photograph that accompanies the article. Yosemite Park Historian, Jim Snyder, recorded the historical elements in 1989 for the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey (Snyder 1990). The cabin built by Miguel Errera and Jonas Rusk is Snyder’s Building 7, and the nearby barn, which is still used by NPS packers, is Building 8. Also present in this area are old fence posts and hinges for a gate in several large white fir trees. Current Results. The current project resulted in the documentation of the three prehistoric sites and the historic elements as one site complex, measuring 330 x 240 m and encompassing 62,172 m2. The prehistoric component consists of 23 milling stations with 148 mortars, 11 milling slicks, and six pestles, while the previous site records combined had a total of 11 milling stations. Several midden areas are present, with the largest near the Ranger Station. Obsidian debitage is scattered throughout the site, with several higher-density concentrations. The maximum debitage density of 15/m2 is located on the northern Miguel Creek stream terrace. Eleven flaked stone artifacts were observed, including one quartz biface tip, two obsidian biface fragments, two obsidian core reduction flakes with cortex and edge modification, and six edge-modified flakes. None were collected. The historic-period component includes eight trash dumps, three depressions that may be old outhouse locations, four standing structures (NPS Building Nos. 2200-2202 and 2204), and two structural remains. The barn is the only standing building dating from Miguel Errera’s original homesteading of the area. There are structural remains of his cabin located northeast of the barn, destroyed by a fallen ponderosa pine. The other structural feature is the wood remains of a collapsed outhouse with wire nails, which could be related to any of the historic-period occupations. The NPS Ranger Station consists of a house, a pole barn, a newer storage shed, a water tower, and an outhouse. Also associated with the Ranger Station is the stone-encased spring in Miguel Creek. The trash dumps primarily consist of metal can and glass bottle fragments, most of which contained beverages or food. Site Chronology. Stationary milling features, markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 periods, are the sole prehistoric chronological indicator. Historic-period use of the site commenced with Seth R. Holmes homesteading Miguel Meadow on December 5, 1883. By the 1890s, Miguel Errera and Jonas Rusk owned and used the surrounding meadows to pasture their cattle in the summer months, building a cabin and the still-standing barn (Bldg. No. 2201). The land was transferred to the CCSF in 1918 during the construction of O’Shaughnessy Dam and the Lake Eleanor Dam. In 1934 and 1935, four outbuildings (NPS Bldgs. 2202-2205) and pit toilets (Bldgs. 2210-2212) were built by the CCC at Miguel Meadow (Greene 1987:1119). Two of these, a storage building and the CCC mess hall (Bldgs. 2203 and 2205), were razed in 1963 (Yosemite Separates Files). The woodshed (Bldg. No. 2202) and the storage 30 building (Bldg. No. 2204) are still standing. The CCSF built the Ranger Station (Bldg. 2200) as part of the O'Shaughnessy Dam raising project in 1935-1938, with the contract crew camped at Miguel Meadow. The water tower and the outhouse appear to be modern structures. After the completion of the O’Shaughnessy Dam enlargement in 1938, the Miguel Meadow area was utilized as a car camping area. The NPS closed and removed what remained of the campground in 1989. Abundant temporally diagnostic historical artifacts, primarily food and beverage containers, are present in the dump features. Dates for manufacturing techniques and maker’s marks suggest that many of the artifacts were made post1930s, although earlier manufacture is possible given wider date ranges for some artifact types. Sanitary cans dating to post-1890s (Rock 1981) are prevalent, although condensed milk cans dating to post-1850s (Busch 1981; Rock 1981) are present as well. Church key openings in many of the cans date to post-1935 (Rock 1990). Several bottles and bottle fragments provide additional evidence of relatively late use. A cobalt blue bottle, embossed with a “W” within a circle on the base, indicates manufacture by the T.C. Wheaton Co., post-1946 (Toulouse 1972). A clear ketchup bottle was manufactured by the Owens-Illinois Pacific Coast Co. between 1932 and 1943 (Toulouse 1972), and a light green, hobble-skirt Coca Cola bottle with a patent reading “D 105529” was manufactured in Sonora, California between 1937 and 1951 (Munsey 1972). A clear ketchup bottle, with the H-over-A embossed on the base, was manufactured by the Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. between 1920 and 1964 (Toulouse 1972:239). The abundance of historical artifacts at this site provides opportunity for further chronological and functional investigations in the context of a more detailed study than the current project. Disturbances. The long history of the site area as a car camp, ranger residence, homestead, and cattle ranch has seriously impacted the prehistoric as well as the historical elements of the site. The Lake Eleanor Road, the road to North Mountain, and the road to Swamp Lake all cross the site. When the car camp was removed in 1989, a trash dump with approximately 1,500 pounds of cans, bottles, wire, and metal was trucked out. The long Euroamerican occupation of the area and the lack of any diagnostic prehistoric artifacts at an intensively used site suggest an increased potential for illegal collection as well. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, fire crews used this site as a spike camp. An Archeological Resource Advisor was stationed here during the fire and monitored all activity on the site. Over 100 people occupied the site at one time, and pit toilets and sump pits were dug on site. These pits were placed in previously disturbed areas and the archeologist monitored excavations, observing no features or artifacts during this work. Handlines were located throughout the site area. The archeologist monitored the placement of the handlines in the site area in order to avoid features and to protect the remains of collapsed wooden buildings. The fire crews further protected the wooden remains and Ranger Station with old fire shelters to keep sparks from igniting them. Several of the handlines exposed trash dumps containing bottles and cans. Bottles were collected by the camp work crew, but were replaced upon the request of the archeologist. However, bottles and cans that were observed on the site in the fall of 1996 were not relocated during the 1997 field season. Direct fire effects to the site appear to have been minimal due to the actions taken to preserve the area with handlines and backfiring. Although areas were burned, the intensity of the fire was low and, in general, consisted of a ground fire. CA-TUO-86/87/H Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site complex as two separate sites in 1951 (Bennyhoff 1956). The site records provide only very brief location information, with no description of site constituents. Current Results. The site is located on the first large flat area above the Hetch Hetchy switchbacks, overlooking the Tuolumne River canyon. It is situated on three terraces with a spring-fed drainage bisecting the middle terrace. Six milling stations with a total of 38 mortars and a variable density debitage and flaked stone tool scatter comprise the site. The trail passes over two of the milling features. Feature 1, at the southern end of the site, likely represents the original CA-TUO-86, while Feature 6, at the northern end of the site, likely represents the original CA-TUO-87. Survey of the area resulted in the location of four additional milling features and lithic scatters on the terraces between the two features. No other site was observed for more than a mile up the trail, indicating that CATUO-86 and -87 were, indeed, one site. The site measures 250 x 160 m, encompassing 31,400 m2. The lithic scatter varies in density between the terraces, but all pieces are obsidian. Maximum flake density on the lowest terrace is 8/m2, 10/m2 on the second terrace, and 1/m2 on the third terrace. Seventeen obsidian flaked stone tools were recorded, including 13 edge-modified pieces, two biface fragments, and two projectile points. Several flakes exhibiting minimal edge modification were noted. Both projectile points were collected: a Large Sidenotched projectile point that appears to be reworked (Cat. No. 98305) and a non-diagnostic projectile point 31 midsection (Cat. No. 98306). The presence of a reliable water source and the relatively easy access in and out of the steep-walled Hetch Hetchy Valley suggest that this site may have been along a prehistoric travel route. Numerous historical or modern items were observed on the first terrace, including cigar tins, barrel hoops, metal cans, glass fragments, metal fragments, and a cast-iron wood-burning stove door with an ornamental pattern of a rectangular protruding shield. These items may be the remains of historical camping for trail or road construction purposes. Snyder (personal communication 1999) indicates that there is an old trail from the upper flat to an abandoned USGS gauging station on Falls Creek, but these features were not observed during site recording. Site Chronology. The milling features are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The Large Side-notched point with a hydration rim of 4.98 microns (Bodie Hills obsidian) indicates earlier use, possibly during the Late Prehistoric 1 Period. Temporally diagnostic historical artifacts include amethyst-tinted glass fragments, which indicate manufacture from 1880 to 1916 (Rock 1990). Disturbances. The trail bisecting the site is heavily used, and because the spring is the first water after the switchbacks, it is frequently a resting and camping spot for hikers. A modern fire ring with associated trash is located on the lowest terrace, as are several artifacts that could either be historic or modern (ax head, shoe leathers). The trail passes directly over features 1 and 6, resulting in ongoing damage to the milling features by hikers and horses. Feature 1 has a granite rock ramp built up to its surface. Wildfires have burned the site twice since 1990. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 50 percent of the site, consuming most vegetation in the western site area. Areas around the spring were moister and did not burn. Burned trees (and the resulting stump holes) and intensely burned large ground fuels may have impacted the subsurface deposit. On the middle terrace of the site, a number of small gullies have are developing where water drains from the trail toward the spring drainage. These gullies are forming as a result of both the fire and the present diversion structures along the trail, which direct run-off across the site area. The trail was used as the fireline, though several cuts were made where the trail meandered in order to keep a straighter line, resulting in some soil displacement. A Resource Advisor monitored rehabilitation of the handlines during the 1997 field season. CA-TUO-88 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1951 (Bennyhoff 1956), with site location the only entry in the site record: “Ca. 3/4 mi. up Vernon Lake Trail from Hetch-Hetchy - Lake Eleanor Rd.” Current Results. This small site is located on a large bench immediately west of the trail toward Beehive/Laurel Lake from Hetch Hetchy. A few small oaks and pines populate the site area and an intermittent stream is to the west. Cultural material includes one milling feature with 15 mortars and six obsidian flakes, with a maximum debitage density of 1/m2. The site measures 20 x 13 m, encompassing an area of 204 m2. Lacking definitive location and site data, this site was difficult to positively identify as CA-TUO-88. The original site record indicates that the site is only 0.25 mile past CA-TUO-87, while this site is 1.1 miles farther north. No other sites were observed in between these two areas; therefore the CA-TUO-88 trinomial was ascribed to this site. It is probable that this is one of the sites recorded in 1951, since the trail is within a few meters of the milling station and would not be easily missed, but the large distance may indicate that this was not originally CA-TUO88. It is possible that the trail was rerouted in the last 50 years, but it is impossible to follow the old route now. Site Chronology. The milling feature indicates use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. A nearby fire ring and modern trash indicate that the site is used occasionally as a campsite. The Ackerson Complex Fire killed two of the four trees on or near the site and consumed a manzanita thicket nearby. However, most of the site is open with little vegetation, resulting in little or no direct fire effects. The trail that is adjacent to the site was cleared for use as a fireline, but no ground disturbance was involved. Personnel monitoring the fireline slept on the site during the fire as well. It appears that there was little impact to the site as a whole. CA-TUO-89 32 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1951 (Bennyhoff 1956). The site record contained only location information: “Ca. 1 mi. up Vernon Lake Trail from Hetch-Hetchy - Lake Eleanor Rd.” No artifacts or features are mentioned, making positive identification of the original site difficult. Current Results. The site is situated adjacent to the Hetch Hetchy to Beehive trail on the crest of a morainal ridge, overlooking the Tuolumne drainage to the southeast and a pond to the northwest. The pond is known locally as Swamp Lake, and shouldn’t be confused with the larger Swamp Lake southeast of Miguel Meadow. Cultural material includes two milling stations on neighboring flat boulders and a very light obsidian debitage scatter. The milling features contain a total of six mortars and a milling slick, and a cobble pestle is in association with Feature 1. The site is very small, measuring 10 x 18 m and encompassing an area of 141 m2. Snyder (personal communication 1999) indicates that an old Indian trail traverses the moraine system as part of its route between Lake Eleanor, Falls Creek, and Tiltill Valley, but the field crew did not locate the trail during site recording. Site Chronology. The milling features are indicators of the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. There are two fire rings located just outside the site boundary, with areas cleared of rocks for sleeping. Modern trash is also located on the site and stuffed into a rotting tree stump. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site; however, the Frog Creek Fire burned the site in 1991. No fire suppression activities took place at this site. CA-TUO-102 Previous Investigations. The Yosemite School of Field Natural History originally located this site (Bennett 1941). James Bennyhoff (1956) of the UCAS recorded the site in 1952 based on the contents of Bennett’s report, rather than a field visit. The site record states: “Bennett (ms.) records 1 bedrock mortar rock here. No additional details available.” Current Results. Current investigations indicate that the site consists of two milling features on granite outcrops along the northwestern edge of Swamp Lake. Feature 1 has four mortars, while Feature 2 contains seven mortars. From a photograph in the Ethnology Report on Swamp Lake Area (Bennett 1941), it is likely that Feature 2 is the milling feature that Bennett recorded. A thorough survey of the area failed to locate any artifacts or debitage. The site measures 85 x 12 m, encompassing 801 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. Pre-fire impacts to the site include a trail to the north of the site, with modern tin cans and metal pipes on the site. Fire impacts were minimal, with only 50 percent of the site burned. CA-TUO-3963H Current Results. Yosemite Archeologists Jane Caputo and Suzanna Montague recorded the Lake Eleanor Road during the late fall of 1996 and provided a short summary (Appendix C) as part of the current project. From O’Shaughnessy Dam at Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, the road switchbacks up to the northern rim of the Tuolumne River, then generally follows the Miguel Creek drainage until gently descending to the Eleanor Dam. The dirt road is 11.5-miles long and is, on average, 12-ft wide. Sixty-four features were documented along the road corridor, including rock retaining walls, culverts, bridges, borrow pits, a tunnel, artifact scatters, and miscellaneous rockwork. Twenty-one artifacts were located adjacent to or on the Lake Eleanor Road. They include an ax-hewn log, can fragments, 16 round and octagonal ceramic insulators, an aqua glass insulator, and a large section of pipe. The insulators likely represent a branch phone line from Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor constructed in 1909. This phone line may have followed the original trail to a U.S. Cavalry base established at Lake Eleanor during the years the Cavalry administered the park (Greene 1987:1177). Site Chronology. The 11.5-mile-long road was built in 1916-1917 along the general alignment of an existing trail to aid in the construction of the Eleanor Dam. The Lake Eleanor Road is a small segment of a massive water and power conveyance system built by the CCSF in the early part of the twentieth century and still in use today. Currently, the section of road between the Eleanor Dam and Miguel Meadow is maintained by the NPS for emergency vehicle access, while the Hetch Hetchy to Miguel Meadow segment is maintained by the NPS as a trail. 33 This popular trail provides hiker access to the northern portion of Yosemite. The road generally follows its original alignment, except for a short section at Hetch Hetchy, which was re-routed in association with the 1935-1938 raising of the dam level. The only temporally diagnostic artifact observed is an aqua “HEMINGRAY” insulator. Such pieces were manufactured between 1890, when that embossing first appeared, and 1933, when aqua-colored insulators were no longer made (Woodward 1967). Disturbances. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned along most of the length of the Lake Eleanor Road; however, the condition of the road varies with road grade, slope of surrounding areas, and current use. The initial 4.0 miles above Hetch Hetchy Reservoir consists of eight switchbacks up the steep northern canyon slope. Erosion of this section has been substantial and alterations (recent retaining walls) are evident. Erosion is expected to increase along this section due to the loss by fire of the stabilizing trees and understory vegetation. The 3.5-mile-section from the top of the switchbacks to Miguel Meadow is gently undulating and in good condition, although this portion has been maintained as a trail only. The 4.0-mile-segment from Miguel Meadow to Lake Eleanor has been maintained as a road and is in good condition. CA-TUO-3972H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) originally documented the tramway terminus or loading terminal for the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey as Structure 25. It is located on a flat gravel area at the southeastern edge of Gravel Pit Lake. Snyder describes it as concrete foundations used for a “loading platform and aerial tram tower for hauling sand and gravel for the raising of Hetch Hetchy in 1936.” It was dismantled in 1938, and is now partially covered with soil and duff. This is the beginning of the three-mile-long aerial tramway to O’Shaughnessy Dam. Current Results. This site was re-recorded and submitted for a trinomial as a part of the current project. This site consists of two concrete foundations and associated artifacts that are the remains of a loading and work area for the gravel conveyance system. Feature 1 is a foundation for a piece of machinery. It is constructed from concrete and has fragments of cut-iron rebar protruding from its upper surfaces. The bolts that protrude from the tops of these foundations vary in width from 0.75 to 1.5 inch in diameter. Some are threaded on their ends. Feature 2 consists of two square eroded concrete foundations constructed from local glacial outwash material. Scattered about the features are numerous washers and nuts. The washers are embossed with “HALLS EAGLE.” The site measures 65 x 85 m, encompassing an area of 1,475 m2. Site Chronology. This area, a large glacial deposit, was used from 1936 to 1938 as the source for gravel and sand in the enlargement of the O’Shaughnessy Dam at Hetch Hetchy Reservoir. The structures were dismantled and removed in 1938. The area is currently used as a campsite for backpackers. Disturbances. Snyder observed fire rings and camping trash in 1991, and stated that this site receives fairly frequent use in spring and early summer. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned the ground vegetation, which appears to have been light, at best, before the fire. There are no real damages apparent as a result of the fire. CA-TUO-3973H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) originally recorded this site as part of the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. This trinomial represents his structures 26-31, which are the aerial tram towers used to haul sand and gravel to Hetch Hetchy for the raising of the O’Shaughnessy Dam. Snyder recorded seven towers associated with this feature, including CA-TUO-3972H (the loading terminal), and he noted a berm of sand and gravel between the tramway tower that represents spillage. Current Results. Research on this linear site was conducted at the Hetch Hetchy Water and Power archives in Moccasin, California. Results indicated that the gravel conveyance system was an “endless” line that carried 42 buckets, delivering material at a rate of 48 yd3 per hour. The cables of the system were carried on 17 timber towers at spacing that varied with the topography. The longest span that crossed the Tuolumne Canyon was 2,727 ft. The elevations for the various towers ranged from: the loading terminal (CA-TUO-3972H) at 5,040 ft; the highest point at 5,568 ft; and discharge terminal at the dam site at 4,085 ft. The entire system ran by gravity, with the loaded buckets pulling empty buckets back to the loading terminal. The total length of the system was approximately 3 miles by air (Ryan 1937). The aerial tramway towers and associated artifacts were re-recorded for the current investigation. With the heavy brush burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire, visibility was substantially increased, and a total of nine tower locations, not including CA-TUO-3972H, were recorded as one linear site. The three towers not located by Snyder 34 include features 1, 5, and 9. Feature 1, the first in the series of tramway towers, is located just above the Gravel Pit Lake basin atop a 30-ft-high granite outcrop. The feature consists of three concrete foundations, a few carriage bolts, nuts and washers, communication wire, and a small wooden board with wire nails in it. Feature 2 (Snyder’s Structure 26) is also the concrete foundation remains of an aerial tramway tower. Artifacts associated with this feature include fragments of charred boards, large carriage bolts, nuts, wire fragments, nails, rock drill bits, and iron supports and braces. Snyder also recorded an empty 50-gallon drum, which he postulates held lubricant for the tramway. Feature 3 (Snyder’s Structure 27) is typical of all tower features along the gravel conveyance system. The artifacts present at this locale are the same as Feature 2. Feature 4 (Snyder’s Structure 28) is the same as other features except that there are no concrete foundations. Snyder observed that there is “more debris remaining at this tower than at the locations of structures 26 and 27” and that “structure 28 was probably a larger and heavier tower because from this point the cables ran unsupported for 6/10 mile to structure 29 with a 200 foot elevation gain at the same time.” Feature 5 is consistent with the other features on the tramway. A piece of metal was recorded with the words “PENCOYD USA” embossed along its length. No concrete pylons are evident at this feature, but there are four pits. This tower appeared to have the most wooden timbers remaining on site prior to the Ackerson Complex Fire. Feature 6 (Snyder’s Structure 29) contains the largest of the feature areas. Artifacts located here are similar to those noted at other features except that it has five concrete anchor footings at the drop-off to the valley floor. There are also heavy iron machinery parts and a 55-gallon drum with two holes cut in the top. Two large anchor beams are embedded in the ground next to the gravel and sand berm. All wooden framework was consumed in the fire. Feature 7 (Snyder’s Structure 30) is essentially the same as the other features, except for what appears to have been a large pile of wooden beams that were burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire. Feature 8 (Snyder’s Structure 31) is located at a point overlooking the Tuolumne River canyon. Based on the amount of debris in the area and the location of the tower on the canyon rim, Feature 8 may have been larger than the other towers. Artifacts are similar to those at the other feature areas, with additional items including one rectangular gravel conveyance bucket of weld-riveted construction, tobacco tins, barrel hoops, two shovelheads, sheet metal fragments, two sardine tins, a carbon battery core, and a crushed galvanized steel bucket. The fire consumed numerous structural wooden remains at this feature. Feature 9 has a few charred remains of the wooden support beams and only one concrete anchor footing. Along the entire length of this linear site, the gravel and sand berm noted by Snyder could still be seen. Site Chronology. This site was used between 1936 and 1938 for the transportation of gravel to the O’Shaughnessy Dam location (Ryan 1937). It appears that after the completion of the dam raising project, the gravel conveyance system was dismantled, with much of the equipment removed or left to decay. Disturbances. As required by the Raker Act, all debris resulting from the construction of the Hetch Hetchy system was to be removed upon completion of this massive project. In the late 1930s, CCC crews dismantled and removed several of the towers, burned a number of the towers, and dismantled and abandoned some of the less accessible towers. Snyder’s records indicate that structural wood remains were present at some of the tower locations in 1991, but none were relocated during the current project, indicating that those flammable resources were burned in the Ackerson Complex Fire. It appears that features 1-4 were dismantled and burned in the 1930s, but features 5-9 were dismantled in the 1930s, left on the ground, and not burned until the 1996 Ackerson Complex Fire. CA-TUO-3974/H Current Results. This site is located at the intersection of the Lake Eleanor Road and the road to Gravel Pit Lake. The prehistoric component consists of two milling features, with a total of nine mortars and one slick, located on a granite outcrop. No other prehistoric artifacts were observed, although the duff cover is substantial. The historicperiod component consists of abundant debris, including metal cans, bottle fragments, and a green insulator. Metal cans are relatively evenly dispersed throughout the site, with a concentration in the northwestern corner of the road junction. The artifacts may be associated with both the CCSF’s development of the area and a snow survey/storage cabin that was on this site from 1958 to 1990. The footprint of the cabin is located on the south side of the road (which is now managed as a trail). Snyder (personal communication 1999) notes that the snow survey cabin, a metal Quonset hut type of structure, was actually a supply and maintenance cabin, used to supply the snow survey cabins at Vernon and Wilmer lakes. This site is also the possible location of a CCSF camp for road construction or work at Gravel Pit Lake. The site measures 50 m x 55 m, encompassing 2,159 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features suggest use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The historical component encompasses several periods of use. The Lake Eleanor Road, which bisects the site, was constructed in 1916-1917. If this site is the location of a CCSF camp used during raising of O’Shaughnessy Dam, 35 it would date from 1936 to 1938. Finally, the snow survey/storage cabin was built in 1958 and removed in 1990. Much of the trash in the site area is temporally non-diagnostic and may be modern, although a green “HEMINGRAY” insulator may have been manufactured between the 1890s and 1967 (Woodward 1967). Disturbances. The heavy duff layer precluded recognition of a prehistoric surface deposit, but potential impacts include construction of the Lake Eleanor Road. The Ackerson Complex Fire caused a small amount of exfoliation on both granite features. There are several possible mortars that were not recorded since exfoliation resulted in their shape and original surface being altered beyond positive identification. The snow survey/storage cabin was removed in 1990, and a group of workers had been through the area sometime in the last 20 to 30 years removing historical debris. A green “HEMINGRAY” insulator recorded on the north side of the road was partially melted and cracked as a result of the fire. CA-TUO-3975H Current Results. This site is the road from Gravel Pit Lake to the Lake Eleanor Road. It measures 0.5 mile in length, and averages 16 ft in width. Near Gravel Pit Lake, a 300-ft-long section has the remains of asphalt covering on it, and small patches still exist along the rest of the road. The only features present are 8-inch-high earthen berms along the road edges created by blading of the road surface. The road is now maintained as a trail. Site Chronology. This road was constructed in the 1930s by the CCSF to access the glacial sand and gravel deposits at what has become Gravel Pit Lake. The sand and gravel deposit was used in the concrete for the enlargement of the O’Shaughnessy Dam. This and other roads were also built to allow public access to a formally inaccessible area of the park as payment for the use and building of the dam. The road was closed to vehicular traffic in the late 1960s. Disturbances. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, a large tree fell and blocked the road and a few stump holes can be seen alongside the road, resulting in little or no damage to the site. CA-TUO-3976 Current Results. This site is located on an open, sandy, boulder-strewn flat that gently slopes toward Miguel Creek several hundred meters to the south. The site consists of two milling stations with a total of 10 mortars, a cobble pestle associated with one of the features, and a light obsidian debitage scatter. Only seven flakes were observed on the surface, with a maximum flake density of 1/m2. The site measures 35 x 17 m, encompassing an area of 467 m2. Site Chronology. The milling stations are traits of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. This site is in close proximity to CA-TUO-3977 and the other sites in the Miguel Meadow area, which also appear to contain late prehistoric materials. Disturbances. The site is in relatively good condition, although some disturbances have resulted from the Ackerson Complex Fire. The fire burned intensely through the site, killing all trees and vegetation and completely consuming most of the small brush and saplings. Both milling features exhibit some exfoliation, and small erosion channels and slope wash were observed. Obsidian debitage was noted in the drainage 50 m to the south, most likely the result of erosion. CA-TUO-3977 Current Results. This site is east of CA-TUO-3976 on the same open sandy flat, although there is slightly denser tree growth at CA-TUO-3977. The site consists of three milling stations with associated pestles, a rockshelter, and an obsidian flaked stone tool and debitage scatter. The milling features contain a total of 22 mortars, one milling slick, and six pestles. The rockshelter is a 10-m-high boulder located in the center of the site with an overhang on the southern edge. The area beneath the overhang has dark midden soil, and the highest flake concentration is located within 10 m of the rockshelter. The maximum debitage density of 5/m2 is within the overhang. Two Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points (Cat. Nos. 98343 and 98344) were collected, and an edge-modified flake was left in place. The site measures 40 x 68 m, encompassing an area of 2,135 m2. Site Chronology. The two Rosegate series projectile points, with hydration rims of 2.2 and 3.79 microns (Mt. Hicks and Bodie Hills obsidians, respectively), and the stationary milling equipment suggest Late Prehistoric 2 Period use, although milling features are indicative of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period as well. 36 Disturbances. This site burned intensely during the Ackerson Complex Fire, killing most of the vegetation. A large tree fell during or shortly after the fire, creating a root hole. Erosion channels are enlarging on either side of the rockshelter and slope wash is evident. A modern fire ring with recent trash is located within the site boundary, and several others are nearby. CA-TUO-3978 Current Results. The site is located on the edge of a morainal ridge, 40 m above a boggy pond near Swamp Lake. A single milling station on a large flat boulder with three mortars and one associated cobble pestle comprise the site. The area around the boulder was thoroughly surveyed, but no other cultural materials were observed. The site measures 10 x 10 m, encompassing an area of 78 m2. Site Chronology. The site is either associated with the Late Prehistoric 2 or the Late Prehistoric 3 periods. The lack of any other cultural material makes precise temporal ascription impossible. Disturbances. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned through the site at very high intensity, killing every tree in the general area. There were stump holes in the area, but the milling feature was not affected. CA-TUO-3979H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) recorded this road as Trail 45 as part of the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. This 1.1-mile-long road accessed the tram towers for the Gravel Conveyance System. Snyder (1991) describes it as follows: The road takes the route of least resistance up the hill and meanders around rocks, slickrock, ponds and woods. Rocks, which were pushed out of the way, form junky walls, with no drainage features. There are about five switchbacks to the top of the plateau. The last one was very steep. Two yellow pines were used as deadmen, with cable and boards around trees with winch to pull up vehicles. A bulldozed platform and empty 50 gallon drum nearby were part of the winching operation. Current Results. This site was re-recorded to assess the fire damages and to obtain a trinomial. The dirt road is approximately 15 ft wide, with earthen and rock berms lining the side of the road. The road begins at the Lake Eleanor Road and terminates at Feature 6 of CA-TUO-3973H, the aerial tramway. Site Chronology. The road was built in 1936 by the CCSF to access the tramway towers that were part of the Gravel Conveyance System. The aerial tramway conveyed sand and gravel from the Gravel Pit Lake area to O’Shaughnessy Dam for enlargement of the dam. It was abandoned in 1938 or 1939 after completion of the dam and the dismantling of the tramway. The CCSF also built the road as part of the agreement with the NPS to provide public access to formally inaccessible areas of the park. Disturbances. Impacts to the road have been limited to natural weathering, and it was relatively unaffected by the Ackerson Complex Fire except for the possibility of accelerated erosion. The road is in excellent condition, and appears to have received little use since it was abandoned. CA-TUO-3980 Current Results. The site consists of a bedrock milling station with three mortars and a cupule; three associated, unshaped cobble pestles; two projectile point fragments; and a sparse obsidian debitage scatter with two obsidian edge-modified pieces. Both projectile point fragments were collected: Cat. No. 98345 is a Desert Side-notched point and Cat. No. 98346 is a Cottonwood Triangular point. The site is located on a boulder-strewn plateau next to a small, glacially formed pond. Measuring 30 x 41 m, the site encompasses 965 m2. 37 Site Chronology. The two Desert series points, with hydration rims of 1.39 and 1.69 microns (Bodie Hills obsidian), and the bedrock milling station are traits of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period, although the milling feature may be a marker of the Late Prehistoric 2 Period as well. Disturbances. The construction of the tramway access road, CA-TUO-3979H, disturbed the northern site area, possibly removing features and other cultural materials. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 100 percent of the site surface, consuming all brush and trees less than 3 m in height. The milling station exhibits serious exfoliation caused by the fire, possibly obliterating other mortars or milling surfaces. CA-TUO-3981H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) recorded this site as Trail 43 as part of the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. It is an access road built by the CCSF to Swamp Lake, originating behind the barn at Miguel Meadow and terminating approximately 400 ft northwest of Swamp Lake. A footpath continues to the lake. Current Results. The site was re-recorded to document fire effects and to obtain a trinomial. The road is approximately 1 mile long and averages 15 ft wide. Blading of the road has resulted in an earthen berm along the length of the road. Some stone work was completed on the slickrock over the ridge between Miguel Meadow and the ponds. Site Chronology. The road was built in 1935-36 to access Swamp Lake as a possible source of sand and gravel for the enlargement of O’Shaughnessy Dam. As indicated above, the deposits at Gravel Pit Lake were used instead of the Swamp Lake deposits. It is difficult to identify the trail/road at Miguel Meadow, suggesting that it was probably abandoned and not maintained soon after it was built. Disturbances. This road is in generally good condition, with natural erosion comprising the only disturbance. Several large trees have fallen across the road, and a short section is difficult to follow due to vegetation growth and erosion. The fire burned intensely in this area, but due to the nature of the site it was not impacted. Possible slope wash and increased erosion in the future may further impact the road. CA-TUO-3985 Current Results. This site is located on the north side of Frog Creek, opposite CA-TUO-3990, on two relatively flat, densely wooded and brushy benches. It consists of a milling station with four mortars, a possible fifth eroded mortar, and a sparse obsidian debitage scatter. Debitage is dispersed throughout the site, consisting of opaque and banded varieties of obsidian. No tools were observed. The site measures 90 x 135 m, covering an area of 9,538 m2. Site Chronology. The milling station is a trait of the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Disturbances. The trail to Laurel Lake is just east of the site, and modern fire rings and associated trash are on the site surface. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site, and no suppression activities were carried out within the site boundary. CA-TUO-3990 Current Results. This site is located on the south side of Frog Creek, opposite CA-TUO-3985, in an open area with a few black oaks and Jeffrey pines. The site is bordered on the north and west by Frog Creek and on the south and east by a large granite outcrop and boulder field. It is situated on the last flat area before Frog Creek begins its steep descent to Lake Eleanor. Three milling features are present on the site, containing a total of 24 mortars and one milling slick. Additionally, 12 pestles, one handstone, and a sparse scatter of obsidian debitage (in the sandy portion of the site) were observed. Measuring 35 x 15 m, the site encompasses 412 m2. Site Chronology. The Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period may be represented at this site. Handstones may be related to earlier use in Yosemite, although this has yet to be confirmed. Disturbances. Fire personnel used the site a camping area. At that time several pestles were used to make a rock fire ring. A Resource Advisor replaced the pestles in their original location by comparing their shape to the lichen and soil stains left by their removal. Approximately 75 percent of the site area was lightly to moderately burned; the other 25 percent is bedrock. Direct fire damages are minimal. Some large fuels were consumed which may have 38 affected the subsurface deposit, and several stump holes were present immediately after the fire. The stump holes are no longer evident, possibly due to the flooding of January 1997. The site is located adjacent to Frog Creek, which likely deposited sand in the holes during the high water event. CA-TUO-3991 Current Results. This site was located during the Ackerson Complex Fire by crews stationed at Miguel Meadow. It is situated on a series of terraces above Gravel Pit Lake, and consists of nine milling stations on boulders and bedrock and three substantial lithic concentrations. The milling features contain a total of 62 mortars, and three features have one pestle each in association. Lithic materials are primarily obsidian, with one occurrence of chalcedony. The maximum debitage density is 15/m2 in several locations on the site. Three obsidian projectile points were recovered: a Rose Spring Corner-notched fragment (Cat. No. 98357); a Desert Side-notched fragment (Cat. No. 98358); and a Large Corner-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98359). Additionally, one chalcedony core, six obsidian edge-modified pieces, and four obsidian projectile point fragments were documented in place. The site measures 280 x 180 m, covering an area of 39,564 m2. Site Chronology. The Desert and Rosegate series points, with hydration rims of 1.65 and 1.73 microns (Bodie Hills obsidian), respectively, and the milling features suggest Late Prehistoric 3 Period use. The second hydration rim of 3.21 microns on the Rosegate point represents the hydration measurement for the parent flake used to make the point. The Large Corner-notched specimen, with a relatively thick hydration rim of 5.9 microns (Casa Diablo obsidian), suggests earlier site use, possibly associated with the Late Prehistoric 1 Period. Disturbances. A trail bisects the site and a modern fire ring with trash is located on the site. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned 70 percent of the site. No exfoliation was observed on the milling features, but smoke blackening was evident on features 8 and 9. Large downed trees that burned may have affected subsurface deposits and stump holes could be misidentified in the future as cultural features. CA-TUO-3992 Current Results. This small site is located just to the south of the hill crest along the trail from Miguel Meadow to Frog Creek on a low north-south trending finger ridge between two drainages. It consists of four obsidian flakes dispersed over a large area, and a single mortar on a flat boulder. The site is 90 m long and 35 m wide, covering an area of 2,473 m2. Site Chronology. The milling station indicates site use during either the Late Prehistoric 3 or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. The area was thoroughly surveyed for additional features and artifacts, but none were observed. Disturbances. This site is bisected by the trail, which has caused minimal disturbance. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 100 percent of the site, consuming the smaller vegetation and trees and resulting in minimal spalling of the milling feature. CA-TUO-3993 Current Results. This site is located along the trail to North Mountain near an unnamed pond, and consists of a dense lithic scatter, three bedrock milling features with 16 mortars and one milling slick, and a few scattered historical artifacts. The maximum flake density is 20/m2, while the remainder of the site averages 5/m2. Lithic material includes a translucent to opaque black obsidian, mahogany obsidian, red chert, and few pieces of quartz, basalt, and a gray-blue slate material. The lithic concentration contains hundreds of flakes of many different sizes, scar patterns, and fracture patterns, suggesting that various stages of reduction are represented. No diagnostic artifacts were observed, although four obsidian edge-modified flakes and three biface fragments were recorded. The historical artifacts included a portion of a Dutch Oven and the rusted fragment of a shovelhead, as well as two spools of barbed wire. The site measures 200 x 120 m, encompassing an area of 18,840 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The historic-period artifacts point to more recent use of the site, possibly during the 1890s when the Miguel Meadow area was used for grazing livestock. Earlier use, prior to homesteading, is also possible. Disturbances. The site is close to the trail to North Mountain, but it appears to be in good condition. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 100 percent of the site at varying degrees of intensity. To the north of the drainage, the intensity of the fire was much hotter than to the south of the drainage. Throughout the site, individual trees 39 were completely consumed by fire, and multiple root holes are evident. Due to the patchiness of the burn over the site area, erosion and sheet wash will likely be minimal. Some exfoliation was observed on rocks and boulders within the site area. P-55-4604 This isolated bedrock milling station contains a single mortar. It is located on a sandy flat on top of a small ridge, just east of a small glacially formed lake along the trail to North Mountain. To the east of this feature, the landscape drops away sharply into the Poopenaut Valley. The surrounding area was thoroughly surveyed for additional cultural constituents, but none were observed. P-55-4605 This milling station with a single mortar and milling slick on volcanic rock is located approximately 400 m southwest of P-55-4604. It is located in a large lava field among numerous low-lying boulders with a western aspect. The surrounding area was intensively surveyed for other cultural constituents, but none were observed. P-55-4606 Two hundred meters upslope and east of P-55-4605 is a granite boulder with a single mortar. It is located next to the North Mountain Trail in the saddle of a ridge. A black oak tree borders the feature and there are numerous boulders and brush in the vicinity. A thorough survey of the area did not reveal any additional features or artifacts. Tuolumne River This portion of the project covers the Tuolumne River drainage bottom for two miles below O’Shaughnessy Dam, ranging in elevation from 1,030 to 1,097 m (3,380 to 3,600 ft). The river canyon consists of deeply weathered granitic rocks with some areas of glacial deposit and alluvial flats. Most of the alluvial flats along the river contain aboriginal sites. The canyon walls are steep, and travel through portions of this area is extremely difficult. The most abundant tree is the ponderosa pine, closely followed by the black oak. Chaparral is present on several sites, with deer brush, manzanita, and abundant poison oak. CA-TUO-61/62 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site complex as two distinct sites along the Tuolumne River in Poopenaut Valley (Bennyhoff 1956). The site records contain only location information, resulting in some difficulty in positively identifying the sites. The record notes that CA-TUO-61 is on the first flat above Poopenaut Valley on the south side of stream that enters the Tuolumne, while CA-TUO-62 is the “same as Tuo-61 only on the N. side of stream and back against the hills” (Bennyhoff 1956). Current Results. This site is located on a flat surrounded by large granite outcrops on both sides of an intermittent drainage entering the Tuolumne River from the south. The area is moderately forested and overgrown, making delineation of the site boundary difficult. Cultural material includes two milling stations with nine mortars and 18 cobble pestles and two handstones in association with one of the features. No flaked stone materials were observed, possibly due to the dense understory. The ground is completely covered by tall grasses and grapevines, obscuring the site surface. The site measures 130 x 50 m, encompassing an area of 5,103 m2. Site Chronology. The milling stations are traits of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and/or the Late Prehistoric 2 Periods. No other diagnostic artifacts or features were observed. Disturbances. This site is extremely difficult to access from any direction, which has precluded some types of disturbances. The intermittent drainage that bisects the site appears to change course periodically between two different channels, causing erosion. The Ackerson Complex Fire intensely burned about 50 percent of the site. Logs fell onto Feature 1 and caused portions to exfoliate rapidly, possibly obliterating several mortars. Beneath the burned log were two or three piles of sand, which very likely represented pestles. Most of the oak trees were dead on the site, but have already begun to rejuvenate from the roots. CA-TUO-516 40 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this site in 1975, noting two groups of bedrock mortars with two and four cups, respectively (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). Additionally, nine pestles were located in association with Feature 2. Flaked stone artifacts included a projectile point fragment on Feature 2 and two obsidian flakes. The site measured 137 x 77 m, with an area of 2.6 acres (8,281 m2). The site has also been determined eligible for the NRHP as part of the Hetch Hetchy Archeological District (National Park Service 1979a). The district is discontiguous and only includes two sites in the Hetch Hetchy area, CA-TUO-515 and –516. Current Results. The current findings indicate that Feature 1 contains three mortars and Feature 2 contains six mortars. The pestles associated with Feature 2 appear undisturbed and the projectile point fragment was relocated south and adjacent to Feature 2. No other lithic material was observed on the site. The original site boundary and dimensions still stand. Site Chronology. The milling stations are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. The site is bisected by an access road to the Tuolumne River water gauging station and a road that splits off to access a leach field for a septic system. Power poles and other utilities also cross this site. The site was probably heavily impacted during the construction of O’Shaughnessy Dam. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned the entire site, scorching the trees and large downed wood and burning the duff from the ground surface. Cultural materials were not affected. CA-TUO-3986 Current Results. This site is located on a large, relatively open flat on the south side of the Tuolumne River. Cultural material includes a total of 13 obsidian flakes and a single granite hammerstone. The cobble hammerstone was located with four other cobbles wedged into a large crack that goes into and under a large outcrop. The obsidian debitage is opaque black and water-worn, and two of the pieces appear to be utilized. The site measures 120 x 70 m, encompassing an area of 6,594 m2. Site Chronology. No temporally diagnostic features or artifacts were located. Disturbances. The site appears to be regularly impacted by high water flows from the reservoir, possibly resulting in displacement or burial of cultural material. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not affect this site. CA-TUO-3987 Current Results. This site is located on the northern side of the Tuolumne River, opposite from CA-TUO-3986, on a large, open, sandy flat surrounded by black oaks and large granite outcrops. It consists of a milling station, with 11 mortars in association with eight cobble pestles, and a light obsidian lithic scatter. Most of the flakes are located near the milling feature, and the maximum debitage density is 1/m2. An obsidian projectile point fragment and an obsidian edge-modified flake were observed, but they were not collected. The site measures 56 x 60 m, encompassing 2,640 m2. Site Chronology. The presence of the milling station indicates Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 Period use. Disturbances. The site is bisected by an infrequently used social trail that follows the Tuolumne River, and camping has occurred on the site. The river inundates the site during high water events, causing erosion and deposition of sediments. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned the entire site, resulting in minimal exfoliation of the milling feature and some gully formation. CA-TUO-3988 Current Results. This large site is located south of the Tuolumne River in Poopenaut Valley, on a large sandy flat with bedrock outcrops and sand dunes. There is an intermittent drainage crossing the site near the eastern boundary and a large pool is in the Tuolumne River at this location. The site consists of four granite bedrock milling stations, with a total of 28 mortars and 15 pestles, and a variable-density lithic scatter. Two loci are apparent. 41 Locus 1 is the main site area, containing three of the milling features and all of the observed lithics. Locus 2 consists of Feature 4, a bedrock outcrop with 11 mortars and at least seven pestles. There are two lithic concentrations within Locus 1, one in the central sandy flat and the other in the open forested area. Maximum debitage density in both concentrations is 10/m2. Lithic materials are quite diverse, including black and mahogany obsidian, quartz, quartzite, basalt, chert, and chalcedony. Five diagnostic artifacts were collected from this site: two obsidian Rose Spring Contracting Stem points (Cat. Nos. 98349 and 98355); an obsidian Desert Side-notched point (Cat. No. 98354); an obsidian Cottonwood Triangular point (Cat. No. 98350); and a chert expanding-base drill fragment (Cat. No. 98352). Additionally, four non-diagnostic biface and point fragments were recovered (Cat. Nos. 98348, 98351, 98353, and 98356). Three obsidian biface fragments and six obsidian edge-modified flakes were observed, but they were not collected. The site measures 125 x 175 m, encompassing an area of 17,172 m2. Site Chronology. The Rosegate and Desert series points, the milling features, and hydration rims ranging from 0.89 to 3.23 microns (Bodie Hills) suggest multiple occupations during the Late Prehistoric 2 and Late Prehistoric 3 periods. Disturbances. The site is difficult to reach and therefore receives little visitation. A small amount of modern trash is present on the site near the Tuolumne River, which could have been deposited by high water or which could be remnants of modern camping. High water inundates the site on occasion, causing erosion and deposition of sediments. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned the southern portion of the site, but did not appear to cause any damage to the cultural constituents. CA-TUO-3994 Current Results. This site is located directly across the Tuolumne River from CA-TUO-3988 in the Poopenaut Valley on a large flat with sand dunes, an open forest, and a large bedrock outcrop. An unnamed intermittent drainage borders the site to the north and east and the Tuolumne River flows at the southern boundary. Just north of the intermittent drainage lies a large open meadow that continues to the wall of the canyon. As noted above, the Tuolumne River forms a large pool at this location. The site consists of locally dense lithic concentrations, three milling stations with 15 mortars on a large bedrock outcrop, and three possible housepits. The outcrop with the milling features borders the river, and the features are located on finger extensions on the land side of the outcrop. Large amounts of silt and duff have accumulated on this and other outcrops in the area, possibly obscuring additional features. Several depressions were observed on the site that may represent housepits. The first measures 2.8 m in diameter by 10 cm at maximum depth, and is located in the southwestern site area. Two other larger depressions, measuring 4-5 m in diameter, were observed on the sandy ridge in the northern site area. Since large ponderosa pines form a small forest in this area, the two larger depressions may represent tree throws. There are three distinct lithic concentrations, although debitage is dispersed throughout the site area. The largest concentration has a maximum flake density of 9/m2, while the other two have maximum densities of 5/m2. Lithic materials are similar at all concentrations, consisting of 95 percent mixed obsidian (mainly black with some mahogany) and 5 percent quartzite, chert, chalcedony, quartz, and basalt. Six flaked stone artifacts were recovered: two obsidian drill fragments (Cat. Nos. 98360 and 98361); an obsidian Desert Side-notched, General Subtype, point fragment (Cat. No. 98365); an obsidian Cottonwood Triangular point (Cat. No. 98362); a Rose Spring Corner-notched point (Cat. No. 98364); and a large concave base point (Cat. No. 98363) sourced as Napa Valley obsidian. Three edge-modified pieces and two biface fragments, all obsidian, were documented, but they were not collected. Numerous unifacially and bifacially worked obsidian flakes were also observed. The site measures 180 x 140 m, encompassing an area of 20,000 m2. Time limitations prevented a complete survey of this area and it may be that the site is larger in size with additional features, or that there are other sites in the immediate area. Site Chronology. The milling features, Desert and Rosegate series projectile points, and obsidian hydration rims measuring between 1.84 and 3.92 microns (Bodie Hills, Casa Diablo, and Napa Valley obsidians) suggest multiple occupations during the Late Prehistoric 3 and Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Without debitage data and a sourcespecific hydration range for Napa Valley obsidian, it is difficult to place that piece within the Yosemite chronological framework. The CA-MRP-3994 cultural materials are remarkably similar to those observed at CA-TUO-3988, located directly across the river. 42 Disturbances. This site is in excellent condition, possibly because it is extremely difficult to reach and receives few visitors. However, recent campfire remains are located near the beach and modern trash is scattered lightly throughout the site. Portions of the site are inundated during high water releases from Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, causing erosion and deposition of sediments. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 50 percent of the site. The site appears to have supported mostly grasses with scattered brush and trees, resulting in a light intensity burn. In a few places small trees burned completely leaving stump holes or fallen trees, which do not appear to have had much effect on the site. P-55-4602 This isolate consists of two obsidian flakes located on a rocky flat on the north side of the Tuolumne River, east of CA-TUO-3986. The flat is lightly forested with small black oaks and cedars, and it is in the river’s flood plain. A social trail crosses this area. South Rim of the Tuolumne River This project area includes the terrain from south of the river bottom to the rim of the canyon. It includes sites along the Hetch Hetchy Road corridor between the Hetch Hetchy residence area and Camp Mather, and along the trails leading into and out of Hetch Hetchy Valley and Camp Mather toward Smith Meadow. The sites in this area range in elevation from 1,189 to 1,744 m (3,900 to 5,720 ft), and the vegetation primarily consists of yellow pine and oak woodland communities intermixed with chaparral, although red firs populate several site areas at higher elevations. The southern rim area is relatively open, with multiple benches and a viewshed toward the northwest and Poopenaut Valley. Several unnamed intermittent and perennial creeks flow through the area, draining into the Tuolumne River. CA-TUO-214 Previous Investigations. Brooks originally recorded this site in 1952 for the UCAS (Bennyhoff 1956). He described it as a “Village site on side of Tuolumne River Canyon with 1 bedrock mortar (9 holes).” It was rerecorded in 1990 by the Yosemite Archeology Office as five stationary milling features with a total of 75 cups and three milling slicks, one rock construct (possible hunting blind), and a widespread, locally dense lithic scatter (Hanson 1990). The crew also augered the southern site area, determining that the site extended to a depth of 90 cm. Ten artifacts were collected from the surface during the 1990 re-recording, nine of them from Feature 4, a ground-level milling feature with 34 mortars. The collected artifacts included: a Desert Side-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 78887); two projectile point fragments (Cat. Nos. 78888 and 78892); two biface fragments (Cat. Nos. 78889 and 78891); four edge-modified pieces (Cat. Nos. 78890, 78893-78895); and a chert core (Cat. No. 98896). The latter was not associated with Feature 4. The site measures 210 x 120 m, encompassing an area of 17,100 m2. Current Results. The 1990 site record was determined to be accurate, although an additional feature was discovered. During the Ackerson Complex fire, a fireline was cut near the northeastern site boundary to prevent the fire from burning toward the Hetch Hetchy Entrance Kiosk. The site side of the fireline was burned. During mop up of this operation, a handstone was observed on top of a rockpile that was exposed when the hollow oak tree encasing it was burned away. The site area did not increase, since this feature is within the 1990 site boundary. Site Chronology. The Desert series projectile point is associated with the Late Prehistoric 3 Period, while the stationary milling features may be related to the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Portable milling equipment such as the handstone in Feature 7 may be a trait of the Late Prehistoric 1 Period in Yosemite, although this has yet to be substantiated. Disturbances. This site is in good relatively condition, although the Hetch Hetchy Road was constructed through the southern portion of the site. This road construction may have obliterated part of Feature 2, a milling station, while a power line also transgresses the southern site boundary. Forty percent of the site area burned in the Ackerson Complex Fire. Since the fire intensity was low, it had little to no effect on the site. A fireline was cut along the western site boundary, exposing Feature 7. No other cultural remains were observed directly in the fireline. CA-TUO-515 43 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this site in 1975 (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). The site is located on a small sandy flat below a granite cliff and behind the Ranger residences in the Hetch Hetchy housing area. The crew documented one milling station with eight mortars on a flat boulder and a pestle on the ground 1.5 m to the west. Only one obsidian flake was observed on the entire site. The site dimensions measured 32 x 29 m. In 1989, the NPS re-recorded the site and completed small-scale auger testing adjacent to the site in support of a construction project (Laird 1989). Laird (1989) observed three obsidian flakes, a historic-period trash scatter, and the milling feature. The site dimensions measured 10 x 20 m, encompassing an area of 125 m2. Cultural materials were absent from the eight auger tests northwest of the site. The site has been determined eligible for the NRHP as part of the Hetch Hetchy Archeological District (NPS 1979a). The district is discontiguous and includes only two sites in the Hetch Hetchy area, CA-TUO-515 and –516. Current Results. For the current project, archeologists monitored the site and updated the site record. The original pestle was relocated, but neither lithic materials nor historic-period artifacts were noted on the surface. It may be that the historical debris observed in 1989 has been cleaned up. Since the fire did not burn over the site and no fire suppression activities occurred directly on the site, a Fire Effects Form was not completed. Site Chronology. Based on the presence of the milling feature, the site may represent Late Prehistoric 3 or Late Prehistoric 2 Period occupation. Disturbances. The driveway to the Ranger residence is built on the western end of the site. The location of the site in the housing area and adjacent to the road has created conditions that are detrimental to the site. Vehicles are known to park within the site boundary, which has caused considerable compaction of the sediments, and the presence of numerous people in the area may have increased the potential for artifact collection. As noted above, the Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site. CA-TUO-929 Previous Investigations. J.D. Mayberry (1979) originally recorded this site as part of the Circuit Rider Survey for the Western Archeological and Conservation Center. He observed one flake and a midden deposit that was heavily impacted by NPS construction of the building and parking area. No features or artifacts were observed. The site was determined to be 52 x 24 m, encompassing an area of 980 m2. Current Results. This site was resurveyed during the fire and the subsequent 1997 field season. Both surveys failed to locate any cultural material on the surface, although surface visibility was not good due to duff and meadow grass cover. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site. CA-TUO-1594 Previous Investigations. A Yosemite Archeology crew originally recorded the site as a moderately dense scatter of debitage (maximum of 7/m2), tools, fire-broken rock, and four granite bedrock outcrops containing a total of 76 mortar cups and three milling slicks (Hull et al. 1985). The crew also documented damage to the site caused by looting. Three artifacts were collected, including a black obsidian Desert Side-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 33101), an obsidian Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point base (Cat. No. 33102), and a large cream-colored chert biface fragment (Cat. No. 33103). Also noted were a black obsidian biface fragment, a black obsidian point tip, and numerous pestles. The site measured 105 x 82 m with an area of 6,762 m2. Current Results. The current project indicated that the site is larger than originally recorded. Hazard tree removal along the road corridor exposed an additional granite bedrock milling station with 42 mortars, bringing the site total to five milling stations with 118 mortars and three slicks. Obsidian debitage between this milling station and the original site boundary indicate that this is a continuous site. A portable milling slab was also documented. As currently recorded, the site measures 215 x 135 m and encompasses an area of 22,785 m2. Site Chronology. The portable milling slab may be indicative of the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, although firm dates for this artifact type have yet to be established in Yosemite. The stationary milling features are markers of the Late Prehistoric 2 and Late Prehistoric 3 periods. The Rose Spring Corner-notched and Desert Side-notched projectile points collected in 1985 may indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 2 and Late Prehistoric 3 periods as well. 44 Disturbances. As noted in the 1985 record, the site was looted and piles of backdirt and open pits were left near features 1 and 2. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, the entire site area burned intensely, killing all trees in the area and consuming most of the understory. The 1985 datum tree fell over during the fire, leaving a stump hole. Hazard tree removal occurred on a previously unknown part of the site immediately after the fire, resulting in large ruts and disturbed subsurface soils. Slash piles from the cleared trees were burned on the site as well, which could have created higher soil temperatures than would be caused by a wildfire, possibly resulting in impacts to the subsurface cultural deposit. The trees were removed in order to replace and prevent damage to a power line that services Hetch Hetchy, and to protect the road corridor from falling trees. The power poles are within the site area, and their installation also impacted the subsurface deposit of the site. Approximately 50 percent of the known site has been disturbed by fire-related activities and looting. CA-TUO-3995 Current Results. This site was discovered during hazard tree removal at the Canyon Ranch Mill site (CA-TUO3996H). It is situated on a tall granite outcrop and adjoining flat, and contains three bedrock milling stations with 48 mortars and three pestles, a rock construct, and a light obsidian flaked stone tool and debitage scatter. The rock construct is a circular, 1.28-m-diameter, one- to three-course-high possible hunting blind, located on top of the tall granite outcrop and overlooking a drainage. Seven obsidian artifacts were collected (Cat. Nos. 98366-98372), all located within the sandy flat on top of the tall rock outcrop. These include three Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points, one Large Corner-notched projectile point, two biface fragments, and one unidentifiable projectile point fragment. Additionally, a projectile point preform and three pestles were observed and recorded. The site measures 108 x 70 m with an area of 5,935 m2. Site Chronology. The bedrock milling stations indicate Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 period occupations. The obsidian hydration values for the three Rosegate series points are 1.95 (Bodie Hills), 4.08 (Casa Diablo), and 5.85 (Casa Diablo) microns. The thinner readings suggest late period use as well, while the thicker rim may represent measurement of the detachment scar rather than the point itself (see Chapter 6). The no visible hydration readings for the Large Corner-notched and unique projectile point may reflect very recent use or fire damage. Disturbances. On the southern edge of the open, sandy flat are several holes with dirt piles on either side of them, which could represent looting or throw dirt from a fallen tree. A cable from the Canyon Ranch Mill (CA-TUO3996H), located 100 m to the southwest, is on the southern site surface, with the berm of a possible skid trail. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly to moderately burned 100 percent of the site, leaving stump and root holes and completely burning smaller downed trees. In general, however, the fire had little effect. CA-TUO-3996H Current Results. This site consists of the remains of the historic Canyon Ranch Mill site and automobile camp adjacent to the Hetch Hetchy Road. The main constituents include several large can dumps, machine parts, cable piles, cement foundations, structure flats, pits, depressions, logging chute beds, steam donkey platforms, railroad debris, telegraph remains, and skid roads. Scattered about the surface are numerous fragments of logging cable, tin cans, bottles, and cut bone (food remains). The main portion of the logging camp is located on the eastern side of the creek, while the majority of the automobile camp is west of the creek. Most of the site is located on a large gently sloping area at the confluence of three drainages. Just to the southwest of the site, the slope becomes steeper and site constituents quickly fade out. Upslope from this point, ground disturbances as a result of the previous logging activity can still be seen, although few, if any, artifacts are present. Areas that contained evidence of logging, but no artifacts or other features, were not included within the site; thus, only the immediate mill area (rather than the entire logging operation) was recorded. The site measures 220 x 430 m, encompassing 74,261 m2. Site Chronology. The Canyon Ranch Mill site was in operation from 1915 to 1919 to provide lumber for the development of the Hetch Hetchy Valley as a reservoir. Lumber was used for ties, trestles, and bridges along the Hetch Hetchy Railroad, as well as for railroad carts and structures at the dam site and Camp Mather. This area was chosen for a mill site due to the abundance of large-sized, easily accessed pine that provided a total of 8,000,000 board feet of lumber during its years of operation. Lumber from Hetch Hetchy Valley was also likely milled at this site. In 1919, local timber was no longer available and the mill was moved to Camp Mather (Wurm 1973:73-82). The site was then developed and used as a car camp from 1923 to 1926 by the NPS for visitors in the Hetch Hetchy area. It was closed due to concerns raised by the CCSF, who feared that sewage and debris associated with camping might contaminate the Tuolumne River watershed (Homman and Taylor 1926). 45 Abundant historical artifacts are distributed throughout the site, providing a rich source for research in chronology and economic patterns. Dates for artifacts based on maker’s marks and manufacturing techniques support the historical record, although additional field and laboratory research should be conducted to confirm this. Examples of some of the temporally diagnostic artifacts are as follows, with additional detail provided in the site record. An aqua mason jar fragment with “STRONG SHOULDER MASON” embossed on the body was made by Atlas from 1915-1925 (Polak 1994). A clear glass bottle fragment made by the Pacific Coast Glass Works about 1923-24 (Toulouse 1972) reads “LOUIS TAUSSIC & CO, SAN FRANCISCO” and “BRANCH No. 22, UNION MADE, G.B.B.A.” The Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. made a clear glass liquor bottle after 1920 and a clear glass bottle embossed with “Horlick’s Malted Milk” was manufactured from 1910-1930 (Toulouse 1972). Sanitary cans predominate within the tin can collection, dating to post-1890 (Rock 1981). Snyder (personal communication 1999) notes that an old trail used to run through the Canyon Ranch area from Cottonwood Meadow to Poopenaut Valley and on to Miguel Meadow. The trail has likely been obliterated in the mill area due to historic-period use, but there are apparently still some intact segments and even a couple of metal signs elsewhere along the route (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1999). Disturbances. This site appears to have been looted in the past. Within Feature 3, a can/debris dump, there are a number of large pits that have the appearance of old looter holes and the soil is heavily disturbed. Scattered about the tops of these pits are numerous can fragments. The entire site was heavily burned, leaving many dead trees and stump holes. Any structural wood that was associated with this site was fully consumed by the fire. Feature 6 appears to have had structural wood remaining before it burned, although all that can be seen now are burn shadows indicating the former locations of wood debris. After the Ackerson Complex Fire burned through this area, numerous trees located along the Hetch Hetchy Road were identified as hazard trees and removed before it was determined that the site would be impacted by this action. This area of disturbance measures approximately 100 x 70 m, encompassing 5,495 m2. Large track and skid marks left by heavy machinery disturbed the soil to a depth of at least 30 cm. CA-TUO-3997 Current Results. This site was initially located during the hazard tree removal along the Hetch Hetchy Road immediately after the Ackerson Complex Fire. This site is located on a flat above CA-TUO-3996H, and consists of a moderately dense lithic scatter. It is bordered on the west by an unnamed drainage and to the north and east by a steep drop-off towards the Canyon Ranch Mill site (CA-TUO-3996H). The site area has many boulders, but there were no features observed. The lithic concentration is densest in the eastern site area, with a maximum debitage density of 8/m2. Obsidian is the predominant material, but there are also red chert flakes and nodules, one white chert flake, and one flake of another cryptocrystalline material. Ten flaked stone artifacts were noted but not collected, including seven obsidian edge-modified pieces, one chert edge-modified piece, an obsidian biface fragment, and an obsidian projectile point fragment. Three obsidian projectile point fragments were collected, including an Elko Corner-notched (Cat. No. 98373), an Elko Eared (Cat. No. 98374), and a Desert Side-notched (Cat. No. 98375). The site measures 58 x 105 m, encompassing an area of 5,972 m2. Site Chronology. Elko series points are thought to be indicators of the Late Prehistoric 1 Period in Yosemite; however, the hydration measurements of 2.47 (Mt. Hicks) and 2.49 (Casa Diablo) microns are thin for this series, suggesting later use of the type than originally thought or reworking, scavenging, or mistyping. Alternately, previous fires may have affected the hydration rims. The Desert series point, with a hydration rim of 1.61 microns (Casa Diablo), represents use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. Disturbances. Historic logging activity damaged the site, as evidenced by the skid trails that cross the site in several areas. The Ackerson Complex Fire intensely burned 100 percent of this site, killing every tree and plant. Multiple stump and root holes are present throughout the site, and large trees burned on the surface, potentially affecting subsurface deposits. Sheet erosion will be a threat until vegetation rejuvenates or surface litter accumulates. CA-TUO-3998 Current Results. This small lithic scatter is located on the same flat as CA-TUO-3997, west of the perennial drainage. The western site boundary is a small intermittent drainage. The site consists of a light obsidian scatter with a maximum debitage density of 2/m2 and a total of three edge-modified pieces. No diagnostic artifacts were 46 observed and, although numerous boulders and bedrock outcrops are within the site area, no milling features were observed. The site measures 100 x 60 m with an area of 4,710 m2. Site Chronology. No temporally diagnostic artifacts or features were observed. Disturbances. There is a small amount of trash on the site that may be related to the Canyon Ranch Mill operation. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned at a high intensity across the entire site, killing most trees, leaving stump and root holes, and burning logs and heavy fuels on the site surface. CA-TUO-4002 Previous Investigations. Jack Knieriemen, a long-time NPS employee interested in archeology and very familiar with the Yosemite backcountry, originally recorded this site in the 1960s, but his site records were destroyed when his residence burned during the 1990 A-Rock Fire. Mr. Knieriemen located the site on a topographic map for the current project. Current Results. This site is located near the Hetch Hetchy to Smith Meadow trail on a boulder-strewn flat at the base of a ridge, bordering a boggy pond. The ridge is a lateral moraine that crests 50 m northwest of the site. Rolling benches of bedrock and sand extend to the west of the site for a long distance. Encompassing an area of 3,929 m2, the site measures 65 x 77 m. The site consists of a dense flaked stone debitage and artifact deposit, midden soil with abundant small burned bone fragments, three bedrock milling stations with associated pestles, and four housepits. The three milling features contain a total of 41 mortars and five pestles, and are located in the central site area. Feature 1, with 22 mortars, was covered with midden soil, which contained four pestles and five projectile points. The central site area exhibits very dark midden soil, which attains a depth of at least 40 cm, as indicated in a burned stump hole. The midden consists of a dark grayish-brown greasy soil, and contains most of the flaked stone materials and burned bone fragments. This midden soil extends throughout the area containing the milling features and the housepits. The four housepits (Features 4-7) are circular depressions, located west of the milling features. Feature 4 measures 3.9 m in diameter and is 30-cm deep. Feature 5 is very similar in size, measuring 4.0 m in diameter and 30-cm deep. A projectile point tip and a Desert Side-notched projectile point were both located within this feature. Feature 6 measures 3.9 x 3.4 m with a depth of 30 cm. A projectile point fragment and a Desert Side-notched projectile point were located on the northwestern berm of this feature. The densest area of bone was also noted to the north of this feature. Feature 7 is the least obvious of the housepits, with dimensions of 3.2 x 3.3 m and a depth of 30 cm. Three biface fragments were located next to this feature. It is possible that the depressions may be burned out stumps from a previous fire, but they are very distinct from the stump holes of the Ackerson Complex Fire. Flaked stone tools and debitage are dispersed throughout the site, but the highest concentration is within the midden area. The maximum debitage density was 10/m2, which was consistent across the entire midden area. Materials included obsidian (accounting for 95 percent of the debitage), chert, chalcedony, basalt, and a fine-grained, reddish material (rhyolite?). Fifty percent of the lithic material was larger than 2 cm in diameter and many of these exhibit edge modification. A total of 28 flaked stone artifacts were recorded on the site, including edge-modified pieces, projectile points, and biface fragments. Ten of the diagnostic projectile points were collected: five obsidian Desert Side-notched points (Cat. Nos. 98376-98378, 98380, 98385); three obsidian Rose Spring Corner-notched points (Cat. Nos. 98381-98383); and two obsidian Large Side-notched points (Cat. Nos. 98379, 98384). Site Chronology. The Desert series points indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period, while Rosegate series points are thought to represent the Late Prehistoric 2 Period in Yosemite and milling equipment may represent both periods. However, the obsidian hydration values for the Desert, Rosegate, and one of the Large Sidenotched specimens form a very narrow range from 1.29-2.29 microns (Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills sources), indicating that these artifacts and the features, if they are indeed associated, may represent a Late Prehistoric 3 Period component. The other Large Side-notched specimen (Cat. No. 98384) exhibits a hydration rind of 5.79 microns (Bodie Hills), pointing to much earlier use as well. The depth of the midden indicates intensive occupation, although the site’s elevation of 1,704 m (5,590 ft) suggests use during the late spring through early fall if ethnographic patterns held in prehistory. Disturbances. This site is in excellent condition. There is no indication that the site has been revisited since it was last occupied, possibly because brush and other vegetation obscured it before the fire. Sixty percent of the site 47 burned moderately to heavily, leaving only partial tree remains and stumps. The site area nearest the pond did not burn. The midden area burned intensely, affecting surface remains and, possibly, the subsurface deposits. Multiple stump holes are on the site, and may be misinterpreted in the future as housepits. CA-TUO-4003 Current Results. This small site is located on the opposite side of the pond from CA-TUO-4002, adjacent to the Hetch Hetchy to Smith Meadow trail. It is situated on a flat above the outlet of the pond, at the base of a steep morainal ridge. The site consists of a lithic scatter and one milling station with nine mortars and a pestle on a large bedrock outcrop. The lithic scatter is sparse, consisting only of obsidian flakes and one collected obsidian point fragment (Cat. No. 98386). Measuring 20 x 35 m, the site encompasses an area of 550 m2. The site is covered by duff and a thick ash layer, which could have concealed additional features and artifacts. Site Chronology. The milling station indicates Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 Period use. Likewise, the projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98386), with a hydration value of 1.86 microns (Bodie Hills) on one surface only, may reflect use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. Disturbances. There has been very little impact to the site considering the proximity of the site to the trail and pond. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned 100 percent of the site. Trees have fallen across the site, possibly affecting the subsurface deposit. CA-TUO-4004 Current Results. This site is located just upslope of CA-TUO-4002 and -4003 on a morainal ridge and sandcovered flat along an unnamed perennial stream. It measures 260 x 85 m, with an area of 17,348 m2. Two boulder milling stations and a light obsidian lithic scatter comprise the site. One milling station is on a flat boulder with 10 mortars, two milling slicks, and 11 associated pestles. The other large boulder contains a single mortar with one associated cobble pestle. Both milling features are located within the morainal debris. The maximum debitage density is 4/m2, consisting of opaque and translucent obsidian. One tool, a non-diagnostic biface fragment, was observed but not collected. Site Chronology. The site may represent the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods based on the presence of milling features. Disturbances. The Hetch Hetchy to Smith Meadow trail passes through the site, resulting in some soil displacement as well as possible increased exposure to artifact collection. The site area below the moraine is regularly inundated by stream overflow, which may cause artifact displacement and erosion of soils. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 70 percent of the site. Heavy fuels and logs burned, leaving stump and root holes. CA-TUO-4005 Previous Investigations. Jack Knieriemen originally recorded this as site #35 in the 1960s, although, as noted above, his site records were destroyed in the 1990 A-Rock Fire. This site was relocated from a topographic map that was not destroyed. Current Results. The site is located along the Hetch Hetchy to Smith Meadow trail just below the crest of the ridge and about 0.25 mile up the trail from CA-TUO-4004. An unnamed perennial drainage is approximately 50 m to the south, and downslope of, the site. Ten obsidian flakes and a milling station with 13 mortars and 11 pestles comprise the site, which measures 50 x 50 m within 1,962 m2. Due to time limitations at the end of the field season, this site was recorded rapidly and the crew may have missed additional cultural constituents. Site Chronology. The milling feature is a marker of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. The trail is adjacent to the site and a modern fire ring is located near the milling feature. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned about 80 percent of the site. A number of small snags fell and burned during the fire, creating stump holes and possibly affecting the subsurface deposit. CA-TUO-4006/H 48 Current Results. The site is situated on a series of small flats and terraces just above the Hetch Hetchy Road at the Smith Meadow trailhead. It is bordered on the east by an intermittent drainage and on the west by a perennial stream. Containing prehistoric and historic-period components, the site measures 168 x 98 m and encompasses an area of 12,924 m2. The historic-period materials are distributed throughout the site area, and consist of the remains of a possible construction camp. Documented historic features include numerous earthen platforms supported by dry-laid rock retaining walls, rock foundations, rock-walled enclosures, can scatters, a powder magazine, and rock-lined trails. Scattered about the site area are blasting powder cans, blasting cap containers, sanitary cans, hole-in-top cans, coffee pots, buckets that have been modified from cans, tobacco tins, fuel/oil cans, snuff tins, and numerous glass fragments of different sizes. Located in the northeastern portion of the site is a small segment of a historic trail (CA-TUO-4010H) that may be related to this site. A small rock cairn is situated on top of a boulder along this trail segment. The prehistoric component consists of a light lithic scatter and a milling station located at the northeastern edge of the historical component. The milling station is a large, flat granite bedrock outcrop with six mortars, two milling slicks, and six cobble pestles. Ten obsidian flakes were located on a flat just to the north of this feature. The prehistoric materials encompass an area of approximately 750 m2. Site Chronology. The prehistoric component is likely associated with the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods based on the presence of milling features. The location of this site and its constituents suggest that the historical materials may be related to the construction of the Hetch Hetchy Road between July 8, 1914 and January 1915 (Hetch Hetchy Railroad 1961) and/or building of the railroad, which was completed by October 1917. In conducting research regarding CA-TUO-4006/H, however, no information could be located that specifically mentions this camp. The temporally diagnostic artifacts suggest use of the site in the late 1910s, although further research is necessary to accurately define site chronology. Several upright Tuxedo Tobacco and Prince Albert tins were distributed throughout the site. The American Tobacco Company manufactured Tuxedo tins by at least the late teens (Rock 1987). The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company produced Prince Albert tins as early as 1895 (Rock 1987), and a specimen documented in the field contains a patent date of 1907. A fragment of amethyst bottle glass was also noted, dating from 1880-1916 (Rock 1990). A blasting cap tin embossed with a central star, five “X’s,” and “CALIFORNIA CAP CO. SAN FRANCISCO” was manufactured from 1900-1920 (Martin 1991:26). The number of “Xs” refers to the strength of the cap; the No. 5 was a transitional strength. The California Cap Co. was the primary supplier of caps for western mines for several decades after its incorporation in 1880 (Martin 1991:22). Disturbances. The Hetch Hetchy Road is adjacent to the site and the trail to Smith Meadow passes through the site, which may have increased the potential for casual artifact collection. It is also possible that NPS or CCC work groups have “cleaned up” historical debris from this site in the past. In the center of the site, an intermittent drainage is slowly eroding the flat, which contains the lithic scatter. The historic-period occupation likely impacted the prehistoric deposit as well. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned in a patchy pattern through the site’s interior. Trees fell and burned intensely on the ground in a number of locations, leaving burn scars and stump holes. Several of the historical glass artifacts, including bottle fragments and a lamp chimney, partially melted. CA-TUO-4009 Previous Investigations. Jack Knieriemen originally recorded this site as #20 in the 1960s. The site record was destroyed in the 1990 A-Rock Fire, but Knieriemen (1976, personal communication 1997) described it as a rock circle on top of a granite outcrop next to the Hetch Hetchy to Smith Meadow trail. It was relocated from a topographic map that did not burn. Current Results. The site, a possible hunting blind, is located on a granite outcrop overlooking the Tuolumne River canyon. The feature is a circular rock alignment, constructed of loosely stacked, angular granite rocks, one to two courses high, measuring 4.0 x 3.5 m. No other features or artifacts are associated with this site. Site Chronology. The feature appears to be a hunting blind, but the date of construction and use are unknown. Disturbances. There is a modern fire ring next to the trail, which is 25 m to the east. Modern trash is abundant around the fire ring, but the rock alignment appears unaffected. Erosion has shifted the rocks and it is possible that 49 it was originally taller than two courses. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned in the area, but this feature was unaffected by it. CA-TUO-4010H Current Results. This historic linear feature is an abandoned section of the trail to Smith Meadow from the Hetch Hetchy Valley. This section parallels the unnamed perennial drainage that is at the southwestern edge of CA-TUO4006/H, and is farther east than the present trail. The trail begins northeast of CA-TUO-4006/H at 1,292m (4,240 ft) elevation, passes through the western portion of the site, and ascends to 1,573 m (5,160 ft) elevation in approximately 1.2 km (0.75 mile) before reconnecting with the present trail to Smith Meadow. The upper 100 m, where the trail intersects with the present route, could not be defined due to thick brush and large granite outcrops. There are rock cairns at both ends of the old trail where it intersects with the modern trail routes, and several loosely stacked, rock retaining walls were observed along this length of the trail. The trail continues below the road to the backpacker’s camp at Hetch Hetchy (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1999), but this segment was not recorded as part of the current project. Site Chronology. The trail may represent the original route used by Joseph Screech in 1850, when he ran livestock from Smith Meadow to Hetch Hetchy Valley. Cyril Smith also may have used the trail in later years for the livestock transport as well. Use and change in route after this are unknown. Disturbances. The trail receives little to no use at the current time. Vegetation growth and erosion make following the trail difficult. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned over the trail, clearing the vegetation growth and making it passable again. The fire had minimal negative impacts. CA-TUO-4011H Current Results. CA-TUO-4011H is the trail between Camp Mather and Hetch Hetchy Valley. The segment recorded for the current project runs for approximately 0.4 km (0.25 mile) from near the Smith Meadow trailhead to the point where it meets the Hetch Hetchy Road. The trail is located above and parallel to the Hetch Hetchy Road, but below CA-TUO-4010H, before it descends to the road and is obliterated by the road and erosion. Sections of the downslope edge contain rock retaining walls and cut banks allowing passage along steep slopes. Site Chronology. This may have been part of the original 1850s trail leading to Hetch Hetchy Valley or it may have been part of a U.S. Cavalry trail between Camp Mather (Hog Ranch) and Hetch Hetchy Valley. After completion of the road into Hetch Hetchy Valley in January of 1915, this section of trail was most likely abandoned. Disturbances. This segment of the trail is severely damaged by erosion in several places along the top of the Hetch Hetchy Road cut slope. At the point where the route crosses below the road, an intermittent drainage and the road have obliterated the trail. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned through the area, resulting in heavy fuels burned and trees fallen, but damage to the trail was minimal. P-55-4603 This isolate was collected from the trail to Smith Meadow from Hetch Hetchy on a sandy flat that overlooks Poopenaut Valley. It is an obsidian Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile point (Cat. No. 98300) with a hydration rim of 2.87 microns. The entire sandy flat and surrounding area were thoroughly surveyed and no other artifacts or features were observed. The area was lightly burned and ground surface visibility was good. Cottonwood Creek Drainage Cottonwood Creek is a perennial drainage on the southern rim of the Tuolumne River, with its headwaters at Smith Peak. It passes through a series of meadows before it joins the Middle Tuolumne River. The archeological sites along the drainage range in elevation from 1,609 to 1,939 m (5,280 to 6,360 ft), and are situated in the Yellow Pine vegetation community, transitioning into the Red Fir Forest. There are abundant black oaks, incense cedar, and white fir, and occasional sugar pines as well. The meadows are dry and thick with tall grasses. The geology of this area is typical for Yosemite, consisting of glacial moraines and granite bedrock. The topography of this area is typically flat, with large river terraces and occasional ridges. The sites in this section are grouped together because of their location on or near Cottonwood Creek. 50 CA-TUO-226/H Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded the site in 1952 as a bedrock mortar feature with nine mortars and very little obsidian. Located on the bank of Middle Tuolumne River about 200 ft west of Cottonwood Creek (Bennyhoff 1956), the original site measured 50 x 50 ft with an area of 2,500 ft2 (232 m2). Current Results. During site re-recording, the increased visibility due to burning of ground cover and undergrowth was exceptional. As currently documented, the site consists of six milling stations with a total of 23 mortars, a pestle associated with Feature 1, a moderate-density lithic scatter, and a historic-period component related to the development of the Golden Rock Ditch (CA-TUO-1751H). The site size increased to 460 x 150 m mainly due to the additional prehistoric materials observed. The current site area encompasses 54,165 m2. Lithic materials consisted of obsidian, basalt, chalcedony, quartzite, quartz, and various types of chert. Red chert cobbles were observed in the Middle Tuolumne River at the site, which is the same material that was observed as debitage on this and other local sites. The maximum debitage density is 15/m2. Debitage densities were consistent throughout the site, dropping only near the site boundary and in an area in the center of the site. Eighteen artifacts were recorded and nine of these were collected. Collected artifacts include a large obsidian biface fragment (Cat. No. 98316), three obsidian Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points (Cat. No. 98317, 98321, 98324), a chert biface fragment (Cat. No. 98318), two obsidian Desert Side-notched (Sierra subtype) projectile points (Cat. Nos. 98319, 98320), a gray chert biface fragment (Cat. No. 98322), and a small hammerstone (Cat. No. 98323). Artifacts recorded but not collected include four obsidian edge-modified pieces, an obsidian drill, a granite pestle in association with Feature 1, and a red chert river cobble with cortex. The only temporally diagnostic historical artifact recorded was a zinc-lidded Mason jar. The historical component of the site includes Feature 6, a stack of 17 steel-riveted penstock pipes that were intended for the Golden Rock Ditch. According to Snyder (1991), who described the feature in his Golden Rock Ditch site record, the pipes were probably intended to upgrade the Golden Rock Ditch for electrical power generation. The pipes were hauled to the site on a wooden slip and they were to be lowered into the river canyon with winches to the intake location. An additional historical feature, Feature 7, is a concentration of camping cookware. Site Chronology. The Desert and Rosegate series points, with hydration values between 1.52 and 2.87 microns (Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo sources), and the milling features, indicate that the site was occupied during the Late Prehistoric 3 and Late Prehistoric 2 Periods. A hydration reading of 6.10 microns (Mt. Hicks) for a biface fragment suggests use during the Late Prehistoric 1 Period or earlier. The penstock pipes associated with the Golden Rock Ditch relate to post-1900 use of the site. An aqua-colored Mason jar with a zinc top dates to 1913-1915 (Brantley 1975:55). Disturbances. The Base Line Camp to Aspen Valley trail bisects the site and a modern fire ring is located near Feature 1, with modern trash scattered throughout the area. The historical component of the site likely impacted the prehistoric component as well. The entire site burned during the Ackerson Complex Fire, although at varying intensity. The northern half of the site burned the most intensely, leaving no vegetation and what appears to be a hydrophobic layer of soil. Additionally, numerous small erosion channels have formed. The southern half of the site burned at lower intensity, affecting the ground surface and the surrounding vegetation to a lesser degree. Burning snags formed stump holes and small gullies are present where downed logs completely burned. CA-TUO-227 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded the site in 1952 as a small site with rare surface obsidian, measuring 50 x 50 ft (Bennyhoff 1956). This site is located on the south side of the Middle Tuolumne River and is 150 ft upstream from CA-TUO-226/H. Current Results. Survey of the area indicated that the site measures 90 x 40 m, encompassing an area of 2,826 m2. The site consists of two milling features with four mortars and a light debitage scatter on a forested river terrace. Flaked stone tools noted but not collected include an obsidian biface fragment, an edge-modified red chert flake, and an obsidian edge-modified piece. Approximately 45 pieces of debitage were observed, with materials including obsidian and red chert, as well as one basalt flake and one quartz flake. A large red chert cobble, obtained locally from the river, was also on the site. 51 Site Chronology. Milling stations are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. This site is in close proximity to CA-TUO-226/H, and subsurface investigations may indicate that one site complex is represented. Disturbances. This site receives little visitor impact, even though it is located near the Base Line Camp to Aspen Valley trail. One modern fire ring was located near the site. This area is inundated during high water events, which have deposited sediments and caused erosion. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned the entire site surface, consuming several large downed trees and possibly causing short-term erosion, but the overall effects were minimal. CA-TUO-228 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1952 as a camp with a fair amount of obsidian, measuring 100 x 60 ft (Bennyhoff 1956). Archeologists had not revisited the site since the initial recording. Current Results. Located on a flat-topped ridge between Cottonwood Creek and the Middle Tuolumne River, the site consists of a dense lithic concentration, one possible housepit, eight milling stations, and an extensive midden area. This large site measures 500 x 50 m, encompassing 19,625 m2. The eight milling stations contain 73 mortars, five slicks, and 16 associated pestles. Feature 3 is the largest milling station with 32 mortars and 13 pestles, while Feature 5, the second largest milling station, has 14 mortars and three associated pestles. The possible housepit measures approximately 5 m in diameter and is 50 cm deep. Flaked stone tools and debitage occur in highest concentrations in the midden area, with materials including approximately 60 percent obsidian (both black and mahogany), 25 percent chert, and less than 5 percent each of basalt, quartzite, and rhyolite or andesite. The chert is local, likely procured from cobbles in the Middle Tuolumne River. The eight collected artifacts include an obsidian Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98325), an obsidian Sierra Concave Base projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98326), an obsidian Eared Concave Base projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98327), a black chert Elko Eared projectile point (Cat. No. 98328), an obsidian edge-modified piece (Cat. No. 98329), a basalt Large Corner-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98330), a chert Sierra Triangular projectile point (Cat. No. 98331), and a red quartzite biface fragment (Cat. No. 98332). Artifacts noted but not collected include an obsidian biface fragment and the 16 pestles associated with features 3 and 5. Site Chronology. Elko Eared projectile points are generally ascribed to the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, while the Sierra Concave Base and Eared Concave Base types have been associated with both the Late Prehistoric 1 and the Late Prehistoric 2 periods in Yosemite. Obsidian hydration analysis of both concave base points resulted in no visible hydration readings, likely due to burning. The Rose Spring point exhibited a hydration rim of 6.48 microns (Bodie Hills), which probably reflects the detachment scar rather than the worked area of the piece. The milling stations are indicative of the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistorc 2 periods, although no other conclusive indicators of the former period are evident. Disturbances. This site is several hundred meters from any trail, and there is no evidence of modern camping. The site has been subject to collection, however, as evidenced by several of the Feature 3 mortars filled with obsidian debitage. Additionally, several of the pestles were noticeably out of place as indicated by lichen and duff deposits. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned over the entire site, killing all but a few trees and consuming large downed trees and other fuels. Multiple trees fell during the fire and large stump holes are evident throughout the area. One stump hole is intruding into the possible housepit, Feature 1. The northern site area burned most intensely and the soil is devoid of vegetation cover. A tree fell across Feature 5 and burned during the Ackerson Complex Fire, causing severe spalling and cracking on and around the mortars. Several pestles split, and the debitage shows spalling as well. CA-TUO-229 Previous Investigations. Brooks originally recorded this site in 1952 as a camp on a flat 75 ft from the creek, with very little obsidian (Bennyhoff 1956). The site measured 50 x 50 ft, and had not been revisited by archeologists since the initial recording. 52 Current Results. As currently recorded, the site measures 190 x 110 m and encompasses 16,407 m2. It is located in a meadow and the surrounding forest adjacent to the Middle Tuolumne River just upstream from its confluence with Cottonwood Creek. Five milling features, with a total of 13 mortars, two milling slicks, a pestle, and a light lithic scatter comprise the site. The milling features are in two separate areas of the site. Feature 1 is located in the meadow and includes two mortars and two milling slicks. This feature encompasses three small rocks, which could be easily moved. The other features, with a total of 11 mortars, are clustered in the southern portion of the site close to the Middle Tuolumne River. Debitage density is relatively low throughout the site, with a maximum of 2/m2 in several locations. Several artifacts were recorded but not collected, including four obsidian edge-modified pieces, an obsidian biface fragment, a granite pestle associated with Feature 3, and an obsidian Large Corner-notched projectile point. A visitor who had collected the Large Corner-notched point several years ago returned it to the site during recordation. Site Chronology. The milling stations indicate Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 Period use. This site is in close proximity to CA-TUO-228, and subsurface investigations may indicate that the two sites represent one site complex. Disturbances. This site lacks evidence of historic or modern camping, although evidence of illegal collection is present. Features 1 and 3 contained mortars filled with obsidian debitage and one point tip and, as indicated above, a visitor returned a projectile point he had previously collected. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned 65 percent of the site to varying degrees, the northeast portion being most affected. Heavy fuels burned and trees fell or burned, leaving large stump holes. The fire did not damage the milling features, although two of them were lightly burned over. CA-TUO-230/231 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally documented this large site complex as two separate sites in 1952 (Bennyhoff 1956). Bennyhoff documented CA-TUO-230 as a bedrock mortar with 46 mortars and six pestles, obsidian, and dark soil in a forested area. The site measured 40 x 20 yd. CA-TUO-231, located about 0.25 mile northeast of CA-TUO-230, was recorded as a “flat with scattered mixed forest; 1 mortar rock (8 holes); scattered obsidian and perhaps two housepits.” The two or three housepits measured 7 ft in diameter and 1 ft in depth. Current Results. The two sites were resurveyed for the current project and determined to be a continuous deposit. As currently documented, the site complex consists of nine milling features with 93 mortars and three slicks, a possible housepit, two pestles, two handstones, and a light lithic scatter. It measures 380 x 90 m and encompasses 26,847 m2. The site is situated on a forested, flat-topped ridge to the north of Cottonwood Creek, and it is bisected by the trail to Smith Meadow. Feature 1 is the milling feature recorded by Bennyhoff at CA-TUO-230, although the current work documented 73 rather than 46 mortars. There is no indication of the six cobble pestles that were associated with this feature in 1952. Feature 6, with nine mortars, is the milling feature Bennyhoff recorded as CA-TUO-231. The remaining milling stations contain between one and four mortars, and two of the features contain single milling slicks. Feature 9 is a possible housepit that Bennyhoff documented for CA-TUO-231. The other possible housepits noted by Bennyhoff could not be relocated. Several large stump holes from the Ackerson Complex Fire are in the immediate area and may be misinterpreted in the future as housepits. The site contains a light lithic scatter, with a maximum debitage density of 3/m2 in several locations. Lithic materials included obsidian, red chert, basalt, and quartz. An obsidian Triangular Contracting Stem projectile point (Cat. No. 102628) was collected, while several other artifacts were left in place, including a cobble handstone, a handstone fragment, five obsidian edge-modified pieces, and two pestles. Site Chronology. The milling stations are markers of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The handstones and the Triangular Contracting Stem point may represent the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, although the presence of milling slicks at this site suggest they may be associated with the milling features. Disturbances. Evidence of illegal excavation was observed; specifically, a 1/4-inch mesh screen, bent up on the edges and with nails that attached it to a frame, was located in the western portion of the site. Several modern fire rings, trash scatters, and the trail to Smith Meadow are also within the site boundary. The Ackerson Complex Fire 53 intensely burned 70 percent of the site. Feature 3, a milling station, was damaged when a tree fell across it and burned, causing a portion of the rock to exfoliate and crack. Downed trees and stump holes are scattered about the site. CA-TUO-232 Previous Investigations. Bennyhoff (1956) originally recorded this site in 1952 for the UCAS as scattered obsidian flakes in an open flat area surrounded by mixed forest, measuring 30 x 20 yd in size. The site was located on Cottonwood Creek, 30 yd northwest of the creek and 25 yd southeast of the trail. Current Results. This site was re-recorded for the present project, but due to the vagueness of location information on the original site record, it is uncertain if this is the site recorded as CA-TUO-232 in 1952. As currently documented, CA-TUO-232 is a dense debitage scatter located on a forested flat to the north of Cottonwood Creek. No features were observed, although the site contains multiple rock outcrops. The site measures 250 x 90 m, with an area of 17,662 m2. The debitage scatter is densest at the site center, with a maximum density of 7/m2 located 35 m southwest of the datum. Lithic materials included obsidian (97 percent), red chert (2 percent), and quartz (<1 percent). Five obsidian artifacts were collected, including a spindle-shaped drill (Cat. No. 98333), a leaf-shaped projectile point (Cat. No. 98334), a Large Side-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98335), a biface that is shaped like an “X” (Cat. No. 98336, possibly a reworked point), and a Large Corner-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98337). Artifacts observed but not collected include a large blank fragment with use wear on its edges, seven edge-modified pieces, two biface fragments, and two projectile point fragments. All of these artifacts are manufactured of obsidian. Site Chronology. Of the five artifacts submitted for obsidian hydration analysis, four returned readings of no visible rim and the drill exhibited a rim measuring 1.37 microns (Bodie Hills). The latter suggests use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period, while the remaining hydration values may reflect the effects of the fire, recent use, or a combination of both. Disturbances. This site is in excellent condition with no indication of modern camping or collection. However, the Ackerson Complex Fire burned 90 percent of the site, leaving only the creek area unaffected. The fire burned most intensely in the central site area, consuming all ground cover and killing trees, which left large stump holes and downed trees throughout the site area. CA-TUO-233 Previous Investigations. James Bennyhoff (1956) originally recorded this site in 1952 as rare obsidian flakes in open flats surrounded by forest. He noted the absence of milling features even though small boulders are present. Bennyhoff described the site as being 20 yd west of the creek and 100 yd north of the meadow, and measuring 20 x 15 yd. Current Results. Although location information was vague, the site was relatively easy to find and verify as the original site. It is situated between Cottonwood Creek to the east and a ridge to the west in a moderately forested area with several outcrops of granite boulders. As currently documented, the site consists of a light flaked stone tool and debitage scatter with no associated features, measuring 150 x 40 m and encompassing 4,710 m2. The debitage scatter consisted of 70 percent opaque obsidian, 30 percent translucent obsidian, and a few pieces of red chert, with a maximum density of 3/m2. An obsidian Sierra Contracting Stem projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98338) was collected. Site Chronology. The Sierra Contracting Stem point is not well defined in the chronological sequence, although its hydration readings of 1.47 and 1.53 microns (Bodie Hills), if unaffected by previous fires, suggests late period use (Late Prehistoric 3 Period). Disturbances. There is some modern trash on the surface (tin cans), but the remoteness of this site protects it from heavy visitor impacts. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned the entire site area, with localized areas of more severe burning. Several trees fell as a result of the fire, and some smaller trees were fully consumed, leaving small stump holes. The overall effects are minimal. CA-TUO-234/H 54 Previous Investigations. James Bennyhoff (1956) originally recorded this site in 1952 as two bedrock mortars with eight holes and one mano, which he hypothesized was picked up elsewhere by a camper. No obsidian material was observed. In 1989, Jim Snyder (1990) recorded the historic-period remains for the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. These remains include a cabin built by Cyril Smith in 1885 and a CCC Blister Rust Camp from the late 1930s. Snyder noted that the Smith Cabin (Building 5) was nearly gone, although one corner was still present so that construction techniques were identifiable (Snyder 1990:40). The cabin had deteriorated quickly, given that in 1951 the cabin was “in good condition with only the shake roof in poor repair” (Uhte 1956:150). The remains of the Blister Rust Camp included: Building 4, a concrete foundation with rotting sill logs; Structure 14, a cement foundation with a mortared cobble facing that provided the base for a hot water facility; garbage dumps; the remains of a small dam; a short section of ditch; and the remains of an outhouse. Current Results. The site was re-recorded for the current project as a prehistoric and historic-period site, measuring 170 x 97 m and encompassing 12,945 m2. It is located in Smith Meadow at the junction of the Cottonwood Meadow and Hetch Hetchy trails. The prehistoric component consists of two lithic concentrations and three milling features with a total of 10 mortars. The milling stations are located upslope of the meadow with no obsidian observed nearby. One pestle and one handstone were recorded near the milling features. Debitage materials primarily consist of semi-translucent banded obsidian, although one basalt flake was observed. The maximum debitage density was 2/m2 in several locations in the meadow. Two artifacts were recovered from the surface: an obsidian Pinto Sloping Shoulder projectile point (Cat. No. 98339) and a white chert Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile point (Cat. No. 98340). As noted above, the historic-period components of the site include the remains of Cyril C. Smith’s cabin and the CCC Blister Rust Camp. All that remains of Smith’s cabin is a pile of stones representing the chimney, one foundation rock with a hole drilled into it, a few cut nails, and a depression that may represent a privy. There are no structural timbers remaining. The majority of the cultural materials located at the site relate to the CCC occupation in the late 1930s. This includes a concrete and rock construct representing the water tank pedestal (Snyder’s Structure 14), 10 earthen flats possibly representing tent locations, a flat concrete foundation (Snyder’s Building 4), an excavated trench, a pit containing wires and bedsprings, and metal cans scattered throughout the site area. The remains of a possible granite-cobble dam were relocated, although the ditch noted by Snyder was not identified. Site Chronology. The milling stations may represent Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 Period use, while the Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile point might also indicate Late Prehistoric 2 Period use. Pinto points have been associated with very early use in the Great Basin, but the recovered Pinto specimen exhibited a hydration rim of 3.39 microns (Bodie Hills), suggesting manufacture during the Late Prehistoric 2 or Late Prehistoric 1 period. Cyril Smith built his cabin in 1885 and used the surrounding meadows for summer pasturing of his livestock. In 1908, Smith sold his holdings to the CCSF (Browning 1988). The cut nails noted at the cabin feature likely relate to this period. Cut nails were prevalent prior to ca. 1890, but continue to be manufactured today (Fontana and Greenleaf 1962:55). The Blister Rust Camp was likely in this area sometime during the 1930s and early 1940s, when the CCC was active in the park (NPS n.d). Dates for artifacts with maker’s marks and diagnostic manufacturing techniques support the 1930s as an early use date. The H-over-A embossing on a clear glass jar indicates manufacture by the Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. between 1920 and 1964 (Toulouse 1972). The Owens-Illinois Glass Co. manufactured a clear liquor bottle between 1929 and 1954 (Toulouse 1972). Additional embossing on this bottle reads “Federal Law Prohibits Sale or Re-Use of This Bottle,” which indicates manufacture after 1933 and before 1965 (Rock 1990). Another clear glass jar with the Owens-Illinois Glass Co. maker’s mark is embossed with the word “Duraglas,” which appeared post-1940 (Toulouse 1972). Several church-key opened cans indicate a post-1935 date (Rock 1990). Wire nails and sanitary cans documented at the site have a wider date range, post-1890s (Fontana and Greenleaf 1962:55; Rock 1981). Disturbances. Two trails cross the site and converge a few meters to the east of the site boundary. This location appears to receive frequent overnight campers, as evidenced by a modern fire ring and modern trash. Nails in the fire ring indicate that structural wood from the CCC camp and possibly the earlier cabin was scavenged for firewood. The 1885 cabin and the Blister Rust camp, both of which moved considerable amounts of dirt in the 55 area, likely impacted the prehistoric component. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, the fire burned in a mosaic pattern, with most of the hot spots restricted to areas where downed fuel had accumulated. Feature 1, Cyril Smith’s cabin, was one of these areas, and the structural remains (i.e., those noted by Snyder) were consumed. CA-TUO-1751H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) originally recorded this segment of the Golden Rock Ditch as Structure 24 of the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey, and also provided a full description and history of the ditch. The trinomial for this site was obtained by the Stanislaus National Forest for the portion of the ditch on Forest Service land and was simply extended to include the Yosemite section. Current Results. This feature was re-recorded during this project to evaluate damage and potential threats caused by the fire. The ditch measures 9 ft in top width, 3 ft in bottom width, 3 ft deep, and is approximately 4.0 miles long within park boundaries. The engineered segment runs from the Middle Tuolumne River at 5,590 ft to approximately 5,440 ft elevation, where it empties into Ackerson Creek. The water was conveyed in Ackerson Creek to Ackerson Meadow at 4,460 ft, where the ditch exits the park. The ditch has an earthen and rock-fill berm along most of its length and, along sharp curves, three- to six-course-high granite rock retaining walls support the ditch. Wooden flumes must have been built over drainages or bedrock, but no such remains were observed. A diversion dam, constructed of concrete and angular rock, is located along the river, and likely functioned as the inlet for the ditch. A date of “June 1939” is carved into the concrete, possibly indicating the last date of repair. Snyder (1991) notes that this feature is not the original dam because the existing structure was built for the use of a metal pipe rather than the wooden flume, which preceded it. Associated with the ditch are the remains of a ditch tender’s cabin, which was documented as a separate site (CA-TUO-3999H). Site Chronology. The Golden Rock Ditch was originally built to ensure a year-round supply of water to the mining districts around Groveland and Big Oak Flat. Immediately after its completion in 1860, water was also used for household purposes, field irrigation, timber production, and cattle grazing. Initially the ditch only extended to Ackerson Creek outside of the park boundaries, but it was quickly realized that the ditch should be extended to the Middle Tuolumne River to ensure a sufficient water source. Chinese laborers completed the work (Snyder 1991). The ditch remained in use until 1870, when a large fire destroyed many of the flumes along its length. The ditch was rebuilt and returned to use from 1875 to 1880, when once again a large fire halted its use (Conners 1990). From 1880 to 1902 the only functioning portion of the ditch was the segment within Yosemite National Park, and this was maintained to bring water to the Ackerson Meadow area (Snyder 1991). The majority of the ditch remained nonfunctional until 1902, when it was determined that the ditch could be used for hydroelectric purposes, although the segment within Yosemite was not utilized for this purpose (Conners 1990). Ownership of the ditch changed rapidly through its history, starting with mining companies, power companies, and ending with water companies. The last owner of the ditch was the County of Tuolumne. Disturbances. Erosion has contributed to the obliteration of the ditch along extremely steep slopes and in drainages that probably were traversed by wooden flumes. Overall, the earthen ditch sections of the segment are in excellent condition. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned throughout this linear site, fully consuming trees and leaving stump holes on the earthen structure that may eventually cause slumping. Also, the fire may have consumed any wooden flume remains that existed before the fire. CA-TUO-3982 Current Results. This site is located on a flat on the northern bank of Cottonwood Creek, several hundred meters northeast of CA-TUO-230/231. It consists of one milling station with three mortars and two small obsidian flakes. Four obsidian flakes and one utilized flake were observed on a sandbar on the south side of Cottonwood Creek, adjacent to the site. These pieces were not included within the site boundary, however, because they likely represent secondary stream deposition. The site measures 57 x 32 m, encompassing an area of 1,432 m2. Site Chronology. The stationary milling feature indicates use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. The site’s proximity to the Smith Meadow trail may have increased the potential for casual collection of artifacts. The Ackerson Complex Fire intensely burned the entire site. Snags were completely burned, resulting in large stump holes, and the consumption of large downed trees may have affected surface as well as subsurface materials. All but a few of the largest sugar pines are dead. The large stump holes should not be 56 confused with housepits in the future. The milling station has been affected by exfoliation of the surface rock in and near the mortars due to the fire, making identification difficult. CA-TUO-3983 Current Results. Situated along the trail to Smith Meadow and on the crest of a knoll above an unnamed meadow and Cottonwood Creek, this site consists of five milling stations with a total of 29 mortars, nine pestles, one handstone, and a light lithic scatter. Four of the milling stations are on the crest, while the fifth is nearer the creek on a 3.5-m-high boulder. The site measures 230 x 80 m and encompasses 14,444 m2. Features 1 and 2 are both north of the trail and consist of single mortars located within larger solution cups. Feature 1 also has an associated cobble pestle at its base. Just south of the trail is Feature 3, a large outcrop with 15 mortars and eight associated cobble pestles. Feature 4 is milling station on a low-lying boulder that contains six mortars. Feature 5 is the 3.5-m-high boulder that contains six highly eroded mortars. Debitage is dispersed throughout the site, with several localized concentrations and a maximum debitage density of 6/m2. Obsidian occurs most frequently, with small amounts of red chert also present. Red chert debitage was also observed at other sites in the area, including CA-TUO-226/H, -227, -228, and –229. An obsidian biface fragment and a rectangular-shaped scraper were observed close to the trail, and an isolated handstone was located in the southern site area on the top of the ridge. Site Chronology. The stationary milling features represent Late Prehistoric 2 and/or Late Prehistoric 3 periods, while the handstone may be representative of the Late Prehistoric 1 Period. Disturbances. The Smith Meadow trail, which bisects the site, may increase the potential of casual artifact collection, although Feature 3 with eight associated pestles is located 12 m south of the trail and does not appear heavily disturbed. A modern fire ring was located near the center of the site, north of Feature 4. The entire site burned to varying degrees during the Ackerson Complex Fire. The fire burned intensely in the vicinity of Feature 3, causing a large tree to fall across this milling station, where it continued to burn. This caused large areas of the feature to exfoliate, which affected the shape and depth of a number of the mortars. Numerous trees fell to the ground and burned, and stump holes can be seen throughout the site. Small gullies were noted on the perimeter of the site in places where logs burned to ash and left small trenches. These appear to be filling quickly with duff from the scorched trees, arresting erosion. CA-TUO-3984 Current Results. The site is located on a small flat terrace on the south side of Cottonwood Creek, directly across the creek from CA-TUO-3983. Covering the entire terrace, the site measures 21 x 25 m and encompasses 412 m2. Cultural materials include a bedrock milling feature with 13 mortars, two associated cobble pestles, and 10 obsidian flakes. The maximum debitage density is 3/m2. One obsidian projectile point distal portion (Cat. No. 98347) was collected. Site Chronology. The milling station may indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 periods, while the hydration reading of 3.52 microns (Bodie Hills) for the projectile point fragment suggests manufacture of the specimen during the Late Prehistoric 2 or Late Prehistoric 1 periods. Disturbances. This site appears to be partially inundated by Cottonwood Creek during high water episodes. There is no evidence of artifact collection or looting, nor any sign of camping activity on this site. The site had little vegetation, so the Ackerson Complex Fire only scorched about 20 percent of it. One burned tree fell on the site, but impacts are minor. CA-TUO-3999H Previous Investigations. Jim Snyder (1991) recorded this site as Building 15 as part of the Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. It is the remains of a ditch tender’s cabin on the Golden Rock Ditch, located on a small rocky bluff on the steep south side of the Middle Tuolumne River canyon. The cabin is on a small granite outcrop between the ditch and the river. In 1991, Snyder observed that the cabin had collapsed into an assemblage of rotten, partially burned boards. There was one remaining log from the chimney measuring 8 ft long, 5inches wide, and 5.5 inches across, which was shaped flat by a broad axe. The foundation was bedrock granite with sill logs laid directly 57 on the bedrock. A 5-x-5-ft rock platform was built for the cast-iron stove with an apparent log chimney. The cabin was constructed with cut nails. No evidence of the roof structure remained. Current Results. The cabin remains are situated on a large outcrop terrace that measures 9 x 3 m. A fireplace hearth and collapsed chimney are all that remain of the cabin. Scattered around this outcrop, primarily to the north, are wood stove fragments, meat tins, sardine tins, tin cans (approximately 100 cans total), glass bottle fragments, and a perfume bottle. The site extends across the ditch where a telegraph or telephone line insulator is attached to a tree and a few tin can fragments are scattered. The site measures 35 x 33 m, encompassing approximately 750 m2. Site Chronology. The ditch tender’s cabin may have been built when the section of ditch from the Middle Tuolumne River to Ackerson Meadow was completed. The ditch was not maintained between 1880 and 1902, although this segment was used to bring water to Ackerson Meadow to supply cattle and small-time miners. According to Snyder (1991), the cabin and ditch were maintained by cattlemen in the late 1920s and early 1930s to ensure the water supply to Ackerson Meadow. Tin cans are the primary site constituents. Both matchstick filler hole and sanitary cans were noted, dating to 19001980s and post-1890s, respectively (Rock 1993). An aquamarine medicine bottle, embossed with “Dr. Kennedy’s, Prairie Weed, Roxbury, Mass” dates from 1880-1913 (Berge 1980) and amethyst-tinted glass bottle fragments, dating from 1880-1916 (Rock 1990), were also recorded. The artifact collection suggests a somewhat later date of use than that postulated for construction of the cabin (ca. 1860), indicating that research is necessary to further define site chronology. Disturbances. Jim Snyder recorded that artifacts had been illegally collected and one resident of Peach Growers tract was at the site in 1990 with a metal detector. The entire site was burned during the Ackerson Complex Fire, destroying any remaining wood debris from the cabin. Snyder’s initial record indicates that this site likely burned before the Ackerson Complex Fire, so very little may have burned in 1996. The fire also affected the dump feature by breaking bottles and hastening the deterioration of cans. CA-TUO-4000/H Current Results. Located at the Cottonwood Meadow trailhead on an unnamed tributary to the Tuolumne River, this site, known as Base Line Camp, includes the remains of an NPS Forestry operations camp, the water supply for Camp Mather, and a light lithic scatter. The remains of the Forestry camp and the elements of the Mather Water system may be indistinguishable. They include seven earthen flats that were utilized as structure platforms or tent flats; a large, well-made, cedar-log-lined subterranean storage pit of unknown use; and a 3-ft-deep pit with six pieces of sheet metal over the top supported by three logs and a single 2-x-4-inch board. Two piles of concrete rubble and an assortment of pipes emerging from the ground are also present. At the eastern boundary of the site is the historical Camp Mather water tank. Upstream of the tank is a likely historic-period, mortared granite-cobble dam that provides a small reservoir catch basin to fill the water tank. A flat area with four concrete pylons, representing the remains of an unidentified structure, is located adjacent and downstream of the tank. Temporally diagnostic artifacts include beer cans of various brands with church key openings, condensed milk cans, and twist key coffee cans. Most of the items are concentrated near the tent flats and the small stream that cuts through the site. Other artifacts include lumber fragments, door hinges, metal parts, bottles, and jars. The site measures 276 x 124 m, encompassing 23,225 m2. The prehistoric component was identified at the eastern boundary of the site and is completely surrounded by the historical component. It consists of 18 obsidian flakes and two chert flakes. Site Chronology. The prehistoric component contains no temporally sensitive features or artifacts. The historic-period component indicates use of the site for the past 75 years. The Camp Mather water system was likely built about 1919 as part of the Hetch Hetchy system when Camp Mather was constructed. At present, Camp Mather still uses the water source and water storage tank to supply their needs. A pipeline relating to this use passes through the site. The Forestry operations included a Blister Rust Camp, likely dating to about 1938-1941, when the CCC (Company YNP #8) had a base camp at Mather (NPS n.d.; Paige 1985). The CCC worked to eradicate the non-native White Pine Blister Rust fungus, and the NPS continued this program into the 1960s. When the blister rust program ended, Forestry used the camp for other operations. In the 1980s, Everett DeMoss, Mather Forestry Foreman, moved the buildings out of Base Line Camp to Hodgdon, Crane Flat, and other Mather District locations (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1999). Trash from Base Line Camp was dumped alongside 58 Base Line Road well to the west of the camp. related to post-1960 use (Kennedy 1992). The dump has not been recorded, but much of it is apparently Dates for historical artifacts at Base Line Camp indicate late historical and modern use of the site, likely associated with the CCC or NPS, although further research regarding temporally diagnostic artifacts would elucidate historicperiod site use. Church key openings on beer cans, dating to post-1935 (Rock 1980, 1990), are common, although modern aluminum beer cans were also noted. The embossing, “FEDERAL LAW FORBIDS SALE OR RE-USE OF THIS BOTTLE” on a clear liquor bottle, indicates manufacture between 1933 and 1965 (Rock 1990). A white ceramic plate with the maker’s mark “TEPCO U.S.A. CHINA” was manufactured by the Technical Porcelain and Chinaware Company between 1922 and the 1970s (Lehner 1988). A Coca Cola bottle with a patent reading “D 105529” was made in Modesto, California, possibly between 1937 and 1951 (Munsey 1972). Disturbances. The Lake Eleanor 15-minute quadrangle map (1956) shows six structure symbols at the Base Line location; however, none are currently present. The last buildings were removed in the 1980s and it is uncertain whether artifacts were looted from the site or cleaned up along with the building materials. The prehistoric lithic scatter is located near the trailhead to Ackerson Meadow, which may increase the potential for casual collecting. Visitors, park employees, and maintenance workers for the water system frequent this site. The historical component of the site likely also impacted the prehistoric component. The entire site surface burned to varying degrees of intensity during the Ackerson Complex Fire. Burn intensity was low near the water tank and the creek, while burn intensity was very high toward the eastern site boundary, killing almost every tree. Root and stump holes are present throughout the site area, and large trees and other fuels burned, possibly affecting any subsurface deposits. Wood remains related to the Blister Rust Camp and the water system were also almost entirely consumed by the fire. Ackerson Meadow Ackerson Meadow is located at 1,402 m (4,600 ft) in elevation. The area consists of gently rolling hills surrounding a large flat, generally dry meadow. Ackerson Creek is the main drainage in this area flowing from east to west into the South Fork of the Tuolumne River three miles below the meadow. Several small drainages empty into Ackerson Creek in the meadow area. The vegetation is typical of the Yellow Pine vegetation community. The principal trees are ponderosa pines, black oaks, incense cedar, and occasional sugar pines and firs. Ackerson Creek supports a riparian habitat along its banks, and manzanita and mountain misery are common on the open hillsides. CA-TUO-3509H Previous Results. Forest Service archeologists originally recorded this site as: “A dispersed can scatter of approximately 18 cans, several in a pit. The site is currently heavily overgrown with young fir and cedar” (Ruhan 1993). At the time it was recorded, the allotment boundary fence line between the Stanislaus National Forest and Yosemite National Park ran directly through the site, with one fence post in the pit. The site measured 11 x 12.5 m, encompassing 108 m2. Current Results. The boundary fenceline was relocated farther to the west after the fire, which put this site entirely within Yosemite’s boundary. A fireline was cut across this site during the fire exposing additional features, which were recorded as part of the current project. As currently documented, the site consists of more than 14 metal cans and metal fragments located in and around three circular depressions. Feature 1 measures 8 x 8 x 3.25 ft deep and contains several metal cans, while Features 2 and 3 both measure 8 x 4 x 3 ft deep. The site measures 17.5 x 20 m. Site Chronology. A tin can with embossing on the lid “CALUMET, 5lbs, BAKING POWDER, MADE IN USA, ABSOLUTELY PURE” dates to between 1889 and 1946 (Rock 1987:25). Disturbances. The fenceline separating the NPS from Forest Service lands went through the center of the site, with a fence post located within Feature 1. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, a handline was cut along the fenceline to contain the fire. Numerous small trees were cut down, exposing additional features and artifacts. These small trees were stacked and burned on the site. The original site record indicates more artifacts than are presently located on the site, indicating possible looting or misguided cleanup. CA-TUO-4001 59 Previous Investigation. A Stanislaus National Forest crew originally recorded the site as part of the AckersonRogge Fire Salvage and Reforestation Project (Marsh et al. 1996). When the site was recorded, the boundary fence between Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest bisected the site. When the fence was repaired, it was located west of the site, placing the site entirely on NPS land. This site consists of a bedrock milling station with nine mortars and a lithic scatter on a flat ridge that was fairly dense with vegetation before the Ackerson Complex Fire. Debitage on the site included 120 obsidian flakes and a single red-brown chert flake, while artifacts included three obsidian biface fragments and four obsidian projectile point fragments. Based on artifact illustrations, an Elko Corner-notched projectile point is included within the latter. The site measures 93 x 120 m, encompassing 8,760 m2. Current Results. The Yosemite field crew did not revisit this site. All site and fire effects information was obtained from the Forest Service record, which was submitted for a trinomial. Site Chronology. The Elko Corner-notched projectile point suggests a Late Prehistoric 1 Period occupation, while the milling stations are more commonly attributed to the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Disturbances. The impacts to the site include an old logging/skid road that cuts through the western part of the site. This logging road may be from the Forest Service Ackerson Compartment sale in the mid-1970s. The milling feature exhibits heat fractures and exfoliation from the Ackerson Complex Fire, which burned over the site very intensely. Artifacts and debitage show heat clouding. CA-TUO-4008 Current Results. Originally recorded by a Stanislaus National Forest crew (Marsh et al. 1997), the site straddles the Forest Service/NPS boundary. A larger portion of this site was included in the park when the boundary fence between Forest Service and NPS lands was realigned. Situated south of Ackerson Creek, the site consists of a milling station with at least eight mortars on a bedrock outcrop and a light scatter of obsidian debitage extending west into the meadow. The milling station was partially covered with soil, which was not removed; thus, additional mortars may exist beneath the soil. The section of the site within the meadow supports many ethnographically utilized plants. The site measures 160 x 140 m, encompassing 17,584 m2. Groveland District Soil Scientist Todd Ellsworth examined the Ackerson Creek and meadow soils, noting a sediment deposit of several inches over the ground surface. He suggested that a wildfire, possibly dating to approximately 150-250 years ago in the upper watershed of Ackerson Creek, resulted in the sediment deposit in the creek basin and meadow (Marsh et al. 1997). CA-TUO-4013 is located 110 m to the east on the north side of Ackerson Creek. With the relatively recent sediment deposit in the area, subsurface investigations may indicate that the two sites represent one site complex. Site Chronology. The milling station suggests use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Disturbances. Forest Service Road 1S26YA terminates on this site, and the meadow area of the site is cattle pasture. This site received considerable disturbance during the Ackerson Complex Fire. The meadow area was bulldozed flat during the fire to be used as a drop point and then it was compacted by heavy machinery. A handline was cut across the site at the old agency boundary, and a dozerline was cut farther into the meadow. The area was surveyed before establishing the firelines and drop point, but no cultural materials were observed. After the fire, the meadow area was tilled. This tilling led to the discovery of the site; soils were turned over, exposing the obsidian debitage. The fire lightly burned about 25 percent of the site. Ackerson Creek has also started to erode its stream bank near the milling feature. CA-TUO-4012 Current Results. This site was discovered during the fall of 1996, while mapping handlines in the Ackerson Meadow to Aspen Valley area. It is situated adjacent to an intermittent drainage within a wooded area to the southeast of Ackerson Meadow. Measuring 34 x 26 m and encompassing 694 m2, the site consists of a bedrock milling station with a total of 10 mortars and a single milling slick. No flaked stone or ground stone artifacts were observed. 60 Site Chronology. The milling station suggests use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. This site is similar to CA-TUO-4014, located closer to Ackerson Meadow. Both sites consist of stationary milling features with mortar cups and slicks, with no other associated cultural materials. Disturbances. This site is located in a remote area, reducing the potential for collecting. Some erosion resulting from downslope wash and site inundation was observed. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned 100 percent of this site, causing no visible damage. A fireline was cut approximately 30 m to the north of the site boundary, but it did not have any effect on the site. CA-TUO-4013 Current Results. Resource advisors located this site in the fall of 1996 after the Ackerson Complex Fire, while attempting to locate handlines. This site is situated on a slightly sloping ridge top on the north side of Ackerson Creek above the creek terrace. Granite bedrock outcrops and boulders cover the area, and 10 milling features with a total of 44 mortars and seven milling slicks were discovered among the outcrops. Several of the milling stations have shifted position so that the mortars appear to be at angles that could not be utilized. Obsidian debitage was scattered throughout the site, with the densest concentration located within an area of midden soil. An Elko Eared projectile point (Cat. No. 98387) and a pumice shaft smoother fragment (Cat. No. 98388) were collected. No other flaked or ground stone artifacts were observed. The site measures 73 x 103 m, encompassing 5,902 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features may represent use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Elko series points are generally attributed to the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, but the two hydration cuts on the Elko Eared point resulted in no visible hydration rim readings. This may be due to fire effects, however; the shaft smoother was clearly burned on one face. Disturbances. The accessibility of the Ackerson Meadow area suggests the potential for illegal collection. The Ackerson Complex Fire burned through the entire site area at high intensity, consuming trees and brush and leaving stump holes and downed trees. As noted above, surface cultural materials were affected and the heat from the burning downed trees possibly affected the subsurface deposits as well. CA-TUO-4014 Current Results. Discovered while recording CA-TUO-4013, the site is located on the same knoll as CA-TUO4013 east of Ackerson Meadow. The site consists of four bedrock milling stations, with a total of 14 mortars and four milling slicks. The granite bedrock is highly eroded, a result of weathering rather than fire. Several other flat boulders with no evidence of use were located next to the features. No other cultural materials were observed despite the excellent ground visibility. The site measures 11 x 5 m, encompassing 43 m2. Site Chronology. The milling stations represent use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 periods. Disturbances. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly to moderately burned the entire site. A large snag was almost entirely consumed 2 m east of Feature 1, leaving a large stump hole just outside present site boundary. A large downed tree burned across Feature 3 and features 1 and 3 exhibit minimal exfoliation and burn scars. Feature 4 suffered minimal cracking due to heat. Aspen Valley The Aspen Valley Archeological District includes five sites (CA-TUO-517 through –521) within an approximately two-mile radius (NPS 1979b). The sites are situated in a narrow, north-south trending valley that contains two wet, unnamed meadows at about 1,859 m (6,100 ft) in elevation. Residences are located around the perimeter of the northern meadow, while the southern meadow has unrecorded historic-period homestead, wood mill, and farming remains. Aspen Valley Creek is the single major stream in the northern part of the Archeological District, with Long Gulch Creek further to the east. Flowing in a southerly direction, it drains into the South Fork of the Tuolumne River one mile below the southern meadow. Several small, unnamed creeks flow east from the low hills on the western side of the valley to join Aspen Valley Creek. Vegetation in Aspen Valley is typical of the Yellow Pine vegetation community, with principal trees including yellow pine, sugar pine, white fir, incense cedar, and black oak. Aspen and willow flourish in well-watered areas, while manzanita and ceanothus are the most common brush types. 61 CA-TUO-517 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this site in Aspen Valley as five bedrock mortar groups with at least 43 mortars and about 20 obsidian flakes (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). They also indicated that BRM groups three, four and five were partially covered by heavy duff and dirt. The site measured 137 x 91 m, encompassing 3.1 acres. Current Results. As currently recorded, the site consists of five milling features with a total of 51 mortars and a moderate-density flaked stone and ground stone scatter. The five milling features were relocated and cleaned off in order to record them. The debitage includes opaque and semi-translucent obsidian, heat-treated red chert, chalcedony, and one red flake of another cryptocrystalline material. The maximum debitage density was 3/m2 in several areas of the site. Artifacts include two obsidian edge-modified flakes, one of which is bifacially worked, a small non-diagnostic obsidian projectile point, a granite pestle in association with Feature 3, a highly polished handstone/hammerstone fragment, and a handstone fragment with large flake removal scars and use wear along the edges. None of these artifacts were collected. The original site map indicates that the site boundary extends to the western side of the drainage. The current survey did not locate any cultural material in this area. The site measures 140 x 130 m, encompassing 14,500 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features suggest use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and, possibly, Late Prehistoric 2 periods, while the handstones may indicate earlier use during the Late Prehistoric 1 Period as well. Disturbances. The site is heavily impacted from skid trails, a social hiking trail, and collection by local residents. Additionally, the area was used historically to run cattle and sheep. Features 1 and 2 appear to have been disturbed in the past, as evidenced by the angle of the mortar cups. It is possible that this was a result of lumbering activities. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, a social trail that bisects the site was improved to a handline. This handline was placed through the midden area and excavated to a depth of 5 cm at its deepest and a width of 1 m. This site did not burn in the Ackerson Complex Fire. CA-TUO-518 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this Aspen Valley site in 1975 as an occupation site with two bedrock mortar groups and three obsidian flakes (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). Group One had a minimum of one cup and Group Two had one cup. The crew also noted that logging activities had heavily impacted the site. The site measured 91 x 79 m, encompassing 1.7 acre (5,643 m2). Current Results. For the current project the milling features were relocated, but no other cultural materials were observed. Feature 1 consists of two mortars and four small cupules, while Feature 2 has a single large mortar. Site Chronology. The milling features indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. This site was heavily impacted by previous logging activity. A skid trail borders Feature 1 on the eastern side of the outcrop, and stumps are located throughout the site area. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site. CA-TUO-519 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this Aspen Valley site in 1975 as a single milling feature with at least two mortars (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). No other cultural materials were observed. The site measured 45 x 45 m, encompassing 0.5 acre (1,590 m2). Current Results. As part of the current project, the site was resurveyed and the milling feature was cleaned off to reveal a total of three mortars. No additional features or artifacts were observed, although a heavy duff layer obscures ground visibility in the area. The site dimensions remain the same as originally documented. The site is located on a boulder-strewn flat on the eastern side of small, unnamed intermittent drainage. Site Chronology. The milling feature suggests use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. 62 Disturbances. Logging activities in the past have heavily impacted this site and churned the soil surrounding the milling feature. A logging skid trail is to the east of the site. The forest contains a dense understory in this area, and multiple downed trees cross the site. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site and no fire suppression activities occurred in this area. CA-TUO-520/H Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this Aspen Valley site in 1975 as a bedrock mortar site with two groups and five obsidian flakes (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). Group One had 11 mortars and Group Two had two mortars. The site measured 160 x 137 m, encompassing 5.4 acres (17,207 m2). Current Results. The current survey resulted in relocation of the previously recorded features, a denser lithic concentration than previously recorded, and a historic-period component. The site boundaries were expanded to the south and the west, but reduced to the north. Currently, the site measures 133 x 64 m and encompasses 6,682 m2, nearly 11,000 m2 less than the original site record. Feature 1 has 17 mortars, compared to 11 in the 1975 record. Group Two was relocated, but it was determined to be a natural feature. The holes in the rock are small and irregularly shaped, and are located in an inaccessible portion of the rock. The debitage scatter consisted of over 150 flakes, including 98 percent obsidian and 2 percent of chert, quartz, and slate materials. The red chert at this site appears to be the same as that observed at the confluence of Middle Tuolumne River and Cottonwood Creek. An obsidian Desert Side-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98341) was collected, while a white chert biface mid-section, a schist cobble hammerstone/chopper, and several edge-modified pieces were left in situ. The historic-period component consisted of a large borrow pit that has been used as a trash pit. Within this borrow pit are numerous clear bottle glass fragments, ceramic fragments, sanitary can fragments, machinery parts, and car tires. The borrow pit measures approximately 30 x 60 x 2 m (maximum depth). Site Chronology. The only diagnostic prehistoric artifact is a Desert series point with a hydration rim of 1.97 microns (Mt. Hicks), indicating manufacture during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. The milling stations also indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 and/or Late Prehistoric 2 periods. The historical artifacts are primarily non-diagnostic, although the presence of sanitary cans indicates a post-1890s date of manufacture (Rock 1981). Based on historical documentation, the borrow pit and trash may be related to several developments in the Aspen Valley area. The construction of the Great Sierra Wagon Road (CA-TUO4028H/CA-MRP-1410H) occurred in the 1880s and the development and use of the Aspen Valley area as a tourist destination and residential area began as early as the 1920s. With the relocation of the Tioga Road in 1939 and the advent of World War II, public use of the road was discontinued, but a logging operation persisted in the area until the 1950s and private summer houses are present today (Trexler 1980:12). Disturbances. This site is bordered on the south by the Great Sierra Wagon Road and is adjacent to a residential area, increasing the potential for collection. Interviews with residents have indicated that artifact collection from sites in the area has been a regular occurrence. This may have impacted the integrity of the site. The borrow pit is within the prehistoric site boundary and undoubtedly destroyed a portion of it. An area to the southwest of Feature 1 appears to be disked, with parallel furrows for an area 10 m long and approximately 5 m wide. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site, but the site did sustain suppression damage. During the fire, a bulldozer cut a shallow line across the site. This dozerline measured 3 m wide and approximately 50 m long within the site area. The line did not cross the entire site because of large granite outcrops at the crest of the knoll. CA-TUO-521 Previous Investigations. A CSCS crew originally recorded this Aspen Valley site in 1975 as a small lithic scatter, with a minimum of five flakes (Napton and Greathouse 1976b). No artifacts or features were observed. The site area measured 55 x 30 m and encompassed 0.4 acres (1,295 m2). Current Results. The current survey did not locate any additional features, but the lithic scatter was denser than previously recorded. The main concentration contains more than 100 flakes of primarily semi-translucent obsidian with a small amount of quartz, cryptocrystalline, and quartzite flakes. The maximum debitage density was greater than 20/m2. A quartz Elko Eared projectile point (Cat. No. 98342) was collected. Also recorded but not collected 63 were a quartzite projectile point preform, an obsidian Desert Side-notched projectile point base, a cryptocrystalline biface fragment, an obsidian biface fragment, and two obsidian edge-modified pieces. The site measures 85 x 40 m and encompasses 2,669 m2, which is 1,374 m2 larger than the original survey. Site Chronology. The quartz Elko Eared projectile point may indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, while the Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment indicates manufacture during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. Disturbances. This site is in excellent condition with little disturbance other than natural erosion and slope wash. This site did not burn in the Ackerson Complex Fire. CA-TUO-3989H Current Results. Originally noted during the Ackerson Complex Fire, the site is in a lightly forested flat approximately 2.4 km (1.5 mile) southwest of Aspen Valley along the Great Sierra Wagon Road. (This section of the road is presently known as the Aspen Valley Road.) The site includes the remains of the Aspen Valley Entrance Station/Ranger Station and nine features in the surrounding area. The site measures 160 x 200 m, encompassing 25,120 m2. The remains of the Ranger Station consist of rock alignments that bordered walkways around the location of the cabin, stones that may be remnants of a foundation and chimney, a few can and bottle fragments, and some communication wires. Other features in the surrounding area include: several metal can and glass bottle trash dumps; a spring box; a dry-laid, two- to three-course rock foundation and chimney footing (different from the Ranger Cabin); a small single-course rock alignment; a target tree located across the road from the station location; and a large leveled flat that may represent a parking area. The remains of a Model T car is located downslope of the main site area in a depression that also contains can and bottle debris. There are large earthworks in the surrounding area that may be related to logging activities and another larger spring box is located along the road approximately 0.4 km (0.25 mile) west of the site. Site Chronology. This location was originally known as Lillie Springs (Russell 1927). The Ranger Station was used from 1918 to 1939, when the new section of the Tioga Road from Crane Flat to White Wolf opened, bypassing Aspen Valley. The Ranger Station building was relocated to Mather in 1964 (Greene 1987:1119). The building was seldom used after the Entrance Station closed, although park staff routinely checked the building for damage (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1999). The Yosemite National Park entrance sign previously located over the Great Sierra Wagon Road is now in the Yosemite Collections (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1997). Historical artifacts are abundant and varied, with most items such as sanitary cans and matchstick filler cans representing manufacture at least since the 1890s (Rock 1981). Hole-in-cap cans were recorded as well, dating from 1810-1920 (Rock 1981). A brown bottle, with “I.P.C. Co” embossed on the base, was made by the Illinois Pacific Coast Company of San Francisco between 1930-1932 (Toulouse 1972). Church key openings recorded on some cans indicate use post-1935 (Rock 1990). The Model T Ford was made from 1908-1927, but the car could have been abandoned well after that time period. The abundance and variety of artifacts indicates that more comprehensive chronological research might be fruitful. Disturbances. The original Ranger Station cabin was moved to Mather in 1964. It seems likely that any other structures located here were removed by this time and a cleanup of the area by NPS personnel may have also been conducted. This site did not burn during the Ackerson Complex Fire, but cultural material was exposed when the road was improved for vehicle access. Road blading displaced several rocks that marked the location of the posts that held aloft the entrance sign. After the fire, the site was used as a log landing after the archeological monitor explicitly instructed that the site not be disturbed. The area west of the structure foundations was bulldozed and large logs were dragged across the site. The site area north of the road was burned in a prescribed fire in the fall of 1997. During this fire, site features were protected with flame retardant foam and firelines. CA-TUO-4028H/CA-MRP-1410H (Segment 1) Previous Investigations. The Great Sierra Wagon Road between the western park boundary near Aspen Valley and White Wolf was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 (Hart 1976). It was nominated for local significance in engineering, industry, and transportation. In terms of engineering, this section is the most pristine of the remaining segments of the road, retaining the well-made, dry-laid masonry walls and culverts built 64 by Chinese laborers. Significance in industry and transportation relates to the road’s association with historic silver mining in the region and the “opening up” of Yosemite’s spectacular high country to the public (Hart 1976). Current Results. The Great Sierra Wagon Road (Old Tioga Road section) was re-opened during the Ackerson Complex Fire as an access/fire escape route for Aspen Valley. The road had not been utilized as a vehicular route since the late 1970s, and trees and brush had grown in the route and large trees had fallen across it. The road is not paved along this section and it is subject to erosion and other natural deterioration. In the process of opening the road features were damaged, necessitating a complete recording of this National Register property. The Great Sierra Wagon Road originally linked Crocker’s Station at the western end and Bennettville on the Sierra crest. In the current project area, the segment between the Evergreen Road junction and Aspen Valley is commonly known as the Aspen Valley Road, and it is maintained for vehicle access. The section between Aspen Valley and White Wolf, also known as the Old Tioga Road, is maintained as a trail since it runs through designated wilderness. At the western park boundary, the road winds its way through the Yellow Pine vegetation community at approximately 1,524 m (5,000 ft) elevation, gradually climbing into the Red Fir vegetation community towards White Wolf at 2,400 m (7,875 ft) elevation. It passes through stands of aspen and lodgepole pine along the way. The segment of the road in the project area measures 19.5 miles in length, varying from 12-20 ft in width. It is essentially intact for its entire length. Twenty-nine features were documented, including the dry-laid rock retaining walls and culverts. In several instances, these rock retaining walls are over 30 ft tall. Other features include borrow pits, the stone bridge abutments on the Middle Tuolumne River, can scatters, through-cuts, and riveted-steel pipes that were the original culverts. Some of the features may date to the original construction in 1882 and to the early part of this century when improvements were made. For this project, a site record for the entire length of the Great Sierra Wagon Road was completed that details its general history, characteristics, development and use. The section between the park’s western boundary and White Wolf has been recorded as a linear feature of this same record. Site Chronology. The Great Sierra Wagon Road was constructed in 1882-1883 by the Great Sierra Consolidated Silver Company to transport supplies to their mine on the summit of Tioga Hill. After the mines in Bennettville ceased operations, the road was largely left abandoned until the turn of the century. At this time, the idea of a wagon road to the Tioga Pass area gained rapid support with both government officials and the State of California. The road was eventually purchased by the government and, after numerous repairs, was opened to the public on July 28, 1915. The entire Tioga Road was realigned and reconstructed between 1934 and 1961, bypassing Aspen Valley completely in 1939 and, instead, travelling through Crane Flat. The segment between Aspen Valley and White Wolf was closed to the public in 1941 and to NPS administrative traffic in the 1970s. Disturbances. This section of the road (Segment 1) was worked on and possibly rerouted several times in its history. General neglect over the years has hastened the erosion of culverts and other drainages along it. One of the stone bridge abutments on the Middle Tuolumne River failed due to highwater flows during late fall of 1996, causing the bridge trusses to collapse on one side. Bulldozers were used to re-open the road during the Ackerson Complex Fire, which caused the displacement of the top layers of stones on a few of the rock walls and the creation of an earthen berm along the outside edge of the road. The January 1997 flooding caused erosion damage to the road surface, which may have been exacerbated by the road clearing during the Ackerson Complex Fire. Harden Lake Harden Lake is a 5-ha (12.52-ac), glacially formed lake on the southern rim of the Tuolumne River canyon at 2,282 m (7,487 ft) elevation. It is bordered to the west by a rocky knoll, to the north and south by morainal ridges, and a gradual rise to the east. A series of meadows start at the southwest corner of the lake and continue to the east. The lake is within the Lodgepole Pine and Red Fir vegetation communities, with occasional Sierra juniper, incense cedar, Jeffrey pine, Douglas fir, aspen, chinquapin, whitethorn, California currant, manzanita, and rice grass. CA-TUO-28/H Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1952 (Bennyhoff 1956) and it was rerecorded by a CSCS crew in 1976 (Napton and Greathouse 1977b). A projectile point, type A3 (Desert Sidenotched, General Subtype), was collected in 1952, and the 1976 site record describes the site as a light lithic scatter with one scraper. The site measured 91 x 61 m and encompassed 1.4 acres (5,734 m2). Current Results. The current survey resulted in the identification of a milling feature and several flaked stone artifacts, as well as a historical component. The site is situated on a boulder-strewn moraine adjacent to the shore of 65 Harden Lake, and consists of a milling feature with three mortars and one slick on a low-lying boulder, 22 obsidian flakes, and eight flaked stone artifacts. Three obsidian artifacts were collected: two Desert Side-notched projectile points (Cat. Nos. 98302 and 98303) and a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98304). Other artifacts left in place include three obsidian edge-modified pieces, a slate biface, and a red chert edge-modified piece. As currently documented, the site measures 83 x 52 m and encompasses 3,388 m2. Jim Snyder (personal communication 1998) has indicated that there are two additional milling stations below the current Harden Lake water level, which are exposed only during times of drought and lowered lake water levels. The historical component consists of camping debris and a can scatter associated with a rock fire ring in the southern site area. A corral and tackroom are on the western site periphery. The can scatter contains six sanitary cans and two condensed milk cans, as well as numerous fragments. Site Chronology. The Desert Side-notched and Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points, with hydration rims ranging from 1.55 to 2.06 microns (Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills sources), and the milling station indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The red chert edge-modified piece is made of the same material found at sites along Cottonwood Creek a few miles to the east. The site and corral area has been used at least since the early 1920s, when the NPS trail crew staged and camped in the area while building the trail to Pate Valley. The corral structures have been rebuilt several times since that time (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1998). Earlier use by stockmen such as Francis Pate, who brought horses to pasture in Pate Valley, may be possible as well (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1998). The temporally diagnostic historical artifacts include condensed milk cans and sanitary cans, which indicate use post-1850 and post1890, respectively (Rock 1981). Disturbances. Since the site is located at the edge of a popular lake and there is a park administrative road leading to it, damage to the site has occurred. Historic and modern fire rings are evident throughout the site, and the corral located on the western edge of the site has also contributed to the degradation of the prehistoric component. Probable impacts include artifact collection, compaction, and soil disturbance. This site did not burn in the Ackerson Complex Fire, but the site area was used as the location of a pumping station out of Harden Lake, causing little or no impact to the site. CA-TUO-207 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1952 as a camp on a slope above the Harden Lake shore with one blade fragment and obsidian flakes, measuring 50 x 60 ft (Bennyhoff 1956). A CSCS crew re-recorded the site in 1976, noting two bedrock mortar features with 15 mortars, scrapers, knives, obsidian debitage, and a projectile point (Napton and Greathouse 1977b). Based on a photo in the site record, the point appears to be a Rose Spring series specimen. The site measured 91 x 61 m, encompassing 1.4 acres. Current Results. The current investigation relocated the two previously recorded milling stations, four additional milling stations, a pestle, a moderate density lithic scatter, and midden soil in an area measuring 22 x 10 m. There are a total of 23 mortars and five slicks. The site measures 160 x 122 m, covering an area of 15,323 m2. Lithic materials included obsidian, red chert, a chalcedony flake, and an unidentified piece of gray material that was also observed at CA-TUO-28. The maximum debitage density is 15/m2, located just east of the midden soil. Two obsidian edge-modified pieces were recorded and three obsidian artifacts were collected, including a projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98308), a point stem with a slight basal concavity (Cat. No. 98309), and a Rose Spring Cornernotched projectile point (Cat. No. 98310). Site Chronology. The Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point, with a hydration rim of 2.06 microns (Casa Diablo), and the milling stations may indicate use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The projectile point stem, with a hydration band measuring 3.97 microns (Mt. Hicks), suggests earlier use, perhaps during the Late Prehistoric 1 Period. Disturbances. Impacts are apparent due to visitor use, including modern fire rings and associated trash. With the high visitation in the Harden Lake area, there is also greater potential for artifact collection. This site is not as close to the trail as the others, however, reducing the threat of artifact collection. Other impacts include erosion and slopewash. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site. CA-TUO-208 66 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew first recorded this site in 1952 as rare obsidian flakes in an open flat surrounded by boulders, with dimensions of 15 x 7 yd (Bennyhoff 1956). The CSCS re-recorded the site in 1976 as a very light-density accumulation of obsidian flakes, measuring 152 x 91 m and encompassing 3.4 acres (Napton and Greathouse 1977b). Current Results. The current study documented more than 25 obsidian flakes, two basalt flakes, quartz debitage, and two obsidian edge-modified pieces scattered throughout the site. The site is located along a boulder-strewn morainal ridge and a sandy wash area near Harden Lake. It measures 123 x 80 m and encompasses 7,724 m2. Site Chronology. There were no temporally diagnostic artifacts or features on the site’s surface. Disturbances. Modern camping has minimally impacted the site. Downslope wash and rodent activity are also apparent. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, a hose lay crossed the site causing minimal erosion. The fire did not burn this site. CA-TUO-209 Previous Investigations. A UCAS crew originally recorded this site in 1952 as a camp on the edge of Harden Lake with a bedrock mortar containing six holes and very little surface obsidian (Bennyhoff 1956). The CSCS crew described the site in 1976 as two bedrock mortar features with seven mortars, 10 obsidian flakes, two projectile points, scrapers, and a 4.0-m-diameter by 30-cm-deep depression representing a possible housepit (Napton and Greathouse 1977b). The site measured 168 x 122 m, encompassing 5.0 acres. Current Results. The current survey located four milling stations with 19 mortars and a moderate density lithic scatter, consisting of more than 100 obsidian flakes and two reddish-brown chert flakes. The maximum debitage density is 20/m2, located southeast of Feature 1. Two obsidian edge-modified pieces and a red-brown core fragment were also observed. The possible housepit recorded in the 1976 could not be relocated. The site measures 54 x 51 m, with an area of 2,162 m2. Site Chronology. The milling features may be indicative of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. A modern fire ring is located in the site center with associated modern trash. It is possible that surface collection of artifacts has occurred due to the site’s proximity to the trail and Harden Lake. Small erosion channels cut across the site as well. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this site, and fire suppression activities at Harden Lake did not extend to this site. CA-TUO-210 Previous Investigations. In 1952 a UCAS crew described the site as containing a bedrock mortar with nine holes and rare surface obsidian on the edge of Harden Lake (Bennyhoff 1956). The site was re-recorded in 1976 by a CSCS crew as an occupation area, with a large bedrock mortar (minimum of 15 cups) and a light debitage scatter (Napton and Greathouse 1977b). The site record indicates that projectile points were observed, but not collected or described. Twenty flakes were observed, all obsidian except for one quartz. Subsurface spot checks were also made, with midden and debitage indicating a subsurface deposit of at least 20 cm. The site measured 183 x 183 m, encompassing 8.3 acres (26,289 m2). Current Results. The current project indicated that the site is much larger than previously noted, consisting of 16 milling features with 101 mortars and 14 milling slicks, two possible housepits, 11 pestles, midden soil, flaked stone and ground stone tools, burned bone, and variable debitage densities. This site measures 185 x 230 m and encompasses 33,402 m2, increasing the overall site area by 7,113 m2. Two loci, connected by a light debitage scatter, comprise the site. Locus 2, containing two milling features, was originally recorded as CA-TUO-210 in the 1976 site record. Feature 1, with 18 mortars and one slick, is the same as the Feature 1 documented in 1976. At that time, the field crew recorded several pestles in situ on the milling feature. In 1997, the pestles were still at Feature 1, but from comparisons with photographs taken in 1976, it is obvious that they are not in the same location. It is possible that additional mortars are buried by silt eroding from upslope. Feature 14 contains three mortars and a large slick. 67 Locus 1 is the larger of the two loci, including 14 milling features with a total of 80 mortars and seven slicks, the two possible housepits, midden soil, and the densest concentration of debitage. Feature 18 is the largest milling station with 26 mortars and six associated pestles. Features 12 and 13 are two contiguous circular depressions, possibly representing housepits. Feature 12 measures 4.5 x 4.0 m, while Feature 13 is somewhat larger, measuring 7.0 x 5.5 m. Both are approximately 30-cm deep. A handstone fragment and a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point fragment (Cat. No. 98314) were located within Feature 13 and burned bone was observed near Feature 12. Five obsidian artifacts were collected, including two Cottonwood Triangular projectile points (Cat. Nos. 98311 and 98314), two Desert Side-notched projectile points (Cat. Nos. 98313 and 98315), and a serrated Rose Spring Cornernotched projectile point (Cat. No. 98312). Ten additional artifacts were recorded: an obsidian projectile point tang; an obsidian biface midsection; two obsidian edge-modified pieces; a highly polished handstone fragment; four pestles associated with Feature 1; and a gray enameled coffee pot. Site Chronology. The four Desert series points reflect use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. However, two of the hydration rims, 4.82 and 3.0 microns (Bodie Hills and Mono Craters, respectively), are somewhat thicker than anticipated, suggesting that the rims may not reflect the time of projectile point manufacture (see Chapter 6). The Rose Spring Corner-notched point, with its dual hydration readings of 1.73 and 4.35 microns (Bodie Hills) for the worked edge and detachment scar, indicates that an older flake was used for point manufacture later in time, likely during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period. The abundant milling stations also suggest use during the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. The handstone fragment may represent Late Prehistoric 1 Period occupation; however, this temporal association has yet to be substantiated. The coffee pot may represent historic-period use of the area for camping. There was a sheepherder camp, as well as a historic cabin (with no trace remaining), in this area (Sndyer, personal communication 1999). Disturbances. The site is in fair condition. The trail to Pate Valley bisects the site and an established camping area, that includes benches and fire rings, are within the site boundary. The proximity of the site to the trail and the shore of Harden Lake increase the likelihood of artifact collection. The Ackerson Complex Fire did not burn this area and no fire suppression activities disturbed the site. Kibbie Ridge These sites are located on Kibbie Ridge, between Cherry Lake and Kibbie Lake on the Stanislaus National Forest. Due to some difficulty in locating the boundary between Forest Service and NPS lands, the sites were documented by the field crew and reported herein with the approval of the Groveland District archeologist (Steve Marsh, personal communication 1998). Both sites are on a small, westward flowing, unnamed, intermittent drainage between 2,018 and 2,048 m (6,620 and 6,720 ft) in elevation at the transition zone between the Yellow Pine, Lodgepole Pine, and Red Fir vegetation communities. The area is near the crest of the ridge. CA-TUO-3971 Current Results. Resource advisors initially located this site on the Kibbie Division of the Ackerson Complex Fire. The site is on a small flat with bedrock outcrops on the north side of a small, unnamed perennial stream. This site consists of three bedrock milling stations on a high outcrop that rises several meters above the north side of the creek. Feature 1 contains four mortars and a milling slick with an associated cobble pestle, while Features 2 and 3 have one and mortar and one slick, respectively. Two obsidian flakes were located on the sandy flat north of the features. The site measures 32 x 20 m, with an area of 502 m2. Site Chronology. The milling stations are indicative of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. The sandy flat containing the obsidian flakes appears to be inundated during high water levels, causing some erosion. The site area is difficult to access, limiting any visitor impacts. The Ackerson Complex Fire lightly burned half of the site, resulting in tree fall and burning of downed fuels and some blackening of the features. Additionally, a handline was scraped across the sandy flat where the flakes are located, but the minimal amount of obsidian debitage indicates that this probably did not affect the site. CA-TUO-4007 68 Current Results. During the Ackerson Complex Fire, the spike camp staff located this site on the Kibbie Division of the fire. The site is located in a narrow rocky drainage at the crest of Kibbie Ridge, just before the creek drops off steeply towards Cherry Lake. The site consists of a milling feature on a 2-m-high boulder on the north side of the creek, with five mortars and eight associated cobble pestles. No other cultural materials were observed. Site Chronology. The milling feature is a trait of the Late Prehistoric 3 Period and, possibly, the Late Prehistoric 2 Period. Disturbances. Due to the location of this site away from the trail, it appears to have received little to no visitor impacts. The area immediately around the milling feature is subject to spring flooding that may have washed away artifacts. An obsidian flake was observed downstream in a sandbar. This site did not burn and no fire suppression activities occurred near it. Summary A total of 54 prehistoric sites, 14 historical sites, nine sites containing both prehistoric and historical materials, and five isolates were identified. Prehistoric Sites. Of the 63 sites with prehistoric components, most contain features and artifacts typical of Yosemite sites in the mid-elevation range of the park: 53 (84%) contained stationary milling features and 54 (86%) contained flaked stone materials. Eight sites consisted exclusively of milling features and nine sites contained only lithic scatters. Several uncommon features were documented: five sites contained circular depressions, which may represent housepits; three sites included circular rock constructs, which may represent hunting blinds; a rockshelter was documented at one site; and midden soils were noted at eight sites. Similar to virtually all Yosemite sites, obsidian flakes and tools were most abundant in flaked stone lithic scatters, with lesser amounts of chert, basalt, quartz, quartzite, rhyolite, and slate. It is particularly interesting that a local source of red chert was identified along the Middle Tuolumne River. Documented flaked stone tools and fragments included projectile points, bifaces, edge-modified pieces, cores, drills, choppers, and a unique artifact (see Chapter 6), while ground stone tools included pestles, hammerstones, handstones, a shaft smoother, and millingstones. As the most abundant feature type, a brief summary of stationary milling feature attributes is in order. Milling features occurred at most sites (n=53) with prehistoric components and at three of the isolates, ranging in elevation from the Tuolumne River canyon at 1,036 m (3,400 ft) to Harden Lake at 2,286 m (7,500 ft). A total of 1,351 mortars and 55 slicks were recorded on 191 milling features at sites, while isolates contained three milling features with three mortars and one slick. The number of milling features per site ranged from one to 23, with the highest frequency of sites (n=19, 36%) containing only one milling feature (Table 3). Most sites (n=51, 86%) had 10 or fewer milling features (Table 3). The number of mortars and slicks per site varied from one to 148, with most sites (n=35, 66%) containing fewer than 20 mortars and slicks. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H at Miguel Meadow exhibits the highest frequency of both milling features and mortars (23 and 148, respectively). Figure 5 depicts mortar depths by frequency for 1,252 measurements from sites and isolates. (Data for the 56 milling slicks, which range from 0 to 2.5 cm in depth, are not included.) Mortar depths varied between 0 and 22 cm, with 900 (72%) £ 5 cm deep, 247 (20%) > 5 cm and £ 10-cm deep, and 105 (8%) > 10 cm deep. This distribution of mortar depths closely resembles those for Hetch Hetchy (Montague and Mundy 1995), the eastern Tioga Road corridor (Mundy 1992), and Yosemite Valley (Hull and Kelly 1995). Based on ethnographic models of mortar use (Barrett and Gifford 1933; McCarthy et al. 1985; Ortiz 1991), the abundance of shallow mortars in past Yosemite studies has been interpreted as evidence of predominant acorn processing. However, in a recent examination of Yosemite-wide mortar depth data, Hull and Kelly (1995:76-79) indicate that ethnographic models should be applied with caution and that refinement of such models should be undertaken. Hull and Kelly (1995) further suggest that shallow mortars may have been used for a variety of processing tasks. Thus, analysis of mortar depth data for functional purposes must await development in ethnographic models and, perhaps, the use of other studies such as residue analysis to verify the models. Mortar and milling slick data are presented in Appendix D for future studies and a database file is maintained at the Yosemite Archeology Office. Table 3. Frequency of Sites per Number of Milling Features. # Milling Frequency features per site 69 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 19 9 8 4 4 3 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 300 Frequency 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 10 15 Mortar depth (cm) 70 20 Figure 5. Mortar depths by frequency. Historical Sites. The project area is rich in historical sites, representing use of the area for the past 135 years. The 14 historical sites represent the following: the CCSF aerial tramway (two sites); the Golden Rock Ditch and a ditch tender’s cabin remains; five roads; two trails; the Aspen Valley Entrance Station; the Canyon Ranch Mill; and a depression/can dump. The major historical features at the nine sites with both prehistoric and historic-period components include: the Miguel Meadow structures and associated features; the CCC camp and Smith homestead at Smith Meadow; the worker’s camp on the Hetch Hetchy Road; and the CCC camp and Mather water system at Base Line camp. 71 CHAPTER 6 ARTIFACT ANALYSIS This chapter describes the recovered artifacts and summarizes the OH and XRF analysis results for obsidian specimens. Eighty-nine lithic specimens and one historical artifact were collected from 23 sites and two isolate locations. Most of these (n=88) were recovered during the 1997 field season. In the discussion to follow, permanent Yosemite Collections catalog numbers reference all artifacts. Historical Material Many historic-period artifacts were documented in the field and described in the individual site records (Volumes II and III), but only one specimen was collected. During the fire, a trail sign was removed from its original location and stashed behind a nearby log. Yosemite Fire personnel reported the find to the Resource Advisor, who collected it because of the possibility that it would be illegally removed as a souvenir of the fire. The trail sign (Cat. No. 98301) was recovered from the Great Sierra Wagon Road (CA-TUO-4028H) at its junction with the Base Line Camp/Tamarack Flat trail. The sign is embossed aluminum, painted green with rust-colored lateral edges, and nailed to a piece of wood. It is typical of the signs made by the CCC from about 1935 to 1941 (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1998). The sign measures 12 x 4 inches, and reads as follows: TAMARACK FLAT 7.3Æ - BIG OAK FLAT ROAD - GENTRY RANGER STA. 175-176 10.8Æ U.S. N.P.S. This sign was produced by the Roover Press, which is still in use at the Yosemite Valley NPS Stables for making name tags for the mules’ pack saddles. Before these signs were produced, there were not many trail markers in the backcountry. The press made signs quicker and easier to produce and erect, leading to much better directional signing in the backcountry than there had been (Jim Snyder, personal communication 1999). Prehistoric Material Eighty-nine prehistoric artifacts were recovered, including 66 classifiable projectile points, 15 unclassifiable points or bifaces, four drills, one edge-modified piece, one piece of debitage, one hammerstone, and one possible arrow shaft smoother. Most of the flaked stone pieces are obsidian (n=77), with seven chert, and one each of basalt, quartz, and quartzite. The two ground stone artifacts are made of pumice and granite, respectively. In addition to these materials, it is notable that debitage of a local red chert was observed at eight sites in the Cottonwood Meadow and Smith Meadow areas. (None of the diagnostic chert artifacts are made of this material.) The chert is fine-grained and orange-red in color, occurring as large nodules/cobbles in the Middle Tuolumne River in the vicinity of CA-TUO-226/H, -227, -228, and -229. Classifiable Projectile Points. Projectile points are the largest category of collected artifacts, including 66 complete and fragmentary specimens. There are at least 15 point types recognized in the collection, and four artifacts do not fit clearly in any series. Classification of points is based on morphology, metric attributes developed by Thomas (1981), and regional obsidian hydration information (Hull 1989a, 1991a; Montague 1996a, 1996b; Montague and Mundy 1995; Mundy 1992). Table 4 presents metric data after Thomas (1981) and obsidian studies results for the classifiable projectile points. These data contribute substantially to the 15-year-old Yosemite projectile point database, and will be important in the proposed revision of the projectile point classification scheme. Table 4. Summary Data for Classifiable Projectile Points. Cat. No. Site Type LT (cm) LA LM (cm) (cm) WM (cm) WB (cm) MWP (%) THICK (cm) 75 DSA (°) PSA (°) NO (°) BIR WB/WM Weight (g) Mater/ob source OH (microns) 98302 98315 98319 98320 98385 98303 98313 98341 98354 98365 98375 98376 98377 98380 98345 98358 98378 98311 98314 98346 98350 98362 98304 98310 98312 98317 98321 98324 98325 98343 98344 98357 98364 98366 98370 98381 98382 98383 98349 98355 98371 98300 98340 98328 98342 98374 98387 98373 98331 98327 98326 102628 98338 98339 98305 98335 98379 98384 98330 98337 98359 98368 98334 98363 98369 98386 CA-TUO-28/H CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-28/H CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3997 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-28/H CA-TUO-207 CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3995 P-55-4603 CA-TUO-234/H CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-521 CA-TUO-3997 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-3997 CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO230/231 CA-TUO-233 CA-TUO-234/H CA-TUO86/87/H CA-TUO-232 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-232 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-232 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-4003 DSN-S DSN-S DSN-S DSN-S DSN-S DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN DSN DSN CT CT CT CT CT RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCN RSCS RSCS RSCS EES EES EE EE EE EE ECN ST ECB SCB TCS 2.4 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.3 2.5 2.8 2.0 1.7 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.1 3.5 1.9 2.6 3.1 3.0 2.3 2.5 2.5 3.0 4.4 2.6 2.5 2.8 2.5 4.2 5.9 1.8 2.0 2.1 1.6 2.1 2.5 2.6 1.8 1.7 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.1 3.5 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.0 2.3 2.5 2.5 3.0 4.2 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.1 4.2 5.9 0.6 0 0..5 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0.6 1.1 0.7 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.9 1.5 2.0 1.3 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.4 1.6 2.3 1.7 1.7 2.3 3.0 2.1 2.7 2.5 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.3 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.7 1.7 2.3 2.7 2.1 2.7 2.8 0.6 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 31 19 15 33 38 6 26 19 16 23 19 20 12 13 20 4 0 0 24 17 24 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 1.0 202 227 207 199 197 205 228 202 195 189 203 205 231 205 182 194 NA NA NA NA NA 202 199 147 169 161 147 214 134 150 162 174 176 184 159 145 143 135 157 156 120 132 216 236 217 246 217 230 NA NA 187 182 157 185 177 149 171 148 176 178 170 167 183 142 NA NA NA NA NA 116 118 108 118 131 112 111 135 105 139 105 105 112 90 94 79 95 85 146 119 156 137 140 119 NA NA 60 20 70 22 22 45 34 80 26 17 19 36 22 89 NA NA NA NA NA 86 81 60 43 83 38 51 39 71 45 54 40 31 45 63 77 25 47 70 115 61 109 77 111 NA NA 127 .75 .83 .93 .84 .91 1 .93 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .96 1 1 1 1 1 1 .95 .88 .88 .89 .84 1 1 1 1 .96 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .53 .52 .60 .50 .77 .53 .68 .53 .50 .22 .43 .38 1 1 1 .90 1 1 .24 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.7 1.1 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.7 1.5 0.8 0.9 1.5 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.4 0.9 1.0 1.3 0.6 0.8 1.3 3.3 1.9 2.1 3.2 13.3 2.5 3.5 4.7 2.6 1.4 12.3 1.55 1.41 1.53 1.55 1.77 1.57 1.48 1.97 2.02 1.84 1.61 1.29 2.29 2.24 1.69 1.65 2.18 4.82 3.00 1.39 2.40 2.74 2.06 2.06 1.73-4.35 1.52 2.87 2.47 6.48 3.79 2.20 1.73-3.21 3.92 4.08 1.95 NVH 2.02 NVH 1.84 3.23 5.85 2.87 7.5 1.9 5.5 CD MH BH BH BH BH BH MH BH BH CD CD BH BH BH BH BH BH MC BH BH BH CD CD BH BH BH CD BH BH MH BH CD CD BH CD CD BH BH BH CD BH CH CH QU MH CD CD CH BH BH opaque obsidian BH BH BH SCS PSS SN(L) 2.9 2.8 1.6 1.0 0 3.1 2.8 1.0 1.1 2.8 0 0.8 0.6 0.7 173 190 182 87 85 160 86 105 22 .97 .32 1 SN(L) SN(L) SN(L) LCN LCN LCN LCN PP PP PP PP 3.4 3.4 3.0 2.4 2.5 4.4 1.9 - 3.4 3.4 3.0 2.3 2.5 4.3 1.8 - 0 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 - 2.0 1.8 1.6 2.3 1.8 1.0 2.3 - 2.0 2.4 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.9 1.2 0.7 1.5 2.8 0 29 40 46 52 27 - 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.3 1.0 0.4 0.8 202 222 221 235 236 195 226 NA NA NA NA 133 133 133 103 91 89 110 NA NA NA NA 69 89 88 132 145 106 116 NA NA NA NA 1 1 1 .96 1 .97 .95 - 1 .94 .94 .82 .67 .70 .65 - 3.7 1.7 1.8 4.6 1.8 3.1 1.6 0.8 8.6 1.3 6.8 BH BH BH BA BH CD CD CD NV BH BH NVH/NVH 1.74 5.79/5.54 2.47 NVH/NVH 2.49 NVH NVH 1.47/1.53 3.39 4.98/4.78 NVH/NVH 5.90/5.94 NVH/NVH NVH 3.36 NVH 1.86 POINT TYPES: DSN = Desert Side-notched, -G = General subtype, -S = Sierra subtype; CT = Cottonwood Triangular; RSCN = Rose Spring Corner-notched; RSCS = Rose Spring Contracting Stem; EES = Eastgate Expanding Stem; EE = Elko Eared; ECN = Elko Corner-notched; ST Sierra Triangular; ECB = Eared Concave Base; SCB = Sierra Concave Base; SCS = Sierra Contracting Stem; TCS = Triangular Contracting Stem; PSS = Pinto Sloping Shoulder; SN(L) Large Side-notched; LCN = Large Corner-notched; PP = projectile point. MEASUREMENTS: LT = Total Length parallel to the longitudinal axis; LA = length of the Longitudinal Axis; LM = length between proximal end and position of maximum width; WM = Maximum Width; WB = Basal Width, widest portion of base; MWP = Maximum width position (100 LM/LT); THICK = maximum thickness; DSA = Distal Shoulder Angle; PSA = Proximal Shoulder Angle; NO = Notch Opening Index (DSA - PSA); BIR = Basal Indentation Ratio (LA/LT); WB/WM = Basal Width-Maximum Width ratio; OH = Obsidian Hydration Measurement; NA = Not Applicable; NVH = No Visible Hydration. MATERIAL/OBSIDIAN SOURCES: BH = Bodie Hills; CD = Casa Diablo; MH = Mt. Hicks; MC = Mono Craters; NV = Napa Valley; CH = chert; BA = basalt; QU = quartz. Desert Series. Desert series projectile points are small, triangular specimens, including the Cottonwood Triangular, Cottonwood Leaf-shaped, and Desert Side-notched types (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959). Primarily made of obsidian, Yosemite specimens exhibit hydration rims measuring 1.0-2.1 microns at mid-elevation and 1.2-3.7 microns at lower elevations for most eastern Sierra obsidian sources (Hull 1991a:137). This series dates to postA.D. 1300 in the Great Basin (Thomas 1981:27). In the park, Desert Side-notched points probably date to circa post-A.D. 1350-1400, although one point associated with a radiocarbon date of cal A.D.1174 suggests much earlier use (Moratto 1996:5.48). Firm dates have yet to be established. Twenty-two obsidian Desert series points were recovered from 10 of the Ackerson Complex Fire sites, including nine General subtype, five Sierra subtype, three Desert Side-notched points unidentifiable as to subtype, and five Cottonwood Triangular specimens (Figure 6). The General and Sierra subtypes are distinguished by basal characteristics: General subtype points have straight to slightly concave bases, while Sierra subtype points have a small, central notch on a straight to slightly concave base. 76 Two specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-28/H at Harden Lake. Catalog No. 98302 (Figure 6a) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, Sierra subtype, missing one corner. The piece has a slight longitudinal curvature, likely indicating manufacture from a flake, and small, random flake scars characterize the flaking pattern. It is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.55 microns. Catalog No. 98303 (Figure 6b) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, with a broken tip. The piece has small, random flake scars. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration rind of 1.57 microns. Two Desert Side-notched and two Cottonwood Triangular points were recovered from CA-TUO-210, also at Harden Lake. Catalog No. 98313 (Figure 6c) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, missing its tip. The piece has small, random flake scars, and one lateral edge exhibits possible reworking. The obsidian hydration cut is located along this edge, but shows only one rim measurement of 1.48 microns, indicating that the piece was reworked soon after original manufacture. The obsidian source for this piece is Bodie Hills. Catalog No. 98315 (Figure 6d) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, Sierra subtype, consisting of a portion of the base and mid-section. Small, random flake scars characterize the flaking pattern. It is manufactured from Mt. Hicks obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.41 microns. Catalog No. 98311 (Figure 6r) is a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point. One face has small, random flake scars. The opposite face contains invasive flaking along one lateral edge and the base, marginal flaking along the other lateral edge, and a detachment scar. The hydration rind was measurable only on one surface, with a rather high reading of 4.82 microns on this Bodie Hills specimen. The measurement likely reflects the rim on the detachment scar rather than the worked surface, suggesting that the point was manufactured on a scavenged flake. This piece was fractured into two pieces at the cut location. Catalog No. 98314 (Figure 6s) is a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point fragment missing one basal corner. The piece has small, random flaking on one face with a patina not attributable to the Ackerson Complex Fire. The opposite face has sub-invasive flaking with a large detachment scar. The hydration cut for this Mono Craters piece sampled both the detachment scar and the worked surface, with analysis resulting in a reading of 3.0 microns. However, the rim was highly variable and the diffusion front was vague. Two specimens were collected from CA-TUO-226/H, located at the confluence of Cottonwood Creek and the Middle Tuolumne River. Catalog No. 98319 (Figure 6e) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point, Sierra subtype, exhibiting small, random flake scars. A detachment scar is not evident, but the shape suggests that it was manufactured from a flake. It is made from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.53 microns. Catalog No. 98320 (Figure 6f) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, Sierra subtype, consisting of the basal portion below the side notches. It has small, random flake scars and the lateral edges along the base are serrated. The obsidian source is Bodie Hills and the hydration rim measures 1.55 microns. Recovered from CA-TUO-520/H in Aspen Valley, Cat. No. 98341 (Figure 6g) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point, General subtype. The piece has small, sub-invasive flake scars, with a remnant detachment scar. The hydration cut sampled the flake scars along the lateral edge, resulting in a hydration value of 1.97 microns for this Mt. Hicks specimen. Two Desert series specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-3980 near Miguel Meadow. Catalog No. 98345 (Figure 6h) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment missing the basal portion below the side notches. The piece has marginal flake scars and serrated edges. It retains a detachment scar and has a curved shape, indicating that it was manufactured from a flake. The hydration cut sampled both the detachment scar and marginal flaking, 77 e. a. r. v. b. c. d. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. s. t. u. scale (cm) Figure 6. Desert series projectile points: a-q, Desert Side-notched (Cat. Nos. 93802-98303, 98313, 98315, 98319-98320, 98341, 98345, 98354, 98358, 98365, 98375-98378, 98380, 98385); r-v, Cottonwood Triangular (Cat. Nos. 98311, 98314, 98346, 98350, 98362). 78 with analysis resulting in a hydration measurement of 1.69 microns for this Bodie Hills specimen. Catalog No. 98346 (Figure 6t) is a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point fragment missing the tip. It has small, random flaking, and is slightly thicker (0.5 cm) than the average specimen as reported by Hull (1989a). It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.39 microns. Two Desert series points were collected from CA-TUO-3988 in Poopenaut Valley. Catalog No. 98354 (Figure 6i) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point, General subtype, missing the extreme tip. It is manufactured from a flake, with small random flake scars and serrated lateral edges. A very small detachment scar is present on one face and the opposite face has a slight patina not attributable to the Ackerson Complex Fire. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.02 microns. Catalog No. 98350 (Figure 6u) is a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point fragment missing the tip. It has oblique and random flaking with remnant cortex on one face and marginal flaking along the base of the opposite face. The hydration cut samples the detachment scar and oblique flaking, with analysis resulting in a hydration measurement of 2.4 microns for this Bodie Hills obsidian piece. Catalog No. 98358 (Figure 6j) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment recovered from CA-TUO-3991 near Gravel Pit Lake. It is missing a portion of the base and the extreme tip. The piece has small, random flake scars on one face and collateral flaking with a detachment scar on opposite face. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.65 microns. Two specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-3994 in Poopenaut Valley. Catalog No. 98365 (Figure 6k) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, missing its tip. One face exhibits small, random flake scars and the opposite face retains the detachment scar with marginal flaking along the edges. Both lateral edges are serrated. The hydration cut sampled both the detachment scar and the random flake scars, with analysis resulting in a hydration reading on one surface only of 1.84 microns for this Bodie Hills piece. The hydration value likely reflects the worked surface rather than the detachment scar since the latter has a patina. Catalog No. 98362 (Figure 6v) is a Cottonwood Triangular projectile point. It has small random flaking on one face. The opposite face contains invasive flaking at the distal end of the point and marginal flaking along the proximal edges, with a large detachment scar remaining. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.74 microns. The hydration value represents both the detachment scar and worked surface. Catalog No. 98375 (Figure 6l) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, recovered from CA-TUO-3997 near Canyon Ranch. It is missing its tip. One face has very fine, random flake scars, while the opposite face consists of a detachment scar with marginal flake scars. It is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.61 microns. The hydration value represents both the detachment scar and worked surface. Five specimens were collected from CA-TUO-4002, located south of the Tuolumne River along the trail to Smith Meadow. Catalog No. 98376 (Figure 6m) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, missing a basal corner and its tip. Small random flake scars characterize the flaking pattern. It is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.29 microns. The hydration reading was obtained on one surface only, likely due to burning on one face. Catalog No. 98377 (Figure 6n) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, General subtype, missing a portion of the base and its tip. The piece has small, random flake scars with a detachment scar present on one face, and the lateral edges are serrated. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian, and has a hydration measurement of 2.29 microns. A hydration rim was observed on one surface only, likely reflecting measurement of the detachment scar because the opposite face is burned. Catalog No. 98378 (Figure 6o) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment missing the base below the side notches. The piece has small, random flake scars, and both faces retain small detachment scars. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement on one surface only (the worked face) of 2.18 microns. The hydration measurement was likely restricted to one surface due to burning of the opposite face. Catalog No. 98380 (Figure 6p) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point, General subtype. The piece has small, random flake scars, with a detachment scar present on one face. It is manufactured of Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.24 microns. The face with the detachment scar exhibits the silvery sheen associated with burning; thus, the hydration reading presumably reflects the face with the worked surface. Catalog No. 98385 (Figure 6q) is a Desert Side-notched projectile point fragment, Sierra subtype, missing a basal corner and part of the tip. It has small, random flake scars. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.77 microns. 79 Rosegate Series. The Rosegate series consists of three Rose Spring and two Eastgate point types, which Thomas (1981) combined due to their morphological and temporal similarities. Three types, Rose Spring Cornernotched, Rose Spring Contracting Stem, and Eastgate Expanding Stem, are recognized within the Ackerson collection. Thomas’ metric definitions for the series are a PSA between 90° and 130° and a basal width £ 1.0 cm. Rose Spring Corner-notched and Rose Spring Contracting Stem points are tentatively differentiated by the PSA, with the former having a PSA ≥ 105° and the latter having a PSA < 105° (Hull 1989a). Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile points are distinguished by a generally triangular shape, a PSA < 100°, and a contracting rather than an expanding stem (Hull 1989a). Hydration measurements for the Rosegate series in park collections are 1.1 to 3.7 microns in mid to upper elevations and 1.7 to 5.3 microns at lower elevations for most eastern obsidian sources (Hull 1991a:137). In the park, Rosegate series may date to as early as A.D. 500, but current conclusive evidence points to an early date of A.D. 1000 (Moratto 1996:5.47). Similar to other point types in Yosemite, additional work is required to confirm absolute date ranges for each series. Twenty-one Rosegate specimens were recovered from 13 sites and one isolate location. The collection includes 16 Rose Spring Corner-notched, three Rose Spring Contracting Stem, and two Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile points (Figure 7). Twenty of the points are made of obsidian and one is chert. Recovered from CA-TUO-28/H at Harden Lake, Cat. No. 98304 (Figure 7a) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point fragment missing the tip and one barb. It has small random flake scars and a regular sinusoidal profile. The piece is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration reading of 2.06 microns. Catalog No. 98310 (Figure 7b) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point that was collected from CA-TUO207, also at Harden Lake. The piece is missing very small portions of one barb and the stem, and the flake scars are small and generally random. Manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian, the point has a hydration measurement of 2.06 microns. Another Harden Lake site, CA-TUO-210, yielded a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point (Cat. No. 98312; Figure 7c). It is missing one barb and a small part of the stem, and the lateral edges are serrated and slightly concave. One face has small, random flaking, and the opposite face has sub-invasive and invasive flaking with a detachment scar. The hydration cut incorporates both the worked edge and the detachment scar, resulting in two distinct hydration rims measuring 1.73 and 4.35 microns. The presence of two hydration values for the detachment scar and worked edge indicates that the point was manufactured from a much older flake. Bodie Hills is the obsidian source for this specimen. Four Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points were collected from CA-TUO-226/H and -228 at the confluence of the Middle Tuolumne River and Cottonwood Creek. Catalog No. 98317 (Figure 7d) is missing the tip and a small portion of the stem. Both faces have invasive flaking, retaining the detachment scars. The point is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.52 microns. Catalog No. 98321 (Figure 7e) is a complete specimen, with small, random flake scars on one face, and sub-invasive flaking along the edges of the opposite face. The detachment scar and curvature indicate that this point was made from a flake. It is Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.87 microns, which represents both the detachment scar and worked surface. Catalog No. 98324 (Figure 7f) is crudely manufactured from a flake. It is nearly complete but a small piece of the stem is missing. One face has invasive flaking along one lateral edge and the base, while the opposite face has invasive flaking along all edges. The hydration measurement for this Casa Diablo piece is 2.47 microns, although the diffusion front is vague. Catalog No. 98325 (Figure 7g) also is made from a small flake. Flaking is restricted to one face, and then only marginally along the notched corners and a small section of the lateral edges. Given the very small marginal flaking on this Bodie Hills specimen, the hydration measurement of 6.48 microns almost certainly represents the parent flake. Recovered from CA-TUO-234/H in Smith Meadow, Cat. No. 98340 (Figure 7u) is an Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile point missing one barb and a small part of the stem. This whitish-gray chert point has small, random flake scars and serrated edges. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. 80 j. k. o. l. p. m. q. t. n. r. u. s. scale (cm) Figure 7. Rosegate series projectile points: a-p, Rose Spring Corner-notched (Cat. Nos. 98304, 98310, 98312, 98317, 98321, 98324-98325, 98343, 98344, 98357, 98364, 98366, 98370, 98381-98383); q-s, Rose Spring Contracting Stem (Cat. Nos. 98349, 98355, 98371); t-u, Eastgate Expanding Stem (Cat. Nos. 98300, 98340). Two Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points were recovered from CA-TUO-3977 at Miguel Meadow. Catalog No. 98343 (Figure 7h) is fractured transversely, missing one barb, the entire stem, and part of the mid-section, likely due to a notching error during manufacture. It is manufactured from a thin flake with invasive flaking on both faces. The obsidian source is Bodie Hills and the hydration value is 3.79 microns, although the diffusion front is vague. Catalog No. 98344 (Figure 7i) is complete except for an extremely small portion of the stem. It is finely made with oblique parallel flaking on one face and collateral flaking on the opposite face. The obsidian source is Mt. Hicks, and the hydration measurement is 2.2 microns. The point was located within an erosion channel on CA-TUO-3977. Two Rose Spring Contracting Stem projectile points were recovered from CA-TUO-3988. Catalog No. 98349 (Figure 7q) is manufactured from a flake and only marginally flaked on both faces, which has resulted in serrated edges. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.84 microns. Catalog No. 98355 (Figure 7r) may be reworked along one lateral edge as suggested by the skewed base, which is at a 45° angle to the longitudinal axis. Small, random flake scars characterize the flaking pattern. The piece is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 3.23 microns. 81 Collected from CA-TUO-3991 near Gravel Pit Lake, Cat. No. 98357 (Figure 7j) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point fragment missing the tip and one barb. It is made from a flake with small, random flaking on one face and invasive flaking of the opposite face. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has dual hydration measurements of 1.73 and 3.21 microns. The thicker rim likely reflects measurement of the thin section at the detachment scar, while the thinner rim likely represents the worked surface and manufacture of the point. Recovered from CA-TUO-3994 in Poopenaut Valley, Cat. No. 98364 (Figure 7k) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point missing its extreme tip. It is manufactured from a flake and retains detachment scars on both faces. One face is partially obliquely flaked and the opposite face is randomly flaked with small flake scars. The PSA of 135°, the basal width of 1.3 cm, and the hydration measurement of 3.92 microns for this Casa Diablo specimen are slightly higher than the expected ranges, suggesting that it might be more appropriately classified as an Elko series point. However, the diminutive overall size of this piece indicates that classification within the Rosegate series is correct. The hydration cut samples both the detachment scar and the worked lateral edge (on the blade) with only one rim visible, suggesting that the parent flake and the worked edge were made at the same time. The somewhat high hydration value may be due to elevation-related variables; the site from which the point was collected is located at 1,036m (3,400 ft) elevation. Three Rose Spring projectile points were recovered from CA-TUO-3995 at Canyon Ranch. Catalog No. 98366 (Figure 7l) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point manufactured from a flake. The dorsal face has small, random flake scars and the ventral face has marginal flaking. The piece is twisted along the longitudinal axis and one face has a slight patina probably not a result of the Ackerson Complex Fire. The hydration cut sampled both the detachment scar and the worked surface, with analysis resulting in a reading of 4.08 microns for this Casa Diablo obsidian specimen. Catalog No. 98370 (Figure 7m) is a Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile point missing part of the base and one tang. The piece has small, random flake scars and the face with the detachment scar exhibits a patina due to burning. Probably due to burning, the hydration rim of 1.95 microns was observed only on one surface (the worked surface as opposed to the detachment scar) of this Bodie Hills obsidian piece. Catalog No. 98371 (Figure 7s) is a Rose Spring Contracting Stem projectile point manufactured from a flake. The piece has invasive flaking on the ventral face and sub-invasive flaking on the dorsal face, which also has a patina possibly due to burning. The hydration reading of 5.85 microns for this Casa Diablo piece was highly variable on only one surface. The hydration cut sampled both the parent flake on the face with a patina and the invasive flake scars on the opposite face. One might expect that the surface with the patina was unreadable and that the 5.85 micron reading represents the worked surface on the “clean” face. However, the hydration value is very high for a Rose Spring point, suggesting instead that the reading represents the original detachment scar. Three Rose Spring Corner-notched projectile points were recovered from CA-TUO-4002 along the Smith Meadow Trail. Catalog No. 98381 (Figure 7n) is very thin and it is missing one tang. The piece is manufactured from a flake, with both faces minimally worked with sub-invasive and marginal flake scars. The lateral edges are slightly concave and serrated. The piece is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has no visible hydration rind, which may be an effect of the fire or an indication of a late prehistoric artifact. The specimen was recovered from a severely burned area. Catalog No. 98382 (Figure 7o) is missing one tang and has small, random flake scars on both faces. It is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.02 microns. Catalog No. 98383 (Figure 7p) is missing one tang and a small part of the stem. It has small, random flake scars on one face and invasive flaking with a detachment scar on the opposite face. There is light patina on one face. The hydration cut sampled the worked surface, which exhibits the patina, and the detachment scar on the “clean” face, with analysis indicating no visible hydration rind. This piece is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian. Catalog No. 98300 (Figure 7t), an Eastgate Expanding Stem projectile along the trail to Smith Meadow from Hetch Hetchy. It is missing one well made, with small, random flaking on one face and invasive flaking incorporated both the detachment scar and the worked surface, with measurement of 2.87 microns for this Bodie Hills obsidian piece. point, is an isolate (P-55-4603) located barb and the extreme tip. It is thin and on the opposite face. The hydration cut analysis results indicating a hydration Elko Series. Four Elko Eared points and one Elko Corner-notched point are recognized in the current collection (Figure 8). Material types include three obsidian, one chert, and one quartz. Heizer and Baumhoff (1961:128) define Elko Eared points as varying in form between two extremes: “At one extreme they are simply a large triangular point with two large nubs or ears projecting diagonally from the base. At the other extreme these points are stemmed, corner-notched, and with the base of the stem sufficiently concave to give it an eared appearance.” Thomas (1981:21) defines Elko Eared points as having a BIR £ 0.93, a PSA between 110 and 150°, and a basal width > 1.0 cm. Thomas (1981:21) defines Elko Corner-notched points as having a BIR > 0.93, a PSA between 110 and 150°, and a basal width > 1.0 cm. Heizer and Baumhoff (1961:128) describe Elko Corner-notched 82 points as “on the average, both long and heavy, basically triangular in form with sloping shoulders and stems which widen toward the basal end.” Elko series points are dart points, generally thought to pre-date the Rosegate arrow points in the park, although firm dates have yet to be established. Hull (1991a:137) indicates that low-elevation specimens of most eastern Sierra obsidian sources generally exhibit hydration rims between 5.5-9.8 microns, while mid-elevation points of most eastern Sierra obsidian sources yield rims measuring 3.0-5.5 microns. Recovered from CA-TUO-228 near the confluence of Cottonwood Creek and the Middle Tuolumne River, Cat. No. 98328 (Figure 8a) is an Elko Eared projectile point. It has small, random flake scars on one face and marginal flaking on the opposite face. Manufactured from a flake, this black chert piece is flat on one face and convex on the opposite face. The Ackerson Complex Fire likely caused a heavy patina and several cracks on the specimen. Collected from CA-TUO-521 near Aspen Valley, Cat. No. 98342 (Figure 8b) is an Elko Eared projectile point manufactured from quartz. The piece is thick, chunky, and crudely made, with small- to medium-sized, random flake scars. Two Elko series points were collected from CA-TUO-3997 near Canyon Ranch. Catalog No. 98374 (Figure 8c) is an Elko Eared projectile point fragment missing the tip and an ear. It is crudely manufactured with large, random flake scars. Made of Mt. Hicks obsidian, the piece has a hydration measurement of 2.47 microns, although the diffusion front is vague and a discontinuous or interrupted hydration rind was observed in the thin section. The PSA is 156°, slightly higher than the range defined by Thomas. Catalog No. 98373 (Figure 8e) is an Elko Cornernotched projectile point base with small- to medium-sized, random flake scars. It is manufactured from a mahogany Casa Diablo obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 2.49 microns. Catalog No. 98387 (Figure 8d) is an Elko Eared projectile point recovered from CA-TUO-4013 near Ackerson Meadow. The blade has been reworked into a small, sharp, drill-like point, and the flake scars are small and random. It is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian. Two hydration cuts were made, one in the basal concavity and one along the lateral edge. Neither sample had a visible hydration rind, which is likely a result of burning; the Ackerson Complex Fire severely burned 100 percent of the site. Concave Base. Two points, a Sierra Concave Base and an Eared Concave Base, are recognized within the current collection. Moratto (1972:256) defines Sierra Concave Base projectile points as “Long, heavy, well-made point(s) with a symmetrical lanceolate or leaf-shaped blade and a subconcave to deeply concave or notched base; the basal concavity leaves bilateral tangs or barbs set parallel to the long axis of the point…” Hull (1989a:11) further notes that the leaf-shaped specimens tend to be classed as Humboldt Concave Base points, while the parallel- 83 a. b. c. e. h. d. f. i. g. j. k. scale (cm) Figure 8. Large projectile points: a-d, Elko Eared (Cat. Nos. 98328, 98342, 98374, 98387); e, Elko Cornernotched (Cat. No. 98373); f, Sierra Concave Base (Cat. No. 98326); g, Eared Concave Base (Cat. No. 98327); h, Sierra Triangular (Cat. No. 98331); i, Triangular Contracting Stem (Cat. No. 102628); j, Sierra Contracting Stem (Cat. No. 98338); k, Pinto Sloping Shoulder (Cat. No. 98339). sided points are classified as Sierra Concave Base points. She describes the tangs as being broad, well defined, and rounded at the base. Recovered from CA-TUO-228, Cat. No. 98326 (Figure 8f) is a basal fragment with small- to medium-sized, random flake scars. One face exhibits the silvery sheen associated with burning, which may be the 84 cause of the hydration analysis result of no visible rim. The point fragment is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian. Moratto (1972:258) defines Eared Concave Base points as “long, heavy, well made points with symmetrical lanceolate, leaf shaped or parallel-sided blade and deeply concave or notched base; the body contracts slightly and then flares at the base, leaving characteristic basal ‘ears’ projecting obliquely on each side of the basal concavity.” Metric and hydration standards for the park have not been established for this type. One basal fragment (Cat. No. 98327, Figure 8g), collected from CA-TUO-228, is an Eared Concave Base projectile point. The flake scars are random and vary from small to large in size, and one face exhibits the silvery sheen associated with burning. The piece does not have a visible hydration rim, and it is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian. Sierra Triangular. Catalog No. 98331 (Figure 8h) is a Sierra Triangular projectile point recovered from CA-TUO-228. As originally defined by Moratto (1972:256), “This is a provisional designation for an apparent type of heavy, triangular point with convex base, shallow notches low on the sides, and no discrete stem; the transverse section is biconvex; lateral borders are undulating or moderately serrated.” The definition is further refined for Yosemite (Hull 1989a:13) to include smaller points than those recognized by Moratto at Buchanan Reservoir. All previously identified Sierra Triangular points were manufactured from obsidian. This piece is manufactured from chert, with two distinct colors evident, apparently relating to stages of manufacture and post-depositional processes. The tan-colored sections on both faces represent the parent flake, which may have been heat treated prior to working. The blue-gray color of the small- to medium-sized flake scars on both faces represents the worked surfaces. The dark staining on one face is from the Ackerson Complex Fire. The length of the artifact is within the range proposed by Moratto (1972), but it is longer than other recognized points of this series in Yosemite. The width is at the minimum previously recorded for Yosemite. Manufactured from a flake, it is flat on one face and convex on the opposite face rather than biconvex as defined by Moratto (1972). Contracting Stem. Two contracting stem points were collected from sites in the Cottonwood Meadow area. Moratto (1972:259) describes the Sierra Contracting Stem as a “long, heavy, triangular or lanceolate-bladed point with deep basal notches, medium to long tangs and a broad contracting stem,” while the Triangular Contracting Stem is a “medium to large triangular-bladed point with pronounced shoulders and contracting stem.” Hull and Roper (1996:9.47) indicate that specimens of most eastern Sierra obsidian sources recovered from lower to mid-elevation Yosemite contexts exhibit hydration readings from 3.1 to 8.7 microns, although a few pieces contain thinner rims. Catalog No. 102628 (Figure 8i), a Triangular Contracting Stem point with a portion of the tip missing, was recovered from CA-TUO-230/231. The specimen is manufactured of opaque obsidian and has the silvery sheen associated with burning. The profile of the piece, one flat face and one very pronounced convex face, suggests that it was manufactured from a large flake. Small, collateral flake scars define the flat face, while small- to mediumsized, random flake scars characterize the convex face. This point was not submitted for obsidian studies. Collected from CA-TUO-233, Cat. No. 98338 (Figure 8j) is a Sierra Contracting Stem projectile point fragment. This piece has distinct barbs and a large contracting stem, and the tip is missing due to an impact fracture. Flake scars are small to medium sized and random. Two areas were sampled for hydration on this Bodie Hills specimen. The first cut was made just below the barb, with results indicating a poorly defined diffusion front of 1.47 microns on only one surface of the thin section. The second cut was along the lateral edge of the blade on the impact fracture. This thin section also exhibited only one surface with a hydration rind measuring 1.53 microns. Given the margin of error associated with obsidian hydration analysis, the two hydration readings are likely contemporaneous. These hydration measurements are thinner than those for other contracting stem points found elsewhere in the park. Catalog No. 98338 was recovered from a burned context; thus, it is possible that the fire affected both hydration rims. It may also be that this point type was used for a longer period of time than originally thought. Pinto Sloping Shoulder. Recovered from CA-TUO-234/H in Smith Meadow, Cat. No. 98339 (Figure 8k) is a Pinto Sloping Shoulder basal fragment. Moratto (1972:261) defines this type as a “Medium point with slight to pronounced sloping shoulders and a broad, straight to slightly contracting stem with a notched or concave base.” Hull (1989a:10) notes that points collected in Yosemite measure 2.6 to 3.2 cm in length, 1.5 to 2.0 cm in maximum width, 1.2 to 1.8 cm in basal width, and 0.5 to 0.8 cm in maximum thickness. Distal shoulder angle varies from 189° to 213°, while PSA ranges from 79° to 109°. Catalog No. 98339 is missing the tip and one barb, precluding measurement of length and maximum width. Basal width is 0.1 cm smaller than previously recorded 85 Pinto Sloping Shoulder points in the park, but the PSA and DSA are within their ranges. manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 3.39 microns. The piece is Large Side-notched. Thomas (1981) classifies Large Side-notched points as projectile points with side notches that weigh more than 1.5 grams and have a PSA ≥ 150°. Hull (1989a) amends this definition to points with a PSA ≥ 130° that must not exhibit traits that would place them within any of the other named typologies. Four such points from three sites are recognized in the current collection (Figure 9). Recovered from CA-TUO-86/87/H, Cat. No. 98305 (Figure 9a) exhibits small- to medium-sized flake scars and is manufactured of Bodie Hills obsidian. The reworked blade and the base were sampled for hydration analysis, with results of 4.98 microns and 4.78 microns, respectively. Given the margin of error for OH analysis, the blade was reworked at the time of original manufacture or soon thereafter. Recovered from CA-TUO-232 along Cottonwood Creek, Cat. No. 98335 (Figure 9b) has small- to medium-sized, random flake scars on one face and small invasive flake scars with a detachment scar on the opposite face. This point resembles a Fish Slough Side-notched point (Basgall and Giambastiani 1995:54), although it is somewhat smaller and lacks the convex base. Two hydration cuts were made on this Bodie Hills specimen, one along the lateral edge of the blade through the detachment scar and one along the base. Neither resulted in a visible hydration rind. This may be due to burning, although only one face has a very slight patina, or the point may have been used late in time. Two specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-4002 along the Smith Meadow trail. Catalog No. 98379 (Figure 9c) exhibits small- to medium-sized, random flake scars and evidence of burning on one face. This point is morphologically similar to Cat. No. 98335, but the base is slightly concave. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.74 microns. A discontinuous or interrupted hydration rind was observed on the thin section, which may be related to the burned surface. Catalog No. 98384 (Figure 9d) is missing most of the blade element, but the slightly concave base and flaking pattern are similar to Cat. No. 98379. Two areas were sampled for OH analysis on this Bodie Hills piece. The first cut was along the lateral edge of the blade element and measured 5.79 microns, with a vague diffusion front and highly variable thickness. The second cut was on the concave basal edge and measured 5.54 microns. Given the OH margin of error, these values are likely not significantly different. Large Corner-notched. Hull (1989a) classifies Large Corner-notched points as specimens with a PSA < 130° and measuring 1.8 to 3.5 cm in length, 1.5 to 2.0 cm maximum width, 1.2 to 2.0 cm basal width, and 0.4 to 1.0 cm in thickness. Similar to the Large Side-notched type, they lack traits specific to any named type and may be extensively reworked. As such they may not have any temporal sensitivity. Four of these points were collected from four sites. Recovered from CA-TUO-228, Cat. No. 98330 (Figure 9e) is manufactured of basalt and has a very slight silvery sheen associated with burning on one face. It is missing a very small portion of the stem corner and the lateral edges at the extreme tip due to burination. The flake scars are random and small to medium in size. It resembles a Pinto point, but it lacks a convex base. Recovered from CA-TUO-232, Cat. No. 98337 (Figure 9f) is a small, chunky point with pronounced shoulders and a straight stem. The extreme tip is missing and the blade is likely reworked. The flake scars are small and random, and a small portion of a detachment scar is visible on one face. The blade and base were sampled for OH analysis, with results indicating no hydration rind in either thin section. This may be due to burning, as a silvery sheen is evident on one face. This piece is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian. a. b. c. 86 d. e. i. f. j. g. h. k. l. scale (cm) Figure 9. Large Side-notched, Large Corner-notched, and unidentifiable projectile points: a-d, Large Sidenotched (Cat. Nos. 98305, 98335, 98379, 98384); e-h, Large Corner-notched (Cat. Nos. 98330, 98337, 98359, 98368); i, Projectile point (Cat. No. 98334); j, Projectile point (Cat. No. 98363); k, Projectile point (Cat. No. 98369); l, Projectile point (Cat. No. 98386). Catalog No. 98359 (Figure 9g) was collected from CA-TUO-3991. The flake scars are small and random on one face and small and sub-invasive with a detachment scar on the ventral side. This piece is manufactured from Casa Diablo obsidian. Both the blade and the base were sampled for OH analysis, with results of 5.90 and 5.94 microns, respectively, indicating that if the blade was reworked, it was reworked at or soon after the time of original manufacture. Catalog No. 98368 (Figure 9h) was collected from CA-TUO-3995. It has small random flake scars on the dorsal face and small sub-invasive flaking with a detachment scar on the ventral face. Although this piece fits the criteria for the Large Corner-notched type, it is arrow sized and very thin, and may be more appropriately described as a small corner-notched specimen. The blade and base for this Casa Diablo point were sampled for OH analysis and both cuts included the detachment scar. Neither thin section had a visible hydration rind, which could be either an effect of the fire or an indication that the hydration rind was smaller than approximately 1.0 micron. Although the site was burned, this specimen does not exhibit the macroscopic characteristics of burned obsidian. Unidentifiable Projectile Points. Four projectile points were not ascribable to a particular series. These points are either reworked to the degree that any diagnostic attributes are gone, or their metric measurements do not 87 fit into a defined series. All four of the pieces are manufactured from obsidian and were subjected to OH and XRF analysis. Catalog No. 98334 (Figure 9i) is a small, lightweight projectile point collected from CA-TUO-232. It resembles Bipoint subtype B in shape (see Hull 1989a), but it is smaller. It is leaf shaped, with a rounded proximal end and pointed distal end. Manufactured from a flake of Casa Diablo obsidian, one face retains a large detachment scar and both faces are only marginally flaked. The hydration cut sampled both the detachment scar and the marginal flaking, resulting in a reading of no measurable hydration rind. The site was heavily burned, but the specimen does not exhibit the macroscopic characteristics of burned obsidian. Recovered from CA-TUO-3994 in Poopenaut Valley, Cat. No. 98363 (Figure 9j) has a slightly concave base, with no notching, barb, or tang elements, and it resembles a Sierra Concave Base point. The base is broad and rounded with straight lateral edges tapering to a point. The piece has small- to large-sized, random flake scars on both faces, and one face has a patina, which is not a result of the Ackerson Complex Fire. The difference in flake sizes may indicate reworking after initial manufacture. The piece is manufactured from Napa Valley obsidian and has a hydration rind of 3.36 microns. This is the only piece of Napa Valley obsidian recorded in Yosemite National Park to date, and it is the farthest obsidian source represented in the Park Collections. In the North Coast Ranges, the location of the Napa Valley source, the concave base projectile points may date to between 3000 and 5000 B.P. (White et al. 1982). Within that typology, the Yosemite piece would be classified as a Shallow Base Shouldered point, which on a relative time scale is intermediate between other concave base varieties (White et al. 1982). In that area, specimens general exhibit hydration rims between 2.0-4.9 microns, which fits well with the Yosemite specimen; however, it is likely not prudent to compare hydration rims from these dissimilar environments. Lacking debitage data from CA-TUO-3994, it is not possible to determine whether the point was manufactured near the obsidian source and transported to Yosemite or manufactured from a larger preform or blank at the site. Recovered from CA-TUO-3995, Cat. No. 98369 (Figure 9k) is a thin, triangular-shaped piece missing one basal corner. Flake scars are small to medium sized and random. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a no visible rim hydration reading. Although the piece does not exhibit the silvery sheen generally associated with burning, the piece was recovered from an area of the site that burned during the Ackerson Complex Fire. Recovered from CA-TUO-4003 along the Smith Meadow Trail, Catalog No. 98386 (Figure 9l) is a slightly concave basal fragment, with small- to medium-sized, random flake scars and a slight patina on one face. The break is typical of that of an impact fracture. The piece is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 1.86 microns, which was measured on one surface only. Unclassifiable Bifaces and Fragments. Fifteen artifacts are recognized within this category, including unidentifiable projectile point fragments, biface fragments in various stages of manufacture, and a unique bifacially flaked piece (Table 5). Twelve of these are obsidian, one is chert, one is metasedimentary, and one is quartzite. Six specimens were submitted for XRF and OH analysis. Recovered from CA-TUO-86/87/H, Cat. No. 98306 is a projectile point mid-section with random and small-sized flake scars. It is manufactured of Bodie Hills obsidian with a vague hydration diffusion front. Two specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-207 at Harden Lake. Catalog No. 98308 is a large projectile point tip and mid-section fragment, missing its basal element. It is visually sourced to Casa Diablo obsidian. Catalog No. 98309 (Figure 10a) is a projectile point stem with a slight basal concavity and small, random flake scars. It may be the base of a Pinto or Humboldt series point. It is manufactured from Mt. Hicks obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 3.97 microns. Three bifaces were recovered from CA-TUO-226/H. Catalog No. 98316 (Figure 10e) is a large tip and partial midsection of an early-stage biface. Flake scars are random and range from small to large in size. It is manufactured from Mt. Hicks obsidian and has a hydration reading of 6.10 microns, although the diffusion front is vague. The piece exhibits one burned face, which may explain the vague diffusion front. Catalog No. 98318 (Figure 10f) is the rounded tip and partial mid-section of a large, thick biface. Flake scars are random and range from small to large in size, with a detachment scar evident on one face. It is manufactured from a fine-grained tan metasedimentary rock, although one face is dark brown due to burning. Catalog No. 98322 (Figure 10d) is a complete biface, with one rounded end and one end with a contracting stem, which appears to be reworked. Flake scars are random and medium sized, except for at the stemmed end which has larger flake scars. This artifact is made of a light green/tan chert. Table 5. Summary Data for Unclassifiable Bifaces and Drills. 88 Catalog Site Fragment Length Width Thickness Weight Material or No. (cm) (cm) (cm) (g) OH/XRF Bifaces and Fragments 98306 CA-TUO-86/87/H pp mid-section 2.5 1.7 0.7 2.7 BH/DFV 98308 CA-TUO-207 pp tip/mid-section 3.0 1.9 0.8 3.9 CD(v) 98309 CA-TUO-207 pp base 1.3 1.4 0.6 1.1 MH/3.97 98316 CA-TUO-226/H bf tip/mid-section 5.2 4.7 1.1 22.5 MH/6.10 98318 CA-TUO-226/H bf tip/mid-section 4.5 2.4 1.2 12.2 metasedimentary 98322 CA-TUO-226/H Biface 4.2 1.6 0.7 5.0 chert 98332 CA-TUO-228 bf mid-section 3.0 3.5 1.0 13.4 quartzite 98336 CA-TUO-232 unique bf 2.1 1.8 0.4 1.0 BH/NVH 98347 CA-TUO-3984 pp tip/mid-section 2.4 1.5 0.6 1.6 BH/3.52 98348 CA-TUO-3988 pp tip/mid-section 1.4 1.8 0.6 1.2 BH/0.89 98351 CA-TUO-3988 bf base 1.9 2.4 0.6 1.9 BH(v) 98353 CA-TUO-3988 Bf 2.4 1.5 0.5 1.4 BH(v) 98356 CA-TUO-3988 pp ear 1.6 1.4 0.6 1.1 BH(v) 98367 CA-TUO-3995 bf tip/mid-section 2.3 1.8 0.3 0.8 BH(v) 98372 CA-TUO-3995 pp mid-section 2.5 1.3 0.5 1.0 CD(v) Drills and Fragments 98333 CA-TUO-232 Complete 5.5 1.1 0.6 2.8 BH/1.37 98352 CA-TUO-3988 Base 1.6 1.9 0.5 1.2 chert 98360 CA-TUO-3994 tip missing 5.6 1.8 0.7 4.8 BH/DFV 98361 CA-TUO-3994 mid-section 2.6 1.4 0.5 1.2 BH/2.78 KEY: pp = projectile point; bf = biface fragment; BH = Bodie Hills; CD = Casa Diablo; MH = Mt. Hicks; DFV = diffusion front vague; NVH = no visible hydration; (v) = visually sourced. Recovered from CA-TUO-228, Cat. No. 98332 (Figure 10g) is a large, brown-red, quartzite biface mid-section. Large, random flake scars characterize the piece, and one face is discolored (dark brown) due to burning. Recovered from CA-TUO-232, Cat. No. 98336 (Figure 10c) is a unique biface. It consists of four ears/barbs, two of which are broken, extending from a midsection area to form the shape of an “X.” The flake scars are small and random. The function of this artifact is unknown, although it may be that it is a reworked point of some unidentifiable type, an ornament, or a whimsical creation. It is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian with no visible hydration rim. The hydration reading could be a result of the fire or date of manufacture: the site was burned but the artifact does not exhibit macroscopic evidence of burning. a. b. c. 89 d. e. h. f. i. g. j. k. scale (cm) Figure 10. Unclassifiable bifaces and drills: a-b, projectile point bases (Cat. Nos. 98309, 98356); c, unique biface (Cat. No. 98336); d, biface (Cat. No. 98322); e-g, large biface fragments (Cat. Nos. 98316, 98318, 98332); h-k, drills (Cat. Nos. 98333, 98352, 98360, 98361). The only artifact recovered from CA-TUO-3984, Cat. No. 98347 is a projectile point tip and mid-section that has been reworked along the steep broken edge. Flake scars are small in size, with random flaking on one face and collateral flaking on the opposite face. It is manufactured of Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 3.52 microns. Four specimens were recovered from CA-TUO-3988. Catalog No. 98348 is a projectile point tip and partial midsection with small collateral flake scars. It is Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration reading of 0.89 micron on one surface only. Catalog No. 98351 is a basal fragment with a possible ear from a large biface. Small- to medium-sized, random flake scars and a detachment scar characterize the flaking pattern. It is visually sourced to Bodie Hills obsidian. Catalog No. 98353 is a biface fragment with small, random flake scars and a detachment scar that has been marginally modified along the edges to form a cusped piece. It is visually sourced to Bodie Hills obsidian. Catalog No. 98356 (Figure 10b) is a projectile point ear, possibly from a Sierra Concave Base point. It has small to medium-sized, random flake scars, and is visually sourced to Bodie Hills obsidian. Two biface fragments were collected from CA-TUO-3995. Catalog No. 98367 is a triangular-shaped biface tip and partial mid-section with marginal flaking along the lateral edges of the ventral face and medium-sized, random flaking on the dorsal face. This piece was manufactured from a flake, and was likely broken and discarded during the early stages of manufacture. It is visually sourced as Bodie Hills obsidian. Catalog No. 98372 is a mid-section fragment, likely from a medium to large projectile point, with chevron flaking on one face and collateral flaking on the opposite face. It is visually sourced as Casa Diablo obsidian. Drills. Long, parallel-sided bifaces with thick cross-sections are classified as drills (Mundy and Hull 1988:82). Four such artifacts, three obsidian and one chert, are recognized in the current collection (Table 5), none of which retain evidence of rotary wear. Recovered from CA-TUO-232, Cat. No. 98333 (Figure 10h) is a biconvex, spindle-shaped drill, with collateral flaking on one face and random flaking on the opposite face. One face retains some cortex, while the opposite face retains a portion of the detachment scar. The drill is manufactured from Bodie Hills obsidian and has a hydration measurement of 1.37 microns. 90 Catalog No. 98352 (Figure 10i) is a drill fragment recovered from CA-TUO-3988, and manufactured of blue-gray chert. The contracting stem base resembles that for a Rose Spring Contracting Stem projectile point. It has small, random flake scars and is missing portions of the barbs and most of the bit. Two drills were recovered from CA-TUO-3994. Catalog No. 98360 (Figure 10j) is an expanding-base drill missing the extreme tip. It has small, random flake scars, and is made of Bodie Hills obsidian. Two areas were sampled for OH analysis, one at the distal end of the bit and one on the base. Both resulted in vague diffusion fronts, which may be due to the slight patina on the entire surface of the piece. The artifact was located in an unburned area of the site; therefore, this patina is not a result of burning during the Ackerson Complex Fire. Catalog No. 98361 (Figure 10k) is also an expanding base drill fragment, though smaller in size than Cat. No. 98360. The tip and much of the base are missing, and the flake scars are small and collateral. The drill is burned, as indicated by the silvery sheen on one face. Bodie Hills is the obsidian source, and the hydration measurement is 2.78 microns. Edge-modified Piece. One obsidian edge-modified piece was collected from CA-TUO-228. Catalog No. 98329 has concave, marginal flaking along a lateral edge of the dorsal face. It is visually sourced as Casa Diablo obsidian. Debitage. One non-obsidian flake was collected as a material sample. Catalog No. 98307 is the proximal end of a tan metasedimentary flake collected from CA-TUO-207 at Harden Lake. It appears to be the same material as Cat. No. 98318, a biface fragment, which was recovered from CA-TUO-226/H at the confluence of Cottonwood Creek and the Middle Tuolumne River. Hammerstone. Catalog No. 98323 is a small hammerstone collected from CA-TUO-226/H. It is circular in outline and sub-rectangular in cross-section, measuring 4.3 cm in length, 3.9 cm in width, 1.8 cm in thickness, and weighing 47.7 g. This reddish granite stone is highly polished, perhaps due to stream rounding, with one face burned black due to the Ackerson Complex Fire. Two of the edges have pecking/battering scars. Shaft Smoother. Catalog No. 98388 was collected from CA-TUO-4013 on the upper end of Ackerson Meadow. This pumice piece is rectangular in outline and cross-section, and has a single, semi-circular groove down the center of one ground face. The opposite face is ground flat, as are the edges. One of the edges is broken, indicating that the tool was originally longer along the axis of the groove. The specimen measures 4.3 cm in length, 4.4 cm in width, 1.9 cm in thickness, and weighs 17.2 g. The central groove measures 0.8 cm in width and 0.2 cm in depth. The grooved face is burned black as a result of the Ackerson Complex Fire. This piece represents a fragment of an arrow shaft smoother. Barrett and Gifford (1933:213) describe three types of arrow straighteners or smoothers used by the Miwok, including the well-known perforated specimens of wood or stone and grooved steatite. The Field Museum of Natural History contains the third, which is “composed of two opposing, longitudinally grooved sections of pumice,” and is attributed specifically to the Central Sierra Miwok (Barrett and Gifford 1933:213). Catalog No. 98388 appears to resemble a fragment of the latter. Obsidian Studies Summary Obsidian Sourcing. Tad E. Allred of Pacific Legacy, Inc., conducted XRF analysis of 69 artifacts, including 64 points and point fragments, two biface fragments, and three drills. Analysis results (Table 6; Appendix B) indicate that five chemically distinct obsidian sources are represented in the collection: Bodie Hills (n=45, 65%), Casa Diablo (n=16, 23%), Mt. Hicks (n=6, 9%), Mono Craters (n=1, 1.5%), and Napa Valley (n=1, 1.5%). While a few conclusions based on these data are presented below, it should be emphasized that the sample is very small and nonrandom. Thus, any conclusions should be viewed as hypotheses to be tested in future investigations. Table 6. Geochemical Source Ascription for Obsidian Artifacts by Type. Artifact type Bodie Hills DSN-G DSN-S DSN CT RSCN RSCS EES EE ECN ECB 6 3 3 4 8 2 1 1 Casa Diablo 2 1 7 1 1 1 - Mt. Hicks 1 1 1 1 - 91 Mono Craters 1 - Napa Valley - Nonobsidian 1 2 - SCB ST SCS PSS SN(L) LCN unidentifiable ppf b/bf drill TOTALS 1 1 1 4 1 2 3 1 3 45 2 1 16 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 9 POINT TYPES: DSN = Desert Side-notched, -G = General subtype, -S = Sierra subtype; CT = Cottonwood Triangular; RSCN = Rose Spring Corner-notched; RSCS = Rose Spring Contracting Stem; EES = Eastgate Expanding Stem; EE = Elko Eared; ECN = Elko Corner-notched; ECB = Eared Concave Base; SCB = Sierra Concave Base; ST = Sierra Triangular; SCS = Sierra Contracting Stem; PSS = Pinto Sloping Shoulder; SN(L) = Large Side-notched; LCN = Large Corner-notched; ppf = projectile point fragment; b/bf = biface or biface fragment. The results strongly resemble those for Hetch Hetchy (Montague and Mundy 1995:27), reconfirming the predominance of Bodie Hills obsidian in surface tool collections in the northern park area. There are two differences, however, in the Ackerson and Hetch Hetchy sourcing results. First, the projectile point made of Napa Valley obsidian in the Ackerson collection represents the only known incidence of this source in park collections to date. It may also represent the farthest source occurring in Yosemite at approximately 150 miles away. Napa Valley obsidian has been located in other central Sierra foothills sites in small quantities (Rondeau 1992:49), so it would not be unexpected to find the occasional artifact made of that source in Yosemite. Given the low frequencies of Napa Valley obsidian detected in Yosemite, however, it may be that it was obtained through trade rather than direct access. This could be further investigated through examination of a larger artifact sample from the site, including debitage. The timing of such use should also be further investigated. Rondeau (1992:49) reported hydration bands ranging from 2.7 to 4.5 microns for the four Napa Valley specimens at CA-TUO-2642 in the Sonora area. Second, Casa Diablo obsidian is slightly more abundant in the Ackerson collection than in the Hetch Hetchy collection: 23 percent compared to 13 percent. This may be due to the larger area encompassed by the Ackerson project, both north and south of the Tuolumne River. Within the project area, obsidian source distributions are evident for artifacts recovered from south versus north of the river. For the 49 artifacts collected from sites south of the Tuolumne River: 29 (59%) are Bodie Hills; 14 (29%) are Casa Diablo; five (10%) are Mt. Hicks; and one (2%) is Mono Craters. In contrast, for the 20 artifacts recovered from sites on the Tuolumne River or north of the river: 16 (80%) are Bodie Hills; two (10%) are Casa Diablo; one (5%) is Mt. Hicks; and one (5%) is Napa Valley. While this sample is very small and represents only formed tools, results suggest that further investigations into procurement patterns for this area might be of interest. Examining obsidian source distributions through time is somewhat difficult given the small number of artifacts represented in the collection. However, data presented in Table 6 suggest some source differences in the Desert, Rosegate, and Elko series projectile points, specifically that use of Bodie Hills obsidian increased through time while use of Casa Diablo obsidian decreased through time. Bodie Hills is the most frequently occurring source within the Desert series (n=16, 73%), with only three (14%) Casa Diablo, two (9%) Mt. Hicks, and one (5%) Mono Craters. Bodie Hills is predominant within the Rosegate series as well, but less so compared with Desert series points: 11 (52%) are Bodie Hills, eight (38%) are Casa Diablo, one (5%) is Mt. Hicks, and one (5%) is nonobsidian. In contrast, Bodie Hills obsidian is not represented within the Elko series, although the sample size is very small: two (40%) are Casa Diablo, one (20%) is Mt. Hicks, and two (40%) are non-obsidian. In looking at frequencies of Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidians by hydration value for all artifacts with obsidian studies data (Figure 11), however, a pattern is difficult to discern. Both sources exhibit about the same hydration ranges, and while Bodie Hills increases in frequency through time, so does Casa Diablo obsidian. Data are very limited with regard to both sample size and artifact type, making it impossible to make any conclusive statements. Future studies investigating larger sample sizes and debitage, and considering the possible effects of scavenging, will provide a more complete data set with which to address obsidian source distributions through time. Obsidian Hydration. Tad E. Allred of Pacific Legacy, Inc., conducted OH analysis on the 69 artifacts submitted for XRF (Appendix B). Eleven of the artifacts had no visible hydration, two displayed vague diffusion fronts and were thus unreadable, and the remaining 56 varied between 0.89 and 6.48 microns. The lack of a measurable hydration reading may indicate effects of the fire, an artifact of relatively recent manufacture, or recent spalling. Although hydration measurements were not correlated with absolute dates for this project, a gross estimate of time depth for the Ackerson sites may be based on results from other park areas. As indicated in Chapter 5 of this report, 92 the hydration range for Elko projectile points from mid-elevation Yosemite sites is 3.0-5.5 microns. If Elkos are representative of the Late Prehistoric 1 Period, dating from 1200 B.C., and analysis of artifacts from the Ackerson sites yielded hydration rims measuring up to 6.48 microns, then the time depth for the Ackerson project area is at minimum 3,000 years B.P. Nine of the artifacts were cut twice to investigate lithic scavenging, rejuvenation, or reuse, and whenever possible, single cuts were placed to sample both detachment scars and worked surfaces. None of the nine specimens with double cuts exhibited a difference in hydration values greater than the 0.2 margin of error for obsidian hydration analysis. Two Rosegate specimens with single cuts through detachment scars and worked edges displayed significantly different dual hydration rims, however, indicating scavenging of flakes from earlier deposits for projectile point manufacture. Bodie Hills 10 6 4 2 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 Hydration Value (microns) Casa Diablo 10 8 Frequency Frequency 8 6 4 2 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Hydration Value (microns) 93 Figure 11. Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills obsidian sources by frequency and OH value. Table 7 details obsidian hydration and source data for all obsidian artifacts by artifact type. The point series with sufficient frequencies for comparison with those elsewhere in Yosemite are the Desert and Rosegate series. Twenty of the Desert series points yielded hydration values between 1.29 and 2.74 microns, with sources including Bodie Hills, Casa Diablo, and Mt. Hicks. There are two outliers at 4.84 and 3.0 microns. The 4.84 micron rim likely reflects a detachment scar and the 3.0 micron measurement is on the only Mono Craters piece, a source occurring infrequently in the park. Disregarding the anomalous readings, the hydration range compares well with other midelevation ranges for Desert series points, including Hetch Hetchy, 0.9-2.7 microns, (Montague and Mundy 1995:34) and Yosemite Valley, 1.1-2.6 microns (Montague 1996b:94). The 20 hydration values for the obsidian Rosegate specimens varied between NVH and 6.48 microns, and included the Bodie Hills, Casa Diablo, and Mt. Hicks sources. The NVH readings may be due to burning and the 6.48 micron value reflects the parent flake. The remaining values exhibit a range between 1.52 and 4.08 microns, which is a somewhat wider range than the 2.2-3.7 micron range obtained for Yosemite Valley (Montague 1996b:94). The thin-rimmed specimens may reflect continued use of the Rosegate type during the late prehistoric time period in the Ackerson area. The remaining point series in Table 7 are represented by very few specimens, although some of the results are anomalous compared with those obtained in past research. The two Elkos and the Sierra Contracting Stem with measurable hydration rims exhibit fairly thin rims compared with those for other park specimens. The rims may signify later use of such point types than originally thought and/or damage from fire. Table 7. Obsidian Hydration Values by Artifact Type and Source. Artifac t Type DSN-G DSN-S DSN CT RSCN RSCS EES EE ECN ECB SCB SCS PSS SN(L) LCN unident ppf # of Artifacts Source OH Values 6 2 1 3 1 1 3 4 1 8 7 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 BH CD MH BH CD MH BH BH MC BH CD MH BH CD BH MH CD CD BH BH BH BH BH BH CD BH CD NV BH MH 1.48, 1.57, 1.84, 2.02, 2.24, 2.29 1.29, 1.61 1.97 1.53, 1.55, 1.77 1.55 1.41 1.65, 1.69, 2.18 1.39, 2.40, 2.74, 4.82 3.00 NVH, 1.52, 1.73-3.21, 1.73-4.35, 1.95, 2.87, 3.79, 6.48 NVH, 2.02, 2.06, 2.06, 2.47, 3.92, 4.08 2.20 1.84, 3.23 5.85 2.87 2.47 NVH/NVH 2.49 NVH NVH 1.47/1.53 3.39 NVH/NVH, 1.74, 4.98/4.78, 5.79/5.54 NVH/NVH NVH/NVH, 5.90/5.94 NVH, 1.86 NVH 3.36 DFV, 0.89, 3.52 3.97 94 b/bf drill 1 1 3 BH MH BH NVH 6.10 DFV/DFV, 1.37, 2.78 POINT TYPES: DSN = Desert Side-notched, -G = General subtype, -S = Sierra subtype; CT = Cottonwood Triangular; RSCN = Rose Spring Corner-notched; RSCS = Rose Spring Contracting Stem; EES = Eastgate Expanding Stem; EE = Elko Eared; ECN = Elko Corner-notched; ECB = Eared Concave Base; SCB = Sierra Concave Base; SCS = Contracting Stem; PSS = Pinto Sloping Shoulder; SN(L) Large Side-notched; LCN = Large Corner-notched; ppf = non-diagnostic projectile point; b/bf = biface or biface fragment. SOURCES: BH = Bodie Hills; CD = Casa Diablo; MH = Mt. Hicks; MC = Mono Craters; NV = Napa Valley. OH Values: NVH = no visible hydration; DFV = diffusion front vague; 1.73-4.35 = double-banded piece; 1.47/1.53 = results for two cuts. 95 96 CHAPTER 7 FIRE, FIRE SUPPRESSION, AND POST-FIRE EFFECTS Fire has burned across the Yosemite landscape many times over thousands of years, undoubtedly affecting both the natural and cultural environments of the area. This fact has led to the assumption that the impacts caused by contemporary fires are negligible. However, we have introduced an element not present prior to Euroamerican occupation: fire suppression. Unlike the fire regimes of the past where natural or human-ignited fires burned, landscapes in parks and forests have been kept free of fire for many decades. This has resulted in accumulations of fuels and drastic alterations of vegetation patterns, factors which in turn support fires that burn faster, more intensely, and potentially cause more damage than fires in the past (van Wagtendonk 1984). Fires have the potential to directly impact archeological resources as a result of burning and suppression efforts. Additionally, certain natural processes may be accelerated after a fire has occurred. The purpose of the current project was to document the condition of known archeological resources within the 1996 Ackerson Complex Fire perimeter, to assess post-fire threats, and to prescribe treatment measures as necessary. This work was conducted through a visual inspection of the environment, specifically the soils, vegetation, and cultural materials. The current study focused on describing surface conditions only; no research regarding the effects of fire on artifacts, features, and subsurface deposits was conducted. Additionally, as noted above, the project involved known sites or those discovered while re-recording known sites; there are undoubtedly many more undocumented sites in this mostly unsurveyed area. Therefore, the Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project provides a very limited and incomplete assessment of damages to archeological sites within the fire perimeter. The discussion to follow summarizes the types of fire effects that may occur at Yosemite archeological sites, the methods used to document effects, the results of the study, and recommendations for future fire-related archeological resources management. Types of Fire Effects Direct Fire Effects. The direct effects of fire to archeological sites are generally poorly understood and, to date, few fire-related studies on cultural materials or deposits have been undertaken in the central Sierra Nevada. However, numerous studies have been conducted which address effects to the types of cultural materials occurring in Yosemite. Obsidian artifacts, comprising greater than 95 percent of lithic materials at most Yosemite sites, have been the focus of several studies. Research conducted on the effects of burning on obsidian hydration rims (Anderson and Origer 1997; Deal 1997; Green et al. 1997; Lentz et al. 1996; Lissoway and Proper 1988:5; Traylor et al. 1990) has demonstrated that this dating technique could be undermined. Bennett and Kunzman (1985) observed that obsidian exhibits no detectable weight loss or surface change below 500°C (930°F), while at higher temperatures, both weight loss and surface alterations are apparent. Alterations include indications of a chalky film or dulled appearance. In comparing obsidian from burned and unburned site contexts at Bandelier National Monument, Trembour (1990:177) found that only 35 percent of surface-collected specimens from a severely burned site had readable rims while 70 percent of specimens from an unburned site had measurable rims, a striking reduction in data potential. Analysis of subsurface specimens indicated that a minority of pieces were heat affected (Trembour 1990:179). Anderson and Origer (1997:19) observed that during controlled burning experiments where temperatures were estimated to reach 1000-1200°F, 100 percent of surface obsidian artifacts exposed directly to fire had unreadable rims, while at 5 cm, 100 percent of obsidian artifacts had readable rims. In studying the effects of fire on obsidian hydration rims following a wildfire in Sonoma County, California, Anderson and Origer (1997:18) recorded an 86 percent failure rate for surface artifacts. In summarizing the effects of fire on obsidian hydration rims: surface specimens are commonly altered; subsurface specimens are affected to a much lesser degree; and obsidian artifacts from heavily burned sites are affected to a greater degree than those from moderately and lightly burned sites (Lentz et al. 1996:83). Bennett and Kunzman (1985) also subjected specimens of cryptocrystalline silicates (e.g., chert and chalcedony), glass, ceramic, enameled tinware, and bone to temperatures from 200oC (390oF) to 800oC (1470oF), examining visual changes to the specimens as well as weight loss. Cryptocrystalline materials showed changes occurring at 500oC (930oF) and above. For these materials, color was initially altered, while at higher temperatures, the surface 97 became chalky and exhibited cracks. For obsidian and cryptocrystalline materials, Bennett and Kunzman (1985:7) concluded that such weight loss may have resulted from removal of bound water, but was more likely to due to “the driving out of tightly held capillary water captured in the crystalline matrix of the materials.” Manufactured glass sustained little visible damage, although a “scum” formed on some older glass fragments at approximately 500oC (930oF), possibly due to the higher lead content in historic glass. Some fresh bone was tested, indicating significant alteration at moderate to high temperatures. Charring occurred at 300oC (570oF), while specimens became chalky at higher temperatures and resembled old, exposed bone. Results for ceramics were highly variable due to differences in clay, temper, and firing temperatures. Fires may also affect other Yosemite materials, including stationary milling features, portable ground stone, rock art panels, organic remains, non-obsidian flaked stone, historical artifacts, and subsurface archeological deposits. Spalling, smoke staining, increased exfoliation, and destruction of potential organic residues on milling features and portable ground stone can occur when extreme heat is applied for an extended period of time to the feature or artifact surface. This often occurs when large logs burn on top of outcrops or artifacts for long periods of time. Similarly, burning vegetation may cause exfoliation and smoke staining of pictographs and petroglyphs, although such features are rare in Yosemite. Any organic remains such as seeds, residues, bone, shell, and structural wood may be damaged or destroyed, and burning stumps and roots may affect subsurface archeological deposits by burning remains and by introducing modern carbon into the deposit. Historical artifacts such as glass, ceramics, and metal may be melted, scorched, or shattered, and flammable remains may be consumed. Trees may fall on sites and features, impacting potential subsurface deposits or feature constituents. Heavy fuels burning on sites have greater potential than light fuels to impact soils, artifacts, and features. Finally, gullies may develop as a result of the fire and increase in size during post-fire run-off, potentially accelerating erosion of site deposits. In general, direct fire effects may compromise the research potential of Yosemite sites through damage or destruction of the cultural materials necessary to identify when sites were occupied and what activities were taking place. However, additional research is necessary to identify the precise effects of fire on cultural materials and data potential at Yosemite sites. This is a particular issue for commonly occurring Yosemite materials, including obsidian lithics, milling features, and portable ground stone, as well as subsurface deposits. In any future studies, it is important to consider that fire effects to sites are directly related to fire intensity. Fire intensity varies within fire perimeters and even within individual archeological sites based on the time of day a fire passed through an area, slope, humidity level at the time of burning, fuel load, fuel composition, wind, and temperature. Burning may also have positive effects to archeological sites. Burning of duff and heavy forest litter exposes mineral soil not visible during pre-burn archeological inventories, allowing for greater accuracy in documenting site constituents and boundaries. Additionally, burning of duff may remove the threat of higher intensity burns, reduce the threat of wildfires and the effects of wildfire suppression, and allow for a return to a natural fire regime. Fire Suppression Effects. Effects to archeological sites also occur as a result of fire suppression. This includes a variety of activities including handline construction, dozerline construction, water and retardant drops, mop-up, base camp development and use, spike camp development and use, drop point development and use, heli-spot development and use, portable water pump use, and safety zone construction. Handlines are fire breaks generally constructed in steep or rough terrain, in wilderness areas where mechanized equipment is prohibited, or in efforts to encircle small spot fires. Handlines average 50 to 100 cm in width, and are dug to mineral soil with the use of pulaskis, McLeods, and shovels. Primary disturbances to archeological sites may include soil displacement, artifact and feature exposure and displacement, and increased potential for artifact collection. Dozerlines are also firebreaks, although the effects they have on the landscape are much more significant. Often dozerlines will be constructed in strategic spots such as ridgelines or defensible positions near structures long before a fire arrives. In other instances, dozerlines will be used as a means of effectively halting a fire at its head or as a means of quickly encircling a spot-fire. Dozerlines can vary dramatically in size, depending on the purpose of the line. A single-width line averages 5 to 8 m, while a ridge top dozerline can be as wide as 50 m. The depth of disturbance can be measured in meters rather than centimeters. A major concern of dozerlines is the increased potential for erosion that can occur long after a fire. Channels for water may be created, which can exacerbate the erosion potential of a burned area. Disturbances to archeological sites are similar to those for handlines, although on a much larger scale. In addition to soil and artifact displacement, artifacts and features may be destroyed. Water and retardant drops are used to slow and stop the spread of a fire. The potential for ground disturbance is minimal, consisting consist mainly of artifact dispersal and staining (from retardant). Additionally, spalling or 98 cracking of artifactual materials may occur due to the effects of cold water landing on heated materials (Hull 1991b:24). Mop-up consists of extinguishing hot spots and smoldering fuels within contained fire areas. Mop-up is usually conducted with hand tools and hose lays. Activities include digging up smoldering material, which usually consists of roots or buried organic debris, and then mixing this material with soil and water. Excavation can be to a depth of 1 m or more, although the total area of disturbance is usually limited in size to 1 m2. It should also be noted that when water is added to the heated soil and burning material, artifactual material might spall or crack. Base and spike camps are usually at strategic locations. Base camps are situated outside of the perimeter of a fire and can be substantial in size, while spike camps are located within the perimeter of a fire where they are used by smaller groups of people for shorter periods of time. The development of these camps may entail digging of pit toilets and dishwater pits, which may result in displacement of artifacts and features at archeological sites. Additional disturbances may include soil compaction from equipment and personnel and increased potential for illegal artifact collection. Drop points and helispots are usually located in clearings at strategic points within a fire. These areas may have vegetation cleared from them and any potential site disturbance is usually limited to compaction of the ground surface. Portable water pumps are sometimes brought into fire areas to access local sources of water for suppression activities. Disturbances to the ground surface are usually associated with the dragging of hose lays from this location and the compaction of soil in the vicinity of the pump. Hose lays can gouge the soil and move artifactual materials within a site. Safety zones are locations that are free of vegetation and are large enough to hold and protect wildland firefighters from the fire. The size of a safety zone will vary with the environment as well as the size of the group it is meant to protect, although it can be as large as 100 m2. Safety zones may be constructed with a dozer that will scrape soil from the surface to a depth of 20-50 cm. Archeological sites in safety zones will receive considerable impact in their upper layers. Post-fire Effects. Once a wildland fire has been extinguished and fire suppression activities have ceased, natural processes can have a significant impact upon archeological sites (DOI 1996). Surface runoff from storms and snowmelt has extremely high potential to impact sites due to the lack of ground cover on burned surfaces. As detailed in the Draft Policy & Implementation Handbook for Cultural Resource Site Condition Assessment and Treatment Process (DOI 1996), erosional threats and damages that can occur within a burned environment include: 1) Sedimentation, which is indicated by deposition of silt, sand and other debris onto a site surface by either a stream or a drainage flow path through the site. Sedimentation has the potential to cover site features and artifacts or carry artifacts from the site. 2) Active gullies, which are formed by either the complete burning of logs or by the funneling of water through a natural depression. These gullies can progressively become deeper and wider, creating the potential to erode features from the surface of sites or displace artifacts from their original locations. 3) Raindrop erosion, which can detach soil particles and assist the carrying of soil and artifacts from the site during runoff. 4) Raindrop damages, which can “melt” tree root wads and erode stump cavities. 5) Hillslope rilling, which is the formation of numerous small channels and gullies on slopes above and within sites that have the potential to move artifacts and erode features. 6) Overland runoff, which is the result of storm runoff and snow pack runoff through sites. In low spots and drainage areas of sites that have little ground cover, storm and snowpack runoff can scour a site of artifacts. 7) Hazard trees, which have the potential of falling on site features and ripping root balls from the ground surface. These trees are more likely to fall if the surface surrounding their base has eroded away. (The term “hazard trees” is used in this report to denote fire-killed trees, which may affect archeological site constituents.) 8) Channel bank scour, which is the result of high runoff events that fill stream channels beyond their capacity. This type of impact scours and erodes devegetated banks of streams, which can remove artifacts and features from sites. 9) Channel debris, which results when a drainage is blocked by storm debris and the drainage diverts onto a site. This can result in artifact movement, feature erosion, and sedimentation. 99 10) Tree root erosion, which can result when a stump of a tree is burned out leaving underground channels that can pipe soil to areas far from their origin. This has the potential to impact site stratigraphy, artifact locations and erode features. 11) Deficient soil cover, which can result in artifactual and soil movement due to the increased acceleration of water across the bare site surface. The lack of soil cover also increases the potential for illegal artifact collection. 12) Hillslope scour, which is similar to hillslope rilling except that water runs in a sheet downslope onto or across a site. The speed of the water across the site is increased resulting in artifact movement and transport. In general, these erosional threats and damages are more prominent at sites located in intensely burned areas, alongside drainages, or at the base of slopes. Fire Damage and Threat Assessment Methods To guide data collection pertinent to fire effects documentation, a standardized form developed by Bandelier National Monument was utilized (DOI 1996). This form was designed with the specific task of gathering information from a burned site to assess the degree of damage that had resulted, as well as the potential for further damage resulting from erosion. Since this form was prepared with Southwestern United States archeology and environments in mind, the form was reworked and adapted for use in Yosemite National Park. The form asks basic questions about observable effects to a site and, from these collected data, recommendations about future management can be made. A blank form is provided as Appendix A, while completed records are in the site files at the Yosemite Archeology Office. The first section of the form relates to whether the site burned and how much of it burned; the fire history of the site; the location of the site in the local environment; whether it had rained since the fire; the color and depth of ash remaining on the site; measurements of charring and scorching on trees within the site; the maximum size of fuel burned on the site (diameter) and a measurement of the pre-fire duff level. With these measurements, a determination of fire intensity is made. Fire intensity or severity is designated on a level of 1-5 for both the ground surface and vegetation on the site. Table 8 defines fire intensities for substrate and vegetation. Table 8. Fire Intensity Definitions. Substrate: litter, duff Vegetation: understory, brush, trees Unburned (5) not burned Scorched (4) Litter partially blackened; duff nearly unchanged; wood and leaf structures unchanged not burned Foliage scorched and attached to supporting twigs Lightly Burned (3) Litter charred to partially consumed; upper duff layer burned; structures charred but recognizable Foliage and smaller twigs partially to completely consumed Moderately Burned (2) Litter mostly to entirely consumed, leaving a coarse, white or gray ash; duff deeply burned; wood/leaf structures not recognizable Foliage, twigs, and small stems consumed Heavily Burned (1) Litter and duff consumed leaving fine white ash; mineral soil visibly altered, often reddish All plant parts consumed leaving only major stems or tree trunks The second and third sections of the form lists documentation of damages resulting from fire suppression activities and direct fire effects. (See above for descriptions of the various types of fire suppression and fire effects.) In both of these sections, it is important to note if the effects are specific to features or if they are just within the site boundaries. The fourth section of the form details all possible erosional effects that could be observed on a site. As noted above, this includes sedimentation, gully formation, raindrop erosion, hillslope rilling, overland runoff, channel bank scour, tree root canal erosion, channel debris buildup, deficient soil cover, and hillslope scour. This portion of the form is the most important in determining if future action is necessary to protect the site from further damage. In the final section of the form, recommendations about future actions are made, including “no action,” “monitor and reassess,” or “treatment.” Recommendations are based on the severity of the observed damages and the threat of continuing damage. If treatment is recommended, then a treatment strategy is proposed. During the fire damage assessment fieldwork, several limitations with the process were noted. First and foremost, to effectively assess damages resulting from a fire event, it is optimal to have a previously completed site record and condition report. The current project had very few adequate site records, which prevented the field crew from 100 accurately documenting changes in site conditions. Second, it was difficult to assess the precise degree of damage to archeological sites given the broad level of documentation specified for the current project and the lack of fire effects studies for Yosemite resources. Third, the optimal time for recording damages and assessing hydrological threats to burned sites is immediately after initial rainstorms have occurred. This allows the field observer to determine the flow path of water through a site, which can provide signals as to where potential damages may occur in the future. For the current project, the field crew was unable to access most sites until one full year after the burn had passed (a year that included an extreme flooding event). Thus, by the time data had been collected on erosion potential, most of the damages associated with erosion had presumably occurred. Fourth, a large flood event occurred during the winter following the fire. Conditions of extreme runoff occurred throughout the Sierra, affecting landscapes in dramatic ways. Because of this extreme event, it was often difficult to determine if erosion damage noted on sites and along streams was a direct result of the flood, the fire, or a combination of both. Results Table 9 summarizes the fire data collected from sites within the project area. For each site, the table details whether the site burned, percent of the site burned, burn intensity, direct fire effects (observed and presumed), suppression effects, post-fire erosional threats, whether the original site boundaries are now enlarged, and recommendations for future actions. In the burn intensity column, a single number indicates that the burn intensity of the substrate and vegetation are the same. In instances where two numbers are indicated, the first describes the substrate burn intensity while the second refers to vegetation burn intensity. Direct Fire Effects. A total of 77 sites were monitored, and 58 of these were either completely or partially burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire. The 19 sites that did not burn were located in areas that could not burn (i.e., site was surrounded by bedrock with no vegetation) or they were outside of the fire perimeter but within areas that could have been impacted by fire suppression activities. Historical Sites. Fire effects were assessed at 22 sites that contained historical components. (One site [CA-TUO-3973H] has nine separate features that were monitored individually for fire effects.) The fire burned 18 sites to some extent, while the remaining four were not burned. The primary fire damages were to structural wood remains and debris dumps. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H (Miguel Meadow), the location of a spike camp, was the only site that contained structural wood remains and debris dumps that were not burned over completely. At every other historical site with these feature types (n=7), the wood remains were completely incinerated and all debris dumps were burned. Within the latter, the fire melted, cracked, and shattered glass remains, damaged ceramic pieces, burned leather and rubber fragments, and hastened the deterioration of tin cans. The intensity of the fire and the fuel types present at these sites probably were factors in the amount of damage that occurred, although this was not conclusive. In some instances the fuels were light (brush and grass) and the intensity appeared fairly mild (CA- 101 Table 9. Summary of Fire Effects and Recommendations. Site No. (CA-TUO) 23/80/148/H Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes 3 75% 1) 2) 3) None 28/H 61/62 No Yes N/A 3 N/A 50% 86/87/H Yes 2-3 50% Handline 88 89 102 207 208 209 210 214 226/H Yes No Yes No No No No Yes Yes 2-3 N/A 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A 4 2-4 50% N/A 50% N/A N/A N/A N/A 40% 100% None 1) Spalling/exfoliation to F1 and F2 due to heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Pestles altered 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Gully formation 5) Lithic materials altered None None None None None None None Possible lithic and Feature 7 alteration 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Gully formation 5) Lithic material altered 1) Handlines 2) Spike camp development and use 3) Possible collection Equipment use on site None 227 Yes 2 100% 1) 2) 3) 4) Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Gully formation Lithic materials altered None 228 Yes 1-2 100% 1) Spalling/exfoliation of F5 and other outcrops Cracking to F5, F3 and other outcrops Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes in F1 (possible housepit) and other areas Lithic material and pestle altered Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes None 2) 3) 4) 5) 229 Yes 2 65% 6) 1) 2) 3) Architectural wood burned (possibly) Bottles and historic debris burned Lithic material altered 102 personnel use on site None None None Equipment use on site None None Minor vegetation removal None None Site Boundaries Expanded? Yes-75% Recommendations None 1) Sedimentation 2) Hillslope scour Yes-50% Yes-100% No Action (d) No Action 1) Sedimentation 2) Hillslope rilling 3) Overland runoff 4) Hazard trees 5) Hillslope scour None None None None None None None None 1) Overland Runoff 2) Hazard trees 3) Channel bank scour 4) Deficient soil Cover 5) Hillslope Scour 1) Sedimentation 2) Overland runoff 3) Channel bank scour 4) Channel debris 1) Overland runoff 2) Deficient soil cover Yes-100% Monitor, Rehab Yes-100% Yes-100% Yes-50% Yes-50% Yes-50% Yes-50% Yes-100% Yes-25% Yes-80% No Action No Action No Action No Action No Action No Action No Action No Action Monitor Yes-80% Monitor Yes-90% Monitor Hillslope scour Yes-90% No Action No Action Site No. (CA-TUO) 230/231 Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes 2-3 70% None None 232 Yes 3 90% 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 1) 2) 3) 4) None 1) 2) 3) 233 Yes 3 100% 234/H Yes 3 80% 515 516 No Yes N/A 3 517 No 518 519 520/H Spalling/exfoliation to F3 Cracking to F3 Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen on F3 Stump holes Lithic materials altered Spalling/exfoliation to outcrops Heavy fuels Stump holes Lithic material altered Site Boundaries Expanded? Yes-80% Recommendations Sedimentation Hazard trees Channel bank scour 4) Channel debris None Yes-80% Monitor Yes-90% No Action None 1) 2) Yes-80% No Action None None None 1) Overland runoff 2) Sedimentation None No No No Action Monitor Yes-25% None None None No No Yes-50% Monitor, Rehab (d) No Action No Action Rehab (d) None None 1) Sedimentation 2) Overland runoff 3) Hazard trees 4) Channel bank scour 5) Hillslope scour 1) Hazard tress 2) Tree root erosion None Yes-50% No Yes-20% No Action No Action Monitor N/A Monitor, Rehab Rehab (d) None N/A 100% 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Architectural remains of Smith Cabin burned 5) Lithic and historical material altered None None N/A N/A None No No No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A None None None 521 929 1594 No No Yes N/A N/A 2-3 N/A N/A 100% None None 1) Spalling/exfoliation to outcrops 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Trees fallen 4) Stump holes 5) Lithic material altered Handline constructed through midden None None Dozerline constructed through site None None Vegetation removal by heavy equipment 1751H Yes 1-2 90% 3509H Yes 1-3 100% 1) Trees fallen 2) Stump holes Heavy fuels burned 3963H Yes (a) 2-3 80% 1) 2) 3) None 1) 2) 3) 4) Handline construction Vegetation removal Collection of artifacts Burn piles constructed Vegetation removal Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes 103 1) 2) 3) Overland runoff Hillslope scour Sedimentation Overland runoff Hazard trees Yes-50% N/A No Action Monitor Site No. (CA-TUO) 3971 Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes Unk 50% Handline construction 1) 2) 3) 3972H Yes 3-4 100% 1) Smoke damage to F1 and F2 2) Heavy fuels burned on F1 and F2 3) Trees fallen 4) Lithic materials altered Trees fallen None N/A No Action 3973H (F1) 3973H (F2) 3973H (F3) 3973H (F4) Yes Yes Yes Yes 2-3 2-3 2-3 3 40% 40% 40% 50% None None None None N/A N/A N/A N/A No Action No Action No Action No Action 3973H (F5) Yes 1-2 85% None None N/A No Action 3973H (F6) Yes 1-2 50% None None N/A Monitor 3973H (F7) Yes 3 90% None None N/A No Action 3973H (F8) Yes 2 80% None None N/A No Action 3973H (F9) Yes 2-3 95% None None N/A No Action 3974/H Yes 3 100% None None N/A No Action 3975H Yes 4 100% None None N/A No Action 3976 Yes 3 100% None 1) 2) 3) Active gully Overland runoff Deficient soil cover N/A Monitor 3977 Yes 2 100% None 1) 2) No Action Yes Yes (a) 2 2-3 100% 80% N/A N/A No Action No Action 3980 Yes 2 100% Overland runoff Channel bank scour 3) Sedimentation None 1) Sedimentation 2) Overland runoff None N/A 3978 3979H N/A No Action 3981H Yes (a) 1-2 100% Spalling/exfoliation to concrete Spalling/exfoliation to concrete Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 1) Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 2) Heavy fuels burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation and cracking to concrete 2) Architectural wood burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 2) Architectural wood burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 2) Architectural wood burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 2) Architectural wood burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation to concrete 2) Architectural wood burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation noted on both F1 and F2 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Trees fallen 4) Historical material burned 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 1) Spalling/exfoliation noted on F1 and F2 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Trees fallen 4) Stump holes 5) Lithic material altered 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Gully formation 4) Lithic material altered Stump holes 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 1) Spalling of F1 and other boulders 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Stump holes 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 1) Sedimentation 2) Hazard trees 3) Hillslope scour None None None None 1) 2) N/A No Action 104 None None None None Overland runoff Hazard trees Channel debris Sedimentation Overland runoff Site Boundaries Expanded? N/A Recommendations Monitor, Rehab (d) Site No. (CA-TUO) 3982 Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes 2-3 100% None 1) 2) Raindrop erosion Raindrop damages 3983 Yes 3 100% 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) None 1) 2) 3) Hazard trees Tree root erosion Hillslope scour 3984 Yes 2 20% None 3985 3986 3987 No No Yes N/A N/A 2 N/A N/A 100% 3988 Yes 3-4 50% 3989H 3990 No Yes N/A 2-3 N/A 75% 3991 Yes 3 70% 3992 Yes 3 100% 3993 Yes 2-4 100% 3994 Yes 3 50% 3995 Yes 3 100% Spalling of F1 and other boulders Heavy fuels burned Oxidation/alteration of lithic materials Stump holes Spalling/cracking of F3 and other outcrops 2) Tree fallen on F3 and burned 3) Stump holes 4) Gully formation 5) Lithic material altered 1) Trees fallen 2) Some lithics altered None None 1) Spalling/exfoliation to F1 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Gully formation 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen None 1) Spalling/exfoliation of outcrops 2) Smoke damage to outcrops/lithics 3) Heavy fuels burned 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Spalling/exfoliation of outcrops 2) Smoke damage to F8 and F9 3) Heavy fuels burned 4) Trees fallen 5) Stump holes 6) Lithic materials altered 1) Spalling /exfoliation to F1 2) Heavy fuels burned 3) Trees fallen 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Spalling/exfoliation of outcrops 2) Trees fallen 3) Stump holes 4) Lithic materials altered 1) Stump holes 2) Trees fallen 3) Lithic materials altered in burned locations 1) Tree fallen 2) Stump holes 3) Lithic materials altered 105 Site Boundaries Expanded? N/A Recommendations No Action N/A Monitor Hazard trees N/A No Action None None None None None Sedimentation N/A N/A N/A No Action No Action No Action None 1) Sedimentation 2) Overland runoff None Hillslope scour N/A No Action N/A N/A Rehab (d) No Action None 1) 2) 3) N/A No Action None Hillslope scour N/A No Action None Raindrop erosion N/A No Action None None N/A No Action None None N/A No Action Dozer Activity personnel use on site, pestles displaced Hazard trees Tree root erosion Hillslope scour Site No. (CA-TUO) 3996H Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes 4 100% 1) Wooden remains of F7 completely consumed F5 has stump holes within it Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Historic debris burned over and altered Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes Lithic materials altered Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes Lithic materials altered Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Architectural wood possibly burned Historic debris burned Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen on F4 and throughout site Stump holes Architectural wood burned at F1 Lithic and historical materials altered Spalling/exfoliation to F1 Heavy fuels consumed Trees fallen Lithic materials altered Heavy fuels burned Stump holes Trees fallen Lithic materials altered Trees fallen Lithic materials altered, Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes Lithic materials altered None 1) 2) 3) None 1) Raindrop erosion 2) Raindrop damages N/A Monitor None 1) 2) 3) N/A No Action None Hazard trees N/A Monitor None 1) 2) N/A Monitor None Overland runoff N/A No Action None 1) 2) N/A Monitor None None N/A No Action None N/A Monitor Heavy fuels Trees fallen Stump holes Lithic materials altered Heavy fuels burned Trees fallen Stump holes Lithic and historical materials possibly altered None None 1) Sedimentation 2) Active Gully 3) Hillslope rilling 4) Overland runoff 5) Hazard trees 6) Hillslope scour None N/A No Action None 1) 2) 3) 4) N/A Monitor None None N/A No Action 3997 Yes 3 100% 3998 Yes 3 100% 3999H Yes 2 100% 4000/H Yes 3 100% 4001 Yes 1-2 100% 4002 Yes 2 60% 4003 Yes 3 100% 4004 Yes 2 70% 4005 Yes 2 80% 4006/H Yes 2 50% 4007 No (b) 5 N/A 2) 3) 4) 5) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 1) 2) 3) 4) 106 Overland runoff Hazard trees Hillslope scour Overland runoff Hazard Trees Hillslope scour Hazard trees Hillslope scour Hazard trees Tree root erosion Hillslope rilling Overland runoff Hillslope scour Sedimentation Site Boundaries Expanded? N/A Recommendations Monitor, Rehab Site No. (CA-TUO) 4008 Site Burned Burn Intensity % Burned Direct Fire Effects (observed and presumed) Suppression Effects Post-Fire Threats Yes 3 25% Lithic materials altered 1) Dozerline 2) Soil tilling 3) Handline 4) Drop point None None 1) 4009 4010H No (a) Yes (a) N/A N/A N/A N/A 4011H Yes (a) N/A N/A 4012 Yes 3 100% 4013 Yes 1-2 100% 4014 Yes 2-3 100% 4028H (MRP1410H) No (a) N/A N/A None 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 1) Heavy fuels burned 2) Trees fallen 1) Lithic material altered 2) Heavy fuels burned 1) Spalling/exfoliation of F1, F3 and other outcrops 2) Cracking to F4 3) Smoke damage to F3 4) Heavy fuels burned 5) Stump holes None KEY: (a) = site is a road or trail (b) = site is part of large outcrop with no vegetation present (c) = not as a result of fire (d) = rehabilitation completed 107 2) Channel bank scour Sedimentation Site Boundaries Expanded? N/A Recommendations Monitor Rehab (d) N/A N/A No Action No Action N/A No Action None None 1) Overland runoff 2) Hillslope scour 1) Overland runoff 2) Hillslope scour Overland runoff N/A No Action None None N/A No Action None 1) 2) N/A No Action 1) 2) 3) Overland runoff None Dozer activity Equipment use Vegetation removal Tree root erosion Deficient soil cover No Monitor, Rehab TUO-234/H), but the amount of site damage was comparable to areas that contained heavy fuels (large branches, downed trees) and high intensity fire (-3996H). The greatest losses (that we were able to discern) included the architectural wood burned at the Smith Cabin (CA-TUO-234/H) and five of the aerial tramway towers (-3973H). Figures 12 and 13 depict wooden remains burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire at those sites. Eight historical sites contained stump holes, which may have resulted in damage to surface as well as possible subsurface deposits; however, damage to subsurface deposits was not investigated as part of the current project. Gully formation, a disturbance that may also constitute a post-fire threat, was noted at one site containing a historical deposit. Figure 12. Photos showing an aerial tramway tower (Feature 6, CA-TUO-3973H) burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire. Top photo, courtesy Jim Snyder, Roll 1991-5BW-Exp. 35, Wilderness Historic Resources Survey; bottom photo, Roll 97-43 Exp. 14, taken for the current project in 1997. (Note that views of the feature are slightly different.) 108 Figure 13. Photos showing the Smith Cabin remains (Feature 1, CA-TUO-234/H) burned by the Ackerson Complex Fire. Top photo, close-up of cabin corner depicting box corner and wooden peg construction, courtesy Jim Snyder, 1989-1BW-16, Wilderness Historic Resources Survey; bottom photo, overview of cabin location, Roll 97-99, Exp. 15, taken for the current project in 1997. 109 Prehistoric Sites. A total of 63 sites that contained prehistoric components were monitored for this project (nine sites contain historical components as well). The fire did not burn 17 of these sites. The 46 burned sites showed consistent types of damage related to the intensity of the fire. Lithic materials displayed signs of cracking, fire clouding (sheen), and spalling at 35 sites. The degree to which these artifacts were affected appears to vary with fire temperature, although fire temperature studies were not completed as part of this project. A particular concern in Yosemite is the effect of fire on obsidian hydration rims. Obsidian artifacts comprise the vast majority of cultural material at most prehistoric sites recorded in Yosemite to date. With the dearth of carbon-bearing features, obsidian hydration analysis has been (and will continue to be) a primary analysis technique used in defining site chronologies, a basic goal in archeological inquiry. As such, an objective of the current project was to address the fire effects on the Ackerson Complex Fire artifact obsidian hydration rims. Some pertinent questions are as follows: Did the Ackerson Complex Fire affect obsidian hydration rims on obsidian artifacts? How do these compare with data from other fire/obsidian studies? What recommendations are in order for future Yosemite studies? Should future post-wildfire archeological studies incorporate obsidian hydration analysis as part of the analysis strategy? Table 10 summarizes site burn data, artifact macroscopic characteristics, contextual information, and obsidian studies data to this end. Sixty-nine artifacts from 21 sites and one isolate were submitted for XRF and OH studies, and all specimens were thin-sectioned rather than flaked to obtain the maximum surface area available for hydration rim measurement. There are two major limitations to this study. First, the contexts of artifacts from sites that did not burn completely were not recorded; that is, whether the specimen was recovered from an unburned or burned context was not documented. This creates some difficulty in attributing any fire effects to the Ackerson Complex Fire. Second, since the artifacts were recovered nearly a year after the fire, it is possible that some of the recovered artifacts were not exposed to the fire at all. Within the sample of 21 sites, 17 were burned to some degree, varying from 20 to 100 percent. Burn intensities also varied from heavily burned to scorched. Four sites were not burned. Only 11 artifacts represent the four unburned sites. All of these specimens (100%) produced readable rims, although one rim had a vague diffusion front and one artifact had a readable rim on one surface only. These data compare well with another Yosemite study of 114 surface artifacts from recently unburned sites yielding measurable hydration bands for 107 artifacts, or 94 percent of the total (Mundy 1992:81). In contrast, 44 artifacts (77%) from the 17 burned Ackerson Complex Fire sites had readable rims and 13 (23%) did not. Additionally, 20 (46%) of the 44 artifacts with readable hydration rims had rims that were either measurable on one surface only (n=11), vague diffusion front (n=6), discontinuous (n=2), or both vague diffusion front and readable on one surface only (n=1). These data indicate that fire has affected the overall sample of artifacts from the burned sites, but not to the degree that other studies have shown. For example, recent research in Sonoma County demonstrated that less than 15 percent of a post-fire surface sample exhibited measurable hydration bands (Anderson and Origer 1997). This is quite different than the Yosemite results, perhaps due to variation in fire intensity. As noted above, the Ackerson Complex Fire burned in a mosaic pattern, leaving some archeological sites only partially burned. Also, burn intensities varied between sites and even within sites. A subsample of nine sites that were completely burned includes 24 artifacts with obsidian hydration data. Within this subsample, 19 (79%) artifacts still had readable rims and five (21%) did not. Of the 19 specimens with readable rims, however, 12 (63%) were compromised by vague diffuse hydration, measurable rims on one surface only, or discontinuous rims. Again, these data add credence to the conclusion that fire affects obsidian hydration rims, but not to the extent noted in other studies. Based on these results, it appears that surface obsidian artifacts from fire-affected sites in Yosemite retain readable hydration rims for obsidian hydration studies. It also appears that the hydration measurements are generally consistent with projectile point obsidian hydration ranges for similar sources and elevations elsewhere in the park. For future studies, it would be prudent to use the thin-section rather than the flake method for analysis. Since 58 percent of the artifacts from burned sites had compromised or unreadable rims, thin-sectioning artifacts would allow for an increased probability of obtaining a measurable hydration rim. Likewise, in future studies it would be helpful Table 10. Summary Fire Effects Data for Analyzed Obsidian Artifacts. 110 Site P55-004603T CA-TUO-28/H % site Burn burned intensity No data No data 0 CA-TUO86/87/H CA-TUO-207 50 2-3 0 NA CA-TUO-210 0 NA CA-TUO-226/H 100 2-4 CA-TUO-228 100 1-2 CA-TUO-232 90 3 CA-TUO-233 CA-TUO-234/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-3977 100 80 0 100 3 3 CA-TUO-3980 100 2 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3988 20 50 2 3-4 CA-TUO-3991 70 3 CA-TUO-3994 50 3 CA-TUO-3995 100 3 CA-TUO-3997 100 3 CA-TUO-4002 60 2 2 Cat. No. 98300 98302 Type 98303 98304 98305 98306 98309 98310 98311 98312 98313 98314 DSN-G RSCN SN(L) ppf ppf RSCN CT RSCN DSN-G CT 98315 98316 98317 98319 98320 98321 98324 98325 98326 98327 98333 98334 98335 98336 98337 98338 98339 98341 98343 98344 98345 98346 98347 98348 98349 98350 98354 98355 98357 98358 98359 98360 98361 98362 98363 98364 98365 98366 98368 98369 98370 DSN-S bf RSCN DSN-S DSN-S RSCN RSCN RSCN SCB ECB drill pp SN(L) unique bf LCN SCS PSS DSN-G RSCN RSCN DSN CT ppf ppf RSCS CT DSN-G RSCS RSCN DSN LCN drill drill CT pp RSCN DSN-G RSCN LCN pp RSCN 98371 98373 98374 98375 98376 98377 98378 98379 98380 RSCS ECN EE DSN-G DSN-G DSN-G DSN SN(L) DSN-G EES DSN-S Exhibits dull patina or Obsidian silvery sheen source No BH No CD OH (microns) 2.87 1.55 No No No yes? No No No No No yes, patina 1SO (not due to Ackerson Complex Fire) No yes, patina on 1SO yes, patina on 1SO No No No No No yes, silvery 1SO yes, silvery 1SO no no yes, patina 1SO no yes, silvery 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO no no yes, patina 1SO no yes, patina both sides yes, patina 1SO yes, silvery both sides yes, patina both sides no yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, silvery both sides yes, patina both sides no yes, patina both sides yes, patina 1SO yes, patina both sides yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO no no yes, patina one side, silvery other side yes, patina 1SO yes, silvery 1SO yes, slight patina both sides no yes, slight patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, patina 1SO yes, silvery 1SO yes, silvery 1SO BH CD BH BH MH CD BH BH BH MC 1.57 2.06 4.98/4.78 DFV 3.97 2.06 4.82, 1SO 1.73-4.35 1.48 3.00, DFV MH MH BH BH BH BH CD BH BH BH BH CD BH BH BH BH BH MH BH MH BH BH BH BH BH BH BH BH BH BH CD BH BH BH NV CD BH CD CD BH BH 1.41 6.10, DFV 1.52 1.53, 1SO 1.55, 1SO 2.87 2.47, DFV 6.48 NVH NVH 1.37 NVH NVH/NVH NVH NVH/NVH 1.47/1.53,1SO, DFV 3.39 1.97 3.79, DFV 2.20 1.69, DIS 1.39 3.52 0.89, 1SO 1.84 2.40 2.02 3.23 1.73-3.21 1.65, 1SO 5.90/5.94 DFV/DFV 2.78 2.74 3.36 3.92 1.84, 1SO 4.08, DFV NVH/NVH NVH 1.95, 1SO CD CD MH CD CD BH BH BH BH 5.85, 1SO 2.49 2.47, DFV 1.61 1.29, 1SO 2.29, 1SO 2.18, 1SO 1.74, DIS 2.24 111 Site CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4013 % site Burn Cat. burned intensity No. 98381 98382 98383 98384 98385 100 3 98386 100 1-2 98387 Type RSCN RSCN RSCN SN(L) DSN-S pp EE Exhibits dull patina or Obsidian silvery sheen source yes, patina 1SO CD no CD yes, patina both sides BH yes, patina 1SO BH no BH yes, patina 1SO BH no? CD OH (microns) NVH 2.02 NVH 5.79/5.54, DFV 1.77 1.86, 1SO NVH/NVH KEY: POINT TYPES: CT = Cottonwood Triangular; DSN = Desert Side-notched, -G = General subtype, -S = Sierra subtype; RSCN = Rose Spring Corner-notched; RSCS = Rose Spring Contracting Stem; EES = Eastgate Expanding Stem; EE = Elko Eared; ECN = Elko Corner-notched; ST Sierra Triangular; ECB = Eared Concave Base; SCB = Sierra Concave Base; SCS = Sierra Contracting Stem; PSS = Pinto Sloping Shoulder; SN(L) Large Side-notched; LCN = Large Corner-notched; pp/ppf = projectile point/fragment; bf = biface fragment. OBSIDIAN HYDRATION DATA: OH = Obsidian Hydration Measurement; NA = Not Applicable; NVH = No Visible Hydration; DFV = Diffusion Front Vague; 1SO = One Side Only; DIS = Discontinuous Band. OBSIDIAN SOURCES: BH = Bodie Hills; CD = Casa Diablo; MH = Mt. Hicks; MC = Mono Craters; NV = Napa Valley. to collect microenvironmental contextual data for each recovered artifact, including specific information on burning and intensity, to aid in assessing fire effects on obsidian hydration rims. Of course, controlled studies (see Deal 1997; Green et al. 1997) measuring fire temperatures and burn duration on the surface and at various depths and comparing pre- and post-burn hydration rims would be most effective in further assessing fire effects on hydration rinds. For milling stations on granitic boulders and outcrops, the types of damages involved spalling, exfoliation, cracking, and smoke blackening. Twenty-two milling stations at 14 sites sustained such damage, while pestles associated with milling stations were also affected at two sites. The extent of fire damage once again seemed related to the amount of heavy fuels on the site’s surface (in this case on the feature) as well as the intensity of the fire as it passed through the site. In instances where the fire intensity was low and heavy fuels did not burn on top of outcrops and boulders, the damage was minimal. However, at CA-TUO-61/62, where heavy fuels burned on milling features, mortars and pestles sustained severe damages. Prehistoric site deposits were affected by stump holes and gully formation. Gully formation, which also constitutes a post-fire threat, was noted at six sites. Twenty-seven sites were affected by stump holes, although the nature and extent of the subsurface damage was not investigated for the current project. A stump hole at the edge of the possible housepit at CA-TUO-228 may have caused some irretrievable loss of data, particularly in light of the fact that housepits are not commonly documented at Yosemite sites. The few middens noted within this project probably sustained damages to their upper surfaces in most cases. This may have consisted of destruction or damage to lithic, botanical, faunal and pollen remains. In several cases, trees that were growing within midden areas burned completely, leaving stump holes that burned intensely for an extensive period of time. Roots from these trees carried the fire along the root paths deep into the midden, resulting in likely subsurface damage in the areas surrounding these stumps. Fire Suppression Damages. Fire suppression activities during the Ackerson Complex Fire occurred at 16 of the 77 sites, with some sites sustaining impacts from several types of activities. (An additional site, the Hodgdon Cabin location [CA-TUO-4031H], was also impacted, with results reported in a separate document.) At most sites, where activities involved vegetation removal (n=5) and personnel and equipment use (n=5), there was little or no damage. A spike camp was placed at one site, and possible collection occurred at two sites. Handlines were excavated through six sites, resulting in minimal localized soil displacement. To prevent further erosion and the potential for artifact displacement, handlines were rehabilitated at these sites. NPS restoration work leaders and archeologists agreed to modify rehabilitation techniques in site areas to avoid additional disturbance to archeological deposits. Soil berms and slash were simply raked or shoveled back onto the handlines (Tucker 1997a). Soil decompaction, a common rehabilitation technique, was not conducted in site areas. Dozerline construction occurred at four sites, with varying degrees of damage. The dozerline through CA-TUO520/H in Aspen Valley was very shallow, resulting in minor displacement of obsidian debitage. Following consultation with Yosemite archeologists, a NPS and California Conservation Corps restoration crew rehabilitated the dozerline by moving back the soil berm (Tucker 1997b). This work precluded further erosional effects to the site while avoiding damage to the archeological deposit. In contrast, the Great Sierra Wagon Road (CA-TUO4028H), a National Register-listed road through Yosemite Wilderness, sustained damages to both the road surface and some of the historic features (Keefe 1998). This road was reopened and bladed by fire personnel for use as both a supply and safety route. Road surface rehabilitation (returning the road to pre-fire condition) has been completed, and reconstruction of damaged historic rock retaining walls is being scheduled. CA-TUO-3989H, the 112 Aspen Valley Ranger Station site, was damaged during blading of this road, but additional damages occurred when part of the site was used as a log landing during post-fire hazard tree removal. Finally, CA-TUO-4008, a prehistoric site straddling the Yosemite National Park/Stanislaus National Forest boundary on Ackerson Creek, was partially bulldozed and tilled before archeologists discovered it. Post-fire Effects and Threats. Post-fire erosional processes were considered threats to 42 sites, with the predominant threats including sedimentation, hillslope scour, overland runoff, and hazard trees. The former three were either observed to be affecting or had the potential to affect sites in low-lying areas next to drainages, streams, and at the bottom of slopes. Hazard trees generally existed in sites that were burned over at high temperatures, resulting in high potential for falling trees. Other threats included tree root erosion, deficient soil cover, hillslope rilling, channel bank scour, channel debris, raindrop erosion, raindrop damages, and active gullies. In general, it appeared that erosional impacts and developing post-fire threats were minimal and that the landscape was recovering on its own at a rapid rate. This is probably the result of a number of factors, the foremost being the mosaic quality of the burn. Large areas within the project area were unburned, scorched, or only moderately burned, allowing storm runoff to percolate into the soil in a normal fashion. This resulted in less overland runoff and slower water velocities as runoff drained the landscape. Another factor limiting the amount of apparent erosion is the rapidly developing duff layer. Tree mortality in many areas was limited, and many of those that died are standing with needles still attached. As the needles dropped to the ground they formed an initial duff layer, which provided padding and stability to the underlying soils. The last factor likely limiting erosion is the flat to gently sloping terrain of site areas. The generally flat to gentle slope of sites, combined with the rapid formation of a duff layer and the mosaic quality of the burn, probably enhanced the ability of the landscape to resist erosion and recover quickly. The post-fire-enhanced ground surface visibility was considered both a threat and a benefit. Increased potential for illegal collection of artifacts was a post-fire threat to sites, particularly along existing trails and roads. In an attempt to forestall such activities, diagnostic and unique artifacts were collected during this project. Analysis of a sample of the recovered specimens contributed to defining temporal frameworks for sites and for elucidating obsidian source distribution patterns. Enhanced ground surface visibility was considered a positive post-fire effect from the archeological perspective. It was predicted that site boundaries for previously recorded sites would be expanded and that many “new” sites would be discovered. Of the 36 previously recorded sites, 24 were burned during the fire. Within this subsample of 24 burned sites, 17 increased in size, suggesting that burning did reveal additional cultural materials at most of the sites. However, this is not a true estimate of how often sites will increase in size following fires, since many of the previously documented sites had site records containing little to no information about site constituents or area. This is further illustrated by the fact that eight unburned sites also required re-recording due to site boundary expansions. While these sites were being monitored and re-recorded, the increase in ground exposure also allowed field personnel the opportunity to identify and document 41 “new” sites and five isolates. Once again, though, this may not be directly attributable to increased surface visibility since very little of the project area had been surveyed to current standards in the past. Additional impacts to sites occurred during post-fire hazard tree removal and rehabilitation activities. Portions of four sites, CA-TUO-1594, -3989H, -3996H, and –4008, suffered some damages. However, in all cases except for –3989H, the site boundaries were larger than originally documented and those previously unrecorded portions of sites were disturbed. At CA-TUO-3989H, in spite of the direction of the archeological monitor, a portion of the site was used as a log landing. Fire Damage Assessment Recommendations. The three management options identified on the post-fire assessment form include rehabilitation, monitoring, and no action. Damage assessment recommendations for each site are based on visual inspections, the collected fire data, the location of the site, and whether or not the damages are treatable. Rehabilitation measures are recommended for sites that sustained suppression damage and for burned sites where integrity is threatened by post-fire effects. Monitoring is recommended for burned sites where several factors indicate risk of erosion. Recommendations of “no action” are made for burned sites that sustained little or no fire suppression damage and which do not appear to be threatened by future erosion. For the 77 sites within the project area, rehabilitation is recommended for three sites, rehabilitation and monitoring for seven sites, monitoring for 16 sites, and no action for 51 sites. 113 Rehabilitation and/or Monitoring. Three sites with post-fire threats are recommended for rehabilitation and monitoring. The first is CA-TUO-1751H, the Golden Rock Ditch, which was burned over at fairly high intensity, leaving few living trees and numerous stump holes in the earthen berm along its length. The stump holes may collapse, which may lead to the destruction of sections of the ditch. Filling in the large stump holes with soil and rock should stabilize the earthen berm, preventing further degradation of the ditch. The second site with treatment needs is CA-TUO-3996H, the location of the Canyon Ranch Mill. This site was burned over at a high intensity, killing most trees in the area. In the next few years, it is likely that numerous trees will fall to the ground, potentially damaging the features associated with the mill. To avoid future damages, the trees that threaten the site should be directionally felled away from the site features. The third site in need of treatment is CA-TUO-86/87/H, a prehistoric lithic scatter with six milling stations. A frequently used trail bisects the site, and the erosion control structures along the trail are contributing to erosion of the site deposit. The erosion control structures divert water from the trail, thus minimizing erosion to the trail tread. Unfortunately, the runoff is diverted onto a slope within a burned site, resulting in the development of gullies and rivulets in the archeological deposit. To prevent further site erosion, the diversion structure should be reconstructed to minimize the amount of runoff across the site. Alternately, the trail could be rerouted, which would also alleviate the ongoing damage to the two milling stations the trail currently passes over. The Great Sierra Wagon Road (CA-TUO-4028H-1/CA-MRP-1410H), a National Register-listed road in Yosemite Wilderness, requires additional rehabilitation measures and monitoring. The road was bladed during the fire and used for equipment transportation and as a safety zone. Some erosion control efforts have already been completed, but two historic-period rockwork features have been identified for reconstruction (Keefe 1998). These two features should be reconstructed in way that minimizes maintenance needs while preserving their historic character. Rehabilitation of suppression damages at CA-TUO-517, -3971, and -4008 has already been completed, although monitoring is also recommended for these sites. Rehabilitation of damage associated with fire suppression activities at CA-TUO-520/H, -3509H, and -3989H has also been completed, and no further action is recommended for these sites. Monitoring. Sixteen sites are targeted for monitoring because of the potential for erosion, which might eventually result in impacts to the sites. Currently, these sites are not being damaged, but the potential for the following disturbances was observed: stream bank erosion; development of gullies, rills, and rivulets at sites in high-intensity burn areas where ground cover has been slow to recover; and sedimentation at the base of slopes or along streams. Future monitoring would allow for a more complete picture of erosion at these sites, as well as a final determination as to whether any rehabilitation is necessary to prevent degradation. Priorities for monitoring should include CA-TUO-228 and –4002, both of which contain stump holes in the vicinity of possible housepits. Summary and Recommendations for Future Fire-related Archeological Work Although time and funding limited the current project, valuable data were retrieved regarding the types and degree of direct, suppression, and post-fire damages at Ackerson Complex Fire archeological sites. In general, the direct effects of the fire resulted in the most damage to archeological sites, particularly those with heavy accumulations of fuel that burned intensely. Artifacts, ecofacts, and features were burned, and it is likely that portions of subsurface deposits were damaged as well. The fire certainly resulted in some loss of scientific data, specifically regarding obsidian hydration rims and, thus, temporal information about sites and artifact types. Other potential sources of data, including organic residues on milling features and lithic materials may have been lost as well, although this has not yet been studied. Most suppression effects were relatively minor, although the remains of the Hodgdon Cabin may have been obliterated and the blading of the Great Sierra Wagon Road resulted in damages to rock retaining walls. Suppression effects were curtailed to a great degree by the efforts of archeologists and resource advisors during the fire and NPS policy to avoid the use of bulldozers in wilderness areas. Post-fire erosional effects and threats were also determined to be minimal overall, likely due to factors such as site location in flat to gently sloping terrain, the rapid re-establishment of the duff layer, and the mosaic quality of the burn. In general, the overall effects of the fire to the identified sites appear to be minimal to moderate based on the findings of the current study. This is reflected in both the integrity estimates for each site and the recommendations 114 outlined above. Despite the fire effects, it is estimated that most of the sites retain integrity and the potential to contribute important information to our understanding of the park’s history and prehistory (see Chapter 8). The fact that recommendations of “no action” were made for the vast majority (n=51) of the sites indicates that most effects were either relatively minor or untreatable. This “minimal to moderate” description of the severity of damages is tempered by several caveats. As noted earlier in this report, a great hindrance to the assessment of damages at the sites was the lack of current inventory information. Additionally, the state of knowledge regarding fire effects to certain Yosemite site constituents is incomplete. Finally, conditions were reported for what is undoubtedly a small portion of the total number of sites within the Ackerson Complex Fire perimeter. Therefore, a more precise description of the overall effects of the fire would conclude that we were unable to completely assess the effects of the fire, but that they appear to be minimal to moderate at the very least. Possibly the most valuable results of this work are the acquisition of baseline inventory information for 77 sites, adding important information to the existing database regarding site type, distributions, and chronology, and the systematic gathering of information regarding fire effects at archeological sites in Yosemite. With this work, we have a better understanding of archeological resources in the northwestern area of the park and fire-related impacts at Yosemite sites. We also have a better understanding of the information we lack, with some recommendations for future work outlined as follows: • With the limited funding available for fire-related archeological work, focused research should be completed to further define direct fire effects on cultural materials in Yosemite. Additionally, this research should attempt to quantify the effects of burning on archeological data potential. Obsidian artifacts and milling features, residues on artifacts and milling equipment, and subsurface deposits should be the objects of study. This type of research would be best completed in the prescribed fire context where observations and measurements may be made for pre- and post-fire variables. The end product of this work would aid managers in decision-making during wildfires, managed fires, and prescribed burns. It would also allow the park to develop a comprehensive, science-based program for meeting responsibilities under Section 106 of NHPA for prescribed and managed fires. • Funding should be obtained from other non-fire sources to complete large-scale surveys of the park, thereby obtaining baseline information on site constituents and their conditions. It was particularly difficult for field personnel to assess damages to sites that, prior to the fire, were not adequately documented or had never been recorded. To date, only about 6 percent of Yosemite has been inventoried for archeological resources, and most of the surveyed lands are in the frontcountry and lower elevations of the park. • With regard to post-fire damage assessments, fieldwork should be conducted immediately following the fire and a hydrologist should be consulted to aid in assessing post-fire hydrological threats. Additionally, a research design should be completed prior to the fieldwork so that objectives and methods are clear. Goals must be achievable with the allotted funding. A result of the research design should be a revised post-fire effects assessment form for Yosemite-specific sites and features. This should incorporate the existing guidelines (DOI 1996) and the latest research related to fire and archeological resources. • The final recommendation relates to post-fire funding for archeological survey. At this time, NPS post-fire funding requests are limited to documentation and damage mitigation of known archeological resources. This funding is important in recovering some informational content of burned or damaged sites and for providing specific recommendations for mitigative work. However, if a burned area has never been adequately surveyed, many sites will not receive these types of considerations. This may lead to an underestimation of the damages resulting from direct fire effects, suppression effects, and post-fire threats and disturbances. It appears unreasonable to request funding to completely survey a burned area, but it should be a priority consideration that areas of high site probability that have burned at high intensities have sample surveys conducted as part of the post-fire damage assessment. In addition, funding from non-fire sources should be sought in the year following a fire to conduct complete survey of a burned area. Survey of burned areas would provide a more accurate accounting of all cultural resources at a more cost-effective rate than is possible before an area is burned. The absence of brush and undergrowth would allow for less hindrance during surveys, and the increased ground surface visibility would result in complete, efficient, and accurate site identification and recording. 115 In summary, the objectives of the Yosemite Archeology program with regard to fire are to: minimize direct fire impacts to archeological sites; avoid fire suppression effects; and minimize post-fire effects to archeological sites. To accomplish these objectives, our highest needs are to: • • • • • conduct pre-burn inventory where sites are likely to occur; complete fire-effects research to understand how burning affects Yosemite-specific artifacts, features, and data potential; reduce fuel loads by whatever means are appropriate on significant sites, thereby protecting site constituents that hold important information; conduct pre-burn inventory of fire facility locations (camps, handlines, dozerlines, etc.) and implement resource protection plans as necessary; and conduct post-burn inventories of high intensity burn areas that have a high probability for significant resources, and implement post-fire protection measures as appropriate. 116 CHAPTER 8 PROJECT SUMMARY AND PRELIMINARY MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter summarizes the results of the Ackerson Post-fire Archeological Project, describing the number and types of sites and isolates observed, artifacts collected, general chronological interpretations, and identified threats and disturbances. This information provides for a discussion of research potentials and directions for future archeological inquiry in the area, as well as background for site-specific preliminary management recommendations. Project Summary Past investigations by Bennyhoff (1956), Napton and Greathouse (1976b, 1977b), and Snyder (1990) provided records for about 36 sites in the project area. However, the limited scope of some of the previous projects and the minimal survey coverage suggested that the potential for locating undocumented sites was high. When combined with the increased surface visibility created by the fire, this potential was even greater. Forty-one previously undocumented sites and five isolates were recorded and, en route to known sites and during re-recording efforts, 3,212 acres were surveyed. A total of 54 prehistoric sites, 14 historical sites, nine sites containing both prehistoric and historical materials, and five isolates were identified. Prehistoric Sites. Prehistoric site constituents included debitage, flaked stone tools, ground stone tools, milling stations (many with associated pestles), midden soil, a rockshelter, rock circles that may have functioned as hunting blinds, and circular depressions that may represent housepits. Stationary milling features were by far the most abundant feature type, occurring at 53 (84%) of the 63 sites with prehistoric components. A total of 1,351 mortars and 55 slicks were recorded on 191 milling features. The five isolates were prehistoric, consisting of three milling features, two obsidian flakes, and a projectile point. All documented sites are in the Tuolumne River watershed, ranging in elevation from 1,036 m (3,400 ft) in the Poopenaut Valley to 2,286 m (7,500 ft) at Harden Lake. The Yellow Pine vegetation community occurred most abundantly, although Chaparral, Lodgepole Pine, Red Fir, and Oak Woodland vegetation communities were also present at some sites. Given the relatively high elevations of the project area, many of the documented sites likely functioned as seasonal use areas, although sites along the Tuolumne River below approximately 1,219 m (4,000 ft) elevation may have been occupied year-round. Chronological information from prehistoric sites indicates use of the project area during the Late Prehistoric Periods, encompassing at least the past 3,000 years. Most of the recovered typable projectile points were Desert or Rosegate series specimens, with fewer representations of Elko, Pinto Sloping Shoulder, Concave Base, Contracting Stem, Sierra Triangular, Large Side-notched, and Large Corner-notched. Obsidian hydration readings from the recovered projectile points, nondiagnostic bifaces, and drills ranged from 0.89-6.48 microns, with most varying between 1.3 and 4.1 microns. The presence of stationary milling features at most of the prehistoric sites points to late period occupation (during the past 1,500 years), although additional research is necessary to address the introduction and spread of this technology (Hull et al. 1996). The relative abundance of Rosegate and Desert series projectile points, thinner hydration measurements, and milling features suggests more intensive use during the past 1,500 years; however, excavation data are required to conclusively address land-use patterns through time. Material types for flaked stone debitage and tools included obsidian, chert, basalt, quartzite, metasedimentary, and quartz. Similar to results for other Yosemite studies, obsidian was by far the most abundant material. X-ray fluorescence analysis results for a sample of the recovered artifacts appear to confirm that Bodie Hills obsidian occurs most frequently in this area of the park, although the sample was not random and it was based on tools rather than debitage. Of the 69 artifacts submitted for analysis, 45 (65%) were Bodie Hills, 16 (23%) were Casa Diablo, six (9%) were Mt. Hicks, one (1.5%) was Mono Craters, and one (1.5%) was Napa Valley. All sources except Napa Valley are located on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada and are typical of the sources usually found in Yosemite National Park. The Napa Valley source is in the North Coast Ranges north of the San Francisco Bay Area of California. The projectile point made of Napa Valley obsidian represents the only known incidence of this source in park collections to date. 117 Although obsidian was the predominant material at sites for the project as a whole, it is perhaps notable that abundant red chert debitage was observed at several sites in the Cottonwood Meadow area, with lesser quantities at sites in the Smith Meadow area. Field personnel noted large unworked cobbles of this material in the Middle Tuolumne River in the vicinity of CA-TUO-226/H, and hypothesized that these cobbles may have been the source of the flaked stone. Historical Sites. Historical sites consisted of cabin/structure remains, can/debris scatters, logging camp remains, water conveyance ditches, roads, trails, rock cairns, structure flats, retaining walls, worker camps, the aerial tramway remains, and industrial machinery remains. These sites represent use of the area for the past 135 years for activities including livestock grazing, homesteading, logging, water conveyance and road construction for mining, development of the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir System for the CCSF’s domestic water and power supply, blister rust abatement and fire control by the CCC, and recreation and tourism. Joseph Screech blazed a trail, possibly represented by CA-TUO-4010H and -4011H, into Hetch Hetchy in the early 1850s for livestock grazing. Cyril Smith used the trail to run his sheep from Smith Meadow, where he constructed a cabin in 1885, to Hetch Hetchy Valley. The remains of Smith’s cabin are at CA-TUO-234/H. The 1880s also saw homesteading of the Miguel Meadow and Aspen Valley areas for livestock grazing. The original barn in Miguel Meadow (CA-TUO-23/80/148/H), built in 1890, still stands today. The Golden Rock Ditch (CA-TUO-1751H) represents very early use of the project area, built in 1860 to convey water from the Middle Tuolumne River to the Groveland area mining operations. Also built in support of mining, the Great Sierra Wagon Road (CA-TUO-4028H/CA-MRP-1410H) was constructed in the 1880s along the Mono Trail, a major east-west Indian route, to access the mines along the Sierran crest. The Great Sierra Wagon Road became a major route for tourist travel later in time, spawning the development of resorts such as Aspen Valley. The construction of the Hetch Hetchy system resulted in numerous changes to the landscape. The sites created as part of the Hetch Hetchy hydroelectric project (within the survey area of the Ackerson Complex Fire project) include the Lake Eleanor Road (CA-TUO-3963H), the Canyon Ranch Mill (CA-TUO-3996H), the worker’s camp along the Hetch Hetchy Road (CA-TUO-4006/H), the remains of the aerial tramway and terminus at Gravel Pit Lake (CATUO-3972H and –3973H), roads associated with the tramway (CA-TUO-3975H and –3979H), and the road to Swamp Lake (CA-TUO-3981H). These sites reflect original construction of the dam circa 1915-1923, as well as raising of the dam in the late 1930s. During the 1930s and early 1940s, the CCC was very active in the project area, carrying out NPS natural resource management projects. Control of blister rust fungus, fire suppression, and cleaning up after the CCSF were major activities. Sites CA-TUO-23/80/148/H, -4000/H, and –234/H comprise the remains of CCC camps at Miguel Meadow, Base Line, and Smith Meadow, respectively. Many of the features initially built for mining, logging, water control, and livestock grazing became part of the park’s recreation and operations system. Early trails and roads, such as the Smith Meadow trail, the Lake Eleanor Road, and the Great Sierra Wagon Road, are now part of the park’s hiking trail system. The Miguel Meadow area was used as a visitor car camp for a short while and is still used today for trail crew camps. Similarly, the barn is still used today by NPS packers. 118 Threats and Disturbances. The Ackerson Complex Fire was the main impetus for this project and it proved to have had a minor to moderate overall effect on the cultural resources. Of the 77 documented sites, 58 were either partially or completely burned. Some of the major direct fire impacts at prehistoric sites included spalling and exfoliation of stationary milling features and other outcrops; oxidation and cracking of lithic materials; alteration of obsidian hydration rinds; and the creation of stump holes in site deposits. In addition, the increase in soil temperatures during burning may have affected cultural materials in the upper portions of a deposit, while burning and/or destruction of bone and shell at or near the surface is also likely. The effects of the fire on historical sites resulted in burning of wooden remains, melting of glass artifacts, corrosion of tin items, and destabilization of earthen and rock work features. Suppression effects at both prehistoric and historical sites included handline and dozerline construction, spike camp and drop point development and use, and equipment use. Post-fire threats included increased downslope wash and/or erosion, sedimentation build-up, and gully formation within burned tree depressions. Post-fire erosional threats were determined to be relatively minor likely due to factors including the mosaic quality of the fire, the rapid accumulation of the post-fire duff layer, and the location of archeological sites on flat to gently sloping terrain. An additional post-fire threat is the increased potential for illegal surface collection as a result of the enhanced ground visibility. However, this increased ground visibility also allowed for expansion of site boundaries for previously recorded sites and discovery and documentation of “new” sites. For the 77 sites within the project area, treatment was recommended for three sites, rehabilitation and monitoring for seven sites, monitoring for 16 sites, and no action for 51 sites. Treatment and rehabilitation measures were generally recommended for sites that sustained suppression or severe direct fire effects, while monitoring was recommended for sites that may be threatened by post-fire erosion. The fact that “no action” was deemed appropriate for the majority of the sites indicates that many sites contain materials that are relatively fire resistant and that the direct effects of fire cannot be rehabilitated. However, further research should be completed regarding specific fire effects to major site components such as obsidian artifacts, midden soils, and milling features. Additional threats and disturbances noted within sites were not associated with the Ackerson Complex Fire, although in some cases the fire may have exacerbated impacts of existing facilities. These impacts include trails, roads, power poles and power lines, structures, dams, campgrounds, resort locations, and fences. Impacts occurred as a result of construction activities, use, and maintenance. In several cases, historical use of an area impacted prehistoric deposits. Impacts that exacerbated fire conditions include the placement of culverts/drainage devices within prehistoric sites that directed surface runoff across sites. This has resulted in erosion of sites and the transport of surface artifacts away from their original locations. With the construction of roads and trails through or near sites and the increased visibility of artifacts, an increase in surface artifact collection could be expected as well. Preliminary Management Recommendations National Park Service management policies (NPS 1988, 1997a) and federal legislation (NHPA, 1966; the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969) charge federal agencies with the protection and preservation of archeological sites on federal lands. Specifically, Section 110 of the NHPA requires federal agencies to locate, inventory, and nominate cultural properties on agency lands that appear to qualify for inclusion on the NRHP. Evaluation of archeological sites to determine NRHP significance is based on application of the criteria of eligibility outlined in 36 CFR Part 60: The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and (a) that are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or (b) that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or (c) that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or (d) have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history. The Yosemite cultural resources management plan (NPS 1979c) states that the NPS “will provide for the preservation, restoration, protection, interpretation, use, study, and management of all cultural resources meeting the National Register criteria.” Thus, it is an important component of the current study to provide site-specific management recommendations. The California Office of Historic Preservation, however, generally requires agencies to complete subsurface investigations at archeological sites in support of eligibility determinations. Since the 119 current study consisted solely of surface documentation, all management recommendations for unevaluated sites are considered preliminary and subject to change based on future excavations. Archeological sites are most often found eligible under criterion (d), which indicates that sites must retain data potential. However, historical sites and some prehistoric sites may be eligible under other criteria as well. For example, historical sites such as the aerial tramway system (CA-TUO-3972H and –3973H) may retain low data potential, but they may still be eligible properties under criteria (a) and/or (c). Sites must also retain integrity to be considered eligible for inclusion on the NRHP. Therefore, recommendations for the Ackerson sites are based on site integrity and research potential. Research potential is defined as the ability of each site to answer questions considered important in the region. The important research questions for Yosemite were outlined initially by Moratto (1981) and, more recently, by Hull et al. (1996). The discussion to follow provides a brief summary of integrity, research context, research potential, study needs, and recommended treatment. Integrity. Estimates of site integrity were based on fire effects as well as non-fire disturbances at each site, with results (Table 11) indicating that despite the wide range of disturbances, sites appear to retain overall high integrity. It should be emphasized that integrity assessments are based on surface observations only, and that subsurface investigations may demonstrate that sites retain greater or less integrity. Twenty-five (32.5%) of the recorded sites exhibit integrity of 100-90%, 37 (48%) sites retain 90-50% integrity, 13 (17%) sites retain 50-10% integrity, and only two sites (2.5%) retain less than 10% integrity. Table 11. Summary of Site-specific Management Recommendations. Site Estimated Integrity CA-TUO-23/80/148/H 90-50% Estimated Research Potential High CA-TUO-28/H 90-50% Medium CA-TUO-61/62 CA-TUO-86/87/H CA-TUO-88 CA-TUO-89 CA-TUO-102 CA-TUO-207 CA-TUO-208 CA-TUO-209 CA-TUO-210 CA-TUO-214 CA-TUO-226/H CA-TUO-227 CA-TUO-228 CA-TUO-229 CA-TUO-230/231 CA-TUO-232 CA-TUO-233 CA-TUO-234/H 100-90% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 100-90% 100-90% 90-50% 100-90% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 100-90% 90-50% 90-50% 100-90% 100-90% 50-10% Medium High Medium Medium Low High Low High High High High Medium High High High Medium Low High CA-TUO-515 CA-TUO-516 CA-TUO-517 CA-TUO-518 CA-TUO-519 CA-TUO-520/H 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% Medium Medium High Low Low High CA-TUO-521 CA-TUO-929 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1751H 100-90% 50-10% 90-50% 90-50% Medium Low High Low CA-TUO-3509H CA-TUO-3963H 50-10% 90-50% Medium Low CA-TUO-3971 90-50% Medium 120 Study Needs Recommended Treatment Literature Search, Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation* Evaluation*, Monitor Evaluation*, Monitor Evaluation* Evaluation* Literature Search, Evaluation*, Monitor Evaluation* Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation, Monitor Data Recovery in cabin and corral area Protection Undetermined Stabilization Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Protection Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Protection Data Recovery Undetermined Protection Undetermined Undetermined Protection Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Stabilization Undetermined Rehabilitation as necessary Undetermined Site Estimated Integrity CA-TUO-3972H <10% Estimated Research Potential Low CA-TUO-3973H (All Features) CA-TUO-3974/H <10% Low 50-10% Medium CA-TUO-3975H 100-90% Low CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3978 CA-TUO-3979H CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3981H 100-90% 90-50% 100-90% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% Medium High Low Low Medium Low CA-TUO-3982 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3986 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3989H 90-50% 90-50% 100-90% 100-90% 50-10% 90-50% 90-50% 50-10% Low Medium Medium Medium Low Medium High Medium CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3992 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3996H 100-90% 100-90% 100-90% 100-90% 100-90% 100-90% 50-10% Medium High Low High High High Medium CA-TUO-3997 CA-TUO-3998 CA-TUO-3999H 50-10% 90-50% 50-10% Medium Low Medium CA-TUO-4000/H 50-10% Medium CA-TUO-4001 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4004 CA-TUO-4005 CA-TUO-4006/H 50-10% 100-90% 100-90% 90-50% 90-50% 90-50% Medium High Medium Medium Medium High CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4008 CA-TUO-4009 CA-TUO-4010H 100-90% 50-10% 50-10% 90-50% Low Medium Medium Low CA-TUO-4011H 90-50% Low Study Needs Recommended Treatment Literature Search, Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Evaluation, Monitor Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Literature Search, Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Literature Search, Monitor Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Data Recovery Data Recovery Data Recovery Protection Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Data Recovery Undetermined Stabilization, Protection Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Protection Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined Undetermined CA-TUO-4012 100-90% Low Undetermined CA-TUO-4013 100-90% High Undetermined CA-TUO-4014 100-90% Medium Undetermined CA-TUO-4028H/ 90-50%** Low Rehabilitation CA-MRP-1410H** * Sites are located within a National Register district, but no subsurface investigations have been completed. ** Pertains to the segment (1) of the Great Sierra Wagon Road between the park boundary near Evergreen Road to White Wolf. Research Context. Despite the effects documented above and the less than ideal site conditions in some cases, most of the sites in the project area appear to retain high overall integrity and the potential to yield data critical to understanding prehistoric and historical cultural phenomenon in Yosemite National Park. With modern archeological techniques (i.e., obsidian hydration and sourcing analysis), data can be recovered despite the loss of 121 some aspects of integrity. To facilitate research within Yosemite, Hull et al. (1996) have developed a set of eight research domains based on the original work of Moratto (1981): paleoenvironment, cultural chronology, economic patterns, settlement patterns, demography, social organization, Native American historical archeology, and Euroamerican historical archeology. The essential characteristics of each are discussed below, providing a context for preliminary assessment of research potential for the project sites. Reconstruction of paleoenvironments is considered an essential first step in understanding past cultures. Among the topics to consider are glaciation, volcanism, climates, flora and fauna, and the different ways in which changes in these conditions may have influenced cultural development in and near Yosemite. Archeological work and the resulting data that may be applied to important issues include: • • • • • Surveys of areas where possible buried Wisconsin and early Holocene land surfaces may be located; Survey and testing to locate and evaluate cave and rockshelter sites that may preserve late Wisconsin and early Holocene sediments and archeology; Surveys of exposures where headward cutting and fluvial erosion of meadows have revealed surfaces in excess 8000 B.P. in age; Recognition, sourcing, dating, and mapping tephra deposits; Identification of suitable pollen-stratigraphic sites below 2000 m (6560 ft) elevation, and sampling of exposed stratigraphic cuts in meadows (Spaulding 1996: 3.32-3.36). Cultural chronology is concerned with cultural successions in the central Sierra Nevada, specifically the sequence of population movements and cultural replacements in and near Yosemite National Park. Chronological information is necessary to develop a timeline of past events and to answer questions about origins, influences, diffusion, replacement, migration, and rates of cultural change. The establishment of a chronology also allows for the reconstruction of settlement systems and land-use patterns during specific temporal phases, as well as the recognition of relationships between particular cultural developments and paleoenvironmental conditions. Archeological work and the resulting data requirements pertinent to these topics include: • • • • • • • • • • • Survey and site information gathered from probable late Wisconsin and early Holocene surfaces; Testing and excavation of suspected “early” sites, with an emphasis on determining age, to correlate observed soils with previously reported stratification so as to permit further analyses of assemblage provenience; Geoarcheological descriptions and interpretations of sites undergoing excavations; Collection of large samples of a variety of artifacts; The sampling of single-component sites and sites with stratigraphic integrity to recover coherent assemblages; Excavation of rockshelters to contribute information about assemblage richness and diversity; Dates for the appearance, spread, and use of the atlatl and dart, millingslabs and handstones, portable mortars and pestles, bedrock mortars, bow and arrow, various projectile point types, steatite, aboriginal ceramics, and items of Euroamerican manufacture; Collection and dating of carbon samples from cultural contexts that have strong potential to yield useful data; Determination of source-specific obsidian hydration rates for all elevation zones within the park in concert with radiocarbon analysis; Identification, definition, and dating cultural complexes in Yosemite; Projectile points for systematic reclassification of the Yosemite point taxonomy (Moratto 1996: 5.755.82). Economic pattern studies include such topics as the procurement of goods and services, manipulation of the environment to assist in the development and health of desirable goods, concepts of property, exchange systems, and the distribution and consumption of goods and services. Topics that have been identified as avenues of research include types of resources exploited and subsistence activities undertaken, methods of vegetal and animal food procurement and processing, division of labor, possible resource intensification, environmental manipulation, and exchange (Hull, Roper, and Moratto 1996:6.34-6.52). Archeological work and the resulting data requirements pertinent to these topics include: • • Excavation of large areas suitable for identifying activity areas; Assemblages reflecting a variety of geographic settings and ages that define relatively brief individual episodes of use; 122 • • • • • Interpretation of artifact function through the development of ethnographic and/or experimentally based models; Collection of data on artifact attributes, use-wear, and residues, as well as general assemblage observation indicative of procurement, processing activities, and intensity of production; Collection of site component characteristics and assemblage information sufficient to assess site function and duration of occupation; Evidence for aboriginal burning; Identification of source-specific obsidian distributions through time (Hull, Roper, and Moratto 1996:6.326.52). Settlement pattern studies focus on the function and spatial arrangement of sites. Specific topics for investigation include site function, community patterning, territoriality, sedentism, and mobility. Knowledge of settlement patterning is essential for gaining an understanding of land use, economics, carrying capacity, demography, and social organization. Archeological work and the resulting data that can assist in the understanding of these topics include: • • • Locational information, which can lead to interpretations of land use as it relates to elevation and environment; Excavation of sites with stratigraphic integrity to determine land use change through time; Excavation and analysis of macrobotanical information from habitation sites to determine if their use was seasonal or long term (Roper 1996:7.14). The demography and social organization research domain addresses aspects of archeological population studies, including interpersonal, intracommunity and intercommunity relations. Such research attempts to understand the organization, economics, settlement patterns, religious beliefs, size, density, growth rate, sex ratios, life expectancy, and birth and death rate of past societies. This information can give a direct approach to understanding how societies functioned in the past. The archeological work and resulting data necessary to discern this information includes: • • • • • • • Collection of inter-site archeological assemblages and locational data; Assessment of homogeneity and/or heterogeneity in assemblage attributes for various site types in an effort to define possible “tribelet” areas within a temporal span; Comparison of changes in assemblages and land use patterns within and between subareas to define local and extra-local population movements; Development of population curves using source-specific hydration data that should indicate trends in population size and rates of change; Collection of ethnohistoric and ethnographic information sufficient to determine native population at a time covered by the population curve; Computation of population size, working back in time based on the curve slope; Artifact and feature patterning within a site, compared with social models, to examine social constructs such as gender relations (Hale, Roper, and Hull 1996:8.9-8.20). The Native American historical archeology domain addresses the effects that Euroamerican, Mexican, and Spanish colonization had upon Native American population density, health, trade, subsistence patterns, and settlement. Such research seeks to understand the dramatic effects of the rapid expansion of Western culture in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries throughout the western United States. Archeological data necessary to address such issues include: • • • • • • Review of ethnohistoric and ethnographic information; Analysis of artifactual materials within known ethnographic settlements to identify cultural changes resulting from Euroamerican contact; Paleobotanical analysis at ethnographic sites to assess changes in diets after contact; Analysis and comparison of internal site characteristics for known ethnographic sites with late precontact sites to determine change through time; Analysis of obsidian and other traded resources and how these changed post contact; Analysis and comparison of sites from different locations within the park to determine if rates of change were consistent throughout the park (McCarthy 1996: 11.36-11.39). 123 The Euroamerican historical archeology domain addresses a number of historical themes that have contributed to the development of the Park. These include ethnicity, exploration and surveying, military, tourism, transportation, natural resource management, social service and park administration, industrial, and engineering themes as well as numerous subthemes pertaining to each. Historical archeology should also assess the research potential of sites to historical, architectural and engineering, anthropological, archeological, and material-culture topics (Ross 1996:12.23). Data necessary to address topics can be obtained from historical records, site locational information, informants, material culture remains, internal site characteristics, site function, and subsistence remains (Ross 1996:12.1-12.33). Research Potential. Table 11 provides an assessment of research potential--high, medium, or low--for each site based on surface cultural materials and integrity estimates. This ranking system follows previous Yosemite studies (e.g., Hull and Kelly 1995). Since evaluation of research potential should be based on subsurface data as well, particularly for prehistoric sites, these designations should be considered preliminary. Future studies may result in changes to the research potential assessments presented in Table 11. Twenty-three (30%) sites retain high research potential, while 31 (40%) and 23 (30%) sites retain medium and low research potential, respectively. Sites that are ranked as low in research potential generally are small, contain minimal components, or are lacking in diagnostics. These include bedrock mortar sites lacking any additional features, sparse lithic scatters with low debitage densities and no tools, and historical sites with few artifacts and no distinct features. These sites generally lack the cultural features and artifacts necessary to address the research questions outlined above. However, subsurface excavations could result in the discovery of more diverse materials, and this information might indicate greater data potential for some of these sites. Evidence that the site comprises a single-component deposit would also indicate greater data potential. Sites with medium research potential generally contain deposits with multiple types of features, lithic deposits, sites with numerous mortars, diagnostic artifacts, signs of extensive use, indications of probable subsurface deposits, documented historical sites, and historical sites with existing features and associated debris. These types of attributes may allow various research topics to be addressed. Subsurface investigations may reveal more or less research potential for some of these sites. Sites with high research potential generally contain multiple and varied components in abundance, rockshelters, dense concentrations of lithic or historical debris, temporally diagnostic artifacts, subsurface remains, existing historical features, or documented historical use by Native Americans. However, a single component site with attributes that allow the site to answer one important research question may also contain high research potential. These types of sites have the highest potential for providing information pertinent to the research topics detailed above. Excavation of sites with high research potential might reveal less research potential if subsurface integrity has been severely compromised. Sites in the project area have the potential to address topics within each of the eight research domains outlined by Hull et al. (1996), although certain research questions may be more amenable to the types of cultural materials documented at the Ackerson Complex Fire sites. For example, the paleoenvironmental studies domain might be difficult to address on a site-specific basis, requiring instead the expertise of a geomorphologist and an examination of landforms and sites on a regional scale. During the current project, Wisconsin land surfaces, early Holocene land surfaces, and tephra deposits were either not seen or not recognized. However, given the presence of tephra deposits at East Meadow near Aspen Valley (see Wood 1984), volcanic ash strata may indeed be present at numerous archeological sites. Only one site with a rockshelter, CA-TUO-3977, was identified, suggesting the possibility for good preservation of early Holocene sediments that might contribute to paleoenvironmental studies. However, it is difficult to determine whether early deposits are present without excavation data. The limited surface data indicate that the site was occupied during the late prehistoric period. Each site contains the potential to address the cultural chronology research domain, given the presence of obsidian materials at most of the prehistoric sites and the availability of obsidian hydration analysis. With the lack of recent research in the project area and the wide temporal range represented by the project sites, there is potential for testing and refining the present Yosemite cultural chronology. Analysis of projectile points would contribute to the proposed park-wide reclassification of the Yosemite point taxonomy and source-specific obsidian hydration rates for various elevations. The abundance of stationary milling features at sites with other datable cultural materials suggests that dating the initial use and spread of mortar/pestle technology might be feasible. Likewise, the presence of possible housepits at four sites suggests potential for defining and dating a feature type not yet investigated in the park. The rockshelter at CA-TUO-3977 may preserve materials not well preserved in open deposits, indicating the possibility for further defining assemblage richness and diversity. Areas that appear to have excellent 124 information potential pertinent to cultural chronology include the Poopenaut Valley, the Cottonwood Creek area, and CA-TUO-4002 on the southern Tuolumne River canyon rim. In Poopenaut Valley surface artifacts and features are varied, abundant, and appear to be relatively intact. This, combined with geographic proximity to Hetch Hetchy Valley, provides the opportunity to study not only questions of chronology, but demographics and settlement patterns as well. Sites in the Cottonwood Creek area retain potential for addressing numerous research questions. The date ranges, point types, material types, and sizes of sites appear to indicate extensive utilization of the landscape over time. Surface deposits are slightly impacted due to the location of a trail through the area, but subsurface deposits should provide a clearer picture of chronology and land use for this area. CA-TUO-4002 contains abundant surface artifacts, particularly late period projectile points, four housepits, midden soils, and milling features, indicating excellent potential for investigating chronological issues as well as a range of other research issues. The predominance of obsidian at the project sites and the availability of x-ray fluorescence analysis indicate that various economic pattern issues may be addressed. In particular, sourcing and dating obsidian artifacts would contribute to identification of source-specific obsidian distributions through time. While virtually all of the obsidian examined to date is derived from eastern Sierra sources, the recognition of Napa Valley obsidian in Poopenaut Valley has the potential to yield data about exchange of goods with groups from the west. Trade routes through and within this area of the Sierra also may be a focus of study. The location of sites on the trail exiting the Hetch Hetchy Valley appear to have been strategically placed as stopping points after long climbs up steep sections of trail. The Great Sierra Wagon Road may provide important information about trade as well. Since this road was built along portions of the prehistoric and historic Mono Trail, comparisons of artifacts, age, and typology should be considered at prehistoric sites along the length of this trail. Other economic pattern studies include assessments and comparisons of site function through time and space. The domain of settlement patterns has special significance within this area since ethnographic boundaries appear to be blurred when considered in the context of historical accounts. Kroeber (1925:Plate 37) indicates the presence of a Central Sierra Miwok village in the Hetch Hetchy Valley, although other historical sources (Hall 1921:38; Hoffman 1868:370) indicate that Paiute made extensive use of this area as well. Schlictmann and Paden (1986) document that the Mono occupied villages as far west as the Groveland area. The Washo, generally recognized as occupying areas north of the Stanislaus River, traded with the Southern Sierra Miwok in Yosemite Valley (Barrett and Gifford 1933:129) and may have also used the project area. Aspects of seasonality or land use patterns may be addressed by data from sites within the project area. Environmental, paleoenvironmental, and site function data for all project sites may lead to interpretations of land use patterns on a regional basis. It would also be informative to examine land use patterns on a local scale, such as the relatively dense patterning of sites at Cottonwood Creek, Aspen Valley, Harden Lake, and along the Tuolumne River. Data regarding preferred locations along these drainages may have the potential to address clan and moiety systems. Although macrobotanical remains have been poorly represented in Yosemite studies, the potential for better-preserved deposits at rockshelter sites (e.g., CA-TUO-3977) suggests that seasonality may be explored. Intra-site assemblages, site structure, and locational information provide a limited avenue to approach the issues of demography and social organization. Such data may be applied to defining “tribelet” areas as well as population movement over time and gender studies. Development of population curves using obsidian source and hydration information may also be pursued, but this technique is somewhat controversial and has yet to be applied in Yosemite. Based on the survey data, the Native American historical archeological domain appears to have limited applicability within the project area. However, this may be due to a general lack of knowledge concerning historic-period use, as well as the difficulty in recognizing historic-period Native American artifacts. It is entirely possible that such components exist, but they were simply not recognized. This seems likely given the presence of Native Americans in Hetch Hetchy (see Montague and Mundy 1995) and in the Groveland area during the historic period (Schlictmann and Paden 1986). A historic literature and photo search, combined with more detailed archeological investigations and oral interviews, may shed light on this topic. Data from sites within the project area may address numerous topics relating to the Euroamerican historical archeological domain. Historical use of the area is fairly well documented in the historic literature and most of the resources identified in literature searches were located. The conditions of these varied depending on location and, in many instances, the research potential of these sites has been seriously impacted by NPS or CCSF administrative policies (i.e., cleaning up of “debris,” removal or dismantling of undesirable structures, alteration for modern use). Probably the most prominent uses of the project area relate to the fields of social service/park administration and 125 industrial/engineering use and development. Development of the Hetch Hetchy system by the CCSF had the greatest impact on the project area, with abundant effects on the landscape. Numerous questions relating to the development of park and public policy, construction techniques, construction design, worker settlements, worker labor division, worker health and safety, Yosemite National Park development, and others can be asked in regard to this development. Ethnicity may also be addressed, as recognized from the types of debris left behind in dumps at the Canyon Ranch Mill (CA-TUO-3996H) and Miguel Meadow (CA-TUO-23/80/148/H). Military occupation and use of the landscape appears limited to patrol of the area and likely trail construction. Although the possibility of military blazes and camps from the period does exist, none of these resources were recorded. Tourism, homesteading, logging, mining, CCC-era development, and transportation played prominent roles in the historical development and use of the project area, indicating further possibilities for future studies. Study Needs As indicated in Table 11, virtually all of the sites require some level of evaluation to determine their eligibility for inclusion on the NRHP. Sixty-eight sites have not been evaluated under the National Register criteria. The Aspen Valley and Hetch Hetchy archeological districts include five sites (CA-TUO-517 through –521) and two sites (CATUO-515 and –516), respectively, but subsurface investigations to assess data potential have not been completed at any of these sites. Preliminary recommendations for the Lake Eleanor Road propose that it be evaluated as part of a district encompassing the Hetch Hetchy system. This district might also include the O’Shaughnessy Dam, the Lake Eleanor Dam, the Hetch Hetchy Road, the Canyon Ranch Mill, the Gravel Conveyance System, Gravel Pit Lake, quarries, tunnels, water conveyance systems, and other associated features. The segment of the Great Sierra Wagon Road between the park boundary near Evergreen Road and White Wolf is listed in the NRHP, but the entire resource within the park has not yet been evaluated. As noted earlier in this report, subsurface information is important for evaluating prehistoric sites and some historicperiod sites, while many historic sites, including ditches and roads, do not require subsurface investigations. However, a literature review of available historic documentation is recommended for those sites with historic components. This research could contribute to a better understanding of the historical archeological topics to which material remains might pertain, while also contributing to evaluation under multiple NRHP criteria. Monitoring was recommended as a study need for 22 sites based on an assessment of the Ackerson Complex Fire threats and disturbances. Monitoring was determined to be the course of action for burned sites that are at risk of future erosion. The results of the monitoring should further define appropriate site treatments. Recommended Treatment The treatments recommended for each site in Table 11 are based on standard archeological treatment options presented in the NPS systemwide Archeological Sites Management Information System (NPS 1997b). The recommendations are preliminary in nature since appropriate treatment depends on determinations of NRHP eligibility and, as noted above, most of the project sites have not been evaluated. Because they have not yet been evaluated and there are no immediate treatment needs, treatment for 59 sites is undetermined; that is, there is no recommendation at present. Stabilization or rehabilitation to repair, protect, or preserve sites is recommended for five sites. As noted in Chapter 7, the following stabilization measures were recommended: a trail reroute to avoid further site erosion as well as damage to milling features at CA-TUO-86/87/H; filling in stump holes along the berm of CA-TUO-1751H, the Golden Rock Ditch; and falling burned hazard trees away from historic features at CA-TUO-3996H. Repair of historic rock walls damaged during the Ackerson Complex Fire was recommended for the Great Sierra Wagon Road, CA-TUO-4028H. Additionally, the Lake Eleanor Road, CA-TUO-3963H, should be maintained as necessary in a historically sensitive manner for contemporary use. Data recovery is recommended for six sites sustaining regularly occurring impacts, which are slowly reducing the data potential and integrity of the site. However, data recovery should only be considered an option for site management if the site is eligible for inclusion on the NRHP and if further impacts cannot be avoided. Additionally, any data recovery programs should be developed in consultation with local American Indian groups. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H at Miguel Meadow and CA-TUO-515 at the Hetch Hetchy residence area have received considerable impact due to historic and modern use, likely resulting in an incremental decrease of integrity. If evaluation reveals that the deposits are significant, data recovery of deposits undergoing degradation should be considered to retrieve any remaining information. CA-TUO-3986, -3987, -3988, and –3994 are located adjacent to 126 the Tuolumne River below O’Shaughnessy Dam, and may be inundated by reservoir water releases on a regular basis. The impacts of water flows on significant deposits should be determined, and data recovery might be considered an option to mitigate any disturbances. Protection is recommended for eight sites, which are being harmed by vandalism, collection, or development. Measures to protect sites may include patrolling, signing, instituting educational programs, or avoidance. CATUO-28/H and -210 at Harden Lake are frequently used areas, which should be protected through more vigilant avoidance, eradication of modern campfire rings, and patrols. Similar measures are recommended for CA-TUO234/H at Smith Meadow, currently a popular camping spot. At Aspen Valley, residents have collected from sites, including CA-TUO-517 and –520/H, and site locations appear to be general knowledge. A program should be instituted to educate area residents and visitors regarding cultural resources laws and regulations, the scientific value of archeological sites, and heritage values for local American Indians. CA-TUO-3989H, -3996H (also recommended for stabilization), and –4006/H are located adjacent to roads and contain historical materials of interest to collectors. The former has been damaged on a few occasions, including during hazard tree removal following the Ackerson Complex Fire. Patrols and avoidance are recommended for these three sites to prevent further disturbance and potential collection. Recommendations for Future Work Although the current project was very limited in scope, results have demonstrated that the area encompassed by the Ackerson Complex Fire holds great potential for future archeological research. Following is a discussion of general recommendations for future work in the project area. All of the archeological work proposed for American Indian sites would be conducted in consultation with local Indian groups. Since the current project primarily addressed previously recorded sites and surrounding areas, only 7 percent of the entire Ackerson Complex Fire has been inventoried to date. Additionally, much of the surveyed area encompasses linear trail corridors rather than topographically or geographically defined areas. Therefore, a first step for future work would involve larger-scale survey of the region. This work would contribute to our understanding of the park’s past, aid the park in complying with the requirements of Section 110 of the NHPA, and lay the groundwork for any future actions requiring compliance with Section 106. Properties should be evaluated for eligibility to and nominated, as appropriate, to the NRHP either as individual sites or grouped into districts. A second management consideration involves limiting or mitigating further data loss at sites with ongoing impacts. According to the results of the current project, priorities for action include CA-TUO-86/87/H, and sites at Miguel Meadow, Aspen Valley, and Poopenaut Valley. CA-TUO-86/87/H, located just above the Hetch Hetchy switchbacks, is sustaining erosion and impacts to milling features. A possible mitigation would be to remove trail drainage structures and construct short trail reroutes. CA-TUO-23/80/148/H at Miguel Meadow and the Aspen Valley sites, particularly CA-TUO-517 and –520/H, have received considerable impact due to historic and modern use. Protection, evaluation, literature search, and possibly data recovery should be initiated in the near future to preserve the deposits or mitigate the continuing impacts. The Poopenaut Valley sites may be inundated on an annual basis, resulting in sedimentation at sites and the possible removal and movement of surface materials. It is unclear if this is a result of dam releases from upstream or a natural occurrence. The effects of reservoir water releases on the sites should be further clarified, the sites should be evaluated, and any impacts should be mitigated. A third management consideration involves conducting a research program to better understand and interpret the park’s history and prehistory. Many sites within the project area are estimated to retain research potential based on surface characteristics and numerous sites are thought to retain high research potential. The sites estimated to contain exceptionally high research potential include the following: CA-TUO-226/H, -228, and -229 in the Cottonwood Creek/Middle Tuolumne River area; -23/80/148/H and -3977 at Miguel Meadow; -3988 and -3994 at Poopenaut Valley; -210 at Harden Lake; -4006/H along the Hetch Hetchy Road; and –4002 along the southern rim of the Tuolumne River. These sites contain a variety of features, midden soils, and artifacts that would likely provide data to address questions considered important in the park-wide research design (Hull et al. 1996). This research program should also include a literature search of historical documents and interviews with local American Indians to identify historic-period Indian use and current cultural affiliation. Fourth, the segment of the Great Sierra Wagon Road between the park boundary near Evergreen Road and White Wolf is listed in the NRHP, but the road has sustained damages due to the Ackerson Complex Fire as well as benign neglect. A maintenance program and use policy should be developed in consultation with the park’s wilderness, natural resources, and trails offices. This policy should consider wilderness, natural resource, and 127 visitor use issues, while clearly outlining maintenance needs for the road that would preserve the National Register qualities of the resource. Fifth, a historical context, administrative history from the perspective of the NPS, and evaluation of the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir System should be undertaken in consultation with the CCSF and the Stanislaus National Forest. The construction and development of the system resulted in a widespread distribution of features, indicating that documentation of the system elements and evaluation might be most appropriate as a historic district or cultural landscape. Several features have been recorded as part of the current project, including the Lake Eleanor Road, the Canyon Ranch Mill site, the aerial tramway and associated access roads, a worker’s camp, and the Hetch Hetchy Road was recently inventoried and evaluated as well (Stromberg 1998; Unrau 1998). The national import of the construction of the Hetch Hetchy system and the integrity of its associated features suggest that it is likely eligible for inclusion in the NRHP. The final recommendations relate to fires and archeological work, as detailed in Chapter 7 of this report. Prior to any future post-fire archeological work, a project-specific research design should be completed to guide all data collection. The existing post-fire damage assessment guidelines (DOI 1996) and a review of the current fire literature should aid in this endeavor. In addition to assessing damages at known sites, areas of high site probability burned at high intensity should be surveyed as part of the post-fire site conditions assessment. Complete post-fire surveys of burned areas should be pursued, although this might be most appropriately completed with non-fire funds. Also, baseline research work is recommended regarding the effects of fire on artifacts, features, and subsurface deposits in Yosemite. This would allow for a more accurate assessment of data loss at sites and it would provide direction for cultural resource protection efforts during wildfires and managed fires. In summary, the main recommendations for future work in the Ackerson Complex Fire area and for future fires are as follows: 1) Conduct more thorough and complete surveys throughout the Ackerson Complex Fire area to satisfy Section 110 of the NHPA requirements, lay the groundwork for future actions requiring compliance with Section 106, and facilitate understanding and interpretation of the park’s history. 2) At sites with ongoing impacts, limit or mitigate impacts to significant deposits to ensure that important archeological data are not lost. 3) Initiate an archeological research program to better understand the park’s human past through investigation of sites with high research potential. Also, complete a literature search and interviews with American Indians to identify cultural affiliation and historical use of the project area. 4) Develop maintenance and use policies for the Great Sierra Wagon Road and the Lake Eleanor Road in consultation with the park’s wilderness, natural resources, and trails offices. 5) In consultation with the CCSF and the Stanislaus National Forest, document and evaluate the Hetch Hetchy system as a historic district. 6) Pursue funding for survey of high intensity/high site probability areas during the post-fire damage assessment and for complete survey of burned areas in the field season following a fire; complete baseline research for quantifying data loss at sites due to burning; complete a research design prior to any fire-related work. 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Trans-Anglo Books, Glendale, California. 140 REPORT ON LAKE ELEANOR ROAD (CA-TUO-3963H) RECORDING AND PRELIMINARY EVALUATION (PROJECT YOSE 1996Q) By Suzanna Montague December 1996 Archeology Office, Yosemite Research Center Introduction This report briefly describes the background research, methods, and results of the Lake Eleanor Road (CA-TUO-3963H) recording project. Additionally, a preliminary evaluation under the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) criteria and recommendations for future management are proposed. The site record, completed to Office of Historic Preservation standards, is in Volume II of the report. Yosemite Archeologist Jane Caputo and the author completed the project as part of the 1996 post-Ackerson Complex Fire cultural resources project. The 11.5-mile-long Lake Eleanor Road is located in the northwestern part of Yosemite National Park (Figure 1) within the area encompassed by the Ackerson Fire Complex. An approximately four-mile section of the road from the O'Shaughnessy Dam at Hetch Hetchy to the northern rim of the Tuolumne River canyon switchbacks up a very steep slope in an area that was intensely burned. The park's cultural resource managers feared that the lack of vegetation along this portion of the road, the steepness of the slope, and the upcoming winter storms might result in severe damage to the previously undocumented road and associated features. Therefore, the purpose of the project was to survey and document the Lake Eleanor Road prior to the onset of heavy precipitation. Methods Research. Background research involved interviews with knowledgeable park personnel, including Park Historian James Snyder, Rangers Charlie Fullam and Gordon Gilbert, Trails Foreman Tim Ludington, and Wilderness Rangers Laurel Boyers and Ron Mackie. Additional sources included historical maps in the Yosemite Research Library, Greene (1987), Hanson (1994), Wurm (1990), and Snyder's site records for the 1990 Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. Survey and Recording Methods. Two Yosemite Archeology Office personnel spent approximately four days surveying and documenting the Lake Eleanor Road and associated features and artifacts. The survey involved the road surface only, and features and artifacts in the road or immediately adjacent to the road were recorded. The 64 features and 21 artifacts were described and left in situ, and black and white photographs and color slides were taken of representative items. The locations of all items were plotted on a 7.5 minute topographic map: features were designated numerically, while artifacts were labeled alphabetically. The road was documented in terms of grade, condition, alignment, modern use/management, and apparent alterations. Integrity of the various road segments was assessed according to U.S. Forest Service (FS) site record criteria for trails and roads: History Level 1. Intact road or trail, where the contour and road bed are substantially intact as are the major features that maintain the grade's morphology. Level 2. Grades approaching Level 1, but converted to forest dirt roads or otherwise lightly impacted. Level 3. Grades which fail to meet Levels 1 or 2, but whose existence can still be verified by the contour and occasional features. Modern roads or trails overlying historic travelways may fall into this category. Level 4. Grades which are unrecognizable as such, but which have convincing archival or contextual evidence. Native Americans were the first inhabitants of the Hetch Hetchy, Miguel Meadow, and Lake Eleanor areas, as evidenced 1 by the abundant archeological sites in each location (Carpenter and Kirn 1988; Montague and Mundy 1995; site records on file, Yosemite Research Center). Artifacts with relatively thick obsidian hydration rims and Elko projectile points suggest that Hetch Hetchy was occupied by at least 3,500 years ago. Use of Hetch Hetchy by Native American groups, both Paiute and Central Sierra Miwok, continued into the historic period (see Montague and Mundy [1995] for a more detailed discussion of ethnicity during the early historic period). The Lake Eleanor area also appears to have been inhabited by Native American people following Euro-American contact. Homesteader Kibbe is thought to have had a Native American wife and, according to Yosemite Ranger C. Fullam (personal communication 1996), there are people from the Tuolumne Rancheria who remember their grandparent's stories of the Lake Eleanor area. Following initial Euro-American contact in 1850, the early history of the Hetch Hetchy, Miguel Meadow, and Lake Eleanor areas involved homesteading and cattle and sheep raising. Horace Kibbe and Herman Wolfe homesteaded areas near the original Lake Eleanor outlet, both applying for patents to their claims in 1881 (Carpenter and Kirn 1988). Kibbe was in the area prior to 1877 until 1913, raising cattle and stocking lakes and streams with fish, while little is known of Wolfe. Remnants of both homesteads, documented by the Yosemite Archeology staff (Carpenter and Kirn 1988), are visible when the reservoir water levels are lowered. Jonas Rush and Miguel Errera pastured large herds of cattle and horses during the summers at nearby Miguel Meadow as early as the 1880s (Greene 1987:193). A cabin built ca. 1890 (and later converted to a barn by the National Park Service [NPS]) still stands at Miguel Meadow, and the granite slab and cobble remains of a structure foundation is nearby. In recent history, 1962 and 1975, NPS crews repaired the barn twice (R. Mackie, personal communication 1996). At Hetch Hetchy, Joseph Screech’s trail, used for driving sheep and cattle into the valley, was well blazed by the 1860s, and the earliest map of the area (Hoffman and Gardner 1863-1867, on file, Yosemite Research Library) depicts three cabins in the western portion of the valley (Montague and Mundy 1995:5). The Lake Eleanor trail, from Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor, is documented on the 1893 J. N. Le Conte map (Greene 1987:1179) and the 1878-1879 Wheeler Survey Map (Sheet 56D), although the date of construction is unknown. It may be that the route was used initially by Native Americans and cattlemen, then more formally established by the U.S. Cavalry, who administered the park from 1890-1916. According to early maps of the park (Hoffman and Gardner 1896; J.N. LeConte 1893), the present road generally follows the alignment of the old trail, although it is difficult to determine the exact trail route on the small-scale historical maps. However, it is apparent that the trail and road diverge at Lake Eleanor: the trail went to the outlet of the original Lake Eleanor, while the road was constructed to the damsite. The Kibbe and Wolfe homesteads and a Cavalry base established sometime prior to 1909 (Carpenter and Kirn 1988:198; see also Greene 1987:1157) were the trail destinations. The branch phone line erected in 1909 from Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor (Greene 1987:1177) was likely constructed to the Cavalry base along the existing trail. The Lake Eleanor Road was built in 1916-1917 (Greene 1987:512) as part of the construction of a massive water and power conveyance system designed by the City and County of San Francisco (CCSF). The system is an impressive engineering feat, bringing water and power from the Tuolumne River watershed in the Central Sierra Nevada a distance of approximately 150 miles to the San Francisco. Construction commenced shortly after the passage of the Raker Act in 1913, resulting in a vast system of dams and power plants, in addition to miles of tunnels, pipelines, railroads, roads, aqueducts, and transmission lines. The 11.5-mile-long road was built along the general alignment of the existing trail from Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor to transport materials for construction of the Eleanor dam. The steep, dirt switchback road was used by "trains of trucks, six at a time, carrying mostly cement and making three round trips each 24 hours" (Wurm 1990:79). The dam at Eleanor Creek was the first one in the system, built in 1917-1918 to provide a reliable source of water for the powerhouse at Early Intake, which in turn, generated electricity for construction of the big dam at Hetch Hetchy (Hanson 1994:34). Today, Lake Eleanor continues to supply water for power for the CCSF rather than water for consumption. Following erection of the Eleanor dam, the CCSF and the NPS used the road for visitor access, NPS administrative purposes, and construction of various buildings. In 1934 and 1935, four outbuildings (NPS Bldgs. 2202-2205) and pit toilets (Bldgs. 2210-2212) were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) at Miguel Meadow (Greene 1987:1119). Two of these, a storage building and the CCC mess hall (Bldgs. 2203 and 2205) were razed in 1963 (Yosemite Separates Files). The CCSF built the Ranger Station (Bldg. 2200) as part of the O'Shaughnessy Dam raising project in 1935-1938, with the contract crew camped at Miguel Meadow. This project involved construction of a threemile aerial tramway to transport gravel from Gravel Pit Lake near Miguel Meadow to the damsite for production of concrete (Wurm 1990:257). Gravel Pit Lake is not a natural lake; it is the result of gravel and sand extraction activities. In addition to building the structures, CCC crews also constructed the North Mountain Road from Miguel Meadow to North Mountain in 1939-1940 (Superintendent's Monthly Reports 1939, 1940) and accomplished a massive task 2 involving cleanup of the mess left behind by the CCSF's contractors. Miguel Meadow was also a tourist destination, containing a car campground from 1938 (when the road was built across the top of O'Shaughnessy Dam) through the late 1940s (R. Mackie, personal communication 1996). Fishing at the stocked Gravel Pit and Swamp lakes was a primary attraction. The campground was removed by the NPS in 1989 (L. Boyers, personal communication 1996). There were two additional structures along the road, which were razed in recent years. A snow survey/storage building at the junction of the road and the Gravel Pit Lake trail was built by the CCSF in 1958 and removed in 1990. As indicated below, remnants of this structure were noted during the survey. A wooden structure (photo in Greene [1987]) was built at the top of the switchbacks by the CCSF in 1921 (Greene 1987:1120) and removed in 1970. The location of this building was not pinpointed during the survey. Yosemite Wilderness Ranger R. Mackie (personal communication 1996) noted that this building was one of several in the park used for storage of fire equipment. Strategic access to fire tools was important in pre-helicopter days when all fires were immediately extinguished. The Lake Eleanor Road was maintained for NPS administrative vehicle use until 1982, when much of the park was being considered for wilderness designation. About 94 percent of Yosemite, including the project vicinity, was officially designated wilderness by Congress in 1984. At this time the road was closed to all vehicles; however, the section between Lake Eleanor and Miguel Meadow is “proposed wilderness addition” and has been driven for administrative purposes (i.e., fire access and removal of dumps and structures) in the last decade. The segment between Miguel Meadow and O'Shaughnessy Dam is currently maintained as a hiking trail. Today, the Hetch Hetchy hiker's trailhead is one of the busiest in the park. Site Description The original 12-ft-wide dirt road began at a bridge over the Tuolumne River (see photo in Wurm 1990:72) and climbed up the steeply sloping northern canyon wall via a series of tight switchbacks. With the raising of the O'Shaughnessy Dam level in 1935-1938, the road was rebuilt on the dam top and a tunnel was blasted through the sheer granite cliff that abuts the northern end of the dam. The road follows the reservoir edge at a level grade for about 0.4 mile, where it merges with the original alignment. At this point, the road begins a steep zigzag route to the canyon rim through the Gray Pine-Live Oak-Chaparral Woodland (see Moore 1993) vegetation community. According to NPS trail signs, the distance along the road from the dam to the top of the switchbacks measures about 4.0 miles. With the ongoing erosional processes, the road width varies from 4 to 26 ft (at pullouts), with an average width of about 12 ft. With an elevation gain of about 1,400 ft (3,813 - 5,200 ft) and with grades up to 11 percent, roadstabilization and erosion-control features are quite common. Dry-laid, granite cobble and boulder retaining walls, both modern and historic, are abundant along this stretch of the road. Rectangular, concrete-sided culverts with upper surfaces constructed of recycled rails and diamond-shaped heavy metal mesh are another common feature type. Three small wooden bridges, likely of modern-era construction, span intermittent drainages and patches of remnant asphalt are also most frequent along this portion of the road. While most of the features are related to road engineering, two artifact concentrations were also documented. One is a can dump at the bottom of a bluff adjacent to the road, probably representing a single dump episode, perhaps during construction or road repairs. The second artifact scatter is located at the first switchback, and appears to represent road construction as well as short-term camping. The condition of this initial stretch of road is poor, meeting Level 3 of the FS integrity considerations. That is, the alignment has been preserved, but the route is no longer usable as a road. Water erosion and mass wasting have contributed to the degradation of the road, but NPS policy also dictates maintenance of this section as a trail. Without the considerable trail maintenance, this segment of the original road undoubtedly would be gone. The trail is currently in good condition. For a distance of about 3.5 miles from the top of the switchbacks to the Miguel Meadow Ranger Station, the road generally follows a fork of Miguel Creek, descending in elevation from 5,280 to 5,037 ft through Ponderosa Pine Mixed Coniferous Forest (see Moore 1993) vegetation community. With the gentler grade (0-8 percent) of this segment and the absence of switchbacks, retaining features were generally unnecessary for road construction and repair. The few features recorded include: a granite cobble causeway, likely of modern origin; a pair of hand-riveted metal culverts; an additional culvert with associated rock retaining walls; three large depressions that appear to be borrow pits; and an artifact concentration near one of the borrow pits, which included various domestic items. Also documented was the location of a prefabricated metal snow survey cabin at the Gravel Pit Lake trail/Lake Eleanor Road junction. This 3 structure was built in 1958 by the CCSF (Greene 1987:1119) and removed in 1990 by the NPS (G. Gilbert, personal communication 1996). Some garbage associated with use of that cabin is still in evidence. A spur road leading to the aerial tramway towers was designated Feature 49, although Snyder recorded this in a more comprehensive manner as part of his Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. The identified artifacts included numerous white, porcelain phone or electric line insulators in trees paralleling the road. According to Greene (1987:1177), a branch phone line from Hetch Hetchy to Lake Eleanor was constructed in 1909. This phoneline likely linked Hetch Hetchy with the U.S. Cavalry base and/or the Kibbe and Wolfe homesteads at Lake Eleanor. The condition of the road from the top of the switchbacks to Miguel Meadow is fair; much of the road has been reduced to trail tread, but the alignment has been preserved. The route is currently not usable for vehicle traffic. Under the FS criteria, the integrity of this segment is Level 2. For the final 4.0 miles from Miguel Meadow to Lake Eleanor, the road climbs steeply out of the Miguel Creek drainage attaining a maximum elevation of 5,307 ft, skirts the eastern edge of a large ridge, and descends to Lake Eleanor at an elevation of 4,660 ft. This section of the road is not as level as the previous section, although the grade doesn't exceed about 8 percent. Several sections of rock retaining walls and culverts were identified in this segment, along with numerous insulators, including the white porcelain variety and an aqua glass "Hemingray" specimen. An old roadbed was observed leading to and beyond the concrete pads designated Feature 40, but this feature was not mapped due to high reservoir water levels. This NPS has maintained this section of the road for emergency vehicle use, and it is currently in good condition. Some alterations have occurred, but they are relatively minor. The integrity of this segment of the road is Level 1 within the FS criteria. Preliminary Evaluation and Management Recommendations A final aspect of this project involves providing a preliminary determination of eligibility for the Lake Eleanor Road. The NRHP criteria for evaluation (CFR, Title 36, Part 60) state that: The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and: (a) that are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or (b) that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or (c) that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or (d) have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history. Alterations to the road include the switchback section, the road ends, and the reduction of much of the road to trail tread. However, the road is likely eligible as part of a district that encompasses the Hetch Hetchy system. The overall water and power system has not been evaluated, but it was considered a major engineering feat of its time. Additionally, the construction of a dam in a national park generated great controversy on local and national levels, figuring prominently in the history of the conservation movement and the development of NPS water policies (Greene 1987:1025). Thus, the Hetch Hetchy system is potentially eligible for inclusion on the National Register under criteria (a) and (c); however, evaluation of this system is well beyond the scope of the current project. As an historic site potentially eligible for inclusion on the National Register as part of a district, the following are recommended: (1) preserve the current Lake Eleanor Road alignment; (2) maintain the road at least to trail width (compatible with the area's wilderness designation); and (3) complete trail maintenance in a historically sensitive manner, using appropriate materials and techniques. For the long term, evaluate the Hetch Hetchy system as historic district. References Cited Carpenter, Scott L., and Laura A. Kirn 1988 Underwater But Not All Wet: The 1985 Lake Eleanor Archaeological Survey. In Proceedings of the Society 4 for California Archaeology, Volume I. Papers presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for California Archaeology, San Diego. Greene, Linda W. 1987 Yosemite: The Park and its Resources. USDI National Park Service, Denver Service Center, Denver. Hanson, Warren D. 1994 San Francisco Water and Power: A History of the Municipal Water Department and Hetch Hetchy System. City and County of San Francisco. Montague, Suzanna, and W. Joseph Mundy 1995 The 1991 Hetch Hetchy Reservoir Archeological Survey. USDI National Park Service, Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 1, Yosemite National Park. Moore, Peggy 1993 Preliminary Descriptions of the Terrestrial Natural Communities of Yosemite National Park, California. USDI, United States Geological Survey, Biological Research Division, Yosemite Research Center, Yosemite National Park. Snyder, James 1990 Site Records for the 1990 Wilderness Historic Resources Survey. On file with the author, USDI National Park Service, Yosemite Research Library, Yosemite National Park. Wurm, Ted 1990 Hetch Hetchy and its Dam Railroad. Trans-Anglo Books, Glendale, California. 5 Appendix A: Site Record 6 Appendix D. Mortar and Milling Slick Measurements. Site CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ Feature No. Cup No. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 Length (cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 1 Width (cm) 15 11.5 14 19 15.5 13 13.5 15 10 12.5 15.5 10.5 19.5 12 14 12 13 12 19.5 12 13 16.5 17 13 11 13 13 17 9 10.5 17 13.5 15 14 13.5 11 12 17 11.5 9 16.5 13 11 20 14 18 18 1 14.5 11.5 13 19 15.5 13 13.5 14.5 10.5 12 15 11 19.5 12.5 13.5 12 13.5 12 19 11.5 13 15.75 18 13 12 13 13 17.5 11 10.5 17 13.5 15 14 13.5 16.5 12.5 15 11.5 7.5 16 12 11 18.5 14 18 18 Depth (cm) Remarks 4.5 2.25 3.2 7.5 6.5 3.25 2.75 5.75 1.5 3.2 5 1.75 12.5 1.25 3.5 2.5 2.5 2.75 4.25 2.5 2.75 7 10 3.5 2.75 3.5 1 9 0.5 milling slick 1.5 11 4.5 2 2.5 4.5 3 milling slick 2.5 2 milling slick 3 1 milling slick 9.5 5 2 14 3 14 2.5 milling slick CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 15.5 12 11 9 18 20 17 12 19 10.5 8 16.5 11 13 10 15.5 13 15.5 11.5 11 8.5 9.5 11 12.5 12.5 10.5 12 11 11 8.5 8 9 9 8.5 10.5 13 6.5 14 7.5 11.5 11.5 8.5 10.5 12 8.5 18 10 12 9 8.5 11 15.5 2 15.5 12 11 9 25 20 17 11 20 10.5 26 16 11 13 10 17 14.5 17.5 11.5 11 9 9.5 11 12.5 12.5 11 12 11 11 8.5 9 9.5 9 8.5 10.5 13 7.5 14.5 7.5 12 12 8.5 10.5 12 9 18 20 12 9 7.5 10.5 15.5 4.5 3 2 2.5 10 12.5 7.75 4 10 2 1.5 milling slick 8.5 2.5 3 2 8 4.5 10 2.5 0.5 1 1.5 1 3.25 2.75 2.25 3 2.75 2.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 2 4 0.5 5.25 0.5 3 4.5 1 0.5 3.5 0.5 milling slick 12.5 1.5 milling slick 3 0.5 milling slick 0.5 0.5 milling slick 6.5 CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10.25 13 17 14 12 13 9 12.5 12 14.5 12 18 10.5 17.5 12 14 10 14.5 10 12 15.5 10 9.75 18 11.5 15 7 9.5 13.5 10.5 11 7.5 8.5 9.5 7.5 12.5 12.5 7 7 10 11 10.5 21 14 10.5 15 15 15 16 17 17 17 3 10.25 13 17 15 12 13 9 12.5 12 14.5 12 17.5 11.5 17.5 12.5 14 10.5 14.5 12 12 15 10 10 10 11.5 15 7 9.5 12.5 10.5 10 8.5 8 10 7.5 15 12.5 7.5 7 10 11.5 12 18 14 10 15 14 15 15 17 17 16 1.75 4.5 10 5.5 4.25 4.5 1 3 1.75 5.5 3 7.5 2 7 2 4 1 5 0.5 2.5 4.75 1.5 0.75 2 milling slick 2.25 5 0.5 1 4 2 1.25 0.5 1 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.5 2 1.25 3.25 1.5 13 4 2 6 4.5 6 7 9 6.5 7 CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0023/ CA-TUO-0028/ CA-TUO-0028/ CA-TUO-0028/ CA-TUO-0028/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0061/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ 40 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 17 14 12 18 14 11 10 1 13 14 10 10 9 13 11 13 9 8 10 13 9 13 16 9 12 10 14 12 10 17 11 10 11 11 16 12 11 10 12 14 10 19 19 17 11 0 13 10 14 17 15 13 4 17 16 12 15 15 10 9 12 13 14 10 7 9 13 11 13 9 8 11 13 9 13 16 9 12 10 14 12 10 17 10 8 11 10 16 11 11 11 11 0 11 19 20 15 11 17 14 10 14 15 17 12 9 4.5 3 7 5.5 5 1 2 5 6 1 0 milling slick 1 2.5 2.5 3.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 3 8 5 3 2 5 3 2 8.5 2 0.5 1 2 8 2.5 1.5 0.5 3 8 missing half 2 14 16 8 0.5 8 11 1.5 5 6 6 2 CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ CA-TUO-0086/ 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11 14 9 10 15 8 11 14 14 10 12 11 13 15 14 11 9 7 16 16 14 13 12 17 13 0 7 4 10 3 9 7 1 3.5 1 6 3 7 2.5 4 1.5 6.5 2.5 6 2 2 1.5 2.5 1 3.3 6 0.5 1.5 5 3 2 4.5 1 2.5 6 6 1 3 2 2.5 4 4 1.5 0.5 0.5 8 8.5 4 3 3 11 3.5 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0207 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0209 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 14 15 13 13 10 12 16 17 16 11 11.5 12 11 8 13 6 8 10 12 14 15 15.5 10 14 13 12 14 12 12 10 16 12 13 14 13 11 10 14 10 14 14 16 9 5 10 10 9 13 12 15 12 13 6 16 15 13 13 10 14 16 20 16 13 10 10 12 20 11 6 9 11 12 12 17 12.5 10 14 13 15 14 15 12 10 16 12 13 14 13 11 10 12 10 14 17 16 9 5 10 10 9 13 12 15 12 13 7 7 2 2.5 1.5 3.5 1 milling slick 1.5 milling slick 1 milling slick 5 3.5 1 1 0 milling slick 3.5 2 1.5 0.4 5 5 9 0 1.5 4 1.5 1.5 5 2 3 1.5 6 3 2 3 3 1.5 1.5 3 2.5 3.5 3 6.5 0.5 0.5 5 1 1 1 2.5 4 2.5 4 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 CA-TUO-0210 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2 4 4.5 1 7 1.5 1.5 5.5 3 2 1.5 2 1.5 2 1 milling slick 9 4 8 3.5 1 9 1.5 1.5 4 0 milling slick 0 milling slick 1 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 15 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 20 15 12.5 12.5 12 10 13 10 11 12 19 11 14 11.5 9 20 11 18 14 15 12 12.5 10 10 10.5 13 9 10.5 17 12 12 12 18.5 9 50 11 13 13 19 13 15 14 10 0 13 12 11.5 10 10 7.5 13 10 11 20 50 11.5 12.5 12 10 13 9.5 11 12 21 11 14 11.5 9 22 11 18 14 14 12 12.5 10 10 10.5 13 9 10.5 17 12 10.5 12 19 9 25 11 13.5 12 18 18 15 13 10 16 13 10 11 9 10 9 12 10 0 milling slick 0 milling slick 1.25 3 3 1.5 3.5 1 2 3 10 2.5 4.5 3 1 14.5 1.25 10 4 4 3 2.5 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 1 2 11 3 2 3 10 1 0 milling slick 2.5 4 3 9 1.5 7.5 4 3 8 3.6 2 2.5 2.5 2 1.4 3.2 2.5 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0228 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0229 CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ 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20 12 10 9.5 9 12 20 15 21 11.5 14 21 14 16 12 15 24 17 8.5 10.5 11 15 11 17.5 12 15 16 15 14 25 10 15 15 10 15 11 7 15 17 13.5 13 12 15 15 18 1.5 3 6 13 4 3 5 12 1.5 3 3 1.5 2 11.5 5 13 3.5 4.5 8 2 7 3 6 12 7 2 1.5 2.5 4 2 9 4 5 10 2 4 17 2.5 2.5 8 2 5.5 3 2 6 10.5 4 2 2 5.5 2.5 12 CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0230/ CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0234/H CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0515 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0516 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 23 14 13 16 16 14 12 15 20 14.5 15.5 11 16 14 10 17.5 15 14 9 14 14 10 18 16 16 14 10 11 11 14 10 13 15 10 8 7 11.5 13 13 12 13 11 14 10 10 15 16 18 17 14 17 14 9 23 14 12.5 14 20 14 9 14 19 14 14 12 16 13 10 17 14 13 9 15 14 10 18 16 15 14 10 11 12 13 9 11 15 10 8 7 11.5 10 14 12 13.5 11 14 10 10 14 16 18 17 15 17 1 5 slick collar 2.5 3 0.5 1 3 1 5 11 3.5 6.5 4 7 4 2 9.5 1 1.5 1 13 9 2.5 13 12 13 9 3 4 4 5 2 3 8 3 0.5 0.5 2.5 1.5 4 2.5 4 2 5.5 1.5 1 2 10 12 8 7 10 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0517 CA-TUO-0518 CA-TUO-0518 CA-TUO-0518 CA-TUO-0519 CA-TUO-0519 CA-TUO-0519 CA-TUO-520/H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 20 19 11 12 10 13 14 17 14 18 16 21 13 19 12 13 15 13 17 11 11 15 12 0 15 14 17 10 15 12 12 19 21 0 15 11 13 11 15 13 9 14 14 14 18 12 9 19 8 10 13 11.5 15 18 21 11 10 10 13 14 16 13 19 16 20 13 21 12 13 14 14 17 11.5 12 14 17 14 15 13 19 15 12 13 11 19 19 12 13 11 12.5 10 15 14 10 14 14 14 18 11 7 19 8 11 13 11.5 13 15 3.5 2.5 1 4.5 6.5 9 4 13 7 10 3.5 17 1.5 2 2.5 0.5 10 2 6 2 16 7.5 3.5 7 11.5 0.5 5 7.5 3.5 15 16 5.5 6 3 3.5 0.3 6 0.5 0.3 7 2.5 2 0.5 5 1.5 7.5 0.5 4 7 2 CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-520/H CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 17 15 19 18.5 11 12.5 12 15 13.5 18 12 11 16.5 12 14 10.5 21 10 9 9 21 7 20 20 10 11 10 20 9 14 12 10 15 12 10 11 10 10 9 13 13 20 14 14 10.5 13 13 10 8 14 11.5 10.5 16 16.5 15 19 16.5 11 12.5 12 15 13.5 17 12 11 16.5 12 14 10.5 21 10 8 9 21 8 19 20 10 10 10 20 10 15 12 10 15 12 9.5 11 10 10 9 12 12 18 14 14 10.5 13 13 10 8 12 11.5 10.5 6 5.5 12 13 1.5 3 1.5 6 4.5 9 1.5 2 8 3 5 2 15 1 1 1.5 14 0.5 12 11 3 3 3 11 2.5 4 3 4.5 7 3 1.5 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 5 4 2 5 4.5 2.5 1 4 4 2.5 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-1594 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3971 CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3974/H CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3976 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3977 CA-TUO-3977 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 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CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3980 CA-TUO-3982 CA-TUO-3982 CA-TUO-3982 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 14 11 12 13 14 11 12 12 11 10 12 8 13 10 11 13 14 14 11 11 12 5 10 10 13 13 10 11 12 9 12 9 13 10.5 15 10 10 9 9 8 10 15 14 9 13 18 20 13 16 11 18 9 18 14 11 12 12 14 10 13 12 9 10 12 7 13 10 11 13 13 13 12 12 12 5 10 10 11 15 10 11 12 9 12 8.5 13 10.5 15 10 10 9 9 8 10 15 14 9 10 17 19 15 13 11 2 11 6 1.5 3 4 4.5 1 3.5 3 2 0.5 slick collar 2 1.2 3 1 1.5 5 1.5 1.5 . 3 3 4 1 cupule 4 1 1.5 4 2.5 2.5 5 1 1.5 1 5 3 8 2 2.5 2.5 3 1 3 10 8 1.5 2.5 9 13.5 6 1.5 2 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3983 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3984 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3985 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3987 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 8 9 10 10 7 13 11.5 11 11.5 16 17.5 12 13 17 11.5 13 12 14 18 13 15 9 13 16 11 15 14 13 15 12 14 12 11 9.5 12.5 9.5 12 16 14 10 11 19 10 9 14 11 8 11 10 13.5 9.5 12 19 8 9 10 10 7 13 12 12.5 11.5 12 15 12 13 17 12 11 10 13 18 13 15 9 13 16 12 16 13 11.5 14 12 13 12 12 9.5 11 11 12 15 16 10 11 18 10 9 13 11 8 12 10 13 9 12 1.5 2 2 1.5 0.5 6 1.5 3 2.5 2 5.5 2 4 6 3 2.5 3 2.5 8.5 5 9 2 5 7.5 2 5.5 3.5 3 5.5 2 3.5 3 2 1 2 2 3 5 4 1 4 12 3 1 4 5 0.5 3 2.5 5.5 0.5 4 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3988 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3990 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 10 11 11 10 14 8.5 8 10.5 9 11 15 12 10 8 10 11 19 11 18 8 15 11 11 18 10 13 8 10 17 10 10 10 13 11 10 17 12 13 15 18 11 10 12 9 13 12 16 11 15 13 14 9.5 20 10 11 11 10 14 8.5 9 10.5 9 11 14 12 9 8 10 12 19 11 16 9 15 11 11 22 9 13 8 11 15 11 11 11 13 10 10 16 13 15 16 17 12 10 13 9 13 12 15 11 15 13 14 10 2 2.5 3.5 2.5 7 1.5 1.5 3 1 2 8.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 2 11 2 8.5 2 7 2.5 2 14 2 3.3 0.5 2.5 6.5 1.5 3 2.5 0.5 1 1 0 4 4 6 8 4 2.5 3 2 3 3 8 2 6 4 3 3 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3991 CA-TUO-3992 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 15.5 16 12 9.5 11 20 12 15 12 15 11 14 15 9 17 15 18 12 18 14 11 14 12 13 16 11 13 20 14 9.5 12 16 12 9 18 13 17 10 13 10 12 14 14 11 12 11 25 8 10 12 9 10.5 21 15 16 12 10 11 18 12 15 12 16 12 12 11 10 16 15 15 12 14.5 0 12 14 12 13 16 11 13 20 14 8 12 16 12 9 18 12 16 10 13 0 12.5 14 15 11 11 12 30 11 10 12 12 10.5 6 8 3 1 1.3 11 2.5 7 3 6 2.5 2 2 1 9 1.5 1.2 2.5 9 7 E. sec.missing 2.5 4 2 3.5 8.5 1.5 3 12 3.5 1 3.5 7.5 3 1 9.5 2.5 8.5 1.5 4 0 2.5 4 2 2.5 2.5 2 0 milling slick 2 1 2 3 3 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3993 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3994 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 8 13 15 16 13 12 8 14 11 12 10 11 16 15 9 13 11.5 11.5 20 18 12 13 16 9.5 18 12.5 15 11 11 20 9.5 13 15 22 15 14 10 13 13.5 19 10 9 16 11 11 21 15 11 14 11.5 11 22 15 8 12 15 16 12 13 8 14 10 12 10 11 16 14 9 13 11.5 12 20 16 12 12.5 16 10 17 11 15 11 10 20 10 13 15 21 14 14 10 13 14 19 11 9 15 11.5 11 20 14 11 13 10.5 11 7.5 1.5 4 8 8 3 4 1.5 7 4 5 2 2.5 8.5 6 1.5 4 3 3 18 9 5 2.5 0 2 12 3 6 2 2 11 2 4 7 10 5 5 3 4.5 4.5 11 2 2 8 3 4 12 6 2 3 2 6.5 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-3995 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 14 9.5 8.5 10 12 14 15 11 14 11 22 17 12 27 17 15 14 19 19 17 15 10 14 11 14 12 10 17 14 16 10 9 11 13 14 10 19 13 12 10 11 10 8 10 20 18 11 11 12 22 13 23 10 14 9.5 9 10 12 14 15 11 14 11 21 16 12 21 16 16 14 19 19 16 15 7 14 11 14 12 10 17 14 16 10 9 11 13 16 10 19 13 12 12 11 10 12 10 20 18 11 11.5 12 17 11 2 5.5 3 0.5 3 3.5 3 4.5 2.5 3.5 2 5 solution cup? 7 2.5 11 2 solution cup? 3.5 5 10 9 2 1.5 0.5 5 2 5 2.5 2 8 4 8 2.5 1 2.5 3.5 6 2 10 3.5 3 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 12 7 2 0 1 11.5 2.5 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4002 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4003 CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4006/H CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4007 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4012 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 16 16 12 15 21 16 10 13 16 13 13 16 13 17 19 18 10.5 11 13 11.5 13 20 15 12.5 14 15 37 12 11 11.5 15 11.5 12 12 12 14 22 12 15 14 12 19 17 12 17 17.5 20 12 14 21.5 10.5 19 24 16 16 10 15 16 16 10 13 16 13 13 14 12 13 17 18 10 12 14 13 12 18 8 12 14 16 17 23 10 10 15 11.5 11 14 13 15 21 13 16 14 12 17 15 15 18 16.5 20.5 12.5 14.5 21.5 10.5 20 7 7 1.5 5 9 0.3 1.5 1.5 7 2 4 7.5 2 3 14 9.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 5 8 1 3 1 5 0 milling slick 0 milling slick 2 2 6.5 2.5 2 2 2.5 3.5 12 3 8 3 1.5 9.5 4 1 milling slick 13.75 12.25 16.25 1.5 1.5 19 1 milling slick 20.5 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4013 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 14.5 15 14.5 10.5 8.5 17 12 11 13 14 18 14.5 12 13.5 16 21 20 13 14.5 19.5 13.5 16 13 20.5 17.5 13 22 12 17 12.5 18 15.5 15 13.5 18 22 9.5 11 12 14 13 17.5 13 12 19.5 9 15 17 22 16 22 25 9 15.6 16 15 10.5 8.5 17.5 12.5 12 13 14 19 15.5 12.5 14.5 16 21 21 13.5 14.5 19.5 13.5 16 13 20.5 17 12.5 23.5 11 16.5 13.5 19 15 15 12 18 20 8.5 10.5 10.5 13 8.5 17.5 17 11.5 16.5 10 15 17 17.5 16 22 1.5 milling slick 9 13.25 10.5 4.5 1 12 3 2.5 2 6.25 3.75 5 4 3.5 11.5 20 13.5 3.75 5.25 13.5 5.5 11.25 6.5 17 11.5 2 21 2.75 9.5 3 14.5 0.5 milling slick 9.5 0.75 milling slick 16 22 1 milling slick 2.5 2 milling slick 9 2.5 milling slick 11.5 8.5 1.5 milling slick 13 1.5 milling slick 10 12 7 11 13.5 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 CA-TUO-4014 P-55-4604 P-55-4605 P-55-4605 P-55-4606 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 8 9 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 23.5 17 19 16.5 17 8 13 13.5 13.5 10 12 14 10 26 23.5 17 15.5 16.5 17 9.5 13 12 13.5 10 12 18 10 17.5 7 5 10.5 8.5 0.5 milling slick 3.5 0.5 milling slick 5 2.5 5 1.5 milling slick 2 ACKERSON POST-FIRE OBSERVATIONS • • • • • • • • Basic inventory data are woefully inadequate for most areas of the park. In order to document fire effects and post-fire condition, it is necessary to construct the individual baseline inventory site record first (not an insignificant undertaking). Because inventory data are so incomplete, and ground visibility is generally so improved, we are “discovering” a substantial number of additional sites during assessment of known sites (Ackerson Complex: 41 of 77 sites were “new discoveries”, 53% of the total site recording workload and a 114% increase in the number of “known” sites). For the same reasons (inadequate inventory, enhanced surface visibility), the original surface area of known sites is generally expanded after a burn. Documenting burned-over sites within the Ackerson Complex fire (known, and discovered en route to known, but certainly not all the burned-over sites) was a significant undertaking which cost at least $90,000. For the sites documented during the Ackerson Post-fire assessment, fire-related impacts were generally unavoidable (without pre-fire treatment) and minimal to moderate in severity. We gained valuable general information about the way in which fires affect the kinds of archeological resources we have in Yosemite, and have a better foundation to build on for more specific fire effects research, with the ultimate goal of identifying and protecting site constituents that hold important information The most valuable result of this work was the acquisition of baseline inventory information – 77 sites documented to current standards, adding important information to the existing base for site type, distributions, ages, etc. Is this the best use of fire rehabilitation funds, or fire funds in general? Assuming our objectives are to: • minimize fire-related impacts to archeological resources, or at least the site constituents that hold important information; • avoid direct effects of fire suppression; • minimize post-fire effects to archeological resources (erosion, looting); • maximize our opportunity to locate and document resources exposed through burning Our highest needs are to: • conduct pre-burn inventory where significant sites are likely to occur • continue specific fire-effects research to understand how different types of burning affect artifact types and features that hold important information – to guide specific protection or retrieval methods • reduce fuel loads by whatever means are appropriate on significant sites (protect significant features or artifacts that hold important information) • conduct pre-burn inventory of fire “facility” locations (camps, etc.) and sketch out resource protection plans as necessary for these areas • • conduct post-burn inventory in areas of high intensity burn, and high likelihood for significant resources, and implement whatever post-fire protection measures are appropriate conduct complete (or sample) post-burn inventory as part of ongoing program to document and manage our archeological resources THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME II By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME II By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague February 1999 Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME III By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 THE ACKERSON POST-FIRE ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA VOLUME III By Timothy M. Keefe, Bruce M. Kahl, and Suzanna T. Montague February 1999 Yosemite Research Center Yosemite National Park National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior Yosemite Research Center Technical Report No. 5 VOLUME II SITE RECORDS: CA-TUO-23/80/148/H through CA-TUO-3963H ISOLATE AND SITE LOCATION MAP: back cover VOLUME III SITE RECORDS: CA-TUO-3971 through CA-TUO-4028H Isolates P-55-4602 through P-55-4606
