The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School

Transcription

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Drexel University
by
Joe Kaonai Liow
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
of
Doctor of Education
May 2013
© Copyright 2013
Joe Kaonai Liow. All Rights Reserved
This Ed.D. Dissertation Committee from The School of Education at Drexel University
certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation:
Joe Kaonai Liow
Committee:
____________________________________
José L. Chávez, Ed.D.
____________________________________
W. Edward Bureau, Ph.D.
____________________________________
Salvatore V. Falletta, Ed.D.
____________________________________
Date
Abstract
Joe Kaonai Liow, Ed.D.
Drexel University, May 2013
Chairperson: José L. Chávez, Ed.D.
This quantitative research study examined Iu Mien high school students of one
high school in the Sacramento Valley for possible connections between their
acculturation level and academic achievement to address the following research
questions:
1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success
of the Iu Mien high school student?
2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school
students?
This research study utilized two established Likert-type self-rating surveys to address
research questions one (East Asian Acculturation Measure, EAAM, Barry, 2001) and
two (Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special Education
Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention in Diverse Elementary School,
RCELD, Robinson, 2010). Thus this quantitative research study provided the
opportunity to triangulate student acculturation level, cumulative GPA, and learning
environment conducive to multicultural education.
The research study identified four main findings: 1) The Iu Mien high school
students rated themselves as being integrated, 2) The instructional faculty felt that they
have implemented relevant multicultural education to support RCELD student needs in
the following areas: Effective school-wide and classroom academic differentiated
intervention pedagogy, and effective school-wide collaboration, 3) The school is
participating between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance level of
multicultural education (Nieto, 2004), and 4) The cumulative assessment of the three
previous finds indicated that there were no significant differences between Iu Mien
students classified as being assimilated and integrated.
iv
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my dear mother Nailiw Saephan (10/12/1952 –
8/18/2010), who passed away during the second year of this doctoral program. May you
rest in peace knowing that I have completed my highest attainable education.
To my wife Nai X. Saechao from whom I look to for inspiration, support,
understanding, and the much needed guidance both in life and in academia. For my
children Christopher Liow, Nicholas Phan, and Michelle Phan, I hope to make you
proud and perhaps serve as your inspiration to stride and put forth your best effort to
accomplish your endeavors in life.
For my in-laws, Vern X. Saechao and Liewlin Saephan, I don’t how to express to
both of you my deepest appreciation and love for your continuous and unconditional
support in my education and life endeavors. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for
all that you do both for me personally and for our family. I hope to make you proud as
your son-in-law as I am proud to be yours. Thank you!
v
Acknowledgments
To Dr. José L. Chávez, I appreciate your dedication and commitment to assisting
and grabbing me by the hand and take me somewhere that I or most Iu Mien have never
been before. But, most of all, for willing to be my dissertation committee chair and
professor as you have provided me the much needed advice, guidance, and counseling.
Thank you. To Dr. Salvatore V. Falletta, I want to thank you both for being my
professor and committee member especially, for so willingly accepting the responsibility
to serve on the committee without any reservations. To Dr. W. Ed Bureau, thank you for
recognizing the potential in my ability to effectively participate and complete this
doctoral program and being my professor, program director, and fatherly figure. I thank
you for the much needed guidance and counseling that you have provided me the past
three years. As you were the one consistent voice that said “come on pick up the pace,”
“let me pick you up,” “let me take your hand,” “I know I’m dragging you but I want you
to be called Dr. Liow,” and with that, shoved me forward to this joyful day.
To my Drexel University Sacramento campus inaugural cohort members, I thank
you for your kind support, encouragement, and inspiration during the past three years,
for you have given me the opportunity to learn with you and from you.
Lastly, I would like thank Principal Felisberto Cedros for your support and
granting me permission to conduct my research at your school. Additionally, VicePrincipal Kal Phan, thank you for the much needed assistance that you have provided
me. To the instructional staff, I appreciate your willingness to assist me with my study
especially during the last week of the school year. Thank you Dr. Rebeka Hagerty,
Garden City Unified research department, for providing me with the much needed
vi
student data and support. Most importantly, a BIG THANK YOU to the Iu Mien
students of the class of 2012 for allowing me to learn from your experiences. Finally,
thank you to the Iu Mien parents for allowing me to learn from your children and from
you. Please know that without you and your continuous support this dissertation would
not be possible and without you, there can be none.
vii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xi
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH .................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem to be Researched .................................................................. 2
Purpose and Significance of the Problem...................................................................... 3
Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding ........................................................ 4
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 4
Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................... 8
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ............................................................. 12
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 13
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 14
Introduction to Chapter 2 ............................................................................................ 14
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 14
Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 15
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 39
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 41
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 41
Research Design and Rational ..................................................................................... 42
Population and Site Description .................................................................................. 43
viii
Research Methods ....................................................................................................... 47
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................. 51
4. FINDINGS AND RESULTS ...................................................................................... 52
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 52
Findings ....................................................................................................................... 53
Results and Interpretations .......................................................................................... 83
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 89
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... 93
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 93
Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 95
Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 98
Summary ................................................................................................................... 101
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 104
APPENDIX A: LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 113
APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORMS .............................................................................. 116
APPENDIX C: EAST ASIAN ACCULTURATION MEASURE ................................. 120
APPENDIX D: SURVEY OF SCHOOL’S AND EDUCATOR’S CULTURALLY
RESPONSIVE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ...................................... 124
ix
List of Tables
1.
Data Collection Schedule ......................................................................................... 48
2.
Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien)
Measure Items .......................................................................................................... 55
3.
Measure Items: Assimilation .................................................................................... 59
4.
Measure Items: Separation ....................................................................................... 60
5.
Measure Items: Integration ....................................................................................... 62
6.
Measure Items: Marginalization ............................................................................... 64
7.
Comparative Overview of Student Acculturation Level and Cumulative Mean
GPA .......................................................................................................................... 65
8.
School Climate/Support ........................................................................................... 69
9.
Academic Instruction (I), Differentiated Intervention Instruction ........................... 72
10.
Academic Instruction (II) ......................................................................................... 75
11.
Collaboration ............................................................................................................ 77
12.
Teacher Demographic Survey (N=19) ..................................................................... 79
x
List of Figures
1.
Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level .................................................. 61
2.
Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level .................................................. 67
3.
Climate and support of RCELD students ................................................................. 70
4.
School academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students ............................ 73
5.
Classroom academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students ...................... 76
6.
School wide collaboration to support RCELD students ........................................... 78
xi
1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Research
The Iu Mien were known of as early as 1500 BC in central China; the Iu Mien
resided in central China until the 1700s. In 1700, multiple waves of Iu Mien migration
started into the surrounding Southeast Asian countries. The first wave of Iu Mien
migrated to northern Vietnam, and the second group migrated into Laos and Thailand in
the 19th century (Center for Applied Linguistics, 1981). Those Iu Mien residing in China
can barely speak the Iu Mien dialect across generations. Although less assimilated, the Iu
Mien of Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam are experiencing the perilous effect of the
assimilation process. As the Iu Mien surpassed three decades since the fall of Laos
(1975) and marked equal number of years since residing in the United States as refugees
from Laos due to their involvement with the United States’ CIA, it is important to
examine the transition and adjustment of the Iu Mien people and its culture.
More importantly, Iu Mien community members are beginning to recognize the
peril of their culture and are attempting to implement strategies to stop the process. This
process requires the understanding of the nature of the acculturation process, specifically
those of high school aged students. Therefore, the examination of the acculturation
process through the use of established acculturation assessment tools, such as that of
Barry’s East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM) (2001), can potentially foster further
understanding of the problem resulting in the development of appropriate implementation
strategies to impede this peril. Based on the mixed-methods study by Lee and Green
(2010), the EAAM has a validity level of 0.7, indicating high level of validity (Ravid,
2010).
2
Equally important, this dissertation will greatly contribute to the limited
literature written on behalf of the Iu Mien people, thus giving some voice to the
traditionally voiceless Iu Mien people (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005). Furthermore, this
study will foster an understanding of the assimilation and acculturation process of Iu
Mien high school students. Additionally, the researcher suggests intervention strategies
to help impede the cultural peril of other minority cultures.
Statement of the Problem to be Researched
This dissertation's primary focus is to address the problem and effects of the
acculturation and assimilation processes of the Iu Mien community. Additionally, special
attention was given to the examination of a possible linkage between specific high school
students’ academic achievement and their levels of acculturation in the central valley of
Northern California. Furthermore, it is important to understand the level of multicultural
education the educational institution provides to the racially, culturally, ethnically, and
linguistically diverse students.
Historically, the Iu Mien, a nomadic-like group, migrated from central China to
Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam then to the United States
and has endured many cultural changes through assimilation and acculturation. Although
individual experiences exist, there are similarities and significant differences between Iu
Mien communities globally. After more than 30 years, both as naturalized citizens and
legal aliens of the United States, the Iu Mien are experiencing the perilous effects of the
cultural assimilation and acculturation processes. The current Iu Mien high school
students have developed the inability to properly speak Mien and some have developed
resentment toward and are distancing themselves from the Iu Mien language and culture,
3
opting for the mainstream cultural norms. This phenomenon is recognized by the
leaders, elders, and Iu Mien community members and is seen to be detrimental to the
existence of their culture. A few Iu Mien non-profit organizations such as the Iu Mien
American National Coalition (IMANC), United Iu Mien, Inc. (UIM), Iu Mien Culture
Foundation (IMCF), and other community-based organizations, are attempting to
implement intervention strategies to stop the devastating effect of cultural assimilation
and acculturation.
Purpose and Significance of the Problem
The Iu Mien residents of the central valley of Northern California have begun to
realize their culture is in danger of perishing. Understanding the acculturation and
assimilation process and the current cultural health of the Iu Mien can potentially foster
intervention strategies to stop the process. Although the Iu Mien have been in the United
States more than 30 years, they are the least known and written about when compared to
other Southeast Asian ethnic group such as the Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese. Existing
literature tends to lump the Iu Mien with the other ethnic groups and classify them as
being similar (Gomez, 2005). Ultimately, research findings on the Iu Mien people tend
to be inaccurate (Saechao, 2010).
Therefore, the purpose of this quantitative study is to provide understanding of the
Iu Mien culture through an examination of the acculturation and assimilation process.
This study has five main goals: First, to provide an in-depth understanding of the
acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students through the use of established
instruments such as the EAAM (Barry, 2001). Secondly, a comparative analysis was
employed to examine possible connections between Iu Mien high school students'
4
acculturation levels and their academic achievement. Thirdly, a Likert-type self-rating
scale was employed to examine classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural
education. Fourth, the Level of Multicultural Education (Nieto, 2004) model was used to
provide further understanding of existing levels of multicultural education the institution
was providing to the racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse students at
Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS), especially those of Iu Mien descent.
Finally, through the literature, the research gives voice to the less fortunate and often
ignored Iu Mien American and challenges the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific
Americans are similar and have similar needs and cultural norms (Downing, 2002;
Gomez, 2005; Saechao, 2001).
Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding
This quantitative research study was conducted to provide greater understanding
of the problems of assimilation and acculturation facing the Iu Mien community and, thus
addressed the following research questions:
1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic
success of the Iu Mien high school student?
2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high
school students?
Conceptual Framework
As an Iu Mien individual cognizant of the peril of the Iu Mien culture, the
researcher focused this study on examining the acculturation and assimilation processes
of Iu Mien high school students and ultimately looked for a possible connections between
students’ levels of acculturation and their academic achievement. Through the use of
5
multiple Likert-type surveys – EAAM (Barry, 2001) and Survey of Schools’ and
Educators’ Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices (RCELD; Robinson, 2010) – and
the descriptive analytic approach, the dissertation research emphasizes the social
constructivism views of the researcher, thus assisting the researcher in addressing the
problem facing the Iu Mien community. Furthermore, the philosophical ontological
approach allowed the researcher to identify and describe themes relevant to the
acculturation and assimilation processes of the Iu Mien community, ultimately addressing
the previously stated research questions.
This quantitative research study was based upon the conceptual framework of
cultural pluralism. According to Bennett (1990), the cultural pluralism theory involves
two or more individual cultural groups exhibiting characteristics of mutual respect and
appreciation of one another. Nieto (2004) defined cultural pluralism (salad bowl, mosaic,
or tapestry) as, “A model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a
right to maintain their language and cultures while combining with others to form a new
society reflective of all our differences” (p. 437). To understand cultural pluralism, a
brief discussion of pluralism or cultural assimilation is a necessity. The melting pot
theory of assimilation is commonly labeled as the cultural assimilation model whereby
the interaction of multiple groups results in one large group with the minority groups
losing their ethnic heritage and being immersed in the mainstream culture (Carpenter,
Zarate, & Garza, 2007). Conversely, cultural pluralism assumed the position of
biculturalism, integration, and acculturation, thus the theoretical framework of cultural
pluralism encompasses four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and
multicultural education.
6
Assimilation, as suggested by the literature, is a process by which one ethnic
group acquires and fuses values, sentiments, memories, and attitudes of another ethnic
group through the sharing and incorporation of cultures (Duncan, 1929; Gordon, 1964;
Hirsch, 1942; Johnson, 1963; Simons, 1901; Teske & Nelson, 1974; Woolston, 1945).
Assimilation results in the acceptance of the cultural norm of the majority culture.
Assimilation based on the melting pot theory is not appropriate for all ethnic cultural
communities, including those from Southeast Asia. Acculturation is a more favorable
process as it has the capacity for the retention of certain elements of the guest culture.
According to Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936), acculturation:
Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of
individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with
subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. (p.
149)
Additionally, Berry (2005) referred to acculturation as the dual process change, both
psychologically and culturally, as a result of contact with individuals of two cultural
groups. Furthermore, researchers such as Berry (1980), Berry (1998), Lee and Leu
(2006), and Barry (2001) described four distinct processes of acculturation: assimilation
(identifies mostly with dominant culture), integration or biculturalism (identifies with
both cultures), separation (identifies with ethnic culture), and marginalization (low
identification with both cultures).
As reported by Berry and Szapocznik, Kurtines, and Fernandez (as cited in
Schwartz and Unger, 2010), biculturalism originated from the assimilation theory.
Others such as Keefe and Padilla (1987) and Smokowski, Rose, and Bacallao (2008)
defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and native cultural group of language,
7
food, media use, norms, and traditions. Lee and Leu (2006) indicated that other
researchers such as Berry and Sam (1997) referred to biculturalism or integration as an
individual identifying with both cultures.
In a culturally pluralistic society, multicultural education prepares and educates
individuals to function in more than one culture (Dilger, 1994). In the multicultural
setting, conventional wisdom needs to be unlearned, and policies and practice that proved
to be advantageous for some at the expense of others need to be dismantled (Nieto,
2004). Piland, Piland, and Hess (1999) referred to multicultural education and cultural
pluralism as the study of ethnic, race, and gender awareness. Gay (2004) further alluded
to multicultural education as “an instrument of educational equity and excellence” (p.
216) and in Nieto's (2004) “Multicultural Education and School Reform” chapter, citing
James Banks, she stated:
The main goal of a multicultural curriculum is to help students develop decisionmaking and social action skills. By doing so, students learn to view events and
situations from a variety of perspectives. A multicultural approach values
diversity and encourages critical thinking, reflection, and action. Through this
process, students can be empowered as well. (p. 358)
Multicultural education proponents such as Bennett (1990) and Sleeter and McLaren
(1995) referred to it as the commitment to cultural pluralism through the learning and
teaching based upon the democratic values and beliefs within our very diverse societies.
Cumulatively, biculturalism and multicultural education may be ideal for the Iu Mien
high school students as they participate in the acculturation continuum.
8
Definition of Terms
Acculturation
As stated by the American Heritage Dictionary (n.d.), acculturation is the
modification of the culture of a group or individual due to contact with a different
culture. It refers to changes in cultural patterns when two different cultural
groups have ongoing contact with one another.
Assimilation
The dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result
of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members
(Berry, 2005).
Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)
Roessingh (2006), citing Cummins’ (1982) Framework for the Development of
Language Proficiency, referred to it as the basic communicative fluency achieved
by all normal native speakers of a language.
Biculturalism
The process by which individuals are competent and have knowledge of two
cultures; their ethnic culture and majority culture (Nieto, 2004).
California English Language Development Test (CELDT)
An annual assessment instituted by Education Code sections 313 and 60810(d) to
identify English limited proficient students, determine the level of English
language proficiency of students, and to assess the progress of LEP students in
acquiring skills of listening, reading, speaking, and writing English (CDE, 2013).
9
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
Cummins defined CALP as the ability to manipulate language using abstractions
in a sophisticated manner.
Cooperative Learning
Teaching approach that provides opportunities for children to socially interact as
they work towards a common goal (Portal & Sampson, 2000)
CRSBI
Caring, communication, curriculum, instruction, and a focus on California content
standards: Five components of effective culturally responsive instruction (Banks,
1991; Gay, 2000).
Culture
The value; traditions; social and political relationships; and worldview created,
shared, and transformed by a group of people bound together by a common
history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion (Nieto, 2002,
p. 436)
Cultural Identity
A sense of belonging to a certain culture or ethnic group
Cultural Pluralism
A model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to
maintain their languages and cultures while combining with others to form a new
society reflective of all our differences (Nieto, 2004).
10
Cultural Responsive Learning
Refers to the delivery of content standard instruction relevant to students’ cultural
background
East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM)
A 29-item self-report inventory tool measuring assimilation, separation,
integration, and marginalization. Items are scored based on a seven-point Likerttype scale (Barry, 2001).
English Learner (EL)
A K-12 student who, based on objective assessment, has not developed listening,
speaking, reading, and writing proficiencies in English sufficient for participation
in the regular school program. These students are sometimes referred to as
Limited English Proficient (LEP). The process for identification is described in
the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) (California
Department of Education [CDE], 2013).
Ethnic Identity
“This construct focuses on what people learn about their culture from family and
community passed down from one generation to the next. Ethnic identity
develops from sharing culture, religion, geography, and language with individuals
who are often connected by strong loyalty and kinship” (Evans, Forney, Guido,
Patton, & Renn, 2010, p. 277).
Experiential Learning
A process by which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct
experience
11
Integration
An individual or group retaining its primary culture but accept and integrating
cultural beliefs and values from the mainstream culture (Barry, 2001; Berry, 1980,
1988).
Iu Mien American National Coalition (IMANC; 2013)
Non-profit 501 c organization established in the late 1980s by Iu Mien leaders
with a mission to promote solidarity, education, justice, and peace to Iu Mien
communities in the United States of America.
Iu Mien, Iu-Mienh, Yao, Mien or Mienh
Hill tribe people from central China across Southeast Asia in countries such as
Laos, Burma, Vietnam, and Thailand. Iu means “unique” and Mien means
“people.”
Marginalization
Referred to as exhibiting the lack of identification with any culture (Barry, 2001;
Berry, 1980, 1988).
Melting Pot
A model that maintains differences need to be wiped out to form an amalgam that
is uniquely American, but without obvious traits of the original cultures (Nieto,
2004).
Multicultural Education
“A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students.
It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and
society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious,
12
economic, and gender, among others) students, their communities, and teachers
reflect” (Nieto, 2004, pp. 436-437).
Separation
Individual or group is fully immersed in their primary culture and refuses to
participate in the mainstream culture (Barry, 2001; Berry, 1980, 1988).
United Iu Mien Incorporated (UIM)
The mission of United Iu-Mien Community, Inc. is to “support and develop
healthy Iu-Mien families and communities through culturally responsive
programs and services” (United Iu Mien Incorporated, 2013, para. 1).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
An assumption of the study is that a similar study in another Iu Mien community
will demonstrate some parallels of the acculturation process. It is also assumed Iu Mien
high school students’ acculturation levels will highly correlate with their academic
success. Conversely, since the result of this quantitative research study of the
acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students is confined to 65 students
attending the local high school of Northern California, specifically the Garden Valley, the
results may not be applicable to other Iu Mien communities elsewhere. Additionally, the
three multicultural instructional practices included in the self-rating questionnaire may
not yield similar result nor are they the only appropriate instructional pedagogies. The
delimitating factor is that the researcher is from the same culture and had to be reminded
not to instill a biased attitude while conducting this research study. In addition, the data
gathering process was conducted toward the closing of the school year and contributed to
the low level of staff participation.
13
Summary
The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students is a
descriptive analysis quantitative research study based upon the theoretical framework of
cultural pluralism. To address the acculturation and assimilation problem facing the Iu
Mien community, this study adopted and administered the East Asian Acculturation
Measure (EAAM) to 27 volunteers out of the 65 Iu Mien high school students to assess
their levels of acculturation. The study also employed a Likert-type self-rating
frequency-of-use survey to the 19 out of 90 volunteer teachers to elicit classroom
instructional practices relevant to multicultural education. Additionally, a comparative
analysis of their acculturation level and academic achievement was conducted to address
the following dissertation research questions and to foster understanding of the Iu Mien
culture by all stakeholders:
success of the Iu Mien high school students?
2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high
school students?
14
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction to Chapter 2
The Iu-Mienh, or Mien, are also known as Yao (the Chinese translation means
dogs or barbarians). The Iu-Mienh, Iu-Mien, Iu Mien, Iu Mienh, or Mien are terms used
interchangeably by societal communities worldwide. Literally, Iu Mien means unique
people (Iu means unique and Mien means people). Historically, the Iu Mien, as a group
of people, are predated back to the early 1500s BC in central China (Saechao, 2010).
Life for the Iu Mien refugees in the United States has been particularly harsh because of
their recent immigration status compared to other Southeast Asian immigrants. They
moved from a preliterate society to a highly technological one, and the nontransferable
agricultural skills they brought to the United States were rendered non effective in the
highly technological society of America (Fitzpatrick, 2009).
Moreover, the Iu Mien do not have a voice in the larger American society, and
they lack representation on multiple levels of society’s infrastructure, such as the K-12
and higher educational institutions (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005). Furthermore,
empirical and peer review literature written on the Iu Mien's behalf is minimal at best.
Therefore, the remainder of this chapter is dedicated to the exploration of the processes of
assimilation, acculturation, pluralism, and multicultural education, specifically those of
the Iu Mien descendants residing in the Garden Valley.
Conceptual Framework
The influx of European immigrants from 1820-1970 (45 million strong) to the
United States resulted in the conceptualization of the melting pot or cultural assimilation
15
theory (Bennett, 1990). Throughout the history of the United States, the melting pot,
or cultural assimilation theory, has been a strong theme and widely accepted in education.
However, the theory does require one culture to give up its primary culture to be
absorbed into the host culture, thus exhibiting a critical flaw with relevance to the
classroom teacher and instructional pedagogy. In an effort to educate ethnic minority
students the “American way,” classroom educators can be blinded by individual students’
personal and cultural strengths (Bennett, 1990). Such blindness ultimately allowed others
in the educational field to develop an alternative to the cultural assimilation theory,
identified as cultural pluralism, to further understand and address the academic learning
needs of minority students.
Cultural pluralism, according to Bennett (1990), is an alternative to the widely
accepted melting pot theory. The cultural pluralism theory defines two or more
individual cultural groups as exhibiting the characteristic of mutual respect and
appreciation of one another. Similarly, Nieto (2004) asserted cultural pluralism operates
under the premise that individuals from all cultures incorporate cultural norms from our
diverse culture into theirs while maintaining their language and culture. The
incorporation results in the formation of a new society reflective of individual cultural
differences. Therefore, the basis of this quantitative research study of the acculturation
process of Iu Mien high school students is the cultural pluralism framework inclusive of
four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and multicultural education.
Literature Review
The history of the immigration process of the United States began in earnest 1820
and the major waves lasted until the 1970s when approximately 45 million individuals
16
immigrated to the United States (Bennett, 1990). Hence, the origin of the cultural
assimilation or melting pot theory was formulated in the early 19th. Century. Due to
individual differences and individual ethnic groups retaining their cultures, the
educational system found it difficult to educate these students, many of whom were
unable to assimilate and perform academically. Hence, they were often classified as
having learning disabilities without considering the student’s individual needs or cultural
assets. As a counteractive measure to accurately identify and serve the influx of ethnic
minority students, cultural pluralism theory was developed (Bennett, 1990). Therefore,
this literature review examines issues of the culture pluralism theoretical framework
encompassing four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and
multiculturalism education.
Cultural Pluralism
For clarification purposes, a brief discussion of assimilation pluralism or cultural
assimilation is necessary to foster further understanding of cultural pluralism. The
melting pot theory of assimilation is commonly labeled as the cultural assimilation model
whereby multiple groups interact, resulting in one large group with the assumption that
the minority groups lose their ethnic heritage and be immersed in the mainstream culture
(Carpenter et al., 2007). On the contrary, cultural pluralism assumed the position of
biculturalism, integration, and acculturation. Proponents of multicultural and bilingual
education, such as Nieto (2004), referred to cultural pluralism as, “a model based on the
premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to maintain their languages and
cultures while combining with others to form a new society reflective of all our
differences” (p. 437). Furthermore, Sleeter and McLaren (1995) further defined cultural
17
pluralism as, “there is no single criterion of human potential applicable to all. Instead,
complex and varied sets of coherent values, motives, attitudes, and attributes-which
determine behavior patterns-exist among cultural groups” (p. 159). Bennett (1990)
crystallized cultural pluralism and associated its characteristics as:
Retain[ing] many of its traditions, such as language, religion, artistic expression,
and social customs adopts many aspects of the predominant Anglo-Western
European culture such as language; monogamy; military service; local, state, and
federal laws; and full civil rights of citizenship develops an ethnic perspective and
also identifies with the nation as a whole respects and appreciates different ethnic
traditions that it may or may not choose to experience. (p. 91)
Furthermore, Carpenter et al. (2007), in the quantitative study “Cultural Pluralism and
Prejudice Reduction,” concluded individual functioning in a cultural pluralism
environment stressed heightened awareness of group boundaries and exhibited strong
ethnic and cultural identification. The studies conducted by Liow (2008), Saelee (2005),
Lee and Green (2010), and Downing (2002) further exemplified the very notion of ethnic
and cultural identification as being important to ethnic minority groups such as the Iu
Mien and Hmong, thus, the Iu Mien’s and Hmong’s preference of integration or
biculturalism rather than assimilation. Therefore, they are more comfortable functioning
and navigating in a multicultural environment and desire multicultural education for their
children (Liow, 2008; Nieto, 2004).
Cultural identity. Cultural identity, in essence, is an individual's understanding
and belonging of and to a particular culture. As a nation of diverse communities
attempting to educate our future leaders, we need to understand the natures of cultural
identity and ethnic identity. Evans et al. (2010) referred to ethnic identity as:
Constructs focus on what people learn about their culture from family and
community passed down from one generation to the next. Ethnic identity
18
develops from sharing culture, religion, geography, and language with
individuals who are often connected by strong loyalty and kinship. (p. 277)
Furthermore, Bennett (1990) referred to it as the degrees to which individual learned and
retained from the original culture. Nieto (2002) indicated young people whose culture is
different from the dominant group often struggle with a clear image of themselves.
Without a clear image of oneself, there exists a sense of cloudiness of one's cultural and
ethnic identity, thus, creating difficulties for helping teachers understand who they are.
Without an understanding of the student's culture, an educator may, by default, perceive
the students as having academic disabilities. Historically, this process has allowed the
misdiagnosis of many ethnic minority students and thus, prompted the development of
cultural pluralism theory (Bennett, 1990).
Understanding one's ethnic culture and ethnic language contributes to the
affirmation of one's cultural identity thus, promoting the understanding of the
acculturation process; such affirmation serves as beneficial to Iu Mien and Latino
families. Holli (as cited in Saelee, 2005) stressed:
The ethnic language plays a crucial role in helping individuals retain and
understand their culture of origin, so when individuals do not know how to speak
their ethnic language, a big portion of their ethnic culture is lot. (p. 11)
As reported by Smokowski et al. (2008), “in multiple regression and hierarchical linear
models of study suggest that culture-of-origin involvement and biculturalism were
cultural assets related to positive outcomes” (p. 295). Additionally, Saelee (2005)
indicated 97% of her respondents preferred biculturalism or integration because it
fostered the ability to effectively navigate and negotiate between the Iu Mien and the
mainstream culture. Furthermore, the notion of biculturalism or integration indicated a
19
level of understanding of one's cultural and ethnic identity. Similarly, the mixedmethod study by Lee and Green (2010) of the acculturation process of the Eastern
Wisconsin Hmong family concluded they acculturated at the integration (biculturalism)
level. The results of the mentioned Iu Mien and Hmong acculturation research studies
are ideal examples of ethnic groups exhibiting validation and high levels of ethnic
identity; thus, indicating their preference for acculturation rather than assimilation.
Furthermore, Miller (2007) stated, “Overtime, Asian Americans may incorporate a
second cultural orientation but not necessarily at the expense of their culture of origin”
(p. 127). Conversely, those immigrants who abandoned and adapted the cultural and
custom of the prevailing culture are considered assimilated.
Assimilation
In the words of Bennett (1990), “assimilation is not for everyone” (p. 88) and
especially not for those of the Asian culture for their culture stresses groups over
individuality. Assimilation, as defined by Teske and Nelson (1974), Simons (1901),
Hirsch (1942), Duncan (1929), Woolston (1945), Johnson (1963), and Gordon (1964),
requires new customs and attitudes are accessed and communicated to both the host and
guest cultural group. Assimilation theory, as suggested by numerous researchers, is the
process by which one ethic group acquired and fused values, sentiments, memories, and
attitudes with another ethnic group through the sharing and incorporation of cultures,
thus, resulting in the acceptance of another’s cultural norms. Furthermore, after a careful
analysis of literature, Hirsch suggested assimilation is the process of members of one
culture becoming a member of the dominant cultural community (Teske & Nelson,
20
1974). A more recent reference to assimilation is a high level of host culture
involvement lacking the critical notion of ethnic identity (Berry, 1980; Smokowski &
Bacallao, 2006).
The ideal cultural assimilation (melting-pot) theory proved to be more successful
for some ethnic groups than others. In fact, Gay (2004) referred to the melting-pot’s
“American Way” as destroying multicultural education. Groups such as the Asians and
Hispanics have generational struggles within the family units when experiencing the
process of both acculturation and assimilation. For these cultural groups, the retention of
their culture is important; therefore, preferring biculturalism over assimilation meant they
had to face being discriminated against and marginalized by Americans (Harker, 2001;
Saelee, 2005). Those who chose to be assimilated participated in the continuum in
opposition on one end and cultural suppression at other end (Bennett, 1990). Others
referred to assimilation as a unidirectional process (Broom & Kitsuse, 1955; Dohrenwend
& Smith, 1962; Duncan, 1929; Eaton, 1952 Spiro, 1955: Woolston, 1945) where the
guest culture forgoes its unique cultural norms to fully immerse in the host culture.
The Asians historically came in waves. The first waves were the Chinese
sojourners of the early 1800s, then the Japanese of the mid-1800s, and the later
Indochinese immigrants who were of refugee status due to the Vietnam War. According
to Bennett (1990), the war of Vietnam produced a mass exodus of refugees involved with
the war. The first wave began before 1975, having a better social-economic background,
education, and familiarity with the Western culture; thus, they were better educated and
from well-to-do families and better adapted to the acculturation and assimilation
processes. In contrast, the second wave of refugees such as the Iu Mien and Hmong
21
suffered from low education and low socioeconomic status. These “boat people” were
associated with experiences of the traumatic ordeal and harrowing escape, leaving family
behind; thus, they suffered from guilt, depression, and loneliness. They were less
successful in their participation of the acculturation and assimilation processes. As a
result, they chose biculturalism over assimilation and faced consequences of not being
accepted by the dominant culture (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). Other
conflicts included the conflicts between Americanized youth and their parents due to
cultural differences such as values and behaviors (Goodenow & Espin, 1993; Saelee,
2005). Furthermore, it was suggested by Ying and Chao (1996) that Iu Mien and Hmong
(Ngo, 2002) families suffered from intergenerational conflicts due to parental pressure for
the retention of their traditional culture and over fear of being assimilated in the wake of
the rapid acculturation and assimilation. Conversely, assimilation for all intents and
purposes, historically, has been more successful for European Anglo-Saxon immigrants
of the early 1820s.
Although not fully assimilated, European Anglo-Saxon immigrants such as the
Irish, Italian, and Jewish are considered most assimilated. All three ethnic groups’
migrations was different and yet they were absorbed in similar ways (Levine, 2005).
Granted, it took from 50 years to a century for these ethnic groups to assimilate; however,
they are still the most successful in the assimilation process. These ethnic groups have
both been socially and politically assimilated as they have their ethnic presences at all
levels of our government, media, and social life (i.e., St. Patrick's Day is celebrated by
the dominant culture). Furthermore, in 1928 Al Smith, an Irishman, was a democratic
candidate for the office of presidency of the United Sates implying widespread
22
acceptance (Levine, 2005) of minority representations in the political arena by the
mainstream culture.
Through intermarriage, the Italians (60%) and Jews (50%) produced well known
businesses and famous leaders such as Martin Scorsese (director, screen writer, producer,
and recipient of the Oscar, Golden globe, and Emmy), Philip Roth (Novelist, recipient of
the Pulitzer Award and National Book Award), Lee Iacocca (former president of
Chrysler), and president Lawrence Summer of Harvard University (Levine, 2005). Of
the Asian group, the Japanese are considered to be most assimilated and thus, were
labeled as an American success story and the model for other Indochinese Asian
immigrants to follow. This is the typical misconception seeded in society and literature –
that all Asians are alike, function similarly, and exhibit similar needs, especially the Iu
Mien. The contributing factors of being the better assimilated Asian groups included
time in the United States, more educated, hard-working, strong sense of family values,
and higher socioeconomic status as immigrants.
In the political arena, the Irish elected government officials had surpassed 25
individuals by the 1940s. As of 2005, their representation has become too big to count
(Levine, 2005). Levine further indicated there were 26 Jewish and 10 Italian senators by
the 1990s. Groups such as the Irish, Italian, and Jews were small business owners,
craftsmen such as tailors, scholars, and debaters (Levin, 2005), thus, alluding to our prior
assumption that they are more successfully assimilated based upon a higher education
level, better socioeconomic status, and of being European Anglo-Saxon immigrants.
Although the Hispanics are not as successful in the assimilation process as the European
Anglo-Saxon, they do have high political presence in our government. As of 2005, there
23
were 25 Hispanic Representatives in the House, indicating the Hispanics' political
assimilation was moving at a much faster rate than that of the Irish, Italians, and Jews.
There is a reported 29 of 120 state legislators of Hispanic background. A few examples
of Hispanic politicians include Mel Martinez of Florida, Ken Salazar of Colorado,
Governor Bill Richardson of New Mexico, and attorney general Alberto Gonzales.
Acculturation
The voluntary immigration process of the United States began in the 1820s thus,
forming and shaping the cultural pluralistic society of today. With the influx of
Europeans and a fear of their dominance over indigenous people, the concept of
acculturation was conceptualized (Berry, 2005). Berry further indicated acculturation is
the contact and interaction occurring between individuals of two different cultures. In an
earlier formulation of acculturation, Redfield et al. (1936) theorized it as:
Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of
individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with
subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. (p.
149)
In another formulation, Kottak (2005) and Evans et al. (2010) referred to acculturation as
the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different
cultures come into continuous first hand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or
both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct. Other researchers such as
Thurnwald (as cited in Teske & Nelson, 1974) emphasized acculturation as “a process of
adaptation to new conditions of life” (p. 351). Furthermore, literature indicated
acculturation exhibited reciprocity where assimilation does not. As in the case study of
15- and 16-year-old Hispanic students in a study conducted by Siatkowski (2007),
24
acculturation was a multidimensional concept involving individuals of a specific ethnic
culture interacting with individuals of other cultures. This study further confirmed the
occurrence of reciprocity in the acculturation process. Similarly, researchers such as
Flaskerud (2007) further stated, “Acculturation is acquiring the capability to function
within the dominant culture while retaining the values, beliefs, and language of one's
original culture” (p. 534). As reported by Lee and Leu (2006), researchers such as Barry
had four distinct positions: assimilation (identifies mostly with dominant culture),
integration or biculturalism (identifies with both cultures), separation (identifies with
ethnic culture), and marginalization (low identification with both cultures). Based on his
acculturation positions, Barry (2001) developed the East Asian Acculturation Measure
(EAAM) to measure the culture process of East Asians.
The EAAM was further adopted to use in multiple mixed-methods studies
examining the acculturation process of Hmong people residing in Eastern Wisconsin by
Lee and Green (2010). Therefore, the EAAM is the instrument of choice for this study of
the Iu Mien due to the multiple cultural similarities between them and the Hmong. This
quantitative research study concluded the Hmong of Eastern Wisconsin have gradually
adapted well to the mainstream culture and acculturated highest at the integration level.
Integration level is referred to as an individual’s ability to maintain and adapt to cultural
norms of the host culture (Lee & Green, 2010). This idea paralleled the biculturalism
concept discussed previously. With reference to the acculturation process of the
Indochinese families, bicultural competency is an adaptive characteristic serving as a
protective factor against the stress of acculturation (Chun & Akutu, 2003).
25
The process of acculturation is often associated with acculturation stress of the
family and contributes to the academic attainment of minority family due to the
instability of the family to cope with this stressor. Understanding the value of cultural
and ethnic identity is critical as it can potentially ease the acculturation and assimilation
process of individual minority groups, especially the Iu Mien. Nieto (2004) referred to
culture as, “The values; traditions; social and political relationships and worldview
created, shared, and transformed by a group of people bounded together by a common
history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion” (p. 436). Therefore,
cultural identity refers to an individual identifying with cultural values and traditions.
Biculturalism
Literature defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and guest culture
through language, food, and cultural norms (Keefe & Padilla, 1987; Smokowski et al.,
2008). Similarly, others such as Lee and Leu (2006), Berry and Sam (1997), and Berry
(1990) defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and native cultural group of
language, food, media use, norms, and traditions, thus identifying with both cultures.
Other such as Berry and Szapocznik, Kurtines, and Fernandez (as cited in Schwartz and
Unger, 2010) indicated biculturalism originated from the assimilation theory as a focus of
the primary cultural behaviors. Due to the complexity of biculturalism, individual groups
such as the Iu Mien, Hmong, Chinese, and Hispanics, who are traditionally from a low
socioeconomic status, find it difficult to function within the process of acculturation and
assimilation.
As noted previously, the cultural assimilation or melting pot theory, with its good
intentions and purposes, did not address the learning needs of all individual but instead
26
often misdiagnosed minority students as being academically challenged or having
academic disabilities. In recognition of this flaw, the cultural pluralism theory was
developed. Cultural pluralism theory suggests individual ethnic minorities have different
learning abilities and needs. Examples of teaching and learning pedagogies may include
the considerations of Garner's eight multiple intelligences or Krashen's Second Language
Acquisition Theory as indicated by Bennett (1990) and Liow (2008).
In the wake of multicultural educational backlash, an example of such
intervention strategy employed by both the Hispanic and Asian communities is the dual
language immersion programs existent in the local elementary schools and illustrating the
viability of functioning components of minority groups existing with the cultural
pluralism theory concept. Furthermore, the dual language immersion instructional
program has recently been the product of the local Hmong community as being the first
program adopted by the local school district. Furthermore, the Iu Mien have developed a
pre-premier curriculum to instruct high school students.
Groups such as the Chinese and Japanese have a more lengthy history in the
United States and, therefore, have instilled a strong and more effective program to
promote and retain biculturalism through Saturday schools among other cultural
activities; hence, unlike the Iu Mien, they are more successful. Biculturalism is viewed
as a contribution for the betterment of the Iu Mien culture as indicated by Saelee’s (2005)
master thesis in which 97% of Iu Mien parents and 95% of her respondents preferred
biculturalism and viewed it as a positive cultural tool for the Iu Mien youth to be
successful cultural negotiators while residing in the United States. The Iu Mien culture,
without an official governmentally recognized language, faces an uphill battle; the ability
27
to coexist in both cultures with smooth transitions from primary to mainstream culture
is minimal.
In recognition of the issues facing the Iu Mien community, a few community nonprofit organizations have attempted to instill programs similar to the Chinese's Saturday
school. Locally, organization such the United Iu Mien Incorporated of Sacramento (n.d.)
have implemented programs such as the yearly youth conferences, elders social
interaction group, and Mien language classes both at the community center and school
district level in the form of afterschool classes. At the national level, the Iu Mien
American National Coalition (IMANC, 2013) addressed cultural and academic issues
through its biannual leadership conference and fund raising efforts. At IMANC’s 2009
leadership conference, a significant amount of program time was allocated to issues
relevant to Iu Mien ethnic identity, understanding of CST data results, and equity and
accessibility of higher education. These sessions were presented by local Iu Mien
community leaders, veteran k-12 Iu Mien educators, and local community college
presidents. The main goal of the annual leadership conference is to address issues of the
acculturation of its community members as well as to promote solidarity and create a
collaborative functioning relationship between the elders, youth, and women (IMANC,
2013).
Multicultural Education
Multicultural education is historically traced to specific struggles such as the Civil
Rights movement in the United States (Sleeter & McLaren, 1995). Other contributing
struggles include the strengthening women's movement of the early 1970s, and the
passage of Title IX in 1972 was credited to the multicultural education movement. In a
28
cultural pluralist society, multicultural education prepares and educates individuals to
function in diverse environments like that of the United States (Dilger, 1994). With
parallels, Piland et al. (1999) referred to multicultural education and cultural pluralism as
the studies of ethnicity, race, and gender awareness. Gay (2004) further alluded to
multicultural education as “an instrument of educational equity and excellence” (p. 216).
Furthermore, Sonia Nieto (2004), a more recent advocate and theorist of multicultural
education, described multicultural education as:
A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It
challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and
society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious,
economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and
teachers reflect. Multicultural education permeates the schools' curriculum and
instructional strategies, as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and
families, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and
learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and
focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) as the basis for social
change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice.
(pp. 436-437)
The understanding of ethnic and cultural identity is critical to many immigrants,
especially those from Southeast Asia such as the Iu Mien and Hmong. Multicultural
education pedagogy, such as cultural responsive teaching and cooperative learning,
fosters the opportunity for Iu Mien students to seek relevance, inclusiveness, and
establish conformity resulting in the strengthening of their group and cultural identity
(Lenaghan, 2000). As reported previously in the unpublished master theses by Saelee
(2005) and Downing (2002), it is important to recognize culture and identity as being a
critical part of the acculturation and assimilation process of Iu Mien people.
Furthermore, Zeichner (1996) argued that building upon students’ life experiences
expands student knowledge and capacities and thus, promotes a feeling of belonging to
29
both the academic and cultural worlds (Lenaghan, 2000). This notion is particularly
relevant to the Iu Mien students, for they are from a culture without an official language
and have had to rely on life experiences, cultural experiences, and cultural identity to
build comprehension of our mainstream curriculum in our k-12 classrooms. Moreover,
multicultural education programs implement teaching pedagogy both culturally and
linguistically relevant in a purposefully created multicultural environment, which have
proven to support minority students (Bennett, 1990; Gay, 2004; Nieto, 2004; Sleeter &
McLaren, 1995), especially the Iu Mien students (Liow, 2008).
For the Iu Mien students, language and culture are inseparable; therefore,
multicultural education has its relevance, as it emphasized and advocated for the retention
of individual ethnic culture previously illustrated in Nieto's definition of multicultural
education. Thus, multicultural education adopts and implements many components and
teachings from Krashen (Language Acquisition Theory) (2003), Gardner’s Eight Multiple
Intelligences (1983), Cummins (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills, BICS and
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, CALP) (1982), and Gay (2000) and Banks
(Cultural Responsive Teaching) (1991) complemented with a multicultural learning
environment to promote academic achievement for minority students. As reported by
Liow (2008) in an unpublished thesis project, the Iu Mien middle school students made
academic gains in multicultural education classrooms practicing the previously
mentioned learning environment and curriculum. This is an indication that multicultural
education is effective and comprises valid teaching pedagogies for Iu Mien students
participating in the acculturation and assimilation process. Multicultural education
pedagogy such as experiential learning, cooperative learning, and cultural responsive
30
teaching and learning with components of Language Acquisition Theory, Eight
Multiple Intelligences, Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS), Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), and Cultural Responsive Teaching embedded
are appropriate for Iu Mien students (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010).
Experiential learning. Experiential learning goes hand in hand with hands-on
learning in the sense that both methods usually involve the use of manipulative and are
teaching pedagogy and learning styles of multicultural classrooms. Opportunities to
explore through the use of manipulative may range from that of micro-environment
(exploration of a small piece of ground) to the larger global environmental processes,
ultimately fostering environmental stewardship. As illustrated by Haluza-DeLay’s
(2001) discussion in “Remystifying the City: Reawakening the Sense of Wonder in Our
Own Backyards,” stewardship can be fostered by awakening urban youth to their
proximal relation of the natural world to their urban setting. In multicultural educational
settings, experiential learning can be conducted through the observation of the
schoolyard, blacktops, or school garden utilizing Gardner’s naturalistic intelligence.
Examples of projects include bird and insect census work, stream and pond sampling,
exotic plant removal, plant classification, fractions, measurement, and the manipulation
of integers.
Similarly, as in the case of the multicultural elementary school classroom
environment in West Sacramento, California, students opportunistically conducted
experiments and mathematical activities in their classrooms, parents’ garden plots, and
their classroom plots. The students from diverse ethnic backgrounds classified plants and
insects, performed a daily insect census, and monitored plant growth. They were, thus,
31
provided with exceptional learning opportunities to practice the scientific method as a
logical method of inquiry and to foster multiple aspects of the mathematics content
standards (Hammond & Liow, 1997). Students utilized the collected data to analyze and
formulate mathematical diagrams and figures, thus providing opportunities for students to
learn through multiple intelligences such as bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial,
interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, and logical-mathematical. Furthermore, Basile (1997)
stated that experiential learning activities have the capacity to, “kindle students’ curiosity
and wonder about the interdependent world of nature of which they are a part, and to
foster their responsibility toward the environment” (p. 161), thus fostering stewardship.
In a multicultural education classroom, participants are offered the opportunity to
practice Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences, as reported in “Learning and Teaching
through the Naturalist Intelligence” (Meyer, 1998), citing Gardner’s multiple
intelligences. It stated that a naturalist is a person who recognizes flora and fauna and
has intuitive ability to productively make distinctions in the natural world. Experiential
learning provides opportunities for students to acquire academic comprehension through
multiple modalities, pedagogies, and paradigms such as Gardner’s eight multiple
intelligences, and fine-tune their language acquisition skills.
Naturalistic intelligence, as reported by Gardner (1983), pertains to those having
greater sensitivity to nature and their place within it, the ability to nurture and grow
things, and greater ease in caring for, taming, and interacting with animals. They are also
good at recognizing and classifying different species. “Naturalists” learn best when the
subject involves collecting and analyzing or is closely related to something prominent in
nature; they also do not enjoy learning unfamiliar or seemingly useless subjects with little
32
or no connections to nature. Therefore, Gardner's naturalistic intelligence has
relevance to the Iu Mien culture due to their agrarian culture and learning style.
Additionally, as reported by Portal and Sampson (2000), utilizing manipulative proves to
be an effective tool in the classroom by providing students a different perspective and
opportunity to learn kinesthetically. Portal and Sampson further stated:
Manipulative can sometimes open the eyes of a student to math concepts
previously not understood because of that student’s learning style. In
mathematics, the use of the graphing calculator has been shown to improve
motivation. Finally, students tend to enjoy hands-on learning because they are
able to be actively involved in solving various problems. (p. 39)
In addition, the use of manipulative and real-life applications, as well as hands-on
and experiential learning, often make learning more enjoyable for the students, according
to Middleton (as cited in Portal & Sampson, 2000), which are components or teaching
and learning in a multicultural education environment (Liow, 2008). It also provides
ample opportunities for students to engage in problem-solving enrichment leading to the
application of classroom learning to practical learning. Furthermore, hands-on or
experiential learning activities often lead to the promotion of cooperative group work
promoting cooperative learning (Portal & Sampson, 2000). More importantly,
cooperative group work in the classroom provides opportunities for students to learn how
science and mathematics are applicable to daily living and the added value to future
education and employment. Group work fosters student development and understanding
of the coexistence of the micro and macro environmental issues relevant to their lives,
thus promoting environmental ownership and stewardship.
Cooperative learning. As previously discussed, multicultural education
curriculum incorporating Howard Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences and Stephen
33
Krashen’s five levels of language acquisition theory may potentially contribute to
students’ academic learning in the form of cooperative learning. As reported by Pajkos
and Klein-Collins (2001), cooperative learning allows students to use manipulative to
foster academic learning via Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences. Cooperative
learning provides students the opportunity to learn and apply their multiple intelligences,
such as linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal intelligences. Cooperative
learning is applicable to multiple disciplines including mathematics and science.
Furthermore, research by Kuntz and McLaughlin (2001), in “A Comparison of
Cooperative Learning and Small Group Individualized Instruction for Math in a SelfContained Classroom for Elementary Students with Disabilities,” indicated that work
produced by students with mild learning disabilities in mathematics was more accurate
when cooperative learning, as opposed to individual learning, was utilized. As suggested
by Burpo and Wheeler (1994), effective cooperative learning strategies grant students the
opportunity to share ideas, experiences, and backgrounds with one another while they
study various topics in the standard curriculum. “When children work together to
discover, create, solve problems, observe, and record data, they also learn how to
communicate and cooperate with each other” (Burpo & Wheeler, 1994, p. 76).
Additionally, cooperative learning is a teaching approach that provides
opportunities for children to socially interact as they work toward a common goal (Portal
& Sampson, 2000; Schniederwind & Davidson, 1987; Stoner, 2004). In a multicultural
learning environment where students are placed in cooperative groups, the students are
given opportunities to question, discuss ideas, make mistakes, learn to listen to others’
ideas, offer constructive criticism, summarize their discoveries in writing, and give
34
positive and correct feedback (Ding, Li, Kulm, & Piccolo, 2007). As students
converse with each other cooperatively, individual leadership skill becomes more
apparent and knowledge of leadership skills will help students in social situations later in
life (Burpo & Wheeler, 1994).
Furthermore, Johnson and Johnson (1986) discussed the implications of academic
achievement through a cooperative group learning process that provides opportunities for
students to analyze their work and enhance their quality of learning. They classified the
pedagogical concept as being one of the four basic elements of successful cooperative
learning strategies. For example, students could work cooperatively in a group to solve
complex word problems or write a “how-to-solve fractions” book in elementary or
middle school. As reported by Dossey, McCrone, Giordano, and Weir (2002) and
Brahier (2000), cooperative group learning is a powerful learning pedagogy that elicits
creative cognitive thought processes and ideas from students resulting in a win-win
situation for all students. Furthermore, study by Kroeger and Kouche (2006) on a
cooperative group learning mathematics intervention program called peer-assisted
learning indicated this pedagogy increases engagement and positive responses in content
areas that have traditionally been challenging for middle school students and those
identified with mathematics learning disabilities. Guyton (1991) further stated
cooperative work helped students increase achievement and long-term retention, develop
higher-order processing skills, improve psychological health, increase like and respect for
other students, and increase self-esteem.
In a multicultural classroom, the effectiveness of cooperative group learning is
further evidenced by Dekker and Elshot-Mohr’s (2004) study titled “Teacher
35
Interventions Aimed At Mathematical Level Raising During Collaborative Learning”
during which they used two types of intervention studies: interaction between the
students and the mathematical content of the tasks. Their study indicated both conditions
allowed students to raise their mathematical level on the subject matter of mathematical
transformations. Furthermore, their analysis indicated interventions focused on students’
interactions were more effective in terms of students’ learning outcomes. Gibbon (2002)
further stated that children working cooperatively with others allow students to learn and
perform beyond what they are able to achieve alone. Additionally, Nattiv (1994), in
“Helping Behaviors and Math Achievement Gain of Students Using Cooperative
Learning,” concluded, “it would be beneficial to teach students in cooperative learning
groups how to help one another and how to ask for and received help” (p. 296). For ELL
students, it provides the opportunity for them to practice new language acquisition,
social, and conversational skills. The positive implication of cooperative learning is
illustrated by Vygotsky (as cited in Gibbon, 2002):
Vygotsky sees the development of cognition itself also as the result of
participation with others in goal-directed activity. A child initially engages in
joint thinking with others through the talk that accompanies problem solving and
social participation in everyday activity. (p. 8)
In a multicultural education setting, cooperative learning incorporates multiple
learning intelligences, as demonstrated by Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences.
Cooperative learning provides students opportunities to give and take constructive
criticism, develop leadership skills, foster a healthy learning community, experience
creative cognitive thought processes, analyze their work, enhance their quality of
learning, discover, create, solve problems, observe and record data, develop effective
36
communication and cooperative skills, and, most importantly, share personal
experiences and backgrounds with one another.
Culturally responsive teaching. The landmark court case, U.S. Supreme Court
case Lau v. Nicholas in 1974 where the court ruled that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act
was violated for Chinese-speaking students (Nieto, 2004), thus mandates the educational
institution to reexamine its instructional practices. Culturally responsive teaching is well
written and validated as an appropriate multicultural education teaching pedagogy.
Culturally responsive teaching strategy implemented in a multicultural curriculum
classroom not only met the needs of students and provided equal educational opportunity
for our diverse student body, but does so for the Iu Mien (Liow, 2008).
For many educators of color, culturally responsive teaching is well used within
their culture as well as in the multicultural education setting. But for mainstream culture
educators, this may mitigate the academic instruction for content comprehension for nonmainstream students. Based on the statistics provided by Allison and Rehm (2007), by
2040, the number of students whose primary language is other than English will increase
by approximately 40%. The U.S. Bureau of Census 2000 (as cited in Allison & Rehm,
2007) indicated that if the trend continues, “almost half of our nation’s school population
will consist of members from non-Caucasian cultural groups by 2020” (p. 12). As
evidenced by the preceding statistic, our country is becoming increasingly diverse.
Students may discover that mathematics is a common language spoken by all cultures
and thus “allows children to view and appreciate the similarities and differences that exist
among all people” (Adeeb, Bosnic, & Terrell, 1999, p. 32).
37
Culturally responsive teaching’s effectiveness is rooted in numerous culturally
relevant instructional approaches (such as culturally compatible, culturally congruent,
culturally appropriate, culturally responsive, or culturally relevant instruction), to
accommodate the educational needs of diverse ethnic students (Nieto, 2004). As
multicultural education pedagogy, culturally responsive teaching allows effective
instructors to value and meet individual students’ academic levels, thus applying
Vogotsky’s ZPD learning approach. The approach provides the child opportunities to
follow an adult's example and guidance, thus gradually developing the ability to do
certain tasks without help or assistance. Additionally, research indicated students are
capable of learning mathematics, science, and other disciplines on a daily basis provided
the lesson contained some cultural relevance to the students.
Research also indicated that a multicultural integrated and ethnocentric
curriculum has the capacity to foster academic learning across disciplines. The approach
ensures the students have some reference and relevancy to practical classroom
instruction, thus providing equitable access to academic learning (Ganesh & Middleton,
2008; Tobias, 1992). Furthermore, culturally responsive teaching provides the teacher
opportunities to incorporate students’ cultural backgrounds, ethnic histories, and current
social interests into standards-based curricula. Banks (1991) and Gay (2000) indicated
five components of standards-based culturally responsive educational instruction, or
CRSBI, (caring, communication, curriculum, instruction, and a focus on California
content standards). The five components have the potential to explicitly address the
underlying racial and cultural disconnect between educators and minority students (Jones,
2007).
38
Caring, feeling, and acceptance provide opportunities for students to feel safe,
thus breaking down barriers and allowing students to take necessary risks in the learning
environment (Alder, 2002; Klingner, Artiles, & Barletta, 2006; Nieto, 2004; Xu &
Drame, 2008). This notion includes the traditional paradigms of communication between
educators and parents in the form of newsletters and phone calls home to update progress,
give current events, or report unruly behavior. In a multicultural learning environment,
effective direct parent communication is critical. Furthermore, Jones (2007) indicated,
“communication involves how teachers relate with families as well as how instruction is
communicated to the students” (p. 15). Jones further indicated that the communication of
instruction is extremely important and widely misunderstood.
Culturally responsive curricula may be in the form of recognizing the
contributions ethnic minorities have made to the current bank of knowledge. As
indicated by Gay (2000), effective culturally responsive teaching requires deliberate
incorporation of specific aspects of different ethnic groups’ cultural systems into the
instructional process so positive impacts on student achievement are fostered. Lastly,
CRSBI’s fifth component is standards-based instruction. This component ensures all
daily and minute instruction is of state standards-based curriculum as best illustrated in
Jones (2007) who stated, “infusing the culturally relevant aspects of learning to strong,
standards-based instruction, with continuous assessments producing data that is used to
improve that instruction, is the element of CRSBI that will drastically increase student
achievement” (p. 17).
Culturally responsive instruction requires the educator to respect students’
differences while utilizing multiple teaching and learning resources (Lee, 2007; Lee,
39
Rosenfeld, Mendenhall, Rivers, & Tynes, 2004), thus fostering equitable and
accelerated learning opportunities for all students, especially students of color (Banks,
2004). As reported by Gay (2000), the preceding approach is empowering for students
whose culture and language may not be so visible in the classroom, such as the Iu Mien
culture. A cultural responsive educator is most “effective when that educator acquires a
broad and in-depth understanding of students’ cultural and linguistic history and out of
school experiences” (Risko & Walker-Dalhouse, 2007, p. 98).
Our country’s educational institution has experienced the influx of an everincreasingly diverse student body; education practices, as they used to be, continually
prove to be ineffective. Numerous research documents have indicated that educator and
the educational institution must approach education with a different paradigm to provide
adequate education for the children. One effective and appropriate strategy is through
culturally responsive teaching. Culturally responsive teaching is the pedagogy that
incorporates students’ language, culture, and experiences within the state’s content
standards to foster a meaningful and relevant education for the diverse student body
(Banks, 2004; Gay, 2000; Nieto, 2004). For the Iu Miens, these theories, learning, and
teaching pedagogy are appropriate, relevant, and critical to their academic achievements
as well as the maintenance of their cultural and ethnic identities.
Summary
The Iu Mien people from the mountainous terrain of Southeast Asia have been in
the United States for approximately 30 years and are gradually experiencing the effects of
acculturation and assimilation process. Literature indicates the acculturation process
occurs when two cultures come into contact with each other and the minority culture
40
adapts to the host culture, but retains elements of their own culture. Conversely,
assimilation is the process when the guest culture forgoes its cultural norms and values
and becomes fully immersed in the host culture, thus, becoming fully assimilated.
Assimilation is not preferred by ethnic minority cultures, especially the Southeast Asian
such as the Iu Mien and Hmong. As indicated in Saelee (2005) and Lee and Green
(2010) studies, the Iu Mien and Hmong preferred the integration (biculturalism) level of
acculturation based upon Berry's East Asian Acculturation Measurement.
Biculturalism, as defined by Lee and Leu (2006), Berry and Sam (1997), and
Berry (1990), is the integration of the host and native cultural groups’ language, food,
media use, norms, and traditions; thus, a person identifies with both cultures.
Biculturalism and integration offer opportunities for minority cultural groups to maintain
their cultural and ethnic identities while navigating the cultural norms of the host culture.
In an academic sense, the children participating in biculturalism have the opportunity to
learn and excel in a multicultural environment. Therefore, they participate and are being
immersed in multicultural teaching and learning pedagogy. Furthermore, multicultural
education exposed these students to the second language learning theories such as those
of Krashen (2003) and Cummins (1982). In addition, multicultural education immerses
the students in culturally responsive teaching and learning pedagogy. Furthermore, they
are encouraged and provided the opportunity to utilize one or more of Gardner's (1983)
eight multiple intelligences.
For the Iu Miens, the theories of Krashen, Cummins, and Gardner, as well as the
culturally responsive teaching and learning pedagogy of Banks and Gay, are appropriate
and relevant; thus, is critical to the academic achievement (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010)
41
of the Iu Mien students as well as to the maintenance of their cultural and ethnic
identities.
42
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this quantitative research study is to provide understanding and
explore the implications of the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien
students attending Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS), a pseudonym, located in
Northern California. A self-rating Likert-type scale survey was disseminated to 27 out of
65 volunteer high school students assessing their acculturation levels. Additionally, to
address instructional practices, a Likert-type self-rating frequency-of-use scale was
disseminated all 90 members of the classroom teachers to elicit classroom pedagogies
relevant to multicultural education. Of the 90 members 19 agreed to participate thus
appropriate data were collected from these individuals.
This quantitative research study focused on the Iu Mien students of IMCHS from
all four grade levels. Quantitative research “is a type of educational research in which the
researcher decides what to study; asks specific, narrow questions; collects quantifiable
data from participants; analyzes these numbers using statistics and conducts the inquiry in
an unbiased, objective manner” (Creswell, 2008, p. 46). Due to the nature of quantitative
data collection, a self-rating survey disseminated to the teaching staff members will foster
understanding of the instructional practices at the site thus addressing the appropriateness
of instructional practices in assisting the Iu Mien students.
This quantitative study was based on data from the participants at the school. A
Likert-type self-rating surveys acculturation assessment tool, EAAM (Barry, 2001), was
used to assess and identify Iu Mien students’ acculturation levels. Furthermore, a
43
comparative analysis was conducted for possible connections. Specifically, a
descriptive analysis research method was employed to analyze available academic
statistical data for possible connection between the students' acculturation levels and
academic achievement. To address the researcher's second question, a frequency-of-use
Likert-type self-rating scale survey was disseminated to the teaching staff to assess
instructional practices at the high school and provide both breadth and depth to the
understanding of the topic. Additionally, the Level of Multicultural Education (Nieto,
2004) model was used to identify and gauge the level of multicultural environment the
institution provides to the racial, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse students
at IMCHS. This chapter concludes with a brief summary of the protection of the
participants’ rights through the IRB certification process.
Research Design and Rational
The research of the acculturation and assimilation process was conducted in the
form of quantitative research. A quantitative study allows the researcher to collect
quantifiable and statistical data for statistical analysis of number data to answer a specific
research question or questions (Creswell, 2008). Thus the descriptive analysis of
available academic data and students' acculturation levels allowed the researcher to
discover any possible linkages between the two variables.
Therefore, this quantitative method research study employed a self-rating survey
(EAAM) design approach to provide a deeper understanding and explore the implication
of the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien students attending Iu Mien
Community High School (IMCHS) located in Northern California. Additionally, a
44
Likert-type self-rating frequency-of-use scale was implemented to elicit classroom
pedagogies relevant to multicultural education.
This quantitative research design approach was appropriate for this particular
study due to the quantitative design's ability to allow for an understanding of the research
questions. Creswell (2008) indicated quantitative research fostered the ability for
researchers to collect quantifiable and statistical data for analysis to answer a specific
research question or questions. Thus, this research design method provides the
opportunity to conduct a self-rating survey/questionnaire through both survey and
descriptive designs to answer the research questions relevant to the Iu Mien high school
students’ acculturation process.
Population and Site Description
The Iu Mien (unique people) is an indigenous group of people forced to migrate
from northern China into various countries in Southeast Asia namely into Vietnam,
Thailand, and Laos. As recently as 1975, the Iu Mien began arriving in the United States
due to their involvement as CIA informants as refugees. The implication of the Iu Mien
fighting alongside CIA agents and the Hmong in the Secret War of Laos created
resentment for the Pathos Lao Government. The fall of Laos to the socialist view and
ideology of current communist Laos resulted in the government’s persecution of the Iu
Mien for their oppositional involvement. As refugees, they came to the United States.
The majority of the Iu Mien resides in Northern California, specifically in Garden valley.
Thus, the participants were volunteer IMCHS students from the Iu Mien community of
Garden City Valley (pseudonym). The participants included freshmen, sophomores,
juniors, and seniors residing in the jurisdiction of Garden City Unified School District.
45
These participants help provide a deeper understanding of the research question and
strategies for cultural preservation. To further understand and answer the research
question, a frequency-of-use Likert-type scale questionnaire solicited teaching practices
from the volunteer teaching staff members.
Sample
The student participants were all Iu Mien High School students attending the Iu
Mien Community High School (IMCHS) and the adult participants were the instructional
staff. The sample consisted of 65 Iu Mien students classified into two different
categories as English learners (15 students) and fluent English proficient (50 students)
which comprised 5.8% of the student body (CDE, 2013). English learner (EL) is defined
by CDE (2013) as:
A K-12 student who, based on objective assessment, has not developed listening,
speaking, reading, and writing proficiencies in English sufficient for participation
in the regular school program. These students are sometimes referred to as
Limited English Proficient (LEP). The process for identification is described in
the California English Language Development Test (CELDT). (p. 43)
Fluent-English-Proficient (FLP) students are those students whose primary language is
other than English and are classified as proficient in listening, speaking, reading, and
writing based upon the CELDT. A final sampling of participants was based upon the
number of volunteer respondents. California Department of Education (2013) reported
98 Iu Mien students, but the site administrator indicated that only 65 students were
enrolled. Although there were 65 Iu Mien students, 42% (27) agreed and were granted
permission from their parents to participate in the study.
To address the instructional practice research question, the classroom teachers
were solicited as volunteers to participate in a Likert-type frequency-of-use scale relevant
46
to multicultural instructional pedagogies. The comprehensive high school classroom
instructional staff comprised 90 members. The male to female teacher ratio was 49 to 41
and the ratio of minority and white teachers is 18 to 72 respectively. A letter of
introduction and invitation was disseminated during the staff meeting (see Appendix A).
The participants were all those who returned the signed volunteer consent form (see
Appendix B).
Site Description
Upon resettlement in the United States, the majority of the Iu Mien seemed to
prefer and be attracted to Northern California's Central Valley. Initially, in the early to
late-1980s, the Iu Mien tended to reside in group clusters for community security. They
congregated and resided mainly in the Garden City Valley. As the individual family
became more adaptive and acculturated, they began to venture out to the outlying suburb
cities, thus becoming homeowners and claiming a small piece of the American dream
they sought as refugees. Hence, it is the ideal community to conduct this research study
in an attempt to understand the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien
people.
IMCHS is a comprehensive high school located in Northern California enrolling
1130 students in the following ethnic breakdown: Black or African American – 118
(10.4%), American Indian or Alaska Native – 10 (0.009%), Asian – 361 (31.9%),
Filipino – 8 (0.007%), Hispanic or Latino – 455 (40.3%), Native Hawaiian or Pacific
Islander – 12 (1%), White – 102 (9%), and Two or More Races – 64 (6%). There were
986 socioeconomically Disadvantaged, 599 English Learners, and 145 Students with
Disabilities. A frequency-of-use Likert-type scale was administered to the instructional
47
staff participants. The comprehensive high school classroom instructional staff
comprised 90 members, 54% males and 46% females. The male to female teacher ratios
was 49 to 41 and the ratio of minority and white teachers was 18 to 72 with 20% to 80%,
respectively. The majority of the classroom instructional staff taught the core curriculum
such as math, science, social studies, and English. The remaining teachers taught
electives, art, ROTC, choir, art, PE, drama, and RSP.
Site Access
The most commonly known site access issue was the skepticism by the
community regarding the intent and purpose of the research study by individuals. Access
to the Iu Mien students of one particular high school of Garden City Valley Unified was
dealt with by building trust between the researcher and the community members through
the non-profit organization such as the United Iu Mien Incorporated. The research site is
located a few miles from the State Capital building, California State University, Garden
City, multiple community colleges, and in proximity to UC Davis. It is generally
considered to be between midtown and south Garden City.
An integral relationship was developed with the United Iu Mien Incorporated
(UIM), Iu Mien American National Coalition (IMANC), and Iu Mien Cultural
Foundation (IMCF). Furthermore, the researcher was the Program Chairperson of
IMANC and now the President and has been an active participant of UIM and IMCF’s
yearly cultural events for multiple years. In addition, the students’ families were
affiliated with either one or more of the non-profit organization in one form or another.
Furthermore, the researcher identified and established a relationship with one of the gate
keepers (vice principal of curriculum), as indicated by Creswell (2007) and Maxwell
48
(2005) as being a critical component of negotiating, gaining, and maintaining access to
the identified research site. Through the researcher’s affiliation with the community
groups, the site of this research study was of convenience. Other issues such as human
rights subject protection was assured by providing the successful completion of the IRB
certification and strictly adhered to. As indicated by Ravid (2010), participants were
continuously informed regarding the intent and purpose of this research study and that
their participation was private and they would not receive any type of compensations.
Research Methods
This quantitative research study was conducted in a descriptive analysis approach
to provide a greater understanding of the problem facing the Iu Mien community in the
acculturation process. A self-rating questionnaire approach (EAAM) was implemented
to examine for a possible connection between students’ acculturation levels and academic
achievement as well as to assess the level of acculturation of the Iu Mien high school
students. Furthermore, an additional self-rating Likert-type scale questionnaire was
administered to the volunteer staff members to address the research question relevant to
appropriate instruction practices with regard to multicultural education. Thus, the
following research questions provide both breadth and depth of the problem facing the Iu
Mien community:
success of the Iu Mien high school students?
2. What are the appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high
school students?
49
For this specific research study’s data collection methods, two self-rating Likert-type
scale surveys (EAAM and Teaching Practices) were the primary means of data
collection.
The data collection process was conducted over a three month period consisted of
three phases beginning with the survey (EAAM) and concluding identifying the school’s
level of multicultural education. The first phase of data collection began May 23, 2012
and concluded on June 30, 2012. The second phase of data collection began with the
solicitation of staff volunteers to address the teaching practices at the site. This phase
began simultaneously with the EAAM survey beginning May 23, 2012 and concluded
June 30, 2012. The survey collection process was extended to no later than August 10,
2012 for participants who requested the option of mailing their survey to the researcher.
Table 1 illustrates the data collection process.
Table 1
Data Collection Schedule
Phase
Participant Group
Data Collection
Methods
Month
Data Analysis
Survey
East Asian Acculturation
Measure (EAAM)
Self-Rating Likert scale
relevant to instruction
practices
May 23,
2012
June 30, 2012
I
IMCHS students
grades 9, 10, 11, and
12
IMCHS Teaching
Staff
Survey
May 23,
2012
June 30, 2012
II
Robinson’s (2010),
Survey of School’s and
Educator’s Culturally
Responsive Beliefs and
Practices.
50
Iu Mien Student Survey
The acculturation process survey instrument was adopted from Barry’s (2001)
East Asian Acculturation Measurement (EAAM) to question 42% (N=27) Iu Mien high
school students from IMCHS in Garden Valley located in Northern California regarding
their acculturation processes within the four categories of the EAAM. The categories
include assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. The subjects were
asked to respond to a series of leveled agreement questions, a 7-point Likert-type scale
(Ravid, 2011) as follows:
1 = Strongly disagree
4 = Neutral
7 = Agree strongly
2 = Disagree
5 = Agree somewhat
3 = Disagree somewhat
6 = Agree
Individual subjects were identified through convenience sampling based upon
public data from the school district and a local non-profit organization. Identified
individuals received a personal letter of invitation at IMCHS requesting their volunteer
participation with a one-week window to respond as to whether they were interested in
participating before the survey was collected. Specifically, a self-rating
survey/questionnaire was the primary data collection instruments. Utilizing existing data
for analysis is considered by Creswell (2007) as descriptive analysis methodology.
East Asian Acculturation Measure
The East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM) (Barry, 2001) is an instrument
capable of assessing acculturation patterns of various ethnic groups classified as East
Asians. Lee and Green (2010) and Ravid (2010) reported it to have a validity of 0.77,
demonstrating a high level of validity, thus explaining the choice of instrument for this
51
particular research study. The result of this particular assessment tool yielded
quantitative data used to inform the Iu Mien community and education institutions
relevant to their acculturation process. The quantitative research data are in the form of
descriptive statistics and, per Ravid (2010), descriptive statistics allow the researcher to
classify, organize, and summarize numerical data on the observation of groups of people.
The EAAM was used primarily to assess the Iu Mien acculturation patterns based on four
acculturation scales: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization (see
Appendix C). Each item consisted of a self-rating Likert-type scale from 1-7 (1=strongly
disagree, 2=disagree, 3=somewhat disagree, 4=neutral, 5=somewhat agree, 6=agree, and
7=strongly agree). The assimilation component consisted of eight questions while the
separation consisted of seven questions. Five questions comprised the third component,
integration, and nine questions comprised the final scale, marginalization.
The EAAM instrument was used to develop a more in-depth understanding of the
mindset of the IMCHS students with regard to the acculturation process as it relates to the
cultural preservation of the Iu Mien people. Administration of the EAAM to the
participants was conducted at their school of study. Specifically, data were collected
during school hours consisting of four individual sessions beginning with the freshman
class and concluding with the senior class. Participants were notified by personal phone
call or by a letter of invitation a few weeks prior to the initial data collection date.
Teaching Staff Survey
The staff survey design employed the 5-point self-rating Likert-type frequencyof-use scale beginning with two questions garnering the total years of teaching
experience and years of experience at IMCHS (see Appendix D). The Likert-type scale
52
survey was composed of five possible responses (Robinson, 2010): 1 (strongly
disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), 4 (strongly agree), and 5 (no basis to respond).
Teachers responded to questions relevant to three possible instructional practices. A
comparative analysis of the resulting data will foster alignment of instructional practices
to the practices of multicultural pedagogy and its environment, thus addressing the
appropriate instructional practices research question.
Ethical Considerations
As this research study involved human subjects, the researcher sought and
completed the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process. This process assured all ethical
principles and IRB protocols were followed to protect the human subjects. The proposed
research followed all IRB guidelines, including but not limited to the observation of
openness of data, availability of individual access and correction, data collection has
limitations and relevance, use of limitation, disclosure of limitation, and securely
guarding personal data. The researcher understands individual privacy was of the utmost
important and was not breeched (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Additionally, the data
collected does not misrepresent nor any harm or distress the subjects. Furthermore, data
interpretation is objective and not bias thus only include the facts. Never in any way did
the researcher put the subjects in compromising positions that could potentially be
dangerous.
53
Chapter 4: Findings and Results
Introduction
Iu Mien, Mien, Iu Mienh, Yao Tzu, Yao, Zao, and Dao are used interchangeable
both in the micro and macro communities as well as in the education community. In
parts of Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Laos, Northern Vietnam, and China, Yao Tzu,
Yao, Zao, Dao, or Iu Mien are used in reference to the ethnic Iu Mien, whereas in the
United States, Iu Mien or Mien or Iu Mienh are more common. Regardless of the
geographical region in which the Iu Mien reside, the education history of Iu Mien
remains the same, that is, little or no education. Education and literacy are obtained by
the few Sharmen to conduct religious ceremonies in Chinese characters but minimally at
most.
Therefore, it is important to study the educational attainment of the Iu Mien,
specifically those of high school-aged students. It is also important to understand the
connection between these students’ acculturation processes and their academic
achievement. Equally important is the instructional pedagogy implemented to instruct
these students, particularly ones that are relevant to multicultural education. Based on
multiple studies (Banks, 2004; Bennett, 1990; Nieto, 2004; Roche, 1997; Sleeter &
McLaren, 1995), academic success of minority students is dependent upon the educators’
understanding and knowledge of the students’ cultural background. For the Iu Mien, this
is particularly critical for they are from a preliterate self-sustaining farming society.
Roche (1997) further emphasized that this is not prevalent in the educational classroom
citing Trueba, Cheng, and Ima’s study titled “Myth or Reality; Adaptive Strategies of
54
Asian Americans in California.” Therefore, this chapter is divided into two categories;
one addresses the classroom pedagogy and the other examines the linkage between
students’ acculturation levels and academic achievement of Iu Mien Community High
School students. Therefore EAAM (Barry, 2001) was implemented to address the first
dissertation question, “What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the
academic success of Iu Mien high school students?” A Likert-type survey by Robinson
(2010) was modified to address the second research question, “What are the appropriate
instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?”
The first research question surveyed 27 of the 65 (N = 27) volunteer Iu Mien
students at Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS) assessing their acculturation
levels. A comparative analysis was then conducted to examine a possible linkage
between their acculturation levels and their academic achievement during the 2011-2012
school year. The second research question adapts an existing Likert-type self-rating
survey (Robinson, 2007) to address classroom instructional practices and school culture
relevant to multicultural education. For this particular survey, 19 out of 90 instructional
staff members participated.
Findings
In addressing the first question, it was necessary to survey the Iu Mien students to
assess their acculturation level using the East Asian Assessment Measure (EAAM) by
Barry (2001). The assessment measured students’ acculturation levels in the following
categories: Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization. A comparative
analysis was then conducted for a possible linkage between individual acculturation
levels and their academic levels based upon their 2011-2012 cumulative mean GPA.
55
Findings to Research Question One: What impact does the degree of
acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?
The self-rating survey asked the subjects to respond to a series of leveled selfrating agreement questions based on a 7-point Likert-type scale. A score of one indicates
a strong disagreement, two indicates a disagreement, three indicates a somewhat
disagreement, four indicates neutral, five indicates somewhat agree, six indicates
agreement, and seven indicates a strong agreement response. Assimilation questions are
scattered throughout the survey to prevent categorical bias in individual responses. As
indicated in Table 2, assimilation questions are 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 24, and 27. Table 2
displays the means and standard deviation of individual questions for n=27 respondents.
Acculturation level and cumulative academic GPA.
Individual acculturation question data. Assimilation, as reported by Santisteban
and Mitrani (2005) in Acculturation: Advance in Theory, Measurement, and Applied
Research, “refers to accepting the value and beliefs of the new culture while rejecting the
original culture” (pp. 121-135). In addressing the acculturation level of the Iu Mien
students, question one asked the students to respond to the written language they felt
most proficient (n=27, M=6.7), and a standard of deviation of 0.4 indicated a high level
of agreement. A classification criterion corresponds with the self-rating scale where a
rating of 4.8 or higher would indicate an agreement to a particular question or agreement
to a certain category. The data indicate by consistent agreement response, their
preferential language spoken and written at home is English. The standard deviations for
the two questions are 1.1 and 0.9, respectively. Conversely, the mean of 1.5 (strongly
disagree) and standard deviation of 1.1 indicated these students get along better with
56
Asian rather than American students regardless of their preferential written or spoken
language. Additionally, the data indicate the Iu Mien students are less comfortable
socializing with American students (M=3.3 and SD=1.1) and most of their friends are
non-Americans (M=3.3 and SD = 1.6) (see Table 2).
Table 2
Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure
Items
Question
Acculturation Item
Assimilation
I write better in English than in my native language.
1
When I am in my apartment/house, I typically speak English.
5
If I were asked to write poetry. I would prefer to write it in English.
9
I get along better with Americans than Asian
13
I feel that American understands me better than Asians do.
17
I find it easier to communicate my feelings to Americans than to Asians.
21
I feel more comfortable socializing with Americans than I do with
24
27
Separation
2
6
10
14
18
22
Asians.
Most of my friends at work/school are American.
Most of the music I listen to is Asian.
My closest friends are Asian.
I prefer going to social gatherings where most of the people are Asian.
I feel that Asians treat me as an equal more so than Americans do.
I would prefer to go out on a date with an Asian than with an American.
I feel more relaxed when I am with an Asian than when I am with an
American
Asians should not date non-Asians.
25
Integration
I tell jokes both in English and in my native language.
3
I think as well in English as I do in my native language.
7
I have both American and Asian friends.
11
I feel that both Asians and Americans value me.
15
I feel very comfortable around both Americans and Asians.
19
M
SD
6.7
5.3
6.4
1.5
3.3
3.3
3.3
0.4
1.1
0.9
1.1
1.3
3.3
1.6
2.8
5.6
4.4
3.8
4.3
3.9
2.1
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.2
2.4
1.4
3.7
4.3
6.3
6.6
6.0
1.8
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.1
57
Table 2 (continued)
Question
Acculturation Item
Marginalization
Generally, I find it difficult to socialize with anybody, Asian or
4
M
SD
2.8
2.0
American.
I sometimes feel that neither Americans nor Asians like me.
8
2.3
1.4
There are times when I think no one understands me.
12
4.1
0.9
I sometimes find it hard to communicate with people.
16
3.3
1.7
I sometimes find it hard to make friends.
20
2.6
1.4
Sometimes I feel that Asians and Americans do not accept me.
23
2.3
1.3
Sometimes
I
find
it
hard
to
trust
both
Americans
and
Asians.
26
3.4
1.7
I find that both Asians and Americans often have difficulty
28
2.9
1.6
understanding me.
I find that I do not feel comfortable when I am with other people.
29
2.9
1.8
Note: n=27 East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation.
High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high
school.
An individual or group is considered separated when they become fully immersed
in their primary culture and refuse to participate in the mainstream culture (Santisteban &
Mitrani, 2005). Table 2 indicates the majority of the respondents (n=27) felt either
neutral, somewhat disagreed, or disagreed, except for question six to which they agreed
somewhat that they were closer to their Asian friends with regard to the category of
separation. This category also indicates the Iu Mien students disagreed that they mostly
listened to Asian music (M = 2.8 and SD of 2.1). Conversely, they felt their closest
friends were Asian (M=5.6), but they felt neutral with regard to social gathering
preferences at which most of the people were Asian. Additionally, the students
somewhat disagreed about Asians treating them as equals more so than Americans did
(M=3.8 and SD=1.3). They were neutral with regard to dating preferences (M=4.3 and
SD=1.6). Surprisingly, they felt somewhat relaxed with Asians more than Americans
(M=3.9 and SD=1.2) rather than feeling comfortably relaxed as one would expect of
people being integrated. The data also indicate they disagreed that Asians should not
58
date non-Asians (M=2.4 and SD=1.4), thus implying their flexibility and tolerance of
inter-culture dating while rating themselves as being culturally separated.
Integration, according to Santisteban and Mitrani (2005) is defined as an
individual or group retaining its primary culture but accepting and integrating cultural
beliefs and values from the mainstream culture. Similarly, Nieto (2004), Bennett (1990),
and Sleeter and McLaren (1995) referred to integration as biculturalism. In this category,
the students reported they were somewhat in disagreement (M=3.7 and SD=1.8) when
asked if they told jokes both in English and in their native language. With respect to the
ability to think equally well in both languages, the students rated themselves as being
neutral (M=4.3 and SD=1.6). The Iu Mien high school students indicated they were more
integrated as having both American and Asian friends (M=6.3 and SD=1.0).
Additionally, their feelings of validation by both groups (M=6.0 and SD=1.0) further
indicated they regarded themselves as being integrated. Furthermore, they reported
feeling very comfortable around both Americans and Asians (M=6.0 and SD=1.4).
According to Barry (2001) and Santisteban and Mitrani (2005), marginalization is
referred to as exhibiting the lack of identification with any culture. The individual survey
questions from this category indicated the high school Iu Mien students rated themselves
as being not marginalized; thus, the nine marginalization questions have means ranging
from 2.3 to 4.1 based on the following criteria: disagreement 2.0-2.9, somewhat disagree
(3.0-3.9), and neutral (4.0-4.9). Students responded with a slightly higher means of 4.1
and standard deviation of 0.9 when asked if there were times when they thought no one
understood them. Furthermore, they also found it hard sometimes to communicate with
people in general. Thus, an examination of categorical means and standards of deviation
59
will provide further insight into and understanding of the Iu Mien students’
acculturation levels.
Categorical acculturation. The categorical data were necessary to specifically
identify general acculturation levels by calculating a categorical means and standard
deviation. In the category of assimilation, there were eight questions and seven possible
points per question, thus N=56. Within the separation category, there were seven
question also with a possible of seven points per question, thus N=49. The third
category, integration, consisted of five questions with seven possible points per question,
thus N=35. The last category, marginalization, consisted of nine questions with a
possible seven points per question, thus N=63.
Assimilation. The categorical data in Table 3 reflect the following criteria: a
means of 1 indicated a strong disagreement, 2 indicated disagreement, 3 indicated a
feeling of somewhat disagree, 4 corresponded with a neutral feeling, and 5, 6, and 7
would indicate agree somewhat, agree, and strongly agree, respectively. With regard to
their preferential communicative language, the students rated themselves as somewhat
agreeing or agreeing that English was their preference. For the Iu Mien, an ethnic group
without an official written language, English is probably their only preference by default.
Although a more recently developed written system is commonly used today, its intent
and purpose was developed for religious reasons. Truthfully, it was developed to help the
newly converted Christian Iu Mien practice Christianity and read the Bible. Therefore,
those traditional Iu Mien who practice Animism are not able to read this written form of
the Iu Mien language (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010). Conversely, the data also illustrate
they prefer to socialize with other Asians rather than American students; they rated
60
themselves as somewhat disagreeing that an American student would understand them
better. Furthermore, the data indicate most of their friends at school are not Americans.
Therefore, a categorical mean of 4.1 and SD of 0.4 indicate they rate themselves as being
neutral with regard to whether they were assimilated or not. Categorically, the Iu Mien
students rate themselves as neutral in terms of being assimilated with regard to their
acculturation level.
Table 3
Items: Assimilation
Question
Acculturation Item
Assimilation
I write better in English than in my native language
1
When I am in my apartment/house, I typically speak English.
5
If I were asked to write poetry. I would prefer to write it in English.
9
I get along better with Americans than Asian.
13
I feel that American understands me better than Asians do.
17
I find it easier to communicate my feelings to Americans than to Asians.
21
I feel more comfortable socializing with Americans than I do with
24
M
SD
6.7
5.3
6.4
1.5
3.3
3.3
3.3
0.4
1.1
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.1
Asians.
Most of my friends at work/school are American.
3.3
1.6
Categorical Means and SD
4.1
0.4
Note: n=56 Total score possible. East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard
Deviation.
school.
27
Separation. The means for assimilation (Table 3) and separation (Table 4) are
4.1 and 3.9, respectively, indicating the Iu Mien high school students are neutral
(assimilation) and in high disagreement with regard to separation from their culture. The
separation category indicates they do not listen to Asian music but their closest friends
61
are Asians; thus they would rather gather, date, and socialize with other Asians. On
the contrary, they somewhat disagreed that other Asians do not treat them as equals or
that they felt more relaxed and at ease compared to their American counterparts. A
categorical mean of 3.9 and standard deviation of 0.3 would indicate the Iu Mien students
rated themselves as not being separated from their culture with regard to their
acculturation level.
Table 4
Items: Separation
Question
Acculturation Item
Separation
Most of the music I listen to is Asian.
2
My closes friends are Asian.
6
10 I prefer going to social gatherings where most of the people are
10
M
SD
2.8
5.6
4.4
2.1
1.4
1.2
Asian
I feel that Asians treat me as an equal more so than Americans do.
3.8
1.3
I would prefer to go out on a date with an Asian than with an American. 4.3
1.6
I feel more relaxed when I am with an Asian than when I am with an
3.9
1.2
American.
Asians should not date non-Asians.
25
2.4
1.4
3.9
0.3
Deviation.
school.
14
18
22
Integration. According to Figure 1 and Table 5, 74% of Iu Mien respondents
rated themselves as being culturally integrated. Evidently, integration is the only
category in which the students consistently rated themselves in agreement; thus it has a
mean of 5.3 and standard of deviation of 0.4 indicating they are culturally integrated with
regard to their acculturation levels. This data indicate the Iu Mien students have adapted
62
and integrated skills from both cultures, which is consistent with the study conducted
by Lee and Green (2010) on the Hmong of Wisconsin; both ethnic groups are from
similar geographic region of Southeast Asia such as Laos and have close relationships.
Note: N = 27
Marginalization
4%
Assimilation
7%
Separation
15%
Integration
74%
Figure 1. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level.
63
Table 5
Items: Integration
Question
Acculturation Item
Integration
I tell jokes both in English and in my native language.
3
I think as well in English as I do in my native language.
7
I have both American and Asian friends.
11
I feel that both Asians and Americans value me.
15
I feel very comfortable around both Americans and Asians
18
M
SD
3.7
4.3
6.3
6.0
6.0
5.3
1.8
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.4
0.4
Deviation.
school.
Barry (2001) and Berry (2005) further indicated the integration process also
exhibited the adaptation and incorporation of certain cultural characteristics from one
culture into another. Strikingly similar in definition, one can possibly reference
integration and biculturalism as identical to one another. Biculturalism, according to
Nieto (2004), is the ability and right of individual ethnic groups to incorporate and adapt
cultural characteristics from other cultures while maintaining aspects of their languages
and cultures, thus, forming an integrated culture reflective of our multicultural societal
differences. The Iu Mien high school students who rated themselves as being integrated
responded to the question as being either highly neutral or in agreement.
As evident in their responses, they have both American and Asian friends.
Furthermore, they felt that both Americans and Asians value them equally; hence, they
were comfortable around both groups. Additionally, their thoughts were still in their
primary language rather than in English, and their ability to tell jokes in both languages
64
was either neutral or at somewhat disagree, indicating the usage of both languages is
less integrated than their socialization skills.
Marginalization. Similar to participants in the Lee and Green’s (2010) study of
the Hmong of Wisconsin, the Iu Mien students scored the lowest in the category of
marginalization. Understandably so, due to the cultural similarity of the two
mountainous ethnic groups (Hmong and Iu Mien) from Laos. Eight of the responses to
the nine questions, or 89%, were in disagreement (see Table 6). Therefore, the
categorical mean of 3.0 and SD of 0.2 indicates these students are not culturally
marginalized with regard to their acculturation level. Based upon the EAAM
acculturation assessment scale, the Iu Mien students rated themselves highest in the
category of integration (N=27, integration means = 5.3, and SD = 0.4). Thus, the finding
of the Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation level indicates these students rated
themselves as being culturally integrated or bicultural.
65
Table 6
Items: Marginalization
Question
Acculturation Item
Marginalization
Generally, I find it difficult to socialize with anybody, Asian or
4
M
SD
2.8
2.0
American.
I sometimes feel that neither Americans nor Asians like me.
8
2.3
1.4
There are times when I think no one understands me.
12
4.1
0.9
I sometimes find it hard to communicate with people.
16
3.3
1.7
I
sometimes
find
it
hard
to
make
friends.
20
2.6
1.4
Sometimes I feel that Asians and Americans do not accept me.
23
2.3
1.3
Sometimes I find it hard to trust both Americans and Asians.
26
3.4
1.7
I find that both Asians and Americans often have difficulty
28
2.9
1.6
understanding me.
I find that I do not feel comfortable when I am with other people.
29
2.9
1.8
3.0
0.2
Deviation.
school.
Individual acculturation level and cumulative mean GPA. As a component of
the triangulation process, Table 7 provides a cumulative and comparative overview of the
students’ acculturation levels and their cumulative mean GPAs. Table 7 illustrates the
students’ acculturation levels based on the categorical means. A mean of 4.5-4.9
indicates the students are in the process of moving toward being culturally integrated and
are, thus considered integrated. Students with a mean of five or greater are classified as
fully integrated. The following data from Table 2 indicate that 2 of 27, or 7%, are
culturally assimilated, 4 of 27, or 15%, are culturally separated, 20 of 27, or 74%, are
culturally integrated, and 1 of 27, or 4%, are classified as being culturally marginalized.
Table 7 displays individual acculturation levels and cumulative mean GPAs.
66
Table 7
Comparative Overview of Student Acculturation Level and Cumulative Mean GPA
Acculturation Level
Numerical Acculturation Level
Cumulative GPA
1
Integration
5
0.2
2
Integration
4.8
1.9
3
Integration
5.8
3.2
4
Integration
6.0
3.2
5
Integration
6.4
3.5
6
Integration
5.2
1.7
7
Integration
5.8
1.7
8
Integration
5.4
3.7
9
Integration
4.6
3.9
10
Assimilation
5.0
3.3
11
Integration
5.2
4.0
12
Integration
6.2
3.9
13
Integration
5.6
3.4
14
Marginalization
5.8
2.3
15
Separation
6.3
3.3
16
Integration
5.6
2.3
17
Integration
5.4
3.6
18
Separation
3.9
2.3
19
Integration
7.0
2.1
20
Integration
5.4
3.8
21
Assimilation
4.6
2.4
22
Integration
5.8
2.3
23
Integration
5.8
3.6
24
Separation
5.6
1.0
25
Integration
5.4
1.5
26
Separation
4.9
2.5
27
Integration
6.8
3.2
Student
Note: Integration M=5.7, Separation M=5.2, Assimilation M=4.8, and Marginalization M=5.8 where N=27
The data from Table 7 indicate the Iu Mien students’ mean cumulative GPA for
students classified as be culturally integrated (N=20 and M=5.7) is 2.8. Seven percent of
67
the students classified as culturally assimilated (N=2 and M=4.8) and have a
cumulative mean GPA of 2.9, slightly higher than culturally integrated students. Twentyseven percent of the students classified as being culturally separated (N=4 and M=5.2)
hold a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3. The remaining four percent are classified as being
culturally marginalized (N=1 and M=5.8) with a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3, identical
to that of those who are culturally separated.
Based upon the data from Figure 2 (Students’ Acculturation Level) and Table 7,
the finding for research question one indicate students classified as being assimilated and
integrated showed no significant differences (assimilated = 2.9 GPA and integrated = 2.8
GPA) in their cumulative academic performance. However, there was significant
difference of GPA within the students who are classified as being integrated. Of the total
integrated students 63% held a 3.0 GPA (mean = 3.6) or higher while 37% held 2.9 or
less (mean = 1.7). The Notable consistency lies within the students classified as being
separated or marginalized but they hold a much lower cumulative academic GPA of 2.3.
68
Note: N = 27
Marginalization
4%
Assimilation
7%
Separation
15%
Integration
74%
Figure 2. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level.
Findings to Research Question Two
What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school
students? In addressing the second research question, a second instrument by Robinson’s
(2010), Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special Education
Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) in Diverse Elementary School
was adopted and slightly modified to survey the teaching staff regarding their
instructional practices, school climate, sensitivity to diverse student academic needs, and
staff collaboration. This two-part instructional staff survey assessed classroom
instructional practices relevant to multicultural education to address, “What are
appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?” The first
section examined the school environment and instruction pedagogy by examining school
climate and support, academic instruction, and collaboration relevant to multicultural
education environment. The second part solicited teaching experiences.
69
School climate and support. To foster a deeper understand, the teaching staff
was surveyed using section of Robinson’s (2010), RCELD, as illustrated in Table 8.
With regard to how the staff felt about the school climate and support in general, they
responded to question 1 (My school makes little or no attempt to acknowledge and
celebrate diversity) with 73.7% of staff responding either strongly disagree or disagree,
indicating they felt the school attempted to acknowledge and celebrate diversity. In
addition, 63.2% of the staff respondents indicated the administrative team provided
support and resources to address students of racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
diversity (RCELD) at the school. Furthermore, 68.4% of the instructional staff
respondents indicated evidence of school wide acknowledgement and celebration of
diversity while 84.2% of the respondents indicated the school maintained high
achievement expectations of racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse
(RCELD) students. Table 8 further illustrates the indication that 68.4% of respondents
felt there was effective administrative support/advocacy including additional resources
and the promotion of problem solving to address the needs of RCELD students on a
regular basis.
70
Table 8
School Climate/Support
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
My school makes little or no
attempt to acknowledge and
celebrate diversity.
There is little or no
administrative support or
additional resources provided to
address the needs of students of
RCELD.
Frequent and varied examples
acknowledging and celebrating
diversity are evident throughout
my school and in my classroom.
3.
High expectations for the
achievement of students of
RCELD are NOT maintained.
There is effective administrative
support/advocacy including
additional resources and the
promotion of problem solving to
RCELD on a regular basis.
achievement of students of
RCELD are regularly
maintained.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis to
Respond
5
12
2
0
0
2
10
5
0
2
0
6
9
4
0
6
10
3
0
0
0
5
10
3
1
0
3
10
6
0
Figure 3 provides a cumulative overview of the respondents’ responses to whether
the school has an effective school climate and support for RCELD students who account
for the majority of the diverse student body. According to the instructional staff
respondents, 74% believed the school maintained an effective school wide culture to
support RCELD students. A component of this support is to have high achievement
expectations of the RCELD students by both the administrative and instructional staff.
The remaining 26% disagreed the school is not providing enough support for the RCELD
students. Therefore, it is important to examine the teachers’ opinions regarding the
71
implementation of RCELD-related intervention pedagogy to meet the needs of the
diverse student body.
26%
Disagreement
74%
Agreement
Figure 3. Climate and support of RCELD students.
Academic instruction I. Academic instruction consisted of two parts, school
wide and individual, and is used to understand whether differentiated intervention
instruction was being implemented at the high school (see Table 9). With regard to
whether the school implemented a multi-tiered intervention and prevention pedagogy to
support the RCELD students, 78.9% of the instructional staff indicated the school
provided differentiated instruction in the form of support and intervention to support the
needs of the RCELD students.
When asked to respond to whether consultation and direct services from
specialists were provided on a regular and consistent basis to assist in carrying out
differentiated interventions for RCELD students, a proportional representation surfaced
72
whereby 52.6% either strongly agreed or agreed the school did provide consultation
and direct services to assist the implementation of differentiated interventions for
RCELD students while 42% either strongly disagreed or disagreed. Additionally, 52.6%
of the instructional staff respondents believed the classroom teachers provided
differentiated interventions to support the RCELD students. For a Title I school with an
extremely diverse population, the number of classrooms practicing differentiated
instruction is surprisingly low.
Slightly three quarters, or 78.9%, of the instructional respondents indicated
differentiated instruction for RCELD students was occurring in individual classrooms.
Furthermore, 94.7% of the respondents indicated they regularly provided differentiated
instruction by making adaptions in the needed areas such as content (what is taught),
process (how content is taught), product (how students demonstrate content mastery),
affect (how students connect their thinking and feelings), and learning environment (how
the classroom is designed and students are grouped). A little more than half (57.9%) the
instructional staff respondents considered the school implemented a multi-tiered model of
intervention services and that the extent of differentiated interventions for students was
significant (see Table 9).
73
Table 9
Academic Instruction (I), Differentiated Intervention Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis to
Respond
5
10
3
0
1
2
6
8
2
1
I believe teachers at my high school
provide differentiated intervention to
students of RCELD.
0
7
8
2
2
There is little or no differentiated
instruction for students of RCELD in my
classroom. (reverse coding used)
3
12
0
0
1
I regularly provide differentiated
instruction by making adaptions in the
following areas as needed:
0
9
9
0
10
1
2
My school has not implemented a multitiered (e.g., prevention, intervention, and
specialized support) model of intervention
services. (reverse coding used)
Consultation and direct services from
specialists are provided on a regular and
consistent basis to assist in carrying out
differentiated interventions for students of
RCELD.
(a) Content = what is taught, (b) process =
how content is taught, (c) product = how
students demonstrate content mastery, (d)
affect = how students connect their
thinking and feelings, and (e) learning
environment = how the classroom is
designed and students are grouped.
6. My school has implemented a multi-tiered
model of intervention services and the
extent of differentiated interventions for
students is significant.
0
1
6
A categorical analysis of the school’s academic instruction (I) relevant to
differentiated instruction intervention is illustrated in Figure 4. The figure indicates the
school implemented school wide multi-tiered interventions and specialized support for
RCELD students. Sixty-nine (69%) percent of the instructional staff respondents either
74
agreed or strongly agreed the school implemented differentiated instruction
intervention pedagogy. Approximately a third (31%) of the instructional staff believed
the implementation of differentiated interventions was either not being implemented or
not implemented enough to provide the needs of the RCELD students of the school.
31%
Disagreement
69%
Agreement
Figure 4. School academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students.
Academic instruction II. The academic instruction II category examined the
classroom instructional practices with regard to differentiated interventions to support
RCELD student needs (see Table 10). Seventy-eight and nine-tenths percent of the
instructional staff respondents indicated they utilized peer supports in their classroom. In
addition, 89.5% indicated they regularly used the following:
1. Explicit language to teach learning strategies and thinking skills
75
2. Peer supports to empower students to take responsibility for their
learning and support one another
3. Culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices to
support RCELD students’ academic needs.
Seventy-three and seven-tenths percents responded negatively when asked if they
rarely used culturally responsive material, content, and teaching practices in their
classroom. When asked to say whether they provided a carefully planned system of
instruction in learning strategies to their students, only 26.3% indicated they conducted
this type of planning. Thirty-six and eight-tenths percent indicated they did not plan that
particular way, and the remaining 36.8% did not respond or said they had no basis to
respond. This may be a contributor to the students’ low academic GPA.
76
Table 10
Academic Instruction (II)
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.
5.
6.
I do NOT use peer supports in my
classroom.
I regularly and explicitly teach learning
strategies and thinking skills to students
of racial, cultural, ethnic, & linguistic
diversity (RCELD) in my classroom.
I regularly use culturally responsive
materials, content, and teaching
practices in my classroom.
I regularly use peer supports in my
classroom to empower my students to
take responsibility for their learning and
to support t each other.
I rarely use culturally responsive
I rarely, if ever, provide a carefully
planned system of instruction in learning
strategies to students of RCELD in my
classroom.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis
to
Respond
6
9
1
1
2
1
0
9
8
1
0
2
11
6
0
0
1
9
8
1
6
8
3
0
2
1
4
3
4
7
A cumulative analysis of whether the instructional staff respondents felt they
planned and implemented effective academic differentiated intervention pedagogy to
support RCELD students in their classrooms yielded 75% agreement (see Figure 5). The
remaining 25% did not feel they had implemented or planned effective differentiated
intervention instructional pedagogy to support their RCELD students’ needs in their
individual classrooms.
77
25%
Disagreement
75%
Agreement
Figure 5. Classroom academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students.
Collaboration. Lastly, a survey was utilized to solicit and understand whether
school wide collaboration existed to support the RCELD students’ academic learning
needs with regard to differentiated intervention pedagogy (see Table 11). Forty-seven
and four-tenths percent of the instructional staff respondents felt there was extensive and
effective collaboration between general education teachers, special education teachers,
and other support staff. Furthermore, 84.2% disagreed the school had made little or no
effort to collaborate with students’ families, and 78.9% disagreed there was little or no
collaboration between teachers and other support staff. In addition, 73.3% disagreed the
prevailing attitude of school staff fostered isolation and little or no collaborative
interaction between general education teachers, special education teachers, and other
support staff (e.g., related services, ESL). Conversely, 52.6% felt the prevailing attitude
of the school staff fostered effective collaborative interactions. Forty-seven and four-
78
tenths percent felt the school actively sought involvement and decision making input
from families of RCELD students and were committed to learning about the culture of
those families and empowering them. Categorically speaking, the teacher collaboration
category pertinent to agreement and none agreement was split almost equally compared
to other categories.
Table 11
Collaboration
1.
2.
3.
5.
4.
5.
6.
There is extensive and effective
collaboration between general education
teachers, special education teachers, and
other support staff.
My school has made little or no effort to
collaborate with families of students of
RCELD.
The prevailing attitude of school staff
fosters extensive and effective
collaborative interaction between general
education teachers, special education
teachers, and other support staff.
There is little or no collaboration between
teachers, other support staff (e.g., related
services, ESL).
My school actively seeks involvement and
decision making input from families of
students of RCELD and is committed to
learning about the culture of those families
and empowering them.
The prevailing attitude of school staff
fosters isolation and little or no
collaborative interaction between general
education teachers, special education
teachers, and other support staff (e.g.,
related services, ESL).
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis
to
Respond
3
7
7
2
0
1
14
2
1
0
1
8
8
2
0
2
13
3
1
0
1
6
6
4
2
3
11
3
0
2
79
Respondents responded to the survey regarding whether they felt the school
implemented effective school wide collaboration to support RCELD student family and
their academic needs. As illustrated in Figure 6, 36% of the respondents felt the school
failed to collaboratively meet both the academic needs of the RCELD students and the
needs of their families. The remaining 64% felt a school wide collaborative environment
did exist to properly support both the RCELD students’ academic needs and their
families’ needs.
36%
Disagreement
64%
Agreement
Figure 6. School wide collaboration to support RCELD students.
Teacher demographics. Part two of the instructional staff survey was conducted
to gather teacher demographic information relevant to their educational services (see
Table 12). It consisted of eight aspects of teaching experiences including their current
teaching position, the number of years they had been in the educational profession,
80
number of years in the district, number of years teaching their current grade level,
grade level they currently taught and subject/s, any leadership related responsibility, and
how they obtained the knowledge of the Iu Mien students.
Table 12
Teacher Demographic Survey (N=19)
Position
Current Teaching Assignment
General Education
Department Chair
Teacher-in-charge/Lead Teacher
Years in Education Profession
Less than 5 years
5 to 10 years
More than 10 years
Years with the District
Less than 5 years
5 to 10 years
More than 10 years
Years Taught at Current Grade Level
Less than 5 years
5 to 10 years
More than 10 years
Grade Level Teach
9th
10th
11th
12th
Current Teaching Assignment
Math
Art/Computer
Social Science
Biology
English
Spanish
Science/Earth Science
World Geography
Criminal Justice
Adjunct Assignment/s
Grade Level Team
Problem-Solving/Leadership Team
Other (Subject Team Lead, Social Committee, Healthy Start
Program, Math Tutorial, Curriculum, and Small Learning Committee)
Not serve on any team
N
13
1
4
4
6
9
6
5
8
6
6
7
13
15
15
14
5
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
3
1
7
6
81
Table 12 (continued)
Position
Knowledge of Cultural Relevant Practice Pertinent to Iu Mien Students
University Coursework
General Professional Development
District Professional Development
Mentoring
Website, blogs, wiki, and etc.
Other (Books, Iu Mien Conferences,
Students, Self, and Multicultural
Education)
No knowledge at all
N
11
9
6
3
2
10
1
Note: The sum of categories not equal to 19 indicate teacher assuming multiple
responsibilities or the teacher did not respond
The surveyed data indicated 17 of the 19 respondents were general education
teachers. One served as department chair and five served as either the teacher-in-charge
or lead teachers. With regard to grade level and subject taught, multiple teachers taught
multiple grade levels, with 14 indicating they taught ninth grade. Sixteen, 16, and 15
taught 10th, 11th, and 12th grades respectively. The respondents also reported they taught
math (6), art, social science (2), biology, English (2), Spanish, earth science (3), world
history, and criminal justice. The respondents also indicated they served in other
capacities such as grade level teams (3) and problem-solving or leadership teams (2).
Seven respondents indicated they served in other non-listed categories such as subject
team lead, social committee, healthy start program math tutorial, curriculum, and small
learning committee. Of the 19 respondents, seven reported they did not serve on any
extra-curricular committees or teams.
With regard to teaching experiences, five had been in the education profession for
fewer than five years, five were in it for between five and 10 years, and nine had been
teaching for more than 10 years. Specifically, seven were with the current district for
82
fewer than five years, four were employed with the district for between five and 10
years, and eight had been there for more than 10 years. The data indicated six teachers
had taught in their current grade level for fewer than five years and six taught at their
current grade level for between five and 10 years while seven taught at their current grade
level for more than 10 years. The data also indicated the respondents were teaching
multiple grades. For example, 14 indicated they either taught or were teaching ninth
grade, equal numbers of teachers (16) either taught or were teaching 10th or 11th grades,
and 15 were either teaching or had taught 12th grade.
Survey question 8 surveyed the different avenues through which the teachers
obtained information of and experiences with the Iu Mien students. The majority of the
knowledge relevant to the Iu Mien students was obtained either through university course
work (12), professional development in general (9), and professional development
provided by the school district (6). Three respondents were mentored and three learned
though websites, blogs, or wikis while 12 learned via books, Iu Mien conferences,
students, and multicultural education courses. One respondent indicated he or she had
not learned anything relevant to the Iu Mien students the school served. It is also
important to note the study school has the highest Iu Mien student enrollment and has the
best faculty to Iu Mien student ratio. This ratio is significantly higher than any other
school in the district. The school has both an Iu Mien history teacher and an
administrator.
The cumulative analysis of the four different categories indicates the level of
school wide differentiated intervention pedagogy implemented to meet the needs of the
RCELD students. The data indicated that in all four categories, the respondents felt the
83
school was successful. For example, in the category of the implementation and
effectiveness of a school wide climate and support to address the needs of RCELD
students, 74% of the instruction staff respondents agreed there was success while only
26% disagreed. The second category solicited whether the instruction staff felt if a
school wide academic differentiated intervention program was in place and viewed it as
an effective intervention strategy serving racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically
diverse students at IMCHS. Sixty-nine percent agreed the intervention was both
implemented and shows success while 31% disagreed. The third category was more
specific as it solicited classroom academic differentiated intervention pedagogy.
Seventy-five percent of the instructional staff respondents indicated they implemented
academic differentiated instruction pedagogy in their classroom and had success
providing the RCELD students’ needs while 25% disagreed.
Lastly, whether a school wide collaborative environment is in place to serve the
academic needs of the RCELD students, 64% indicated the school is meeting the needs of
the RCELD students’ needs while 37% disagreed. Based upon the quantitative data, the
instructional staff at IMCHS felt they were appropriately serving the racial, cultural,
ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the Iu Mien students in all four categories (school
climate and support, academic instruction I and II, and teacher collaboration) such as or
similar to that of multicultural education. Multicultural education, as indicated by Nieto
(2004), is a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students.
It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society
and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and
gender, among others) students, their communities, and teachers reflect.
84
Results and Interpretations
As indicated previously, the Iu Mien have very different needs than other Asians.
More often than not, they are not fully understood but instead grouped and associated
with other Asians such as the Japanese or Chinese who are here under different
circumstances and possess significantly higher education levels or socioeconomic
statuses (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005; Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005).
Additionally, few studies have been written on the Iu Mien’s behalf, especially literature
speaking to their educational needs and attainment. Research studies in the field of
education are the least often conducted and the findings of this study may provide some
insights on the educational status, learning styles, and needs of Iu Mien people relevant to
their academic achievement. This quantitative research study may provide some useful
perspective on the education of Iu Mien people residing in the Garden City Valley and
foster further understanding on the existing complexity of this indigenous ethnic minority
group.
This research study assessed the Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation
levels and analyzed them for a possible connection between them and their cumulative
academic GPA for the 2011-2012 school year. In doing so, the researcher adopted
Barry’s (2001) EAAM to assess the students’ acculturation level. It was also important
to examine the instructional pedagogy the teachers and school implemented to meet the
needs of the racial, cultural, and linguistic diverse school serving Iu Mien high school
students with regard to multicultural education, such as Nieto’s (2004) levels of
multicultural education. As a triangulation method, the researcher also adopted
Robinson’s (2010) Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special
85
Education Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) in Diverse
Elementary School assessment tool to assess instructional pedagogy at a culturally
diverse school. It is important to recognize other factors such as teacher demographics,
as teachers have continuous contact with the Iu Mien students. Upon conducting,
assessing, and analyzing the data of the self-rating Likert-type surveys (EAAM and
RCELD), and the results of the teacher demographics, a few findings surfaced that may
provide further understanding of Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation levels and
their academic achievement.
In assessing the acculturation levels of Iu Mien students, it was found that 74% of
the Iu Mien student participants classified themselves as being culturally integrated or
practicing biculturalism. This finding paralleled the research studies conducted by Saelee
(2005), Saechao (2010), and Lee and Greene (2010). In the Saelee study, she indicated
most of her Iu Mien respondents felt it was most beneficial for their children (Iu Mien
students) to participate in the mainstream culture for acceptance and benefits. They also
felt cultural preservation was critical. Similarly, Gomez (2005) reported that:
They maintain the cultural and ethnic practices that are essential to their identities.
The Mien American population is no exception. Through an analysis of gender
roles and expectations, which I found were the foundational elements to the Mien
American identity, the Mien parents have developed a way for their children to
main their cultural roots and function in the larger American society. (p. 157)
Consequently, a blend of the two cultures, otherwise known as integration or
biculturalism, was most beneficial in the process of acculturation and cultural
preservation. Lee and Greene’s (2010) research study further found the Hmong of
Wisconsin, from the same region and living together with the Iu Mien, preferred
integration over the other categories of acculturation.
86
The second finding surfaced from analyzing the RCELD survey solicited
response relevant to school climate and support, classroom and school-wide
differentiated instruction, and teacher demographics. The data indicate the teachers felt
they appropriately addressed the learning needs of the students in the following
categories of academic differentiated instruction: School-wide (69% agreement),
classroom (75% agreement), and collaboration (64% agreement). Both the assessment of
the acculturation level and multicultural education “use critical pedagogy as its
underlining philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) as the
basis for social change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social
justice” (Nieto, 2004, p. 437). It is then important to examine whether the school is
participating in a multicultural environment or not through the use of existing
multicultural education models such as Nieto’s (2004), levels of multicultural education.
Hence, Nieto’s model was adopted and used to described and gauge IMCHS’s level of
multicultural education participation.
Nieto’s levels of multicultural education consist of seven aspects with five
corresponding characteristic levels. The levels of multicultural education include critical
pedagogy, a process education for social justice, it is important for all students, pervasive,
basic, and antiracist/anti-discriminatory. The five characteristics include monoculture
education, tolerance, acceptance respect, affirmation, solidarity, and critique. Examples
of the different multicultural education levels ranged from Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory
monocultural education to critical pedagogy affirmation, solidarity, and critique in a
multicultural education environment. Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory monocultural
exhibits the least desirable and inappropriate learning environment for racially, culturally,
87
ethnically, and linguistically diverse learning institutions. The opposite end of the
spectrum of the level of multicultural education model is referred to as critical
pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique and is considered to be the most desirable
and appropriate learning environment for racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically
diverse learning institutions such as IMCHS. On Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory
monocultural education, “racism is unacknowledged. Policies and practices that support
discrimination are left in place. These include low expectations a refusal to use students’
national resources (such as language and culture) in instruction. Only a sanitized and
‘safe’ curriculum is in place” (Nieto, 2004, p. 388). Critical pedagogy affirmation,
solidarity, and critique is “students and teachers are involved in a ‘subversive.’ Decisionmaking and social action skills are the basis of the curriculum (Nieto, 2004, p. 389).
Based on Nieto’s levels of multicultural education and the analysis of the school
wide culture, teacher survey, instructional programs, and existing diversity tolerance
activities, the school is functioning between tolerance pervasive and acceptance
pervasive. A tolerance pervasive environment is “A multicultural perspective is evident
in some activities, such as Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo, and some
curriculum and materials. There may be an itinerant “multicultural teachers,” (Nieto,
2004, pp. 388-389). Acceptance pervasive is, “Student diversity is acknowledged, as can
be seen not only in ‘Holidays and Heroes’ but also in consideration of different learning
styles, values, and languages. A ‘multicultural program’ may be in place” (Nieto, 2004,
pp. 388-389). Evidently, the instructional staff respondents (69%) felt the school made
efforts to celebrate diversity. Additionally, both classroom teachers and administrators
had high achievement expectations of the very diverse student body they served, as
88
indicated by the RCELD survey data. In fact, 74% of the respondents indicated the
school accepted, acknowledged, promoted, and implemented a school climate supporting
racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity (RCELD). Furthermore, 69% indicated a
school wide implementation of an academic intervention strategy to address RCELD
students. Additionally, 75% of the respondents reported they implemented differentiated
intervention pedagogy to address the learning needs of RCELD students by making
adaptions of their lessons in the following areas: a) Content = what is taught, b) process =
how content is taught, c) product = how students demonstrate content mastery, d) affect =
how students connect their thinking and feelings, and e) learning environment = how the
classroom is designed and students are grouped.
Perhaps the category preventing the school from be classified as a more effective
or desirable multicultural institution, among many factors, is teacher collaboration. Of
the four categories surveyed in the research study, teacher collaboration showed the
lowest level of agreement (64%) between the teaching staff with regard to collaborating
on a regular basic to support RCELD students. The other three categories exhibited a
much higher agreement percentage (69%, 74%, and 75%). An additional hindering
factor may be in the form of low ethnic staff representation of the extremely diverse
student body in which there are 10% African Americans, 33% Asians, 40% Hispanics,
9% Whites, and 6% consisting of two or more races, yet 80% of the teaching staff are
Whites.
On a more promising note, the school website reports existing activities and
programs resembling those of a multicultural institution. Additionally, the school has
multiple clubs and activities available to the students to promote diversity and ethnic
89
identity in a diverse multicultural institution. Clubs such as Mien, Hmong,
Vietnamese, Mandarin, Glee, Polynesian, Spanish, Keys, and Straight and Gay Alliance
are fully functioning. Furthermore, this particular school also has the highest Iu Mien
student to faculty representation than anywhere else in the district: one teachers and an
administrator are of Iu Mein descent. Progressing toward a more prominent and effective
multicultural school, Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS) is attempting to create
what Lenaghan (2000) referred to as expanding life experiences, student knowledge, and
capacities, thus promoting a feeling of belonging to both academic achievement and
cultural identity. IMCHS is transparent in the acknowledgement of diverse holidays,
heroes, learning styles, multiethnic relevant curriculum, values, and language of the
students, thus classifying the school as being accepted by Nieto’s (2004) levels of
multicultural education model.
With all findings considered, there are no significant differences between the
academic achievements of the Iu Mien students acculturation levels, their cumulative
academic GPAs, and being in an RCELD environment with regard to the respondents of
this study identified as being integrated and assimilated. More specifically, those who
identified as being assimilated held a slightly higher GPA of 2.9 while those identified as
being integrated held a GPA of 2.8. However it is important to note the significant
difference found within the category of integration where 63% of the students held a
GPA of 3.0 or higher (mean = 3.6) while the remaining students held a mean GPA of 1.7.
This finding contradicts the assumption that Iu Mien students would perform better while
integrated rather than assimilated, separated, or marginalized in a multicultural learning
environment. Perhaps, the parents of these students have higher expectations of their
90
children and value education highly (Suinn, 2010) but lack the means or the education
level to provide appropriate support as indicated by Liow (2008), Saechao (2010), and
Saelee (2005). It also contradicts the common finding (Suinn, 2010) that high
identification with the Asian culture is associated with high academic motivation and
achievement among high school Chinese students.
The findings do, however, confirm the notion that Iu Mien students from the same
region of Asia do not necessarily have similar cultural or educational needs. In fact, the
findings of this quantitative research study confirms that when an institution provides
services to Asian students with a “one-sizes-fits-all” ideology, it does not really serve the
needs of the Iu Mien high school students. Additionally, Bennett (1990) and Sleeter and
McLaren (1995) reported the different waves of Asian immigrants to the states came with
different skills and socioeconomic statuses, such the Japanese, Chinese, and Europeans.
These groups were mostly well educated and had much more comfortable living
conditions in their native countries, unlike the Iu Mien, who are without an official
written language and are forced to relocate as refugees rather than by choice. Therefore,
their needs in all aspects of life in a foreign country are much greater and needier than
those of other Asians. The notion that all Asians are smart, perform extremely well
academically, or have similar cultural and academic needs is not applicable to the Iu
Mien people.
Summary
To address the two research questions, the triangulation of student acculturation
level, 2012 cumulative GPA, and instructional pedagogy relevant to multicultural
education was utilized to gather the necessary data for analysis. The student survey was
91
employed to elicit a possible connection or linkage between the Iu Mien students’
acculturation levels and their academic GPAs. Research question 1 is addressed first.
What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu
Mien high school students?
To address the first research question, the East Asian Acculturation Measure
(EAAM) by Barry (2001) was adapted to deepen the understanding of the Iu Mien
students’ cultural level and promote the academic learning needs of the Iu Mien students.
This instrument consisted of four categories: assimilation, separation, integration, and
marginalization level of the students. Where N=27, assimilation means of 4.1 (neutral)
and standard deviation of 0.4 indicating the students are classified as being neutral for
classification of assimilation purposes. Students of this category also had a slightly
higher mean cumulative GPA of 2.9 than students classified as being culturally integrated
with a cumulative mean GPA of 2.8. Students classified as being culturally integrated
had a categorical means of 5.3 (agreement to being integrated) and standard deviation of
0.4. Those students identified as being culturally separated had a categorical means of
3.9 (disagreement to being culturally separated) and standard deviation of 0.3 indicating
they did not consider themselves to be classified in the separation category. They held a
cumulative mean GPA of 2.3. Lastly, the categorical means of 3.0 (disagreement) and
standard deviation of 0.2 indicates the students classified as being culturally marginalized
also had a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3.
The second research question addressed whether the school met the needs of the
RCELD students, including the Iu Mien, via differentiated intervention instructional
pedagogy and an ethnic diverse learning environment.
92
What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school
students?
An additional component used to address the above research question surveyed
teacher demographics relevant to their educational experiences and knowledge of the Iu
Mien students the school served. The first part of this component consisted of four
categories, school climate and supports, school wide academic instruction, classroom
academic instruction, and school wide collaboration to support RCELD students at the
high school. The data indicate the school was implementing effective strategies to
address the needs of the RCELD students. Seventy-four percent of the instructional staff
respondents felt the school implemented an effective school wide climate and supportive
strategies to support the academic learning needs of RCELD students. Sixty-nine percent
reported the school, via school wide differentiated intervention teaching and learning
pedagogy, was addressing the academic learning needs of RCELD students.
Furthermore, 75% also believed classroom-specific differentiated intervention
instructional pedagogy was also successful in addressing the RCELD students’ academic
learning needs. Additionally, 64% of the respondents agreed there was an effective
school wide collaborative strategy in place to address the academic learning needs of
RCELD students.
The respondents were mainly general education teachers consisting of 17 out of
19 subjects while six were either department chairs, lead teachers, or teachers-in-charge.
With respect to extra-curricular duties and leadership capacity, three respondents served
on grade-level teams, two served on either problem-solving or leadership teams, seven
served in other capacities (subject team lead, healthy start program social committee,
93
math tutorial, curriculum, and small learning communities), and seven were not
involved in any extracurricular duties.
Fourteen of the 19 respondents had been in the education profession for more than
five years while five had less than five years of teaching experiences. Of the 19
respondents, 12 were employed at the district for at least five years while seven were with
the district for fewer than five years. The teachers at the high school were assigned to
teaching multiple subjects. For example, 14 taught ninth grade, 16 taught 10th grade, 16
taught 11th grade, and 15 taught 12th grade. The subjects being taught by the respondents
included math (6), art, social science (2), biology, English (2), Spanish, earth science (3),
world geography, and criminal justice. The surveyed data also indicate the majority of
the respondents either knew or acquired some type of knowledge relevant to the Iu Mien
students the school served. Many learned though university coursework, professional
development in general, professional development conducted by the district, mentoring,
websites, blogs, wikis, books, Iu Mien conferences, self (Iu Mien teacher), or
multicultural education course work. One respondent did indicate he or she had no
knowledge of who the Iu Mien students are or had any exposure to their ethnicity.
Based upon the levels of multicultural education model, IMCHS may be classified
as progressing toward an ideal multicultural education school but its current status lies
between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance. According to Nieto (2004):
Pervasive Tolerance = A multicultural perspective is evident in some activities,
such as Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo, and in some curriculum and
materials. There may be an itinerant “multicultural teacher.”
Pervasive Acceptance = Student diversity is acknowledged, as can be seen
not only in “Holidays and Heroes” but also in consideration of different learning
styles, values, and languages. A “multicultural program” may be in place. (pp.
388-389)
94
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
Current literature written on the Iu Mien’s behalf is extremely minimal. In an
attempt to acquire a better understanding, through research, scholars, more often than not,
lumped the Iu Mien with other Southeast Asian ethnic groups. As indicated by Gomez
(2005), Downing (2002), Saelee (2005), Yaangh (2008), and Liow (2008), this
association provided an inaccurate and often misleading characteristic of the Iu Mien
people’s needs. As discussed in the previous chapters, other Asian groups such as the
Japanese, Chinese, and Vietnamese who migrated to this country came with more
education and had a much more favorable socioeconomic status (Bennett, 1990; Sleeter
& McLaren, 1995) than the Iu Mien, refugees without an official written language or
formal education (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005; Yaangh, 2008). Therefore,
the Iu Mien residing in the Garden Valley and across the United Sates have different
cultural, social, economic, and educational needs.
The purpose of this research study was to provide an understanding of the
acculturation process of Iu Mien high school students and whether a possible linkage
between their acculturation levels and academic achievement exits. Furthermore, this
research attempted to understand the level of multicultural education at which IMCHS is
participating based on Nieto’s (2005) level of multicultural education model. Another
aspect of this research was considering the need to provide additional literature written on
the Iu Mien’s behalf to foster an accurate understanding of the Iu Mien and their
children’s learning needs and achievement.
95
Therefore, the study of these Iu Mien students’ acculturation level was conducted
utilizing the quantitative methodology, more specifically the descriptive analysis
approach, to provide an understanding of the learning needs of the Iu Mien students. As
reported by Creswell (2008), the descriptive analysis approach allowed the researcher to
utilize quantifiable data to investigate a possible connection between IMCHS students’
acculturation levels and their academic statistical data for academic achievement.
Hence, this quantitative research study utilized the data gathered though the
adoption of existing surveys (EAAM and RCELD) to provide future researchers,
practitioners, policymakers, and all stakeholders with some understanding of the
acculturation process and the educational needs of the Iu Mien students participating in a
culturally pluralistic society. The cultural pluralism model makes the distinction that the
“melting pot” theory is not suitable to all learners and minority learners have different
learning needs (Bennett, 1990; Gay, 2004; Nieto, 2004; Sleeter & McLaren, 1995), thus
curricula and instructional pedagogy should reflect the cultural differences of the
students. To further understand and meet the academic needs of the Iu Mien students, it
was important to assess their acculturation levels. Literature assessing the acculturation
level of similar minority groups indicated integration or biculturalism preferences over
assimilation, separation, and marginalization citing integration as having more desirable
societal benefits (Lee & Green, 2010; Saelee, 2005). Therefore, the two research
questions were posed to foster understanding of the learning needs of the Iu Mien
students.
96
To address question #1: What impact does the degree of acculturation have on
the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?, the EAAM was adopted to
assess the Iu Mien students’ acculturation level in four categories: assimilation,
separation, integration, and marginalization. To address question 2: What are appropriate
instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?, the RCELD was adopted
to explore the educational institution’s sensitivity to the extremely diverse student body at
IMCHS in the following categories: school climate, classroom academic instruction,
school-wide academic instruction, collaboration, and teacher demographic information.
The RCELD findings were used to determine the level of multicultural education based
on Nieto’s (2004) model, level of multicultural education. Finally, this chapter provides
a conclusion, recommendations, and concludes with the summary.
Conclusion
Rooted in the cultural pluralism theory, this quantitative research study explored
the implications of Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation processes and their
academic achievements. In an attempt to address the two research questions, student
acculturation levels, cumulative GPAs, and school learning environment conducive to
multicultural education were triangulated. Consequently, several findings have surfaced
with the capacity to foster understanding of the academic needs of the Iu Mien students.
In addressing the first research question, “What impact does the degree of
acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?”, it was
necessary to assess the students’ acculturation levels; thus, the EAAM survey was
utilized. It was found the Iu Mien high school students at IMCHS rated themselves as
being integrated (integrated = 74%, separated = 15%, assimilated = 7%, and
97
marginalization = 4% where N=27). This finding is consistent with multiple research
studies conducted on both the Iu Mien and the Hmong of Wisconsin (Lee & Green,
2010), Washington State (Galli-Banducci, 1996), and California (Gomez, 2005; Roche,
1997; Saelee, 2005). Evidently, research studies conducted on the Iu Mien’s behalf
indicate that being integrated provides the most favorable opportunity to effectively
function in the mainstream society of the United States, for it fosters the opportunity to
retain and adopt desirable cultural characteristics of both cultures. Most importantly, the
Iu Mien parents in these studies expressed a similar desire and viewed integration and
biculturalism as the most important and beneficial for themselves to both participate and
function in the increasingly diverse country.
However, the summative finding of this quantitative research study indicated
there were no significant differences between acculturation levels and academic
achievement (assimilated = 2.9 cumulative GPA and integrated = 2.8 cumulative GPA).
It is important to note the difference found within the integration category where 63% of
the integrated students held a mean GPA of 3.5 while the other 37% held a mean GPA of
1.7. Although a significant difference was not found between the categories, one
contributor may be that the Iu Mien lacked the indigenous written language component
(Galli-Banducci, 1996). Furthermore, the parents of these students have had no formal
education and, thus were unable to provide the much-needed support for their children
participating in the current data-driven educational system, especially a system lacking
the necessary research to appropriately address the learning needs of minority children
such as the Iu Mien. Perhaps the educational institution attempted to address the learning
needs of the Iu Mien students by associating them with all other Asians and
98
implementing a curriculum that was, in reality, inappropriate and ineffective.
Moreover, this quantitative research study, dismissed, the one-size-fits-all or the melting
pot model implying one curriculum is appropriate for addressing the needs of student
from the same geographical region regardless of their cultural differences. It is especially
true for the Iu Mien who are Asians, but unlike their Japanese or Chinese predecessors,
did not come to the United States by choice but came instead as refugees with no formal
education, an extremely low socioeconomic status, a lack of home literacy environment
(Roche, 1997), and without an indigenous written component (Galli-Banducci, 1996).
The second question of this quantitative research study examined, through the use
of an adopted Likert-type self-rating survey (Robinson, 2010), the learning environment
of the Iu Mien students relevant to multicultural education. It was found the teachers
believed they were providing multicultural or appropriate education to the Iu Mien
students at IMCHS in the following categories: Implementation of effectiveness of a
school-wide academic differentiated intervention pedagogy to support RCELD student
needs (69% agreement), implementation and effectiveness of classroom academic
differentiated intervention pedagogy to support RCELD student needs (75% agreement),
and implementation and effectiveness of school wide collaboration to support RCELD
student needs (64% agreement). Accounting for the previously stated findings, teacher
teaching experience, and school activities and functions, IMCHS was classified as being
between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance based Nieto’s (2004) level of
multicultural education defined as:
Pervasive Tolerance = A multicultural perspective is evident in some activities,
such as Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo, and in some curriculum and
materials. There may be an itinerant “multicultural teacher.”
99
Pervasive Acceptance = Student diversity is acknowledged, as can be
seen not only in “Holidays and Heroes” but also in consideration of different
learning styles, values, and languages. A “multicultural program” may be in
place. (pp. 388-389)
Finally and perhaps the most unexpected findings of this quantitative research
study through the triangulation of student acculturation levels (EAAM), cumulative
GPAs, and multicultural learning environment for RCELD students (N=27) was that the
Iu Mien students held a contradictory low cumulative GPA of 2.73. This finding
contradicts the assumptions and findings of multiple studies (Lee & Green, 2010; Roche,
1997; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005) that if students are classified as being integrated and
attend a multicultural sensitive institution, they would perform better academically.
However a difference was found within the integration category where the majority of the
students held a cumulative GPA of 3.0 or higher.
Recommendations
Upon the completion of the quantitative research study it was found that the Iu
Mien students at IMCHS rated themselves as being integrated rather than assimilated,
separated, or marginalized. Furthermore, there were not significant differences when
accounting for student acculturation level, cumulative GPA, and their learning
environment relevant to multicultural education. Therefore, the researcher’s
recommendation is divided into two considerations, one for Iu Mien community and the
other for the education institution providing services to the Iu Mien children.
Recommendations for Actionable Solutions for the Research Problem
For the Iu Mien community, it is recommended they continue to support the
existing 503c non-profit organizations to foster the preservation of the Iu Mien culture as
100
well as continue to foster leadership opportunities for the Iu Mien youth and women
to be active members of the community to build and implement sustainable cultural
preservation-related activities and programs both locally and internationally. It is also
recommended the community continue to participate in the process of integration or
biculturalism to increase the recognition, valuation, and validation of cultural identity of
Iu Mien youth to foster organization membership and academic achievement. The
recommendations unify the promotion of biculturalism through the collaboration of Iu
Mien collectives such as the elders, youth, and women working in unison to achieve a
common goal through small but achievable activities and functions. The sum of these
recommendations supports and encourages the perception that integration greatly
enhances and benefits ethnic minority groups rather than the other acculturation process.
Thus, minority cultures can adapt, find opportunities, and achieve goals beyond initial
imaginings (Berry, 2005). Additionally, the participation and implementation of these
recommendations support the Iu Mien parents (Saelee, 2005) who desire and consider
integration to be most beneficial to both themselves and their children as they participate
in biculturalism or a culturally pluralistic society.
With regard to the education of the Iu Mien students, it is recommended the
education institution develop and implement culturally responsive curriculum specific to
the Iu Mien rather than prescribing the broad curriculum and expecting to appropriately
serve these students. According to multiple research studies (Galli-Banducci, 1996;
Roche, 1997; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005), teachers are not knowledgeable of the Iu
Mien culture and history; therefore, it is recommended that teachers make an effort to
learn about it and the educational institution provides learning opportunities for them to
101
learn the culture and history of the Iu Mien people. Lastly, the educational institution
should have a more meaningful celebration of different cultures rather than the traditional
classroom parties, announcements, and informal acknowledgements (Nieto, 2004).
Although the instructional faculty at IMCHS rated themselves as be sufficiently
and appropriately serving a racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse
student body, the school was found to be participating at the lower spectrum of Nieto’s
level of multicultural education model between pervasive/tolerance and
pervasive/acceptance, exhibiting evidence of a multicultural perspective and the
celebration of some cultural activities, curriculum, and materials. Additionally
transparent was the acknowledgement of student diversity and consideration of different
learning styles, values, and languages. Nevertheless, to be classified and recognized as
being an effective multicultural learning institution, IMCHS may want to be classified as
containing critical pedagogy/respect or critical pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and
critique. Nieto (2004) referred to these multicultural education environments as:
Pedagogy/respect, students and teachers use critical dialogue as the primary basis
for their education. They see and understand different perspectives.
Pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique, students and teachers are
involved in a “subversive activity.” Decision-making and social action skills are
the basis of the curriculum. (pp. 388-389)
Recommendations For Further Research
As discussed in the previous chapters, the Iu Mien ethnic group does not have an
official written language; hence, the documentation and empirical research on their
learning styles and academic needs are not fully understood. Therefore, future research
should focus on exploring the learning styles of the Iu Mien students. Future research on
Iu Mien student achievement should be conducive to the parent, child, educators, elders,
102
leaders, and both site- and district-level perspectives. Research giving consideration
to the myriad perspectives of all stakeholders can potentially provide a more explicit
understanding of Iu Mien students and their learning. Additionally, a similar research
study with the addition of Iu Mien perception of the teachers may provide a more indepth understanding of the Iu Mien students learning styles and academic achievements.
Lastly, future research should be conducted on existing Iu Mien educators to explore or
analyze their learning experiences, acculturation without assimilation coping mechanism,
and the attainment of their education. These categories provide researchers the
opportunity to understand the mechanism involved as the Iu Mien educators maneuvered
around the pressure to excel academically and cultural expectations to successfully
complete their higher education.
Summary
The Iu Mien, a little known and written about ethnic group of Southeast Asia, are
beginning to recognize the peril of their indigenous culture. Until the last six to nine
years, research literature representative and reflective of the Iu Mien culture or their
academic needs was extremely limited. Due to the lack of specific literature conducted
on the Iu Mien’s behalf, researchers and policymakers often associated and relied upon
the research of other Asian groups whom are much more educated and stronger
socioeconomically. Thus unintentionally, developed curriculum and programs to meet
the needs of the general Asian public did not necessarily address the specific achievement
or general needs of the Iu Mien students.
Understandably, the Iu Mien and other immigrants faced myriad barriers as they
attempted to negotiate, navigate, and compete for a piece of the American pie that
103
includes one or more college degrees, respectable employment, and a comfortable
income to support an individual’s immediate family. This process can be considered a
dual process much like the historic continental railroad project. The Iu Mien community
and the educational institution can, as a collective, strategically plan and implement
programs that support equity in both academia and life as the Iu Mien participate in the
biculturalism or integration ideology, contributing to the cultural preservation process of
the Iu Mien people.
One avenue for the Iu Mien, as they participate in biculturalism, is to promote,
disseminate, contribute, encourage, and educate the mainstream culture through research
literature relevant to culture preservation and cultural identity. This is critical as Roche
(1997) indicated teachers have limited knowledge of the Iu Mien students’ culture,
history, or community. More importantly, members of the educational institution’s
increased knowledge of students’ cultures and histories directly contribute to the
development of effective curriculum (Gomez, 2005).
Therefore, the impetus of this quantitative research study was to contribute to the
literature written on the Iu Mien’s behalf to promote better understanding of the academic
learning needs of the Iu Mien students. As indicated by Gomez (2003), understanding
the acculturation levels influences favorable academic success and that education should
support and maintain the Iu Mien ethnic identity. Thus, the surfaced findings through the
triangulation of students’ acculturation levels, academic GPAs, and institutional learning
environment relevant to multicultural education will both contribute to current literature
and foster an understanding of the academic learning needs of the Iu Mien students.
Multicultural education models, such as Nieto’s level of multicultural education, provide
104
guidance for the assessment of the level of multicultural education an instructional
institution is providing a racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse school
such as IMCHS. Nieto’s level of multicultural education model illustrates and describes
multicultural education from the least to most effective environment ranging from
antiracist-antidiscriminatory/monocultural education to critical pedagogy/affirmation,
solidarity, and critique, respectively (Nieto, 2004, pp. 388-389).
Lastly, as the researcher is of the Iu Mien ethnic minority group, the researcher
found it difficult to not impose his own knowledge, ideology, and judgment and leave out
his bias, similar to Gomez (2005). Though it was difficult, the researcher was able to
provide literature with an objective perspective to promote further understanding of the Iu
Mien culture and the children’s academic learning needs.
105
List of References
Adeeb, P., Bosnic, J., & Terrell, S. (1999). Hands-on mathematics: A tool for
cooperative problem solving. Multicultural Perspectives, 1(3), 27-34. Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Alder, N. (2002). Interpretations of the meaning of care: Creating caring relationships in
urban middle school classrooms. Urban Education, 37, 241-266.
Allison, B. N., & Rehm, M. L. (2007). Effective teaching strategies for middle school
learners in multicultural, multilingual classrooms. Middle School Journal, 39(2),
12-18.
American Heritage Dictionary. (n.d.). Acculturation. Retrieved from
http://www.answers.com/topic/acculturation
Banks, J. A. (1991). A curriculum for empowerment, action, and change. In G. Gay,
Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and
practice. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on
multicultural education (pp. 3-29). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Barry, D. T. (2001). Development of a new scale for measuring acculturation: The East
Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM). Journal of Immigrant Health 3, 193-196.
Basile, C. G. (1997). Nature at your doorstep: Real world investigation for primary
students (p. 161). Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press/Libraries Unlimited.
Bennett, C. I. (1990). Comprehensive multicultural education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaption. In A. Padilla (Ed.),
Acculturation: Theory, models and findings (pp. 9-25). Boulder, Co: Westview.
Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In N. R Goldberger & J. B Veroff
(Eds.), The culture and psychology reader (pp. 457-488). New York: New York
University Press. (Reprinted from Nebraska symposium on motivation: crosscultural perspectives, by J. J. Berman, Ed., 1989, Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An
International Review, 46, 5-34.
106
Berry, J. W. (1998). Conceptual approaches to understanding acculturation. Paper
presented at Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied
research, San Francisco.
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 697-712.
Berry, J. W. & Sam, D. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In J. W. Berry, M. H.
Segall & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3:
Social behavior and applications (pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Brahier, D. J. (2000). Teaching secondary and middle school mathematics. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Broom, L., & Kitsuse, J. I. (1955). The validation of acculturation: A condition to ethnic
assimilation. American Anthropologist, 57, 44-48.
Burpo, D. C., & Wheeler, P. (1994). Cooperative learning centers in an inner city
classroom. Teaching K-8. August/September.
California Department of Education (CDE). (2013). California English Language 201213 CELDT information guide. Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/el/documents/celdtinfoguide1213.pdf
Carpenter, S., Zarate, M. A., & Garza, A. A. (2007). Cultural pluralism and prejudice
reduction. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 83-93.
Center for Applied Linguistics. (1981). The Mien. U.S. Department of Education,
National Institution of Education, Educational Research Information Center.
Retrieved from ERIC Database. (ED207351)
Chun, K. M., & Akutsu, P. D. (2003). Acculturation among ethnic minority families. In
P. D. Akutsu (Ed.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied
research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research. Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research. Mahwah, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Cummins, J. (1982). Bilingualism and minority language children. Toronto, ON: UISE
Press.
Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in diverse
society. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
107
Daniels, H. (1996). An introduction to Vygotsky. New York: Routledge.
Dekker, R., & Elshot-Mohr, M. (2004). Teacher interventions aimed at mathematical
level raising during collaborative learning. Educational studies in mathematics,
56, 39-65. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Dilger, S. C. (1994). Developing policy and programs for multicultural art education:
Curriculum and instruction responsive to cultural diversity. Art Education, 47(4),
49-53.
Ding, M., Li, S., Kulm, G., & Piccolo, D. (2007). Teacher interventions in cooperative
learning mathematics classes. College Station: Texas A & M University, Heldref
Publications.
Dohrenwend, B. P., & Smith, R. J. (1962). Toward a theory of acculturation.
Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 18, 30-39.
Dossey, J. A., McCrone, S., Giordano, F. R., & Weir, M. (2002). Mathematics methods
and modeling for today’s mathematics classroom. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Downing, J. R. (2002). A study of the effects of acculturation with young adult Mien
(Unpublished master's thesis). California State University, Sacramento.
Duncan, H. G. (1929). A study of the process of assimilation. Publications of the
American Sociological Society, 23, 184-187.
Eaton, J. (1952). Controlled acculturation: A survival technique of the Hutterites.
American Sociological Review, 17, 331-340.
Evans, J. M., Forney, S. D., Guido, M. F., Patton, D. L., & Renn, A. K. (2010). Student
development in college. Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Fitzpatrick, M. (2009). The adaptation of Mien refugees to American society in a small
city in Northern California: A case study (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Walden University, MI.
Flaskerud, J. H. (2007). Cultural competence column: Acculturation. Issues in Mental
Health Nursing, 28, 543-546.
Galli-Banducci, J. (1996). Building paths to understanding: A qualitative study of
monolingual English, biliterate Latino and bilingual Mien students’
comprehension strategies (Published PhD dissertation). University of San
Francisco.
108
Ganesh, T. G., & Middleton, J. A. (2006). Challenges in linguistically and culturally
diverse elementary settings with math instruction sing learning technologies. The
Urban Review, 38(2), 101-143.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New
York: Teachers College Press.
Gay, G. (2004). Beyond brown: Promoting equality through multicultural education.
Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 19, 193-216.
Gibbon, P. (2002). Scaffolding language scaffolding learning: Teaching second language
learners in the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Gomez, G. G. (2005). The negotiation to college: Examining the school and home
influences in the college-choice process for Mien American female and male
students. Retrieved from ProQuest.
Goodenow, C., & Espin, O. M. (1993). Identity choices in immigrant adolescent females.
Adolescence, 28(103). Retrieved from http://80search.epnet.com.proxy.lib.csus.edu/direct.asp?an=9306106663&db=afh.
Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion, national
origins. New York: Oxford University Press.
Guyton, E. (1991). Cooperative learning and elementary social studies. Social Education,
55, 313-315.
Haluza-DeLay, R. (2001). Remystifying the city: Reawakening the sense of wonder in
our own backyards. Thresholds in Education, 27(3-4), 36-40.
Hammond, L., & Liow, J. (1997). Mm Gou Tzum and the garden: Combining family
literacy and school science in the Mien community. [Unpublished seminar].
California Education for Bilingual Education. San Diego, CA.
Harker, K. (2001). Immigration generation, assimilation, and adolescent psychological
well-being. Social Forces, 79(3). Retrieved from
http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=4215797&db=ah
Hirsch, W. (1942). Assimilation as concept and process. Social Forces, 21, 35-59.
109
Iu Mien American National Coalition (IMANC). (2013). Home page. Retrieved from
www.imanc.org
Iu-Mien Community Services (IMCS). (2013). Home page. Retrieved from
http://www.unitediumien.org/
Johnson, R. (1963). A new approach to the meaning of assimilation. Human Relations,
16, 296-298.
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational research: Qualitative, qualitative and
mixed methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson R. T. (1986). Mainstreaming and cooperative learning
strategies. Exceptional Children, 52, 553-561.
Jones, S. J. (2007). Culturally responsive instruction. Leadership, 31(2), 14.
Keefe, S. E., & Padilla, A. M. (1987). Chicano ethnicity. The University of New Mexico
Press.
Klingner, J., Artiles, A. J., & Barletta, L. M. (2006). English language learners who
struggle with reading: Language acquisition or LD? Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 39, 108-128.
Kottak, C. P. (2005). Windows on humanity (pp. 209, 423). New York: McGraw Hill.
Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use. United States of
America: Heinemann.
Kroeger, S. D., & Kouche, B. (2006). Using peer-assisted learning strategies to increase
response to intervention in inclusive middle math settings. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 38(5), 6-13.
Kuntz, K. J., & McLaughlin, T. F. (2001). A comparison of cooperative learning and
small group individualized instruction for math in a self-contained classroom for
elementary students with disabilities. Educational Research Quarterly, 24(3), 41.
LaFromboise, T. L., Coleman, H. L. K., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of
biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 395-412.
Lee, C. D. (2007). Culture, literacy, and learning: Taking bloom in the midst of the
whirlwind. New York: Teachers College Press.
110
Lee, C. D., Rosenfed, E., Mendenhall, R., Rivers, A., & Tynes, B. (2004). Cultural
modeling as a frame for narrative analysis. In C. Daiute & C. Lightfood (Eds.),
Narrative analysis: Studying the development of individuals in society (pp. 3962). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lee, F., & Leu, J. (2006). Biculturalism and cognitive complexity: Expertise in cultural
representations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 386.
Lee, J. K., & Green, K. (2010). Acculturation process of Hmong in Eastern Wisconsin
Hmong Studies Journal, 11, 1-21.
Lenaghan, A. (2000). Reflections of multicultural curriculum. Building community
through global problem solving. Multicultural Education, 7, 33-36.
Levine, R. A. (2005). Assimilation, past and present. Public Interest, 159, 193-108.
Retrieved from ProQuest.
Liow, J. K. (2008). A mathematics intervention manual via school gardening activities
for the implementation in urban schools with Iu Mien students to foster academic
achievement (Unpublished masters thesis project). California State University,
Sacramento.
Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design. An interactive approach. Applied
Social Research Methods Series (Vol. 42). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Meyer, M. (1998). Learning and teaching through the naturalist intelligence. Clearing,
Sep-Oct, 7-11.
Miller, M. J. (2007). A bilinear multidimensional measurement model of Asian American
acculturation and enculturation: Implications for counseling interventions.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 118-131.
Nattiv, A. (1994). Helping behaviors and math achievement gain of students using
cooperative learning. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 285-297.
Ngo, B. (2002). Contesting “culture:” The perspectives of Hmong American female
students on early marriage. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 33, 163-188.
Nieto, S. (2004). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural
education (4th ed.). Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
111
Pajkos, D., & Klein-Collins, J. (2001). Improving upper grade math achievement via
the integration of a culturally responsive curriculum (Unpublished masters
research project). St. Xavier University and Skylight Professional Development
Field-Based Master’s Program, Chicago, IL.
Piland, W. E., Piland, A., & Hess, S. (1999). Status of multicultural education in the
curriculum. New Directions for Community Colleges, (108). Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Portal, J., & Sampson, L. (2000). Improving high school students’ mathematics
achievement through the use of motivational strategies (Unpublished masters
research project). St. Xavier University and Skylight Professional Development
Field-Based Master’s Program. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press Inc.
Ravid, R. (2010). Practical statistics for educators (4th ed.). New York: Rowan &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1963). Memorandum for the study of
acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149-152.
Risko, V. J., & Walker-Dalhouse, D. (2007). Tapping students’ cultural funds of
knowledge to address the achievement gap. The Reading Teacher, 61(1). 98-100.
Robinson, G. G. (2010). Cultural responsive beliefs and practices of general and special
education teachers implementing Responsive to Intervention (RTI) in a diverse
elementary school (Doctoral dissertation). The University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, North Carolina.
Roche, A. M. (1997). Encounters with schooling: Mien American families in an urban
school district (Published doctoral dissertation). University of Washington.
Roessingh, H. (2006). BICS-CALP: An introduction for some, a review for others. TESL
Canada Journal, 23, 91-96.
Saechao, N. X. (2010). Cultural awareness: The Iu Mienh (Unpublished master's thesis
project). California State University, Sacramento.
Saelee, A. (2005). Acculturation and assimilation process of Iu-Mien young adults
(Unpublished master's thesis). California State University, Sacramento.
Santisteban, D. A., & Mitrani, V. B. (2003). The influence of acculturation processes on
the family. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, & G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation:
Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. 121-135).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
112
Schniederwind, R. A., & Davidson. (1987). Cooperative learning cooperative lives: A
source book of learning activities for building a peaceful world. Huntington, IN:
Our Sunday Visitor.
Schwartz, S. J. & Unger, J. B. (2010). Biculturalism and context: What is biculturalism,
and when is it adaptive? Human Development, 53, 26-32.
Siatkowski, A. A. (2007). Hispanic acculturation: A concept analysis. Journal of
Transcultural Nursing, 18, 316-323.
Simons, S. E. (1901). Social assimilation. American Journal of Sociology, 6, 790-822.
Sleeter, C. E., & McLaren, P. L. (1995). Multicultural education, critical pedagogy, and
the politics of difference. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Smokowski, P. R., Rose, R., & Bacallao, M. L. (2008). Acculturation and Latino family
process: How cultural involvement, biculturalism, and acculturation gaps
influence family dynamics. Family Relations, 57, 295-308.
Spiro, M. E. (1955). The acculturation of American ethnic groups. American
Anthropologist, 57, 1240-1252.
Stoner, D. (2004). A Symlog analysis of competitive vs. cooperative groups for problem
solving in math. Sacramento: California State University, Sacramento,
Department of Teacher Education.
Suinn, R. M. (2010). Reviewing acculturation and Asian Americans: How acculturation
affects health, adjustment, school achievement, and counseling. Asian American
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 5-17.
Teske, R. H. C., Jr., & Nelson, B. H. (1974). Acculturation and assimilation: A
clarification. American Ethnologist, 1(2), 351-367.
Tobias, R. (1992). Nurturing at-risk youth in math & science curriculum and teaching
considerations. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.
United Iu Mien Incorporated of Sacramento. (n.d.). Home page. Retrieved from
www.unitediumien.org
United Iu Mien Incorporated. (2013). About us. Retrieved from
http://www.unitediumien.org/AboutUs.php
Woolston, H. (1945). The process of assimilation. Social Forces, 23, 416-424.
113
Xu, Y., & Drame, E. (2008). Culturally appropriate context: Unlocking the potential
of response to intervention for English learners. Early Childhood Education
Journal, 35, 305-311.
Yaangh, C. S. (2008). Crossing a new sea: A study of the first generation of Iu-Mien
college graduates (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of California,
Davis.
Ying, Y., & Chao, C. C. (1996). Intergenerational relationship in Iu Mienh American
families. Amerasia Journal, 22, 47-64.
Zeichner, K. (1996). Educating teachings for cultural diversity. In K. Zeichner, S.
Melnick, & M. L. Gomez (Eds.). Currents of reform in preservice teacher
education (pp. 133-167). New York: Teachers College Press.
114
Appendix A: Letters of Introduction
Drexel University
Recruiting Student/Parent Volunteers for a Research Study
Research Title:
Research Objectives:
1. To provide an in depth understanding of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high
school students through the use of established instruments such as the East Asian
Acculturation Measurement (Barry, 2001).
2. To conduct a correlative analysis to examine for possible correlation between Iu Mien
high school students’ acculturation level and their academic achievement.
3. To employed a Likert-type self-rating scale for teachers to examine classroom
instructional practices relevant to multicultural education (Robinson, 2010).
4. To give voices through literature to the less fortunate and often ignored Iu Mien.
5. To challenge the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific American are similar and have
similar needs and cultural norms.
The survey will conclude by August 31, 2012. Survey will be hand delivered to or sent to
participants via US mail till July 31, 2012. The collection of survey will conclude no later than
August 10, 2012.
Information for Research Subjects Eligibility:
Provide the eligibility criteria that will be used to admit subjects into the study.
Interested participants must meet the following criteria:
1. Must attend Hiram Johnson High School during the 2011-2012 school-year.
2. Of Iu Mien descent.
If you meet the above criteria and interested in participating in the survey, please contact me
using the contact information provided below.
Remuneration:
You may not personally receive benefit such as monetary compensation from participating in this
research study. However, your assistance in the survey may yield results that will help develop
deeper understanding of the acculturation process of Iu Mien students.
Location of the research and person to contact for further information:
If you are interested in participating in this study, please contact Joe K. Liow at:
(916) 230-2113 Or @j_liow@yahoo.com or joe.liow@drexel.edu
_______________________________________________________________________________
This research is conducted by a researcher who is a member of Drexel University.
115
Drexel University
Recruiting Instructional Staff Volunteers for a Research Study
Research Title:
Research Objectives:
6. To provide an in depth understanding of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high
school students through the use of established instruments such as the East Asian
Acculturation Measurement (Barry, 2001).
7. To conduct a correlative analysis to examine for possible correlation between Iu Mien
high school students’ acculturation level and their academic achievement.
8. To employed a Likert-type self-rating scale for teachers to examine classroom
instructional practices relevant to multicultural education (Robinson, 2010).
9. To give voices through literature to the less fortunate and often ignored Iu Mien.
10. To challenge the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific American are similar and have
similar needs and cultural norms.
The survey will conclude on August 31, 2012. Survey will be hand delivered to or sent to
participants via US mail till July 31, 2012. The collection of survey will conclude no later than
August 10, 2012.
Information for Research Subjects Eligibility:
Interested participants must meet the following criteria:
3. Must be an instructional staff member of Hiram Johnson High School during the 20112012 school-year.
If you meet the above criteria and interested in participating in the survey, please contact me
using the contact information provided below.
Remuneration:
You may not personally receive benefit such as monetary compensation from participating in this
research study. However, your assistance in the survey may yield results that will help develop
deeper understanding of the acculturation process of Iu Mien students.
Location of the research and person to contact for further information:
If you are interested in participating in this study, please contact Joe K. Liow at:
(916) 230-2113 Or @j_liow@yahoo.com or joe.liow@drexel.edu
_______________________________________________________________________________
This research is conducted by a researcher who is a member of Drexel University.
116
117
Appendix B: Consent Forms
Parent Consent Form
Parent Initial:_________
Drexel University Center for Graduates Studies Sacramento
I understand that my child is being asked as a volunteer to participate in a doctor of
education degree dissertation research to be conducted by Mr. Joe Liow at Drexel
University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. A component of this dissertation
research is to assess the acculturation level of high school students and conduct a
correlation analysis for correlation between acculturation level and academic
achievement.
I also understand that this procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any
know health risks.
I understand that my child and I may not personally benefit (such as monetary
compensation) from participating in this research. However, my child's assistance in the
survey may yield results that will help develop deeper understanding of the acculturation
process of our Iu Mien students.
I understand that my child's transcript record for the 2011-2012 school-year will be used
and that I give permission for the school district office to provide it to Mr. Joe Liow. To
protect my child’s identity, Mr. Liow will use pseudo names and numbers to correspond
my child to his/her academic records.
I understand the project goal and purpose as it was explained to me and that if I have any
questions about this research, I can contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916) 230-2113 or by email
at joe.liow@drexel.edu.
I understand that I may decline or cease my child's participant in this study without any
consequences. My signature below indicates that I have read this page and agree for my
child to participate in the research.
Signature:______________________________
Date:_________________________
List of Individual Authorized to Obtain Assent
Name
Title
Day Phone #
24 Hr. Phone
#
Joe K. Liow
Doctorial Candidate 916-230-2113
916-230-2113
118
Administrative Consent Form
Joe K. Liow
Subject Initial:__________
9435 Rhone Valley Way
Elk Grove, CA 95624
(916) 230-2113
joe.liow@drexel.edu or j_liow@yahoo.com
April 27, 2012
Principal Felisberto Cedros:
My name is Joe K. Liow, I am a doctor or education degree candidate at Drexel
University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. I am writing to request permission
to conduct my dissertation research with the Iu Mien students and instructional staff at
your school from May 23 to June 30, 2012.
A component of this dissertation research is to assess the acculturation level of high
school students and conduct a correlation analysis between acculturation level and
academic (GPA) achievement. Additionally, I will employ a self-rating Likert-type scale
to the instructional staff to gather instructional pedagogy data relevant to multicultural
education.
This procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. Your
students and staff will not personally benefit from participating in this research.
However, their assistance in the survey will help the school district develop deeper
understanding of Iu Mien students and meet their academic learning needs thus closing
the achievement gap.
I will not collect personal information and will use pseudo names instead of the students'
actual names. Furthermore, the students will not receive any monetary compensation for
participating in this research.
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916)
230-2113 or by email at joe.liow@drexel.edu.
You may decline or cease your students' participant in this study without any
consequences. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree to
allow your students to participate in the research.
Please sign and date this letter if permission is granted for me to conduct the study at
your high school. Thank you in advance for your support.
Respectfully,
Joe Liow
Subject Signature: ___________________________ Date: ______________________
List Individual Authorized to Obtained Consent
Name
Title
Day Phone #
Joe K. Liow
24 Hr. #
916-230-2113
119
Assent Form
Subject Initial:_________
Page 1 of 1
I understand that I am being asked as a volunteer to participate in a doctor of education
degree dissertation research to be conducted by Mr. Joe Liow at Drexel University Center
for Graduate Studies Sacramento. A component of this dissertation research is to assess
my acculturation level and conduct a correlation analysis for correlation between my
acculturation level and academic achievement.
I also understand that this procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any
know health risks.
I understand that I may not personally benefit (such as monetary compensation) from
participating in this research. However, my assistance in the survey may yield results
that will help develop deeper understanding of the acculturation process of our Iu Mien
students.
I understand that my academic records for the 2011-2012 school-year will be used and
that I give permission for the school district office to provide it to Mr. Joe Liow. To
protect my identity, Mr. Liow will use pseudo names and numbers to correspond my
academic records with me.
I understand the project goal and purpose as it has been explained to me. I understand
that if I have any questions about this research, I can contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916) 2302113 or by email at joe.liow@drexel.edu.
My parents are aware of and given me permission to participate in this dissertation study.
I also understand that I may decline or cease my participant in this study without any
consequences. My signature below indicates that I have read this page and agree to
participate in the research.
Signature:____________________________________
Date:_________________________
List of Individual Authorized to Obtain Assent
Name
Title
Day Phone #
#
Joe K. Liow
24 Hr. Phone
916-230-2113
120
Staff Consent Form
Subject’s Initial___________
Page 1 of 1
Dear Hiram W. Johnson Instructional Staff:
My name is Joe K. Liow, I am a doctor of education degree candidate at Drexel
University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. I am writing to request your
assistance with my dissertation research with the Iu Mien students at your school from
May 23 to June 30, 2012.
A component of this dissertation research is to provide an understanding of the classroom
instructional pedagogy that directly impacts the academic success of your Iu Mien
students. You are asked to complete the Likert-type self-rating scale soliciting
instructional pedagogy relevant to multicultural education.
This procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. I will
not collect personal information and will use pseudo names instead of your actual names.
You will not personally benefit from participating in this research. However, your
assistance in the survey and its results will help develop deeper understanding and greatly
contribute to the education of Iu Mienh students.
If you have any questions about this research, please contact me at (916) 230-2113 or by
email at joe.liow@drexel.edu.
You may decline or cease your participation in this study without any consequences.
Please sign and date this letter if you agreed to be part of my dissertation study. Thank
you in advance for your support.
Respectfully,
Joe Liow
Signature:____________________________________Date:_______________________
______
List Individual Authorized to Obtained Assent
Name
Title
Day Phone #
24 Hr. #
Joe K. Liow
Doctorial Candidate
916-230-2113
916-230-2113
121
Appendix C: East Asian Acculturation Measure
East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), Barry (2001, p. 195)
PURPOSE
I am interested in studying how you as a Iu Mien student feel about the acculturation and
assimilation process that you are experiencing as a high school student. Therefore, I am
trying to assess your acculturation level (assimilation, separation, integration, or
marginalization) through the use of the East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), by
Barry (2001). This can potentially deepen the understanding of the Iu Mien students’
culture. Ultimately, promote and support the academic learning needs of Iu Mien
students by the school district.
PART I: INSTRUCTIONS
Please rate your degree of agreement or disagreement by checking the box associated
with each statement on each question in each category (assimilation, separation,
integration, and marginalization). Thank you for you for your help.
Thank You
For Helping Me
122
East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), Barry (2001, p. 195)
Scale 1: ASSIMILATION
Strongly
Disagree
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
I write better
in English
than in my
native
language
When I am in
my
apartment/ho
use, I
typically
speak
English.
If I were
asked to write
poetry. I
would prefer
to write it in
English.
I get along
better with
Americans
than Asian.
I feel that
American
understand
me better than
Asians do.
I find it easier
to
communicate
my feelings to
Americans
than to
Asians.
I feel more
comfortable
socializing
with
Americans
than I do with
Asians.
Most of my
friends at
work/school
are American.
Disagree
2
Somewhat
Disagree
3
Neutral
4
Agree
Somewhat
5
Agree
6
Agree
Strongly
7
123
Scale 2: SEPARATION
Strongly
Disagree
1
1.
Most of the
music I listen to
is Asian.
2.
My closes
friends are
Asian.
3.
I prefer going to
social gatherings
where most of
the people are
Asian.
4.
I feel that
Asians treat me
as an equal more
so than
Americans do.
5.
I would prefer to
go out on a date
with an Asian
than with an
American.
6.
I feel more
relaxed when I
am with an
Asian than when
I am with an
American.
7.
Asians should
jot date nonAsians.
Disagree
2
Somewhat
Disagree
3
Neutral
4
Agree
Somewhat
5
Agree
6
Agree
Strongly
7
124
Scale 3: INTEGRATION
Strongly
Disagree
1
1.
I tell jokes both in
English and in my
native language
2.
I think as well in
English as I do in my
native language.
3.
I have both American
and Asian friends.
4.
I feel that both Asians
and Americans value
me.
5.
I feel very comfortable
around both Americans
and Asians.
Disagree
2
Somewhat
Disagree
3
Neutral
Somewhat
Disagree
3
Neutral
4
Agree
Somewhat
5
Agree
Agree
Somewhat
5
Agree
6
Agree
Strongly
7
Scale 4: MARGINALIZATION
Strongly
Disagree
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Generally, I find it
difficult to socialize
with anybody, Asian or
American.
I sometimes feel that
neither Americans nor
Asians like me.
There are times when I
think no one
understands me.
I sometimes find it hard
to communicate with
people.
I sometimes find it hard
to make friends.
Sometimes I feel that
Asians and Americans
do not accept me.
Sometimes I find it hard
to trust both Americans
and Asians.
I find that both Asians
and Americans often
have difficulty
understanding me.
I find that I do not feel
comfortable when I am
with other people.
Disagree
2
4
6
Agree
Strongly
7
125
Appendix D: Survey of School’s and Educator’s Culturally Responsive Beliefs
and Practices (Robinson, 2010)
SURVEY OF SCHOOL’S AND EDUCATOR’S CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES (Robinson, 2010)
PURPOSE
I am interested in studying how students of racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity
(RCELD) are taught in schools. To gather information for this purpose, I am surveying
the teaching staff at your high school about your culturally responsive beliefs and
practices related to school climate, academic instruction, and collaboration. Thank you
for participating in this project.
PART I: INSTRUCTIONS
Please rate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each statement in each of the
categories (school climate, academic instruction I and II, collaboration, and teacher
information).
Thank You
For Your
Participation
126
A. School Climate/Support
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
My school makes little or no
attempt to acknowledge and
celebrate diversity.
There is little or no administrative
support or additional resources
provided to address the needs of
students of RCELD.
Frequent and varied examples
acknowledging and celebrating
diversity are evident throughout
my school and in my classroom.
achievement of students of RCELD
are NOT maintained.
There is effective administrative
support/advocacy including
additional resources and the
promotion of problem solving to
RCELD on a regular basis.
achievement of students of RCELD
are regularly maintained.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis
to
Respond
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
127
B. Academic Instruction (I)
7.
8.
9.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis
to
Respond
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
3
4
NB
3
4
NB
My school has NOT implemented
a multi-tiered (e.g., prevention,
intervention, and specialized
support) model of intervention
services.
Consultation and direct services
from specialists are provided on a
regular and consistent basis to
assist in carrying out differentiated
interventions for students of
RCELD.
I believe some teachers at my high
school provide differentiated
intervention to students of
RCELD.
10. There is little or no differentiated
instruction for students of RCELD
in my classroom.
11. I regularly provide differentiated
instruction by making adaptions in
the following areas as needed:
(b) Content = what is taught, (b)
process = how content is taught,
(c) product = how students
demonstrate content mastery, (d)
affect = how students connect their
thinking and feelings, and (e)
learning environment = how the
classroom is designed and students
are grouped.
12. My school has implemented a
multi-tiered model of intervention
services and the extent of
differentiated interventions for
students is significant.
1
2
1
2
128
C. Academic Instruction (II)
1.
2.
3.
I do NOT use peer supports in my
classroom.
I regularly and explicitly teach
learning strategies and thinking skills
to students of racial, cultural, ethnic,
& linguistic diversity (RCELD) in my
classroom.
I regularly use culturally responsive
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis to
Respond
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
6.
4.
5.
6.
I regularly use peer supports in my
classroom to empower my students to
take responsibility for their learning
and to support t each other.
I rarely use culturally responsive
I rarely, if ever, provide a carefully
planned system of instruction in
learning strategies to students of
RCELD in my classroom.
129
D. Collaboration
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
There is extensive and effective
collaboration between general
education teachers, special
education teachers, and other
support staff.
My school has made little or no
effort to collaborate with families
of students of RCELD.
The prevailing attitude of school
staff fosters extensive and
effective collaborative interaction
between general education
teachers, special education
teachers, and other support staff.
There is little or no collaboration
teachers, and other support staff
(e.g., related services, ESL).
My school actively seeks
involvement and decision making
input from families of students of
RCELD and is committed to
learning about the culture of those
families and empowering them.
The prevailing attitude of school
staff fosters isolation and little or
no collaborative interaction
teachers, and other support staff
(e.g., related services, ESL).
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
No Basis
to
Respond
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
1
2
3
4
NB
130
PART II: TEACHER INFORMATION
Please complete the demographic questions. This information will be used for
classification purposes only. All information will be kept confidential.
1. What is your current position?
□
General Education Teacher
□
Department Chair
□
Teacher-in-charge/Lead Teacher
2. How many years have you been in the education profession?
□
□
□
Less than 5 years
5 years to 10 years
More than 10 years
3. How many years have you been with the district?
□
□
□
Less than 5 years
5 years to 10 years
More than 10 years
4. How many years have you taught in your current grade level?
□
□
□
Less than 5 years
5 years to 10 years
More than 10 years
5. What grade level(s) do you teach? (check all that apply)
□
□
□
□
9th grade
10th grade
11th grade
12th grade
6. What subject do you currently teach?
____________________________________________
7. I serve on the following instructional/intervention team(s): (check all that apply)
□
□
□
□
Grade Level Team
Problem-Solving Team (e.g., Leadership Team)
Other __________________
I do not serve on any team
131
8. I have learned about culturally-relevant practices or culturally-relevant
practices pertinent to the Iu Mien student through: (check all that apply)
□
□
□
□
□
□
□
University coursework
Professional development in general
Professional development by school district representative
Mentoring
Website, blogs, wikis, and etc.
Other______________________
I have not learned about culturally relevant practices

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School

Transcription

Similar documents

Climbing the Dragon`s Spires

Catalog of Iu-Mien Resources - Mien Evangelical Church @ mecwa

the slides for the talk I gave yesterday, entitled “Playing with `Game.`”

SPONSORED BY MULTICULTURAL CENTER AND THE CENTER

groundbreakers speak - Against The Grain Productions

ĐỀ 2 I. LISTENING: (2.0 points) Listen and fill in the gaps

Yes No - GP Web Solutions

Online Casino Games Mega Jack

Sponsorship Opportunities