Final report of ESONET CA - ESONET, a Network of Excellence
Transcription
Final report of ESONET CA - ESONET, a Network of Excellence
European SeaFloor Observatory Network EVK3-CT-2002-80008 FINAL REPORT (Version 3.0) Edited by Professor I.G (Monty) Priede & Dr Martin Solan University of Aberdeen Oceanlab Newburgh Aberdeen AB41 6AA Scotland UK This page is intentionally left blank for duplex printing ESONET Final Report Abstract ESONET is a proposed sub sea component of the European GMES (Global Monitoring for Environment and Security) to provide strategic long term monitoring capability in geophysics, geotechnics, chemistry, biochemistry, oceanography, biology and fisheries. To provide representative sampling around Europe 10 regional networks are proposed in contrasting oceanographic regions: 1-Arctic – Arctic Ocean 2-Norwegian margin - Atlantic Ocean 3-Nordic Seas – Atlantic Ocean 4-Porcupine/Celtic –Atlantic Ocean 5-Azores – Atlantic Ocean 6-Iberian Margin – Atlantic Ocean 7-Ligurian – Mediterranean Sea 8-East Sicily – Mediterranean Sea 9-Hellenic – Mediterranean Sea 10-Black Sea – In addition, a mobile response observatory will be available for rapid deployment in areas of anthropogenic or natural disasters to provide data for environment management and government agencies. Total system will comprise approximately 5000km of fibre optic sub sea cables linking observatories to the land via junction box terminations on the sea floor. The cables will provide power to observatory instruments and two-way real-time data telemetry capability using IP protocols. A phased development is proposed from use of conventional autonomous or satellite telemetry observatories on the key sites to intergration of a fully cabled system. Each network will be commissioned and managed by a regional legal person (RLP) who will be members of the ESONET federation. Users will be able to deploy observatories around Europe linked to the junction boxes. The ESONET federation will oversee standards, data management and co-ordinate observatory deployment. Data will be interfaced to national and international data centres. The likely cost of the subsea network infrastructure is 130-220 M€. 3 ESONET Final Report Contents 1. List of partners …………………………………………………Page 5 2. Other Contributors………………………………………………Page 7 3. Introduction……………………………………………………..Page 8 4. Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements……………….Page 11 5. Review of European Capacity in Ocean Observatories………...Page 69 6. The European Ocean Margin and Proposed ESONET site locations………………………………Page 129 7. Future Observatory Designs…………………………………….Page 173 8. Data Management, Dissemination and Archiving………………Page 299 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation……………………………Page 317 Annexes Annex 1. Annex 2. Annex 3. Annex 4. Annex 5. 4 User Requirements Application Of Industrial Offshore Standard Norsok Example of environmental tests for each subsystem in the Assem project Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore ESONET Final Report SECTION 1. List of Partners Partner 1. UNIABN Professor Imants G. Priede University of Aberdeen Oceanlab Newburgh Aberdeen AB41 6AA United Kingdom Phone +44 1224 274408 Fax +44 1224 274402 Email i.g.priede@abdn.ac.uk Partner 2 UIT Prof. Dr. Juergen Mienert University of Tromsø Department of Geology Dramsveien 201 N-9037 Tromsø Norway Phone +47 77 64 44 46 Fax +47 77 64 56 00 E-mail: Juergen.Mienert@ibg.uit.no Partner 3 IFREMER Roland Person IFREMER Direction de la Technologie Marine et des Systèmes d'Information. Directeur du Département Technologie des Systèmes Instrumentaux BP70 29280 Plouzane France Phone +33 298 22 4108 Fax +33 298 22 4135 email Roland.Person@ifremer.fr Partner 4 NIOZ Dr.Tjeerd C.E.van Weering Royal NIOZ P.O.Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel, The Netherlands Phone +31 222 369395 (300, operator) Fax +31 222 319674 email: tjeerd@nioz.nl haas@nioz.nl Partner 5 GEOMAR Dr Olaf Pfannkuche IFM-GEOMAR. Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Wischhofstrasse. 1-3 24148 Kiel, Germany Phone:+49-(0)431-600 2113 Fax: +49- (0)431-600 2911 Email: opfannkuche@geomar.de Partner 6 CSA Nick O'Neill CSA GROUP LIMITED 6 and 7 Dundrum Business Park, Windy Arbour, Dundrum, Dublin 14 Tel: +353-1-296 4667 Fax: +353-1-296 4676 e- mail: noneill@csa.ie Partner 7 IMBC Dr. Anastasios (Tassos) Tselepides Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) Institute of Marine Biology and Genetics (IMBG) Gournes, Pediados POBox 2214, Heraklion 71003, Crete, Greece Tel:+30-2810-337850 / 337801 Fax:+30-2810-337822 E-mail: ttse@imbc.gr 5 ESONET Final Report Partner 8 IUB Prof. Laurenz Thomsen International University Bremen School of Engineering and Science Campusring 1 D-28759 Bremen Phone++49 (421) 200 3254 Fax ++49 (421) 200 4333 Email l.thomsen@iu-bremen.de Partner 9 INGV Paolo Favali Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Via di Vigna Murata, 605 00143 Roma Italy phone +39-06-51860341 fax: 338 e-mail: geostar@ingv.it Partner 10 TEC Francesco Gasparoni Tecnomare S.p.A. San Marco 3584 30124 Venice Italy Phone +39-041-796714; Fax: +39-041-796800 e-mail: francesco.gasparoni@tecnomare.it Partner 11 CNR Nevio Zitellini Istituto Per La Geologia Marina CNR Area Ricerca CNR di Bologna Via Gobetti 101 40129 Bologna Italy Phone +39-051-6398889; Fax: +39-051-6398940 e-mail: nevio@igm.bo.cnr.it 6 Partner 12 LOB Claude MILLOT Laboratoire de Océanographie et de Biogeochimie CNRS Antenne LOB-COM-CNRS c/o IFREMER BP 330 F-83507 La Seyne/mer Phone 0033494304884 Fax 0033494879347 cmillot@ifremer.fr Partner 13- TFH Hans W. Gerber- Prof. Dr.-Ing. TFH Berlin -University of Applied Sciences Dept. VIII Luxemberger Strasse 10 D-13353 Berlin Phone: ++4930-45042219 or -314 25483 Fax: ++4930 45042008 or -314 22885 hwgerber@tfh-berlin.de Partner 14 FFCUL Jorge Miguel Alberto de Miranda Centro de Geofísica da Universidade de Lisboa Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa Campo Grande, Edifício C5, 1749-016 Lisboa Phone +351 21 750 00 00 Fax: +351 21 750 01 69 jmiranda@fc.ul.pt Section 2. Additional Contributors Michael Klages & Thomas Soltwedel Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12 27570 Bremerhaven Germany Gary Waterworth Alcatel Optical Networks Division Greenwich SE 10 0AG Gary.Waterworth@alcatel.co.uk Tel +49 471 4831 1302 Fax +49 471 4831 1776 mklages@awi-bremerhaven.de tsoltwedel@awi-bremerhaven.de Jean-François Rolin Gilbert Maudire, Catherine Maillard, Christian Bonnet, Michèle Fichaut Jerome Blandin J. Marvaldi J.F. Drogou Annick Vangriesheim Jean-Pierre Leveque IFREMER BP70 29280 Plouzane France Christoph Waldmann MARUM University of Bremen FB GEO/MARUM P.O.BOX 330440 28334 Bremen Germany Tel + 49 421 218 7722 Fax + 49 421 218 3116 waldmann@marum.de Peter Sigray, Stockholms Universitet MISU, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden. Tel. + 46 8 709 27 73 24 Fax. + 46 8 15 71 85 peters@misu.su.se Jerome.blandin@ifremer.fr Jean.marvaldi@ifremer.fr jrolin@ifremer.fr Jean.francois.drogou@ifremer.fr Avangri@ifremer.fr Jean.Pierre.Leveque@ifremer.fr Nazeeh Shaheen Nautronix Maripro Goleta CA 93117 USA nazeeh.shaheen@nautronixmaripro.com 3. Introduction Section 3 Introduction The European GMES programme for Global Monitoring for Environment and Security has identified a need for a subsea component of a proposed surveillance system. This will be directed to monitor the solid earth beneath the sea, processes at the interface between the solid earth and sea and processes in the water column. ESONET was set up as a concerted action (EVK3-CT-2002-80008) sponsored by the European commission to consider the feasibility of such a system. ESONET is directed to monitoring the submarine terrain around Europe from the continental shelves to the abyss, an area of ca. 3 million km2. This is comparable in size with the total landmass of Europe and is increasingly important for resources, such as minerals, hydrocarbons and fisheries. Only a small fraction of this realm has been explored and new features, and communities of animals (e.g. cold water corals and mud volcanoes) are discovered every year. The biodiversity probably exceeds that of the European land mass. There are natural hazards such as submarine slides and earthquakes with associated tsunamis. Human impacts on this zone are poorly understood. A prerequisite for management, conservation and protection from hazards of this zone is the establishment of a long- term monitoring capability. ESONET through a co-ordinated approach will provide data to users on time scales from instantaneous real-time hazard warning to long term archiving of data for tracking of global change around Europe. Remote sensing from aircraft and spacecraft has limited capacity for penetrating through sea water; optical sensors only providing data on the surface layer of the ocean. Monitoring of events on the sea floor or in the water column require in situ sensors, power supplies and a data storage or telemetry system. The science of oceanography has developed through the use of instruments such as current meters deployed on moorings or platforms with electrical energy stored in batteries and data archived on various media such as photographic films, hard discs or solid state memory. Data are only available when the system is recovered, there is no real-time capability and the system is limited by the battery life and storage capacity of the data store. Real-time telemetry of data can be achieved either via acoustics through the water, or via radio links to shore or satellite from a surface buoy. These systems are never-the-less limited by the energy available in the observatory and energy costs of data transmission imposes a further energy drain. In contrast to space craft opportunities for use of solar energy are limited to special cases where a sufficiently large array can be mounted on a surface buoy or other structure. ESONET is complementary to proposed cabled observatory systems being developed in North America (NEPTUNE) and Japan (ARENA) but will use various technologies including noncabled instruments. The project and this report are structured in the following way: 4. Stakeholders1 and Review of Data Requirements2. The first requirement for ESONET was to identify potential stakeholders in Europe and elsewhere with interests in the proposed system. An internet based questionnaire was widely distributed in the marine science and environmental science, technology and management domains. A review was then compiled of data requirements collated under three broad headings - global change, biodiversity/ecosystem function and geohazards. An end-user data requirement template was drawn up, based on a standard 1 2 WP 1 ESONET list of potential partners and associates WP 3 Review of Data Requirements 8 3. Introduction GMES template3. The ESONET project partners and other interested parties were invited to contribute. This represents a relatively comprehensive overview of what ESONET will need to achieve to be successful. 5. Review of European Capacity in Ocean Observatories4 Ocean observatories are not new. Europe already has significant capacity in this area although cabled systems are only represented by a few prototypes. There is considerable experience in various research institutions of deploying autonomous systems, and it is envisaged that technology will progress in Europe from this baseline. This section presents the state of the art in Europe. Data from existing observatories is presented as an example of the kind of outputs that can be achieved with the ESONET system5 6. The European Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations67 In this section we define the geographical scope and area of operation of ESONET. Key factors influencing position and specification of different elements of the observatory system are defined. Locations around Europe, representative of different, oceanographic, biological, tectonic and sedimentary regimes are identified and proposals for observatory networks are developed. 7. Future Observatory Designs8. To meet the requirements identified in the previous sections new engineering solutions will be necessary in sensors, observatory architecture, cable systems and operations. Design studies have been undertaken and the state of the art around the world is considered. Key elements of a future ESONET implementation are presented. 8. Data Management, Dissemination and Archiving9. There is currently rapid progress in concepts of data management in networked systems. ESONET will feed data in real-time and in delayed mode through to various national and international networks for dissemination and archiving. Problems in quality control, integration and management are reviewed 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation. The issues in practical implementation of a system are reviewed. 3 Review of GMES User Requirements: Operational Procedures, Wyatt, B.K. et al, April 2003 4 (WP2 Review of Observatory Capacity) 5 (WP5 Model Observatory Data/Information Products) 6 (WP 4 Atlas of European Ocean Margin Assets & Hazards) 7 (WP 6 ESONET Site Locations and Specifications) 8 (WP 7 Future Observatory Designs) 9 (WP8 Data management, networks, archives and distribution) 9 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Section 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements The aim of this section of the report is to define the organisations and individuals that would play a role in development and use of the ESONET system and data requirements of end users. 4.1 The ESONET Directory. A directory has been assembled using an online database accessible via the internet. Individuals were made aware of ESONET by numerous email broadcasts compiled from the attendee lists of several major ocean margin conferences, both within and outwith the EU. Directory entries have been classified according to: Country of residence Europe Non-Europe Europe was defined as 25 countries: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, UK These were subclassified as: Agency Stakeholder, Supplier Academic research Conservation Technological A 295 entries are analysed below: Figure 1 ESONET Directory, Origin of Entry European Non-European 11 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Figure 2 European Entries Belgium Denmark France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden UK Figure 3 Non-European Entries Algeria Australia Canada China Croatia Columbia Faroe Islands Fiji Islands Georgia Israel Japan Morocco Norway New Zealand Poland Russia USA 31% of entries are from outside Europe indicating considerable international interest in ESONET. Within Europe 45% of entries are from UK a number which is artificially inflated by the UK origin of the ESONET website. Other European countries are in rank order are, Germany, France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden and Greece. This generally reflects size of the country and their littoral location with Ireland ranked high through the developing strategic importance of the seas around a small island nation. Outside Europe the dominant interest is from the USA and Canada reflecting the activity in development of the NEPTUNE system there and many potential routes for collaboration in future between NEPTUNE and ESONET on both technical and scientific matters. Norway and Israel are well respresented as important neighbours of Europe. 12 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Figure 4. ESONET - Directory summary (all entries) Agency Conservation Research Stakeholder Supplier Technological Figure 5. ESONET - Directory summary (European) Agency Conservation Research Stakeholder Supplier Technological 13 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Figure 6. ESONET - Directory summary (Non-European) Agency Conservation Research Stakeholder Supplier Technological The categories of entries, world wide and within Europe are remarkably consistent. As is to be expected in a pre-operational system, research is dominant with approximately half of entries. Next most important is technology, reflecting the nature of the work. Suppliers of equipment and services at 17% reflects a healthy domain for development of a system with companies interested in tendering for various aspects of the work. Agencies, conservation and stakeholders can be regarded as ultimate endusers of data. These combined are about 12% but probably half of researchers are also data end users. We conclude there is a healthy balance between the different domains indicating that there is a community present able to implement and use the ESONET system. The full database includes the title, name, affiliation, postal address, telephone, fax and email for each individual in addition to their country of origin and specified stakeholder interest and will form the basis for developing future consortia for ESONET implementation. 14 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.2 Review of Data Requirements This subsection section forms part of the analysis of problems and issues to be addressed by a future ESONET project. The overall objective was to undertake an assessment of requirements for data, information and knowledge by different agencies and stakeholders with specification of formats and timeliness. ESONET is recognised as the marine component of Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) and will integrate, where possible, with GMES protocols, data management and data sharing arrangements. It is apparent from the review of historical EU-funded R&D in the marine sector throughout Europe that ESONET will build on significant seafloor monitoring that has occurred over the last 20 years. ESONET provides the solution that meets the monitoring objectives of all the previous EU-funded projects, such as ABEL, ALIPOR, ASSEM, BENGAL, DESIBEL, GEOSTAR, GEOSTAR-2, HERMES, OMEX, ORION-GEOSTAR-3, etc. Specific attention was paid to GMES guidelines for user requirements – operational procedures in designing end user forms and data categorisation. 4.2.1. Identified Concerns/Policy Issues A range of policy issues and concerns of relevance to EU coastal states was identified through input from ESONET partners at various project workshops, specifically at the first project workshop in Kiel, also through direct contact with the individual partners and through internet and literature research on marine issues highlighted by particular countries. Input received covered the full geographic spread of the ESONET project from the North Atlantic/Arctic Ocean interface to the Black Sea. The issues highlighted cover areas of both global and more specific local interest. The chief global issues of concern identified relating to the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea are listed in Table 1 below. In support of GMES goals, mitigation of hazards associated with both natural and anthropogenic impacts are of specific interest to particular states likely to be affected by such impacts, such as seismicity in Portugal, Italy and Greece, shipping accidents on major maritime routes etc. The Black Sea represents an almost landlocked basin and the largest anoxic water mass on earth. As such, it has its own particular features and issues of concern to coastal states on its boundary, which are listed below: • • • • • • • • • • Eutrophication Pollution Habitat destruction Unsustainable fishing Degredation of biofiltering and oxygen-producing communities High intensity gas seeps, gas hydrates & mud volcanoes Seismicity Impact of intense marine traffic Exploration for, and exploitation of, hydrocarbon resources Population/tourism impact 15 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Table 1 – Concerns/policy issues of relevance to Atlantic and Mediterranean coastal states Topic Global climate change mitigation of impacts) Issue (prediction and Ocean dynamics Changes in marine ecosystem Changes in ocean circulation systems Marine carbon cycle - CO2 sequestration Biodiversity Biota preservation Sustainable exploitation of fishery resources Sustainable management of marine resources Exploration of marine gene pool Sustainable exploitation of marine gene pool (marine biotechnology) Conservation of coral mounds Anthropogenic impacts Impact of maritime transport Impact of tourism and population growth Coastal/marine pollution Pollution related to shipping accidents Resource identification and exploitation Oil and gas resources – exploitation potential and risks Gas hydrates – exploitation potential and risks Seabed mineral resource – exploitation potential and risks Ocean energy – wind/wave/tidal/current Geo-hazards Seafloor seismicity Seafloor vulcanicity Tsunami risk Slope stability (marine slides etc.) 4.2.2. Data parameters and monitoring requirements ESONET the project partners considered the main topics and issues of relevance, the processes involved, the monitoring parameters to be measured, the tools required to measure those parameters and whether those tools were currently available or remained to be developed. The input was collated and tabulated under three broad headings biodiversity/ecosystem function and geo-hazards and is presented in Table 2 below: 16 global change, 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Table 2 – Data parameters and monitoring requirements 1. Global Change Subject Process Parameter Tools Global Change Productivity & Particle Flux Export production Sedimentation rate Sediment traps, particle camera, radio tracers (insitu mass spectrometers), satellite imagery Transmissiometer, optical /acoustic backscatter, particle camera, CTD, ADCP, chemical sensors, current meters Resuspension Turbity Bottom water velocity Shear stress Changes in bottom C/T water hydrography Oxygen CO2 CH4 Currents Hydrostatic pressure Biomarkers Stable isotopes Remineralisation, early Nutrients diagenesis & solute Oxygen fluxes H2S CO2 CH4 pH C/N Microbial activity Nitrification Denitrification Anaeroboic/aerobic methane Oxidation Sulphate reduction Fluid flux, dissociation Aqueous/gaseous flow of gas hydrates Stable isotopes Radio tracers Changes in benthic Biodiversity indices communities Available now? Yes Yes Partially Microsensors, in-situ analysers, peepers, optodes, flux chambers Partially Microbial microsensors, camera system, planar optodes Partially Flux chambers, flare imaging, CH4-sensors, water sampling Repeated sampling, timelapse cameras Partially Yes 17 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Subject Process Parameter Tools Biodiversity Benthic Biodiversity Species Size Abundance %cover Functional groups Activity Metabolism Bioturbation Imaging Bio activity Genetic diversity Gene Flow Growth Recruitment Pelagic Biodiversity Bioluminesnce Genetic fingerprint Particle Dynamics. Organic & Inorganic Species/size Mammal species Particle number Particle size Particle Composition Current Turbidity Fishery Resources Recruitment Migrations Fluid extrusion Seeping & venting Pigments Egg deposition Larval development Time/abundance Time/abundance Fluid flow Fluid composition and properties 18 Partially Yes Yes Partially Yes No No Size Composition Larval release Larval settlement Biomass Activity (migration) Particle Transport Electrodes Imaging SPI Planar Optodes ISIT/photomultiplier Molecular Probes Sampling Available now? Yes Sampling Imaging/sampling Imaging/Colonisation plates Imaging Passive baited Acoustic backscatter Acoustic backscatter Bioacoustics Bioacoustics Imagery, laser Imagery, laser Partially Partially Partially Sediment Traps Current meter Transmissometer. Optical backscatter Fluorometer Imaging/sampling Imaging/sampling Bioacoustics Acoustic backscatter Flow meter/acoustics/imagery Sampler/in situ analyser, pH,T°,CH4, NOx , SOx , sensors Yes Yes Partially Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Partially Partially Partially Partially Partially Partially Yes Partially Partially 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function (Continued) Subject Process Parameter Tools Anthropogenic Impacts Hydrocarbon pollution Concentration Waste dumping Eutrophication Area, volume, depth Nitrates,Ammonia, OM, PO4 . Area & depth disturbed Turbidity Hydrocarbon sensors, sampling, fluorometer Imaging Imagery, SPI Sensors, samples, in situ. Autoanalyser Imaging Transmissometer Hydrophones Sensor Physical disturbance & Structures Noise pollution Nuclear Energy/ discharge Chemical Pollution Persistent Organic Pollutants Nucleides dynamics Anti-foulings Heavy metals PCBs PAH Spectrometer Available now? Partially Partially Partially Yes Partially Yes Yes No No Partially No 3. Geohazards Subject Process Parameter Tools Geohazards Seismic activity Seafloor motion Pressure Strain Volcanic activity T-phase Seafloor motion Pressure Strain seismometer hydrophone distance meter Tilt meter SOFAR hydrophone seismometer hydrophone distance meter Tilt meter Magnetometer Gravity meter (In-line gas analyser, e.g. H2S) (sampler) Sensors Pore pressure probe distance meter Tilt meter Current meter / ADCP transmissometer nephelometer CTD Seismometer Hydrophone Distance meter Tilt meter Gravimeter Magnetometer Thermometer EM field variation Gravity changes (Gas and fluid chemistry variation) Slope stability Pore pressure Strain Turbidity currents Tsunami Seafloor motion Pressure Strain Gravity fields Magnetic fields Temperature Available now? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Partially Partially Yes Yes Yes Partially Partially Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 19 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements It is apparent from this review that most of the sensors required by a seafloor observatory are already available. Some sensors, such as molecular probes, in-line gas analysers and anti-fouling monitors require further R&D investment. 4.3. Data End-users An end-user data requirement template was drawn up, based on a standard GMES template1. The ESONET project partners and other interested parties were invited to complete an end-user list for their country under the following headings: • • • • • • • • • • • User Name User Category User Area of Interest Parameters to be Measured Location Real Time Data Required Forecast Timescale Statistics Requirement Policy Issue Being Addressed Source of Current Information Comments User category, user area of interest and policy issues were categorised as set out below: User Category User Interest Policy Issue Government Departments Public Institutes State Sponsored Bodies Research Organisation Private Consultancy Private Industry Industry Organisation Charitable Organisation Offshore oil industry Fisheries Mineral extraction Ecosystem assessment Environmental protection Pollution Biodiversity and nature protection Waste prevention Climate change studies Regulation, policy administration National civil security defence Geohazard identification Education and training Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Bio-terrorism Industrial accidents Protection and conservation of the marine environment Noise Renewable energy Climate change Noise Waste Biodiversity decline/habitat destruction Environmental security/geohazards Oil pollution/hazardous substances Water quality Radioactivity 1 Review of GMES User Requirements: Operational Procedures, Wyatt, B.K. et al, April 2003 20 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.1. End-user category End user lists were ultimately completed for eleven countries – Belgium Bulgaria France Germany Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Romania Spain UK The thoroughness of the lists varied from country to country and the lists are not comprehensive – in particular, private industry and consultancy groups may be underrepresented, nevertheless a total of 203 end-users were identified. A breakdown by country and end user category is given in Table 3. 21 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Table 4.3 – Breakdown of identified end-users by country and category End User Belgium Category Government Departments Public 1 Institutes State Sponsored Bodies Research 7 Organisation Private Consultancy Private 1 Industry Industry Organisation Charitable Organisation Total 9 22 Bulgaria France Germany Ireland 2 10 3 3 8 10 1 2 2 1 7 7 5 3 Italy 1 Netherlands Portugal 5 Romania 1 7 5 3 4 1 5 1 Spain 5 4 3 1 1 1 1 3 30 1 2 35 6 9 30 7 8 48 4 5 11 28 2 8 11 19 50 203 3 1 8 12 43 15 18 6 11 13 7 Total 2 1 2 UK 19 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements Figure 1 Identified data end users by country 4% 26% 6% 22% 9% 7% 3% 6% 5% 3% 9% Belgium Bulgaria France Germany Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Romania Spain UK Figure 2 Identified data end users by category 4% 9% 15% 14% 17% 2% 15% 24% Government Public State Sponsored Research Private Private Industry Charitable 23 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.2. End-user policy issues Policy issues of particular relevance to identified end-users was recorded on the end-user data sheets and are illustrated graphically below. The predominant issues raised were environmental security/geohazards, biodiversity decline/habitat destruction and climate change, although oil pollution/hazardous substances were also issues of significant interest. Figure 3 Data end-users - policy issues Climate change Noise 7% 12% 15% Waste 7% 8% 14% 21% 16% Biodiversity decline/habitat destruction Environmental security/geohazards Oil pollution/hazardous substances Water quality Radioactivity 4.3.3.Timeliness of data The end-user lists show that there are very few real-time parameters that require a forecast timescale of less than one hour. These include: • • • • • • Seafloor seismicity Seafloor volcanism Tsunami risk Marine slides Current/storm surge Marine pollution incidents Near real-time data (one day to one week) was considered desirable in monitoring a range of other parameters, such as environmental, chemical and biological, however receipt of data on a monthly basis or longer was considered sufficient for general background monitoring. The most important aspect of seafloor observation identified by end users is the need for long term statistics, i.e. trends, variability and frequency. These statistics are essential for development of predictive models critical for GMES. 24 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4. ESONET End User Data Requirements Listings KEY User categories: 1.Government Departments 2. Public Institutes 3. State sponsored bodies 4. Research organisation 5. Private Consultancy 6. Private Industry 7. Industry Organisation User Interest: 1. Offshore oil industry 2. Fisheries 3. Mineral extraction 4. Ecosystem assessment 5. Environmental protection 6. Pollution 7. Biodiversity and nature protection 8. Waste prevention 9. Climate change studies 10. Regulation, Policy administration 11. National civil security defence 12. Geohazard identification 13. Education and training 14. Pharmaceutical 15. Biotechnology 16. Bio-terrorism 17. Industrial accidents 18. Protection and conservation of the marine environment 19. Noise Location: NWES=North West European Shelf WES=West European Shelf MED=Mediterranean Policy Issue: 1 Climate change 2. Noise 3. Waste 4. Biodiversity decline/Habitat destruction 5. Environmental security/Geohazards 6. Oil pollution/Hazardous substances 7. Water quality. 8. Radioactivity 25 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.1 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS BELGIUM BELGIUM User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Flanders Marine Institute Public Institute 2,3,4,5,6,7 ,8,9,10,11, 12,13,14, 15,16,17, 18,19 Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Physical & environmental parameters, seabed temperature, seabed chemistry University Gent Marine / Biology Section Prof. Vincx Prof. Vanreusel Research organisation University Gent Renard Centre for Marine Geology Prof. Henriet Prof De Batist Research organisation 2,4,5,7,18 1,3,4,5,12, 18 Location WES NWES WES NWES WES NWES 26 Real Time Yes Yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Policy Issue Support to marine sector, marine research, and education 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8 Oceanography, Marine Biology, 4 Oceanography, Seabed processes, Marine geophysics 4, 5, Yes Yes Source of Information at present Info and data from research projects where Belgian research groups partcicpated 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection BELGIUM User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Free University Brussels Laboratory of Chemical Oceanography and Water Geochemistry Prof Wollast Prof Chou Research organisation 4,5,6,9,18 Free University Brussels Laboratory for analytical and environmental chemistry Prof Baeyens Prof Goeyens Prof Dehairs Research organisation WES NWES University of Liège Chemical Oceanography Unit Prof Frankignoulle Research organisation Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry WES NWES Yes 1 day to 1 month Yes Current, Storm surge, WES Yes 1 day to 1 Yes University of Liège Research 4,5,6,9,18 4,5,6,9,18 4,5,6,7,9, Location WES NWES Real Time Yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Oceanography, Marine chemistry 1,5,7 Oceanogrpahy, Marine chemistry 1,4,5,6, 7 Oceanography, Marine chemistry 1,5,7 Oceanography, 1,3,4,5, Source of Information at present Yes Yes 27 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements BELGIUM User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Location Laboratory for Oceanology Prof Bouquegneau organisation 18 NWES MED University Liège Geohydrodynamics and Environment Research Prof Nihoul Research organisation 4,5,9 URS Private Industry Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Physical & environmental parameters, 28 1,17 NWES NWES WES Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics month Yes 1 day to 1 month Yes 1 day to 1 month Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Yes Policy Issue Ecotoxicology, Ecohydrodyna mics 6,7 Oceanogrpahy, Marine chemistry, Ecohydrodyna mics, Modelling 1,5,6,7 Operational support to marine sector 5,6 Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.3.4.2 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS BULGARIA BULGARIA User Name User Category User Interest Laboratory in Nonorganic Salts, Institute in General and Non-organic Chemistry, Burgas Institute of Meterology & Hydrology, Sofia 2 ? Location BS 2 9 3 Institute for Water Problems, Sofia 2 Institute in Geology, Sofia 2 Central Laboratory in General Ecology, Sofia 2 Commission Against Disasters, Sofia 3 4,5,6,7,9, 18 5,6,8,17, 18 Statistics (trends, variability, frequency) Comments Policy Issue Source of Information at present EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres BS EC Address List – BS 12,13, 4,5,6,7, BS 4,5,6,12, 16,17 ? Forecast Timescale BS BS BS 2 Real Time EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres BS National Oceanographic Committee, Sofia Laboratory in Parameter Variable 29 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements BULGARIA User Name Nonorganic Salts, Institute in General and Non-organic Chemistry, Sofia High Navy School, Varna User Category Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics (trends, variability, frequency) Comments Policy Issue Source of Information at present Major European Research Institutes and Centres 1 11 BS Hydrographical Service, Ministry of Defence, Varna 1 Institute of Oceanology, Bulgarian Acedemy of Sciences, Varna Research Institute of Fisheries, Varna 2 30 User Interest 12, 18 BS 4,5,7,18 BS 2 2 BS EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.3.4.3 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS FRANCE FRANCE User Name Secrétariat de la mer Direction des Pêches et des cultures marines Marine nationale User Category Government Department Government Department Government Department Centre d'océanographie militaire Government Department IFREMER Public Institutes User Interes t Parameter Variable 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 17, 18 Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 185, 6, 8, 10, 0 Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments Policy Issue Mainly policy and protection 4, 5, 6, 7 variability, frequency) 8, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations 8, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Location All aspects of physical, chemical and NWES WES MED Yes 1day1month Source of Information at present On-shore information and data from cruises Yes Mainly policy & regulation NWES WES MED NWES WES MED NWES WES MED NWES Yes Yes Yes Yes 1day to weeks Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Defence related issues. Regulatory support 1 day to months and years Yes Defence related issues 1day to Yes Regulatory support, 31 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements FRANCE User Name CETMEF CEDRE User Interes t Parameter Variable 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, biological observations WES MED Public Institutes 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 17, 18 Physical & environmental parameters NWES WES MED Public Institutes 6, 17, 18 Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry User Category Ministère de l'Environnement et du développement durable Government Department Service National de la Protection civile Government Department Région PACA Government Department 32 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 18 Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) 6, 8, 11, 12, 17, 18 Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters 5, 6, 7, 12, 18 Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological months and years Yes 1 day to months and years Yes marine research, operational support to the marine sector Environmental protection and policy issues Protection against pollution. NWES WES MED Yes Yes NWES WES MED NWES WES MED MED 1 day to months and years Yes Environmental protection policy issues and regulation 1 day to months and years Yes Yes 1 hour to days and weeks Yes 1 hour to years Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety Yes Environmental protection & Policy Issue Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection FRANCE User Name Région Bretagne Région Aquitaine Région Languedoc Rousillon User Category Government Department Government Department Government Department User Interes t 5, 6, 7, 18 5, 6, 7, 18 5, 6, 7, 18 Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, sismicity, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & Policy Issue Source of Information at present maritime safety Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety Yes 1 day to months Yes Environmental protection & maritime WES WES MED 33 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable Location Real Time INERIS Public Institutes 5, 6, 8, 16,18 Water quality Institut Français du Pétrole Public Institutes 1, 6, 12, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations INSERM Public Institutes 6, 14,15,1 6 chemical and biological observations Public Institutes CNRS Public Institutes IFRTP IRD 34 Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique Forecast Timescale All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations safety and years NWES WES MED NWES WES MED NWES WES MED NWES WES MED Yes Not required Not required Yes 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety Environmental protection Yes Environmental protection Yes Yes Environmental protection All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Yes 1 day to months and years Yes All aspects of marine research Public Institutes 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19 4, 5, 7, 9, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES Not required Yes All aspects of polar research Public Institutes 4, 5, 7, 9, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES Not required 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years Yes Physical, biological and ecological Policy Issue Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) State sponsored bodies 2, 6, 9, 11, Current, Storm surge, Drift, Physical & environmental parameters NWES WES MED Yes 1 day to months and years Yes IUEM (Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer Observatoire océanologique de Villefranche sur mer Observatoire océanologique de Roscoff Observatoire océanologique de Banyuls sur mer Research organisation 5,7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18 5,7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 All aspects of physical,geophysical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Not required 1 day to months and years Yes All aspects of physical,geophysical, chemical and biological observations MED Yes 1 day to months and years Yes All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES Not required Yes All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Yes 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research Laboratoire de Biologie Marine de Concarneau Research organisation 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 All aspects of physical , chemical and biological observations WES Not required 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research Station Marine d'Arcachon Research organisation 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES Not required 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research Research organisation Research organisation Source of Information at present research Lond term forecast Climate change Météorologie Nationale Research organisation Policy Issue Physical, geophysical,bi ological and ecological research Physical, geophysical, biological and ecological research Biological and ecological research 35 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 5,7, 13, 14, 15, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Not required All aspects of physical, chemical & biological observations, hydrodynamical and climatic research All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Yes MED Research organisation Institut Océanographique Paul Ricard Charity 5, 7, 13, 14, 15, 18 Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle State sponsored bodies 5, 7, 13, 14, 15, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations OCEANOPOLIS Charity 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations 36 Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) Centre d’Océanologique de Marseille Fondation Albert 1er de Monaco Charity Location 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research Yes Biological and ecological research Yes Weekq to months Yes Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. NWES WES MED Not required 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research WES NWES Yes weeks to years Yes Significant potential for public outreach Policy Issue Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) NAUSICAA Charity 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES Yes weeks to years Yes Cité de la Mer Cherbourg Charity 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES NWES Yes weeks to years Yes Aquarium de La Rochelle Industry Organisation 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES Yes weeks to years Yes Policy Issue Source of Information at present and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education 37 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, variability, frequency) Marineland Antibes Industry Organisation 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Yes weeks to years Yes Robin des bois Charity 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Yes 1day to months and years Yes Greenpeace France Charity 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Yes 1day to months and years Yes 38 Comments at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Significant potential for public outreach and education Policy Issue Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection FRANCE User Name User Category User Interes t Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistic s (trends, Comments variability, frequency) 10, 13, 17, 18, 19 Policy Issue Source of Information at present at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness. Biological and ecological research. Public outreach and education Environmental protection and maritime safety SEPNB Charity 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Yes 1day to months and years Yes TOTAL . Private Industry 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 17, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Yes 1day to months and years Yes GEP Industry Organisation All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED Not required Weeks to years Yes Environmental protection and maritime safety SYCOPOL Industry Organisation 6 Depollution, rehabilitation Yes 1 day to weeks Yes Environmental protection Groupe EVEN . Private Industry 15 chemical and biological observations NWES WES MED WES Not required Months to years Not required Biotechnology development 39 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.4 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS GERMANY GERMANY User Name User Category User Interest BP Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12 British Petrol Parameter Variable Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Research 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift, GeoB Organisation 13 Bio ecological parameters, Dept. of Physical & environmental Geosciences parameters, chemical Univ. Bremen contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12 Physical & environmental IES parameters, chemical Integr. contamination, seabed Exploration temperature, water column Systems chemistry, seabed chemistry Research 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift, MPI Organisation 13, 15 Bio ecological parameters, Max-PlanckPhysical & environmental Institute for parameters, chemical Marine contamination, seabed Microbiology temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry 40 Comments Location Real Time Forecast Timescale NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Statistics (trends. Variability) Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Oceanography, marine Geophysics research NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Oceanography, marine Microbiology Environmental protection & maritime safety 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection GERMANY User Name Statoil User Category User Interest Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12 Parameter Variable Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Research 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift, UNH 13 Bio ecological parameters, University New Organisation Physical & environmental Hampshire parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Research 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift, UW Organisation 13 Bio ecological parameters, Univ. Physical & environmental Washington parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Comments Location Real Time Forecast Timescale NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Statistics (trends. Variability) Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Oceanography, marine biology, marine Geophysics research NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Oceanography, marine biology, marine Geophysics research Environmental protection & maritime safety 41 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements GERMANY User Name User Category BSH Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt, Hydrographie Government Department Bundesforschun Government Department gssanstalt für Fischerei User Interest Parameter Variable 3, 5, 10, Current, Storm surge, Drift, 12, 13, 17, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental 18 parameters, chemical contamination, water column chemistry 2, 4, 5, 6, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental 7, 8, 10, parameters, chemical 13, 17, 18 contamination, water column chemistry, seabed State sponsored 2, 4, 5, 6, Current, Storm surge, Drift, bodies 7, 8, 10, Bio ecological parameters, World Wildlife 13, 17, 18 Physical & environmental Fund parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry BGR Government 1, 3, 4, 7, Current, Storm surge, Drift, Department 9, 10, 12, Bio ecological parameters, Bundesanstalt Physical & environmental 13 für parameters, chemical Geowissenschaf contamination, seabed ten und temperature, water column Rohstoffe chemistry, seabed chemistry WWF 42 Location Real Time Forecast Timescale NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Statistics (trends. Variability) Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Comments Mainly policy and regulation, Oceanography Policy and regulation, sustainable development of the fishing industry sustainable development of the fishing industry, Environmental protection Policy and regulation, Oceanography, marine Geophysics research 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection GERMANY User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Industry 1, 5, 6, 10, Current Strom surge, Drift, Organisation 12 Physical & environmental parameter, chemical contamination OSAE Private Industry 4, 7, 9, 12, Current, Storm surge, Drift, 13 Bio ecological parameters, Offshore Survey Physical & environmental and Engineering parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Location Real Time Forecast Timescale NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Statistics (trends. Variability) Yes NWES Yes 1 day -1 month Yes Germanischer Lloyd Comments Environmental protection & maritime safety Oceanography, marine Geophysics research 43 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.5 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS IRELAND IRELAND User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Dept of Communications, Marine & Natural Resources Government Department 1, 2, 3,6, 10, 12, 18 Marine Institute State sponsored body Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters Department of Defence Met Eireann Bord Iascaigh Mhara, Irish Sea Fisheries Board Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies Environmental Protection Agency 44 1, 2 4, 7,15, 18 Government Department 2, 6 ,8, 10, 11, 16, 18 Government Department State sponsored body 9 2, 4, 5, 7, 18 State sponsored body 12 State sponsored body 5, 6, 10, 17, 18 Physical & environmental parameters Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical parameters Location NWES Yes NWES Yes NWES Yes NWES Yes NWES NWES Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Real Time NWES Forecast Timescale 1 day to 1 month 1 day - 1 month 1 – 3 days Hindcast Yes 1 day - 1 month Yes 1 day - 1 month Yes 1 day - 1 month Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Mainly policy & regulation 4,5,6 Regulatory support, marine research, operational support to the marine sector 1, 4,5, 6 Regulatory support 4,5,6 Climatology studies Sustainable development of the fishing industry 1 Yes Yes Not required Yes Yes Yes Yes 4, 6, 7 Seismic research, gravity magnetics 5 Environmental protection 6, 7, 8 Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection IRELAND User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable The Heritage Council State sponsored body 10, 13, 18 Physical & environmental parameters Port Authorities State sponsored body State sponsored body 12, 16, 18 Physical & environmental parameters Elan Corporation plc Private Industry 14,15 Irish Shell Limited Private Industry 1, 5, 6, 12 Marathon International Petroleum Ireland Ltd Irish Offshore Operators Association Private Industry Radiological Protection Institute National Industry Organisatio n Research 5, 6, 18 1, 5, 6, 12 1, 5, 6, 12 4, 7, 9, 12, Physical parameters, chemical contamination, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Bio ecological parameters Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Location Real Time Forecast Timescale NWES Not require d Not required Yes NWES Yes 1 day - 1 month Not required NWES Yes 1 day - 1 month NWES Not require d NWES NWES Yes Yes Not required 1 day - 1 month 1 day - 1 month Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Not required Policy Issue Protection of marine heritage Environmental protection & maritime safety Environmental protection 5 8 Drug research 4 5, 6, Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 5, 6 Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety Environmental protection & maritime safety 5, 6 Oceanography, 1, 4 Not required NWES Yes 1 day - 1 month Yes NWES Yes 1 day to 1 Yes Source of Information at present 45 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements IRELAND User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable University of Ireland Galway organisation 13 National University of Ireland Cork, Coastal & Marine Resources Centre Research organisation 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 18 National University of Ireland Dublin Research organisation Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Halia Oceanographic Consulting Services 5 Ecological Consultancy Services Ltd 5 46 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 18 4,5,6,18 Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics NWES Yes Yes 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month Yes Yes NWES Yes 4,7,18 Yes 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month Yes Policy Issue Source of Information at present marine biology, marine geophysics research month NWES Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Marine biology and geophyics, Seabed processes research 1, 4 Marine biology and geophysics, meteorology, environmental, seabed processes research Deployment, collection, analysis and interpretation of oceanographic data, ROV's, Env monitoring & hydrographic surveys. 1, 4 UCD Science Faculty 1, 4 ESONET Directory 1, 4 Specialising in marine and freshwater ecology 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.3.4.6 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS ITALY ITALY User Name User Category Finsiel S.p.A. Private Industry User Interest Parameter Variable 9 Physical and environmental parameters Physical and environmental parameters CONISMA – Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Scienze del Mare INFN –Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare Dipartimento Protezione Civile Private Consortium among 30 Italian Universities 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18 Research organisation 4, 5, 12, 13 Government Departments ICRAM –Istituto Centrale Ricer-che Applicate al Mare OGS –Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica Sperimentale Research organisation 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 15, 18 Research organisation 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 18 Physical and environmental parameters Physical and environmental parameters Physical and environmental parameters Physical and environmental parameters Location MED WES MED MED MED MED MED Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics Yes Not required Not required Yes Days Yes Not required Yes Days Yes Yes Yes Yes Not required Days Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Environmental monitoring and climatic change Environmental monitoring and climatic change Policy Issue Source of Information at present 1, 5 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Yes Yes Yes Environmental monitoring 5, 8 Geo-hazards, environmental monitoring and climatic change Environmental monitoring 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Geo-hazards, environmental monitoring and climatic change 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 1, 4, 5, 6 47 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.7 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS NETHERLANDS NETHERLANDS User Name Department of Public works User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Govt. 1,2,3,4,,5, Currents, wave effects, shear stress, salinity, temperature, chemical contamination, , Physical & environmental parameters 6,7,8,10, 18 Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Govt. Ministry of Defence Govt. Netherlands Organisation for Advancement of Sciences (NWO) State sponsored body 48 2, 4, 5, 7, 18 5, 6 ,8, 10, 11, 16, 18 1, 2 4, 7,15, 18 Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry, Physical & environmental parameters, seabed currents, waves, shear stress Currents, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Location NWES NWES, WES Real Time yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day to 1 month 1 day - 1 month 1 – 3 days NWES NWES Yes Yes 1 day - 1 month Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) yes Yes Not required Yes Sustainable development of the fishing industry Policy Issue Coastal zone managem ent, resource developm ent, policy & regulation 4, 6, 7 Regulatory support 4,5,6 Marine research, Climate research, 1, 4,5, 6 Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection NETHERLANDS User Name Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) ALTERRA User Category User Interest Parameter Variable NWO sponsored body 4,5,6,7,9, 12,13, Physical & environmental parameters, , Bio ecological parameters Currents, wave effects, shear stress, salinity, temperature, chemical contamination, Physical & environmental parameters, , Bio ecological parameters Currents, wave effects, shear stress, salinity, temperature, chemical contamination, Currents, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters Bio ecological parameters,, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters Govt.and 1,2,3,4,5,6 industry ,7,9,10,12, 15,18 supported, Advisory KNAW/ NWO sponsored body 1, 2 4, 7,15, 18 Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research (RIVO) Govt. 12 Port Authorities Govt. NIOO-CEMO 12, 16, 18 Location NWES, WES NWES, WES, MED NWES WES NWES, WES NWES Real Time Yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day - 1 month 1 day - 1 month Statistics Yes Yes Seismic research, seabed sampling, groundtruthing, mapping Policy Issue Marine research, biodiversity research, Climate research, Yes Sea research, nutrient demands, biodiversity mapping 1, 4,5, 6 1 day - 1 month Yes Sea research, fisheries research, nutrient demands, biodiversity mapping Environmental protection & maritime safety 5 Yes 1 day - 1 month Not required Source of Information at present 5 1 day - 1 month Yes Yes Comments (trends, variability, frequency) 5 Currents, Storm surge, 49 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements NETHERLANDS User Name User Category User Interest Private Industry 1,3, 5, 6, 12 Research organisation 4, 7, 9, 12, 13 FUGRO ltd Free University of Amsterdam 50 Parameter Variable Location Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Current, Storm surge, Drift, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics Yes 1 day - 1 month Yes 1 day to 1 month Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Resource and seabed exploration, Environmental protection & maritime safety Oceanography, marine biology, marine geology, climate research Yes Policy Issue 5, 6, 1, 4 Source of Information at present 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.3.4.8 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS PORTUGAL PORTUGAL User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Instituto de Meteorologia Government Department 5,9,11,12 Physical & environmental parameters Serviço Nacional de Protecção Civil Government Department 5,6,9,11,1 2,17 Instituto Hidrográfico Government Department 5,6,9,10 Storm surge, Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters. Physical & environmental parameters Location WES WES WES IPIMAR Instituto Geológico e Mineiro Instituto da Água Government Department 2,4,5,6,,7, 18 Government Department 3,5,9,12 Government Department 5,6,7,8 Government 5,6 Bio ecological parameters, Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, seabed temperature, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters Physical & environmental parameters, chemical contamination, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental WES WES Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics Yes 1 – 3 days Yes Yes 1 – 3 days Yes 1 day - 1 month Yes No No 1 day - 1 month No 1 day - 1 month Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Yes WES No 1 day - 1 month Yes WES Yes Not Yes Policy Issue Source of Information at present Civil Protection. 1, 5 Only On-shore information is used Only On-shore information is used Regulatory support, Civil Protection. 5 Regulatory support, marine research, operational support to the marine sector. Sustainable development of the fishing industry. 1 Data from coastal stations and moorings 4 Data from cruises Seismic research, gravity magnetics. 1, 5 Only On-shore information is used Environmental protection. 5, 7 Data from coastal stations Environmental 51 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements PORTUGAL User Name User Category User Interest Department Government Department 4,5,6,7,9,1 0,18 Universidade de Lisboa Research organisation 2,4,5,6,7, 9,12,13 Research Instituto Superior organisation Técnico 5,9,12,13 Research organisation 5,9,12,13 Research organisation 5,9,12,13 Research organisation 12,13,14 52 Location Real Time parameters Instituto Marítimo e Portuário Instituto do Ambiente Universidade do Porto, Instituto Geofísico Universidade de Évora, Centro de Geofísica Universidade dO Algarve, CIMA Parameter Variable Forecast Timescale Statistics Physical parameters, chemical contamination, water column chemistry, seabed chemistry Physical & environmental parameters, Bio ecological parameters, WES No Not required Yes Physical & environmental parameters WES No Not required Yes No Not required Physical & environmental parameters WES WES Physical & environmental parameters WES Physical & environmental parameters WES No Policy Issue Source of Information at present Environmental protection 1, 3, 4, 5 Data from coastal stations Oceanography, marine biology, marine geophysics research Seismic research, gravity magnetics Seismic research, gravity magnetics 1,4, 5 On-shore and cruise information is used 5 Only On-shore information is used Only On-shore information is used protection required 1day - 1 month Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes Yes 5 Yes Seismic research, gravity magnetics 1, 5 No Not required Only On-shore information is used Not required Yes Seismic research, gravity magnetics 1, 5 No Only On-shore information is used 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.3.4.9 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS ROMANIA ROMANIA User Name User Category User Interest Romanian Center of Marine Geology and Geo-Ecology, Bucharest National Institute of Meterology and Hydrology, Bucharest Environmental Research and Engineering Institute, Bucharest Aquaproject S.A., Bucharest 2? 3,4,12,18 Romanian Marine Research Institute, Constanta 2 Romanian Center of Marine Geology and Geo-Ecology, Constanta Research Laboratory for Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecology, Piatra Neamt 2? Parameter Variable Location BS 2 9 BS 2 4,5,7,18 BS ? ? BS ? BS 3,4,12,18 BS 4? 2,4,5,18 BS Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics (trends, variability, frequency) Comments Policy Issue Source of Information at present EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres EC Address List – Major European Research Institutes and Centres 53 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.10 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS SPAIN SPAIN User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Centre Mediterrani d’Investigacions Marines i Ambientals CMIMA-CSIC Research organization 2,3,4,5,6,7 8,9,12,13, 15,18 All aspects of geological, physical, chemical, biological observations and parameters, real-time measurements, audio and visual displays, bio & geo-samples Institut de Ciències de la Terra “Jaume Almera” ICTJA-CSIC Research organization Instituto de Investigaciones Marinhas IIM-CSIC Research organization Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats IMEDEA-CSIC 54 Research organization 1,12,13,19 2,4,5,6,7,8 ,11,13,18 4,5,6,7,8, 13,18 Physical & environmental parameters, real-time measurements All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations, chemical contamination, water column chemistry, specimens All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations, water column chemistry, current, drift Locati on MED, WES, NWES WES, MED WES MED Real Time Forecast Timescale Yes 1 day to months and years Yes 1 day to months and years Statistics Yes Policy Issue Source of Information at present Biological, chemical, physical and geosciences research, fisheries, technological development 1,3,4,5, 6,7 National and international funded research Geophysical research 2,5 National and international funded research 4,6,7 National and international funded research 1,4,6,7 National and international funded research Yes 1 day to 1 month Yes Biological, chemical and physical research, fisheries, food technology, pollution 1 day to months and years Yes Biological, chemical and physical research. modelling Yes Yes Comments (trends, variability, frequency) 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection SPAIN User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Universitat de Barcelona UB Research organization 1,3,5,9,12, 13 Physical & environmental parameters Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona UAB Research organization Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya UPC-VG Research organization Instituto Español de Oceanografía IEO State sponsored body 1,2,3,5,10 Instituto Geológico y Minero de España IGME State sponsored body 1,2,3,5,6,9 12 Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya ICC State sponsored body 1,5,12 Instituto State 5,6,10 5,6,9,13 1,3,5,6,12, 13,19 Physical & environmental parameters and observations, chemical contamination Physical & environmental parameters and observations, real-time monitoring Physical & environmental parameters Physical & environmental parameters Physical & environmental parameters All aspects of physical, Locati on WES MED NWES WES MED WES MED WES, MED WES, MED Real Time Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month 1 day to months and years 1 day to 1 month 1 day to 1 month MED Yes 1 day to months and years WES, Yes 1 day to 1 Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Source of Information at present Environmental and geosciences research 1,5 National and international funded research Environmental radioactivity research 1,8 National and international funded research Engineering research, technology 2,5 National and international funded research Fishery stock assessment, pollution, policy and regulation 4,5,6,7 National funded research Environmental and geosciences research 1,3,5,6 National and self-funded research Yes Environmental risk assessment 5 National and self-funded research Yes Environmental 5,6,7 National Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 55 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements SPAIN User Name User Category Hidrográfico de la Marina IHN sponsored body Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya METEOCAT State sponsored body 5,9,11 Dirección General de Protección Civil DGPC Government Department 11, 18 Ministerio de Medio Ambiente MMA Government Department Agència Catalana de l’Aigua ACA User Interest Parameter Variable Locati on chemical and biological observations MED All aspects of physical, oceanic and climatic observations MED Real Time Forecast Timescale Yes 1 day to months and years WES, MED Yes 1 day to 1 month 4,5,6,7,8,9 10,18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES, MED Not required months to years State sponsored body 5,7,8,10, 17,18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations, water column chemistry Yes 1 day to months and years Port Autònom de Barcelona APB Private Industry 3,5,6,7,8 Not required 1 day to 1 month Museu de la Ciència MC Public Institute 13,18 Aquari de Barcelona 56 Private 13,18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Comments (trends, variability, frequency) month All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED Statistics Policy Issue protection and marine safety Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Source of Information at present funded research Climatological studies, civil protection 1,5 National funded research Policy and regulation, civil protection 5,7,8 National funded research Policy and regulation 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8 National funded research Climatological studies, civil protection 3,4,6,7 National funded research Environmental protection and marine safety 2,3,5,6, 7,8 Self-funded and contract research 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8 None 1,4,6,7 None Geological, physical, chemical, biological observations, audio visual displays, specimens MED, WES Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Public outreach and education, environmental awareness All aspects of MED Yes 1 day to Yes Potential for 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection SPAIN User Name User Category AB Industry REPSOL Private Industry User Interest Parameter Variable Locati on Real Time geological, physical, chemical, biological observations, audio and visual displays, specimens 1,3,6,7,8, 12,17,19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Forecast Timescale Statistics months and years WES, MED NWES Yes 1 day to months and years Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Source of Information at present public outreach and education at all levels, environmental awareness Yes Environmental protection and marine safety 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7 Self-funded and contract research 57 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.3.4.11 ESONET END USER DATA REQUIREMENTS UNITED KINGDOM UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable National Museums of Scotland Public institutes 13, 18 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations University of Aberdeen BP Subsea7 Transocean Research organisation 2,4,7,12,1 3,18 Private Industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Private Industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Private Industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Location NWES, WES NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED 58 Real Time Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Forecast Timescale 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years 1 day to weeks 1 day to weeks Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Source of Information at present Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Biological and ecological research 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8 None. 1, 4, 5 National and EU funded research Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 External contract research Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 External contract research Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 External contract research Yes Yes Yes 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable World Wildlife Fund Charity 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 18 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Scottish Association of Marine Sciences Scottish Environment Protection Agency SEA Environmental Consulting State sponsored body 2, 4, 5, 7, 18 State sponsored body 4, 7, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations State sponsored body 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Private consultancy 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 17, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 18 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Specimens, audio and University of Wales, Bangor Research organisation Proudman Research 2, 4, 7, 9, All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Location Real Time NWES, WES, MED Yes NWES, WES Not requir ed NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES NWES Yes Not requir ed No 1 day to months and years Months to years 1 day to months and years Statistics Policy Issue Source of Information at present Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Environmental protection and policy issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded research, national and international funded research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5, National and international funded research Yes Environmental protection and policy issues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Not required Environment al protection and remediation 4, 6, 7 None Yes Yes Yes Months to years 1 day to weeks Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5 National and international funded research Yes 1 day to Yes Biological and 1, 4, 5 National and NWES, WES NWES, Forecast Timescale 59 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Location Oceanographic Laboratory organisation 13, 18 WES Southampton Oceanography Centre Research organisation 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 18 Gatty Marine Laboratory, St. Andrews University Research organisation 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 18 University of Plymouth Research organisation visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 18 Seas Ltd., Oban, Scotland. Private consultancy 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 17, 18 Office of Naval Research, International Field Office, London State sponsored body 11, 12, 16, 18 Sealife Centre, Private 13, 18 60 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Specimens, audio and Real Time Yes Yes 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years WES Yes 1 day to months and years NWES Not requir ed 1 day to weeks NWES, WES, MED NWES, Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue ecological research months and years NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED Forecast Timescale Yes Yes Yes Not required Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Yes 1 day to Yes Source of Information at present international funded research Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5 National and international funded research Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5 National and international funded research Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5 National and international funded research Environmental protection and remediation 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 None Environmental protection & maritime safety. Defence related issues. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded and contract research Significant 1, 3, 4, 5, None 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection UK User Name User Category UK industry National History Museum, London Public institute Institute of Fisheries Management Environment Agency AK Rainbow Ltd. User Interest Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale Statistics visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations WES 13, 18 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, MED Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Industry organisation 2, 4, 7, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Months to years Yes State sponsored body 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Not requir ed Not requir ed 1 day to months and years Yes Private industry 14, 15 Biological organisms NWES, WES, Not requir Not required Not required Comments (trends, variability, frequency) months and years potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Mainly policy & regulation Policy Issue Source of Information at present 6, 7 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 None 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Contract research Mainly policy & regulation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Biochemical and 6, 7 Self-funded research 61 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Location Real Time MED ed Forecast Timescale Statistics Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK National Environment Research Council, UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, UK Society for Underwater Technology, UK Government department 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Not requir ed Months to years Yes State sponsored body 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Not requir ed 1 day to months and years Yes State sponsored body 13, 14, 15, 16, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Not requir ed 1 day to months and years Charity 1, 15, 17, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Not requir ed SeaFish Industry Authority Industry organisation 2, 4, 5, 7, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department Government department 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES Fisheries State sponsored 2, 4, 5, All aspects of physical, chemical and biological NWES, 62 Comments (trends, variability, frequency) biotechnological development Mainly policy & regulation Policy Issue Source of Information at present 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Biological and ecological research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Yes Biological and ecological research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Not required Not required 5, 6 None Not requir ed Not requir ed Months to years Yes Application of subsea technology for research and survey purposes Mainly policy & regulation 4 National and international funded research Months to years Yes Mainly policy & regulation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National funded research Not Months to Yes Fishery stock assessment 4 National and international 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Location Research Services Marine Biological Association body 7, 10, 18 observations WES Charity 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Challenger Society Charity All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES British Ecological Society Marine Conservation Society Charity 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED Charity All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Shell UK Private Industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations National Marine Aquarium Charity 2, 13 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES Real Time Forecast Timescale requir ed Not requir ed years Statistics Policy Issue Source of Information at present funded research Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Biological and ecological research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 None 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 None Yes Biological and ecological research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National and self-funded research Months to years Yes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded research 1 day to months and years 1 day to months Yes Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Contract and self -funded research Significant potential for 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 None Months to years Yes Not requir ed Not requir ed Not requir ed Months to years Yes Months to years Yes Yes Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Yes 63 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Location Real Time and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Forecast Timescale Statistics and years UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UK Charity 2, 4, 7, 13, 18 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, MED Not requir ed Months to years Yes Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) MacDuff Aquarium, Scotland Charity 2, 4, 7, 13, 18 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, MED Not requir ed Months to years Yes Private industry 2, 13 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES Yes 1 day to months and years Yes Charity 2, 7 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological NWES, WES, Not requir 1 day to months Yes Marine Connection, 64 Comments (trends, variability, frequency) public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Environmental monitoring and climatic change Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Significant potential for Policy Issue Source of Information at present 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National and international funded research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 National and international funded research 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 None 4 None 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection UK User Name User Category User Interest London Port Erin Marine Laboratory Research organisation 2,4,7, 13,18 Briggs Marine, Inc. Private consultancy Halliburton, UK Private consultancy Greenpeace, UK Charity 1, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 19 1, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 19 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18, 19 Texaco, UK Private industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 Parameter Variable Location Real Time Forecast Timescale observations Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations MED ed and years NWES Yes 1 day to months and years Yes NWES, WES Not requir ed Not requir ed Yes Days to weeks Not required Days to weeks All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, MED All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations NWES, WES, Yes Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness Biological and ecological research Policy Issue Source of Information at present 4, 5 National and international funded research Environmental protection & maritime safety 4, 5, 6, 7 None Not required Environmental protection & maritime safety 6, 7 None 1 day to months and years Yes Significant potential for public outreach and education at all levels and in terms of data, concepts, policy and environmental awareness 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded, national and international funded research 1 day to months Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self funded and contract research 65 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements UK User Name User Category User Interest Parameter Variable Mobil North Sea Ltd. Private industry 1,2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,17,18, 19 All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Fugro Survey Ltd. Private industry All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations University of Glasgow Research organisation 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 17, 19 4, 7, 13, 18 Ministry of Defence (Navy), UK MET Office Government department Kongsberg Simrad Ltd Private industry 66 1 11, 12, 16, 17, 19 5, 9, 13 1 Specimens, audio and visual displays, live and/or near-real time data, all aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations All aspects of physical oceanic and climatic observations All aspects of physical, chemical and biological observations Location MED NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES, MED NWES, WES Real Time Yes Not requir ed Yes Yes Yes Not requir ed Forecast Timescale and years 1 day to months and years Days to weeks Statistics Comments (trends, variability, frequency) Policy Issue Source of Information at present Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded and contract research Yes Environmental protection & maritime safety 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 None 1 day to months and years Yes Biological and ecological research 1, 4, 5 National and international funded research 1 day to months and years 1 day to months and years Not required Yes Defence related issues. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Self-funded research Yes Climatological studies 1, 8 National and international funded research Not required Environmental protection. 5, 6 None 4.4 ESONET Role in Tsunami Detection 4.4. The Role of ESONET in Detection of Tsunamis. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 triggered by an earthquake off Sumatra has focussed attention on needs for warnings against similar events in Europe. Europe has suffered from major catastrophic tsunami events since prehistoric times, the largest being: 1. The Western Mediterranean mega-tsunami of ca. 80,000 yr BP 2. The AD365 tsunami in the eastern Mediterranean 3. The Storegga tsunami in the North Atlantic ca. 8000 yr BP 4 The Lisbon tsunami of AD 1755 Most seismicity in Europe occurs around the Mediterranean Sea and a tsunami can be expected there approximately every 10 years. The most recent was in the western basin, triggered by an earthquake off Algeria in 2003. The wave hit the Balearic Islands but there were no fatalities. Tsunamis with fatal consequences can be expected at intervals of ca. 100 years and catastrophes at millennial time scale intervals. The eastern and western basins are isolated from one another as far as tsunami wave propagation is concerned, so at any given location the frequency of occurrence is lower than these figures for the whole Mediterranean. Tsunami detection can be divided into two kinds of monitoring: 1. 2. Detection of triggering events. Detection of wave propagation. 4.4.1. Detection of triggering events: (a) Earthquakes. Tsunami warning systems are generally based on detection of earthquakes. Using data from networks of seismometers, the time, location, depth and magnitude of the earthquake is calculated. If an earthquake is close to or under the sea, above a certain magnitude and possibly applying certain depth criteria it is deemed to be tsunami-genic and a warning is issued. This can be achieved with seismometers remote from the earthquake epicentre and warnings are possible within 15 min of an earthquake using existing technology. The information improves as time elapses for arrival of data from more stations and for further computation. As part of the ESONET system it is planned to install seismometers (e.g. SN-1) on the sea floor and furthermore systems such as ASSEM can provide direct measurements of local movements of the earth’s crust. ESONET therefore has the potential to contribute to improving detection of tsunami-genic earthquakes, this will be through integration of the instrumentation into terrestrial seismometry networks. (b) Slope failures and slides Tsunamis can be generated by major movements of the sea floor such as occurred in pre-historic times at the Storegga slide off Norway and might occur in future off Gran Canaria. Such events can be triggered by an earthquake and indeed can be the cause of amplification of the effects of earthquakes. Slides can occur spontaneously through structural failure owing to accumulation of overburden in areas of high rates of sediment deposition or by release of fluids from below that cause an increase in pore pressure. Monitoring for such effects must be local with pore pressure, tilt and movement sensors in place in an area considered to be at risk. One such area is the Ormen Lange gas field at the head wall of the old Storrega slide. Removal of oil and gas has the potential to cause changes in sea floor stability. This has been thoroughly investigated and safe development of the field is assured. Development of necessary technology has occurred in Europe under the ASSEM programme, monitoring of areas of risk is technically feasible and will be developed further under the ESONET programme. 67 4 Stakeholders and Review of Data Requirements 4.4.2. Tsunami propagation. If an earthquake has been detected there is considerable uncertainty regarding the subsequent propagation of any tsunami wave. The magnitude and extent of movement of the sea floor may be unknown. Specialist centres are capable of modelling likely propagation scenarios and can operate using a library of pre-calculated scenarios that be called up depending on location and magnitude of the trigger event. Selection of the scenario and constraining of the model is greatly aided by real-time information on the tsunami wave. The basic means of detecting a tsunami wave is real-time measurement of changes in sea level. Existing satellite based altimeters only pass over any given area of the earth for a few minutes at intervals of days of weeks. Whilst occasional detection of a tsunami is possible and may provide useful research information data acquisition is essentially serendipitous unless a swarm of satellites was launched. Tsunamis are detected by existing tide gauges deployed at most major ports around the coasts of Europe. Surprisingly in most countries these data are not freely available. Implementation of real time coastal monitoring of sea level around Europe appears to be an administrative and political issue rather than an area requiring major technical innovation. Local sea floor topography in coastal regions has a major effect on behaviour of tsunami waves, so interpretation of data from coastal tide gauges is difficult. The best data are achieved using sea floor pressure sensors in deep water. At depths of 1000 to 4000+ m the effects of windgenerated waves is filtered out and tsunami signals are clearly detected. ESONET with its proposed network of deep sea cabled junction boxes and observatories is ideally placed to provide these data. Pressure sensor technology is well established. Data from each sensor at sub-minute intervals (e.g. every 15s) would meet the # Arctic needs of tsunami monitoring. The proposed ESONET system should be extended either by # Norwegian Margin use of telemetry buoys or Nordic Seas# longer cable runs to monitor key areas particularly in the centre of the deep basins in the # Porcupine Mediterranean and in the Black Sea Ligurian # # Atlantic Ocean. 30° 80° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45° 80° 75° 75° 70° 70° 65° 65° 60° 60° 55° 55° 50° 50° 45° 45° Azores 40° 40° # Iberian # # East Sicily # ESONET will be deploying observatories on a multidisciplinary basis The ESONET chain of observatories around Europe throughout the deep-water margins of Europe. All of these observatories should be fitted with pressure sensors transmitting in data real-time. 35° 30° 30° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° Hellenic 30° 35° 35° 40° 45° 30° 4.4.3. Conclusions ESONET will enhance tsunami detection in Europe in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 68 Those observatories fitted with seismometers will transmit real-time data to existing national and international seismic networks to enhance monitoring of earthquakes. Localised geotechnical monitoring will be possible in areas of potential slope failure and similar risk. Real-time pressure sensor data will be made available to a hitherto undefined European real-time sea level monitoring system. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Section 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories The deployment of recording instruments in waters around Europe has a long history. In this section we review operational systems that can be regarded as observatories. Traditional current meter moorings are excluded from this review. Important features of observatories are considered to be one or more of the following: imaging cameras structure on the sea floor integration of a suite of instruments minimum duration capability of one month but typically 6-12 months plus. The National Research Council (USA) restricted the definition to systems with real-time data telemetry capacity. “…unmanned system of instruments, sensors and command modules connected either acoustically or via seafloor junction box to a surface buoy or a cable to land. These observatories will have power and communication capabilities”1 However most operational systems are autonomous, with integral power supplies in the form of batteries and data storage on various electronic, optical and photographic media with no real-time telemetry capability. A useful set of concepts and definitions is provided by Tecnomare Spa. Basic elements characterising a seafloor observatory are: • Multiple payload • Autonomy • Capability to communicate • Possibility to be reconfigured from remote • Positioning accuracy • Data acquisition procedures compatible with those of shore observatories Definitions SEAFLOOR OBSERVATORY Unmanned station, capable to operate for long-term at seafloor, supporting the operation of a number of instrumented packages related to various disciplines. INFRASTRUCTURE Any system providing power and/or communication capacity to an observatory (e.g. a submarine cable, a moored buoy, another observatory). An infrastructure may also serve as support for other instrumented packages. INSTRUMENTED PACKAGE Sensor or instrument devoted to a specific observation task. May be hosted inside the observatory, operated autonomously, directly connected to an infrastructure or placed in the vicinity of an observatory and interfaced to it (so having the observatory as its infrastructure). Autonomous observatory Observatory not provided with any infrastructure for power/data connection, but featuring some other basic features characterising a seafloor observatory. 1 National Research Council (NRC) (2000): Illuminating the Hidden Planet. The future of Seafloor Observatory Science (National Academy Press, Washington D.C.), pp.135. 69 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Acoustic linked observatory Observatory having as infrastructure an acoustic modem allowing data to be transmitted to a ship of opportunity, and adjacent observatory or a mooring equipped with a surface buoy providing a radio link to the shore or via a satellite. Satellite Linked Observatory Observatory having as infrastructure a cable to a surface buoy providing direct satellite telemetry to the shore. Cabled observatory Observatory having a submarine cable as infrastructure, providing power and data links • Use retired cables • Use dedicated cables • Share cables devoted to other scientific activities (like Neutrino Experiments) 5.1 Autonomous Systems. Autonomous systems can be deployed in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. Free-fall landers. - Negatively buoyant on deployment and free-fall to the sea floor. Recovered by release of ballast and buoyant ascent to the surface (e.g. Bathysnap, BOBO) Passive Video Launcher - In this case the lander is lowered to the sea floor by a launcher on a cable. Real-time video telemetry up the cable to the ship allows the placing of the lander to be controlled by movement of the ship and timing of release. Recovery is as for free-fall landers (e.g. IFM-GEOMAR). Video docking launcher with thrusters – The launcher in this instance has powered thrusters and can be manoeuvred over the sea floor for precise positioning and docking for recovery. (e.g. GEOSTAR). Remotely Operated Vehicle. ROVs can deploy and recover instruments within the limits of their power and lifting capacity 5.1.1. Bathysnap. Brian Bett. DEEPSEAS Group, George Deacon Division, Southampton Oceanography Centre, Empress Dock, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK. bjb@soc.soton.ac.uk Bathysnap is a time lapse camera system operated in various forms by the Southampton Oceanography Centre (Lampitt and Burnham (1983). It is a simple but effective example of a autonomous observatory system and made several important pioneering discoveries in the deep sea environment. Bathysnap consists of a series of buoyancy packages that carry a flag, radio beacon and flashing light to aid relocation at the surface. Suspended below the buoyancy is a seabed unit loaded with a tripod ballast weight. The seabed unit carries a camera, flashgun, recording current meter and an acoustic release system. These are mounted of plastics tubular frame which is very corrosion resistant and rests on a steel ballast module. Once activated, the camera and flashgun fire at preset intervals (15 seconds to 8+ hours) for the duration of the deployment (up to 12+ months), having a typical film load of 2,5003,000 half-frame 35-mm stills. Recovery of the system is initiated by the transmission of coded acoustic signals to the release unit, causing small pyrotechnics to be fired, releasing the ballast weight and allowing the mooring to rise. Typically, the recovered film is transferred to video for initial observation, compressing a year of seabed activity into one and a half minutes of video footage. The process of generating useful scientific data from the film, almost invariably through frame-by-frame analysis of the stills, is a rather more laborious process. Various forms of quantitative analysis are possible through knowledge of the optical geometry of the system. 70 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Bathysnaps have been deployed for periods of up to year at three northeast Atlantic abyssal plain sites (Figure 2),: PAP, Porcupine Abyssal Plain (48° 50´ N 16° 30´ W, depth 4,850 m) MAP Madeira Abyssal Plain (MAP: 31° 06´ N 21° 11´ W; depth 4,944 m) and the CVAP Cape Verde Abyssal Plain (21° 03´ N 31° 11´ W; depth 4,600 m). At PAP time series has been sustained for over 10 years with some gaps owing to equipment failure or funding limitations. Undoubtedly the most significant observation made with the Bathysnap system concerns the seasonal deposition of phytodetritus to the deep-sea floor (Billett et al. (1983). Phytodetritus is the degraded remains of surface ocean phytoplankton blooms. In the past it was assumed that phytoplankton would sink rather slowly into the deep-ocean, and during its long descent to the seabed would be almost totally consumed, leaving little if any seasonal signal to reach the seafloor. However, following a series Fig.5.1 Schematic representation of the “Bathysnap” system, as deployed on the seabed Fig.2 “Bathysnap” study areas: PSB – Porcupine Seabight; PAP – Porcupine Abyssal Plain; MAP – Madeira Abyssal Plain; CVAP – Cape Verde Abyssal Plain. of Bathysnap deployments (and other observations) in the Porcupine Seabight and on the PAP (as above) this notion was gradually overturned (see e.g. Lampitt (1995), and Rice et al. (1983). During the early summer, a layer of ‘fresh’, green, phytodetritus can carpet the seabed of the PAP. Today, the phenomenon of seasonal phytodetritus deposition is relatively well known and has been reported from various oceanic areas (see e.g. Smith et al. (1985).It is this area of work that has stimulated the use of long term observatories in deep sea biology and biogeochemistry. 71 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.1.2 Bathysnack The Bathysnap system has also been employed in a baited mode, known as “Bathysnack”. Typically a single mackerel wrapped in muslin is used as the bait and attached to a pole to place the bait at the centre of the camera’s field of view. Of the numerous Bathysnack deployments made to date, Thurston et al. (1995) provide a good example of how this simple technique can be used to address important scientific questions. In this case, how regional variations in the supply of organic matter to the deep-sea floor influence the abundance and behaviour of the benthos. Lampitt, R.S. and Burnham, M.P., 1983, A free fall time lapse camera and current meter system “Bathysnap” with notes on the foraging behaviour of a bathyal decapod shrimp. Deep-Sea Res. I, 30, pp. 1009-1017. Thurston, M.H., Bett, B.J. and Rice, A.L., 1995, Abyssal megafaunal necrophages: latitudinal differences in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean. Int. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol., 80, pp. 267-286. Billett, D.S.M., Lampitt, R.S., Rice, A.L. and Mantoura, R.F.C., 1983, Seasonal sedimentation of phytoplankton to the deep-sea benthos. Nature, 302, pp. 520-522. Lampitt, R.S., 1985, Evidence for the seasonal deposition of detritus to the deep-sea floor and its subsequent resuspension. DeepSea Res. I, 32, pp. 885-897. Rice, A.L., Billett, D.S.M., Fry, J., John, A.W.G., Lampitt, R.S., Mantoura, R.F.C and Morris, R.J., 1986, Seasonal deposition of phytodetritus to the deep-sea floor. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, Sec. B, 88, pp. 265-279. Smith, C.R., Hoover, D.J., Doan, S.E., Pope, R.H., Demaster, D.J., Dobbs, F.C. and Altabet, M.A., 1996, Phytodetritus at the abyssal seafloor across 10° of latitude in the central equatorial Pacific. Deep-Sea Res. II, 43, pp. 1309-1338. Thurston, M.H., Bett, B.J. and Rice, A.L., 1995, Abyssal megafaunal necrophages: latitudinal differences in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean. Int. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol., 80, pp. 267-286. 5.1.3 The DOBO Lander (Deep Ocean Benthic Observatory) Alan Jamieson, University of Aberdeen, Oceanlab, Newburgh, Aberdeen, AB41 6AA, Scotland UK. A.Jamieson@abdn.ac.uk The DOBO was specifically designed to operate continually for 6-12 months at depths down to 6000m. Long-term DOBO deployments can take the form of one continuous experiment or a series of replicate experiments over the deployment period as scientific demands dictate. DOBO was intended to combine the typical long-term lander equipped to measure physical oceanography and advancements in baited photographic lander techniques (Jones et al., 1998; Priede and Bagley, 2000). DOBO has been operated in the Porcupine Seabight (NE Atlantic) at ca. 2500m for 6 and 7-month deployments back to back, followed by a 9-month deployment on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain at 4000m. It has since completed a 2-month deployment in the Charlie Gibbs fracture zone on the Mid Atlantic Ridge followed by a 4-month deployment near the Goban Spur at 4400m in the NE Atlantic. For full technical and operational descriptions see Bagley et al., 2004 and Jamieson and Bagley, (in press). Scientific Payload The DOBO lander is equipped with a time-lapse 35mm reflex lens stills camera (M8S, Ocean Instrumentation, UK) to photograph the response of deep-sea scavenging animals to bait (artificial food-falls). The camera is controlled by a custom built on-board control microprocessor installed with proprietary software. A text command code can be adjusted for each deployment and loaded into the controller via a PCMCIA flash RAM card (Compact Flash type 2, San Disc, USA). The camera can be biased to take photographs at times of interest if required by external control. The camera can take up to 1600 colour photographs on 35mm Ektachrome colour reversal film (Kodak, UK) at a programmable interval greater than 30 seconds (allowing for flash charge time). The camera is situated at a height of 2 metres and at a fixed angle of 82o, photographing 2.3 x 1.6 metres of seafloor. 72 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories To attract scavenging fauna to the field of view of the camera, bait is placed in the centre of the field of view. The long-term DOBO deployments require either a large naturally stranded common cetacean carcass, used to simulate the appearance of a large food-fall, or alternatively custom built periodic bait release (PBR) systems can be used to obtain temporally punctuated bait introduction. The PBR systems can utilise 7 solid bait parcels (Mackerel; Scomber scombrus) for up to 3-month deployments, or artificial liquid bait for deployments of up to one year. The DOBO lander is equipped with both a near bottom acoustic current meter (2D-acm97, FSI, USA) and an upward looking 300 kHz ADCP (RDI, USA). The DOBO acoustic current meter is used to provide single current strength and direction readings close to the bait. The ADCP is used to detect the longterm physical ocean parameters in the vicinity of the baited area. These data are automatically used to determine current velocities and direction at multiple depths throughout the water column. Both current meter readings are logged internally, typically every 1-hour. Fig. 5.3 The DOBO lander being recovered from the North East Atlantic Ocean Delivery system The DOBO uses a fixed buoyancy configuration consisting of 16 syntactic foam buoys (CRP group Ltd, UK) attached directly to the grade 2 titanium frame. Fixed buoyancy and titanium framework is essential for long periods of time as mooring lines and metal components and subsequent connecting hardware are susceptible to corrosion/erosion. Syntactic foam was opted for fixed buoyancy to prevent chain reaction implosions that glass spheres in close proximity are susceptible to should they fail at depth. To release ballast, the lander uses 2 acoustic releases in parallel (RT 661 B2S-DDL/ AR 661 B2S-DDL; Oceano, France) to provide back up should one fail to activate. The RT model allows two-way communication with a deck unit on the ship enabling diagnostic functions (battery power, angle), slant range from the lander to the ship and release command. Two steel bars (60kg each in water) provide ballast. Bagley, P.M., I.G. Priede, A.J. Jamieson, D.M. Bailey, E.G. Battle, C. Henriques, and K.M. Kemp (2004). Lander techniques for deep ocean biological research. Underwater Technology, Vol. 26, No.1, 3-12 Jones, E.J., M.A. Collins, P.M. Bagley, S. Addison and I.G. Priede. (1998) The fate of cetacean carcasses in the deep sea: observations on consumption rates and succession of scavenging species in the abyssal north-east Atlantic Ocean, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 265: 1119-1127 Priede, I.G. and P.M. Bagley (2000) In situ studies on deep-sea demersal fishes using autonomous unmanned lander platforms, Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review 38: 357-392 73 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.1.3 The BOBO Lander (Benthic Boundary Observatory) Tjeerd Van Weering Royal NIOZ,P.O.Box 59,1790 AB Den Burg,Texel,the Netherlands, tjeerd@nioz.nl, haas@nioz.nl The modular lander BOBO is designed for long (up to one year), in-situ measurements in the lowermost 3 meters of the benthic boundary layer, directly above the seabed, in water depths down to 5000 m. The BOBO is a free falling tripod lander with an array of industrially available, and /or specifically designed or adapted instruments, to provide the lander with a multi-purpose applicability. The BOBO frame consists of 3 legs of 2 metres high. At the base of the legs the BOBO has a width of 4 metres. The upper part of the BOBO lander consists of a hexagonal frame with a diameter of about 2 metres. The lander frame has been specially designed to remain on the seabed for periods of more then one year in terms of the material used. Exceptional care has been taken to avoid corrosion or electrolysis by isolation of construction parts and connections. Additionally all instrumentation is mounted in Delrin blocks and instrument housings are either made of titanium or various kinds of plastics. Benthos glass spheres are attached to the upper frame for buoyancy. The instrumentation is attached in the hexagonal frame as well as to legs of the lander. Electrical power for the instruments is supplied by a battery pack that is build in a glass sphere. The lander is deployed by free fall from a surface vessel. Its speed of descent is 57 metres/minute. Recovery is done by activating a Benthos acoustic release (if necessary the backup release is activated). The releases are installed in the top frame and are connected through non-elastic ropes with clamps at the base of the legs. Each of the clamps holds a 100 kg weight that is released upon opening of the clamps. After the release BOBO will rise to the surface with the same speed as the descent. If one of the weights is not released properly the lander will still rise the surface, albeit with a lower velocity. Near-bed current velocity and direction measurements are made by a customised 1200 kHz high resolution broadband acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) made by RD Instruments. This instrument is mounted with its 4 sensors looking downward at 2 m above the sea bed. Current velocity and direction is measured in bins of 5 cm. Due to interference and seabed reflections the measurements in the 30 cm directly above the bed may be less accurate. The salinity and temperature of the water are measured by a Sea-Bird SBE-16 conductivity/temperature recorder mounted at 2.5 m height in the frame. This instrument has its internal power supply and data logger. The software of the data logger has been adjusted and an additional external battery pack is installed to be able to store not only the salinity and conductivity data, but also the data of the optical backscatter sensors. Two of these Seapoint OBS sensors are installed on the BOBO lander, at 1 and 3 m above the sea bed. As an alternative the lander can be supplied with a Sea Tech transmissometer. For the measurement of the amount, the temporal variability and the composition of near-bed particle fluxes a Technicap PS 4/3 sediment trap is built in the hexagonal frame. This type of sediment trap has a revolving platform with 12 sample cups that can be programmed for different sampling intervals. One of the NIOZ BOBO landers is fitted with two downward facing photocameras, producing stereo images of the seabed at pre-programmed intervals. The BOBO lander can be equipped with other types of equipment as well. Recently preparatory work has been carried out to equip the lander with an underwater camera that can be connected to and programmed through a cabled network and allows the transmission of online seabed images. Over the years the various NIOZ operated BOBO landers have been deployed at many sites at the European continental margin. The deployments have been for periods of 1 day to more then 15 months and in water depths of just over 200 m to almost 5 km. An overview of all deployments is given in the table below. 74 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Table 1 Royal NIOZ BOBO lander deployments Station Area Position Latitude Longitude Water depth Date Total no. (m) of days Deployment Recovery M2000-06 SE Rockall Trough 53 º 46.80 'N 13 º 59.87 'W 903 29-07-2000 31-07-2000 2 M2000-06 SE Rockall Trough 53 º 46.80 'N 13 º 59.87 'W 903 06-08-2000 28-08-2000 22 M2000-18 SE Rockall Trough 53 º 46.52 'N 13 º 57.74 'W 809 31-07-2000 06-08-2000 6 M2000-19 SW Rockall Trough 55 º 36.14 'N 15 º 27.53 'W 821 02-08-2000 04-08-2000 2 M2000-19 SW Rockall Trough 55 º 36.14 'N 15 º 27.53 'W 821 04-08-2000 27-08-2000 23 M2001-02 SE Rockall Trough 53 º 46.70 'N 13 º 56.80 'W 665 29-06-2001 09-07-2001 10 M2001-03 SE Rockall Trough 53 º 46.81 'N 13 º 55.96 'W 793 29-06-2001 04-07-2001 5 M2001-28 SW Rockall Trough 55 º 32.85 'N 15 º 39.79 'W 677 05-07-2001 28-07-2002 388 STRAT01-01 Faroe-Shetland Channel 62 º 44.95 'N 1 º 21.98 'W 1685 15-07-2001 16-07-2001 1 M2003-10 SW Rockall Trough 55 º 41.92 'N 15 º 18.10 'W 627 05-08-2003 17-08-2003 12 M2004-09 Gulf of Cadiz 35 º 18.00 'N 6 º 47.00 'W 545 19-08-2004 21-08-2004 2 M2004-13 Gulf of Cadiz 36 º 11.64 'N 7 º 17.96 'W 739 22-08-2004 26-08-2004 2 M2004-29 SW Rockall Trough 55 º 25.31 'N 15 º 36.66 'W 1437 01-09-2004 07-09-2004 6 OMEX-II Goban Spur 49 º 11.31 'N 12 º 44.00 'W 1296 26-06-1993 25-05-1994 334 OMEX-II Goban Spur 467 49 º 11.24 'N 12 º 49.31 'W 1454 08-06-1994 19-09-1995 ENAM97-01 NW Porcupine Bank 53 º 28.02 'N 13 º 54.96 'W 230 29-05-1997 01-06-1997 3 ENAM97-02 Feni Drift 54 º 27.81 'N 16 º 32.34 'W 2285 04-06-1997 06-06-1997 2 ENAM98-01 NW Porcupine Bank 53 º 48.84 'N 13 º 50.84 'W 780 06-10-1998 12-10-1998 6 ENAM99-09 NW Porcupine Bank 53 º 48.05 'N 13 º 53.68 'W 756 26-07-1999 11-08-1999 16 7 ENAM99-20 S Rockall Trough 53 º 39.50 'N 14 º 46.20 'W 2819 04-08-1999 11-08-1999 ENAM99-10 SE Rockall Bank 55 º 28.94 'N 15 º 49.57 'W 731 28-07-1999 01-08-1999 4 64PE204-03 Lacaze-Duthiers Canyon 42 º 33.42 'N 3 º 24.59 'W 524 03-11-2002 06-11-2002 2 64PE204-23 Setúbal Canyon 38 º 17.04 'N 9 º 64PE204-35 Setúbal Canyon 38 º 12.00 'N 9 º 31.37 'W 64PE204-56 Nazaré Canyon 39 º 38.90 'N 9 º 14.69 'W 343 08-11-2002 20-11-2002 2 64PE208-01 Nazaré Canyon 39 º 31.52 'N 9 º 49.00 'W 3010 02-03-2003 27-10-2003 239 12 M2003-10 6.01 'E 972 11-11-2002 14-11-2002 3 2716 14-11-2002 23-10-2003 343 SE Rockall Bank 55 º 41.92 'N 15 º 18.10 'W 627 05-08-2003 17-08-2003 64PE218-01 Setúbal Canyon 38 º 15.00 'N 9 º 32.00 'W 1213 15-10-2003 23-10-2003 8 64PE218-36 Setúbal Canyon 38 º 16.39 'N 9 º 1324 26-10-2003 01-05-2004 188 9.00 'W 64PE218-55 Nazaré Canyon 39 º 35.06 'N 10 º 17.33 'W 4298 29-10-2003 08-05-2004 192 RV Suroit 42 º 14.95 'N 4 º 20.76 'E 2113 14-12-2003 20-05-2004 159 9 º 19.56 'W 1858 06-05-2004 at sea 4975 09-05-2004 at sea Sète Canyon 64PE225-03 Setúbal Canyon 38 º 19.90 'N 64PE225-22 Nazaré Canyon 39 º 55 'N 11 º 9.95 'W van Weering, Tj.C.E., Hall, I.R., de Stigter, H.C., McCave, I.N., Thomsen, L., 1998. Recent sediments, sediment accumulation and carbon burial at Goban Spur, N.W., European Continental Margin (47-50°N). Progress in Oceanography, 42: 5-35. Thomsen, L., van Weering, Tj.C.E., 1998. Spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter in the benthic boundary layer at the N.W. European Continental Margin (Goban Spur). Progress in Oceanography, 42: 61-76. Thomsen, L., van weering, T., Gust, G., 2002. processes in the benthic boundary layer at the Iberian continental margin and their implication for carbon mineralization. Progress in Oceanography, 52: 315-329. van Weering, T.C.E., de Stigter, H.C., Boer, W., de Haas, H., 2002. recent sediment transport and accumulation on the NW Iberian margin. Progress in Oceanography, 52: 349-371. 75 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig 5.4 Example of BOBO data measured in the Nazaré Canyon at 3007 m water depth at the Iberian margin. Currently velocity (blue) measured by the ADCP and acoustic backscatter (green, also taken from the ADCP) show a clear tidal signature. Fig 5.5. Example of BOBO data measured at the Pen Duick Escarpment, Gulf of Cadiz at 545 m water depth. Current velocity (blue) and water temperature (red) reveal a clear tidal influence on the processes active at the sea bed. Fig. 5.6. Example of BOBO data measured at the SW Rockall Trough margin at 1437 m water depth. Changes in salinity (yellow) and water temperature (red) also here show the importance of the tides on the processes active at the sea bed. 76 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig 5.6. Engineering drawing of the BOBO lander Radiobeacon Acoustic telemetry/ control sensors sensors Figure 5.7. The BOBO lander being hoisted on board R.V. Pelagia. The ballast weights have been shed from the legs. 77 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.1.4 Description of the Göteborg University landers The research group lead by Professor Per Hall at the Göteborg University (Sweden) has developed and operated autonomous landers since the early 1990. Collaborative work between the group and research institutes in France, Denmark and the USA has resulted in the development and use of 5 different lander systems. Considerable efforts have also been made in developing new sensor technology (e.g. for oxygen sensing). Today two landers, one big and one small, are operated routinely in several European research projects (Fig. 1). Both landers are built of non corrosive materials (Titanium and various plastics) as modular system in which experimental modules can be exchanged as desired. The bigger lander carries four experimental modules and has been successfully deployed about 80 times in water depths ranging from 20-5200 m. The smaller lander is a one module version of the bigger and it has been deployed about 50 times in waters depths shallower than 1000 m. Fig. 5.8. The big and small Autonomous Göteborg landers on-board R/V Aranda during an expedition to the Gulf of Finland (the Baltic Sea) in September 2004. The landers basically consists of two parts, an inner and an outer frame (Fig. 2). The outer frame serves mainly as a carrier platform for the syntactic foam buoyancy package, the ballast and the acoustic system for the ballast release. The inner frame is a versatile system that carries the experimental module(s). These modules can easily be exchanged as desired. On the big lander the middle of the inner frame holds space for three pressure cases, which are used to control different experimental modules. The modules that has been in operation on the landers so far include: chambers (see below), planar optode (see below) microelectrodes and a gel peeper module (not in operation any more). The operation of microelectrode profilers on landers is common and has been described frequently before (for a review see Tengberg et al., 1995). 78 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 1. Lander assembly 2. Basic structure Planar Optode Module Chamber Module 3. Inner chassi Peeper Module Microelectrode Module Fig. 5.9. Schematic drawings of the big Göteborg lander including experimental modules that have been in operation on this platform. 79 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.1.4.1. Chamber modules The use of incubation chambers on landers to estimate sediment-water fluxes of oxygen, total carbonate, nutrients, metals etc. has been common practice for over three decades. The incubation principles of the Göteborg lander chambers are no different from the first experiments of this kind performed by Smith et al. (1976). Some of the features which are particular with these chamber modules are that they have been carefully studied with respect to hydrodynamic properties and intercalibrated with other chamber designs Tengberg et al. (2004 and 2005). They have also been modified to study the effects of resuspension on e.g. carbon turn-over and nutrient fluxes (see Fig. 3). The first results from such studies were presented in Tengberg et al. (2003) and since then the technology has been further developed within the frames of the European Union project COBO. Some of the improvements include a wider range of the stirring regime. Another improvement has been to include single point optical oxygen sensors (optodes) in the chambers. These commercially available sensors are a result of a collaborative work between our group and two companies (PreSens in Germany and Aanderaa Instruments in Norway). The sensors have demonstrated superior accuracy, precision and long-term stability compared to electrochemical sensors (see e.g. Körtzinger et al., 2004 and 2005; Tengberg et al., 2005). Replacing the previously used oxygen electrodes with optodes has enhanced the data quality considerably, eliminated most calibrations issues and made the modules compatible for easy integration of an oxygen regulating “Oxystat” systems, under development in the EU COBO project. 10 water sampling syringes. Can also be used for injection Triggered by stepper motors. Stirring motor in kerosen fil led PVC housing Topvi ew: Incubated sedi ment 2 surface is 400 cm Coil to replace sampled water Paddle wheel 30-300 RP M Oxygen Optode (Aanderaa 3830) Sideview Water Turbidity/SPM Sensor (Aanderaa 3612) 100-150mm 200mm Turbidity sensor 200mm Sediment 200-250mm 200mm Fig. 5.10 : Principal drawing of the resuspension chamber. 80 Paddle wheel Oxygen Optode 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.1.4.1. Planar Optodes So called Planar Optodes are based on the same principles as the single point optode (described above) with the difference that this technique permits to take two dimensional photos of the oxygen distributions in the sediment and at the sediment-water interface. The first device of this kind that was used out of the laboratory was described in Glud et al. (2001). This system was cable operated and required contact to the surface. Since then the technology has been developed or autonomous operation on the Göteborg and other landers (Glud et al., 2005). Oxygenated water Anoxic sediment Fig. 5.11: Left, the Göteborg minilander equipped with an autonomous planar optode being recovered in the Gulf of F Sea). Right, example of oxygen data from the same Gulf of Finland. 5.1.4.2. Other sensors, networking and future developments During operation the Göteborg landers carry additional sensors and instrument that are mainly used to collect data from the environment surrounding the landers. The big Göteborg lander normally register data from up to 30 sensors including: turbidity and oxygen in the chambers and outside, salinity, depth and temperature sensors, current sensors (such as single point and profiling acoustic current meters) and a video camera. A future aim is to interconnect all sensors and systems into a modern CAN based network, an idea that originates from the EU-ALIPOR project. CAN based networks are used in many industrial applications including on cars. A CAN network allows high speed and high security communication between instruments and sensors. The advantage of such a network is that new instruments and sensors (up to 60) can be hooked up “plug and play” to the existing network and all data can be collected by one player in the network which is in wireless two way communication (acoustic) with the surface. Most sensors and data loggers on the landers are supplied by Aanderaa Instruments which shortly will provide all new sensors and systems as CAN enabled. Another aim is to develop the Planar Optode technique so that it can measure other parameters simultaneously (e.g. pH and organic substances). For more information on the Göteborg landers and recent examples their use see e.g. Brunnegård et al. (2004), Karageorgis et al. (2003) and Ståhl et al. (2004). References: Brunnegård J. S. Grandel, H. Ståhl, A. Tengberg and P.O.J. Hall (2004) Nitrogen cycling in deep-sea sediments of the Porcupine Abyssal Plain, NE Atlantic. Progress in Oceanography, 63: 159-181. Glud R.N, A. Tengberg, M. Kühl, P. Hall, I. Klimant and G. Holst (2001) An in situ instrument for planar O2 optode measurements at benthic interfaces. Limnology and Oceanography, 46(8): 2073-2080. Glud R.N., F. Wenzhofer, A. Tengberg, M. Middelboe. K. Oguri and H. Kitazato (2005) Benthic oxygen distribution in central Sagami Bay, Japan: In situ measurements by microelectrodes and planar optodes. Submitted to Deep Sea Research I. 81 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Karageorgis A.P., H.G. Kaberi, A. Tengberg, V. Zervakis, P.O.J. Hall and Ch.L. Anagnostou (2003) Comparison of particulate matter distribution, in relation to hydrography, in the mesotrophic Skagerrak and the oligotrophic northeastern Aegean Sea. Continental Shelf Research, 23: 1787-1809. Körtzinger, A., J. Schimanski, and U. Send (2005). High-quality oxygen measurements from profiling floats: A promising new technique. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanographic Technology, in press. Körtzinger A., J. Schimanski, U. Send and D. Wallace (2004) The Ocean Takes a Deep Breath. Science, 306: 1337. Smith K. L., JR., C. H. Clifford, A. H. Eliason, B. Walden, G. T. Rowe and J. M. Teal (1976) A free vehicle for measuring benthic community metabolism. Limnology and Oceanography, 21, 164-170. Ståhl H., A. Tengberg, J. Brunnegård, P. Hall, E. Bjørnbom, T. Forbes, A. Josefson, I.-M. Karle, F. Olsgard and P. Roos (2004). Factors influencing organic carbon recycling and burial in Skagerrak sediments. Journal of Marine Research, 62: 867-907. Tengberg A., E. Almroth and P.O.J. Hall (2003). Resuspension and its effect on organic carbon recycling and nutrient exchange in coastal sediments: In-situ measurements using new experimental technology. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 285-286: 119-142. Tengberg, A., de Bovée, F., Hall, P., Berelson, W., Chadwick, B., Ciceri, G., Crassous, P., Devol, A., Emerson, S., Gage, J., Glud, R., Graziottin, F., Gundersen, J., Hammond, D., Helder, W., Hinga, K., Holby, O., Jahnke, R., Khripounoff, A., Lieberman, H., Nuppenau, V., Pfannkuche, O., Reimers, C., Rowe, G., Sahami, A., Sayles, F., Schurter, M., Smallman, D., Wehrli, B., & de Wilde, P. (1995). Benthic chamber and profiling landers in oceanography—a review of design, technical solutions and functioning. Progress in Oceanography, 35, 253–294. Tengberg A., P. Hall, U. Andersson, B. Lindén, O. Styrenius, G. Boland, F. de Bovee, B. Carlsson, S. Ceradini, A. Devol, G. Duineveld, J.-U. Friemann, R. N. Glud, A. Khripounoff, J. Leather, P. Linke, L. Lund-Hansen, G. Rowe, P. Santschi, P. de Wilde and U. Witte (2005) Intercalibration of benthic flux chambers II. Hydrodynamic characterization and flux comparisons of 14 different designs. Marine Chemistry, In press. Tengberg A., J. Hovdenes, J. H. Andersson, O. Brocandel, R. Diaz, D. Hebert, T. Arnerich, C. Huber, A. Körtzinger, A. Khripounoff, F. Rey, C. Rönning, S. Sommer and A. Stangelmayer (2005).Evaluation of a life time based optode to measure oxygen in aquatic systems. Submitted to Limnology and Oceanography, Methods. Tengberg, A., H. Ståhl, G. Gust, V. Muller, U. Arning, H. Andersson and POJ. Hall (2004) Intercalibration of benthic flux chambers I. Accuracy of flux measurements and influence of chamber hydrodynamics. Progress in Oceanography, 60(1): 1-28 5.1.5 IFM-GEOMAR- Modular Lander Systems Peter Linke & Olaf Pfannkuche IFM-GEOMAR, Wischhofstrasse. 1-3, 24148 Kiel, Germany plinke@geomar.de,opfannkuche@geomar.de At present IFM-GEOMAR operates a suite of 8 landers of modular design as universal instrument carriers for investigations of the deep-sea benthic boundary layer. Two of these 8 landers have a squared design and carry a large benthic chamber covering 1 m2 sediment surface area to channel and measure fluid fluxes emanating from the seafloor (Vent Sampler System – VESP, Fig. 1). The second line, the “GEOMAR Lander System” (GML) is based on a tripod-shaped universal platform which can carry a wide range of scientific payloads to monitor, measure and perform experiments at the deep-sea floor (Pfannkuche & Linke, 2003; Fig. 2). Both types of landers can be either deployed in the conventional free-fall mode or targeted deployed on hybrid fibre optical or coaxial cables with a special launching device. The launcher enables accurate positioning on meter scale, soft deployment and rapid disconnection of lander and launcher by an electric release. The bi-directional video and data telemetry provides online video transmission, power supply (< 1kV) and surface control of various relay functions. These landers provide the platform systems for: - gas hydrate stability experiments, quantification of gas flow from acoustic bubble size imaging, integrated benthic boundary layer current measurements, quantification of particle flux, monitoring of mega-benthic activity, fluid and gas flow measurements at the sediment-water interface, biogeochemical fluxes at the sediment-water interface (oxidants, nutrients). Depending on the scientific mission and the material of the lander frame (stainless steel or titanium) the GML-System may carry a maximum payload of up to 450 kg. With the growing need of long-term sea floor observatories as presently outlined in the ESONET Programme lander will play a vital role. Targeted deployed landers with a wide range of instruments and sensors for physical, chemical, biogeochemical and biological parameters (Fig. 3) will be used in single autonomous mode in relatively inaccessable terrains (e.g. cold seep, hydrothermal vent and aphotic coral settings). Typical observation periods are 1-2 years. Right now bi-directional communication with the lander is possible by using an acoustic link through a modem. The transmission rates and data quality, however, is hampered by the baud rate of the modem. In the future, landers will be also incorporated as modules into glass-fibre optical cable systems. Autonomous lander clusters connected by optical cable and with data transmission to the surface and 82 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories further on by satellite link to the shore are envisioned as an important contribution to future sea floor observatories. The lander cluster (Fig. 4) can consist of very diverse lander types for scientific observation, power supply and garage types for small autonomous (AUV, crawler) and tethered vehicles (ROV). Fig. 5.12: The VESP-Lander with the Launcher on top; enlarged the release mechanism. The Lander consists of the floatation unit and the measurement & sampling unit. 83 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig. 5.13. A sketch of the GML-configuration with floats, ballast and launching device (on top). The central platform potentiates the incorporation of a large spectrum of scientific payload. 84 Fig. 5.14. A fleet of six GEOMAR Modular Landers lined up for deployment. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.2. Acoustic Linked Observatories 5.2.1. GEOSTAR (Geophysical and Oceanographic Station for Abyssal Research) Paolo Favali, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma, Italy. geostar@ingv.it Fig 5.15 Geostar with the Mobile docker ready for deployment In the framework of EU sponsored projects Geostar 1(1996-1997) & Geostar2 (1999-2000)” with “GEOSTAR 1st phase (1995-1998) and GEOSTAR 2 (1999-2001), INGV and Italian, German and French partners have been responsible for the development of GEOSTAR deep seafloor observatory. GEOSTAR concept is characterized by the dedicated intervention vehicle (Mobile Docker) designed and manufactured by the Technical University of Berlin (TUB). This is essentially a special ROV equipped with thrusters and navigation system, lowered on an armored electro-optic cable that can carry the full weight of the observatory. Real time video and navigation data are transmitted to the surface vessel. The observatory has a vertical docking pin placed centrally on top of its structure. The Mobile Docker has female mechanical gripper at the apex of a docking cone. This enables recovery of the observatory by maneuvering the Mobile Docker into place and lowering on top of the docking pin which mates precisely and the observatory is then lifted to the surface by the umbilical cable The observatory is designed and built by Tecnomare Spa. GEOSTAR geophysical payload includes a triaxial broad-band seismometer (CMG-1T Guralp), a Scalar magnetometer (GEM), a Fluxgate magnetometer (INGV prototype), an Hydrophone (OAS E2PD), a Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype). Since the inception of the project an important aspect has been to work towards real-time data capability necessary for earthquake monitoring so the system is equipped with three communication systems: 1. 2. 3. Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12) allowing bi-directional communication with a ship of opportunity. The same acoustic modems can relay data to a surface buoy moored adjacent to the observatory. Data are transmitted to shore via INMARSAT, Iridium or radio link. At regular intervals or when triggered by an event such as an earthquake a messenger float (IFREMER) is released that relays data to shore via the ARGOS system. In the addition to the geophysical payload, GEOSTAR is equipped with an ADCP (RDI 300 kHz Workhorse), a CTD (SeaBird SBE 16), a transmissometer (Chelsea Aquatracka), a single point current meter (FSI 3D-ACM), a water sampler (MacLane RAS 48-500) and a chemical package (Tecnomare/INGV prototype). Success of GEOSTAR led to the subsequent development of a class of observatories designed for different applications but sharing common solutions and infrastructures (EU ORION project, Italian projects SN-1 and MABEL). Three GEOSTAR-class observatories and associated instruments with telemetry are linked together into a submarine network known as ORION (Ocean Research by Integrated Observatory Networks). Between 2003 and 2005 this network operated in the Tyrrhenian sea (Marsili Volcano seamount, 3320 mwd), transmitting data between themselves and the telemetry buoy. Acoustic telemetry restricts data rate and ARGOS messenger capsules have delays in floating to the surface, ARGOS satellite delay times and very restricted message length. 85 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig. 5.16. Schematic of Geostar with the Mobile docker and data telemetry systems in the Orion network SN-1 has been developed between 2000 and 2002 as a lighter version of GEOSTAR, specifically dedicated to seismology and oceanography. It represents the first node of the Italian seafloor seismic network To obtain true real time data transmission, in 2005 SN-1 has been connected to an existing submarine cable for neutrino astrophysics. 5.2.2 MABEL (Multidisciplinary Antarctic Benthic Laboratory) Francesco Gasparoni, Tecnomare S.p.A.San Marco 3584,30124 Venice,Italy francesco.gasparoni@tecnomare.it, http://www.ingv.it/GEOSTAR/mabel.htm MABEL is a seafloor multidisciplinary observatory specifically developed for operation in polar areas. This system derived from the GEOSTAR design was supplied by Tecnomare to PNRA, the Italian Antarctic Research Program. It is equipped with a Seismometer, Hydrophone, CTD, Transmissometer, ADCP, Single point current meter, Chemical Package and a Water Sampler. It is designed to be deployed off the Antarctic continent in deep water from the research vessel Polarstern. Figure 5.17 Schematic of MABEL deployment off the German Neumayer research IIt will be possible to download data via the acoustic modem using ships of opportunity but most data will be logged on board the platform. 86 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.2.3. ASSEM (Array of Sensors for Long Term Monitoring of Geohazards) Jérôme BLANDIN, IFREMER - Centre de Brest - TMSI/TSI/ME, ASSEM Project, BP 70, 29280 Plouzané, France The aim of ASSEM is to develop the means to measure and remotely monitor a set of geotechnical, geodesic and chemical parameters distributed on a seabed area, over an extended time period at two sites two sites, the Ormen Lange oil/gas field (Norway) and the Gulf of Corinth (Greece). The Ormen Lange oil field is at the head of the Storegga slide and the Gulf of Corinth is possible the fasted moving rift in the world with a rate of 1.5cm.year-1. It is important to monitor sea floor stability in these areas. ASSEM is a cluster of sea floor observatories which can form an underwater geodetic network by mutual acoustic ranging between them and also these platforms carry a range of sensors including seismometers, tilt meters, pressure sensors and methane sensors. The latter measure methane emission that may be stimulated by, or be the cause of sea floor movements. The observatories are held on the sea floor by suction anchors. They are deployed either free fall or by lowering on a wire via an acoustic release. This avoids the need for any special ships or equipment for deployment. A suction anchor is essentially an overturned "bucket" penetrated into the seabed. Partial penetration is achieved by self-weight. Full installation is complete by pumping water from the interior of the anchor. Typical differential pressures required for full penetration are on the order of 10 to 100kPa. An ROV or manned submersible is used to interconnect cables between the observatories and as an aid in recovery of the systems. Figure 5.18. ASSEM M1 node being deployed Data are transmitted acoustically to surface relay buoy for radio transmission to shore. To demonstrate compatibility between seafloor observatories developed in parallel EU ASSEM and ORION projects, one ORION node has been integrated in ASSEM network operated in Gulf of Corinth pilot experiment (2004). This result was obtained sharing communication protocols and acoustic telemetry hardware. 87 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.3. Satellite Linked Observatories 5.3.1 ANIMATE (Atlantic Network of Interdisciplinary Moorings and Time-series for Europe) Prof. Uwe Send, IFM-GEOMAR, Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universität Kiel, Duesternbrooker Weg 20, D-24105 Kiel, Germany, usend@ifm-geomar.de http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk/animate ANIMATE is a collaboration between 6 European research institutions and has selected 3 mooring sites to collect data for the North East Atlantic. CIS (Central Irminger Sea) 59.7oN 39.6oW ESTOC (Estación Europea de Series Temporales del Oceano, Islas Canarias) 29o10'N 15o50'W PAP (Porcupine Abyssal Plain) 49oN 16o30'W These are all deep sites in over 3000m of water. The difficult conditions throughout the year make them ideal for providing the technology and systems required to record real-time and delayed-mode data. Sensors are mounted at depths of down to 1000m on the moorings to measure a wide range of physical, chemical and biological variables: Carbon Dioxide, Nutrient Concentrations, Temperature, Salinity, Pressure, Current Speed and Direction and Marine Snow. This project is aimed at measuring processes related to production in the upper part of the ocean. Instruments are distributed on long mooring lines anchored to the sea floor with acoustic releases. Real-time telemetry of data has been set up all three sites At the start of the project 3 moorings were deployed at each site. 1. A titanium frame positioned in the eutrophic zone carrying the Fluorimeter Nitrate analyser, CO2 sensor, and temperature, salinity and pressure sensor. Below this at 150m were ADCPs, measuring direction and speed of the current. 2. A mooring with a surface buoy communicating in near real-time, via satellites, sending temperatures and salinities from up to 12 sensors positioned at depths of between 10m and 1000m. 3. A mooring with sediment traps and current meters. Experiments are in progress on combining all these sensors into one mooring at CIS. See table. Real time data is via telemeter from the surface buoy. The moorings use MicroCAT conductivity, temperature and pressure recorders with built-in Inductive Modems that allow transmission of data using a single plastic-coated, steel mooring cable. The bottom of the insulated mooring wire is earthed to seawater and through a corresponding sea water electrode at the surface completes a conductive loop through the water. Coupling transformers clamped round the cable can transmit and receive data via using DPSK (differential-phase-shift-keyed) telemetry. IM instruments can clamped anywhere along mooring cable. At the surface buoy a Surface Inductive Modem (SIM) completes the communication link between the underwater instruments and a computer or data logger. Data from the instrument string is stored and transmitted via the satellite link back to the laboratory. As insurance against loss of the real-time data, each MicroCAT simultaneously backs up the data in its non-volatile internal memory. Telemetry of data is the ARGOS and Orbcomm satellite systems. 88 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Assessment of the technological concept of ANIMATE The basic technological concept of ANIMATE has proven to be a viable solution for open ocean monitoring stations. Although satellite transmission systems do not allow for high data rate transmissions they offer a dependable solution for instruments with limited data output which for the majority of scientific instruments in use is the case. The main disadvantage results from the difficulty to synchronize the time between each individual mooring structure. As long as no technical solution is available for that seismic measurements are rendered useless. At all the moorings within the ANIMATE project the real-time telemetry link has suffered damage owing to the need for a surface buoy which can be damaged by bad weather and shipping activity. Therefore other approaches are under consideration. Currently a cooperative project funded by the US (NSF) and the European Commission (CARBO-OCEAN) is underway which aims at developing an underwater winch system, which will allow for profiling the upper 100 m of the water column with a buoy containing a suite of biochemical instruments. As soon as the buoy reaches the surface a data link to shore can be set up to access the data stored in the central subsurface controlling system. With the new battery systems that are available on the market it will be possible to enable a sustained operation of a mooring system like ANIMATE for time periods of up to one year. This is also the typical time period for necessary recalibrations in particular for the most interesting parameters like nutrients, chlorophyll and CO2 . Therefore the mooring technology as it exists today or rather with some additional but manageable development steps offers a coherent concept and will fulfill most of the requirements for open ocean observatory systems. Figure 5.19. The basic structure of the ANIMATE mooring together with possible future addition of cabled nodes on the seafloor. 89 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.4 Cabled Observatory Systems. Scientific cabled observatories are in their infancy in Europe but several prototype systems are operational. 5.4.1 Neutrino Observatories Three observatories have been installed in the Mediterranean Sea. Two neutrino telescopes projects, ANTARES and NESTOR, are aiming at scientific discoveries with medium sized detectors while the NEMO project is undertaking research and development for the construction of a future larger detector. The aim of these systems is to trace cosmic rays arriving from outer space back to their origins in supernova remnants, pulsars or microquasars in the local galaxy and in active galactic nuclei and gamma ray bursts outside our galaxy. Under water neutrino telescope are capable of detecting neutrinos in the 1010 to 1016 eV energy range. The detection principle is based on sensing Čerenkov light stimulated in sea water by muons and hadrons produced by neutrino interactions with matter around the detector. As a neutrino passes through sea water or the solid earth below beneath, muons are produced that continue along a track very closely aligned with the parent neutrino. The muon travels through seawater at close to the speed of light and causes emission of characteristic UV-Blue Čerenkov light as the result of a kind of shock wave effect of a fast moving particle. Čerenkov light is responsible for the blue glow seen in water tanks in nuclear reactor facilities and contributes to the natural low level background light in the deep sea. By deploying an array of photo-multiplier tubes housed in glass spheres the time of arrival of the Čerenkov light wave front is timed to nanosecond accuracy at numerous points over a large volume of sea water. From this it is possible to back-calculate the track of the muon and hence the original direction of the neutrino. By running the detector over a number of years and integrating over time the cosmic sources of neutrinos can be mapped. There is an ultimate aim to assemble an array of ca. 5000 detectors occupying one cubic kilometre of sea water somewhere in the Mediterranean as a collaboration between European research institutes (KM3NET ). Choice of the Mediterranean Sea as a site for research is based on the following criteria: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Closeness to the coast to ease deployment and reduce the expense of the power and signal cable connections to the shore A sufficient depth to reduce background from atmospheric muons. A depth of 1000m is a minimal requirement. Good optical properties in water long absorption (>20m) and scattering (~50m) lengths for light in the range 350 - 550nm wavelength. Low level of bioluminescence. Low rates of biofouling (bacterial film deposition and marine life accretion) on optical surfaces. Low rates of sedimentation (for any upward-looking optical components). Low velocity bottom current (~few cm/sec), since rate of bioluminescence is dependent on this parameter. The enclosed oligotrophic basins of Mediterranean provide amongst the best conditions on the planet for deployment of such a system. All three sites have cables installed and in addition to servicing the neutrino detector array have junction boxes with connections for power and data for other observatories. There is a need for environmental data to understand and interpret the performance of the neutrino detector system. Also additional benefit is derived from interdisciplinary sciences. 90 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig 5.20. Locations of the sites of the three Mediterranean Neutrino Telescope projects. 5.4.1.1. ANTARES (Astronomy with a Neutrino Telescope and Abyss Environment Research) John Carr, Centre de Physique de Particules de Marseille / IN2P3-CNRS, 163 Ave. de Luminy, 13288 Marseille, France http://antares.in2p3.fr The ANTARES collaboration is composed of around 150 engineers, technicians and physicists from 22 institutes in France, Italy, Netherlands, Germany and Spain. This is the most advanced neutrino project installing a detector with initially 900 optical modules and effective area 50,000m2 off the south coast of France near Toulon. The collaboration started in 1996 with exploration of sites off the French coast. The site chosen is at 42° 50’N 6° 10’ E with a depth of 2400m. The ANTARES detector array will suspend optical modules on individual mooring lines, with readout via cables connected to the bottom of the lines. This requires connections to be made on the seabed by underwater vehicles. With advances in relevant underwater technology due to the needs of the offshore-oil industry a wide range of suitable deep-sea connectors is available, including electro-optical connectors wet-mateable at depth on the site. The layout of the detector is shown in figure 2. The optical modules are arranged in groups of three on lines with a total height of 420 m which are weighted to the sea bed and held nearly vertical by syntactic foam buoys at the top. The sea bed at the site is at a depth of 2400m and the optical modules positioned at depths between 2300m and 2000m. A line has a total of 75 optical modules arranged in 25 storeys containing three light detectors. A “Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing” (DWDM) system is housed in an electronics container, the “String Control Module” (SCM) at the base of each detector line. In the SCM the outputs from all the detectors on the line are multiplexed on to one pair of optical fibres. These fibres are then connected to a junction box on the seabed via interlink cables. In the junction box the outputs from up to 16 lines are gathered onto a 48 fibre electro-optical submarine cable and sent to the experiment shore station at La Seyne-sur-Mer. 91 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig. 5.20. The layout of the ANTARES Neutrino Telescope on the sea floor The electrical supply system has a similar architecture to the readout system. The submarine cable supplies up to 4400V, 10A AC to a transformer in the junction box. The sixteen independent secondary outputs from the transformer provide up to 500V, 4A to the lines via the interlink cables. At the base of each line a “String Power Module” (SPM) power supply shares the same container as the SCM. The SPM distributes up to 400V DC to the elements in the line to provide the various low voltages required by each electronics card. The 45km electro-optical undersea cable2 linking the detector to the shore station was laid in October 2001. The cable was terminated in December 2002 with the deployment of the central electro-optical junction box. 5.4.1.2. NESTOR (Neutrino Extended Submarine Telescope with Oceanographic Research) Leonidas Resvanis, The NESTOR INSTITUTE, Anagnostara 111, 24001 Pylos, Greece, http://www.nestor.org.gr The NESTOR INSTITUTE for DEEP SEA RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGY and NEUTRINO ASTROPARTICLE PHYSICS was created by the Greek Government as a small National Laboratory 1998 and in 2003 it was incorporated as part of the National Observatory of Athens (NOA). Located at Pylos it exploits the nearby deep water site, extending to a maximum of 5200 m depth in the Mediterranean Sea. Part of the Institute’s charge is to evolve into an International Laboratory possibly hosting the future KM3NET development. The current aim of NESTOR is to build a detector with 168 optical modules and around 20,000 m2 effective area at a depth of 4100m. A key concept of the NESTOR project is the arrangement of the optical modules on a tower structure with all internal connections made on the surface during deployment, hereby avoiding the need for underwater connectors. The NESTOR towers will contain 12 hexagonal floors of 16m radius with photomultipliers looking both upward and downward. An electro-optical cable has been laid from a shore station at Methoni to a site at a depth of 4100m around 15km from the shore 4100m located at 36° 38.12’N, 21°35.49’W. The array, shown will comprise a series of ‘towers’, each rising 360m from a seabed anchor, held in tension by an underwater buoy. Each tower will contain 144 Photo multiplier tubes mounted on 12 titanium-framed 32m diameter ‘floors’ in the form of six-pointed stars. A pair of detectors will be mounted on each arm, one looking up, and the other down. 2 Manufactured and deployed by Alcatel 92 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories The water in this region of the Ionian basin is very clear, with ~ 55m attenuation length for blue light. Bottom currents have been measured to be below 10cm/sec. Extremely low rates of sedimentation and biofouling permit a significant number of upward-looking optical sensors. The NESTOR cable to shore was deployed in June 2000, but was damaged by the ship during the cable lay. In January 2002 the end of the cable was recovered; the cable was repaired and redeployed at 4100m with an electro-optical junction box and associated instruments including an underwater current meter, an ocean bottom seismometer, a nephelometer to monitor light scattering, temperature and pressure sensors, a compass and a tilt-meter. Instrument data were transferred to the shore for nearly a year; the first longduration real-time data readout from a component of deep-sea neutrino detector. Fig. 5.21. Conceptual Layout of the NESTOR array 8 towers are shown. The transparent cone represents the wave front of Čerenkov radiation around an upward going muon track. The first detector floor was deployed in March 2003 and more than five million events were recorded which allowed the first reconstruction of muon tracks in the Mediterranean. Following this initial success at the NESTOR site European efforts in neutrino astronomy are manly centred on the ANTARES experiment but Pylos remains a candidate site for the KM3NET development. 5.4.1.3. NEMO (Neutrino Mediterranean Observatory) Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Laboratori Nazionali del Sud, via S.Sofia, 44 - 95123 Catania – Italy. http://nemoweb.lns.infn.it riccobene@lns.infn.it NEMO is an Italian collaboration between 9 centres within the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) and, 4 centres in CNR concerned with oceanography, marine biology and geology, and 5 othere institutes including, the Insituto Nationale de Geofisica e Vulconologia (INGV) that leads the Geostar consortium. A possible site has been indentified for a km3-scale array at a depth of 3500m, 80km off the coast of Sicilly near Capo Passero. At this location in the Ionian Sea, bacterial concentration is relatively low, 93 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories with the consequent advantages of low expected bioluminescence background and biofouling rate. Preliminary studies over a period of 40 days have shown no evidence for biofouling. At the site, the light attenuation (absorption) length exceeds 35m (70m) [4]. The average bottom current is around 3cm/sec, with a measured sedimentation rate of ~20m/gm/day. It remains to be proven that this low rate would not seriously degrade the performance of upward-looking PMTs after ~ 1 year, should the detector design include them. The NEMO concept is for a 1km3-scale array with 4096 optical modules hung from 64 “towers” laid in a square grid with 200m spacing. Each tower, shown in figure 5, would rise 750m from a seabed anchor, and Fig. 5.22 Conceptual layout of a NEMO tower. The system is deployed would contain 16 “floors” folded up on the sea floor. The buoy is then released and the series of spars is unfurled. Successive support beams with detectors at their separated in height by 40m, each ends are at right angles to one another to create the array. with a pair of PMTs at each end of a 20m composite support arm. A matrix of support cables would ensure that successive floors deploy orthogonally under the force of the suspension buoy. A test site has been established at a depth of 2031m, 28km off Catania in Sicily. An electro-optical cable from Catania splits 23km from the shore, a second branch running 5km to the “Geostar” underwater environmental platform (SN1). Each site is serviced by 10 optical fibers and 6 electrical conductors. 94 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.4.2 Cabled multidisciplinary observatory SN-1. Paolo Favali, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma, Italy. geostar@ingv.it Fig 5.23. Schematic of the NEMO/SN-1 cable and junction box. The multiparametric, geophysical and environmental observatory of the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology SN1was deployed in deep sea, at 2060 m w.d. over 25 km off-shore Eastern Sicily, and connected to a submarine cable. SN-1 is the first real-time submarine point of observation which can be integrated in the terrestrial geophysical networks and, being situated in an area interested by catastrophic earthquakes and tsunamis in historical and recent times, it will give a meaningful contribution to identify signals related to these events. SN-1 is an Italian national project with technology derived from the European projects GEOSTAR, GEOSTAR 2, ORIONGEOSTAR 3, which were co-ordinated bv INGV and experimented in the Italian seas with prototypes of geophysical, oceanographic and environmental observatories and a network of submarine observatories. The multiparametric, geophysical and environmental observatory of the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology SN-1was deployed in deep sea, at 2060 m w.d. over 25 km off-shore Eastern Sicily, and connected to the NEMO submarine cable. SN-1 is the first real-time submarine point of observation which can be integrated into terrestrial geophysical networks. It is located in a major area of interest for catastrophic earthquakes and tsunamis in historical and recent times, and will make a meaningful contribution to identify signals related to such events. The connection of SN-1 to the submarine cable is the result of synergy between Fig. 5.2.4. The SN-1 Platform attached to the launcher Italian scientific institutions and industries module under a specific collaboration agreement started in early 2001 between INGV and INFN. The NEMO submarine cable, deployed in 2001, was provided by INFN. The terrestrial termination is lodged inside INFN laboratory situated in Catania Harbour and the sea part of the cable extends for over 25 km down to depth greater than 2000 m, on the first plateau of the Malta escarpment, a very important regional submarine tectonic structure. The installation of the observatory was carried out by the cable laying vessel CV Pertinacia owned by 95 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Elettra Tlc company. Personnel involved were from Elettra, INGV, Technical University of Berlin, Polytechnic of Berlin, Tecnomare-ENI SpA and INFN. Connection of the observatory to the electro-optical cable in the deep sea required the use of a Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV), vehicle able to complete operations of manipulation to deep sea remotely controlled from the ship. Fig. 5.25. The 3-component broad-band seismometer (Guralp CMG-1T) inside the titanium sphere SN-1, was built between 2000 and 2002 as the main activity of a project coordinated by INGV and financed by the National Group for the Defence from Earthquakes (GNDT), and is equipped with a suite of including; hreecomponents broad-band seismometer, gravity meter, scalar magnetometer and hydrophone. Some oceanographic sensors such as conductivity, temperature and pressure (CTD) and a three-component current meter, have been installed for oceanographic long-term time series and also to provide auxiliary measures to the analysis of the geophysical data. Acoustic sensors belonging to INFN have also been installed as part of NEMO-1 pilot experiment to study the deep sea background noise. This is essential for evaluation of the feasibility of acoustic detection of high energy cosmic particles. An additional benefit will be detection of bioacoustic signals from marine mammals. Figure 5.26. ROV mateable connector (Ocean Design) used to connect SN-1 to the termination frame of one of the 2 cable tails 96 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Figure 5.27. The ROV used for the connection between SN-1 and the termination frame Figure 5.28. SN-1 on the deck of C/V Pertinacia 97 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.4.3 IUB – ESONET Long Time Observatory . Laurenz Thomsen, International University Bremen, School of Engineering and Science Campusring 1 D-28759 Bremen , Germany, l.thomsen@iu-bremen.de The IUB ocean research group in association with NIOZ, Technical University Hamburg-Harburg (TUHH), and Meerestechnik Bremen GmbH (www.mt-bremen.de) has developed a new deep-sea long term observatory. The design is based on a lander frame with several “standard” instruments adapted for Ethernet data-transfer. Four different crawlers are attached to this station, each of them carries a scientific load. The aim of this main project is the development of a cabled deep sea observatory for long term investigation of seafloor processes. The objectives are: • to quantify slow versus fast fluid flow and carbon/methane fluxes • to develop long term monitoring observatories for oil/gas industry • to create a science platform capable of offering a totally new approach to public outreach and awareness of ocean processes. • to develop an enhanced 3D visualization of multi parameter datasets • to carry out hydroacoustic studies on fluid flow pathways and mineral crusts in upper sediment laysers • to link fluid, methane flow with tectonic movement and seismic activity Scientific rationale Our present knowledge about the functioning of the ocean in the earth system is mainly based on seagoing expeditions and shipboard operation of equipment. The data sets thus obtained are constrained in time and space, and generally lack sufficient knowledge of the temporal and spatial variability of parameters. As the importance of the oceans to society grows, so does the need to understand their variation on many temporal and spatial scales. Long term observing systems will enable the study of processes in the ocean over varying timescales and spatial scales, providing the scientific basis for addressing important societal concerns such as climate change, natural hazards, industrial exploitation and the health and viability of living and non-living resources along our coasts and in the open ocean. IUB is currently developing a long term instrument system, which will be deployed at 1200 m water depth 65 km off the California in 2006. The system consists of one central station with internet/power connection to land and several small tele-operated robots, which move along the seafloor and measure carbon/methane turnover rates. In 2003 IUB (coordination, crawler design, general instrument setup, mechanical construction), TUHH (development of control electronics, benthic chamber), RCOM (acoustics), MPI (microsensors), Ifm-Geomar (joint US MARS/NEPTUNE project) and University of Washington (coordinator NEPTUNE) as well as the NIOZ (lander design) and the SME Meerestechnik Bremen (general layout of control and data transfer) started the project. The aim of the development was to build the first prototype of an internet operated vehicle (IOV) with the capability to move along the seafloor by video control and to carry out detailed investigations on fluid- and particle fluxes in the benthic boundary layer. The Crawler should be small (50x50x30 cm), versatile, tele-operated and capable of carrying a scientific payload of up to 30 kg. Even an untrained user should be able to direct the IOV from any internet connected computer. The IOV should be connected to the internet via a junction box (node) within an underwater network or via an Ethernet/power connection at an offshore installation. The connection to a node should be established by the use of a ROV. Once connected the system should remain on the seafloor for extended periods of several months to study the temporal and spatial variations at a given location in the deep sea. For the IUB deep sea observatory three crawlers will be built, each equipped with different sensor systems. All crawlers will be connected to one central instrument system (lander), which is located up to 100 m away from the node, carries additional sensors and transfers the data of the IOVs to the land based data center or offshore installation. After an extended planning phase it was decided to build the observatory with the following capabilities: 98 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Existing hardware and sensors: The central lander will be equipped with • 1 CTD • 1 down-looking profiling ADCP for hydrodynamics • 1 up-looking single point flow meter • 1 in situ filtration with 21 filters for particle measurements • 1 sediment trap with settling tube • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 pan/tilt/zoom web cam for monitoring and video mosaicking The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and experimental devices: • 1 CTD • 2 methane • 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and quantification of fluid flow • 8 oxygen micro profilers • 1 benthic flow simulation chamber to determine particle dynamics • 3 shear-stress sensors • 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler movement • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral deposits in the upper sediment column at the decimeter scale and to detect pathways of fluid flow in high resolution. Fig. 5.29: Cartoon of deployed lander with crawler in the Monterey Canyon. 99 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig. 5.30. Crawler in test basin investigating a simulated gas discharge. Fig. 5.31 Control webpage All gained data transmitted online via internet will be transformed into a XML file format. This will enable a convenient incorporation into existing archives such as Pangaea (http://www.pangaea.de/). For public outreach we already established the www.deepseacam.com homepage. 100 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories Fig. 5.32. Flow chart for data transfer. Fig. 5.33. Webpage for public outreach. 101 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories This page is intentionally left blank for duplex printing 102 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.Observatory Data Sheets 103 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.1. General information Observatory type Benthic Chamber Lander Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Up to 4 squared benthic chambers w. syringe samplers Weeks Power capacity and type Data capacity Status Web page BCL GEOMAR 1996 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Biogeochemical sediment/water interface fluxes 1440 kg 277 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 1.4571 6000 m Type and characteristics of sensors installed: Open for further expansions 2-6 6V, 28Ah (rechargable NiCd cells) - MByte Operative since 1996 http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/ind exsedi.html Photo/drawing Schematics of the BC Lander with 1 chamber and fully equipped for video-guided deployment (right). Archived data References 104 http://www.pangaea.de/PangaVista Witte U. and Pfannkuche O. (2000) High rates of benthic carbon remineralisation in the abyssal Arabian Sea. Deep-Sea Research II 47, 27852804. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.2 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics GEOSTAR (Geophysical and Oceanographic Station for Abyssal Research) Country of origin European Union Owner GEOSTAR Consortium Developer Tecnomare (seafloor observatory), TUB (intervention vehicle) Year 1996-97 (Geostar 1 version) 1999-2000 (Geostar 2 version) Architecture Deployment and recovery managed by dedicated intervention vehicle (MODUS) Interface Moored buoy interfaced Geophysics Oceanography Geochemistry Weight in air [kN] 25.42 Weight in water [kN] 14.16 Dimensions 3500 x 3500 x 3300 (l x w x h) [mm] Material Aluminium, titanium Depth rating 4000 m Payload Communication system Seismometer (CMG-1T Guralp) Scalar magnetometer (GEM) Fluxgate magnetometer (INGV prototype) ADCP (RDI 300 kHz Workhorse) CTD (SeaBird SBE 16) Transmissometer (Chelsea Aquatracka) Hydrophone Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype) Single point current meter (FSI 3D-ACM) Water Sampler (MacLane RAS 48-500) Chemical Package (Tecnomare/INGV prototype) Underwater segment Surface segment Autonomy Status Web page Photo/drawing Months Power capacity Data capacity Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12) ARGOS Messengers (Ifremer) INMARSAT Mini M VHF radio link (back-up) 6 24 V, 3000 Ah 4 Gbyte Operative since 2000 Two missions carried out (1998 and 2000-2001); will be integrated in ORION network http://geostar.ingv.it 105 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.3. General information Country of origin Owner Observatory type Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air [kN] Weight in water [kN] Dimensions (l x w x h) [mm] Material Depth rating Payload Communication system Autonomy Status Web page 106 Underwater segment Surface segment Months Power capacity Data capacity GMM (Gas Monitoring Module) European Union IFREMER Co-ordinator (ASSEM Project), INGV task leader, Exploitation agreement to be defined Tecnomare 2002-2004 Benthic tripod Diver assisted deployment and recovery Cabled observatory (plus internal data back-up storage) Gas occurrence monitoring close to seabed 1.5 0.7 φ 1500 x 1500 Aluminium 1000 m (except H2S sensor) 3 methane sensors (Capsum METS) H2S sensor (AMT) CTD (SeaBird SBE-37SI) Cable telemetry ASSEM network Min 6 12 V, 960 Ah 512 MByte on Flash memory (extendable) Operative since April 2004 First mission April-June 2004 (*) Second mission Sept 2004-January 2005 (*) (*) Gulf of Patras, integrated in ASSEM network www.ifremer.fr/assem ; http://geostar.ingv.it 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.4 General information Observatory type Biogeochemical observatory Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Web page Photo/drawing Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating 2 benthic chambers (mesocosms) w. 4 syringe samplers,1 gas exchange system & reservoir Provision for further expansions Days Power capacity and type Data capacity BIGO GEOMAR / TU HH, MT 1 2002 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Biogeochemical fluxes and environment-tal parameters at sediment water interface 1520 kg 294 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Titanium 6000 m 2 Aanderaa oxygen optodes Savorius current meter profiling micro-electrodes 6 6/12V, 2*28/56Ah rechargable NiCd cells 1 Mbyte SRAM 1 Mbyte flash Operative since 2002 http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.html Scheme of the gas exchange system BIGO prior to its deployment with launching unit mounted on top. Archived data References Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht C. and Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise Report SO165, OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112. 107 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.5 General information Observatory type Deep-sea Observation System Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Time-lapse stereo camera/flash, sediment trap, current meters, CTD, feeding experiments Months Power capacity and type: Each sensor self-contained with primary cells (Duracell MN) Data capacity: Each sensor self-contained Status Location/depth Web page 51°27.28N / 10°45.23W DOS GEOMAR 1996 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Biology and environmental sea floor and BBL monitoring 1370 kg 250 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 1.4571 6000 m 2 ADCPs (RDI workhorse, 300 & 1200 kHz), CTD (SBE 16plus), MAVS-3 (NOSKA), Kiel sediment trap Open for further expansions 4 ADCPs: 42V/18Ah CTD: 14V/18Ah MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah ADCPs: 74/84 Mbyte flash card CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM MAVS-3: 64 Mbyte flash card Operative since 1996 806 m http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/ind exsedi.html Photo/drawing Video-guided deployment on a coral thicket on Galway Mound, Porcupine Sea. Archived data References 108 http://www.pangaea.de/PangaVista Witte, U. (1999) Consumption of large carcasses by scavenging assemblages in the deep Arabian Sea: observations by baited camera. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 183, 139-147. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.6 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Fluid Flux Observatory Developer Year Architecture Interface Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating 2 benthic chambers w. syringe samplers and 1 FLUFO module Provision for further expansions Months Power capacity and type: Each sensor self-contained with primary cells (Duracell MN) Data capacity: Each sensor self-contained Status Web page Photo/drawing FLUFO GEOMAR / TU HH, MT 1 2002 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Acoustic Modem Fluid flow and environmental control parameter 1560 kg 330 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Titanium 6000 m CTD (SBE 16 plus), MAVS-3 (NOBSKA), Longranger ADCP (RDI 75 kHz), Digital Camcorder (Canon) Bidirectional communication 1 6/12V, 4*28/ 56Ah rechargable NiCd cells (chambers); ADCP: 42V/18Ah CTD: 14V/18Ah MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah ADCP: 74 Mbyte flash card CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM MAVS-3: 64 Mbyte flash card FLUFO TT8: 660 Mbyte flash card Operative since 2002 http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.html Schematic picture of the FLUFO-module. Left: FLUFO during launch. Archived data References Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht C. and Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise Report SO165, OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112. 109 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.7 General information Observatory type Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Payload Autonomy Provision for further expansions Days Power capacity and type Data capacity Status Web page GasQuant GEOMAR/Elac Nautik GmbH 2002 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Gas bubble detection, periodicity & quantification 1830 kg 226 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 1.4571 1000 m (transducer) 180 kHz swath transducer (75° opening angle with 21 beams; resolution of each beam 3° horizontal and 1.5° vertical), electronic transducer unit (SEE 30; transmitting and Receiving Unit) and data acquisition PC integration in cabled network 6 24V, 230Ah 20 GByte Operative since 2002 http://www.geomar.de/~jgreiner/web_LOTUS/sta rt_sp2.htm Photo/drawing Top: Scheme of the detection of 2 gas bubblesites by the back-scattered signal. Right: View of the GasQuant Lander with launcher on top ready for deployment. The frame at the base of the lander carries 4 deep-sea batteries and the SEE electronics in a titanium barrel. A compass, observed by one of the two launcher-cameras, was used to control the lander heading during the deployment. Archived data References 110 Pfannkuche O., Eisenhauer A., Linke P., Utecht C. and Scientific Party (2003) RV SONNE Cruise Report SO165, OTEGA-I, GEOMAR Report 112. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.8 General information Observatory type Hydrate Detection and Stability Determination System Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating HDSD-II module: 3 parallel stingers (1 heated, 2 with sensors) slowly pushed into the sediment to a depth of 100cm Provision for further expansions Days Power capacity and type Data capacity HDSD GEOMAR/SFB 574 2002 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Gas hydrate detection, sediment physical properties 1320 kg 220 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 1.4571 2000 m 23 temperature and resistivity sensors each 4 cm apart Shear strength, pore pressure 2 4*12V, 4*56Ah rechargable NiCD cells 194 MByte Operative since 2002 reDesign phase 2003 Pre-operative stage 2004 Photo/drawing Sketch of the deployment of a HDSD-II-equipped lander. References Bohrmann G., Schenck S. (2004) RV SONNE Cruise Report SO174, OTEGA-II, GEOMAR Report 117. W. Brückmann, M. Türk, T. Mörz, P. Linke (2004): In-situ thermal perturbation tests of nearsurface gas hydrates - results from theTexas/Louissiana continental shelf (Gulf of Mexico) Abstract EGU 2004. 111 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.9 General information Observatory type Vent Sampler Lander Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Large squarred funnel-shaped benthic chamber with syringe sampler Provision for further expansions Months Power capacity and type: Each sensor self-contained with primary cells (Duracell MN) Data capacity: Each sensor self-contained Status Web page 112 VESP GEOMAR 1999 Free fall or video deployed Autonomous Fluid flow and environmental control parameters 890 kg 280 kg 1660 x 1660 x 2230 cm Stainless Steel 1.4571 6000 m CTD (SBE 25, 16plus or FSI mCTD,) CH4-sensors (CAPSUM), H2S- & pH-sensors (AMT), Thermistor flowmeter (100 Ohm), Seismometer (GEOLON), Geophon, Hydrophon MAVS-3 (NOBSKA), ADCP (RDI 300 kHz), Microseismicity 3 6/12V, 2*28/ 56Ah rechargable NiCd cells (chamber); ADCP: 42V/18Ah CTD: 14V/18Ah MAVS-3: 14V/5.4Ah ADCP: 74 Mbyte flash card CTD: 8 Mbyte RAM MAVS-3: 64 Mbyte flash card Flowmeter TT8: 1 Mbyte flash card Seismometer: 4 Gbyte micro drives Operative since 1999 http://www.geomar.de/zd/deep_sea/indexsedi.ht ml 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.10 General information Observatory type Developer Year Architecture IUB deep-sea observatory IUB, TUHH, Meerestechnik Bremen, NIOZ 2004 cabled, internet operated stationary lander with crawlers Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Cable connected Moored buoy interfaced Biology Sediment transport Geophysical Fluid flow Geohazard Identification Weight in air 500 kg Weight in water 400 kg Dimensions (l x w x h) 4x4x4m Material stainless steel Depth rating 4000 m The central lander will be equipped with • 1 CTD • 1 down-looking profiling ADCP for hydrodynamics • 1 up-looking single point flow meter • 1 in situ filtration with 21 filters for particle measurements • 1 sediment trap with settling tube • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 pan/tilt/zoom web cam for monitoring and video mosaicking The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and experimental devices: • 1 CTD • 2 methane • 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and quantification of fluid flow • 8 oxygen micro profilers • 1 benthic flow simulation chamber to determine particle dynamics • 3 shear-stress sensors • 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler movement • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral deposits in the upper sediment column at the decimeter scale and to Provision for further expansions Months 12 Power capacity and type 400/48V DC Data capacity 10/100Mbps Ethernet Pre-operative stage Monterey Bay Canyon 2000 m http://www.deepseacam.com 113 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.11 General information Observatory type Country of origin Owner Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air [kN] Weight in water [kN] Dimensions (l x w x h) [mm] Material Depth rating Payload Communication system Autonomy Status Web page 114 Underwater segment Surface segment Months Power capacity Data capacity SN-1 Italy INGV Tecnomare 2001-02 Deployment and recovery managed by dedicated intervention vehicle (MODUS) Autonomous, acoustic link with ship of opportunity available (will be upgraded with interface for connection to NEMO experiment cable) Seismology 14.22 8.2 3000 x 3000 x 2900 Aluminium, titanium 4000 m Seismometer (Guralp) Hydrophone (OAS E2-PD) Gravity meter (CNR-IFSI prototype) CTD (SeaBird SBE 16) Single point current meter (FSI 3D-ACM) Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12) none 6 12 V, 1920 Ah 17 GByte Operative since 2002 First mission offshore Catania (Oct 9 2002 – May 12 2003, 2105 mwd) http://geostar.ingv.it 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.12 General information Observatory type Country of origin Owner Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air [kN] Weight in water [kN] Dimensions (l x w x h) [mm] Material Depth rating Payload Seismometer Hydrophone CTD Transmissometer ADCP Single point current meter Chemical Package Water Sampler Communication system Autonomy Underwater segment Surface segment Months Power capacity Data capacity Status MABEL (Multidisciplinary Antarctic Benthic Laboratory) Italy PNRA (Italian Antarctic Research Program) Tecnomare 2002-on Deployment and recovery managed by dedicated intervention vehicle (MODUS) Autonomous, acoustic link with ship of opportunity available Geochemistry Seismology 14.22 8.2 3000 x 3000 x 2900 Aluminium, titanium 4000 m Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 12) none 1 year 12 V, 1920 Ah 17 GByte Under development Mechanical frame manufactured Data acquisition and control electronics qualified in ice basin tests (HSVA Hamburg, 2002) 115 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.13 General information Developer Observatory type Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Payload Autonomy Status 116 Months Power capacity Data capacity CIESM (array of autonomous CTDs) Classical (programme initiated, and action recommended by myself) 2002 Free fall Autonomous Physical Oceanography 400 kg 300 kg Sub-surface mooring shape 10 m height Various 6000 m One autonomous CTD (SBE 37-SM type) Any kind of instrumentation usually set on subsurface moorings 2 years (nominal) 9V, 7.2Ah 3 MByte Operative since 2002 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.14 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Free-fall Respirometer AWI/GEOMAR 2000 Free fall Autonomous Biogeochemical sediment/water interface fluxes Weight in air 1100 kg Weight in water 100 kg Dimensions (l x w x h) Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Material Stainless Steel Depth rating 6000 m Up to 4 squared benthic Type and characteristics of sensors chambers with water samplers installed: current meter, thermometer etc. (open for further expansions) Developer Year Architecture Interface Weeks Power capacity and type Data capacity Deep-sea long-term station AWI-HAUSGARTEN Experiments normally up to 1 week 4x12V, 14Ah (rechargable NiCd cells) - MByte Operative since 2000 Down to 5600 m http://www.awibremerhaven.de/Research/ProjectGroups/Deep Sea/lander.html Photo/drawing Archived data Currents, temperature, oxygen demand 117 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.15 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Experimental Lander Developer Year Architecture Interface Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Time-lapse camera, Scanning sonar, Baited traps Weeks Power capacity and type Data capacity Deep-sea long-term station AWI-HAUSGARTEN AWI/GEOMAR 2000 Free fall Autonomous Experiments at the deep seafloor 800 kg 100 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 6000 m Type and characteristics of sensors installed: current meter, thermometer etc. (open for further expansions) Experiments normally up to 2 days 24V, 42Ah (rechargable NiCd cells) - MByte Operative since 2000 Down to 5600 m http://www.awibremerhaven.de/Research/ProjectGroups/Deep Sea/lander.html Photo/drawing Archived data 118 Currents, temperature, photos 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.16 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Developer Year Architecture Interface Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Time-lapse camera, Sediment trap, Optode Long-term Lander AWI/GEOMAR 2000 Free fall Autonomous Long-term observations/sampling 1000 kg 100 kg Ø = 2620 cm; h = 2650 cm Stainless Steel 6000 m Type and characteristics of sensors installed: current meter, thermometer etc. (open for further expansions) Months Power capacity and type Data capacity Deep-sea long-term station AWI-HAUSGARTEN 1 year 12V, 25,5Ah (rechargable NiCd cells) - MByte Operative since 2000 Down to 5600 m http://www.awibremerhaven.de/Research/ProjectGroups/Deep Sea/lander.html Photo/drawing Archived data Currents, temperature, oxygen, particle flux, photos 119 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.17 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Colonisation Trays AWI/IFREMER 2002 Free fall Autonomous Colonisation experiments Weight in air 750 kg Weight in water 91 kg Dimensions (l x w x h) 160 x 160 x 200 cm Material Stainless Steel Depth rating 6000 m 4 trays containing artificial Type and characteristics of sensors sediments installed: (open for further expansions) Developer Year Architecture Interface Months Power capacity and type Data capacity Deep-sea long-term station AWI-HAUSGARTEN Web page Photo/drawing Archived data References 120 Desbruyères, D., J. Y. Bervas, et al. (1980). “Un cas de colonisation rapide d'un sédiment profond.” Oceanologica Acta 3(3): 285-291. 1 year Operative since 2002 Down to 5600 m 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.18 General information Observatory type BOttom BOundary Mk2 lander Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Photo/drawing Archived data References Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Standard Equipment: Sediment trap OBS (2) Salinity, Temperature, ADCP B/W stereo camera system Other sensors can be installed Plans for further expansions Years Power capacity and type Data capacity Operational Currently two systems deployed at Iberian margin BOBO (3 systems) NIOZ 1998 Free fall Autonomous Bottom boundary layer currents and sediment dynamics 1050 kg 150 kg Triangular foot print: 1 side=4 m Height 3.5 m Aluminium 5000 m Type: Technicap PPS 4/3 Seapoint Seabird SBE-16 CTD RDI, 1200 kHz Time lapse video camera 1 25 Ah 45V, 25 Ah 12V, 35 Ah 14V Alkaline batteries 1 year, 5 min. interval Operative since 1998 Depth in metres 1858 m and 4975 m BOBO being recovered after a deployment. Contact NIOZ van Weering, T.C.E., Koster, B., van Heerwaarden, J., Thomsen, L., Viergutz, T., 2000. New technique for long-term deep seabed studies. Sea Technology, February 2000: 17-20. 121 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.19 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Deep Ocean Benthic Observatory Developer Year Architecture Interface Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating Camera Flash Unit Bait system ADCP Controller Acoustic releases (2) Months Power capacity and type: DOBO Oceanlab 2001 Free fall Autonomous Faunal and environmental monitoring 263.7 kg 166.9 kg H 270cm, W 200 cm, L 200 cm Titanium Grade 2 6000 m 35mm stills camera (model M8S, Ocean Instrumentation, UK) ADCP (RDI workhorse, 300kHz), AR 661 B2S-DDL and RT 661 B2S-DDL, Oceano France Open for further expansions 9 variable Data capacity: ADCP: 10Mbyte flash card Controller: 48 MB flash card Camera: 1400 frames Operative since 2001 NE Atlantic-Porcupine Seabight (PSB), Porcupine Abyssal Plain (PAP) Dep1: 7 day depl PSB Aug 2001 (2555m) Dep2: 7 month depl PSB Sept 2001-Mar 2002 (2710m) Dep3: 8 month depl PSB Mar–Oct 2002 (2752m) Dep4: 1 month depl MAR June–July 2004 (3664m) Dep5: 3 month depl PAP Sept - Nov 2004 (4182m) Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) - Charlie Gibbs Fracture Zone Web page Photo/drawing http://www.oceanlab.abdn.ac.uk/research/dobo.shtml Archived data Dep1: 1400 images, ADCP, ACM data Dep2: 1400 images, ADCP, ACM data Dep3: 50 images, ADCP, ACM data Dep4: 1400 images, ADCP data Dep5: 1400 images, ADCP data Bagley, P.M., I.G. Priede, A.J. Jamieson, D.M. Bailey, E.G. Battle, C. Henriques, and K.M. Kemp (2004). Lander techniques for deep ocean biological research. Underwater Technology, Vol. 26, No.1, 3-12 References 122 Jamieson, A.J. and P.M. Bagley. Biodiversity Survey Techniques: ROBIO and DOBO Landers. Sea Technology. January, 2005, pp53-57 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.20 General information Observatory type Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Photo/drawing Archived data References Göteborg Big Modular Lander Göteborg University 1998 Free fall Autonomous Physical, biological and chemical studies at the sea floor Weight in air 1500 kg Weight in water 80 kg Dimensions (l x w x h) l=2.0 m x w=2.0 m x h = 2.1 m Material Titanium and various plastics Depth rating 6000 m 1. User selectable modules Examples of used modules: (see right) 1A: Benthic resuspension chamber: 10 2. Profiling current meter syringes, sediment sampling, oxygen (RDCP-600, Aanderaa) with optode & turbidity sensor (Aanderaa). CTD, O2 optode & turbidity. 1B: Planar optode: 2D distribution of 3. Scanning digital video(Sony) oxygen, photos of in-fauna and sed. 4. Niskin bottle 1C: Microelectrode module. 5. Sediment traps 1D: Gel peeper module (not in use) 6. 2 acoust. releases (Oceano) 7. Argo transmitter (Orca) Future development CAN network & acoustic 2-way com. Weeks 2-6 (module dependent) Power capacity and type 24 V, 36 Ah Alkaline battery pack Data capacity 1-10 GByte (module dependent) Operative since 1998 About 80 successful deployments Latitude and longitude Depth in metres Developer Year Architecture Interface Göteborg Big Modular Lander being deployed off R/V Aegeo in the Mediterranean Sea. Various international databases * Ståhl, Tengberg, Brunnegård, Hall, Bjørnbom, Forbes, Josefson, Karle & Roos (2004). Factors influencing organic carbon recycling and burial in Skagerrak sediments. Journ.Marine Research, 62: 867-907. * Tengberg, Almroth & Hall (2003). Resuspension and its effect on organic carbon recycling and nutrient exchange in coastal sediments: In-situ measurements using new experimental technology. JEMBE, 285-286: 119-142. 123 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.21 General information Observatory type Göteborg Mini Modular Lander Developer Göteborg University Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Photo/drawing Archived data References 124 Weight in air Weight in water Dimensions (l x w x h) Material Depth rating 1. User selectable module (see right) 2. Single point current meter (RCM9, Aanderaa) with CTD, O2 optode & turbidity. 3. Niskin bottle 4. 1 acoust. releases (Oceano) 5. VHF & Flash (Novatec) Future development Weeks Power capacity and type Data capacity Operative since 1999 Latitude and longitude 1999 Free fall Autonomous Physical, biological and chemical studies at the sea floor 350 kg 50 kg l=1.1 m x w=1.2 m x h = 1.9 m Titanium and various plastics 1000 m Examples of used modules: 1A: Benthic resuspension chamber: 10 syringes, sediment sampling, oxygen optode & turbidity sensor (Aanderaa). 1B: Planar optode: 2D distribution of oxygen, photos of in-fauna and sed. CAN network 2-4 (module dependent) 12 V, 25 Ah Dry Pb rechargeable 0.1-5 GByte (module dependent) About 50 successful deployments Depth in metres Göteborg Mini Modular Lander being deployed with Planar Optode Module off R/V Skagerak in the Baltic Sea. Various international databases * Ståhl, Tengberg, Brunnegård, Hall, Bjørnbom, Forbes, Josefson, Karle & Roos (2004). Factors influencing organic carbon recycling and burial in Skagerrak sediments. Journ.Marine Research, 62: 867-907. 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.22 General information Observatory type Country of origin Owner Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air [kN] Weight in water [kN] Dimensions (l x w x h) [mm] Material Depth rating Payload Communication system Underwater segment Surface segment Autonomy Months Power capacity Data capacity Status Web page ORION Node # 3 European Union INGV co-ordinator, Exploitation agreement to be defined Tecnomare 2002-2003 Deployment and recovery managed by dedicated intervention vehicle (MODUS) Node of an underwater horizontal acoustic network, managed by a moored relay buoy Seismology 14 8.5 2900 x 2900 x 2900 Aluminium (frame, supports), titanium (pressure vessels) 4000 m Seismometer Hydrophone Single point current meter (optional) Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 200) Radio link IRIDIUM back-up min 6 12 V, 1920 Ah 3 x 8 GByte hard disks + 3 x 64 MByte Flash Cards Operative since December 2003 First mission Dec 2003 – Apr 2004 (*) Second mission Jun 2004 – May 2005 (*) (*) Marsili Volcano, Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, networked with GEOSTAR http://geostar.ingv.it 125 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.23 General information Observatory type Country of origin Owner Developer Year Architecture Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Weight in air [kN] Weight in water [kN] Dimensions (l x w x h) [mm] Material Depth rating Payload Communication system Autonomy Status Web page 126 Underwater segment Surface segment Months Power capacity Data capacity ORION Node # 4 European Union INGV Co-ordinator, Exploitation agreement to be defined Tecnomare 2002-2004 Cable deployed from ship (mechanical rope and acoustic release); recovered with ROV assistance Node of an underwater horizontal acoustic network Seismology 6.6 3.4 2000 x 2000 x 2000 Aluminium 1000 m Seismometer (PDM-Eentec) Hydrophone (OAS E2PD) Methane sensor (Capsum METS) Acoustic multimodulation modem (ORCA MATS 200) GPRS cellular network Min 6 12 V, 960 Ah 3x8 GByte Hard Disks + 3x64 MByte Flash Cards Operative since April 2004 First pilot experiment April-November 2004 (Corinth Gulf), integrated into ASSEM network http://geostar.ingv.it; www.ifremer.fr/assem 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories 5.5.24 General information Observatory type IUB deep-sea observatory Developer Year Architecture IUB, TUHH, Meerestechnik Bremen, NIOZ 2004 cabled, internet operated stationary lander with crawlers Interface Purpose Technical characteristics Payload Autonomy Status Location/depth Web page Photo/drawing Cable connected Moored buoy interfaced Biology Sediment transport Geophysical Fluid flow Geohazard Identification Weight in air 500 kg Weight in water 400 kg Dimensions (l x w x h) 4x4x4m Material stainless steel Depth rating 4000 m The central lander will be equipped with • 1 CTD • 1 down-looking profiling ADCP for hydrodynamics • 1 up-looking single point flow meter • 1 in situ filtration with 21 filters for particle measurements • 1 sediment trap with settling tube • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 pan/tilt/zoom web cam for monitoring and video mosaicking The three crawlers will be equipped with following sensor systems and experimental devices: • 1 CTD • 2 methane • 1 newly developed Schlieren camera for the detection and quantification of fluid flow • 8 oxygen micro profilers • 1 benthic flow simulation chamber to determine particle dynamics • 3 shear-stress sensors • 3-4 pan/tilt/zoom web cams for controlled tele-operated crawler movement • 1 sonar to detect gas bubbles • 1 newly developed parametric echosounder system to image mineral deposits in the upper sediment column at the decimeter scale and to Provision for further expansions Months 12 Power capacity and type 400/48V DC Data capacity 10/100Mbps Ethernet Pre-operative stage Monterey Bay Canyon 2000 m http://www.deepseacam.com 127 5. Review of Existing European Capacity in Ocean Observatories This page is intentionally left blank for duplex printing 128 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Section 6. The European Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.1. European Ocean Margin Assets and Hazards The submarine terrain around Europe from the continental shelves to 4000m depth known as the European Ocean Margin extends approximately 15,000km from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea with an area of ca. 3 million km2. This is comparable in size with the total land mass of Europe and is increasingly important for resources, such as minerals, hydrocarbons and fisheries. The biodiversity in this region probably exceeds that of the European land mass. There are natural hazards such as submarine slides and earthquakes with associated tsunamis. The ocean margin spans contrasting marine geographic zones, from the Arctic, Subarctic (Iceland, Norway, Finland) North Atlantic Drift (Ireland, France, United Kingdom), Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (Portugal, Spain) to the Mediterranean and Black Sea, but these have been unevenly sampled and documented. The definition of the area of operation for an ESONET has been determined. The zone of importance extends from 30° N in the south to 80° N in the north, and from 35° W to 45° E. Fig 6.1. The area of operation for ESONET The distribution of ESONET regional networks has been determined by reference to plate tectonics, sea floor features and overlying oceanography. The aim of ESONET is to provide representative monitoring around Europe. Seismic activity in Europe is generally along the southern margin of the continent associated with collision with the African Plate beneath the Mediterranean Sea. Plate boundaries extend into the Atlantic Ocean at the Straits of Gibralter and to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Seismicity is evident throughout the length of the Mid-Atlantic ridge from the Azores to Iceland (Fig.6.2) 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.2. Locations of Earthquakes around Europe There is a clear need for seismic monitoring capability in Southern Europe at strategic locations along these plate boundaries to monitor events in the earth’s crust and as an aid to protection against earthquakes and tsunamis The EU sponsored project HERMES project (Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Margins of European Seas) http://www.eu-hermes.net/ has identified sea floor features around Europe that are sites of fluid flow, structural instability or foci for biodiversity which are presented in overview form in Fig 6.3. Fig 6.3. Chart showing locations of major mud slides (red), coral reefs (pink), mud mounds (yellow) and seep/fluid flow (white). Data courtesy of HERMES 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Europe is bounded by the following oceanic basins, the Black Sea, Eastern Mediterranean, Western Mediterranean, North East Atlantic, and the Arctic Ocean. Important boundaries in the North East Atlantic are the Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Wyville Thompson Ridge between Shetland and Faroe and the extensions to Iceland and Greenland. Fig 6.4. Chart detailing the bathymetry of the European margin, Data from Centenary Edition of GEBCO. Superimposed on this pattern within the solid earth are contrasting environments associated with the water column. Longhurst1 has divided the world’s oceans in to biogeographic zones based to a large extent on sea surface chlorophyll distribution as measured using the Coastal Zone Color Scanner carried on board US NIMBUS remote sensing satellites. Around Europe 5 such deep water biogeographic provinces are recognised (Fig. 2). ARCTAtlantic Arctic Province. This is the part of the Arctic Ocean with non-permanent ice cover and is characterised by strongly seasonal plankton production in surface layers. SARC- Atlantic Subarctic province is influenced by surface warm water from the Atlantic and shows seasonal production that is distinct from that of true arctic waters further north. This region includes the highly productive Barents sea fishery area. NADR – North Atlantic Drift Province, This area has the biggest seasonal change in chlorophyll concentration anywhere in the world’s oceans and has a dominant effect on the environment of western Europe. NAST – North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Province has lower productivity than the regions to the north and shows minimal primary production in later summer. Production increases in late autumn and reaches a peak in late spring. MEDI – The Mediterranean Sea resembles the subtropical Atlantic in its pattern of productivity but there are special features of an enclosed sea. The Mediterranean deep water is warm (ca. 12°C) to the bottom at over 4000m and highly oxygenated. The Black sea is strongly influenced by freshwater inflow from continental rivers producing a strong density gradient and a boundary at 80-200m depth below which oxygen is absent and hydrogen sulphide concentrations increase with depth. 1 A.Longhurst, Ecological Geography of the Sea. San Diego, CA. Academic Press. 1998. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations . ARCT SARC NADR MEDI NAST (E) Fig 6.5. Biogeographic provinces around Europe. ARCT- Atlantic Arctic Province, SARC- Atlantic Subarctic province, NADR – North Atlantic Drift Province, NAST – North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Province, MEDI – Mediterranean Sea/Black Sea province. Ocean colours represent cholorophyll concentration in summer, blue low red high, courtesy of the US SeaWifs programme Life in the deep sea is almost entirely dependent on fall out of organic matter from the surface layers. Therefore the abundance, biomass and composition of deep sea life is influenced by the patterns of surface productivity. The abundance of deep sea fishes is clearly influenced by surface production. Furthermore flux from the surface varies both seasonally and from year to year. In the NADR province on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain a strong seasonal deposition of phytoplankton detritus has been observed in late summer at 4800m depth. Over time the composition of the deep sea fauna has changed possibly associated with change in fluxes to the deep sea influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation. During 1997-2000 an infestation of the North east Atlantic Ocean abyssal plain by sea cucumbers Amperima rosea (6457 ha-1) and brittle stars Ophiocten hastatum (54,000 ha-1) was detected. If such events had occurred following some human intervention, such as deep sea waste disposal, it is likely that that the anthropogenic effect would have been held responsible. It is evident that the deep waters around Europe function as coupled systems and it cannot be assumed that the deep sea is uniform and stable. Large scale changes occur that are very poorly understood. The central Porcupine Abyssal Plain location (PAP) in NADR is the best monitored deep sea abyssal location in the world. However monitoring only began in 1989 and a number of years are missing from the time series. There is an urgent need to establish continuous monitoring at this and other sites in order to track changes over time in the Oceans around Europe. Simple exploration during single visits to locations is no longer adequate. An additional driver for development of ESONET is the development of underwater telescope arrays for detecting high energy neutrinos passing through the earth. Three such systems are at various stages of development in the Mediterranean sea which has been chosen for its relatively sheltered location and low productivity resulting in low level of natural bioluminescence in the water column. The neutrinos are detected by an array of photosensors that identify Cerenkov radiation stimulated by interactions with water molecules. The aim is to implement an array up to 1km3 in dimension at a depths greater than 2km. Such an infrastructure with extensive cabling systems on the sea floor would provide considerable opportunities for synergistic development of ESONET observatories. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.2 ESONET Coverage. ESONET proposes a network of 10 regional observatories as shown in Fig 6.6. ESONET will be a federation of these regional observatories each with its own lead institution and implementation committee. ESONET will provide standardisation, co-ordination and data interchange. A) B) Fig 6.6. The proposed 10 ESONET regional observatory networks, A- Mercator projection, blue = deep white = shallow, B - 3D solid model 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.3 The proposed ESONET Observatory Locations. Monitoring of the ocean margin is, in itself, not a trivial task and will need to foster energies from all EU member states in a variety of disciplines, including engineering, telecommunications, information technology, biology, ecology, geology, geophysics, oceanography and socio-economics. A multi-faceted approach is required. In order to be effective, however, the placement of fixed observatories cannot be random or limited to locations that offer cheap alternatives. Instead, the division of the European ocean margins into representative zones, each with an observatory capacity, is a more fruitful way of maximising environmental monitoring capacity. Indeed, the main innovation of ESONET is to co-ordinate the use of existing European infrastructure. It is not necessary to complete a cabled network around Europe from the outset, rather a phased introduction of appropriate technology in key provinces is more realistic. Many potential sites have already been identified as being operable to some degree and provide promising opportunities in terms of their scientific contribution to the network, geographical location and adaptability. Some of these sites are already being evaluated with regard to forming the principle strategic nodes of an ESONET, and plans are being put in place for future integration. The sites so far proposed include, but are not limited to, ten initial locations. 6.3.1. Arctic – Arctic Ocean Arctic water exiting into the Atlantic ocean between Europe and Greenland is an important component of the global deep water circulation of the planet and its heat budget. Establishment of a long term station here is important for tracking global change as ice cover decreases but there are also important deep sea habitats such as mud volcanoes in the ‘Hausgarten’ region, off Svalbard. Fig 6.7. Sea Ice in the Arctic Ocean The polar regions play an important role within the earth’s climate system. Both regions, at high northern and southern latitudes, are characterised by low temperatures, distinct seasonality, huge 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations areas of seasonal and permanent ice coverage. Massive and deep reaching permafrost layers cover large areas of the Arctic coasts. In particular, the Arctic is of outstanding relevance in respect to the development of the climate in Europe. Polar regions are very sensitive to climate change. At the same time, they govern global climate evolution, directly influencing global sea level changes and, hence, the impact on coastal regions. Due to extremely long recovery cycles polar ecosystems are highly susceptible to perturbations. These sensitivities and properties make polar regions pertinent for long-term observations. Enabling the detection of any expected changes in abiotic and biotic parameters in the transition zone between the northern North Atlantic and the central Arctic Ocean, and contributing to a better understanding of deep-sea biodiversity, the German Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) established a long-term deep-sea observatory (AWI-"Hausgarten") in 1999. This observatory, displaying 15 long-term stations covering a depth range of 1000 to 5500 m water depth, is situated west of Svålbard (see Figure). Repeated sampling and the deployment of moorings and different long-term lander systems which act as observation platforms has taken place since the beginning of the station. At regular intervals, a Remotely Operated Vehicle is used for targeted sampling, the positioning and servicing of autonomous measuring instruments and the performance of in situ experiments. A 3000 m depth rated Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, operated by the AWI, will extend our sensing and sampling programmes in the near future. Seasonal ice cover at "Hausgarten" hampers direct access on data and samples obtained by moorings and free-falling observation platforms. A cable connection to "Hausgarten" will help to overcome these logistic problems. The development of new long-term sensors and sampling devices operating autonomously over long time scales (e.g. an autonomous sediment sampler) are scheduled for the near future in close cooperation with SMEs. Fig 6.8. The proposed ARCTIC network with a shore station on Svalbard. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink lines. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.9. The proposed ARCTIC network with a shore station on Svalbard. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink lines. 6.3.2.Norwegian margin - Atlantic Ocean The Norwegian margin region has shown slope instability with evidence of major slides which if repeated could result in catastrophic damage to offshore oil and gas installations as well as indirect effects of tsunamis striking the coasts of the British Isles and elsewhere. Special deep water habitats, such as coral reefs, are also an issue. Although there is a wide range of evidence indicating that global warming is taking place we are not well prepared to detect rapid as well as long term thermohaline circulation changes on a human time scale. How rapid and at what amplitude do changes in thermohaline circulation in the Nordic Seas occur? If there is a response of the Nordic climate to rapid changes in ocean circulation what are the potential temperature amplitudes? Fluid flow from gas hydrates and geohazards may be a significant process within continental margins. The flow and gas emission at the seabed system that operates within them is not understood, even at the most fundamental level. Fluid flow is also potentially an important influence on the local distribution of benthic biota on continental margins and on biota in the sediments beneath them. We need to understand flow systems at a range of time and scales from that operating through the whole margin to those acting through a single seep. Do potential areas of deep-sea methane release have impacts on geohazards or climate? What are fluid flow episodes and how do they relate to ocean temperature changes? 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Did you know that the seabed of ocean margins functions like a great bioreactor which harbours a vast diversity of microorganisms? There is ample evidence indicating that gas production, degradation of hydrocarbons, precipitation of minerals, transformation of metals and much more are all microbial processes shaping ocean margin ecosystems. However, we are only beginning to identify the key microorganisms in these processes. Two sites of major interest relate to both the very important northern high latitude thermohaline circulation loop and gas hydrates. The thermohaline circulation to the Norwegian Sea manifested in the northward directed warm-water flow of the Norwegian current – determines climate and living conditions above the Arctic Circle. Its warm water masses reach down approx. 700m, bathing the upper slope of the Norwegian continental margin. It is known that “switched on/off” scenarios existed for the Norwegian current and that such changes occurred during global climate change. It is deemed important to understand its short and long term development for predicting rapid and/or drastic changes which may, in turn, influence resources such as fish stocks in the ocean or societal living conditions on land. Second, gas hydrates consist of ice-like crystals and store huge amount of methane, which is a potent green house gas. Gas hydrate melting and methane release may have elevated the planet out of ice ages, but they also may contribute to a future increase in global warming. The stability of this cold ice stored in sediments of the continental margins depends on both temperature and pressure. Thus the ocean bottom temperature are to be monitored in order to decipher potential environmental impacts. Two observatory stations with cable transects, one on the MidNorwegian margin close to one of the largest deep-water gas fields in Europe (Ormen Lange at Storegga), and one on the Barents Sea continental margin at a submarine mud volcano (HMMV), are envisioned. The sites range from approximately 900 and 1200 m water depth to the shallow water depth of the Norwegian current. Fig 6.10. The proposed Norwegian Margin network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink lines. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.11. The proposed Norwegian Margin network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink lines. 6.3.3. Nordic Seas – Atlantic Ocean The MOEN (Meridional Overturning Exchange with the Nordic Seas) station uses the Faroes branch of the CANTAT-3 cable for measuring water column induced voltage. The recorded voltage is strongly influenced by the inflow of the North Atlantic Current. Long term monitoring of this current is of paramount importance in the understanding oceanic fluxes of heat, salt and freshwater at high northern latitudes and their effect on global ocean circulation and climate change in the arctic region. The pleasant and stable weather situation of the northern Europe is largely a result of a heat and salt transport from lower to higher latitudes by the Gulf Stream. The actual Gulf Stream turns south at lower latitudes, but a persistent branch continues northwards. Eventually this current flows from the North Atlantic into the Nordic Seas, where it gradually loses its heat. The once warm and saline water becomes cold and heavy and as a result sinks and refills the Nordic Seas basin with dense saline bottom water. The continuous refilling of dense water results in an overflow of bottom water into the Atlantic over the deepest exit in the submarine ridge. This takes place in the Faroe Bank Channel. Hence, the warm surface stream has returned into the Atlantic as cold bottom water. This flip-over of water is named ‘the thermohaline circulation’ by oceanographers. A not insignificant side-effect of the heat loss is that living conditions of northern Europe become endurable. There is no doubt that a slight change in the heat transport will alter the European climate and indirectly put a large strain on the social-economical status of the modern European society. The last ice age was associated with large changes in the thermohaline flow pattern, leading among others to the extinction of Neanderthals. Hence a long-term monitoring of the heat-flux into and out of the Nordic Seas is an important task to achieve. A highly providential circumstance is the fact that the Faroes are situated in the centre of the flows. This makes the Faroes a natural node of the Nordic Seas. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Why the Nordic Seas region? The main reason is that this region has a profound influence on the climate of Europe. A networked monitoring of the Nordic Seas would be a major step in providing the European decision makers with relevant information so to base future decisions on facts rather than on opportune opinions. A full coverage of the flows requires three cabled branches, all of them commencing from the Faroes. The northern branch should be laid so to make measurement of the major inflow route possible. Likewise should the southern branch, monitor the warm surface water entering the Nordic Seas east of the Faroes. The western branch is laid with the purpose to facilitate measurement of the outflow into the Atlantic of dense cold bottom water. The work-horse will be the acoustical-doppler-current-profilers, but electromagnetic methods, current meters, temperature and salinity rigs will also be used. The locations of sensors are dictated by the position of the flow. All three branches have to make measurements possible over a transect-line covering meanderings of the flows. Each branch should, therefore, be equipped with junction boxes, to which the observatories will be connected. Fig 6.12. The proposed Nordic Seas network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.13. The proposed Nordic Seas network. Putative sub sea cable routes are indicated by pink 6.3.4. Porcupine/Celtic –Atlantic Ocean The Porcupine Seabight and Abyssal Plain area has been an important area for biogeochemical flux studies in the past but is also a very productive fisheries and oil-gas exploration area. It is a stable margin with little evidence of seismicity, but does have important deep water habitats. The 'Atlantic Frontier‘, to the west of Ireland, is endowed with a diverse and rich assemblage of marine environments and associated habitats and fauna. At the European continental margin, water depth increases over a relatively short distance from about 150m to 4500m. Ireland's extensive offshore territory is considered one of the most promising for petroleum hydrocarbons (i.e. crude oil and natural gas). The Porcupine area forms a focal point of European deep sea fisheries and is closely located at one of the main arteries of global shipping. The continental margin features a high geomorphological variety with abundant canyons, broad- and narrow banded slopes, a vast intersection into the margin (Porcupine Seabight, PSB), in combination with a variety of smaller mesoscale geomorphological structures such as carbonate mounds. This large geomorphological variability provides the basis for a multifaceted habitat- and species diversity. Consequently, the area represents a major genetic and biochemical reserve of the European continental margin. One of the most spectacular ecosystems of the Irish EEZ are aphotic coral ecosystems, widely distributed along the NW-European continental margin. In the North Atlantic the major reef constructing coral is the colonial azooxanthellate Lophelia pertusa that has the potential to build substantial reefs in the aphotic zone. The reefs themselves provide a series of habitats for thousands of species that live permanently or temporarily in the coral ecosystem. Compared to off-reef environments, the richness of species and biomass can be ten times higher in the reef environment. Like their tropical cousins, deep-water coral reefs play an important role in the life cycle of demersal fishes. There is convincing evidence that many fishes deposit their egg cases between the corals (sharks, rayfishes). Others form huge schools of fish in the summit regions of the reefs for a certain time period (redfish, cod). For this reason, deepwater reefs are substantial for fishes acting as nursery, breeding and spawning sites. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.14. Underwater Images of deepwater coral and associated fauna. Images from ACES project (Atlantic Coral Ecosystem Study) http://www.pal.uni-erlangen.de/proj/aces/ Adjacent to the Irish continental margin lies the Porcupine Abyssal Plain (PAP). Surface water layers during winter form a mixed layer as deep as 800m driven by thermally convective overturning and wind forcing. With warming and reduced storm frequencies in spring, the water column becomes more stable and an upper mixed layer of about 50m thickness is established, leading to a major phytoplankton bloom. PAP lies south of the main stream of the North Atlantic Current and is subject to return flows from this coming from the West and Northwest. Processes at the seabed are dynamically coupled to upper mixed layer processes geared by atmospheric forcing. The downward flux of particulate matter from the upper part of the water Fig 6.15. Photograph of the sea floor at the Porcupine Abyssal Plain (4800m depth) from ‘Bathysnap’. Sea cucumbers Amperima are visible feeding in green detritus recently deposited from the surface. column has a profound effect on ocean biogeochemistry and hence on the global climate; export 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations below the winter mixed layer may isolate it from the upper ocean for decades or centuries. Over the last decade, a dramatic change has occurred in the abundance of megafauna living over a vast expanse of the PAP. Many taxa, particularly sea cucumbers, on the abyssal seafloor at a depth of about 4850m have all increased significantly in abundance. In the last 8 years a dramatic change has occurred in the abundance of megafauna living over a vast expanse of the PAP. Many taxa, particularly, sea cucumbers on the abyssal seafloor at a depth of about 4850m have all increased significantly in abundance. The sea cucumber species, Amperima rosea has increased in abundance from just 2-3 individuals per hectare to more than 6000. This increase occurred suddenly in 1995/1996. The increase in number of the large invertebrates by at least two orders of magnitude led to a significant increase in the rate at which the seabed was reworked. Before 1996 it took 2.5 years for the animals to reprocess the sediment surface. After 1996 it took less than 6 weeks with fundamental consequences to the functioning of the ecosystem. The species that have increased most in abundance are specialist feeders on phytodetritus, the seasonal peak deposition of detrital organic matter on the seabed derived from primary production in surface waters. Recent work on using chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments as tracers of the organic matter holothurians feed on has shown that each species feeds on a slightly different fraction of the phytodetritus. Fig 6.16. Numbers of Amperima per hectare on the Porcupine Abyssal Plain during the years 19882000. There is already a substantial data base from previous EU and various national programmes from the Celtic Margin and Porcupine Abyssal Plain on which to build. Ships of opportunity contribute significantly with frequent transects by the Continuous Plankton Recorder since 1949 and pCO2 transects under the EU programme CAVASSO. Sites of significance encompass a main cable route from the shelf through the Porcupine Seabight into the Porcupine Abyssal Plain focussing on a carbonate mound/ coral reef ecosystem (Belgica Mounds), a vast sponge ecosystem (Phaeronema Belt), a mid Bight station, the mouth of the PSB and the BENGAL Station on the PAP. Branches are proposed to the Hovland Carbonate Mound province, to the Goban Spur and to a canyon system, the later acting as a rapid conduit between shelf and deep sea. The high levels of biological productivity in the area support rich and diverse marine communities, including rich fishable stocks and probably many species yet unknown to science. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.17. The proposed Porcupine regional network in the North East Atlantic Ocean. The Celtic Continental Margin and adjacent Porcupine Abyssal Plain is a key European Seas area because it: • encompasses all important deep-water habitats (except seeps) in a confined area. • contains a large habitat diversity and biodiversity and thus an enormous genetic and natural product potential. • is located in an a region, where global changes will manifest rapidly ( changes in atmospheric forcing, currents, productivity, plankton and benthic biota,fish stocks). • contains ecosystems with high indicator potential, dynamically. responding to either natural or anthropogenic environmental changes (e.g. aphotic corals) • is impacted by economic interests (fishing, oil and gas prospection) and a high anthropogenic disturbance potential (shipping accidents). • attracts a strong demand for environmental protection (foundations of MPAs) by nature conservation stakeholder. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.18. The proposed Porcupine regional network in the North East Atlantic Ocean. 6.3.5. Azores – Atlantic Ocean The Azores and Mid-Atlantic Ridge area has special habitats associated with hydrothermal vents and sea floor morphology is distinct with recent crust spreading from the mid ocean ridge axis. Why the Azores? Several international meetings promoted by the InterRidge community concluded that the Azores is the key area of the North Atlantic for continuous monitoring. This area extends over the Azores Islands and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and offers a unique opportunity to monitor: - biodiversity of marine ecosystems - life in extreme environments, - the Mid-Atlantic Ridge - volcanic seamounts - response to environmental change - sustainable management of fishing resources/ biodiversity - chemical, geological, and geophysical processes - interactions over inter-annual to decadal scales of the air-sea interface, water column, seafloor and mantle A regional seafloor system will be an important European contribution to the global network of seismic and magnetic Observatories, currently implemented to study the Earth’s deep interior. The MAR near the Azores is ideally located for this marine multidisciplinary observatory project: it is near port, allowing for short transit times for the deployment and retrieval of tools, and for cable deployment. It has been the focus of a great number of cruises in the past few years, as part of FARA (French-American Ridge Atlantic), the MARFLUX (MAST II, EC), AMORES and ASIMOV (MAST III, EC) and VENTOX (Framework V) European projects. The geological-geophysical background of this region is well constrained, as are the general characteristics of the known hydrothermal vents and the broad diversity of the associated 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations ecosystems. From an oceanographic and climatic standpoint, an opportunity for remote observation of basin scale ocean circulation and its effect on long-term climate changes is possible. Fig 6.19. Azores region cable to an observatory proposed by the MOMAR (Monitoring the MidAtlantic Ridge) project (http://beaufix.ipgp.jussieu.fr/rech/lgm/MOMAR/) The processes of interest are multi-scaled in space and time, requiring both fine and broad scale spatial sampling (cm to km), frequent temporal sampling, and sustained observation (interannual to decadal). Classical methods of observing the ocean fall short of such sampling requirements. They also fail to provide proper tools to detect and monitor episodic events (e.g. volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, bacterial blooms…). Long time-series measurements of critical biological, geological, chemical and physical parameters are needed; addressed only by establishing continuous long-term observing capabilities. The MAR near the Azores is ideally located for this marine multidisciplinary observatory project: it is near port, allowing for short transit times for the deployment and retrieval of tools, and for cable deployment. It has been the focus of a great number of cruises in the past few years, as part of the FARA program (French-American Ridge Atlantic), the MARFLUX (MAST II EC programme), AMORES and ASIMOV (MAST III EC programme) and VENTOX (Framework V) European projects. The geological-geophysical background of this region is well constrained, as are the general characteristics of the known hydrothermal vents, and the broad diversity of the associated ecosystems. From an oceanographic and climatic standpoint, the MAR near the Azores also offers an opportunity for remote observation of basin scale ocean circulation and its effect on long-term climate changes. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.20. Azores region cable to an observatory proposed by the MOMAR (Monitoring the MidAtlantic Ridge) project (http://beaufix.ipgp.jussieu.fr/rech/lgm/MOMAR/) 6.3.6. Iberian Margin – Atlantic Ocean The Gulf of Cadiz / Iberian margin is a region of complexity with the junction of the Eurasian and African plates resulting in doming of the sea floor, mud volcanoes and other complex features. The interaction of the Mediterranean outflow with Atlantic waters is significant. Southwest Portugal, the Gulf of Cadiz and Morocco are prone to earthquake and tsunami as testified by the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami. This event was the most catastrophic earthquake that ever occurred in historical times, Western Europe. With an estimated magnitude 8.5-9.0, this event generated anomalous sea waves that struck the coast of Portugal, Spain and Morocco and were observed all over the North Atlantic, as far as Great Britain, Finland and the Caribbean Sea. It caused severe destruction in Lisbon, Tanger and Casablanca. Most of the seismic activity is due to Europe - Africa plate convergence and it occurs at sea, along the continental margin of SW Iberia and in the Gulf of Cadiz. Due to lack of permanent seismic stations at sea the seismic activity is not properly monitored. This fact prevents either the early detection of the eventual tsunamis waves, either the precise location of low magnitude earthquakes, which are key data to understand the present stress behaviour of the margin. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Extensive mud volcanism, pockmarks, mud diapirism and carbonate chimneys related to hydrocarbon rich fluid venting are been recently observed throughout the Gulf of Cadiz. The Fig 6.21. South West Iberian Margin, details of earthquakes in this region. Gulf of Cadiz is also the site to investigate of the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) because it affects the deep-water circulation on global scale. The main objective for the Iberian region is to realise a seismic monitoring network in the Gulf of Cadiz, thereby providing an in-depth knowledge of the seismic activity of the area and a capability in early detection of tsunami. This proposal follows the path of several projects, funded by the European Commission during the last years, for the earthquake/tsunami risk assessments of the area as BIGSETS (Big Sources of Earthquake and Tsunami in SW Iberia) and GITEC. From an oceanographic point of view the Gulf of Cadiz is of great importance for the study of the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW), which affects global deep-water circulation. An additional objective in this region is to monitor the temporal variation of the warm (13°) and saline (>37 g/l) MOW. The MOW flows out from the strait of Gibraltar and spreads in the Gulf of Cadiz at depth of 800-1200 m with two main branches. One branch diverge northward, toward the Bay of Biscay, the other crosses the North Atlantic reaching the Labrador and Norwegian – Greenland seas after 20-30 years. The station will allow, through continuous measurements over the years, the correct assessment of the salinification and warming of MOW and the study of its inter and intra-annual variability in relation to atmospheric forcing. Measurements of MOW in the Gulf of Cadiz may anticipate climate change at the scale of tens of years. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations The location for the main deep-sea long-term observatory is at about 100 Km SW Cape San Vicente at water depth of 3000-4000m. This observatory will be equipped with broad band Fig 6.22. The proposed Iberian Margin network of observatories. seismometers with control on seismometer tilt and orientation, pressure transducer, magnetometer, gravimeter and will be integrated with an oceanographic mooring with acoustic current meters, transmissiometers and T/P sensors and it will be integrated with the network of seismic station present onshore, in Portugal and Spain. The selected site owns the following characteristics: it is easily and rapidly reachable in any season; it presents key features for the scientific/monitoring targets; it is suitable for investigations on various scientific/monitoring targets; it offers safe operating conditions for the deployed instruments. Along the cable pathway it is planned to install additional sensor for the measurements of the MOW which main branches turns just South of Cape San Vicente at water depth 800-1000 m. Future expansion of the main station are planned for the continuous monitoring of the fluid venting occurring at seafloor and the biological community associated to it. Precise location of the "fluid escape" site will be defined after completion of the on going high resolution bathymetric mapping of the area. The planned deep sea observatory will be starting point for both real time warning network and long term seismic observation, to recover important measurements of the tsunami generation critical parameters, to grant long term oceanographic data, to monitor geochemical and physical parameter of the fluid escape on the seafloor and the biological community associated to it. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.23. The proposed Iberian Margin network of observatories. 6.3.7. Ligurian – Mediterranean Sea Existing cables installed for the ANTARES neutrino detector experiment and long term data for the nearby Banyuls Sola site (SOMLIT network) make this a practical early site for development. The Ligurian sea is a large multidisciplinary area of interest with many technical advantages for a demonstration observatory. It would play in ESONET a similar role to the Monterey Accelerated Research System (MARS) in the American NEPTUNE development. Many subsystems are already available such as the land fall station, the cable landing and one junction box from the Antares neutrino observatory project. All the technology and subsea intervention know-how is mastered by the partners. Moreover, the site is in deep water not far from important harbours and seastate conditions are well known and favourable for tests and sea operations. Almost all scientific packages within ESONET will have a scientific interest at the Ligurian region. Long term series of data exist in many fields and scientists now require real time high frequency sampling rates to understand processes and develop predictive modelling. Why the Ligurian region? • It is a seismic area not far from an inhabited region. The active fault in deep water cannot be monitored from shore due to propagation anomalies induced by the geologic structure. An instrumented ODP borehole will complement seismometer measurements in the future. • Slope instabilities are located on the continental slope. The last catastrophic event occurred at Nice airport, October 1979. One effect of this land slide was the rupture of tele-communication cables 110km from Nice (2500m water depth). It would be dangerous to land the cable in this area; it is better to use the Antares installation in Toulon. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations • • • • • Hyperpycnal and turbidity currents appear at the Var river month during overflow events and their effect is propagated down the Var canyon. The same phenomena at larger scale appear in major river systems like the Zaïre. The site is convenient to develop a scientific knowledge on this process. In the Ligurian Sea, the offshore area is completely isolated from coastal influence by the Liguro-Provençal current. It is representative of large areas of the world ocean. Dynamics of Fluxes in this region have been monitored since 1988, participating to the JGOFS program. More than 20 parameters are collected on a monthly basis. Since 2003, the area is used as a calibration point (BOUSSOLE buoy) for water colour satellite sensors. Dynamics of oceanographic processes: wind driven coastal upwelling, particle plumes, nutrient benthic exchange, bottom boundary layer processes, mesoscale variabilities,… The site is an international sanctuary for marine mammals. The observatory will allow an understanding of their behaviour in relation with oceanic processes. Consequently, the Ligurian Sea observatory will comprise: (1) three stations with at least broadband seismometers, biogeochemical sensors and physical sensors; (2) a local array with acoustic networking will monitor slope stability (piezometer, geodesic and turbidity –current sensors, turbidimeter, …); (3) moorings on DYFAMED area will monitor the dynamic flux studies (particle samplers, fluorimeter, chemical analysers, …). Fig 6.24. The proposed Ligurian Sea regional network 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.25 The proposed Ligurian Sea regional network 6.3.8. East Sicily – Mediterranean Sea An important offshore site close to Mount Etna, where the Italian SN-1 multidisciplinary observatory recently completed its first 6 month mission. The existing cable for NEMO neutrino experiment provides a focus for real-time data transfer and the integration of the seafloor observatory into land-based networks. Eastern Sicily has experienced disastrous seismic events, some of them accompanied by tsunamis, mostly generated by seismogenic structures lying at sea. The 1693 and 1908 earthquakes, both reaching an intensity of XI on the MCS scale, completely destroyed the cities of Catania and Messina. A large area, from the southern Calabria to Malta, was devastated. Both shocks were followed by large tsunamis along the whole eastern Sicily coast, the Messina Straits and, probably, the Aeolian Islands. In recent times Eastern Sicily has experienced events of minor intensity, many of which originated from off-shore tectonic structures, causing serious coastal damage. In December, 1990 an earthquake (intensity VIII MCS) caused severe damage in Augusta, south of Catania and numerous fatalities in the small town of Carlentini (Catania). This earthquake was accompanied by anomalous sea behaviour along the Augusta coast. The Mediterranean basin is characterised by the collision processes between the African and the European plates; Sicily represents the natural connection between the Apennine and the NorthAfrican chains. The region is characterised by intense volcanic basaltic activity, probably connected to extensional tectonics responsible for the Iblean volcanism and the formation of the Etna edifice, or by frequent and strong seismic events. The adjacent Ionian region is characterised by the presence of a large submerged structure, the Malta escarpment. The existence of other important submerged seismic structures is confirmed by off-shore bathymetric and seismic prospecting; however, medium-low magnitude marine seismicity, 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations which could provide useful information on the characteristics of the area, is neither well detected nor localised. Technology. The Eastern Sicily node will be based on SN-1, a deep seafloor multi-parametric cabled to shore observatory. SN-1 mainly focuses on geophysical, oceanographic and environmental data that are uniquely time referenced. A modular design allows additional sensors to be added as required. SN-1 was developed in the framework of an Italian national project co-ordinated by INGV, and was validated during a long-term mission (7 months) in the period Autumn 2002- Spring 2003 in the Ionian sea, 25 km off the city of Catania at a depth of 2000m at the foot of the Malta escarpment. SN-1 is a spin-offs of the GEOSTAR projects (GEophysical and Oceanographic Station for abyssal research), which led to the development and successful operation of the first European seafloor observatory. Fig 6.26. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.27. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory The underwater electro-optical cable for the connection of the observatory to on-shore, already deployed, is property of the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) and will also supply a pilot experiment for the submarine detection of neutrinos (NEutrino Monitoring Observatory, NEMO). SN-1 is already equipped with a junction box for the connection to the wire of the interface-device. The land termination of the cable is located in the harbour of the city of Catania and linked to the INFN laboratory facilities (Laboratori Nazionali del Sud). Offshore, around 20 km far from the coast, the cable is split in two branches, each long 5 km. A junction box will terminate each branch end, providing the physical connection for the seafloor observatory and NEMO experiment. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.28. The East Sicily SN-1 observatory . Examples data obtained with a pre-cable prototype. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations A B Fig 6.29. A, B, East Sicily SN-1 observatory 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.3.9. Hellenic – Mediterranean Sea The eastern Mediterranean is characterized by significant seismicity, special habitats in deep basins and a very steep drop off in depth from the coastlines. The international geophysics and oceanographical scientific community has recently defined as a priority the acquisition of data in those areas of the globe, like the ocean depths, for which at the moment we have few or no data at all. The monitoring of the water column parameters that can be performed by a deep-sea laboratory will provide very useful data for the study of the global circulation of waters in the Mediterranean. Earthquakes generated by offshore seismicity have, in the past, caused great damage to coastal regions, both from earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Events originating at sea can only be precisely located by using on-land and underwater seismic stations together. A permanent network of underwater stations will complement the existing land network, enhancing its performance. A further advantage of underwater stations is that, if suitably located, they suffer from a much lower background noise than land stations. Deep-sea regions have been generally considered as stable environments, not subjected to the strong and rapid modifications related to human influence that characterize the coastal regions. More recent studies have demonstrated, however, that deep-sea regions are subject to strong variations of the trophic and sedimentation rate, even on a seasonal scale. An observatory able to monitor the deep-sea environment by measuring in situ biological, chemical and physical parameters will be able to: • • • • • Monitor seismic activities for geo-hazard prevention Measure benthic-pelagic interchange and turnover Measure oxygen consumption Detect fluid fluxes from the seabed into the ambient bottom-water Project of images of the benthic and pelagic fauna The Hellenic region comprises of four distinct networks: NESTOR (existing neutrino observatory cable), BUTT-1 (IODP – site of proposed deep borehole), the Cretan basin and the Rhodos basin. The overall aim of these stations is for the long term investigation of seafloor processes. The objectives are: • to quantify slow versus fast fluid flow and carbon/methane fluxes • to develop long term monitoring observatories for oil/gas industry • to create a science platform capable of offering a totally new approach to public outreach and awareness of ocean processes. • to develop an enhanced 3D visualization of multi parameter datasets • to carry out hydroacoustic studies on fluid flow pathways and mineral crusts in upper sediment layers • to link fluid, methane flow with tectonic movement and seismic activity monitor the biology and ecology of these deep area An internet operated vehicle (IOV) has been built with the capability to move along the seafloor by video control and to carry out detailed investigations on fluid and particle fluxes in the benthic boundary layer. The IOV should be connected to the internet via a junction box (node) within an underwater network. Once connected the system should remain on the seafloor for extended periods of several months to study the temporal and spatial variations at a given location in the deep sea. For the NESTOR-ESONET deep sea observatory three crawlers will be built, each equipped with different sensor systems. All crawlers will be connected to one central instrument system (lander), which is located up to 100 m away from the node, carries additional sensors and transfers the data of the IOVs to the land based data centre or offshore installation. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.30. The Hellenic Network, The Nestor cable is already existing, the other three are proposed. Fig 6.31. The Hellenic Network , in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.3.10. Black Sea With anoxic conditions in the deep, problems with invasive species and high sediment loads delivered to the system, this area has unique problems requiring long term stations. The Black Sea represents an almost landlocked basin and the largest anoxic water mass on earth. It is a key region for the south European climate as it is the source for the south European rain fall. The coastal zone is densely populated with approximately 16 million inhabitants and an annual 4 million tourists visiting the sea coast. Since the early 70s, there has been a rapid rise in nutrients, organic eutrophication and chemical pollution due to transportation, construction, tourism and the use of pesticides and fertilizers. In addition, high intensity gas seeps, gas hydrates, mud volcanoes and earth quakes are frequent. Both in turn affect the Black Sea biota and biological resources. The intense marine traffic and offshore exploration of oil and gas constitute additional sources of marine pollution. The biological components of the Black Sea ecosystem are strongly dependent on its geographical position and morphology. The upper water layer, supporting a unique biodiversity of species is so thin and fragile that the effects of pollution, unsustainable fishing or destruction of habitats and landscape result in dramatic ecological changes which have knock-on socioeconomic impacts. In deeper anoxic waters, unique microbial ecosystems form reef-like structures above methane seeps. However, knowledge about life in the deep layer is still very limited. The disturbance of the natural balance between the two water layers could trigger irreversible damage to the ecosystem and people of the Black Sea. Sites of significance • Zernov’s Phylophora fields (unique ecosystem endangered by hypoxia since the 1960s) • Dnjepr paleo-delta at the shelf margin (shallow, above gas hydrate stability zone, gas plumes cross anoxic/oxic interface and may reach sea surface) • Dvurechenskiy mud volcano area at the Sorokin Trough (deep, below gas hydrate stability zone, 1000m high gas flare detected 2002) • Danube Delta (major river discharge) • Dniestr and Dniepr River mouths • Varna & Bosporus (earth quake occurrence) The long-term cabled observatory will provide: • • • Continuous data on high intensity gas flares and environmental control parameters of gas and fluid discharge (e.g. bottom currents, microseismicity, earthquakes, gas hydrate stability, role of mud volcanoes) Continuous input data for ecosystem approach on adaptive management of the Black Sea to (1) provide evidence for the causes and effects of eutrophication and (2) to assess the effectiveness of measures proposed to control eutrophication Protection of this sensitive and unique European ecosystem 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.32. Bathymetry of the Paleo Dnepr delta area with position of hydro-acoustically detected gas flares. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.33. Sea floor features in Black Sea. Bacterial mats, encrustaceans and gas bubbles streaming upwards from vents. Images courtesy GHOSTDABS – Hamburg University. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.34. The proposed regional network in the Black Sea. The putative cable routes in pink are not realistic the lines simply link sites of interest. Fig 6.35 The proposed regional network in the Black Sea. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 6.3.11. Mobile response observatory To the observatory backbone, must be established an appropriate mobile response observatory to monitor unforeseen natural or anthropogenic disasters, wherever they may take place, in order to mitigate any negative impacts on ocean resources and guarantee future environmental security. Catastrophic maritime events often happen in very bad weather conditions and in areas where environmental conditions are not very well known. Crisis management and safety advice can only be based on available data. The recent high profile wreck of the oil tanker Prestige in deep Atlantic waters off Iberia, for example, has demonstrated the inadequacy of existing infrastructure for monitoring continuing oil seepage and its environmental impact. Fig 6.36. The oil tanker Prestige sank on November 19, 2002 resulting in an extensive clear-up operation on the coast of western Europe. Mobilisation of resources from within the ESONET network would provide a hitherto unseen capacity to respond and tackle such issues rapidly and efficiently, while providing vital information in a timely and coordinated way. The deployment of an acoustic networked observatory system, for example, could be promptly achieved using ships of opportunity, military aircraft or civilian chartered helicopters. Equipment flown from a centrally located environmental security centre could arrive anywhere within Europe in less than 24 hours, providing environmental managers with a critical and distinct advantage. Emergency approach ESONET proposes to deploy a local acoustic networked observatory system around the wrecked ship or within the geohazard event area. Operations will be conducted in two steps: 1 - Deployment of bottom stations, by ships of opportunity or helicopters, performing standard environmental measurements (temperature, salinity, current profile, oxygen, methane,…). These stations will be flown from a security centre to maximise a rapid response time. An acoustic local network, will be used to communicate between stations and between stations and a surface receiver, on a ship or on a helicopter during the first step. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.37. Response at a disaster, Stage 1. Rapid deployment of observatories using ships of opportunity and helicopters. 2 - Additional dedicated nodes equipped with sensors appropriate to the cargo of the wrecked ship or geohazard will be deployed after the initial response phase. Sites of data collection will be refined and specific monitoring infrastructure will be relocated by submersible or ROV: e.g. cameras for monitoring continuing seepage, fluorimeters, spectrometers, chromatographs etc. A buoy will be also moored to assume permanent communications with a remote control centre. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Fig 6.38. Response at a disaster, Stage 2. Deployment of sensors and long term monitoring equipment. 7.4 Conclusions. Deep seafloor and ocean observation and monitoring is a technological challenge to Europe, as it will foster observatory-related technologies and solutions for long-term multidisciplinary autonomous observation systems at the seafloor, including in-situ sensors, data transmission, data management, autonomous underwater vehicles, marine robots, and energy supply systems. All these technologies are essential to the future of oceanography. They also have many applications in other fields (space exploration, oil exploration in the deep seas, automated genomics, etc). In addition, deep seafloor biodiversity studies represent a specific biotechnological challenge, because natural products of marine microbes and deep-sea fauna can be identified and patented, and used by drug and food industries, as well as for medical purposes. The strategy in design of ESONET provides for maximising information gathering capacity from global change in the Arctic to seismic activity and tsunamis in the Mediterranean. The time scale extends from decadal plus durations of changes to real time responses measuring to sub millisecond precision. The details of technology are discussed in subsequent sections but the general concept is presented in figure 6.39. Cables will extend from the shore landfall stations equipped with power supplies and telecommunications interfaces. The control centre of each regional network may be some distance from the coast. The subsea cable will be terminated with one or more junction boxes to which observatory platforms can be connected by means of underwater mateable connectors. The landfall, cable and junction boxes represent the permanent infrastructure of the observatory With a planned working life of the order of 20 years. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations The observatories would be planned to be serviced probably at 12 month intervals. This will also allow updating and modifying the sensors. Furthermore cable spurs may be possible for some distance away from the junction box thus extended the “footprint” monitored. Developments already in progress include crawler vehicles cable of moving over the sea floor under real time control via the world wide web. Autonomous vehicles may be able to dock at the junction box for recharging of batteries and downloading of data. These may be able to range tens or hundreds of km from the docking station. Fig 6.39. Concept of an ESONET observatory regional network cable termination with a junction box and array of observatories, both fixed and mobile. 6.5 Cable Lengths and costs The descriptions of the observatory networks in sections 6.3.1. to 6.3.10 do not specify cable routes but direct straight lines are shown on the charts between the shore and the various offshore nodes. The total lengths of these derived from GIS calculations are indicated in tables 6.1. and 6.2. In the case of the Black Sea the theoretical cable runs are clearly impractical. For the purposes of the length given in Table 6.1 it is assumed that the cable is connected to the nearest landfall to each observatory site. The total length of cable required is approximately 4000km. This is modest in comparison with major transoceanic cables and could theoretically be deployed from a modern cable laying ship on a single voyage. However the complexity of these systems with branches and junction boxes is unlikely to warrant such an approach. The actual length of cable used will be based on route surveys which would almost certainly reject the straight line owing to topography, geohazards, presence of other cables and probable use of a cable loop going out to sea, interconnecting all 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations the junction boxes and returning to shore. Such a loop or network system is potentially more reliable. Scientific cable network technology is in its infancy and so cost estimation is problematic. However the University of Victoria, on behalf of a consortium of Canadian Universities recently published a REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL for the NEPTUNE Canada Subsea Electro-Optic Cabled Observatory and attracted a number of bids from pre-qualified suppliers by the closing date of 22 November, 2004. The University of Victoria had a nominal budget of Canadian $40,000,000 for purchase of this stage 1 of the Neptune Canada system. Taking straight lines from the shore base at Bamfield to the specified sites this amounts to 805km of subsea cable, minimum length. This is equivalent to €33,408 per km including the cost of junction boxes and other subsea hardware. For the distances required in ESONET this gives a total cost of €135,000,000 (estimate 1) . This assumes that ESONET will have the same density of nodes and junction boxes as Neptune. Table 6.1. Lengths of Cables and Estimates of Costs for the Subsea (wet) segment of ESONET Estimate 1 Region km 1 Arctic 319 2 Norwegian Margin 614 3 Nordic Seas 301 4 Porcupine Seabight 1343 5 Azores 392 6 Iberian 127 7 Ligurian Sea 180 8 East Sicily 26 9 Hellenic 221 10 Black Sea 518 Total 4041 US $ 15,235,269 29,324,312 14,375,599 64,140,962 18,721,710 6,065,452 8,596,704 1,241,746 10,554,842 24,739,403 192,996,000 Euro 10,657,016 20,512,249 10,055,679 44,866,370 13,095,768 4,242,762 6,013,363 868,597 7,383,073 17,305,122 135,000,000 Estimate 2 US $ Euro 26,100,000 21,750,000 32,650,000 27,208,333 25,800,000 21,500,000 57,900,000 48,250,000 17,800,000 14,833,333 13,100,000 10,916,667 17,700,000 14,750,000 0 0 24,350,000 20,291,667 40,500,000 33,750,000 255,900,000 213,250,000 It is likely this is an underestimate. An alternative approach is a provisional estimate provide by a supplier based on a combination of comparison with Neptune and analysis of the complexity of each of the ESONET regional networks. (East Sicily was excluded since this has already been installed in early 2005) The assumption is individual installation of each regional network. This gives a total of €213,250,000 (estimate 2). Actual costs are likely to be influenced by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Details of the specifications finally required in the designs of the different regional networks. (numbers of nodes, junction boxes etc,) Possible discounts if more than one regional network is ordered at once. Decrease in costs as contractors gain experience. Increase in costs as contractors find unforeseen problems. Timing of ordering within the economic and cable business cycles. Currency rate uncertainties A likely estimate for the whole system probably lies between 150M€ and 250M€. It is interesting to compare with the cost of research vessels. The new UK research vessel RRS James Cook project has a budget of ca. 60 M€. A major regional observatory such as the Porcupine system is hence equivalent to a large research ship and the whole network equivalent to a small research ship fleet. 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations The status of the different regional networks and their elements varies from preliminary concept, through active research by repeat visits and autonomous instrumentation through to fully operational real time data via cable. For each regional network ESONET has appointed a contact person to whom requests for further information should be addressed (Table 6.2). 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Region Table 6.2. ESONET regional contact persons Name Address 1 Arctic 2 Norwegian Margin 3 Nordic Seas 4 Porcupine Seabight 5 Azores 6 Iberian 7 Ligurian Sea 8 East Sicily 9 Hellenic 10 Black Sea 11 Emergency Mobile System Thomas Soltwedel Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12 27570 Bremerhaven Germany Juergen Mienert University of Tromsø Department of Geology Dramsveien 201 N-9037 Tromsø Norway Peter Sigray Stockholms Universitet MISU, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden. Olaf Pfannkuche IFM-GEOMAR. Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Wischhofstrasse. 1-3 24148 Kiel, Germany Miguel Miranda Centro de Geofísica da Universidade de Lisboa Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa Campo Grande, Edifício C5, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal Nevio Zitellini Istituto Per La Geologia Marina CNR Area Ricerca CNR di Bologna Via Gobetti 101 40129 Bologna Italy Roland Person IFREMER Direction de la Technologie Marine et des Systèmes d'Information. Technologie des Systèmes Instrumentaux BP70 29280 Plouzane France Paolo Favali Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Via di Vigna Murata, 605 00143 Roma Italy Anastasios Hellenic Centre for Marine (Tassos) Research (HCMR) Tselepides Institute of Marine Biology and Genetics (IMBG) Gournes, Pediados POBox 2214, Heraklion 71003, Crete, Greece Peter Linke IFM-GEOMAR. Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Wischhofstrasse. 1-3 24148 Kiel, Germany Roland Person IFREMER Direction de la Technologie Marine et des Systèmes d'Information. Technologie des Systèmes Instrumentaux BP70 29280 Plouzane France E-mail tsoltwedel@awibremerhaven.de Juergen.Mienert@ibg.ui t.no peters@misu.su.se opfannkuche@geomar. de jmiranda@fc.ul.pt nevio@igm.bo.cnr.it Roland.Person@ifremer .fr geostar@ingv.it ttse@imbc.gr plinke@geomar.de Roland.Person@ifremer .fr Table 6.3 Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network ESONET Lengths of cables Subsea Cable Length NB these are horizontal straight line distances between points: actual cable length will be greater Area Arctic From-to Koldewey Station (AWI) - Hausgarten-East (E) ausgarten-North (N) - ausgarten-Central Hausgarten-South (S) - ausgarten-Central ausgarten-West (W) - ausgarten-Central Hausgarten-East (E) - ausgarten-Central Norwegian HMMV: Tromsø - HMMV margin University of Tromsø-University of Bergen Storegga: Kristainsund – Storegga University of Bergen -Storegga: Kristainsund Bold= land backhaul Subsea only Black Sea, reduced Region Total FROM TO Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude Distance (km) Distance (km) Distance (km) Distance (km) 11.15 78.15 6.08 79.13 167.53 167.53 167.53 4.33 5.07 2.83 6.08 79.28 78.60 79.13 79.13 4.13 4.13 4.13 4.13 79.07 79.07 79.07 79.07 24.20 57.21 28.73 41.00 24.20 57.21 28.73 41.00 24.20 57.21 28.73 41.00 18.92 69.68 14.74 72.13 355.18 355.18 355.18 18.92 7.75 5.33 69.68 63.12 60.38 5.33 4.50 7.75 60.38 64.82 63.12 1121.42 258.88 318.77 258.88 258.88 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 318.67 614.05 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Table 6.3. Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network (Continued) Nordic Seas N-current -G-2 - N-current -G-1 -6.08 62.92 -6.08 62.70 24.18 Midvagur - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory -7.17 62.05 -6.83 62.00 17.84 Hamrabyrgi - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory -6.73 61.45 -6.83 62.00 61.13 Gjogv - Faroese Fisheries Laboratory -6.93 62.32 -6.83 62.00 35.23 N-current -G-3 - N-current -G-2 -6.08 63.10 -6.08 62.92 20.46 Outflow-MV-1 - Midvagur -8.20 61.47 -7.17 61.45 54.68 E-current-HB-3 - E-current-HB-2 -4.77 60.57 -5.30 60.78 36.31 E-current-HB-2 - E-current-HB-1 -5.30 60.78 -5.83 61.00 36.02 E-current-HB-1 – Hamrabyrgi -5.83 61.00 -6.73 61.45 66.17 N-current -G-1 – Gjogv -6.08 62.70 -6.93 62.32 64.09 Porcupine Galway - Waterville/Co Kerry WHC-3 - WHC-2 WHC-2 - WHC 1 WHC 1 - GBS/1 GBS-3 - GBS-2 PSB-1 - PSB-2 GBS-2 - PSB-3 GBS-1 - PSB-1 PSB-7 - PSB-6 PSB-6 - PSB-5 WHC-4 - WHC-3 PSB-5 - PSB-2 PSB-4 - PAP-1 PSB-3 - PSB-4 PSB-2 - PSB-3 Waterville/Co Kerry - PSB-1 -9.00 -10.63 -10.75 -10.45 -13.42 -11.75 -12.82 -11.52 -12.77 -12.72 -10.30 -12.50 -14.17 -13.00 -12.00 -10.13 53.28 48.22 48.50 48.87 49.08 51.45 49.18 49.40 52.15 51.95 47.83 51.75 49.92 50.50 51.38 51.83 -10.13 -10.75 -10.45 -11.52 -12.82 -12.00 -13.00 -11.75 -12.72 -12.50 -10.63 -12.00 -16.50 -14.17 -13.00 -11.75 51.83 48.50 48.87 49.40 49.18 51.38 50.40 51.45 51.85 51.75 48.22 51.38 49.00 49.92 50.50 51.45 188.54 31.77 49.25 90.93 47.24 19.95 146.80 228.60 22.23 24.81 46.64 49.28 214.91 114.82 130.93 125.32 24.18 24.18 20.46 54.68 36.31 36.02 66.17 64.09 20.46 54.68 36.31 36.02 66.17 64.09 301.91 31.77 49.25 90.93 47.24 19.95 146.80 228.60 22.23 24.81 46.64 49.28 214.91 114.82 130.93 125.32 31.77 49.25 90.93 47.24 19.95 146.80 228.60 22.23 24.81 46.64 49.28 214.91 114.82 130.93 125.32 1343.47 Table 6.3. Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network (Continued) -28.63 38.54 -31.29 37.29 391.54 Azores IMAR -Junction box 1 Iberian Burgau - MOW station seismic station - MOW station CGUL – Burgau -8.74 -9.50 -9.15 37.08 36.17 39.19 -9.00 -9.00 -8.74 36.72 36.72 38.08 Ligurian Sea Junction box 1 - Junction box 2 Institut Michel Pacha La Seyne sur - Junction box 1 IFREMER Brest -Institut Michel Pacha La Seyne sur Mern Junction box 2 - Junction box 3 6.17 5.90 42.83 43.10 7.40 6.17 -4.50 48.40 7.40 East Sicilly Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare Laboratori Nazionali del Sud (LNS) - Catania Harbour LNS Wor Catania Harbour LNS Workshop - NEMO-1 North Cable Termination (N1-N) Hellenic -Methoni Station Rhodos Aquarium - Rhodos Basin Port of Kali Limenes - IODP site, sta. BUTT1, south Crete IMBC Station - Cretan Basin Methoni Station - Nestor Basin 391.54 391.54 391.54 47.92 79.32 235.84 47.92 79.32 47.92 79.32 127.23 43.28 42.83 107.97 38.01 107.97 38.01 107.97 38.01 5.90 43.10 1002.03 43.28 7.82 43.50 34.23 34.23 34.23 180.21 15.07 37.52 15.10 37.49 4.97 15.10 37.49 15.39 37.55 25.46 25.46 25.46 25.46 21.73 28.23 24.82 36.90 36.43 34.93 21.75 28.50 24.91 36.82 36.00 34.31 9.93 61.34 73.69 61.34 73.69 61.34 73.69 25.33 21.75 35.33 36.82 25.17 21.58 35.83 36.63 62.82 23.87 62.82 23.87 62.82 23.87 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations 221.71 6. The Ocean Margin & Proposed ESONET site Locations Blacksea Danube II - Danube Landfall location - CRIMEA Danube - CRIMEA Varna - Danube Bosporus - Danube GHOSTDABS -CRIMEA Sorokin Trough - CRIMEA Zernov’s Phyllopho - CRIMEA Table 6.3. Calculation of length of the ESONET cable network (Continued) 30.00 44.87 30.60 44.60 65.48 33.54 44.63 32.00 44.83 132.92 30.60 44.60 32.00 44.83 103.87 28.33 42.97 30.60 44.60 216.07 29.25 41.43 30.60 44.60 352.23 31.99 44.78 32.00 44.83 6.75 34.98 44.28 32.00 44.83 268.33 31.37 45.82 32.00 44.83 143.13 TOTAL 2 3 This estimate includes excessive lengths for the Black Sea Based on more probable landfalls closer to observatory sites in the Black Sea. 65.48 132.92 103.87 216.07 352.23 6.75 268.33 143.13 2 4813.03 55.00 132.92 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 517.92 4042.17 4042.17 3 7. Future Observatory Designs Section 7. Future Observatory Designs This section of the report was written by Roland Person (IFREMER) who with Jean-François Rolin coordinated two workshops at Brest in July 2003 and London in March 2004. The work reported reflects the exchanges during these dedicated workshops and other meetings such as the international Workshop on Standardization of Seafloor Observatories held in Paris in February 2005. ESONET also benefits from the studies of on-going EC projects such as ORION, ANIMATE and ASSEM (FP5), EXOCET/D and COBO (FP6). Text, illustrations and other material have been contributed by specialists listed below mostly partners of ESONET. IFREMER as WP coordinator is grateful to these people : Author Francesco Gasparoni Paolo Favali Hans Gerber Christoph Waldmann Kostas Kristodoulou J. Blandin J. Marvaldi J.F. Rolin J.F. Drogou Annick Vangriesheim Jean-Pierre Leveque Gary Waterworth Antoine Lecroart Shaheen Nazeh J. Smith John Carr L. Thomsen Organisation Status Email address Tecnomare Partner Gasparoni@tecnomare.it INGV TFH Berlin MARUM Partner Partner Partner paolofa@ingv.it IMBC/NCMR Partner Kchris@imbc.gr IFREMER Partner Jerome.blandin@ifremer.fr Jean.marvaldi@ifremer.fr jrolin@ifremer.fr Jean.francois.drogou@ifremer.fr Hwgerber@tfh-berlin.de Waldmann@marum.de Avangri@ifremer.fr Jean.Pierre.Leveque@ifremer.fr Alcatel Submarine Networks Supplier Gary.waterworth@asn.alcatel.co.uk Antoine.lecroart@alcatel.com Nautronix The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) CPPM/ ANTARES International University of Bremen Supplier Partner Nazeeh.shaheen@nautronixmaripro.com l.thomsen@iu-bremen.de - 173 -10/07/200510/07/200532 173 7. Future Observatory Designs ESONET WP 7 Future Observatory Designs Other participants in the workshops. The following persons who also attended the workshops are also thanked for their input to discussions Name Daniele Calore Dr Giuseppe d'Anna Alan Jamieson Eberhard Kopiske Organisation Tecnomare INGV Univ. of Aberdeen International University Bremen Partner Partner Partner Partner Peter Linke Jorge Miguel Alberto de Miranda Luis Manuel Marques Matias Nick O'Neil Ed Slowey P.M. Sarradin G. Loaëc J.Marvaldi M. Nokin J.C. Duchêne Antony Manuel GEOMAR Centro de Geofisica da Univ. Lisboa Partner Partner CSA Group, Dublin Partner Burkhard Sablotny Pascal Tarits Wayne Crawford Antoni Bermudez Patrick Lefeuvre Henri Picard IFREMER Observat. Océanol. Banyuls Univ. Potitecnica de Catalunya (UPC) Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) UBO/IUEM IPGP Unitat de Tecnologia Marina (UTM) Technitrade EUROCEANIQUE Email address Danna@ingv.it a.jamieson@abdn.ac.uk Ekopiske@marum.de Plinke@geomar.de Jmiranda@fc.ul.pt Lmatias@fc.ul.pt Noneill@csa.ie eslowey@csa.ie Partner Pierre.marie.sarradin@ifremer.fr Gerard.loaec@ifremer.fr Jean.marvaldi@ifremer.fr Marc.nokin@ifremer.fr End user Duchene@obs-banyuls.fr End user Antoni.manuel@upc.es End user End user End user End user Supplier Supplier Bsablotny@awi-bremerhaven.de Tarits@univ-brest.fr Crawford@ipgp.jussieu.fr ugbo-acu@utm.csic.es hep@euroceanique.com This section of the report analyses future observatory design from four main aspects; 7.2. Availability of Sensors 7.3. Sub-systems analysis 7.4. Deployment and maintenance analysis 7.5.Standards 174 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.1 Introduction. The ocean sciences are often marked by the introduction of new technology that, in turn, drives science in new directions. In some cases, such innovations are the direct product of development within the community, but in most instances new methodology is imported and adapted from other fields as opportunities are identified and recognized by forward-looking individuals. A prominent example is the introduction of modern time series and spectral analysis methods from the statistics and electrical engineering disciplines beginning in the 1950s. These techniques have transformed geophysics and physical oceanography from qualitative to quantitative fields; geoscience requirements are, in turn, driving new developments in time-series analysis. A second example is the development of data assimilation and modelling techniques in the 1980s, which are the product of dramatic increases in computer speed and size driven by the nuclear weapons design community combined with broad-based improvements in numerical methods. Data assimilation techniques have transformed the way in which physical oceanography experiments are carried out, and operate synergistically with new float-based observational systems. Their impact is only beginning to be felt in other fields of oceanography. Presently, marine biology is undergoing a similar transformation. The introduction of the family of technologies that enable ocean observatories will be transformational for both ocean scientists and ocean engineers. There are four principal areas in which this is already occurring, and in which the trend can reasonably be expected to accelerate their implementation : 1. The design of new sensors required to answer evolving science questions. 2. The design and implementation of remote, reliable, self-controlling undersea hardware. 3. The development of software elements (cyber-infrastructure) to manage sensors, data, and the physical infrastructure. 4. The development of mobile platforms necessary to extend ocean observatories from point to aerial coverage. 7.2. Availability of Sensors The development of ocean observatories marks a transition in ocean sciences from samplerecovery-based systems to in situ measurement protocols. In situ measurements are the only effective means to obtain temporal information that can be correlated with a contemporaneous ocean observatory data base. In some disciplines, sensor technology is relatively advanced; for example, seismic sensors with noise levels below ambient and with very broadband response are commercially available. In general, sensors for the measurement of physical quantities (e.g., pressure, velocity, acceleration, temperature, salinity) are relatively mature in comparison to those that measure chemical or biological properties. Because a key goal of ocean observatory research is the resolution of change on inter-annual or longer time scales, a significant effort to improve long term stability and provide an in situ calibration capability will be needed. Many chemical sensor technologies used on land (e.g., laser-based atomic and molecular or magnetic resonance spectroscopy) require a significant amount of power that presently precludes their use in most autonomous applications. Cabled Ocean observatories offer a large increase in user power, and hence will provide a base for the application of these techniques in the ocean. This inevitably will drive the sensor technologies in a smaller, lower power, cheaper direction and in turn increase their utility for ocean sciences research. In a similar vein, the existence of ocean observatories will accelerate the transition of many genomic technologies from functionality only in a laboratory environment to operation in a remote, hostile one, and will in turn empower new directions in in situ biology. A list of sensors needed or wanted for ocean sciences would be - 175 -10/07/200510/07/200532 175 7. Future Observatory Designs virtually endless, and in many instances, sensors will evolve which cannot be envisioned in the present.. Nevertheless, we will try in the next paragraphs to identify more important needs. 7.2.1. - Review of sensors required The opportunities and needs of a broad range of marine scientists were defined by the others work packages. The objective was to produce a practical plan for long term monitoring of the ocean margin environment around Europe as part of GMES (Global Monitoring for environment end Security) with capabilities in geophysics, geotechnics, chemistry, biochemistry, oceanography, biology and fisheries. ESONET will be multidisciplinary, with stations monitoring the rocks, sediments, bottom water, biology and events in the water column… Both long term data collection and alarm capability in the event of hazards have to be considered. An ESONET questionnaire was widely diffused in the European marine science community to identify sensors needed by scientists of various disciplines. Table 7.1. Survey of Sensor Requirements Seismic activity Slope instability Tsunamis 1 Seafloor motion Time arrival Pressure Geodesy Geodesy Electromagnetic field changes Turbidity currents Marine Bottom Seismometer High precision clock Hydrophone Positioning Vertical motion Magnetometer current meter / ADCP CTD Pressure at seabottom and surface Time arrival Accurate pressure sensors High precision clock Acoustic detection Benthic biodiversity Biodiversity Growth Recruitment Pelagic biodiversity 1 Water column height Species Size Abundance %cover Functional groups Activity Metabolism Bioturbation Size Composition Larval release Larval settlement Species / sizes Biomass Activity Imaging Imaging Imaging Imaging Imaging Imaging Automated sampling Electrodes Imaging Sampling Imaging/sampling Imaging colonisation plate Imaging Acoustic echosounder Acoustic backscatter Bioacoustics Results of a questionnaire on the availability of sensors based on a standard issued from the GMES project BICEPS (Global Monitoring for Environment and Security). 176 7. Future Observatory Designs Particle dynamics Mammal species Particle number Particle size Bioacoustics Imagery laser Imagery laser Table 7.1. Survey of Sensor Requirements (Continued) Recruitement Particle composition Water current Turbidity Pigments Egg deposition Larval development Migrations Time/abundance Seeping and venting Fluidflow Fluid composition and properties Chemical pollution Concentration Physical disturbance Area and depth disturbed Turbidity Noise pollution Persistant organic pollutants Sediment traps Current meter Transmissometer, optical backscatter Fluorometer Imaging Sampling Imaging Sampling Acoustic backscatter Bioacoustics Flowmeter Acoustics Imagery Sampler Full hydrocarbon sensors Sampling Fluorimeter Imaging Imaging Transmissometter Hydrophone PCBs PAH Spectrometer Productivity and particle flux Export production Sediment traps Particle cameras Radio tracers Satellite imagery Resuspension Turbidity, bottom water velocity, shear stress Changes in bottom water hydrography C/T, oxygen, CO2, CH4, currents, hydrostatic pressure Transmissometer optical/acoustic backscatter Particle camera CTD ADCP, current meter chemical sensors 7.2.2 - Sensors already used for long term measurement; return from experiments European institutes were interrogated to find out what sensors are used and to give their comments. The results are given below : • 10 scientific packages will be operational in 2006 (seismology, slope stability, geodesy, biodiversity imaging, biodiversity of sediment layer, pelagic biodiversity, particle dynamics, nuclear pollution, physical oceanography, borehole instrumentation), - 177 -10/07/200510/07/200532 177 7. Future Observatory Designs • • 4 scientific packages will be operational in 2008 (hydrocarbon and chemical pollution, chemistry associated to fluid seeps, turbidity currents), 3 scientific packages are planned to be operational in 2010 (larval biology, microscopy imaging, spectrometry for persistent pollutants). These sets of instruments are supplied from world market but many European SMEs are present. They include 30 pre-operational basic sensors for monitoring in 2003. 25 others sensors will be available in 2008. More then 80 parameters can be collected. Some of these scientific packages were developed from EC funded projects (EXOCET D for example), some others from lander experience, some others are extrapolated from coastal experience. The ESONET questionnaire shows that : • 26 basic sensors are mastered by ESONET partners; • 11 are mastered by participants in ESONET workshops; • 12 are mastered by other EU institutes (CEA, …); • 13 require international cooperation with US, JAPAN, Only a few sensors were already deployed for long term experiment, at least two years : sensors for physical measurement which can be easily coupled to the medium with non corrosive device and acoustic systems – electronics are installed in a corrosion resistant container and manufacturers are able to produce long term reliable transducers even in deep water. Temperature : titanium encapsulated probes are currently used even in severe environments for many years. The only problem could be an increase of response time with fouling or concretions. Pressure gauge : different technologies with different precision and costs exist. High precision quartz pressure gauges are deployed for several years for measure of tides or tsunami detection. Other less accurate sensors are also available, using strain gauges Pore pressure : It is a modified pressure gauge. Some long term deployments have been done. Special care is required to condition of this instrumentation for this application. Local current : Only acoustic current meter seem practical for long term deployment but some instruments on the market need to be critically evaluated since some non coherent results were obtained during deep water deployments. Current profiler : Acoustic doppler current profilers are a reliable instruments used very often during long term deployments. Acoustic signals and acoustic noise : hydrophones are reliable sensors in all the frequency domains, but specifications for long term deployment in deep water need to be very precise since some standard devices may be corroded in deep water. Acoustic range meters and acoustic positioning systems are currently deployed for long periods. Acoustic turbidimeters have the same performance than as current profilers. Optical Oxygen sensors have been uses with success for long term deployments. 7.2.3 - Current developments likely to deliver new sensors in the near future. Many groups in Europe are developing new instrumentation. These new sensors could be deployed on prototype demonstration observatories. We give here some examples from two current EU research projects EXOCET-D and COBO. 178 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.3.1 EXOCET-D (EXtreme ecosystem studies in the deep OCEan) is a STREP within FP6 which will conduct many technological developments to implement and test specific instruments aimed at exploring, describing, quantifying and monitoring biodiversity in fragmented deep-sea habitats : • A first aspect is to develop video imagery, image scaling and measurement systems associated with automatic image analyses. The objectives are : • To set up a complete methodology for 3D reconstruction of small-scale scenes from underwater video imagery, • To design a long-term imaging module, • To develop a macro photography module. • A second aspect is to evaluate the potential of using sonar data to study deep-sea community changes and to explore their complementarities with video imagery. - 179 -10/07/200510/07/200532 179 7. Future Observatory Designs 180 Fig. 7.1 - Hydrothermal vent Fig. 7.2 - Deep corals (Caracole 2001) Fig. 7.3 - Cold seeps (Biozaire 2002) Fig. 7.4 - Hydrothermal fluids (HOPE99) Fig. 7.5 - PICO 98 Fig. 7.6 - Victor cameras 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7. 7 - S. Durand et al., (2002) CBM, 43:235 • A third aspect is to conduct in situ analysis of habitat chemical and physical components. This work relays on five tasks : Adaptation of existing « sensors », Second version of the Alchimist in situ analyser, Optimisation of the Capsum Methane sensor, Optimisation of the « Medusa » fluid flow meter Design of a water sampler Fig. 7.8 - Alchimist, HOPE99 Fig. 7.9 - Flowmeter, ATOS2001 - 181 -10/07/200510/07/200532 181 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.10 - Victor Water sampler • A fourth aspect is to develop quantitative sampling of macro- and micro organisms and in vivo experiments : • • Optimal sampling of deep-sea micro- and macro-organisms, Improved in vivo experimental conditions on board research ships, at in situ pressure. Fig. 7.12 - K. Takai et al, 2003, FEMS 182 Fig. 7.11 - Capsum Methane sensor Fig. 7.13 - Ipocamp, ATOS 2001 7. Future Observatory Designs A demonstration action will be organize during MoMARETO, 2006, a cruise conducted by Ifremer during 20 days on the MoMAR zone with the NO Pourquoi pas ? and the Victor 6000 ROV. The objective is studying the response of hydrothermal species to their environment at two temporal scales with these new sensors : • micro variations of the habitat (hour/ day), • observatory scale (month/ year) with first long term ASSEM based observatory. Fig 7.14 MoMARETO 7 days Technical validation of EXOCET/D 13 days Scientific validation 1700m Lucky Strike Fig. 7.15 - Lucky Strike site - 183 -10/07/200510/07/200532 183 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.3.2 - COBO (Coastal Ocean Benthic Observatory) The overall objective of COBO is to integrate emerging and innovative technologies from different disciplines (physics, chemistry, biology, imagery) to provide in situ monitoring of sediment ecosystem in coastal ocean benthic areas, but some developments could be adapted to deeper observations. COBO aims to understand the complex interactions between the biota (their functioning and diversity) and their chemical environment. Existing technologies have limited spatial and temporal resolution to resolve key parameters of coastal ecosystems and this has hampered progress in understanding and modelling coastal ecosystem dynamics. Organism-sediment processes are still poorly understood in shallow water sediments that receive the bulk of anthropogenic disturbance. The COBO project represents a logical stepping-stone towards the development of permanently operating benthic observatories for coastal management in order to give economic, scientific and societal gains. Fig. 7.16 - MPIMM : Geomar biogeochemistry landers 184 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7. 17 - CEFAS : XYZ profiler undergoing sea trails from RV Calanus Fig. 7.18 - SAMS Elinor and Profilur landers - 185 -10/07/200510/07/200532 185 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.19 - SAMS oxystat system COBO will integrate innovative technologies to provide multiparameter, real-time in situ monitoring of sedimentary environments in coastal marine ecosystems, along with an insight into perturbation/relaxation issues to provide unique and novel descriptions of organismsediment interactions and their link to ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Instrumentation development will be conducted in four steps : • • • • 186 Integration of observation technologies and the development of controlled sediment perturbation devices. Integrated observations of the natural environment at high spatial and temporal resolution to enable a quantitative description of the fundamental processes governing the interaction between the biota and their chemical environment in the sediment on a short time scale (hours to days). Controlled disturbance experiments to promote our understanding of changes in ecosystem functioning and biodiversity in an environment under stress (addition of organic matter, resuspension of sediment, sediment reworking). Development of numerical tools to extract quantitative information from the chemicalbiological images acquired by SPI-Optode systems. 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig 7.20. Integrated Sediment Disturber. This is a free falling system being developed in the COBO project. It features disturber units that rake the surface of the sediment at programmed intervals, and a sediment micro-profiler in an x-y-z „autonomous positioning drive“, and a camera system. 7.2.4 - Priorities for future development of sensors The main priority for underwater observatories is to reach an acceptable level of reliability for long term deployment. Innovation may also bring new monitoring potential. Innovative Sensor issues where analysed by the Marine board of ISF and discussed during the Brest meeting of Esonet (Technical meeting- July 2003). Measurement of the physical, chemical, geological and biological parameters that characterise the conditions of our marine environment is critical to both developing our knowledge and understanding of the complex processes occurring within it and to enhancing our ability to protect it. The parameters that are prioritised for measurement will determine to a large extent which sensor technologies should be emphasised. There is general unanimity in the literature about this prioritisation. Key analytes to be monitored are listed in the following table : - 187 -10/07/200510/07/200532 187 7. Future Observatory Designs Table 7.2: List of Key Analytes Physical Chemical Temperature Nutrients Conductivity Heavy metals Density, Pressure Volatile amines Light transmission Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, …) Turbidity, Grain size PH analysis Velocity, turbulence PCB, PAH, CFC Radionucleides Pesticides Biological RNA, DNA, proteins, key enzymes Anthropogenic organic molecules Virus particles Bacterial and picoplankton cells Plant pigments (chlorophyll, ..) Pelagic animals Benthic communities Geophysical Pore pressure Bathymetry Geodesy Magnetism Seismic signal Seabed characteristics Gas hydrates 7.2.4.1. Limitations of existing sensor technology. Although considerable time and money has been expended in sensor research over the past two decades, there has been only limited success in the development sensors for “real-world” applications. This is particularly true of sensors for in situ monitoring in the marine environment. Principal difficulties include : • • • • • • The complex nature of the marine environment Insufficient sensitivity for trace level chemical concentrations (extremely low level of detection is required) Fouling of sensor surfaces Selectivity limitations – interference from other species Limited temporal stability of sensor chemistry and material Insufficient resolution of pressure and depth sensors to allow in situ instruments to match satellite altimeters data. Sensor innovation will have to be adapted to two types of physical environments present in the oceanic environment : 1. water column where physical processes are mainly predominant, 2. sediment/water interface and sediment bodies which are the memory of past events and where liquid/solid interactions are predominant. The main limitation factor for the choice of the payload is the time interval required between servicing (service interval): 188 7. Future Observatory Designs % of 100 available instruments 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 SENSORS SAMPLERS CAMERAS 4~12 12~18 18~ Service interval(months) Fig. 7.21. Required service intervals of different classes of instruments 7.2.4.2. New emerging sensor technologies - The analyst in a laboratory ashore has very many measuring techniques and sensor technologies available. A challenge is to identify and develop those technologies or techniques that will work well in the marine environment and that provide information on parameters of importance. In the following paragraphs, the main categories of sensing techniques are reviewed and promising innovations are highlighted. 7.2.4.2.1. Biosensors- are powerful tools which aim at providing selective identification of toxic chemical compounds at ultratrace levels. They combine a recognition surface which is sensitive to ions or molecules and a transducer which transforms the interaction into an analytic signal. The wide variety of reactions, sensing systems (enzymes, cells, DNA, antigen/antibody, …) and transducers (optical, thermals, electrochemical, …) accounts for the large number of sensors reported. These developments are progressing very rapidly; and biosensors are expected to make a major impact in the coming decades in view of the massive investment in the area in this “post-Genome era”. In particular, Bio-chips based on micro-arrays of bio-recognition elements (e.g. antibodies) will enable simultaneous measurement of a range of parameters (multi-analyte sensing). These are generally single-shot devices, however, and it is not clear whether or not they would survive in the harsh marine environment for in situ monitoring. Other areas of biosensor technology that are of significance include those based on enzyme inhibition, bioluminescence, as well as sensors based on living cells. 7.2.4.2.2. Sensor Arrays -(e.g. micro-electrode arrays) will allow the detection and quantification of multiple analytes such as nitrate, nitrite, silicate, ammonia and phosphate simultaneously and in real time since slow colorimetric detection methods are not required. In order to prevent biofouling and guarantee high accuracy, frequent calibration will, however, be required. Electronic and optical tongues will be used to detect gases such as dimethyl sulfide, methyl amine or methane as encountered in the deep-sea environment or as biogenic gases at sea bottom. 7.2.4.2.3. Microsystems Technology (MST)- is an area that is very likely to have major impact on marine monitoring in terms of operational stability and reliability of sensors. MST has emerged as part of the general trend of miniaturisation of traditional instrumentation systems and has been enabled by a range of recent developments in microtechnologies (including among others microsensors, microactuators, micro-electromechanical systems or MEMS, microspectrometers). In the case of chemical sensing and biosensing, applications of MST are - 189 -10/07/200510/07/200532 189 7. Future Observatory Designs generally referred to as “Lab-on-a-chip” or Micro-Total Analysis Systems (MicroTAS). Such systems are characterised by miniaturisation and integration. Typically, these planar chip-based platforms incorporate a range of functionality such as: sample injection, sample pre-treatment (e.g. clean-up), on-line pre-concentration (to lower the detection limit), separation from interfering species, reaction chambers, and finally, detection. The very small volumes involved enable the use of well-established irreversible sensor chemistries, which are renewed as required. So microsystem technology should be considered as a generic method which could be adapted to specific chemical or biological component detection and quantification by just choosing the reagents and/or the detection technique and the processing method. 7.2.4.2.4. Coupled optical sensors - spectro-electrochemistry can combine the advantages of optical and electrochemical sensing especially concerning the detection limits for heavy metal ions. Thus, via electrochemistry, heavy metal ions can be preconcentrated on the sensing device while the selective indicator chemistry is then used to obtain an optical signal. Microspectral imaging systems which consist of coupling spectral discrimination (e.g. fluorescence), shape analysis and spatial distribution, directly available in situ, expanding the capabilities of present day flow cytometers. Lasers (especially Quantum Cascade Lasers for Infrared Monitoring) offer large possibilities of detection as for example, methane (clathrates) and hydrocarbon, using infrared spectrometry. 7.2.4.2.5. Mass spectrometers - have already been adapted to in situ conditions, but with limited depth, atomic mass and detection capabilities. Improvements of this technique have to be continued to permit long term measurements through improved sample injection system, wider atomic mass range, lower detection limits. 7.2.4.2.6. Smart Materials - (including molecularly imprinted polymers and enrichment matrices) are candidates to recognise and quantify biomolecules (e.g. algal toxins) and other species that cannot be detected by conventional methods. The recognition of these molecules is based on luminescent molecularly imprinted polymers which exhibit significantly enhanced stability (operational and shelf life) compared to enzyme based sensors. Nanoparticles exhibiting immobilised indicator dyes for pH, ions or oxygen, may be inserted into cells or micro-organism to monitor their health. Novel nanomaterials and active coatings may be developed to overcome the problem of biofouling on sensing surfaces. Beside this review of emerging sensor technologies, it has to be reminded that most of “classical” sensors still need improvement (limit of detection, long term stability, …). It should also be clearly stressed that periodic re-calibration of sensors using reliable procedures and autocalibration techniques are absolutely necessary when long term in situ measurements are considered. These methods and techniques have to be continuously improved as they represent a significant part of the monitoring systems operating costs. The following tables 7.3 and 7.4 give examples of the time scale to develop new technologies applied to scientific application in different field of marine science. It gives an illustration of how useful they could be but, also, how long it could take to obtain the first concrete results. 190 7. Future Observatory Designs Table 7.3 Biotechnology: Sensing the Ocean 3 Years 5 Years 10 Years > 10 Years Now I. Single use / spot sample Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) DNA micro arrays for genomic analysis Automated species identification in simple ecosystems Bioavailable iron using modified cyanobacteria Microbial biomass via DNA analysis II. Medium endurance (week/month) III. Long endurance (year) IV. Alarm Sensors for biogeochemical functions Biomaterial against biofouling Automated species identification in complex ecosystems Biomaterial against biofouling Detect precursors of harmfull algal blooms by immuno assay (lab) Detect precursors of harmfull algal blooms by immuno assay (in situ) Table 7.4. Microsystems, smart materials and nanotechnology Now I. Single use / spot sample Mesoporous material for electrodes (eg DO) 3 Years Bioarrays based on antibodies or immunoassay (in situ) Bioarrays based on antibodies or immunoassay (in vitro) III. Long endurance (year) IV. Alarm > 10 Years Microfluidic chemical analyser for nutrients Gas chromatograph Surface Acoustic Wave mass detector (in situ) Electronic or optical tongue Mass spectrometer for biogenic gases CO2 partial pressure Transition to anoxia / hypoxia 10 Years Mass spectrometer for biogenic gases Mesoporous material for electrodes (eg Dissolved Oxygen) II. Medium endurance (week/month) 5 Years Gas chromatograph Surface Acoustic Wave mass detector Microfluidic chemical analyser for nutrients Detection of endocrine components disruptive Detection of harmfull algal blooms by molecular imprints Radionucleides Colour Codes Ocean climate Marine life Health of coastal zone New frontiers in marine life All disciplines - 191 -10/07/200510/07/200532 191 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.5 - Qualification procedure for sensors deployed on ESONET observatory The qualification procedure must check that the sensors are withstanding the subsea environment. It includes : short term environment tests, short term functional tests and long term functional tests. The metrology issues are very important and do not correspond to any international, european or national standard. This should be a topic of cooperative work at an international scale with a strong input from scientific users, metrology specialists and instrumentation SME’s from Europe in the near future. For the more classical tests, the project ASSEM (EU FP5) made an overview of practices in Norway (NORSOK standards), France (NF, Ifremer and GAM-EG13), Italy and Greece. The testing methods issued by this project are agreed by other Esonet participants. From a life cycle, which is determined hereunder for an Assem mode, the required tests are determined according to the NF-X-10-800 standards. The relevance for subsea observatories to comply to Norsok standards used in the Norwegian offshore sector has been studied (see Annex 1 Industrial offshore standards). 7.2.5.1 - Life cycle 7.2.5.1.1 – Principle -Each item of the subsea observatory equipment (for instance ASSEM equipment), as any other equipment from the E2 Family (Equipment normally operating outside, in sea water) has a specific life cycle, which the supplier and user shall know and analyse. An oceanographic campaign for a subsea observatory will include several cycles including the following steps. During its life cycle, the equipment will suffer various types of environment and aggression. According to its specific life cycle, environmental testing will be conducted prior to equipment validation. Tests to be carried out will be either mandatory or recommended. For good understanding, an ASSEM monitoring node is composed of an aluminium frame hosting several components (or items), at least: junction boxes, battery packs, circuit breakers, sensor rack, COSTOF, mast, antenna, connection tool. Here under are the descriptions of the life cycle steps : 7.2.5.1.2 Storage -In between two campaigns, the equipment will be stored for a few weeks to several years (up to 5 years). Battery cells must withstand 1 year storage in the same conditions. The monitoring node (MN) can be stored all geared but it is likely that each component of the MN be stored individually, and that, for two reasons : At completion of a campaign, components need maintenance and fixing. After this phase of reconditioning, each component is stored in its own packaging. As each campaign is different from the previous one, it is useless to re install components within the frame prior to know precisely the requirements for the new campaign. It is safer to store parts individually and tailor the MN as needed for the following campaign. The MN frame can be stored outside, under cover, protected from adverse weather. The components will be stored indoor, in their own packing case, in a air-conditioned atmosphere preferentially, in a dry and ventilated place in any case. Storage conditions should be between - 20°C and + 50°C, RH 93 % at 50°C. 7.2.5.1.3 - Mobilisation at storage site When a campaign is planned and the required equipment defined, the components may be preassembled if required, tested individually and tested as a network. COSTOF will be configured with parameters specifics to the campaign. MN will be tested as a standalone and as a seabed network. At completion of tests, equipment will be disassembled and components will be re installed in their own packaging. Packaged components and the necessary spare parts and ancillary equipment, will be packed into waterproof and resistant crates. Protection against shocks will be added inside the crates. 192 7. Future Observatory Designs Crates will be geared with handling devices compatible with lifting equipment in use on the campaign. The MN frame does not need to be packed. 7.2.5.1.4 - Outgoing transportation From the storage site to the port of mobilisation of equipment : By road, equipment will be trucked. Protect against rain. Maximum distance is 1 500 km. By plane, in pressurised or non-pressurised cargo, but heated and ventilated. Negative pressure difference will be approximately 0.8 bar. If the port of mobilisation of equipment is different from the port of mobilisation of the survey vessel, transportation between both ports can be : By cargo ship or ferry, on deck (protect against rain) or in storage room (air-conditioned or not). 7.2.5.1.5 - Temporary storage It may be necessary to store the equipment at the port of mobilisation for various reasons such as custom clearance, waiting for vessel, waiting for team, … Storage can be outside, on the quay. In this case, equipment is exposed to adverse weather. Storage can, also, be provided inside a warehouse. 7.2.5.1.6 - Mobilisation of equipment on board the vessel Handling and installation of crates on board the survey vessel will be performed with cranes or specialized lifting equipment. 7.2.5.1.7 - Transit to operational site During transit, equipment that do not need to be checked or connected will remain packed and stored, preferentially indoor. Most of the equipment, however, will need to be unpacked, connected, checked and tested as a whole network. Testing operations may be carried out either indoor, in laboratory, or on deck, in wet and saline environment. As a consequence to these testing operations, the equipment will suffer hostile conditions. Test operations will follow working procedures. Movement of the equipment on deck will be handled by onboard lifting equipment or by hand. 7.2.5.1.8 - Onboard preparation At completion of the transit, the vessel stops at the mooring location. The MN frame will be geared with necessary components and will stand by for deployment. Two options should be considered : Equipment is switched on on deck, the MN station is immersed by free fall and will start data acquisition as it lands on the seabed. No underwater vehicle is required to launch mission. This option is only required in case of a station working as a standalone with no connection to other nodes or sensors. Equipment is switch off on deck, the station is immersed by free fall. An underwater intervention will be necessary to finalise installation and launch the data acquisition. 7.2.5.1.9 - Launching deployment The deployment is presented in §7.3.2. 7.2.5.1.10 - Seabed installation Once on seabed, an underwater vehicle, manned or not (ROV, UUV, MS) will accurately position the MN station. The same underwater vehicle will achieve the final installation consisting into : - 193 -10/07/200510/07/200532 193 7. Future Observatory Designs Last functional tests, final seabed configuration, acoustic transmission tests, autotests triggered by ROV or MS through the COSTOF. Plugging off-structure sensors into the junction box. Wiring two monitoring nodes. Switching the MNs on. The vessel, equipped with the Ship Terminal equipment (ST) moves at the vertical of an MN fitted with vertical communication capability and tests the whole network. Automatic data acquisition is triggered from the vessel. 7.2.5.1.11 - Seabed autonomous acquisition If properly installed and on a stable seabed, the MN structure and all components are designed to work for up to 2 years. In normal exploitation, only maintenance inspections for battery changes would be necessary on a regular basis (every 6 months). Depending on the water depth, the localisation with respect to geological hazards and industrial or leisure activity areas, the station may suffer from : Trawling gear aggression, digging out by anchors Slump slide, tsunamis and tremors 7.2.5.l.12 - Maintenance and visits There are major reasons for visiting the MN, on seabed, during data acquisition campaign : Battery replacement, every 6 months. Replacement of faulty monitoring node. Replacement of faulty component of the MN (junction box, Costof, …). Data retrieval, status checking and reconfiguration. In addition, any intervention on sensors (replacement, punctual measurements, fixing) will lead to a visit to the monitoring node. Prior to any action on the MN, fouling and sediment will be removed. 7.2.5.1.13 - Preparation for recovery Either for a simple monitoring node change or a decommissioning of the whole network at completion of a campaign, interventions on MN are similar, and are carried out by ROV, or MS. The first action will be to turn off the energy packs. Then, cleaning the interfaces from fouling and sediment may be necessary prior to any intervention. Wires from other nodes and from sensors will be disconnected from the MN. Released from the remaining part of the network, the monitoring node is now ready for recovery to the surface. 194 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.5.1.14 - Recovery The recovery is presented in §7.3.2. 7.2.5.1.15 - Return transit Once all equipment is on deck and the campaign is completed, the vessel will steam to port. During return transit, equipment will be cleaned from saline environment and packed, firstly in packing cases and, secondly, in crates. Care will be taken to add necessary shock protection in crates. Handling devices will be checked out in order to be all set for the demobilisation phase. 7.2.5.1.16 - Demobilisation at port In the same way as for mobilisation of equipment, handling and disembarkation of crates on quay will be performed with cranes or specialized lifting equipment. Temporary storage, at port of demobilisation, may be necessary as well. As for mobilisation phase, the same constraints for storage will apply. 7.2.5.1.17 - Return transportation The return transportation will be at the inverse of the Outgoing Transportation, § 1.5.1.4. 7.2.5.1.18 - Demobilisation at storage site – Unpacking, Maintenance and Repair At the storage site, the equipment will be unpacked, repaired, re conditioned and stored in operational condition for the next campaign. Battery packs should be removed from equipment. 7.2.5.2 - Environmental specifications Environmental specifications, covering testing and recommendations, should be read in close relation with Document [R2]. This document includes two references: XP X 10-800 : Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide Environmental Tests. XP X 10-812 : Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged Equipment. The life cycle, made up of the steps addressed in Chapter 10, represents the operating conditions of the equipment. As per the Document [R2], the subsea observatories for Esonet fall in the Family E2 , i.e. equipment normally operating outside, in sea water. During its life cycle, such equipment is subject to hostile conditions linked to the particular environment in which it is. For Family E2 equipment the standard, setting out the tests to be carried out and the recommendations to be taken into account, is referenced XP X 10-812. This document describes the typical environment of the E2 Family and the tests applicable to the E2 Family life cycle. Tests are described in Annexes A and B of [R2] document. Two types of tests are proposed : Minimal contractual tests and additional recommended tests. - 195 -10/07/200510/07/200532 195 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.5.2.1 - Minimal contractual tests Tests are as follows : Cold Damp heat Salt spray Solar radiation Vibrations Mechanical shock Movement of the deck Earth continuity Electromagnetic compatibility Hydrostatic pressure Thermal shock through immersion 7.2.5.2.2 - Additional recommended tests Recommendations concern the following tests : Condensation Marine fouling Main supply disturbance Lightning strike Shock through swinging Fluid contamination 7.2.5.2.3 - Tests sanctions The tests are sanctioned by the judgement, whether favourable or not, or the results of the checks made on the equipment during and after testing. The inspection is performed according to three criteria and the judgement is made according to the sanctions to be defined by the specifications author. These criteria are : (1) The apparent condition of the equipment. (2) The safety. (3) The specific operation. (1) Apparent condition of the equipment : No modification or degradation of the state of the equipment can be tolerated, in so far as the following are concerned : Appearance (geometry, surface condition, attachment of various components, etc). Conditions for disassembly, re assembly and access to components. Connectors and connections. Operating comfort (flexibility of controls, operation, legibility and protection of markings, etc). (2) Safety : No modification of the parameters which define safety can be tolerated. (3) Specific operations : Specific operation shall remain nominal. 196 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.5.3 - Environmental conditions according to the life cycle The following table addressing the hostile environmental conditions related to each step of the ASSEM equipment life cycle is an example available for all observatories : Table 7.5 Environmental Tests Steps Hostile environmental conditions Storage Damp heat Mechanical shock Condensation Mobilisation at storage site Mechanical shock Outgoing transportation Cold (snow, hail, frost) Spray (precipitation, rain) Solar radiation and heat Vibrations Mechanical shock Temporary storage Cold (snow, hail, frost) Damp heat Spray (precipitation, rain) Solar radiation and heat Mechanical shock Condensation Fluid contamination Mobilisation of equipment on Spray (precipitation, rain) board the vessel Mechanical shock Shock through swinging Transit to operational site Cold (snow, hail, frost) Spray (precipitation, rain, sea water) Solar radiation and heat Vibrations Mechanical shock Movement of the deck Condensation Fluid contamination Onboard preparation Same as “transit to operational site” step + Electromagnetic disturbance Launching deployment Salt spray Vibration on the mooring line Mechanical shock and stress in the splash zone Shock through swinging against the hull or other objects Thermal shock with immersion Fluid contamination by hydrocarbons Corrosion Seabed installation Saline environment and corrosion Mechanical shock when landing on seabed Mechanical shock by ROV manipulation Damage caused by ROV manipulation (on cables, connectors, sensors, containers, etc) Hydrostatic pressure Seabed autonomous acquisition Saline environment and corrosion Hydrostatic pressure Trawling gear aggression Natural disaster (slump, tsunami, tremor, etc) Marine fouling - 197 -10/07/200510/07/200532 197 7. Future Observatory Designs Table 7.5 Environmental Tests (Continued) Maintenance and visits Preparation for recovery Recovery deployment Return transit Demobilisation at port Return transportation Demobilisation at storage site Same as “seabed installation” step Same as “seabed installation” step Same as “launching deployment” step Same as “transit to operational site” step Same as “mobilisation of equipment” and temporary storage” steps Same as “outgoing transportation” step Same as “mobilisation at storage site” step 7.2.5.4 - Test description Tests are described in detail in the [R2] document. Minimal contractual tests are referenced as follows : Cold Damp heat Salt spray Solar radiation Vibrations Mechanical shock Movement of the deck Earth continuity Electromagnetic compatibility Hydrostatic pressure Thermal shockt Section A1 Section A2 Section A3 Section A4 Section A5 Section A6 Section A7 Section A8 Section A9 Section A10 Section A11 Severity is parameter of high importance in the test. For electromagnetic compatibility test, both “disturbance” and “susceptibility” are addressed and, for each, through / to conduction and radiation. Additional recommended tests are referenced as follows : Condensation Marine fouling Main supply disturbance Lightning strike Shock through swinging Fluid contamination Section B1 Section B2 Section B3 Section B4 Section B5 Section B6 7.2.5.5 - Extension to functional and long term tests A limited number of tests must be performed with the subsea equipment in its normal acquisition mode. An example is given in Annexe 2. They will ascertain that external conditions do not modify the functional characteristics of the equipment. The system designer will organize its system architecture in such a way that these tests can be followed externally and that troubleshooting is easy to undertake. While performing such rather tedious tests, the system reliability is enhanced. Moreover, the testability is ascertained for most of the future breakdown or special maintenance conditions when the underwater equipment will not be accessed during months to years. 198 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.6 - Scientific Packages (SP) Data output from observatories is generated by suites of sensors and instruments which are difficult to develop for long term deployment in the harsh sub sea environment. The data needs to be gathered into meaningful packages involving technological know-how, calibration procedures and scientific expertise. The term “Scientific Package (SP)” as defined here, refers not only to the reliable hardware (and/or software) but also as includes the metrology, calibration, interpretation and data processing procedures associated with the equipment. Thus it includes the scientific know-how necessary for experts in the decision making process of pollution response and risk assessment. Fig. 7.23. Scientific Packages, Integration of hardware, software, management systems and know-how. Decision making Scientific treatements and expertise Data management - data base Communication segments Seafloor observatory Scientific package Set of instruments Basic sensors Seabird conductivity cell Parameters Conductivity (« determinand ») Fig. 7.22. Scientific Packages - 199 -10/07/200510/07/200532 199 7. Future Observatory Designs Recognized criteria on environment and security Decision making Scientific treatements Integrate data in simulations and models Open data, agreement on data validation procedure and formats Data management Communication segments Seafloor observatory Compatibility with standards, protocols, response time,... Electronic standards, geometric or deployment constraints Scientific package Set of instruments Basic sensors Parameters Pre-operational validation Industrial production, after-sale service,... Recognized calibration protocols Background theory Fig. 7.23. Scientific Packages, Integration of hardware, software, management systems and know-how. From the discussions within the ESONET project about sensors, it is possible to define some scientific packages with their suites of instruments. 7.2.1.Seismology package includes the large band 3D geophones, hydrophone, gravimeter, electrometer and magnetometer. (e.g. EC project Geostar, Orion) Fig. 7.24 Orion seismometer node deployed during Assem Trisonia pilot experiment Gulf of Corinth 200 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.2. Tsunami package. High precision pressure measurement. Interpretation software. Link with seismic measurements. 7.2.3.Borehole instruments installed in wells drilled in the earth crust are providing data from the fluid flows, seismic informations and evaluation of deformations. Fig. 7.25 Monitoring of an ODP well in Barbados Acretion Prism using a Cork . 7.2.4. Geodesy package follows the deformation of the seaflood at a scale of 100 m to few kilometers in very active zones. It follows the motion of reference spots called benchmarks. (EC project Assem). 7.2.5. Physical oceanography. From the seafloor, upward, a number of valuable data (current, temperature, salinity, oxygen, CO2,…) can be obtained at Eulerian observatories. The real time information will complement other Ocean scale observation from satellite, buoys or floats. (EC project Mersea). - 201 -10/07/200510/07/200532 201 7. Future Observatory Designs Logging station Multiple depth piezometers Uncertain depth of pressurised soil layer Fig. 7.26: Monitoring of slope stability by subsea observatory using pore pressure sensing. 7.2.6. Biodiversity imaging (EC projects Exocet/D, Cobo) is a unanimous request from ESONET meetings. Slow modification of the seafloor as well as the episodic events in biological communities of extreme and non extreme environments need to be imaged. Fig. 7.27: Monitoring of hydrothermal vent by SAMO (camera, temperature of the and current) 7.2.7.Biodiversity of sediment layer requires a full range of sensors positioned at and under the interface, benthic chambers, imaging and sampling. (EC projects Alipor, Bengal). The range of sampling can be enhanced by mobile vehicles, such as crawlers forming part of the SP. 202 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig7.28 : Extension by a crawler 7.2.8. Pelagic biodiversity (sea mammals to small fishes) will be assessed in an innovative way from acoustic imagery and passive acoustic monitoring. The use of intrusive methods such as trawling might be diminished. 7.2.9.Particle dynamics. Long term trends of the deep sea currents and flow of particles. • • Click on the photo • Click on an event • Fig. 7.29: Data from benthic station MAP (lander) - 203 -10/07/200510/07/200532 203 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.2.10.Turbidity currents. Sudden events are occurring in canyons, involving a huge amount of sediment. 7.2.11. Nuclear pollution. Above the natural level of radioactivity, some events can be observed due to ship wrecks or other security issues. 7.2.12.Hydrocarbon or chemical pollution. It is important to detect quickly the pollutant levels reaching a threshold. 7.2.13.Larval biology requires specific developments of sensors, sampling and imaging. 7.2.14.Microscopy imaging is at its infancy but opens huge perspectives of understanding of the biological mechanisms. The data to be transmitted is dimensioning for the observatories of the future. 7.2.15. Spectrometry for persistent pollution. The way contaminants are circulating and trapped is still a question. The development of advanced in-situ spectrometric devices will be able to solve such questions together with particle dynamics. This application is demanding for the pre-treatment and transmission capacities of sub sea observatories. Many developments have been already done in Europe, with a major input of the European Union Research policy, the last stage of improvement and long term reliability is mandatory for the success of sub sea observatories. In most cases, the demonstration of scientific packages will start by experiments performed on accessible sites, on coastal observatories. The new cooperation potential open by European initiatives such as Esonet, Arena in Japan, Neptune Canada and Mars may open opportunities of testing in real scale. Neptune Canada for instance is proposing to use its more coastal stations (Venus) for testing purposes. The criteria for the constitution of the basis of these scientific packages are the choice of well established suite of sensors to build up the « basis suite ». Other sensors are needed to promote the innovative modelling or interpretation or cross-correlation of time series. To the extent possible, especially if they are funded by global observatory budgets, these instruments should possess the following characteristics : • • • • 204 Be long-lived. Require little or no in-situ calibration? Measure unaliased integral quantities representative of larger scales (spot measurements are then welcome to address spatial variability). Be useful for multiple disciplines. 7. Future Observatory Designs 205 7.3 - Sub-systems analysis 7.3.1 - Energy 7.3.1.1 - Batteries Autonomous observatories are usually powered by batteries of cells. For long term deployment, only the lithium cell family is used, to avoid too heavy and huge battery containers. The power supply system includes usually Lithium cells which will support power for at least 2 years. Sea water battery systems could replace them in the future, if environmental conditions (current speed, oxygen density,…) were suitable. Power consumption of an observatory is less than 5 W without sea bottom seismometer and 8 W with two seismometers (borehole and sea bottom). Additional power could be necessary for a magnetometer. The energy requirement for 2 years is about 90 kWh (24 V, 3 750 Ah) or 140 kWh (24 V, 5 800 Ah) in the second case. Observatories with cameras requiring illumination are probably the most power-hungry with power consumptions of 40 to 100W or more when a video system is running. With autonomous observatories neither power supply not data storage would permit continuous operation. The same cells as for GEOSTAR can be used : CSC lithium oxyhalide primary cells (Electrochem part 3PD0897). Each cell is 150 Ah under 24 V (3,6 kwh) for a weight of 7,8 kg. We needs 25 or 39 cells for a weight of 195 or 305 kg. In GEOSTAR 2 we have a cylinder housing 20 cells. An autonomous observatory could use two GEOSTAR cylinder battery units. These containers would be connected to the CAU through the Junction box. They will be replaced by the ROV during maintenance operations without failure of the power (Fig. 2.1). Figure 7.30. Specific power and energy of different battery cell types. Note high performance of the lithium chemistries 205 : PAGE 205 206 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.1.2 – Fuel Cells. Research and development related to electricity production by underwater fuel cell systems is very limited in comparison with efforts devoted to terrestrial applications. Projects, at least those on which some technical information has been made available, are restricted to a few units among which a system for AUV energy supply in Japan (JAMSTEC), another one in Germany for the same purpose and a prototype test system for AUV or fixed underwater equipment in France (PICOS project). In all cases the systems are based on the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) technology, which takes advantage of the use of a polymer membrane as solid electrolyte and of moderate operating temperature around 70 °C. 7.3.1.2.1 - Specific requirements to be complied with by an underwater fuel cell system Fuel cell systems for underwater applications must comply with a set of specific requirements : - - - the stack is necessarily supplied both with hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) and must reach a high level of gas to electricity conversion efficiency so as to reduce as much gas storage volumes, the system operates in a confined volume; consequently it has to be inerted with nitrogen (N2) during stop periods and to be fitted with a refrigerating system to convey heat produced within the stack to surrounding sea water, the system must function autonomously, safely and with a high reliability level under the action of a control and command system installed within the confinement pressure vessel, the system must prove a high level of endurance compatible with long lasting periods of operation between intervention as common for sea bottom deployed equipment especially in deep sea. 7.3.1.2.2 - Fuel cell system architecture for underwater stationary applications To comply with the specific requirements and constraints imposed by underwater operation, the fuel cell stack has to be integrated in a multi-component system rather more complex than for terrestrial applications. Main subsystems surrounding and servicing the stack comprise : - fluid managing equipment, power managing electronics and buffer battery, control and command electronics. All these subsystems are enclosed with the stack in a pressure resistant vessel designed to sustain the system deployment depth. To this main container are adding : - the gas containers for H2, O2 and N2 which have to resist both to internal gas pressure and outside hydrostatic pressure, and the set of tubes, valves and pressure reducing devices for delivery of gases to fuel cell container. Let us look some more in details at the functions and components of the various subsystems. 206 7. Future Observatory Designs 207 7.3.1.2 2.1. the fluid management system fulfils five main functions : - to feed stack with H2 and O2 at convenient temperature, pressure and mass flow, - to manage N2 delivery, - to manage the water by-produced in the stack, - to extract the heat power by-produced in the stack. • Feeding H2 and O2 The subassembly performs the following actions : - feeding the stack with gases at regulated pressures, controlling gas temperature, recirculating gases in convenient proportion. • Managing N2 Two actions are fulfilled : - to pressurise gas circuit at regulated N2 partial pressure, - to wash and inert gas circuits when stopping energy production. • Managing by-produced water By-produced water in the stack O2 channels is separated from re-circulated O2 and stored before being discharged to surrounding sea water. • Managing by-produced heat By-produced heat is extracted from the stack by a closed-loop water circulation and transferred to surrounding seawater through a heat exchanger in contact with the pressure resistant vessel wall. 7.3.1.2 2.2 - Power managing electronics and buffer battery. As in any type of electrical generator, fuel cell stack functioning is characterised by specific features the more relevant being (Fig.7.31) : - for a given gas feeding per unit area of basic cell, current intensity is proportional to cell active area, - for a given current density, stack voltage is proportional to number of cells, - cell voltage declines with increasing current density ; along the curve there is point of optimum gas to electricity conversion, which is not the point of maximum power, Thus the power rating of a stack around the point of optimum efficiency is both proportional to the unit cell active area and to the number of cells in series; and so power rating is proportional to stack voltage. To comply with a given power need, the best trade-off should be chosen between stack voltage and cell active area, knowing however that unit cell are only available in a finite number of active section values, that is cell size cannot be chosen freely on a continuous range. Also operating the stack at partial or over power with respect to point of optimum efficiency is detrimental to gas consumption. There result two consequences : - the stack should always be functioning close to its optimum efficiency power level. This requires the stack to be necessarily coupled to a buffer battery. In periods of low power 207 : PAGE 207 208 - 7. Future Observatory Designs demand the stack will be run according to stop and go sequences up to full load of buffer battery. In periods of extra power demand the battery discharge will provide the additional power. as cell system auxiliaries or powered equipment require various voltages probably different from the stack voltage, a set adequate tension converters is needed. In addition the power electronics pack includes the power distribution and safety functions. 7.3.1.2 2.3 - Control and command electronics ensures the autonomous, safe and reliable functioning of the fuel cell system. Its functions include : - acquisition of operating and safety monitoring parameters, management of system regulations, management of system stop and go, activation of safety procedures. 7.3.1.2.3- Typical System Characteristics Let us consider an underwater station with following power needs : - mean continuous power : 200 Watt, autonomy/energy need 1st 3 months 440 kWh 2nd 6 months 880 kWh 7.3.1.2 .3.1- Power production • Fuel cell stack Power demand could be met for instance by using a PEM stack with the following characteristics : - Unit cell characteristics . active area 330 cm2 . electrical characteristics at nominal operating point . current density 0.45 A/cm2 . intensity 150 A . cell voltage 0.7 V . cell power 105 W - Stack characteristics . number of cells 15 . voltage 10.5 V . power 1 575 W . overall dimensions : section : 250 * 250 mm / length : 430 mm (see Fig. 2.2 & 2.3 for a 12 cell stack). Taking into account a 10 % power consumption by system auxiliaries, net power delivered to the underwater station amounts to 1 400 W, resulting in a mean 14 % stack operating time. • Buffer battery A non-unique solution could be to couple the stack to a 12 V battery of 200 Ah / 2 400 Wh useful capacity. 208 7. Future Observatory Designs 209 With 1 200 W available over station consumption to feed the battery, it would take 2 hours to charge the battery. Mean 200 W power need would then be delivered during 12 hours by the battery with the stack being stopped. 7.3.1.2.3.2. - Fuel cell system container. The whole fuel cell system (stack + auxiliaries) is deemed to be installable inside a pressure resistant vessel of about 0.2 m3 overall volume, typically a cylinder 1 500 mm long and 400 mm in diameter, with an overall mass of 250 / 350 kg for 3 000 m service depth. 7.3.1.2.3.3 - Gas storage volume under 350 bar pressure would require a set of containers with an overall volume of 2.5 - 5 m3 for 3 - 6 month autonomy. Overall mass would amount to 2.5 - 3.5 tons for gas cylinders in high-grade aluminium alloy for 3 000 m service depth. 7.3.1.2.4 Development status and prospects 7.3.1.2.4.1 Fuel cell stack. PEM fuel cell stacks with a fair level of performance regarding both gas to electricity conversion efficiency are available today. Further progress remain necessary and operationality proven on two points : - stack endurance The figure of 1 500/2 000 hours is commonly agreed with reference to continuous operation of the stack, while there exists a lack of experience regarding operating profiles with repetitive stop and go sequences. Considering the above system with stack functioning sequence 2 hours on/12 hours off, the cumulated operating time (14 %) amounts to : . 300 hours for 3 month autonomy, . 600 hours for 6 month autonomy; Those values are well within the commonly agreed endurance range in continuous operation and should be acceptable, provided that the repetitive on/off operating mode (150/300 cycles in 3/6 months) does not decrease too much the endurance. - stack cost Stack cost is to day rather high due to fabricating process (for instance, machining cell fluid channels in carbon plates). Many R & D actions are underway to remedy this drawback for terrestrial applications, which could benefit to underwater field. 7.3.1.2.4.2. - Fuel cell system. Reliable and safe operation of a confined PEM fuel cell system under autonomous control and command has been demonstrated during significant but still limited durations. This first achievement should be pursued by long duration pre-operational field demonstrations. Secondarily further efforts towards more compact system should advantageously be continued. 209 : PAGE 209 210 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.1.2.4.3 - Gas storage. At present there is a little experience of H2 and O2 gas storage under high pressure up to 700 bar in the field of terrestrial applications. Underwater storage know-how appears to be limited to some theoretical and engineering analyses and few practical tests of gas bottle resistance under external pressure. Underwater applications would benefit from the R & D efforts aimed at terrestrial applications, provided those developments are modified to take into account the specific constraints of underwater field, that is : - resistance to the hydrostatic pressure of service depth compliance with long duration stays in the corrosive sea water environment. Fig.7.31 -PEM cell stack – Voltage and power vs current intensity 2 (active area 330 cm ) (PICOS project) 210 7. Future Observatory Designs 211 Fig 7.32 PEM cell stack on laboratory test bench (CEA Grenoble) (PICOS project) 211 : PAGE 211 212 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.1.3- Diesel engine To provide high power to a buoy which supplies the seafloor and telemeters, the buoy would be fitted with diesel generators. While operating diesels on an intermittent basis reduces their longterm reliability, to some degree, it will allow for longs periods of acoustic silence which may be important in some applications where very low level acoustic signals are being measured. In general, diesels operate most reliable when run continuously under constant load and temperature conditions. The U.S. Coast Guard operate its large navigational buoys with diesel power, and the continuous operation of diesel generators on these buoys for periods of at least 2 to 6 months is well documented. What is required is a constant supply of clean fuel and lube oil. The typical requirement of industrial or marine diesel generators with integral lube oil sumps is a service interval of 250 hours. The service usually consists only of changing the lube oil and changing fuel and oil filters. Given the size of typical integral lube oil sumps, this corresponds to about 720 hours per litre of lube oil. At least one manufacturer markets a fixed, air cooled system designed for 2 190 hours service interval with an external 65 litres sump. Clearly a system could be designed for extended periods by providing the generator with adequate filtering and lube oil supply. Whether this could be extended to an 8 760 hours service period (1 year) needs to be determined in consultation with manufacturers. Another trade-off that needs to be studied is that between air-cooling and water-cooling the generator. Air cooling is the simplest design except that it requires an air flow rate of 0.13 m3/s (10 kW generator) to 2 m3/s (30 kW generator), thus requiring sizable penetrations through the sides of the buoy. Water cooling in contrast, could be effected with a “keel-cooler” in thermal contact with the ocean with no buoy penetrations. A pair of diesel generators, one acting as a back-up, on the buoy could provide the necessary power with a good reliability. 7.3.1.4 – Solar energy The power system requires converting the solar radiation to electrical power, storing it, and delivering it to the electrical systems of the buoy. Its efficiency has been estimated at 4.3 %. The solar energy potential varies with latitude, from 27 W/m2 at 51° to 197 W/m2 at 15° by example. At high latitude, solar array would be adequate only 6 months per year. Solar radiation could be used for mid-to low latitude sites when a low power is required. 7.3.2 – Cable If a cable is used to supply energy to the observatory, this cable will be also used to communicate with the shore station. Characteristics are depending of the type of cable and will be specified below. Different types of cables could be used to deploy an observatory : 7.3.2.1 Dedicated submarine Cable In this case, the use of an International Telecommunications Cable is recommended. It is a robust proven technology which can be deployed in deep water up to 8 000m. Submarine optical cable connects the shore station to the Science Node, providing suitable protection to the optical fibres and the power conductor. The cable will normally house up to 48 fibres, the number depending on the degree of Wavelength Division Multiplexing and redundancy that is employed. There are many types of optical fibre available today that are already qualified for use in submarine cable. The choice would depend on the distance between the shore station and the Science Node, the number of optical channels per fibre and the transmission rate and format. Submarine Cables provide varying degrees of protection depending on the deployment depth, seabed conditions and local hazards (fig. 2.4). This is achieved through varying levels of external protection. (See fig. 2.5). The single power conductor can support a 12kV power voltage. 212 213 7. Future Observatory Designs 20m Surface lay 200m DA DA SA SA DA Cable Xing Burial to 1000m Beach Poor Burial Rocky Ground Moving sediment etc SA Optional Burial to 1000m LW From 1000m Fig.7.33. Cable route engineering Fig. 7.34. - Various cable mechanical structures of communication used in various environmental conditions The protection provided by the cable alone is insufficient to protect it against repeated aggression such as entanglement with fishing trawls or ships anchors. It is standard practice today to carefully plan the route of the submarine cable avoiding where possible both natural and man-made hazards and risks. An initial "Desk-Top" study is carried out looking at existing information and by visiting possible cable landing sites. A marine survey of the most promising route is then conducted looking at : • • • • Bathymetry – the shape of the sea-bed, Side scan sonar data – the surface details of the seabed, Sub-bottom profiler data – The sub surface material of the sea-bed, Samples – physical analysis of the sea bed material, 213 : PAGE 213 214 • • • 7. Future Observatory Designs Current and temperature – The dynamic conditions over the sea-bed, Fishing and near-shore activity – Human impact on the route, Other existing or planned submarine cables and pipe-lines. A route is then engineered from the survey swath data, both geophysical and geo-technical, to ensure that the route is optimised with regard to : steep slopes, inhospitable seabed, in-service cable and pipeline crossing angles, seabed debris, burial potential, and the limits of the possible installation vessel and tools. Where necessary and where the seabed structure allows, the submarine cable is typically buried to depths d with ploughs that can bury the cable quickly and safely down to 3 meters directly during installation, at rates of between 4 and 40kms per day. (See Fig. 7.35 and fig. 7.36). Fig 7.35 - Latest Generation Cable Ship Fig 7.36. Cable burying meter plough A permit has to be requested from concerned countries in accordance with international regulation. Figure 7.37 shows the track of the cable for the MARS observatory chosen to avoid dangerous locations. 214 7. Future Observatory Designs 215 Fig. 7.37– Track of the cable for the MARS Observatory, avoiding canyon The cable is connected to the observatory node through a junction box. Constraints are : Trawler Resistant Frame Connection to the Cable Electrical Power Converters 10 kV to 400 V and 400 V to 48 V Data Communications To and from Shore Station To and from Science Instruments Science Instrument Ports Accessible by ROV Wet-Mate Connectors Serviceable Science Module Decoupled and Recoverable by ROV Different architectures are possible for the junction box. Figure 7.38 shows a design from Alcatel. Fig. 7.39 shows another design from IFREMER, derived from the ANTARES junction box. 215 : PAGE 215 216 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.38 - Example of junction box nnode proposed by Alcatel Table 7.5 - Typical Science Node Specification 216 Maximum Operating Depth 8 000 m Supply Voltage 10,000 VDC Total Power Available 10,000 W Internal Power Load < 500 W Shore to Node Communications 2.5 Gb/s or 1 Gb/s Number of SIPs 8 Instrument Distance from SIP <1000 m SIP Voltage 48 VDC or 400 VDC SIP Data Communications Ethernet 10/100Mb/s or Serial Extension Capability 100 km / 1 Gb/s 7. Future Observatory Designs 217 Fig. 7.39 Junction box derived from the Antares project 7.3.2.3.Use of decommissioned telecom cable It is technically feasible • assuming a donation from a Telecom Company (liabilities) • may require a "special" node for long systems • Long term support may be an issue The VENUS project used a decommissioned cable between Okinawa and Guam. It works only during one month due to critical technical problems. 7.3.2.4. Branch on a future telecom cable It is technically feasible but some routes are currently saturated (North Atlantic) It may be difficult to implement with Consortia of Buyers: Different expectations Service affecting operations not allowed 217 : PAGE 217 218 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.3 Communication segments 7.3.3.1.- RF link Communications from a surface buoy to shore are well known (see Annex 4 "Telemetry"). There are a number of different data transmission systems that could be used for data transfer. Close to the coast RF (radio) transmitter or GSM phones are most favourable. Where satellite systems become necessary ARGOS, ORBCOMM, INMARSAT and IRIDIUM are mostly in use. The following table and figure 2;11 shows a comparison between theses systems : Table 7.6: Comparison between different satellite transmission systems System 1 Orbit1 Mode Data rate Inmarsat D+ Pager GEO < 1 kbyte/day GOES, Meteosat Messaging GEO < 5 kbyte/day Argos Messaging LEO < 5 kbyte/day Inmarsat C Messaging GEO < 10 kbyte/day Orbcomm Messaging LEO < 50 kbyte/day Iridium Voice Big LEO 1 Mbyte/hr GEO – geostationary orbit, LEO – Low earth orbit 218 219 7. Future Observatory Designs global Argos Iridiu Orbcomm ? ? New ICO ?? Inmarsat D+ GOES, etc Ocean DataLink ??? Globalstar ?? regional 0.1 1 10 100 data rate (kbyte/day) Fig 7.40 : Coverage and data throughput of various satellite communication systems Fig. 7.41 Project INGAS Measurement of water pore pressures, University of Bremen, Denkmanufaktur: Example - IRIDIUM Data Throughput Capabilities, 1 MByte within 70 minutes 219 : PAGE 219 220 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.3.2 - Underwater links For transmission below the water surface there are three alternatives for data transmission: Acoustic telemetry, inductive data transfer EM or EOM cable. The characteristics are listed in the following table : Table 7.7: Comparison of different transmission technologies Acoustic High power demand (typically 100 J/KByte) Low data throughput, high BER (10-4), half duplex Highly flexible, no restrictions on mooring design Independent of power supply Limited range (~ 6 km) Inductive Low Power demand ( ~10 J/KByte) Low data throughput, medium BER (10-6), full duplex Certain restrictions are applicable but first promising experiences exist May be combined with power supply ( 20 W) Limited range (~ 6 km) Cable EM or EOM Extremely low power demand High data throughput, extremely low BER High restrictions on mooring design. Not well proven Power supply easy to implement (up to 100’s W) Repeater free range ~ 200 km To achieve maximum flexibility in the mooring design acoustic modem transmission would be the best choice. But the limited data throughput and the high power demand are imposing certain constrictions on an all acoustic design. Therefore combinations of different techniques should be pursued. At least acoustic telemetry should be considered as a backup path for transmitting data to the surface. 7.3.3.4. - Messengers The idea of sending messengers to the surface was first tested on a Japanese seafloor observatory as an emergency transmission system for seismic events. The messengers are inside glass containers and transmit their data once at the sea surface through satellite communication. In the European project GEOSTAR, the Messenger Communication System (MCS), consists of a set of buoyant data capsules, the messengers (MES), which carry the data to the surface with a typical periodicity of one to two months, and either transmit their data via the ARGOS satellite system, or are recovered by a ship on the experiment site. 220 7. Future Observatory Designs 221 221 : PAGE 221 222 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.42. The GEOSTAR Messenger Communication System. Fig. 7.43. The GEOSTAR Messenger Communication System. Two data structures are to be transmitted through the MCS : the Summary Messages and the Data Records. The Summary Messages are data packages of a maximum size of around 600 bytes generated every day. They are composed of several data blocks corresponding to each instrument on the BS and to a certain number of technical operating parameters of the BS. The instrumental data blocks only contain statistical values derived from the measures. Summary Messages are transferred to the Expendable Messenger in activity. With a memory capacity of 32/64 Kilobytes, each Expendable-Messenger can store about 30/60 Summary Messages, that is the data generated in one/two months. The Data Records are data packages of a maximum size of around 800 Kilobytes generated every hour. They are composed of several data blocks corresponding to each instrument of the BS. The block size and the nature of the data contained depend on the volume of data produced by the equipment. Every one out of N records is transferred to the Storage Messenger in activity. With a memory capacity of 40 Megabytes, each Storage-Messenger can store about 40 Data Records. The MCS is composed of four main sub-systems : - the Messenger Drive Unit (MDU) : it is the intelligent electronic unit, which manages the data transfer from the Bottom-Station to the Messengers and controls their release. - the Messengers (MES) : they are the vehicles used to bring the data to the surface. Basically the MES are pressure resistant housings with positive buoyancy, which contain the electronics which manages the data transfer and storage, an ARGOS emitter and antenna, and the powering batteries. MES are of two types : 222 7. Future Observatory Designs 223 - The Expendable Messengers (MES-E) are released on alarms or when their memory capacity is full. When reaching the sea surface they deliver their data through the ARGOS satellite system, and then are considered as non-reusable equipment. - The Storage Messengers (MES-S) are released by an acoustic command sent from a ship on the site of the experiment. They are localized by the ARGOS system or goniometry, recovered by the ship and their data unit is extracted and read on a microcomputer. - The Acoustic-Transmission-System (ATS): it is the acoustic link and equipment by which the command to release a MES-S is sent to the BS. It also allows the operator to recover a summary of the registered data. - The ARGOS-Transmission-System: this sub-system transfers the data load of a MES-E to the exploitation shore-station. Seven messengers of each type have been manufactured and used satisfactorily during the projects GEOSTAR 1 and GEOSTAR 2. The dramatic increase of storage capacities during the last 5 years made the GEOSTAR Ifremer/Orca/Tecnomare design obsolete. The potential of stored data is now of the order of several Gbytes. The satellite transmissions are a limiting factor. At least as a back-up for communication in hazard areas, messengers may constitute a key component for future seafloor observatories. 7.3.4 - Connectors It was demonstrated in the early 80’s by military projects and civilian projects of deep sea submersibles that the electrical connectors are the weak points of underwater systems. Since then, technology improvements have been substantiated with more than one hundred patents. It was then possible to design various architectures of distributed systems. The monohull systems were not very suited for underwater equipments with multiple functions such as subsea wells in the offshore industry. New products were then developed by several manufacturers. They were obliged to meet for instance MIL standards in United-States and the failure rates were diminished. In the mean time, the underwater communication cable industry has always tried to avoid connectors. The underwater links between cables (for one cable, for Y branches, for repeaters or after repair) are built on the cable-ship, following a well established procedure operated by specially trained crew. They are lowered to the seabed where no other connection is necessary. When underwater observatory projects are launched for a long term objective of 15 years or more, one must keep in mind that the reference of telecommunication cables as a mature technology for such durations is not including connectors. The electrical and now electro-optical connectors are key components allowing a design with various subsystems. This is not avoidable for versatile seafloor observatories. Nevertheless, the unnecessary connections must still be avoided when not completely necessary. The market of underwater connectors is held by approximately twenty manufacturers, each of them having special products. The qualification of a connector design and the control of even manufacturing requires very cautious methods. 7.3.4.1.Qualification After several costly accidents, Ifremer have followed a double testing program between 1996 and 2002. One program was dedicated to a qualification towards the safety requirements of the manned submersible Nautile. It included a complete reliability and safety study including qualification of all the components, materials and tests in normal or damaged mode. The 223 : PAGE 223 224 7. Future Observatory Designs experience of some failures showed the necessity to qualify also the bulkhead side of the connectors in "open face" : in case of water entering a cable, this component must be pressure resistant and watertight in order to stop the water ingress. Some of the tests are applied to every connector before installation. Some connectors, manufactured in the same set as those mounted on the submersible, are cycled at least 200 cycles ahead of the mounted ones. For unmanned equipments, a second program was applied to 12 deep water connector types from 6 manufacturers. The following tests were performed at least on two pieces for each type: Table 7.8. Qualification of subsea connectors (Ifremer procedure 31 ST 19). 1) Non-destructive control of materials 2) Dielectric characteristics 3) Isolation resistance 4) Contact resistance 5) Environment tests 6) Pressure strength 7) Cyclic tests 8) Creep tests 9) Dielectric characteristics 10) Isolation resistance 11) Non-destructive testing of materials 12) Enduring test (2 U + 1 000) volts >5 103 MΩ < 15 mΩ According to standard NF X 10 800 24h at Ptest = 1.5 * Pservice, at service temperature 1 000 cycles at service pressure 500 hours at service pressure (2 U + 1000) volts >5 103 MΩ 500 cycles of connection/disconnection U is the maximum voltage of use in service. From such experience, some limits of connectors were determined. In order to evaluate the safety factor, one piece for each connector type fulfilling the tests was brought to its failure pressure. Figure 7.44 Sections through bulkhead connectors after test. 224 7. Future Observatory Designs 225 Fig 7.45 Failure modes of some connectors for the deep sea (rated 6000m waterdepth) 7.3.4.2.Penetrators Penetrators do not allow plugging and unplugging. They nevertheless include a bulkhead component similar to the one of a connector, so that water ingress in one pressure resistant housing is not transmitted to the others. Some of the failure modes are the same. Due to the limits of underwater connectors, the Antares project made the choice to purchase cables with penetrators for the lines between detectors. 7.3.4.3. Underwater pluggable connectors The manufacturing of underwater pluggable connectors was one of the technological enhancements that allow modular underwater observatories. They were used first in the offshore industry for shallow water. In academic research, the French-US borehole observatory Hydrogeo in the Barbados accretion prism area used a first generation of OD-Blue connectors to connect the ODP drilling rod to the monitoring equipment. It was left on site for more than one year and the connection was ensured by a submersible (Alvin and Nautile) to retrieve the data through the "cork". The same connector was used in the mechanical design of the Geostar messengers sending information to the surface from the 4 000 m observatory. Its reliability was not acceptable and limited the extension of use of this concept. OD-Blue is no longer manufactured. Among other companies providing connectors for offshore industry, Seacon and Ocean Design are also proposing underwater pluggable connectors for the deep sea. Based on various patented designs, they use the principle of an oil filled receptacle where the male pins are inserted. It is pressure compensated and avoids a contact with seawater. 225 : PAGE 225 226 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig 7.46, Underwater mateable connector Adaptor sleeve to allow access for umbilical Fibre interconnect handling and storage based on existing piece parts Standard single gland bulkhead and gland ODI penetrator Standard cable termination and couplings at both ends For manifold solutions – Double feed-through bulkhead modified to take ODI penetrator plus standard ASN gland For last mile solutions – Single feed-through bulkhead modified to take ODI penetrator only. Fig 7.47 Detail of underwater mateable connector 226 7. Future Observatory Designs 227 7.3.3.4. Cable assembly The link between the cable and the plug of a connector is a weak point. The mounting and overmoulding process must be perfectly mastered by the manufacturer. It is a good practice to ask the manufacturer a training phase for his personnel on the actual cable and connector elements. Then a destructive testing will determine the ability of this personnel to produce the cable assembly. An assembly with a different cable is not a proof that can be accepted. This is especially true for fibre optic cables where an attenuation measurement at both ends is a good way to check that no additional stress is supported by the fibre. Several connector problems have been encountered by subsea observatory projects in United States, Europe and Japan. Such failures are only considered as incidents on ROV or short term deployment equipment. They have more dramatic consequences on long term automated deployments. Typical tests to try to overcome these reliability problem were performed before the purchase of Antares connectors. Fig. 7.48 Complete equipment under test. Two connectors, two penetrators and 300m cable length. 227 : PAGE 227 228 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.49 Connection and disconnection tests under pressure are prepared with a complete equipment (cable and connector) and testing devices: actuators to simulate ROV handling and camera for viewing. The qualification of electro-optical connectors includes : - environment tests – 50°C during 96 h – Thermal shock from 50°C to 12°C – - Mechanical environment tests – vibrations in connected configuration or disconnected configuration – - Pressure tests during 10 cycles at 1.2 times the working pressure. The connection and disconnection is performed 30 times under pressure. A control of the attenuation of the signal through the fibre optic connection is continuously tested. The connector design of one manufacturer has been complying the tests for 2 500 m water depth. Conclusion The connectors are necessary for the system architecture of modular underwater observatories. The technology exists for long term deployment, it is also available for wet pluggable electric or electro-optic connectors. The reliability of these components is nevertheless among the most difficult technical problem faced by subsea observatories. Intensive tests are needed for qualification and control of the connectors provided. 228 7. Future Observatory Designs 229 Fig. 7.50 – Wet connection on the Antares junction box 7.3.5 Materials for subsea observatories The material choices were a difficult issue for the telecommunication cable industry. Cable thread protection, polyethylene sheathing, glass epoxy composite repeaters were developed and now allow high performances. The material choice for long term underwater deployment requires the experience of specialized designers and in some cases analysis of experts. A lot of knowledge was acquired through offshore, academic and military projects. The material providers are seldom aware of the behaviour of their products in long term seawater exposure: the quantity produced for this market is most of the time negligible with respect to the overall production. Research is active in the field of materials in marine environment. The processes of corrosion and especially biofouling are requiring tests and theoretical studies. Some projects such as Neptune Canada are planning R&D activities on materials in parallel to the subsea observatory design and first deployments. EC funded projects have been devoted to materials in Marine environment: Composite Housing, BRIE, BRIMON. The hydrothermal environment is very corrosive. High temperature and high pressure systems may be encountered with black or white smokers. Hydrogen sulphide, a vast host of metal-rich sulphide minerals, carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen are present. Other places are rich in chlorides and metals. The monitoring by seafloor observatories will bring very interesting scientific data on biodiversity, ecological processes, and time related variations of chemical or physical parameters. Specific tests are required to check the design of the observatory. The EC FP6 project Exocet/D includes such tests. The deployment of subsea observatories in the continental margins means a long immersion at pressures of 2000 to 6000 dbar. This is considered as “ultra-deep” because it exceeds the usual offshore oil industry standards. Under such pressures, some design parameters and some material behaviours have not been tested yet. Therefore, extra tests and studies may be required. 229 : PAGE 229 230 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.5.1.Use of metals For subsea observatories intended to be deployed during more than 10 years, the choice of metallic materials for structural design is limited. Steel with cathodic protection is the standard solution. Rules of the offshore industry may be applied. For the deep sea, cathodic protection parameters have to be modified: Joint Industry Projects between oil industry companies and research institutes are addressing this matter. The cathodic protection required must be limited by a preliminary protection by Zn and painting according to a process guaranteed by the manufacturer. The control and exchange of anodes will represent a maintenance cost that must be accounted for in the operating costs. Stainless steel. Common stainless steel is liable of cavernous corrosion and must be prohibited. Some minor pieces may be built with 316L. Grades designed for seawater corrosion (904, superduplex,…) are not so common and are quite expensive. Nickel alloys.Several grades of Nickel based alloys are available and constitute safe solutions: Inconel 625, Hastelloy C22,… Titanium alloys The Titanium alloys have been one of the technical enhancement allowing deep underwater intervention. Their extensive use is only limited by the cost. For subsea observatories, the experience of Geostar housings designed by Ifremer and built by Tecnomare with a Russian manufacturer is a good example. Unalloyed titanium (T40) is used when the mechanical requirements are not stringent. Alloys in alpha-beta phase such as 6% Aluminium and 4% Vanadium (or equivalent Russian grades) are a reliable solution. One drawback of titanium alloys is their electrochemical potential which may corrode other metals. It is suggested to protect it by painting for instance to limit its active surface. Bronze.Among copper alloys, some have a good behaviour for long time exposure to seawater. They may have the advantage of intrinsic biofouling protection by release of copper ions. Aluminium alloys of several kinds are a solution for underwater components. The serie 5000 is not prone to heavy corrosion and may be used unprotected. The powder produced by corrosion may be a disturbance for some very precise measurements of particles in the abyss. The 6000 serie and to some extend 7000 serie (with better mechanical performances) are used with hard anodizing specified for marine application. A cathodic protection with Aluminium-Indium alloys anodes is ensuring long term endurance. 7.3.5.2.Use of thermoplastic materials Thermoplastic materials have the great advantage to suffer no electrochemical corrosion. Their limitation of use is due to the water ingress and creep. Thermoplastics with brittle behaviour can only be used in special configurations. They are used in cable sheathing and overmoulding, for light mechanical pieces, electrical insulation, o-rings view ports for cameras and water-tightness components. Due to the creep characteristics, the load must not be permanent for equipments immersed a long time such as subsea observatories. PEEK or PCTFE have exceptional behaviours but are quite expensive, they are only manufactured into small pieces in sensors and instrumentation. Polyurethane is commonly used, but its formula must be especially suited for long term seawater exposure. The polyether type of molecule has acceptable performances. The components of polyurethane and of most thermoplastic materials are changing quite often due to environment regulations and medical regulations for the workers. This may lead to perform again acceptance tests or tests on mechanical characteristics. In general, characteristics for under-water ageing is dependent on the crystalline to amorphous ratio. 230 7. Future Observatory Designs 231 However, the improvement of these materials is very promising and may lead to light weight equipments with long immersion potentials. 7.3.5.3. Use of composite materials The high mechanical characteristics of composite materials and the lack of corrosion are excellent arguments for their use at sea. In long term sea floor deployments, these performances have been demonstrated. In the telecom cable industry, repeaters in glass epoxy have been produced and used for the last twenty years by Alcatel for instance. Components of sensor strings implemented in underwater wells, by industrial companies such as Schlumberger or academic institutes like Ifremer, have shown their cost effectiveness. In these applications, thick glass epoxy is machined and used as any material. Resin The plastic matrix to be reinforced by fibres must be well tested. The criteria are, as such, a R&D issue in : water ingress, creep, shock, ageing of matrix-fibre interface. The choice of epoxy and vinyl-esther is acceptable. Other matrices such as polyester are not recommended. The production methods (responsible of the void ratio) and chemical components are changing according to the manufacturer. The qualification is specific, unfortunately existing standards are not sufficient. A good example of methodology was given by the EC project Composite Housing. Glass fibres The reinforcement by glass fibre is providing good performances for the long term. The high glass/matrix ratios are giving better hydrostatic pressure and compressive strength (70 - 80 % in mass). The use of S or R glass for the fibre and the choice of manufacturing method such as filament winding, fabric prepreg, injection have been qualified in several design of underwater equipment. The lander MAP 2 using a glass-epoxy hull and several glass-epoxy components such as amplificating flexural springs for release has shown its performances for two years deployments in the deep sea (Mast - Alipor project). On offshore oil production templates, more and more equipments include glass-epoxy elements. Carbon fibres Lighter structures may be designed using carbon fibres. Under tensile or flexural strength design criteria, the additional cost finds good arguments. It is more limited for structures dimensioned by the compressive strength. The feasibility of carbon epoxy pressure hulls has been demonstrated by the EC project Composite Housing. Syntactic foam A composite material made up with very small hollow glass spheres inside a plastic matrix is able to provide buoyant material. It has been qualified for full water depth floats as well as pipe insulation material. 231 : PAGE 231 232 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.5.5. Use of brittle materials Brittle materials such as glass or ceramics have exceptional compressive strength. But any tensile or shear stress may lead to rupture. They are used for electric insulation in connectors with a very stringent manufacturing process. Glass spheres are often used for the buoyancy necessary during deployment phases of subsea observatories. They are a major component of landers and used as instrument containers (on seismometers of GEOSTAR, neutrino detectors of ANTARES,…). The rules for deep sea manned submersibles from the international committee PVHO (Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy vehicles) have banned the glass spheres in the vicinity of a submersible. It is still the rule for submersible Nautile, Alvin and Shinkai and a few ROV such as ROPOS in Canada. Brittle materials may be used provided a reliability study based on their probability of failure. The Weibull coefficient must be determined for this purpose. The complete interoperability of deep sea intervention underwater vehicles will have to address the acceptance or not of glass spheres. 7.3.5.5. Biofouling Any material immersed in seawater will be covered by a first biofilm layer. From this layer and thanks to its bonding characteristics, a microscopic fauna will initiate colonization by all kind of living species. This phenomena is site dependent and must be analyzed case by case for long term deployment of subsea observatories. The EC project Mispec have proposed a method of evaluation of biofilm on optical components: the Biopam. EC projects BRIE and BRIMON have developped and tested protections for oceanographic instruments. The main idea is to release biocide from a coating or by active production. The limitation is to avoid the use of forbiden substances such as TBT. When biofouling is a main issue for the instruments on a subsea observatory, a specific study with in-situ tests is necessary: it has been done for neutrino observatories sites such as Antares and is underway in EC FP6 project Exocet/D. 232 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3 - Deployment and maintenance analysis Within Europe a number of systems appropriate for deployment and access to subsea observatories have already been developed. These are reviewed below. 7.3.1 - Existing European tools 7.3.1.1 – FRANCE Nautile Nautile is a three man submersible operated by IFREMER that has been used in pioneering work on deployment of observatory arrays in the Mediterranean Sea. Fig. 7.51. The Nautile 3-man submersible 233 7. Future Observatory Designs The Nautile provides the following functional features : - Direct viewing, via three portholes with a wide field of vision and six floodlights providing both colour range and restitution. Video and still camera shots. Object detection on panoramic sonar. Manipulation and sampling using two arms and an isothermal basket (retractable). Carrying additional equipment, special tools or sampling capacity increase. Surface positioning using either a long baseline system (beacons on sea bed) or an ultrashort baseline system (sensor aboard the support ship). In-vehicle positioning combining measurements of distance to beacons with position reckoning made using the measurements of the submersible speed and attitude. Acquisition and recording on board the vehicle of navigational data and measurements taken by its sensors: altitude, pressure, temperature, heading, speed and time. Preparing, monitoring, archiving and examining data with VEMO+ and ADELIE software. And, as options : Rather than the sampling basket, it is possible to install the Robin (ROBot d'Inspection du Nautile), a small robot remotely controlled from the Nautile, used for surveying, inspecting filming and taking photos of areas that are not accessible by the submersible, Standard or special tools can be developed and taken on board upon request. Technical characteristics : The Nautile is quite lightweight in relation to its performance, and it can be launched from a support ship of relatively light tonnage and it is easily manœuvrable. Working depth: 6 000 m. Weight (for a 6 000 m dive) : 19.50 t Dimensions : length: 8.00 m width: 2.70 m height: 3.81 m Manned sphere : crew: 3 men inside diameter: 2.10 m material: titanium alloy portholes: 3 (120 mm in diameter) Lead-acid battery power ; capacity at 6000 m : 37 kWh in 230 V 6.5 kWh in 28 V Pitch and trim control adjusted by mercury pump : ± 8° Main propulsion : 1 adjustable axial thruster longitudinal displacement speed: 1.7 knots radius of action at 1.5 knots: 7.5 km Auxiliary propulsion : 1 transversal bow thrusters 1 transversal aft thruster 2 vertical thrusters Autonomy (working on seafloor) at 6000 m : 5 h Remote control handling/manipulation : 1 handling arm movable up to 4 degrees (+ claw opening and closing) 234 7. Future Observatory Designs 1 manipulator arm movable to 6 degrees (+ claw opening and closing) Hydraulic units : 2 Communications : undersea telephone while diving VHF transceiver on the surface Equipment : 1 altitude sounder 1 sediment sounder 1 panoramic sonar 2 colour 3-CCD video cameras 1 still camera photo with 300 and 600 J flashes 1 digital still camera two 650 W iodine floodlights five 400 W H.M.I. floodlights 1 data acquisition and navigation unit 1 sampling basket Scientific equipment payload : 200 kg Safety : additional life support: 120 h 9 emergency pyrotechnic devices 1 emergency locating device Payload A waterproof box is provided outside the vehicle for scientific equipment and it presents the following characteristics : Gross available volume : 330 x 350 x 300 Possible mounting of a 4U 3/4 19", 180-deep rack Power supplies : 240 VDC and 28 VDC Links to the sphere : 4 built-in remote controls 1 pre-cabled link with 5 single wires and 1 armored pair for ground bus Shipboard installation The Nautile can be taken on board two French oceanographic vessels : the Nadir and l’Atalante. Both ships are equipped with a 20 t stern A-frame that is used to safely lower and hoist the submersible The Nautile's operational crew comprises at least 8 men. 235 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.1.2 – FRANCE Victor Fig. 7.52. The Victor 6000m Remotely Operated Vehicle Victor, dedicated to scientific ocean research, is a deepwater, remote-controlled system. It is instrumented, modular, can perform high quality optical imaging and can carry and operate various equipment and scientific tools. The lower part of the vehicle is composed of an instrumented scientific module which can be changed according to the type of assignment. It contains most of the instrumentation as well as the sampling basket. This modular system can also be enhanced and used as a technological platform for new equipment. Fig 7.53 Victor Deployment configuration Vehicle technical specifications Working depth : 6,000 m Thrust : 200 kg in all directions Speed : 1.5 knots Cameras : 1 main 3-CCD camera with zoom and direction-finder 2 piloting cameras 5 additional colour cameras Lighting : 8 flood lights totalling 5 kW Sensors : 236 7. Future Observatory Designs Attitude pressure depth altitude sonar log Manipulators : one 7-function manipulator arm, lifting 100 kg one 5-function grasping arm, lifting 100 kg Variable ballast system: 70 litres at 2 litres/mn at 600 bars On-board system overview UW positioning and navigation with POSIDONIA USBL The VICTOR 6000 can be taken aboard the 2 French research vessels L'Atalante and La Thalassa or on ships of opportunity. Fig. 7.54 Victor aboard F.S. Polarstern 7.3.1.3- Germany QUEST ROV Fig. 7.55. The QUEST on the FS Meteor Fig 7.56. The toolskids Telemetry via 1 SM fibre 237 7. Future Observatory Designs 2 ASR SeaNet HUBs: 60 transparent data channels 16 simultan. video channels Capabilities for science missions : - data telemetry : 60 (40 available) RS232 channels, 8 RS485 - vision telemetry : 16 simultaneous video channels - dynamic positioning and auto control functions - hydraulic power 3 000 psi @ 9 gpm for hydraulic tooling - 16 kW spare power reserve, 8 kW lighting upgrade will be installed - 250 kg payload (without toolskid installed) - Quick-connect toolskid concept for easy installation of scientific equipment and adaption to other existing toolskids - drawtable-concept with 2x platform for variable experiment or samplebox installation SPP 1144 video/acoustic upgrade - 2.4 kW light (incand. And HMI) - Atlas 3CCD colorzoom camera - ScorpioPlus Digital still - 2 Insite 150 Ws flashlights acoustic homer system 3 laser beam units RDI Doppler Velocity Log: Water velocity, Bottom velocity, Bottom displacement: XYZ ( cm esolution) Kongsberg Scanning Sonar Hydraulic circuits: 1 HPU 3000psi @ 9gpm - 4 compensation circuits Initial hydraulic tools: 7-f Orion Master-Slave Arm, Position controlled 5-f Rigmaster, Rate controlled, 250 kg payload Fig. 7.57. ASR ORION 7 function arm Fig. 7.58. ASR RIGMASTER 5 function arm Data processing Data acquisition with WERUM realtime data base UW positioning and navigation with POSIDONIA USBL 238 7. Future Observatory Designs DVL log based navigation to be installed (DVLNAV-WHOI) Post processing with ADELIE GIS and Video tool by IFREMER 239 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.3.1.4 – United Kingdom ISIS ROV Fig. 7.59 ISIS ROV 3.1.5 - MODUS Nautile, Victor, Quest and ISIS are multipurpose underwater vehicles capable of a variety of functions. MODUS has been specifically developed for deployment and recovery of sea floor in the GEOSTAR programmes. In view of its specialist function it is described detail. 3.1.5.1 - Mobile Docker The Mobile Docker named MODUS (MObile Docker for Underwater Sciences) is basically a special, simplified version of a Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV), capable to deploy at seafloor heavy payloads (GEOSTAR -Bottom Station) and subsequently recover them as a ship-born procedure. Within GEOSTAR 2 the Mobile Docker was enhanced to be operable in a water depth of 4 000 m. The design and the concept are based on the design of the Mobile Docker developed through the GEOSTAR 1 project. The enhanced version called MODUS is equipped with four main thrusters ensuring mobility on the horizontal plane [x, y], while the winch of the used vessel regulates the descent/ascent [z]. Two additional thrusters are dedicated to motion stability reasons. These thrusters are orientated vertically at the bow and the aft of MODUS. By means of acoustic, visual and other instrumental systems of the R/V used MODUS is capable to locate the pre-determined installation area or find the BS on the seafloor for retrieval. Fig. 7.61 shows the complete structure of the system development of MODUS. All details and the preliminary planning for the Technical Mission and Deployment Mission of the BS will be documented in parts below. The whole operation of deployment and recovery can be divided into eight steps, the ones of the recovery procedure are shown in Fig. 7.62. Deployment 1 Shipborn preparation of MODUS and BS separately. Coupling of MODUS and the BS using a clutch that consists out of the pin (BS) and the latch device (MODUS). First the termination of the umbilical (including fiber optic and power supply) of the ship winch is mounted to the gear on top of MODUS and the power and data lines have to be connected. The MODUS is lifted and positioned over the BS and lowered until the Latch device catches the pin that is mounted on top of the BS. The MODUS has to meet the BS 240 7. Future Observatory Designs in a predefined angular position [x, y] that allows the mounting of the electrical connector (MODUS - BS) and the four antirotation devices. Final system checks have to be executed. 2 Deployment of MODUS-BS assembly from the dynamically positioned vessel. Surface position will be determined by means of GPS or dGPS. During deployment MODUS provides information of the angular position [x, y], and x, y-tilt of the system via the fiber optic telemetry. An altimeter will measure the distance to the seafloor. A sonar system will detect the BS on the seafloor. Approaching the BS sited on the seafloor the MODUS-operator will have support by two cameras. Dependent to the visibility of the sea the MODUS cameras will provide information of the site when the whole system is next to the seafloor and/or the BS. Approach to the seafloor is also supported by the echo sounder of the BS. 3 Once the MODUS-BS assembly has reached the seafloor all the functional checks can be performed. Cameras will assist to control complete BS-deployment actuation of the release of the seismometers and of the two magnetometer booms. Through the umbilical FO-lines the surface operator can interact with the system and verify all functions. 4 Detachment of MODUS from the BS and recovery of MODUS to the vessel. Recovery 5 Ship-born preparation of MODUS. Using DP and dGPS the vessel has to be positioned in the place where the deployment of the BS took place. 6 Deployment of MODUS next to the seafloor (10 m). Finding the BS through the Sonar system in the range of 300 m, MODUS approaches the BS in a vertical distance of 5 m to the BS with the use of the thrusters (analogic to the deployment phase). 7 Final lowering of MODUS when in position and docking of the BS to MODUS using the Latch device. 8 Recovery of the whole MODUS-BS system. General Concept of Specification, Design and Manufacturing MODUS is designed to operate at a maximum water depth of 4 000 m. Total weight of the MODUS-BS assembly is 4.0 ton in air, the part of MODUS is about 1 ton, the part of the BS 3 ton in air that is 2,2 ton in water (0,7 ton MODUS ; 1,5 ton BS). Therefore the shear strength of the seafloor should not be too low. Sea state for shallow water operation has to be sea state 2. Sea state 3 will be an upper limit for operation because of some sensors located in the BS for the scientific mission. Typical wave values assumed for e.g. USTICA site were determined H.s = 1 m, T. min = 4 s. Simulations for the dynamic behaviour of the entire system (R/V, umbilical and MODUS) have been performed by the project partner Tecnomare. Slope of the test site has to be a flat lying sealer with a maximum inclination of 5°. Dimensions of MODUS and BS should allow transportation with standard lorries. Endurance of MODUS thruster operation is not terminated – it has total at least one hour. At an operation depth (shallow water 200 m) the maximum operation range of MODUS has a diameter of about 10 % of water depth. Operation radius at 3 400 m water depth is about 100 m with the provided power of 20 kW. Limiting current for a basic operation is assumed of 0.5 m/s. Fig. 7.63 shows the subtasks with the internal project code. The first number is the similar to the last of the WP-code, the last on to the location (1 ship-born, 2 sub-sea) : For better understanding of the whole design concept, the manufacturing and the assembly an extensive description and documentation including photos and prints is given below. The general plan of the sub-sea unit gives a quick survey about the main components used, Fig. 7.64. This includes the two pairs of thrusters for the lateral and vertical movement, the sonar system, cameras and lighting for the orientation, altimeter for 241 7. Future Observatory Designs seafloor distance measurement, the latch device and the pressure boxes. The boxes are dedicated to different purposes as follows : - Power – P-Box : Transformer, compensation unit and power distribution. - Telemetry – T-Box : dedicated to the telemetry unit. - Electronic – E-Box : Contains all control components and sensors. - Distribution – D-Box : Thruster electronics and power units. Surface Unit The control centre for the intervention system MODUS consists of three units : - the video rack, - the control rack and the -sonar rack. A standard 19"-rack-design was used for the units, that are located in scientific mission control room on board the ship. The racks are housing video recorders, monitors, two computers for data logging and control purposes, the control panel showing all data transferred via telemetry from MODUS, the joystick for steering, and finally it provides the interface for the BS bypass line for the TEC surface control unit of BS. The video system is partly used as purchased in GEOSTAR 1. Moreover the console for the sonar system and the video overlay is implemented. Fig. 7.65 shows the entire MODUS control centre in three 19" racks on board the R/V URANIA. The telemetry unit is linked with a 25 m deck cable to the junction box of the winch. During operation the racks can be moved to any place of the vessel within that range of 25 m from the winch J-Box. The video lines can be separated to connect additional monitors e.g. close to the winch. This flexibility gives the opportunity to support direct communication with the winch driver or the ships master to control ship movements and descent and ascent of the submerged system. For the software controlled operation LABVIEW routines are used, generating a display with the main features of the MODUS-controls and indications, Fig. 7.66. Power system, transformer, rectifier The power of about 25 kW for the use of MODUS is provided by an umbilical with three conductors. Transmission is realised by 3 phase 3000 V current, that are generated by the shipborne transformer from 3 phase 400 V of the generators of the ship. There are standard voltages and currents for the feed the board unit. The surface transformer unit (Fig. 7.67) is equipped with safety devices. On the sub-sea side the transformer (Fig. 7.68) is a closed structure filled with oil and using a pressure compensator. The power is rectified and distributed to the several boxes and units of MODUS. The Innova sub-sea transformer main specifications : In : 3 x 3 000 VAC, 25 kVA, 50/60 Hz Out : - 192 VAC, 27 A - 192 VAC, 8.2 A - 19 VAC, 12.2 A - 19 VAC, 5 A - 200 VAC, 2 A - 12 VAC, 2 A Telemetry system For communication purposes with MODUS and the BS a big amount of data have to be transferred continuously. For this a multiplex unit is located on both the sub-sea and the surface unit collecting and transferring all relevant data. FO Data Telemetry including 50 m test cable, 19”-board unit, parts for power supply (T-Box). Data I/O rate of the single mode NEXUS-System (Mac Artney) guarantees transfer of all data required. 12 lines are available : 242 7. Future Observatory Designs Table 7.9. MODUS Data Channels Channel number Channel setting Data speed (Bits/s) 1 RS 232 19200 2 RS 232 19200 3 RS 232 115000 4 RS 232 19200 5 RS 232 19200 6 TTL 19200 7 RS 232 19200 8 RS 232 19200 9 RS 422 19200 10 RS 422 19200 Uplink 1,2 Pseudo video 5 (MHz) Uplink 3,4 Pseudo video 5 (MHz) Channel 5 – 8 can be configured to RS 232, RS 422, TTL, Current loop (active) and Current loop (passive). The system is configured with channel 11/12 to full duplex RS 232. Topside channel 1 and 2 are dedicated to respectively sensor 11 and 12 sub-sea. 2 Data transferred ship to MODUS - i.e. - Thruster on / off, rpm (± 5 V), - Cameras on/off, choice 2 out of 4 cameras, - Lines for lighting on/off, dimming, - Bypass lines for ship-BS communication going to the BS via Seacon connector, - Linear Actuator up / down / off, - Controls for the sonar system (see channel description above). 3 Data transferred MODUS to ship - Four video channels simultaneously, - Compass, tilt and other sensors, - rpm, sense of rotation and power consumption of all four Thrusters, - Docking control, - Several status data for power supply, - Bypass line for ship-BS communication coming from the BS via Seacon connector, - Altimeter (9 600 Baud, 200 kHz, 20° conical beam), - Sonar images (360°, dual frequency: 325 kHz, 675 kHz up to 300 m). Telemetry can be used up to 5 000 m umbilical length. Another electronics can be added to transfer further data like homing sonar data. Acoustic homing device Acoustic homing devices aid sub-sea orientation : The vertical distance to the seafloor is determined with an altimeter while the lateral distance to the target is realised with a Sonar system (both TRITECH) (see following table and Fig.3.1.5.1/j,k). The altimeter is directly mounted to the lower plane of MODUS avoiding shadow effects caused by the structure. The location of the Sonar head is on the upper bow in parallel to the front camera. Thus the images can be partly compared, at least in shorter distances to the target. Table 7.10. MODUS Acoustic instrumentation (from GEOSTAR 2 Final Report, 2002 ) Model: PA 20° conical 9600 Baud 200 kHz 24 V Altimeter 200/20-S beam Model: RS 232 115 dual frequency: 325 360° horiz., 1836 V Super kBaud kHz, 675 kHz, range 70°vertical Sonar SeaKing < 300 m 243 7. Future Observatory Designs Frame As material for the outer frame of MODUS, cylindrical tubes made of Al Mg Si 1 - 60 x 5 were chosen. General layout was necessarily totally redesigned using proposed material. The frame was designed as a closed cage-like welded structure (about 800 x 2 200 x 2 500 without payload and fender), (Fig.3.1.5.1/l left). The top flange connects both the umbilical termination and the docking cone. (Fig.3.1.5.1/l right), right gives an idea of the dimensions of the assembled MODUS. A bumper system at the lower plane of the frame using a standard rubber fender profile is added to protect the upper beams of the BS from impact due to failure during the recovery phase of MODUS. Even in the case of heavier impacts the outer shape of the four upper beams of the BS and the MODUS frame itself is protected from major plastic deformation. Furthermore the outer frame has just one connection to the inner zone of MODUS, the flange coupling on the upper part of the docking device. If any impact will cause deformation of the frame, it will not be directly transmitted to its cone. Some investigations using FEM (Finite Element Method) calculations concerning stresses and deformations on the MODUS frame due to impacts have been carried out (see First Annual Report). Eight plates of abrasion-proof plastic material are fitted into the cone to guarantee safe re-entry of the funnel shaped docking cone onto the top of the BS. Mounting of the payload like cameras and thrusters. is realised by means of clamps to the frame. Some of these clamps have rubber connectors as damper to protect the payload from shocks. Positions of thrusters are fixed. Final positions have been adjusted after the manoeuvrability tests during sea trials. On top of the structure the frame of transportation means is positioned. It is made of stainless steel and is the interface for the gear that is hooked to the umbilical. The vertical tubes provide a stabile flow of forces from top through the umbilical – cable termination – transportation frame to the Latch-Device directly to the pin of the BS without influencing other components of MODUS. Table 7.11. Main Properties of MODUS Properties MODUS Purpose Built for frequent missions Weight in air (kg) 1070 Weight in water (kg) 730 Total length (mm) 2878 Total width (mm) 2348 Total height (mm) 1700 (without cable termination) Power (kW) 25 Horizontal Thrust (N) 2x700 (up to 4) Vertical Thrust (N) 2x700 Electronics housings There are five housings in total on MODUS. To guarantee full operational depth of 4000 m it was decided to purchase a titanium housing for the telemetry unit. The power box with the transformer is delivered as a pressure compensated oil filled housing (stainless steel). The other three housings, distribution, electronics box and the thruster electronics are made of titanium grade 5. Main dimensions are (Length-in/out x ∅ -inner/outer): 608/680 mm x 150/173 mm (refer to Fig.7.73). 244 7. Future Observatory Designs Payload The MODUS payload consists of following main items: (Refer also to Fig.7.74) Table 7.9. MODUS payload specifications 245 7. Future Observatory Designs Payload Description / Function Supplier Illumination 4 x dimmed lights DeepSea Power and Light Cameras - 3 x b/w - 1 x color 2 x Mariscope 2 x DeepSea Power and Light Tilt Compass Voltage + leakage Sense of rotation Rotation speed Docking sensors Linear actuator Altimeter Sonar Model Deep – SeaLite, 250 W, 24 V - 2 x Micro 6000 - 1 x Multi-SeaCam 1050 - 1 x Multi-SeaCam 2050 each 1/3’’ CCD Chip CPU - analog and – digital for heading CPU Depth rating (m) 11000 6000 Inbox -- TCM-2-50 Bender Inbox Inbox of thrusters Inbox of thrusters Inbox 4 x for the latch-device GO Switch 5000 Tecnadyne SPDT Model 73 Model 218 1/1 x for the latch-device Seafloor distance Tritech PA 200/20-S 4000 Target position Tritech Super SeaKing dual freq. 4000 4000 Thrusters An umbilical for the use of MODUS has been specified. It includes the power supply and three FO lines. The dedicated winch has a slip-ring to transmit the needed power from the board power unit to the cable during the whole operation. The transformer which can be placed in 25 m distance to the winch converts the three phase current 380 VAC from the power unit of the vessel into 3~3000 VAC. A fault current breaker is used within the power supply unit to prevent accidents caused by short circuits. Inside the power box the voltage is transformed again and rectified to feed the consumers. Thus Voltage is partly converted to 12 VDC, 24 VDC and 48 VDC for sensors, lighting and other components, respectively. Following design philosophy from GEOSTAR 1, two main thrusters with thrust of approx. 2100 N each (TECNADYNE 8010 – 6 000 m version, Fig.3.1.5.1/o right) are foreseen to guarantee horizontal movements. They are attached direct to the frame and can be used independently in both senses of revolution and magnitude of thrust. The layout of the chosen 6 000 m version separates the electronic components from the mechanical parts, so that the first have to be housed in a spatial separated pressure box. This reduces the length of the thrusters’ hub and improves efficiency. In addition two thrusters with thrust of 700 N each (TECNADYNE 2010 – 4 000 m version, Fig.3.1.5.1/o left) are vertically mounted at the bow and the aft of the MODUS frame. They are dedicated to stabilise the pitch angle during forward movements. The control of the thrusters is realised with a control circuit in which the man-operated joystick is placed at the ship borne MODUS operator console. This Console contains the mission control and telemetry unit. Unfortunately it was not possible to receive the thruster models 8010 on time as proclaimed by TECNADYNE during the early concept phase 1999. The delay was caused by multiple performance and reliability problems of these brand new models. Thus, it was decided to change our concept and to work with the smaller thrusters 2010 on the horizontal positions. Although this sanction reduces the horizontal thrust performance, it bears the advantage of easy 246 7. Future Observatory Designs exchangeability of spare parts between all four thrusters in case of damages. The deep-sea trials and the deployment during the mission in September 2000 have confirmed feasibility of this configuration. Further improvement of performance could be achieved due to a new concept for each horizontal position. This concept let to the mounting of additional two thrusters on each side to get two pairs for horizontal thrust. The recovery mission in April 2001 approved the new concept with almost the thrust of the models 8010. Docking device The housing system consists of three basic components: Docking cone (MODUS), latch device (MODUS) and docking pin (Bottom Station). The docking cone is made of aluminium. Changes of the pre-set basic ideas had to be made during the detail design process. The funnel shaped cone (opening angle 90°) had to be shortened from a diameter of 2 100 mm down to 1 980 mm because of the other important requirement – loading in one piece into standard container. This decrease the total weight of the structure, which is compensated by the additional weight e.g. of the transformer. The latch device is positioned in the center of MODUS. Its outer shape is cylindrical. Inside it bears the spring-lever mechanism - sensors check the position of the levers and the electrical linear actuator. The Linear Actuator is operated from the vessel allowing repeating the re-docking procedure as often as needed (failure or testing). To reduce the total height and gain some space on top of MODUS, the linear actuator was moved to a sideward position. Thus the height of the Latch device is reduced by half compared to the GEOSTAR 1 version (Fig. 7.76). The ability off the docking pin to move up to 15° out of the vertical orientation helps the mating with the Latch device. In addition in case of impact deformation will be avoided up to certain amount because of the non-linear behaviour of the used cone shaped spring. The configuration of the latch device; cone and pin is given in Fig. 7.77. MODUS - Design and Manufactured System The design structure of MODUS is divided into five major groups or modules Fig. 7.80 and Fig.3.1.5.1/s : 1) latch device for the docking of the bottom station, 2) transportation frame with interface to the umbilical termination and the outer frame, 3) docking cone that fits to the top of the bottom station; 4) outer frame with bumper, and the clamps for the payload, the boxes and thrusters, 5) payload and thrusters . This modular structure has been adopted to open up the range of possibilities for potential modifications after all tests and sea trails. Using simple flange couplings as mechanical interfaces, one group can be separately modified without influencing other groups. This means decreasing the effort to be made for further development, design, calculations and even testing of single components. As presented in the following, this has a lot of advantages compared with a fully integrated solution especially during phases of further prototype enhancements. In the first phase of GEOSTAR the combination of the pin with its flexible bearing was developed and manufactured. Functioning tests in the lab, basins and in the Adriatic Sea were performed and showed satisfying results. A reason to change the design was not given. The pin itself is bear with a cone shaped spring to give the system angular flexibility supporting the guiding of the extended docking cone. Due to the fact that the BS is placed on the seafloor, tolerances were chosen rough to avoid malfunction. Protection against contamination with dirt is realised from the topside. In the lower part an opening is located to allow water to intrude during descent and to flow out during ascent. 247 7. Future Observatory Designs Once the umbilical is linked with the transportation frame, forces go directly from the cable termination into the stainless steel beams of this frame and are led to the centre flange coupling next to the latch device. The latch device is also mounted with a flange to this junction area, which is located on top of the docking cone (Fig. 7.80-left - 1). The clamps inside the latch device grab the pin of the BS. Directly from the top centre of the BS the forces are distributed to the four tubes. The static load to be carried is 4 ton, dynamics will lead to higher forces due to acceleration dependent from tide and frequency of the waves and floating of the vessel. Even higher forces may result from the suction forces at the feet of the BS during recovery. Also angular position of the BS on the seafloor (slope up to 5°) or sideward forces from the main cable had to be taken into account for calculation and design. The system is designed in a manner that ropes of the gear and the frame can manage loads up to 10 ton. The junction area is a stainless steel ring that combines several flanges. As mentioned above latch device and transportation frame are directly mounted together. In addition, this is the mechanical interface for the outer frame and the extended docking cone. Below the junction flange ring the cone itself is connected. The cone is manufactured of aluminium plates. The aperture angle of the cone amounts 90° and ends at a height of 1 900 mm (measured from the top of the flange ring). In that position a circular shaped tube encloses the cone. Like in the first version, that tube ring marks the end of the docking cone. As already mentioned above malfunction of the system has to be avoided, like a) intrusion of the pin into the inside space of MODUS followed by destruction of components like cameras and thrusters; b) too small docking area. Therefore cover plates had been added (Fig. 7.79). They leave a gap of approx. 45 mm between the docking ring and the outer frame (pin : ∅ = 80 mm). The inner area of the cone is filled with detachable plates of plastic. This had to be done because the need for exchange of eventual damaged plates should be possible. The plates protect the outer aluminium cone and reduce friction between the pin and the cone. Anti-rotation Devices are placed in four positions at the docking ring to avoid relative angular movement between BS and MODUS. This is important for the knowledge of orientation and to keep the electrical connector that connects BS with MODUS telemetry unit in a fixed position. Main improvements to GEOSTAR phase 1 An increase of water depth influences the entire docking system concerning the mobility in the plane area [x, y]. As already mentioned above, the vertical movement [z] of MODUS is realised using the winch. Although a model of MODUS plus umbilical reminds of a simple stiff pendulum, it does not move in a plane when moving sideward, moreover curves of the movement are on a sphere. MODUS is fixed with the cable to the vessel and sideward movement causes a lift of MODUS and with that a restoring force. Operation range was projected with 5 % of the water depth (confirmed by the shallow water tests – GEOSTAR 1) that needs a thrust of about 1400 N. To introduce that force, horizontally oriented thrusters and supporting equipment is needed. Compass and tilt-meter provide information of direction and inclination. Two additional thrusters (700 N each) have been installed in a vertically orientation to compensate harmful inclinations and to adjust the horizontal position during coupling procedures. To mount all the needed components and protect MODUS and its components from destruction, a frame was designed that covers the space under the latch device and docking cone. Cylindrical aluminium tubes for this second step of the prototype were arranged in a manner that all mounted components can be moved to different places to find an optimum according manoeuvrability and operation of MODUS. Due to improvements and modifications made in the overall concept and in detail, the total weight of MODUS could be kept to 1 000 kg in air and 750 kg in water. This means a significantly reduced weight and a compensation of the added components like the sub-sea transformer and thrusters (see table below): 248 7. Future Observatory Designs Table 7.13. Modifications to MODUS to increase depth of operations in GEOSTAR 2. Modified item Improvements Overall dimensions Reduced height (now 1,8 m), width (now 2,37 m) for easy containerisation. Outer frame Completely revised to cylindrical aluminium tubes Bumper Completely revised for reduced size and stiffness Cone Strongly revised: Aluminium instead of steel with reduced height and weight. New detachable abrasion-proof plastic plates for inner cone protection Top flange of the cone Reduced dimensions Latch device Completely revised for reduced height Transportation frame Completely revised design Thrusters + 2 thrusters for vertical movements (4 in total now) Sub-sea transformer Adaptation to 4000 m umbilical concept: Available sub-sea power is now 25 kW Cameras + 1 b/w and +1 colour (3 b/w and 1 colour in total now) Telemetry New single mode telemetry unit: Now are four video channels available These improvements are results of intensive investigations for detail and global optimisations with the aid of computational flow field analysis and drag determination, structural impact analysis (deformations and stresses) and wave-ship interaction analysis for operation simulations. The investigations have been carried out utilising state-of-the-art software for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD - Fluent), Finite-Element-Method (FEM - Pro/Mechanica) and potential theory (WAMIT), respectively. 249 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.60 Structure of the System Development Fig. 7.61. MODUS-concept for deployment and recovery 250 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.62. Block diagram of the basic subtasks and the correlating WP numbers : ship, between the ship and MODUS, MODUS itself, and the BS 251 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.62. General plan of sub-sea electrical and electronic components : Umbilical connection to surface unit, telemetry T-Box, power P-Box, electronic E-Box, distribution D-Box, cameras, lighting, thrusters, latch device, altimeter, sonar Fig. 7.64: The MODUS control unit during sea trials :- Video rack incl. two monitors, two recorders and video overlay device (1), - Steering and control rack (2) with two computers and 15" monitor, Nexus telemetry surface unit (3), steering console and keyboard (4),- Sonar rack (5), plotter (6), 17’’ monitor, CPU switch (7) and Tritech sonar surface unit (8) 252 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.65. Display of the software controlled operation. Fig. 7.66: Surface transformer on board the ship, details. 253 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.67 : Top : face transformer (l) ; Sub-sea transformer mounted on the front (r) Bottom : sub-sea transformer (l) ; pressure compensation (r) Fig. 7.68: Telemetry unit with pressure housing (left – substituted by enhanced Ti-housing) test cable and surface equipment (right). 254 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.69: Altimeter and Sonar head (left and centre) with Surface Units (right hand side). Fig. 7.70: Sea King sonar head (1) and altimeter (2) mounted on MODUS bow. 255 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.71: Plain MODUS frame (left), and the fully equipped during sea trials (right). Fig. 7.72: Exemplary titanium vessel for the electronics (here N-Box). 256 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.73 MODUS with mounted b/w front camera 1, lights 2, sonar head 3, sub-sea transformer 4 with pressure compensator 5, analog compass 6, cables and connectors 7 and electronic pressure boxes 8. Fig. 7.74 : left - CAD drawing of a vertical and a planned horizontal thruster with mountings; right – vertical thruster in front of sub-sea transformer. 257 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.75: Left – components for the active coupling unit including pin; right. Right - Latch device with actuator housing in horizontal position and the cable termination holding device mounted on top of the docking cone. Fig. 7.76: left - CAD drawing of the Docking Cone (1), the Latch Device (2) and a Camera (3); right Docking pin and inner side of the cone, plated with a detachable, abrasion-proof plastic material. (Rhino Hyde). 258 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.77: Virtual assembling of the CAD components of MODUS with docking cone and latch device (1), transportation frame (2) and frame with pressure boxes, thrusters and payload (3) and the complete system on the right. Fig. 7.78: Payload components of MODUS : Transformer box (1), power box (2), electronics box (3), telemetry box (4), thrusters for horizontal movements (5) and for pitch control (6), lights (7), cameras (8, 9), sonar head (10), altimeter (11), routing plates (12), fender (13,14), cover plates (15). 259 7. Future Observatory Designs Hydrodynamic and hydro elastic analysis and operation simulations Hydrodynamics Hydrodynamic investigations have been carried out with 3d Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis (CFD) using the commercial Software Fluent. Results of these numerical simulations have been verified by fullscale tests in a large circulating water tunnel in project GEOSTAR 1 (Gerber and Schulze, 1998). The hydrodynamic analysis assumes a roughly symmetrical MODUS and a symmetrical flow along the vertical mid section. An unstructured tetrahedral grid of up to 900.000 control volumes discretised the flow field to achieve a high degree of modeling accuracy even on surfaces with high grade of curvature (Fig. 7.80). Fluent uses an implicit Finite-Volume Method to solve the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations. The flow is considered stationary utilizing the RNG k-ε turbulence model, which allows predicting the effects of wall shear stresses, flow separations and secondary flows better than the standard k-ε model. The near wall treatment is introduced by standard wall functions. Experiences from the shallow water demonstration mission (GEOSTAR 1) led to the integration of large fins with high hydrodynamic mass at the aft part of MODUS to stabilise forward movements and to reduce rotational speed (Fig. 7.80 and Fig. 7.82 - MODUS_v3). Due to the extreme complexity of the entire system of ship - winch - umbilical - MODUS plus benthic station, flow evaluations are focused on the MODUS ROV only. The combination of 3d CAD design and 3d CFD fluid flow analysis results in an iterative process to optimize the design of MODUS regarding overall drag, undisturbed streamlines of the accelerated flow, horizontal manoeuvrability and performance during descent and ascent operations (Fig. 7.82). CFD simulations for various preliminary design studies of MODUS have been performed to give indications for the most favorable global and detail design strategy. The final structure derived from the whole revision and optimization process. Fig. 7.80 (left) shows a part of the CFD model of the MODUS while it also shows (right hand side) the generated unstructured grid on MODUS surface. Fig. 7.82 (left, center, right) illustrates results for the velocity magnitudes in the center plane for let off operation, horizontal movement and heave operation. Compared to the initial design of GEOSTAR 1, a significantly (up to 20 %) reduced total drag for the final design of MODUS could be reached. Motion analysis and hydroelasticity The motion simulations carried out in co-operation with the partner Tecnomare are based on the spectral analysis method (see TEC report: GEOSTAR 2 installation procedure - Preliminary dynamic analysis). This method is well suited to the ship motions problem turning out during the GEOSTAR operations, because Gaussian random processes can model seaway and wind and because system characteristics of this kind can be modeled linearly. General Remarks The description of the seaway as a random superposition of many elementary waves of different height, length and direction of propagation forms the "superposition model" of the stationary seaway. This process can be interpreted as a strip of infinitesimal width dω of the seaway spectrum Szz(ω) of this process. The whole surface under this spectrum is proportional to the total energy of the seaway. To analyse the linear behaviour of offshore structures in arbitrary seaways, transfer functions are used to specify the reaction of that structure to a standard wave excitation. This transfer function H(ωn) is the ratio of the complex amplitudes of the output signal s(ωn) to the input signal ζ(ωn). The characteristic of the transfer function thus defines the behaviour of the structure in a natural seaway. Fig. 7.83 For calculating current induced displacements of the umbilical with MODUS or MODUS+BS, respectively, a dedicated FEM program has been developed: "TOBO-SIM" (TOwed BOdySIMulation) uses 159 nodes connected with elastic beams for the discretisation of the flexible cable. No wave excitation at the suspension point is considered. Results are presented in Fig. 260 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.84. The model calculations assume a relatively strong steady state current with speeds of 0.2 m/s and 0.4 m/s at the water column. The resulting overall displacement depend on the mass at the end of the cable, which depend on the operating phase, e.g. deployment (MODUS + BS) followed by stand alone MODUS operations after de-coupling of BS etc. All the results of the simulations and calculations showed that the concept requirements of the system specifications (WP 2100). satisfies the Fig. 7.79 : High accuracy of MODUS modeling : 3d CAD model (left hand side) and 3d CFD model (right hand side), with thruster streamlines and part of computational grid of the bottom boundary region. 261 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.80 "Evolution" of the MODUS ROV: From initial shallow water design to enhanced deep water design with significant drag reduction. GEOSTAR 2 Final Report, 2002 262 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.81 Modelling of the Mobile Docker in Freestream ; Fluent v5.1 (3d, segregated, rngke) Contours of velocity magnitude (m/s) in center plane for (top) : MODUS during let off operation ; Velocity : Uy=-0,4 m/s (center) : MODUS during horizontal movements ; Velocity: Ux=0,4 m/s ; (bottom) :MODUS during heave operation ; Velocity: Uy=0,4 m/s. 263 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.82: Response of floating structures (like ships) in random seas. 264 7. Future Observatory Designs -4000-1600-1400-1200-1000-800-600-400-2000 Horizontal distance from the winch [m] Fig. 7.83: Displacement due to steady state horizontal current of 0.2 m/s and 0.4 m/s, respectively. 265 7. Future Observatory Designs 3.2 - Deployment methods Fig. 7.84 Concept of cabled junction box and observatories The design of an underwater observatory and the choice regarding its deployment and future maintenance mode are inter-dependent. In fact, the choice of the deployment mode depends on the station capabilities (setting up, sensor deployment, maintenance, data collection, power supply, displacement, recovery…) and this mode behaves according to the station design (mechanical interface, floating material necessary or not, particular sensors used or not). Moreover, the requirements set by the support ship are linked to the station characteristics. Thus, in theory, the general design process consists of : the establishment of the station functional features, the choice of the deployment and maintenance mode, the choice of the support ship. In practice, this design process could be different for financial reasons : To minimize sea operation cost, several missions may be brought together on the same ship as they will use the same underwater intervention system (if the latter is not dedicated only to station set up). Because some multi-use systems are already operational (ROVs, submersibles, MODUS…), the decision regarding the development of new specific systems can only be justified in case of technical requirements (related to station features) or of financial interest (deployment of a large number of stations using a lower-cost device). Thus, sometimes, the station design may be determined by a pre-defined deployment system. 266 7. Future Observatory Designs For the presentation, the operations have been grouped in two main parts : • • Deployment and recovery (that is possible without ROV assistance) General maintenance and assistance on the site after deployment (that need ROV assistance on the bottom if the observatory is not recovered on surface ship). 3.2.1 - Observatory deployment and recovery These operations include the two general areas : • • Lifting and lowering technology Station control and positioning Underwater stations can have various functions which makes it impossible to analyze them all in this study. So, we have decided to focus on the main characteristics which can influence the choice of deployment systems : The station type : heavy or neutral in water. This feature, linked to the initial choice of deployment concept, may become a constraint in the future. The total station density (payload + buoyancy) which determines the surface handling system capabilities. The station displacement which defines the deployment system abilities when the station is underwater. The payload density (scientific equipment, data recovery, power supply, carrying structure) which can be deducted from the total density if the buoyancy material is subtracted. Accuracy necessary for load control and positioning: issues related to placing the load in the desired location, at a correct compass heading, and at a stable attitude on the seabed. The need to deploy sensors or equipment after the station setting (in some cases, we can envisage automating these operations but it could generate large additional costs for station design). Again, this could only be justified by technical requirements or financial interests. The need to recover data during the whole station mission (out of data recovery using the deployment system), others solutions are possible -"messengers", buoys, data acoustic transmission, etc- what is another situation where technical and financial constraints have to be assessed. The requirement of station battery power supply. The maintenance of the station underwater (equipment replacement, cleaning…) Different means of deployment can be used according to these elements. However, these concepts can be grouped in two main categories. • The deployment of heavy bottom stations by passive cable or dynamically positioned power pod • Free Fall Mode (FFM) of neutral stations 267 7. Future Observatory Designs 3.2.1.1 - Deployment of heavy observatory by cable lifting and lowering The two means, passive cable and dynamically positioned power pod, are attractive existing methods for the deployment of observatories with "conventional" weights (few hundred kg to less than ten tons). The technology is often used in the offshore industry, and is cost-effective. The use of spoolable compliant tubulars is not presented in this study because uneconomic to use, and probably reserved to observatories of great weights, where existing methods and equipment will not work. However these techniques have some limitations and problems, particularly in deep water applications. There is a number of technical challenges that may be classified in the following general areas : - When using cost effective steel wire ropes, as the depth increases, the ratio of the weight of the cable to the weight of the payload becomes extreme, and at 6 000 m the safe working load of the steel wire is almost entirely used by its self-weight. Synthetic fiber rope provides a potential answer to the self-weight problems. They have attractive properties such as small bend radii and ability to be repaired, but to-date there are potential problems related to stretch, creep, durability and life that, with the cost, limit their use in some applications. - They can be very significant dynamic effects due to excitation caused by the motions of the surface vessel which can be amplified with large oscillations and high dynamic tensile loads in the lifting line. Moreover the added mass of the load can be very significant to be many times it’s weight in air due to the water trapped inside, and to the shape of the load. It is shown that for lowering into deepwater there will nearly always be a depth at which a resonant response will occur. It is important that this resonant region can be passed through relatively quickly, and that it does not occur at full depth where careful control is required for placement of the payload on the seabed. Modelling methods have been developed in industry and in Ifremer in particular to predict behaviour of these dynamic responses. - Placing the load in the desired location, at the correct compass heading, and at a stable attitude on the seabed can be critical. In deep water, relatively small currents can introduce a very large offset between the ship and the load on the sea bed. The success of the final touchdown operation is susceptible to the load’s interaction with the seabed. Once the load is released, the lowering system hook must remain under control and be prevented from getting entangled with the subsea equipment. In some particular cases the assistance of a submersible or a ROV can be used to assist the operation. - The problem of station recovery has to be solved. Different solutions are possible and described below, according to the possibility or not to make the observatory buoyant. Some solutions need the use of a ROV or dynamically positioned mobile docker. Following examples are illustrating these different solutions - Position reference needs particular attention, and involves non conventional systems in great water where communication with the surface may be unreliable (long path lengths and vessel noise). - The influence of weather and sea state are important in particular when the depth increase. The required weather windows, and the speed with which tasks must be accomplished in order to fit into these practical windows are more critical. Some experiences using cable deployment are described below. A special part is dedicated to dynamically positioned power pod, which is a non conventional response. 268 7. Future Observatory Designs PENFELD deployment : Penfeld penetrometer developed by Ifremer and Geocean is an operational system able to make geotechnical measures by penetrometry in deep-sea (6 000 m). This heavy system (6 tons) is deployed by cable. It remains connected after it has been laid on the bottom, with the ship in station keeping during the penetrometry operation. The lift line is set up by main cable, a depressor weight (500 kg) and a polyamid tether 50 m length. This concept permits to absorb high dynamic tensile loads during lifting phase, and, after laying on the bottom isolates the system from vessel movements by means of the flexible loop. Fig. 7.85 Penfeld penetrometer deployment Moreover, a specific equipment called "handling messenger" has been developed for deployment and recovery from a unique A-Frame. This device make it possible to transfer at low depth (corresponding to synthetic tether), tension from the lift line to the main cable and vice-versa. Instrumented trials have validated deployment procedures and system "Penfeld + cable + ballast + tether" behaviour. 269 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.86 Details of Penfeld deployment 270 7. Future Observatory Designs P r o b e fo r S o u n d v e lo c it y P r o f ile r fo r Sea c urrant (A D C P ) 5 Sto r eys o f O p t ic a l M o d u le s P r o b e fo r s a lin it y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e (C T D ) h yd ro p h on e J u n c t io n B o x L ED B eac o n h yd ro p h on es S e is m o g r a p h Laser B eac on A n c h o r w it h e le c t r o n ic s c o n t a in e r s L in k C a b le s Fig. 7.87. Configuration of prototype ANTARES elements on the sea floor. Left - Photon detector mooring string. Centre – Sea Floor Junction box. Right - Oceanographic and geophysics instrument line. ANTARES deployment The project is concerning the development of neutrino detector that will be installed in 2 500 m of water in Mediterranean sea. The envisaged detector is made up by network of optical modules set up on vertical strings. The network is connected to the shore by means of electrooptical cable, main junction box and interconnecting links. Ifremer is in charge of sea operations including installation and future maintenance. Fig. 7.88. The full proposed ANTARES array with 12 and lines 25 storeys per line 271 7. Future Observatory Designs In this project, detector lines and junction box are deployed and recovered by cable from a DP vessel. For all the operations a precise long base line acoustic positioning system is essential. Junction box deployment and recovery : for deploying the ANTARES junction box, the end of the 50 km electro-optical cable is connected to a fishing tail to be dredged with a grapnel for connector recovery. With a good positioning of the cable and the fishing tail, the operation of recovery takes a few hours. Fig.7.89 Diagram of the dredger line and fishing tail on the bottom After connection on the ship, the junction box (about 1 ton) is deployed by cable with acoustic transponder for positioning and double acoustic released system. Underneath the JB, a new fishing tail with a dead weight (1 T) is fixed ready for future junction box recovery for maintenance. The fishing tail and the load are laid on the bottom with continuous positioning. The operation in good sea conditions takes one day. 272 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.90. Deployment of the junction box Strings deployment and recovery : The instrumented strings comprises (from the bottom) an anchor with electronics containers, storeys of optical modules mounted along the sector line, and at the top a sufficient buoyancy to make buoyant the string without anchor. 273 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.91 Deployment of the Prototype ANTARES photon detector line (see Fig 7.88) in December 2002 The instrumented strings are launched (and recovered ) step by step using special automatic hooks. It is deployed to the bottom by cable with acoustic transponder for positioning and double acoustic released system. Fig 7.92: Step by step automatic block 274 7. Future Observatory Designs For recovery, the connectors on the bottom of the strings are automatically disconnected after string release for maintenance and stay on the anchor waiting for future re-connection. A special design using dampening pistons and parallelogram geometry allows a smooth disconnection with no risk of water ingress during disconnection. Fig. 7.93 Antares string: anchor with electronics housing The other operations are using submersible and ROV, and are described below. MODUS The MODUS (Mobile Docker for Underwater Sciences) system is a specialized mobile shuttle for the deployment, servicing and recovery of benthic stations with maximum payload of 30 kN to the seafloor. It is described above in this report. - Mass (kg) : 1090 - Weight in water (N) : 7350 - L/B/H (m) : 2,88/2,35/1,02 The system needs a support ship of medium size, with dynamic positioning, well designed AFrame for the envisaged loads and dimensions, and available space on board to support simultaneously deployment system and benthic station. The R/V Urania has been used for the first operations. The operational crew is composed of 2 persons for maintenance and piloting. Typical scenario of deployment and recovery : Deployment a- Ship-born preparation of MODUS and station, with final coupling. b- Deployment (0,5 m/s) : surface position is given and controlled by means of GPS or dGPS. During deployment MODUS provides different informations from its main sensors. Approaching the seafloor, the operator use sonar and the cameras for information of the site. c- Once the MODUS-Station has reached the seafloor all the functional checks and some possible servicing operations can be performed. 275 7. Future Observatory Designs d- Detachment of MODUS and recovery of MODUS to the vessel. Recovery e- Ship-born preparation of MODUS. Using DP and dGPS the vessel has to be positioned in the right place. f- Deployment of MODUS next to the sea floor, with final approach at 5 m vertical distance. g- Final lowering of MODUS when in position and docking the station using the latch device. h- Recovery of the whole MODUS-Station Total time for deployment and recovery can be less than 4 hours for 2 000 m depth. The system has been operating in various missions in the Mediterranean down to max.water depths of 3900 m. It is a dedicated tool that needs well adapted seafloor stations. It can perform only specific "vertical operations", and is not adapted to other operations (connection, wiring, maintenance..). One of the most critical aspects is the dynamic behaviour of the complete system including the sea-keeping characteristics of the research vessel in arbitrary sea states and the associated hydroelastic behaviour of the tethered mobile docker with a bottom station. 3.2.1.2 - Neutral observatories deployment As general guidelines, the deployment of neutral observatory will be done in free falling mode (FFM) to be accurately positioned by submersible afterwards. This technique is used when accurate load control and positioning on the bottom are required. This technique have further attractive responses to some problems evocated for very deep water. The deployment of the heavy structure can be done by non dynamic positioning vessel, with no anti heave compensating system. The influence of metocean effects and weather window requirements are less critical. This is clearly a non reversible process which does not easily solve the recovery problem if/when the subsea equipment needs to be returned to the surface for any reason. However this mode can be convenient for large assemblies that have to be installed for a long duration, in the knowledge that recovery may be performed on individual modules or components. The necessity further to recover the station independently from the assistance of a submersible by releasing acoustically an ascent weight has to be considered. As example, the document presents solutions for ASSEM (Array of Sensors for long term Seabed Monitoring of geo-hazards) European project. In this context, an array of sensors has been installed in April 2004 in the Gulf of Corinth, in a very active seismic zone, where it is possible to monitor tectonic movements along faults, as well as creeping and fluid flow. The array has been maintained through a 7 months deployment and retrieved. 276 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.94 ASSEM Configuration Deployment Generally the operation will be done by good sea conditions, but the landing point will not be precise. After locating it, the ROV will further be able to horizontally translate the load to the right position. In free fall mode, some scenarios are proposed depending on the in water weight of the equipment. In these scenarios, the equipment includes a releasable ascent weight and buoyancy, and an additional descent weight suspended to a chain is added for descent. The system ensures a soft arrival on the sea floor. The structure is equipped with some weight adjustment devices, the submersible only giving control. Reliable docking devices have to be designed to ensure the transit. After the ROV has put out the descent weight, the station will be placed on the seabed, under self weight, or even sucked down. This operation will be done by the submersible and its manipulating devices. Some particular procedures have been tested to ensure the transit and positioning of the observatory with safe benthic station / ROV docking process, are illustrated in Fig 7.96 and 7.97. When the station is in right position, the next operation is release the buoyancy by acoustic signal from the ship. Then the ROV puts out all protections and fittings used for deployment operation, and makes checklist and tests before leaving. This operation includes sensors reading, acoustic transmission tests and auto tests. These can be triggered by the submersible using its manipulator and standard user interface, including electric and hydraulic power, data communication and payload, through local data access port. At this stage, extra sensors can be deployed from the main station with cable links, the necessary connections being made using the ROV manipulator capabilities. 277 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig 7.95 Typical free-fall mode deployment 278 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig 7.96 Benthic Station / ROV Docking Process Observatory retrieval with ROV assistance The first phase consists in disconnecting cable-links between the station to be recovered and other equipment staying on the bottom. The plugs of disconnected cables must be probably protected and placed on a special disposal receptacle. These operations are achieved by the ROV. The second phase consists in deploying a recovery line. At this stage, there are two options : (a) the recovery line is deployed directly by the handling system of the ship with the assistance of the ROV. The recovery line must be laid very close to the station. 279 7. Future Observatory Designs (b) the recovery line is deployed with its buoyancy by FFM and station hooking. The operation is done by the submersible. The recovery line which can be put not very close to the station, can then be moved by the ROV. The chosen solution depends of the precision of recovery line deployment on the seabed that can be achieved by the ship. In either case, the ROV takes the hook of the recovery line, and moves the line on the sea floor towards the station and fixes the hook on the a lifting point of the observatory structure. Finally the ship recovers the ROV on board, releases the descent weight of the recovery line, or in the other case retrieves the line and the station with the handling system. Fig. 7.97 Typical recovery scenario 280 7. Future Observatory Designs Typical scenario of deployment and recovery Deployment 1. Ship-borne preparation of the station 2. Deployment of the station (1m/s) : following position during descent to the sea floor. Preparation of the ROV on the ship. 3. Deployment of the ROV. 4. During descent and on the bottom, the ROV goes to the station, helped by acoustic positioning system, sonar and by end optical means. 5. ROV weights of the load, release the descent weight, and moves the station to the right place. 6. At the right place, the ROV makes all preparation, checklist and tests. 7. Before leaving, the ROV order release of the buoyancy. Recovery : (recovery line in FFM) 1. Deployment of the recovery line by FFM: the line is positioned all the time by acoustic. 2. Deployment of the ROV: during descent the ROV goes to the recovery line, helped by acoustic positioning system, sonar and optical means. 3. The ROV takes the hook in the basket and hangs it on the load. 4. Before leaving, the ROV order the ship to release the lest. 5. The ship recover the ROV. 6. The ship recovers the station with the buoyancy and acoustic transpondeur. 3.2.2 - ROV operations for on the bottom observatory assistance and maintenance There are many possible operations during observatory life time. Most of these operations will be made by ROV with manipulating, power and payload capabilities, and it is noted that all things to be handled by the submersible include handles, gripping points, marking, coloring.. etc…and have limited size and weight in water. For example, in the ASSEM array project, four generic operations for maintenance have been selected that may be carried out during the life of the array : Wiring and connection Monitoring Node data retrieving, status checking and reconfiguration Adding a new sensor Replacing a sensor Replacing the energy pack Specific procedures and tools have been designed and developed to carry out these operations with the NCMR submersible THETIS, but all of them can be made by ROV. The main ones are: Connecting tool Contact less serial interface Battery pack special basket Among these operations, subsea connection and disconnection of equipment, with deployment of cable link, is a specific and generic operation, which is often necessary to achieve the deployment of an array. In the ASSEM project, specific tool and procedures are adapted to a low cost solution using standard Subconn connectors and the use of Thetis manned submersible and its manipulating devices. In this example, the submersible makes some preliminary actions on the Monitoring Node – removing protection, triggering disjunction lever, putting out connector cap, preparing cable presentation – after puts the plug in a special tool fixed on the junction box, and operates the tool in way to connect the cable at the junction box. 281 7. Future Observatory Designs In ANTARES project, the strings are connected to the junction box using interconnecting cables equipped with wet mateable connectors Ocean Design, which are directly operated by manipulator arm of the submersible.. Figure 7.98 Antares submarine cable connection, March 2003 water, and it is important that techniques that are developed are within the feasible capability of existing oceanographic ships. The interconnecting cables can be held on the station or on the sensor pack to be connected (short lengh) or are laid on the bottom using a special drum sent from the surface in FFM and manipulated by a manned submarine or a ROV. The last solution is used for long cable (up to 400 m for Antares strings) The other operations use typical ROV or submersible manipulating tasks. The observatory must have adequate interfaces that have been clearly anticipated in the design. This is the case in ASSEM project from the beginning. Mock ups have been realised to test techniques and procedures. 3.2.3 - Conclusion Scientific institutes or industry need assurance that adequately reliable and economic observatory installation techniques and equipment will be available to give the necessary confidence to plan complex projects. Conventional means of lowering and positioning heavy subsea equipment may not work in ultra deep waters Whilst each Institute has his specific vessels, there is a considerable value in collaborative development of deployment equipment, techniques and analytical tools which can be demonstrated to be effective. This not only reduces the cost to each Institute of developing the capability, but also reduces the time from development to full acceptance of the capability by the operators. 282 7. Future Observatory Designs REFERENCES - ASSEM sea deployment for gulf of Corinth (2003)– JP Lévèque, JF Drogou - ASSEM- Detailed deployment procedures for monitoring nodes and benchmarks in Corinth Gulf (2003)– JP Lévèque - Advanced Deepwater Intervention with MODUS (2004) – G.Clauss, S.Hoog, F.Stempinski and Hans Gerber - ANTARES sea operations (2003)– P.Valdy - DESIBEL (1997)- New methods for deep sea intervention on future benthic laboratories (MAST II project) – Marc Nokin 283 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.4. Standards In most areas of engineering, standardisation has been a successful means of achieving, lower cost, interoperability and reliability. Sub-sea observatories are in their infancy and standards have not yet been established but it can be envisaged that progress will be realised in mechanical, electronic hardware and electronic software standards. The level of standards to be promoted was discussed during all the Esonet Technical meetings. Tecnomare (Italy), the main designer of Geostar and Orion projects presented their position in the Brest meeting in July 2003, leading to interesting comments by other Esonet partners or participants. In design of a multi-disciplinary observatory an important requirement is “Supporting the operation” of diverse scientific packages. These can be defined needs for: Making space and providing mechanical support in a frame. Electrical power Data acquisition-storage Communication link Integration in a network. This defines 5 integration levels at which the architecture of the observatory system may be standardadised. 7.4.1. Standardization of mechanical elements. The GEOSTAR class of observatories is a successful example of mechanical standardisation based the use of the MODUS deployment and recovery system. Further standardisation will develop in junction boxes and other elements of observatory networks. GEOSTAR class observatories Fig 7.99. Mechanical Standardisation in the GEOSTAR class of Observatories 284 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.4.2 Standardization of electronics in a subsea observatory Position of electronic design in the interoperability and modularity requirements Acoustic Link Acquired Scientific Packages Communication Electronics Fig 7.100. Subsea observatory (Tecnomare) Network Gateway on a Buoy Radio or Satellite Link To Shore Stations Subsea Network Gateway Wired Link Fig. 7.101. Network of observatories (Tecnomare) 285 7. Future Observatory Designs The Tecnomare and Esonet working group considered that standardisation inside subsea observatory should be limited to essential features. The following list of hardware and local software components call for a standard: • Instrumentation interfaces (digital due to the difficulty to predict electromagnetic compatibility of analog interfaces in a long term versatile environment) • Minimal hardware requirements • Minimal Software Tasks • Data structures to be generated (ruled by the data management at a network level) • Organisation of acquired data • Management of sensors for each discipline • Network protocols It is mandatory at some levels to offer a well documented modularity. These compatibility levels were addresed in Assem project. http://… GPRS User / Operator PSTN M1 M2 A ORION 4 GMM Fig 7.102. The ASSEM suite of observatories and communications network, showing interoperability of the different systems 286 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.4.3. Standardization at sensor interface level Objectives of a communication link of subsea observatory (Assem example) The objective is to provide the system with a bi-directional link between the users and the remote sensors. This link must enable the data produced underwater to be forwarded to the users and the users to interact with the underwater system. At the project start, the identified components of this link were: Enhanced sensor 1 COSTOF* * COmmunication and STOrage Front-end 2 Shore linked COSTOF 3 Permanent data server 4 user 2 1 standard sensors interface 2 underwater network 3 telecommunication segment 4 internet Communication and storage front-ends in Assem project Architecture study – Various architectures of the monitoring nodes electronics were studied in ASSEM, taking into account the recommendations of representatives of oil industry participating to the Advisory board. When evaluating pros and cons of a centralised architecture versus a distributed architecture, because emphasis is placed on the robustness, simplicity and modularity of the system, a distributed architecture exploiting the secured local communication services of the CAN field-bus was adopted. In the short run, this architecture is based on the use of standard simple microprocessor units named bridges, providing the interface between the core of the monitoring node (field bus) and the various peripheral units to be integrated (sensors, storage and communication devices) that traditionally use a point to point serial link as communication interface. The entire justification of this architecture will be found if, in the long run, sensors and communication device manufacturers integrate the field bus interface to their products, saving one microprocessor board stage per device, hence dividing the complexity, weight and cost of the monitoring nodes. COSTOFs design and realisation - The detailed specifications of the COSTOFs were written. The various bridges will use a common microprocessor board (core board with basic resources like memory, field bus and serial interfaces…) on which can be plugged, when required, a specific extension board. The acoustic link and the contact-less serial interface (CLSI) have been developed in parallel as first priority, allowing an alternate communications technology to be employed for collecting data if conditions prevent the primary technology from fully functioning. Cable link and messenger transmission are developed outside the ASSEM delay and budget. The software specifications are written for each type of board: sensor bridge, acoustic modem bridge, contact-less serial interface bridge and Monitoring Node technical watch board. Once tested on one type of configuration, other configurations and the diversity of sensors are then easy to cope with. The reply to the bids called in the ASSEM project , from industrial companies mastering low power embarked electronics and field bus technologies, to perform the COSTOF design and realisation was satisfactory. It may be considered as a mature technology. 287 7. Future Observatory Designs Local comm. (CLSI) Acoust. comm. housekeeping bridge 1 GB 64 MB 64 MB Pop-up modules driver 64 MB bridge bridge bridge Sensor A Sensor B Sensor C Wired comm. bridge bridge CAN/ CANopen 64 MB bridge Sensor n ... Fig.7.103. Concept of the ASSEM project: use of field bus Sercel UAD Micrel-nke Micrel-nke Acoust. comm. housekeeping bridge 1 GB 64 MB 64 MB Pop-up modules driver bridge CO STO F/ CANopen CAN 64 MB Wired comm. bridge 64 MB bridge Communication bridge bridge & Storage Front-end bridge Ifremer sensors Horizontal geodesy acoustic distancemeter Vertical geodesy Pressure sensor Methane sensor IPGP Paris - Capsum Germany NGI logger Oslo Multilevel differential piezometer - NGI Oslo Fig. 7.104. Definition of COSTOF as demonstrated during ASSEM project. The modularity is an advantage to work with various partners. 288 7. Future Observatory Designs Liaison série inductive, sans fil Station Capteur Fig. 7.105. Contact Less Serial Interface (CLSI) Communication and storage front-ends (COSTOF) A monitoring node must be able to host a set of devices such as communication units (with the external world), sensors and memory units, and enable proper communication between them. Communication devices - Today, the identified devices are: acoustic and wire modems for remote communication and Contact-Less Serial Interface for local communication with a submersible. Acoustic data transmission being the most constraining technology (in terms of data rates and energy requirements) it was decided to implement it first, as well as CLSI. The future implementation of conventional modems is not considered as a difficult step, provided that the core of the COSTOF was designed properly. A distributed architecture where specific communication interfaces can be developed independently allows this extensibility. Sensors - A major difficulty encountered in the COSTOF design was the very large diversity of sensors to be supported: they range from single analogue output sensors that just deliver a signal on power-on to multi-channel data loggers with embedded memory, sequencing and processing capabilities. This heterogeneity induces a wide range of constraints on the COSTOF, sometimes contradictory, in terms of energy management, data handling and sequencing requirements. This was an additional reason for choosing this distributed architecture where each sensor bridge can easily be tailored to the peculiarities of its sensor. Memory devices –. For very high data volumes, a gigabyte unit can be built as a separate field bus unit. Pop-up memory modules (messengers) can be built on the same principle. The fast increase of storage capacities of mass memories offers new potential for low cost redundancy storages. Choice of a field bus – The selected field bus had to satisfy primarily the possibilities of very low power implementation and multi-master operation. The CAN bus, initially developed for the automotive industry, meets those requirements and provides in addition robust data integrity control mechanisms and data rates up to 1Mbps. It is widely spread in numerous industrial areas and easy to implement. Its basic principles make it suitable for producer to consumers data exchanges, a key concept in the design of extensible platforms. However, proper data exchanges between the various units on the CAN bus require that they run the same application layer protocol, which will have to be chosen among industrially acknowledged and manufacturer independent protocols. The choice in Assem is CAN/CANOpen. 289 7. Future Observatory Designs Software Standardisation Fig. 7.106 The ORION control software display. Standardisation on this kind of model can be envisaged. Control Software Display: Power Status set of parameters to monitor the status of the power supply subsystem Internal Status set of parameters to monitor the internal status of the underwater vessels Position Status set of parameters to monitor the position/orientation of the observatory System Status set of parameters to monitor the status of the electronic system . 290 7. Future Observatory Designs 4.2 Standardization : the key issue for international cooperation The discussions during ESONET workshop and a more recent worshop organized by Ifremer in Paris on the 1st and 2nd February 2005 show an involvement at international level to exchange on standards of subsea observatories. The ESONET approach is regarded as an important issue for cooperation with Japan, Canada and United-States. In addition to data dissemination and data management (see WP8), two working groups have been constituted in the Paris meeting: SENSOR INTEROPERABILITY The ideas of all the designers, exploitation bodies and promoters of subsea observatories is to raise the level of confidence of the instruments plugged on the observatories SUBSEA INTERVENTION TESTING. The need to operate safely with the most convenient means available 291 7. Future Observatory Designs 7.5 Considerations on the architecture of future observatories in Europe Acoustic transmission system Messengers Unit Power packs Mass storage Control unit Underwater mateable Connection system ROV docking area Fig. 7.107. Conceptual view of the Central Unit of an autonomous observatory Real time ocean observatories may be designed around either a surface buoy containing an autonomous power source and a wireless (e.g., satellite or RF) communications link or a submarine fibre optic/power cable connecting one or more seafloor science nodes to the terrestrial power grid and communications backhaul. Quasi real time observatories can also use an acoustic link between the bottom and the surface. In this case the bottom unit is self powered and is similar to an autonomous benthic station. Surface moorings are a mature and reliable technology, and satellite data telemetry from surface buoys and ships has become routine. Their connection to sensors on the seafloor is more problematic, but to be useful in ocean observatory applications, they must operate reliably over periods of years, must be serviceable from international-partner vessels, and must be costeffective. Acoustically linked surface moorings that do not deliver power to the seafloor (Fig. 7.108) provide low-band-width (up to 30 kbit/s) connectivity. Single-point moorings tethered with electro-optical-mechanical (EOM) mooring cables and using surface following buoys (Fig. 7.109) can provide seafloor power (about 100 W) from the buoy and can link data at maximum satellite connectivity rates. Large tri-moored spar buoys that respond primarily to low-frequency wave motions are a complementary approach to the EOM-tethered single-point design and can provide substantially more power (up to 1 kW) from diesel generators located in the spar buoy. 292 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig.7.108. Acoustically linked observatory architecture Acoustically linked surface moorings do not require the development of new mooring technology. GEOSTAR and ASSEM demonstrated that this technique is mature. The major challenge for the EOM tethered designs is designing a cable that provides adequate mooring compliance without damaging the conductors and optical fibres from bending strain, and that has a size, weight, and cost compatible with operation in strong current regimes and with small surface buoys. This is an area of active current research, and a range of solutions appears to be feasible. 293 7. Future Observatory Designs Fig. 7.109 – EOM tethered observatory architecture Over a hundred years of development of submarine cables for the telecommunications industry has resulted in highly reliable commercial-off -the-shelf products. The design requirements for an ocean observatory cable are highly compatible with the standard capabilities of telecommunications cable. Cable-based installations can provide much greater amounts of power and bandwidth for instruments than buoys. Whether a system is buoyed or cabled, most science users will connect instruments at a seafloor node that contains the electronic subsystems necessary to provide power, communications, and control functions for both infrastructure and sensors, along with a wet-mate able connector to which instruments may be connected. Examples of seafloor nodes are shown in the ESONET reports. These designs allow the node to be recovered by a research vessel for repair or servicing. A simple physical block diagram (Figure 7.111) shows the key hardware subsystems of a cabled observatory science node. Copies of these subsystems appear both in other science nodes (if present) and in a shore station. While the figure 7.111 is directly pertinent to a cabled observatory, the same subsystems will appear in a buoyed installation except that the submarine cable is replaced by the combination of a buoy-to-satellite communications link and an autonomous power source in the buoy. The remaining subsystems will still be present in the seafloor science node, although their power and bandwidth capability may be more limited. This remark is also available for an autonomous observatory where the communications link is replaced by a storage device and where specific subsystems as precise clock are necessary. The main subsystems in an ocean observatory science node handle power, data communications, observatory management, and time distribution. Each of these may be subdivided into a hierarchy of sub-subsystems or beyond. 294 7. Future Observatory Designs Electrical wire Fiber optic Backbone Comms Access Comms Time distribution Node control Optical modem Backbone Power Instrument Power Packages interface Scientific Package 1 Sensor 1 Scientific Package 2 Technical Package 1 Sensor n Sensor 2 Fig. 7.110 – Observatory architecture The power subsystem transforms the high voltage (up to 10 kV) carried by the single conductor (with seawater return) present in fibre optic cable to lower levels usable by both the node infrastructure and science users. Normally, this transformation will be accomplished in two stages for a cabled observatory, with the backbone power stage converting the line voltage to a medium level and the user power stage providing isolated standard voltages to user loads. For a single node cabled or buoyed observatory, a power system of this sort with simple monitoring and telemetry will probably suffice. As the number of nodes grows on a multi-node cabled observatory, issues of power monitoring and management increase in complexity. The data communications subsystem serves two key purposes: aggregation of data streams from many sensors around a science node, and routing/repeating on the high-speed backbone optical network. Anticipating that future ocean observatory instrument data will consist primarily of Internet protocol (IP) packets, the access communications block can be implemented using an Ethernet switch that transfers data to the backbone communications subsystem. Ethernet is available at standard data rates of 10 and 100 Mbit/s and 1 and 10 Gbit/s, and these are expected to increase over time. For a single node cabled or buoy observatory, the backbone communications/optical transport sub-subsystems can consist of a high-speed Ethernet switch with single channel optical transport. For multi-node ocean observatories, the backbone communications functions can be implemented in one of several ways, depending on the optical transport protocol and network physical topology. For a mesh network, which constitutes the most efficient way to increase network reliability for a given number of nodes, the most general approach would use a highspeed version of Ethernet using multiple independent optical transport channels, with the number depending on the desired total data rate. Time distribution can be provided by Network Time Protocol, which is a widely used protocol that can serve time at an accuracy of a few milliseconds across simple networks. It can serve as a primary time standard suitable for most instruments on a cabled ocean observatory. Higher accuracy (e.g., order 1 µs) synoptic time can be served to science users using a separate system. The remaining science node subsystems provide specialized functions that are actually elements of a comprehensive observatory management system comprising the data management, node control, and instrument interface subsystems. The node control subsystem provides high reliability oversight of all node functions, including telemetry of critical data and master control of key subsystems. It may be distributed among the other node subsystems or centralized, depending on the implementation. The instrument interface subsystem provides power, 295 7. Future Observatory Designs communications, and time services to instruments and sensors, and may be physically distributed between the science node and individual instruments. It may also provide critical data management functions such as storage and service of metadata, and contains part of the seafloor component of the data management subsystem that is logically distributed throughout the observatory Management functions includes: monitoring and control of the node power busses; monitoring and control of the node data communications system; and collection and transmission of node engineering data. The node control process may reside physically in the node or on shore/in a buoy. An ocean observatory operations centre on shore contains all of the processes to monitor and manage the components of an ocean observatory. The operations centre connects to a set of distributed data archives, which are probably not collocated. There are four main types of shoreside processes: the communications control process, the power control process, the data buffering process, and the data archive process. These two last function are part of the data management. The communications and power control processes are used by ocean observatory operators or users to control various node, instrument, and sensor functions, and may interact with both the node control and instrument processes. A partial list of their functions includes: monitoring and control of system-wide power usage and availability; monitoring and management of systemwide data bandwidth usage and availability; and creation and elimination of connections between instruments or nodes and other processes. An instrument process resides logically between the instrument and the access data and user power connections at the node. Some of its functions include: monitoring and control of power to the instrument; instrument ground fault detection; bi-directional transmission of data to/from other instruments, other nodes, and the shore station; storage and forwarding of instrument as required; and acquisition and processing of synoptic time. The instrument process may physically reside in the instrument itself, in the node between the wet-mate able user port and the node data/power hardware, or even in proxy mode on shore or in a buoy, depending on how the software implementing the user process has to interact with the hardware making up the ocean observatory. The node control process may interact both with hundreds of instrument processes and with several shorebased processes. Data archive processes gather and receive data and metadata from specified instrument. Different repositories may receive and process data from different types of instruments. A partial list of the data archive process functions includes: extraction of instrument metadata from the instrument processes as required; flagging metadata state change; acquisition and post-processing of data streams from instrument processes; and possibly provision for national security control over data access. While many of the processes described above could be implemented in hardware, a key characteristic they share is the need for repetitive, automatic inter-service communication and the concomitant exchange of data or commands. In addition, it is likely that the processes needed to operate an ocean observatory will evolve over time as unforeseen modes of operation develop and users and operators build an experience base. Evolving uses argues strongly for an implementation that places hardware interfaces at primitive levels in the subsystems and implements the inter-process links and their control in software which can be remotely modified as required. This implementation process is especially needed for a seafloor installation where changes of hardware are extremely expensive. Finally, as ocean observatories proliferate, the need for interoperability will become increasingly important, especially at sensor and user interfaces; however, interoperability at the internal levels of ocean observatories will lead to a reduction in operating costs as the community-wide experience base grows. If all of these interfaces are well defined, then the internal workings of instruments or infrastructure become irrelevant to most users. The design of ocean observatories must be driven by the needs of the scientific community who will use the facilities. Extracting requirements from the scientific community presents a challenge to the engineering team responsible for ocean observatory design, as the typical science user cannot readily quantify present and future needs that will lead to a formal design, and may not be familiar with the relevant power, communications, control, and ocean 296 7. Future Observatory Designs engineering technologies. While mature technology exists for most components of subsea observatories, the available sensors for long term deployment are not adapted enough. In order to progress in parallel on scientific interpretation, sensor metrology and calibration and technological improvements, it is mandatory to think in term of “scientific packages”. Each scientific package will have a development and pre-operational testing plan corresponding to a close cooperative work between specialists. The criteria for the constitution of the basis of these scientific packages are the choice of well established suite of sensors to build up the « basis suite ». Other sensors are needed to promote the innovative modelling or interpretation or cross-correlation of time series. To the extent possible, especially if they are funded by global observatory budgets, these instruments should possess the following characteristics : • • • • Be long-lived. Require little or no in-situ calibration? Measure unaliased integral quantities more representative of larger scales (spot measurements are then welcome to address spatial variability). Be useful for multiple disciplines. The following is an example set of generic top-level design requirements. Not all of these need apply to a given installation; for example, several are specific to multi node observatories, and may be irrelevant for single node implementations. The ordering does not imply priority. • Lifetime: an ocean observatory shall meet all science requirements, with appropriate maintenance, for a design life of at least 25 years. • Cost: an ocean observatory shall be designed to minimize the 25 year life cycle cost. • Reconfigurability: an ocean observatory shall allow resources to be dynamically directed where science needs and priorities dictate. • Scalability: an ocean observatory shall be expandable, so that additional science nodes which meet the observatory reliability goals can be placed near or at locations of interest that may develop in the future. • Upgradeability: an ocean observatory shall be upgradeable to accommodate future technology improvements. • Robustness: an ocean observatory shall utilize fault tolerant design principles and minimize potential single points of failure. Failure of a sensor or of a scientific package must not propagate to the other functions. • Reliability: the primary measure of ocean observatory reliability shall be the probability of being able to send data to/from any science instrument from/to shore and/or from/to other science nodes, exclusive of instrument functionality. • Open Design Principle: ocean observatory hardware designs and specifications shall be freely and openly available, and all software elements shall be based on open standards to the greatest extent possible. A major challenge in ocean observatory design lies in reliability engineering. The electronic infrastructure required to implement an ocean observatory will always be complex, and constructing an installation that delivers the required performance and is maintainable at a reasonable cost is critical to their success. High reliability engineering is a critical element in minimizing the life cycle cost of ocean observatories. Thorough life cycle cost estimates and projecting operations and maintenance (O&M) costs are an essential ocean observatory design element (See Annexe 4 Connection to shore and costs). 297 7. Future Observatory Designs A major concern in the engineering of large, complex projects that contain significant new applications of technology is minimizing the risk of major problems or even failure. One useful approach to risk mitigation is the construction of a test bed that still contains all of the critical elements of the full system and will allow to scientist to learn how use this new kind of instrument. _______________________________ Annexes at the end of this report. ANNEX 1 Industrial offshore standards ANNEXE 2 Environment tests ANNEX 3 Telemetry ANNEX 4 Connection to shore and costs 298 8. ESONET Data Management Section 8. ESONET Data Management This section of the report was written by Gilbert MAUDIRE, Catherine MAILLARD, Christian BONNET, Michèle FICHAUT of IFREMER/IDM, Brest, France 8.1 Introduction A major interest of Sea Floor Observatories is to produce multidisciplinary data sets of good quality and well organised to facilitate their further use for any kind of users, scientific and non scientific. Therefore the data management should represent an essential activity of the project, to insure that the data collected during the ESONET experiments will be processed, qualified, safeguarded for the long term and made easily and timely available. The data management section of this report is complementary to the previous section dedicated to the Future Observatory Designs (Section 7). It aims to develop standardized data management protocols "from the sensor to the user" and to give specifications for the design and development of a data management system that efficiently transmits large volume of multidisciplinary. The multidisciplinary nature of ESONET creates particular problems in that different sensors on the same or on remote platforms, may require completely different time scales of data acquisition and dissemination. However the final users should be able to receive coherent and quality data from the whole network of observatories. The data management services needed to support the many facets of activity in the ocean are themselves complex. From each sensor to the user, the data circulate into several sub-systems: transfer/communication, processing, archiving, dissemination, monitoring, which are schematised in Fig. 8.1 and should be taken into account in designing the data management structure. As ESONET is strongly related with the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), the framework and guidelines of the establishment of the ESONET data management takes into account the data management and communication requirements of GOOS, and in particular the coastal module of GOOS. The data management activities cover the observation data, the information on the data collection (meta data) and integrated products prepared on routine mode. It includes warnings related to sensors status provided in real time, and some warnings related to environmental events in real time and delayed mode, depending on the considered time scales. It doesn’t not include higher level information products prepared from the qualified data by scientific analysis activities. The basic requirement is that the users should get an integrated access to qualified data, information and products of each observatory: • • real time (environmental alerts, …) delayed mode (scientific studies, global change, …) As a consequence, data must be recorded in long term archives. Moreover, the data management should make possible the merging of these data with data from other observing systems, and make the integrated data sets accessible via Internet. 8. ESONET Data Management In particular, interfaces with the following existing sea bottom observatories should be made: - DOBO Porcupine sea Bight 2001-2001 - SOFOS Adriatic - GEOSTAR North of Sicily - A S S E M Array of Sensors for long term SEabed Monitoring of geohazards. This will be made by the adoption and use of common standards, data processing protocols and exchange formats. Fig. 8.1 Data Management Activities between the in–situ data collection and the scientific products preparation An important point is not to reinvent the wheel, and to use or adapt the existing standards and data management infrastructures to implement the tasks. The standards and protocols used should be compatible with the internationally agreed protocols, defined by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC), the Joint IOC/WMO Commission and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Similarly, the optimisation of the use of the existing infrastructures is a necessity both for compatibility reasons, and to minimize the costs in terms of personnel, hardware and software. It does not mean that the data management structure should be centralized in a unique centre. The activities can be distributed over several centres regional and/or thematic to take benefits from regional / thematic expertise. In that case again, standardisation will make possible the interfacing and communication. For example, the data system used for the management of ASSEM observatories and MAREL coastal buoys (Fig.8.2) is a unique system, and these experiments will be used further in this document to illustrate and discuss the different data management issues. 8. ESONET Data Management Fig 8.2. Use of an existing data management system for MAREL (coastal buoys) and ASSEM (bottom observatories) 8.2 Data, metadata and products The data to be managed are heterogeneous and consist of observation data, meta-data, derived data products. 8.2.1 Environmental observation data • Numerical values • Digital pictures & video (eg: Fig.8.3) Fig. 8.3. Example of quick look at real time data (from ASSEM) 8. ESONET Data Management If many users are interested in getting data products in near real time, the data archiving and quality control activities will have to put special attention on the observation data and meta-data, because in case of loss, they can never be made again. The bottom observatories collect multidisciplinary data, but they are presently focused on: - biological data from regular sampling in the water column and in the sediment : nutrients, microbiology and from video - geophysical data: seismicity data, sediment pore water and pore gaz composition and pressure - physical data: current form ADCP and classical current meters, pressure, temperature, salinity, chemicals, turbidity and optical parameters. 8.2.2. Meta-data The meta-data are the information on the experimental conditions, processing and quality level, and can be mandatory or optional. • The meta-data are necessary to proceed to the quality control and for the data searching. They are therefore included in the catalogues and inventories, and several standardisation and communication protocols issues discussed here below are related to meta-data. 8.2.3. Data products The data products are prepared from observations checked for quality and with common agreed algorithms and methods, either in the data management workpackage on routine mode, or in analysis workpackages if the methodologies are under development or require specific expertises. They belong to the main following groups: Subsampling: interpolated data at regular intervals for specific studies Alarms/Alerts: time scale=1 second to 1 day • Environmental risks & hazards • Sensors status Long term Statistics and trends: time scale = 1 month Interpolated (gridded) data Maps 8.3. Data processing and Quality checks The real time data should be automatically decoded, reformatted, documented, corrected from measurement artefacts and translated in geophysical parameters before loading in the data management system, in general a relational database system (RDBS). In addition to this processing, quality control procedures should be applied with the following objectives: • to insure a minimum level of quality in data, information and product • to insure coherence and compatibility between data from different observatories The quality assurance of the system will insure that all these procedures (Fig. 8.4) are fully documented and applied. 8.3.1. Quality Assurance The overall objectives of the quality assurance protocol are 1) to insure a minimum level of quality in data, information and product and to 2) to insure coherence and compatibility between data from different observatories. It is based on the definition of standards and the implementation of standardised procedures for data formatting, processing and dissemination. The internationally agreed standards will be used when available, and if not they will be extended according to the international guidelines and contribution to expert groups. The data manual will cover the following items: • Standards and procedures for transfer and dissemination • Definition of exchange formats, including standardised parameter names and units, based on the International System (SI) of units 8. ESONET Data Management • • Procedures for data collection Procedures for data processing and archiving Fig. 8.4: Processing modules 8.3.2. Data processing Data processing consists of converting an engineering signal into geophysical parameters, making the appropriate corrections of sensor drift etc. and computing expected high level data products. Each of these steps corresponds to a “processing level” and the data are modified at each processing level to get the best estimate. Four main levels of data processing are widely used: T0 : Raw unqualified data T0.5 : Data checked in real time by automated processing, only for alarms & alerts T1 : Data checked by an operator in near-real time for operational purposes T2 : Data calibrated and corrected from experimental errors, full checked for quality by comparison with statistics and data from other sources. Only at this level, the data can be distributed in delayed mode for scientific long term studies T3 : Data with optional corrections like filtering for tidal signal T5 : Gridded data - Statistics 8.3.2.1 Images and Video For the images and videos, there may be a need for data compression and extraction of interesting sequences corresponding for example, to image changes.. However the compression creates a risk of being not be able to read again the data on the long term, either if the algorithm is lost, or if the compression library is not maintained. To encompass this difficulty, it is recommended to: • Study the compromise between the cost of the media /risk of loss • when necessary, document the methods and algorithms • Take into account the practices of the satellite and geophysical communities 8.3.3. Quality Control The quality control consist of performing a series of checks on each data set and adding at the end a quality flag to each numerical value reflecting the level of anomalies met if any. Comparing 8. ESONET Data Management the data with known statistics and relation between the data and to assign to them a quality flag, without modifying the data. It should be made at each processing level, but in practise, it is generally made at two levels of processing only: at the “validated observation” level, which is the data corrected from any measurement artefact, and at the final products (analysed data) level. The quality control procedure includes automatic checks first in which a quality flag is added to each numerical value. Then the data are check visually with being colored according to their quality flags, to check the overall consistency and validate the flag. An example is given in Fig.8.5. in this case, the flag scale adopted is the international Argo/IOC/WMO/GTSPP quality flag scale: 0 not controlled value (processing level T0) 4 5 9 1 all checks passed - no outlier detected - correct value 2 value differs from statistics (seasonal statistics, …) 3 dubious value (spike, gradient..) false value (out of scale, constant profile, vertical instability …) interpolated/computed value (not direct observation) missing value 0 not yet controlled Fig.8.5. Quality check of a time series 8.4 Data Transfer and communication The data are transferred from the observing system to the data management structure (data centre) and then from the data centre to the users, and to other data stuctures for interoperability purposes. The communication technology makes necessary the use of communication standards and at least for the final dissemination, the data transfer should be standardized. Two kinds of standards are used: communication standards, which are common to georeferenced data and thematic standards adapted to the specific marine data. 8.4.1. Transfer from the observatory to the data centre The data are transferred automatically from the bottom observatories to the reception station (the data centre ) in real time by the local more adapted system: satellite transmission, radio or 8. ESONET Data Management cable. The standardization is limited at this stage, as the transfer protocol is given by the manufacturers. It is recommended to work with the sensor manufacturers to standardize the data acquisition systems and processing and to get compatibility with other observatories including coastal buoys. ‘They are also transferred in delayed mode if the observatory is equipped with a recorder. The data are then transferred at the maintenance periods. The data received in delayed mode are in general more complete, and the following operations: decoding, loading, processing and safeguarding are launched manually. 8.4.2 Existing Geographical & earth observation standards 8.4.2.1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) The ISO Technical Committee for the Geographic Information and Geomatics have produced several relevant standards for meta-data and catalogues definition: • ISO 19115 (and sub-standards) Metadata description • ISO 23950 (Z39.50) : catalogues design 8.4.2.2.OpenGIS Consortium (OGC) The OpenGis Consortium (OGC) develops standards to improve compatibility and inter-operability for geospatial and location based services. These standards are mostly software interfaces like Web Map Server (WMS) and Web Feature Server (WFS). The Geographical Markup Language (GML) based on XML, has been developed to transfer geodata between these servers. 8.2.3. Data Format (UNIDATA) and Data Exchange (OpenDAP) NetCDF (Network Common Data Format), developed by UniData Consortium is now widely used in the Marine Community to exchange and process large data sets (hydrology, geophysics, remote sensing). OpenDAP is an exchange an remote data access protocol used to network distributed databases, both on local and long-distance network. OpenDAP can be directly interfaced with databases in NetCDF format. 8. ESONET Data Management 8.4.3. Marine XML / ISO 19115 Metadata Communication Scheme (Fig.8.6) to implement ISO Metadata for marine data sets, developed in Cooperation with : - Sea Search - Marine XML 8.4.3.1.Geographical area & datum <geoBox> <northBL>+45.1234</northBL> <southBL>+44.987</southBL> <westBL>-10.2</westBL> <eastBL>-10.115</eastBL> </geoBox> <geoId> <identCode>WGS84</identCode> </geoId> 8.4.3.2. Temporal extent <dataExt> <tempEle> <exTemp> <begin>19930210 2300</begin> <end> 19930307 1100 </end> </exTemp> </tempEle> </dataExt> 8.4.3.3. Data manager & Chief scientist <citRespParty> <rpIndName> data manager name </rpIndName> <role> <RoleCd value=« curator"> </role> </citRespParty> <citRespParty> <rpIndName> chief scientist name </rpIndName> <role> <RoleCd value=« chiefScientist"> </role> </citRespParty> 8. ESONET Data Management Fig.8.6. Consultation of a catalogue (meta-data ) by using XML transfer scheme 8.4.4. GML - Geography Markup Language GML is an XML format for vector geographical data, in which attributes can be added and linked to the geometry description such as (Fig. 8.7) : • Type of data (intermediate family of parameters), • Location (data are always geo-referenced) • Time of measurement, Month of measurement • Measurement platform, sensor • Observatory, experiment, responsible scientist, institution It allows Generic criteria for queries for data search and recovery and is used by WFS (« feature server ») .GML is therefore well adapted to describe the geometry of a seafloor observatory network 8. ESONET Data Management Fig.8.7 Example of a GML Scheme Fig.8.8 Example of result of database interrogation with GML Scheme 8.4.5.Thematic standards and protocols Further common standards and protocols may be necessary, especially when the number of observatories and parameters measured will increase/ 8. ESONET Data Management • Common thesaurus & Data dictionary: o measured parameters with names, units, codes o ‘‘Agreed parameter Grouping” – (cf. Sea-Search) o taxonomy • Common unique identifiers to discards duplication in data sets: o platforms, time series o to discards duplication in data sets, especially when the data sets circulate in several organizations. • Data Exchange formats Several dissemination formats will be provided to users. Binary NetCdf is widely used in the scientific community, but some groups prefer flat ASCII or spread sheet tables. A good data service should be flexible enough to handle all, including adapted audio and video formats. - For NetCdf, international formats defined in the frame of the international Argo program will be similarly reviewed, and adapted if necessary. - For ASCII, the EU MEDATLAS will be similarly reviewed and adapted; - for spreadsheet table export format, the same compatibility will be searched with WOCE/Ocean Data View software Compatibility with other observing systems, either other bottom observatories or sensors in the water column or coastal buoys and observatories. Like for the data transfer, work with the sensor manufacturers to standardize data acquisition systems and processing is critical. 8.5. Data Dissemination The data dissemination is determined by: • the data policy • the availability of adapted dissemination tools, taking into consideration the wide use of internet in the research community, and the fast evolution of these tools.. 8.5.1. Data Dissemination Policy The ESONET Data Policy will be defined in the context of free an open access to data as recommended by the UNESCO/IOC/IODE and WMO data policies, and which should be adopted for IOC projects such as GOOS. The ESONET Consortium already considers that the Data Policy should meet the following objectives: • Provide elements to monitor governmental policy changes and provide access to appropriate data and information for the citizens: o Simple digested information: hazards and risks, images, videoclips o Simple standard interface o Target public: schools, museums, aquariums, libraries • Highlight relevant data sets into the future • Encourage the highest number of scientific publications. • Assess the copyright and intellectual property rights without hampering the project in international and societal context. Therefore ESONET should provide an open access for key data to: • geohazards monitoring at sea floor • Environmental Monitoring Parameter • Global change parameters • Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and particle transport But ESONET will restrict the access to data in the following cases: • Datarelated to fisheries and anthropogenic impact 8. ESONET Data Management • Experimental data, which should follow classical scientific confidentiality rules : no more than 2 years restriction 8.5.2. Distribution media Several media for information distribution will be used according to different uses : Real time alerts : messages on GSM Regular deliveries : ftp exchanges, … On demand deliveries : web sites 8.5.3. ESONET Data Portal The ESONET data portal will contribute to promote the use of ESONET data information and products: It will include: • the documentation on formats, protocols, standards and processing methods • tools for on request access to data, meta-data and products • a link to the ftp site for regular delivery. Several levels of selection criteria to search for data should be proposed, basically answering the generic level: What, Where, When, Whose : • Type of data (intermediate family of parameters), • Measurement platform, sensor • Location (data are always geo-referenced) • Time of measurement, Month of measurement • Observatory, experiment, responsible scientist, institution • Thematic level o Processing level o Data quality flag • A private restricted site will be opened for the project partners. 8.6.Long term safeguarding and exploitation The data, meta-data and products should be safeguarded for exploitation on the long term. The data management system should be back-up regularly in at least two different sites. Moreover it is recommended that for a long term safeguarding and exploitation : 1-all the key parameters, should be integrated in databases of the same types. The integration problems (format errors, data organisation ..) will be reported to the source scientists for correction. 2- The engineering and non-standard data could be simply safeguarded without reformatting but with automatic backup system and indexatioin in a catalogue. However, if a data type become operational, the previous procedure should apply. 3- The archiving system should be reviewed periodically and get feedback from the users These tasks should be implemented by a perennial and professional data management infrastructure. 8.7. Data Management Structure The ESONET data management structure has to develop, maintain and manage the modules above mentioned and schematised in Fig.8.9: • Contributors of ESONET should be able to transmit data into the system with a minimum of obligation to convert their data to specialized data formats or restructuring of data sets, provided basic conditions of data quality and meta-data standards are met. While it may be possible to 8. ESONET Data Management provide a single portal for data users for one-stop access, this will be a simplified front end for the data management system that supports all the different observatories. Local access points will tend to focus first on national or regional data sources for waters in their vicinity. For a limited number of key variables, a centralised access point, which is suitable for all types of customers, will give access to data from all available sources designed with the ESONET standards. The construction of specialized customer-related access points will be carried out by delegated teams of experts, who know both the needs of these customers and the user software which is most suited to them. • data transfer protocols for real time and delayed mode data • data processing and preparation of products • long time archiving • dissemination and exploitation Fig. 8.9: Scheme of the data management structure associated with several observing systems For many reasons, man power availability of computer and archiving resources and data responsibilities, the data management structure to work out these tasks will be a distributed structure. In a first pilot period stage, it is likely that the node will be associated with each observatory (geographical distribution). In a operational phase, the distribution of the data management tasks could be centralized for each data type (thematic distribution). To optimise the resources, long time archives should be under the responsibility of professional data centres equipped with appropriate facilities and skilled personnel such as the network of World, Regional and National Oceanographic Data Centres. Thesse data centres will process and archive the data by using their local facilities. Copies of the validated data will be transfered to the data management coordinator at the archiving centre at the exchange format. The archiving center perform further quality checks (date, position, data points) according to the international standards. The data will be merged in databases of the same type. 8.7.1. Hardware and software equipment The data management structure will be equipped with adapted hardware, software and network communication facilities. The integration of these facilities will result, for instance, to provide map visualization to users, in a WMF server according to the scheme presented in Fig.8.10. 8. ESONET Data Management In addition, specific intercompared (for distributed structures) software tools to reformat, index, process and qualify the data should be available for each data type. Fig. 8.10: Elements of data servers 8.7.2. Networking and communication Each node of the structure should used standards and standardized communication links in order that any user got an integrated access to quality data, information and products. The standardization will be insure by developing and implementing a common protocol for data processing and dissemination. The data management structure will be created based on the following elementS: • An archiving center which would insure a perennial safeguarding of an archive copy of the data; • Thematic and/or observatory data centres associated with the main data types biological, geophysical, physical and chemical of each observatory An example of data structure is represented in Fig. 8.11, the ASSEM case. 8. ESONET Data Management Fig. 8.11: Data Management structure of ASSEM 8. ESONET Data Management 8.7.3. Networking of the observing systems All the permanent observing systems, including the bottom observatories, are inventoried in the EUROGOOS/EDIOS catalogue, which include detailed descriptions of each observatory and summaries of the data sets collected set (eg. biological data collected): EDIOS : European Directory of the Initial Ocean-observing System http://www.ediosproject.de/ A subset of the information on data is common with the catalogue EDMED catalogue, which describes all the data collected in the Pan-European scientific and operational communities: EDMED: European Directory of Marine Environmental Data catalogue EDMED http://www.bodc.ac.uk/services/edmed/ Standardized communication links should be developed between the observatories described in these catalogues to make them interoperable. 8.7.4. Perennial data management infrastructures at the Pan-European level The different elements of the data management infrastructure should be developed and operated by professional engineers and technicians. This requires and important investment in terms of human and financial support, and rather than reinventing the wheel, it is recommended to make use of and adapt when necessary, the existing facilities. This is compatible with the growing interest on standardization, and allows to getting an integrated access other long time series of the same type of data. A key point is also that professional infrastructures can insure a perennial system, which is more difficult in the frame of a scientific project, by itself limited in time. The national oceanographic data centres have developed national infrastructures for data safeguarding and dissemination. They work together to develop the above mentioned standards and to improve the data processing practises in cooperation with the international authorities and working groups (IOC, ICES, JCOMM) and in the frame of international projects such as IODE (International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange), ARGO (deep sea operational oceanography), GOSUD (Global Ocean Surface Underway Data), GODAR (Global Ocean Data Archaeology and Rescue) and MEDAR for the Mediterranean and Black Seas. They actively cooperate to develop a standardized distributed PanEuropean data infrastructure in the frame : • • Sea Search : Oceanographic and Marine Data & Information in Europe – Consortium of National Data Centres: http://www.sea-search.net/ and the next step under development Sea Data Net: http://www.seadatanet.org/ This Data Centre network, distributed over 36 countries around the European Seas (Fig.8.12) can provide to the bottom observatories, a perennial archiving system with adaptations specified by the observations responsible. 8.7.5. Maintenance and Review of the structure Several actions should be made to insure an appropriate maintenance and evolution of the data system. First, tracking efficiency, problems raised and possible new developments of the data management structure, the software and the data circulation scheme should be reviewed at regular periods, and recommendations made for the system evolution. In this context it is important to settle a procedure to get continuous feedback from users. 8. ESONET Data Management Fig. 8.12 : Network of the Pan-European National Oceanographic Data Centres Strong cooperative links exist in Regional sub-networks 8.8. Time schedule The time schedule of the data management will follow the development of the full ESONET observing system. Preliminary phases will be necessary before getting a data management operated in routine operational mode: 1) Pilot phase • First versions of the protocols and methodologies written • Data management structure by observatory • Costs estimated, structure tested, specifications for next phases 2) Implementation phase • Protocol validated • Operational structure developed and tested 3) Pre-operational phase • Maintenance and no major evolution • Uniform data management and products delivered Test of performances. 8. ESONET Data Management 8.8 Selected Web sites: ISO Technical committee TC211 for Geographic information / Geomatics : www.isotc211.org OpenGIS Consortium: www.opengis.org UNIDATA consortium publications: http://my.unidata.ucar.edu/content/software/netcdf/index.html OpenDAP Organization publications: http://opendap.org/ ESONET: The European Seafloor Observatory Network www.abdn.ac.uk/ecosystem/esonet/ IFREMER contribution site: http://www.ifremer.fr/esonet/ ASSEM - Array of Sensors for long term Seabed Monitoring of Geohazards http://www.ifremer.fr/assem/ Coastal DataBuoys – MAREL System: http://www.ifremer.fr/prod/marel/mareluk.htm IFREMER/SISMER (Data Centre): http://www.ifremer.fr/sismer/ BIOCEAN database for biological samplings and submarine diving. http://www.ifremer.fr/isi/biocean/ EDIOS : European Directory of the Initial Ocean-observing System: http://www.edios-project.de/ EDMED: European Directory of Marine Environmental Data catalogue: http://www.bodc.ac.uk/services/edmed/ IODE: International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange: http://ioc3.unesco.org/iode/ CORIOLIS/ARGO Data Centre http://www.coriolis.eu.org/coriolis/cdc/ SEA SEARCH : Oceanographic and Marine Data & Information in Europe – Consortium of National Data Centres: http://www.sea-search.net/ SEA DATA NET: Pan-European infrastructure for Ocean & Marine Data management: http://www.seadatanet.org/ 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation. 9.1 Necessary conditions for the implementation of an ESONET observatory • The scientific need for long term continuous data acquisition has long been acknowledged for several disciplines1. It is based on historic data (probably not complete) demonstrating the necessity of permanent monitoring • The complementarity with on land networks, satellite data, lagrangian float data, permanent moorings is demonstrated with models (improvement of positioning for earthquake epicenter for instance). • The number of disciplines interested in case of cabled observatory must be high. • The site must be well defined, the seabed must be mapped with the latest acoustic and seismic equipments and the soil sampled and analysed. The legal issues of EEZ extension, fishing rights and regulations,… must be solved. • Another crucial condition is the ability to build a regional consortium of users and financing institutions. 9.1 ESONET observatories should be established where there is a well demonstrated multidisciplinary scientific need and an active regional consortium. 9.2 . Cabling vs not cabling: maturity of the decision In this report we propose that representative monitoring around Europe may be done through a network of 10 regional nodes. This can be seen as an operational objective for the next decade. An evidence is the relatively limited cost of some preliminary deployments at some spots of high scientific interest : - with near real time or periodic data transmission needed to continue the first set of historic data such as Hausgarten (Arctic), Gulf of Corinth (Hellenic), Momar (Azores), - built on existing cable infrastructure such as extension of Antares cable (Ligurian sea), extension of SN-1 (Sicily), or NESTOR site, - mobile observatory for the monitoring of wrecked ships or geohazard events. A stepwise development starting with these observatories would bring a significant expertise on scientific packages, data management systems and strengthen multidisciplinary cooperation. The criteria to be fullfilled for the decision of launching new networked cable observatories have to be established. 9.2 Initial development of ESONET will use existing cable infrastructure. Other parts will operate with non-real time data acquisition using non-cabled observatories. 1 e.g Thiel et al (1994) Scientific requirements for an abyssal benthic laboratory. Journal of Marine Systems 4: 421-439 317 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation 3. Comparison of Communications Cables and Scientific Cable Systems. The global telecommunications industry is very well established with a long history of installation of transoceanic cables starting with early copper conductor telegraph cables in 1858, telephone cables from 1956 followed by fibre optic cables from 1988. It is logical therefore in considering sub sea observatory networks to turn to this industry for their expertise. There are however important differences between scientific and communications cables. Table 9.1. Comparison of telecommunications and scientific cables (After Tokura et al. 2004) Parameter Telecom Cable Scientific Cable Network Configuration Channel Capacity between terrestrial terminals Cable Failure Point to point Very large Mesh-like Small Fatal Up to tens of kb.s-1 Rerouting using mesh-like Topology Hundreds of Mb.s-1 Simple Complex Low High Essential Comparable with terrestrial devices Telemetry from underwater plant Functions of underwater plant Power consumption of Underwater plant Reliability of underwater plant Typically a telecommunications cable has a simple point to point configuration transmitting data between land stations at either end. The essence of scientific cables is that data are collected by sensors in the ocean for transmission to one or more land stations. Control signals are also transmitted from the land stations to the sub sea instrument platforms. In telecommunications systems the most complex functions, modulators and demodulators are on shore whereas in scientific systems much of this complexity will be on the sea floor. Scientific systems are likely to comprise a network of sensors suggesting a mesh-like layout of cables on the sea floor. Scientific cables have a modest data capacity compared with telecommunications cables, 100Mbs per node is proposed by NEPTUNE with High Definition Television (HDTV) probably the most demanding (24Mbps using MPEG2 compression). Third generation fibre optical telecom cables introduced in 2001 have a data capacity of 960 Gbps per fibre but the control signals for the repeaters represent only a few tens of kbs. The TCP-4 cable installed between Japan and North America in 1992 has a total length of 9850 km with repeaters at intervals of 120km. The power consumption of each repeater is ca. 50W giving a total power consumption of the transoceanic underwater system of less than 5kW. By contrast scientific cables may require 1-2kW per observatory. Underwater cameras with lights require the most power and managing fluctuations in power demand in an underwater network may be challenging for designers. Current prototype cabled observatories such as ANTARES and SN-1 use standard telecommunications cable technology. However as complex networks are deployed across the sea floor is likely that some development will be required. For scientific cables there will be a requirement for a new generation of hardware with relatively low data rate, high power supply to sub sea nodes and a mesh-like architecture that can be readily added to or reconfigured. 9.3 ESONET should be developed through installation of a network of up to date fibre optic cables dedicated to scientific use. 318 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation 9.4. Reuse of Telecommunications cables for Scientific Applications. Since 2001 telecommunications companies began installing 3rd generation fibre optic cables which has resulted in premature retirement of the 1st and 2nd generation cables installed in the early 1990s. These retired cables have been offered to the scientific community. There are a number of disadvantages in re-use of old telecommunications cables: (a) The location of the cables may not be ideal. (b) The power (copper conductor) capacity is unlikely to be sufficient for many scientific applications. (c) Attachment of hardware at sea by retrieval of the old cable and splicing on board ship entails significant risk. (d) For obsolete cable technologies, the training of maintenance teams is not assured. (e) Performance and life of the cable cannot be guaranteed. (f) For cables less than 1000km in length, cost saving in reuse of an old cable is negligible, zero or negative over the life of the project. Reuse of telecommunications cables may be advantageous in establishing mid-ocean arrays or observatories where cost of the length of cable is prohibitively high. For example the H20 observatory is located in the Pacific Ocean approximately half way between Hawaii and a mainland USA(http://www.whoi.edu/science/AOPE/DSO/H2O/) on the end of telecommunications cable which was cut and terminated especially for this purpose. A power supply and modulation/demodulation equipment was installed at Makaha in Hawaii. The cable is an old type second-generation SD series analogue cable with substantial copper conductors. The TCP-4 second generation fibre optic cable is considered to be well located for a linear array of geophysical sensors in the North Pacific Ocean ( Shirasaki 2004). Reuse of telecommunications cables is generally not considered advantageous for any part of the ESONET system. The longest length of cable required for ESONET reaches 650km into the Atlantic Ocean; too short to make reuse a viable proposition. In the MOEN experiment (Section 7.3.3.) use is made of existing cables but this is a special case with no fitting of subsea hardware to the cable 9.4 Re-use of disused telecommunications cables is generally not appropriate for ESONET. 5. Choice of Cable Technology for ESONET. Scientific sub sea cable technology is still in its infancy and no standard designs have yet emerged. There are clear advantages in using commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) products used in other industries where the R&D spend is much greater. Technology in optical networks is advancing very rapidly and it is difficult to decide when to make the design choice. Considerable engineering development work has been done by NEPTUNE-MARS projects in the North America, and the VENUS-ARENA projects in Japan. The objectives of NEPTUNE and ARENA are broadly similar but they have adopted completely different solutions for their power systems. NEPTUNE proposes a constant voltage feeding system whereas ARENA will use a constant current system. The constant current system is conventionally used in telecommunications cables and has the following advantages. (a) It can continue operating even when there is a cable fault. The power feed can compensate for faults in the cable by adjustment of the voltage. (b) The position of faults can be easily located. (c) The power circuits in underwater repeaters are simple and easy to isolate from the sea ground potential. Disadvantages are: (a) Science nodes usually require a constant voltage so a converter is required which may be inefficient. 319 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation (b) Splitting of power at branches is complicated requiring use of special Power Branching Units (PBU). Responding to change in demand from high loads such as lights which might be switched on and off autonomously at the sub sea node is particularly demanding. The constant current mode was chosen for the ARENA project because it is deemed important that the system should continue to function even if cables are damaged during an earthquake. An important function of ARENA is to monitor earthquakes. The constant voltage network is capable of higher total power and this was one factor in favour of its use in the NEPTUNE design. (Kojima et al. 2004). It is doubtful if there is any single optimal solution for all systems. For communications, various signal protocols might be used. Telecommunications cables are generally fixed systems working to some form of SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) standard. Scientific networks need to accommodate expansion and alteration of the distribution of nodes on the sea floor. For scientific networks IP-over-Ethernet technology is being considered. Sonnichsen et al. (2004) discuss various technical options for NEPTUNE and ARENA based on Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) that is capable transmitting more than one wavelength on each fibre pair. Typically up to eight different wavelengths can be accommodated thus vastly increasing bandwidth. Possibilities discussed are Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) and Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM). These can be used in various ways including WDM with Raman optical modulators. The latter is a new development (Tokura et al. 2004) proposed for ARENA and it is estimated that it is possible to achieve 16 Gb.s-1 over a 10,000km length of cable (including optical repeaters) and includes a precise clock signal necessary for timing of earthquake observations. The diversity of technologies is indicated by the data for unrepeatered (UR) submarine optical cables from one manufacturer, Alacatel. These UR systems are a growth area in submarine fibre optics enabling links of up to 400km in length to be set up with minimal sub sea infrastructure. Four different configurations are proposed according to distance and capacity. (http://www.alcatel.com/submarine/products/ur/) For scientific applications where transmission of data is required originating from a sub sea node there remain considerable uncertainties. For DWDM the reliability of necessary stabilised laser sources in underwater housings has not yet been proved in the field. The WDM/Raman modulator overcomes this problem by generating the optical signals in terrestrial terminals which then only need modulation in the underwater observation nodes. However these modulators have not been yet been evaluated in the field. At the time of writing therefore it is not possible to determine the optimal cable technology for ESONET both from the point of view of power supply and communications protocols. The University of Victoria in its Request for Proposals (RFP) to potential contractors for the first part of the NEPTUNE system (NEPTUNE Canada) is using a “technology neutral” approach. The RFP defines performance requirements and it is left to the contractors to choose the appropriate technology.2 In the case of ESONET it is unlikely that the same communication system would be used throughout all the regional observatory networks. Different lengths of cables and number of observatory nodes imply different hardware solutions. Furthermore the schedule of observatory implementation is dependent on external budgets and regional or national decisions and over the time period of the whole ESONET implementation, optimal solutions are likely to change. Nevertheless, the objectives of strengthening the integration of Marine Research in Europe and involvement of SME’s are leading to compatibility requirements: 2 Differences may have arisen owing to the difference in timing of developments between North America and the USA. ARENA started some years before NEPTUNE. 320 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation - - - - - at the seafloor, the high level of instrumentation required by a long-term monitoring requires the possibility to exchange measuring equipment by better ones ; methods of measurements for environment and security are likely to change more quickly than the cable lifetime (20-25 years) due to advances in science, sensor technology, environment policies or regulations ; it may be very costly to adapt new features to several regional networks with various constraints and interfaces ; scientific cooperation must be based on “transparent” conditions for any institute from Europe or collaborating country ; it means that communication protocols with sensors, interfaces with subsea nodes and software on land must be well documented and in open access ; it is more easily guaranteed by a preliminary agreement on standards (Esonet label); a buseness opportunity must be offered to European companies and SME’s ; the interest to place the project Esonet at a European level instead of national level is to offer a wider market ; the competition will be more open if some standards are defined, leading to lower prices and better testing of scientific package technologies ; if we were not able to define enough standards for interoperability, only some very big institutes will be able to manage and operate their regional subsea observatory network ; because of the long life of the cables, this could be a drawback for any integration of Marine Science in Europe during the next 25 years. Standards should ease for a limited cost the transfer from a non-cabled observatory to a cabled observatory WP 7 workshops of ESONET AC have concluded that Ethernet is a good standard for transmission on the cable, and that an agreement on data encapsulation in the communication protocol is very efficient for exchange between partners. 9.5. ESONET should specify standards and protocols defining both ends of the system (land and subsea-system) for interoperability and modularity but leave to each bid for tender the specification of technical details of cable engineering, power supplies or intermediate communications protocols. 9.6 ESONET Organisation and implementation. ESONET comprises 10 regional networks totalling ca. 4000km of cable. This length of cable would represent a modest contract for a cable company with ships capable of laying over 10,000km during one voyage. However it is unlikely to be practical to install the whole of ESONET as a single project. (a) In some regions there are existing cables. (b) Different regional nodes require different technologies. (c) Simultaneous organisation of 10 or more land-fall sites is not practical, some projects would be delayed and others implemented too hastily. Furthermore because of the above and other reasons a unified ESONET organisation owning and operating all the regional networks is not feasible. We propose a federal organisation for ESONET with local ownership and management of each regional observatory. The essential components of an ESONET cabled regional network are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Administration centre. Data management and dissemination centre (networked to other Esonet regional observatories) Land-fall site with power supplies. The sub sea cable with branches. Sub sea junction boxes to which observatories are connected. Tether cables connecting observatories to the junction boxes. Observatories Permanent scientific packages 321 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation 9. Hosted scientific packages. In a mature system a scientific user of the observatory should see elements 1,3,4,5 as a utility providing power and communications on the sea floor and should not be concerned with details of their operation. In the case of non-cabled networks, the essential components are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Administration centre. Data management and dissemination centre. Land based telemetry station Observatories Permanent scientific packages Hosted scientific packages. Each regional network should be organised by a legally incorporated entity or “person” that can own property, hold bank accounts and enter into contracts nationally and internationally. This might be a local research institute, university, government agency, company, partnership or private organisation depending on the size and circumstances of the project. This regional legal person (RLP) would be responsible for providing the utility services to the observatories in the ocean and will report to the stakeholders and financing bodies ESONET Federation Of Regional Networks Data Archive Dissemination Black Sea ESONET •Co-ordination •Standards •Technology •Data Arctic Norway Hellenic (Nemo) SN1 Porcupine Antares MOMAR Iberia Mobile Fig 9.1 ESONET Federation The Europe-wide ESONET consortium should promote and seek funds for development of the network but the RLP will be responsible for receipt of funds from international and national sources and paying for installation and operation of the regional network. Since the RLP controls funds, it should be responsible for choice of technical solutions, deployment and operation of the system, albeit with constraints from the ESONET organisation and potential users. 322 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation ESONET will ensure that minimum standards for open use, data quality and European compatibility are complied with. This corresponds to the EU financial participation and must not be more heavy in proportion than other criteria. It may be relative to the fullfilment of EU policy requirements in environment and security coordinated at EU level such as GMES. Other stakeholders representing users (scientific or governance, local national or international) will have their own requests on operational data. This corresponds to their financial participation and must not be more heavy in proportion than other criteria. Data dissemination: open use, decision making, scientific treatements Data management - data base Link to shore New seafloor or cable Seafloor observatory Scientific packages Extension or of seafloor cable Deployment/ intervention systems Diverse observatories with open architecture Biology Seismology Acoustic and tether, near real time Other (environment and security) Exchange of best practices inside Esonet Consortium Contractors International or Esonet standards for interfaces or communication Fig 9.2 Components of an ESONET cabled regional network 9.6. ESONET should be implemented by “regional legal persons” (RLP) responsible of acquiring and operating3 the sub sea infrastructure. Central European coordination will be limited to the control of the respect of standards and quality of data 9.7 Management of Installation of the Network. In the case of a small systems, not cabled for instance, it may be possible for a large RLP to own, install, operate and service the network using its own technical resources including ships and remotely operated vehicles. This would generally not be possible for cabled observatories. More typically much of the work will be contracted out. Since the size of a project will exceed 250,000Euro the invitations to tender should be advertised in Official Journal of the European Union (http://www.ojec.com). For the largest projects this would entail an initial Prior/Pre Information Notice (PIN) inviting suppliers to enter a pre-qualification process. Selected suppliers would then be issued with an invitation to tender (ITT) which would specify in detail the requirements for the system. Cabled networks are inherently complex projects. Failure of the Hawaii 2 Observatory (H20), a relatively simple system with one cable and one junction box, failed through inadequate management (Chave, 2004) . Effective professional project management is the key to success. 3 In many cases, a regional legal person will be in charge of the investment, implementation and testing phase and will pass over to another consortium for operation. 323 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation This will be the responsibility of the RLP. In the UK a public funded project of this size would have to be managed under the PRINCE 2 system recommended by the Office of Government PRINCE, (Projects in Controlled Commerce (OGC) (http://www.ogc.gov.uk/prince). Environments), provides a formal framework for project management and is used successfully for large scale procurements. Under this system the RLP would establish a project board. The project board should be small, comprising 3 or 4 persons and effectively should “own” the project and formally take all major decisions based on advice from the project team. The project team lead by a project manager and comprising technical and other experts would undertake day to day management. The team should have in place methods for tracking of; time schedules, budgets and risks which are reviewed by the project board on a regular basis. Superimposed on this, OGC recommends a Gateway process (http://www.ogc.gov.uk) whereby the project is regularly reviewed by an external team at six critical stages from establishment of the need for the project (Strategic Assessment, Gateway zero) through procurement to readiness for Service (Gateway Four) and Final evaluation (Gateway five). Different countries and organisations will have different versions of the management process but formal methods are important in view of project complexity. The project board thus would appoint a contractor to install the cable and sub-sea junction boxes. A key issue to address is how the system is specified and who carries the risks. In one model the RLP provides the designs and detailed specification so that the contractor builds in accordance with what is provided. In this case risk lies with the RLP since if the supplier installs the equipment that is specified he is not responsible for any design flaws. A alternative model to adopt is that the RLP specifies locations and performance requirements and the contractor then designs the system, cable routes, cables, hardware and software to meet those requirements. The risk then lies with the contractor. The contract is against a statement of requirements (SOR) It is this SOR model that has been rather than a predetermined design or specification4. adopted by NEPTUNE Canada and should be the preferred method. There is a criticism that contractors may be conservative in their approach under this approach, however if a more innovative approach is desired the risks should be assessed realistically and the project may be forced to bear the costs of any failures. 9.7 - RLP should make use of formal project management tools and generally contract out design and installation of the cable system and junction boxes to specialist companies. 9.8 The Junction-box to Observatory Interface. The RLP is responsible, through its contractors, for establishment of the cable and junction box network on the sea floor. It is envisaged that the observatories themselves may be built or configured by research institutes and universities participating in the project. There is considerable expertise in Europe in this area and a variety of projects will be forthcoming that can be plugged into the sea floor infrastructure. Observatories will need to be initially deployed and connected into the system. They will then need to retrieved and redeployed at intervals for servicing or updating. There should be provision for annual inspection and servicing of observatories by ROV. Typically the observatory will be equipped with thin (ca. 5mm diameter) cable tether which might be up 1-10km in length enabling it to be deployed at some distance from the junction box. 4 There is no contradiction between the two. It is only a matter of project phases, see international standards on project management. Phase 0 (Underway with Esonet AC): defines the need , the price, the market and stakeholders and the th feasibility. Then decision is taken to go ahead or not (4 Call of FP6 says go) Phase 1;1: Synthesis of Requirements, general and specific to each regional network. It states the background, the functions (aims –often ranked from the most important to the less important), the range of performances (that will be discussed depending on cost effectiveness), the constraints (environment, legal, regulatory, ethics,…). Note that standards on interfaces, modularity, interoperability, open software, … are very common constraints that will be relevant for ESONET. Access and storage of data, as well as ease of maintenance by several potential contractors are more in the “functions”. Phase 1.2 : Pre-design study. May be already a First Part of the work of the contractor selected with the Requirements (case of Neptune Canada), then a good practice is that the second Part is launched only in case of fulfilment of some price and delay conditions.. Or the predesign study is performed internally by the project who writes Specifications ; prices are asked to several companies before a choice. 324 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation Bird (2004) at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute has demonstrated an ROVmounted cable spool capable of laying and retrieving up to 2km of cable at depths down to 4000m (http://homepage.mac.com/ieee_oes_japan/abstract.html). Thus an observatory can be deployed, the cable laid on the sea floor, terminated at the junction box, all by ROV. Alternatively the observatory might be lowered on a cable from the ship, released and then connected up using the ROV. JAMSTEC in Japan has demonstrated a deep water towed body that can deploy 10km of tether cable from spool (http://seasat.iis.utokyo.ac.jp/SSC03/session7.html) which is subsequently connected at either end by ROV. This system is offered commercially by OCC Corporation. (www.occ.ne.jp). Within Europe there is experience of connecting the ANTARES array off the south coast of France and the new NEMO-SN1 system off Sicily. When an ROV or deep towed cable layer approaches the junction box there is a significant risk that the junction box might be damaged thus compromising the integrity of the whole subsea network. The question arises as to whether general purpose scientific ROVs should be used for installation and servicing or whether this task should be carried out by specialist ROVs provided by industry. Currently in Europe there is some experience of operation of scientific deep water submersibles. Ifremer has a long experience of servicing subsea stations using submersible Nautile and Cyana. With VICTOR6000, Ifremer has demonstrated the versatility of scientific ROV’s capable of interventions for security on wrecks or observatories (ANTARES, Hausgarten-Arctic node, Momar-Azores node, Carbonate mounds-Celtnet node) in addition to academic research. In GEOSTAR and ORION, it was demonstrated that some intervention tasks may be performed by a Mobile Docker. ASSEM made the demonstration of the capabilities of small ROV’s and submersible of the HCMR on connection and retrieval tasks. New ROV’s like ISIS (SOC) or QUEST (Bremen) will enhance this European potential. These ROVs or submersibles are mostly operating from national oceanographic research vessels, a field of European cooperation in the future. ASSEM deployment in the Gulf of Corinth showed the possibility to exchange subsea intervention techniques between specialists of Italy France and Greece. It is doubtful if these research vessels and ROVs would be available for extended periods each summer to service the needs of ESONET observatories. The ESONET technical workshops concluded that: • cable laying can be done is by industry and there is significant number of capable contractors • ROV intervention is a mature technique and is available from private service companies as well as scientific institutes, • the subsea observatories will benefit from well defined interfaces and procedures applicable by most ROVs ESONET will propose general requirements for the ROV interventions. It will be incumbent upon the RLP to identify certified ROV operators that can intervene at junction boxes. These operators might be scientific ROVs if they can gain sufficient experience. It is not practical to have research vessels of different nations accessing the junction boxes in an unregulated manner. It may be feasible for these vessels to deploy the observatories for subsequent connection by the certified ROV operator. Another model might be that the original contractor responsible for the cable and junction box installation is also responsible for the servicing and connections, taking on the associated risks. The RLP should also have in place protocols for approving the design and interfaces of each observatory in the system to ensure that is does not compromise the integrity of the sub sea network. This might be a function that could be provided through ESONET, an independent technical audit based on preliminary established rules. 325 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation 9.8. Observatories can be designed, manufactured or commissioned by user organisations but best practice must be shared at European level ; design and installation arrangements should ensure that damage is not caused to the system infrastructure. 9.9 Data Management and Dissemination. Data management is a complex issue that is considered in detail in section 8 of this report, it must tend to a similar level of availability as satellite or in-situ data from other GMES projects (Mersea, Coastwatch, Roses). An ESONET data management center will host a portal for access to the various regional centers where regional or thematic (data base of a recognized specialist institute) data will be stored. The different tasks and activities can be distributed over regional or thematic centres (depending on EU or international agreements). The user should get an integrated access to quality data, information and products ; standardisation5 makes possible communication and networking. The RLP for each part of ESONET may be responsible for the cable infrastructure but may play varying roles in the data management. Theoretically the RLP could simply provide the cable infrastructure and by analogy to a telecoms utilities need not be concerned with the data content or management6. However in practice the RLP may be a research institute that is also a user and responsible for some of the observatories or instruments on the network. Data from the regional network may be buffered or archived locally7. Some data such as real-time seismic data would be transmitted directly to relevant international networks. Chave et al.(2004) describe a hierarchical or “stovepipe” design for an ocean observatory in which data transfer to users is controlled by the structure of the system. They argue that this will be replaced by the “web services architecture” in which data can move between nodes with no attempt to pre-define the linkages between different elements. Thus intelligent observatories on the sea floor may talk to one another and make use of data without reference to any shore based command or control. Also users might configure “virtual observatories” by linking together sensors and services in different ways for different applications. The access to environment data must be accessible by all citizens according to the new regulations. The challenge for ESONET will be to meet all these demands from users. It requires an open data principle: open software and open architecture. 9.9 Data dissemination policies and methods will have to take account of potential nonheirarchical modes of operation in future. The databases issued from subsea observatories are not stand alone systems, they are linked to modelling, satellite sensing data, historical time series, land networks,… The real output of ESONET will be integrated information products decision makers and other stakeholders. There is an aspiration in ESONET to allow instant free access to data right across the network. However those individuals or organisations that have invested in the system would expect to 5 International: ISO 19115+ICES/IOC + EC Marine XML + SeaSearch Common thesaurus : Unique identifiers Exchange format(s) including common codes Codes for identifying the processing levels and the Quality level 6 In such a model the RLP simply transfers the data from sensor to user but is not concern with content or meaning. Web architecture of sensors could, would ensure that metadata such as sensor calibration and type is attached to the data packet. Data integration and quality control could be very remote from the observatory and indeed remote from the regional network. 7 We presume stake holders and financing bodies will require evidence value for money so such a laisez faire attitude may not be practical. 326 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation have privileged access possibly exclusive use for a defined time period (for academic research). There may also be issues of confidentiality (restricted information for security applications, fisheries and anthropogenic8). For example an external user accessing geotechnical data may conclude that a disaster is impending, information that may be commercially sensitive. A data dissemination policy needs to be carefully considered as the ESONET develops. ESONET results should contribute to monitor policy changes and highlight relevant data sets into the future : • free and open access according to IOC Data Policy programmes is recommended for basic data, especially the data requested for risk assesment in real time and delayed mode • The data policy should encourage the highest number of scientific publications experimental data should not be restricted for more than 2 years of scientific confidentiality • Free access to specific data products for the citizens. Data archiving must ensure perennial access. 9.10. Future development of ESONET technology and Operations The primary focus of ESONET should be to provide platforms, power and data transmission services for sensors in the ocean. Ultimately it is envisaged that much of this will be achieved through use of networks of cables on the sea floor but telemetry buoys and other technologies will be used in appropriate locations and missions. Given the above two premises, there are two directions in which the ESONET can develop; • • ESONET comprehensive ocean data and information service (ESONET-Maxi) ESONET sub-sea communications and power service (ESONET-lite). ESONET-Maxi. In this model ESONET establishes the observatory networks around Europe as outlined in this report and is intimately involved in sensor calibrations, data management, archiving, dissemination and exploitation. ESONET thus becomes a major point of contact for marine information services. ESONET-Lite. In this model ESONET only concerns itself with providing the platform, power and communications and does not concern itself with data content. For example data from a client’s sensor (e.g. Seismometer) is transmitted to the client’s shore base or other specified locations. Clients may also access and interrogate sensors using the ESONET communications facility. ESONET confines itself to ensuring sensors, instruments and data transmission are compatible with overall network integrity. Within Europe there are a various of marine data archiving and dissemination services at regional, national and international. It is inappropriate for ESONET to compete with or seek to supersede existing systems. In initial development of cable observatories it is inevitable that the research institutes carrying out this work will have a direct interest in use of the data. Ultimately ESONET should not have a special role in analysis of data. For example real-time seismic or sea level data, should be simply made available to relevant earthquake or tsunami protection agencies. Also in long term monitoring of global change the ANIMATE project is has already successfully deployed and operated ocean data buoys in the North Atlantic Ocean, and has set up sensor validation, data archiving and dissemination protocols. If such systems are connected to future ESONET cables there is no reason why ESONET needs to intervene in 8 From discussions at ESONET Kiel Workshop 327 9. Conclusions: Future Implementation the existing data management. ESONET simply provides access to a junction box, power and communications bandwidth. It is important that ESONET does not duplicate what is already being done by other agencies. The aim should be to create the critical mass of human, physical and financial resources necessary to implement the future major subsea infrastructure. 328 ESONET Annexes to Report Annexes . ANNEX 1 Industrial offshore standards ANNEXE 2 Environment tests ANNEX 3 Telemetry ANNEX 4 Connection to shore and costs 329 ESONET Annexes to Report This page is intentionally left blank for duplex printing 330 Annex 1 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. EXAMPLE OF A SUBSEA OBSERVATORY DESIGN (ASSEM here). DEFINITION: AP: N/A: INV: Comply Stand. ID A-001 4.3.3 NORSOK Standard applicable to ASSEM project NORSOK Standard non applicable to ASSEM project This Standard investigated by experts Y: Yes, ASSEM complies with NORSOK Standard N: No, ASSEM does not comply with NORSOK Standard Standard Title A - ADMINISTRATION Development, Structure, drafting and revision of NORSOK Standard, Rev 4 Language Standard Description ASSE M Comply As ASSEM do not intend to set new standards up, it is N/A Consequently, that should be the standard to/from Norwegian Organisations. N/A N/A AP Y No Standard available on NTS web site N/A N/A Deal with living quarters N/A N/A Deal with drilling and well facilities N/A N/A Deal with A.C. voltage and D.C. voltage of UPS 48V minimum. Minimum voltage considered in the Standard is UPS 48V D.C., for telecommunication systems. D.C. voltages for telecommunication system may have one pole earthed N/A N/A N/A N/A Defines rules for structure and drafting of NORSOK Standards. Standards shall be written in English (British) language. Comments on Standard B - PROCUREMENT E-001 C – CIVIL / ARCHITECT Living quarters area, Rev 2 D - DRILLING Drilling facilities, Rev 2 E - ELECTRICAL Electrical systems, Rev 4 5.1 System voltage and frequency 5.4.2 System earthing C-001 D-001 G-CR001 331 G - GEOTECHNOLOGY Marine soil investigations Deal with marine soil investigation in the view of Oil and Gas structure installation (to address geohazards, ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. INV INV shallow gas occurrence, seabed features). Sampling covers piston samplers and rotary coring. The procedure addresses, as well, drilling, in situ testing and lab tests. H - HVAC Deal with heating, ventilation and air conditioning I-001 4.1 4.2 I – INSTRUMENTATION / METERING Field instrumentation, Rev 3 Instrument Supplies • Electrical supply to field instruments: 24V D.C. (standard) or 230V A.C. 50 Hz • Electrical supply to field instruments: 24V D.C. (standard) or 230V A.C. 50 Hz Signal Types • Analogue input/output: 2 wires, 4-20 mA • Digital input: Potential free contact • Digital output: 24V DC N/A N/A This standard identifies the requirements to field instrumentation design AP AP Need to be investigated by Electronic Engineers (JB, NLD, PEG) INV INV INV 4.3 332 Instrument Design Principles • Analogue instruments shall be used for switch functions • Galvanic isolation barriers shall be used for I/O signals • Any arrangement of instruments shall allow the removal of sensor/detector head while maintaining the integrity of the other sensors, e.g. in addressable systems. • Instruments shall meet requirements to EN 50081-2 and EN 50082-2 regarding electromagnetic ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. INV INV AP N • compatibility For field instruments not specifically dealt with in this standard, the design shall be based on recognised international standards where applicable. Possible interferences with ROV, vessel’s equipment, NGI equipment INV AP 4.4 4.5.3 J-003 Instrument Installation Design Principles • Package suppliers shall terminate instrumentation cables in junction boxes at skid edge or at agreed termination point Instrument Housing • Instrument housing shall be resistant to saline atmosphere J – MARINE OPERATIONS Marine operations, Rev 2 • • 4.5.4 • 7.1 • • 333 Key personnel participating in marine operations shall be able to speak a Scandinavian language or English. Marine operations shall be properly planned for all stages of a project or operation. A project operations manual shall be prepared for and cover all phases of the work, from start of preparations for the operation to the complete Defines the basic requirements to • vessels performing marine operations, to the planning, execution and work associated with such operations on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. • Coastal state regulations may contain requirements additional to this standard, depending on the function the vessel is to perform in the petroleum activity. All requirements presented in this standard are in agreement with basic international rules and procedures for work at sea, in any part of the world. They are fully applicable for operations in ASSEM. A few points to emphasize: As we expect that the Ormen Lange operations will be carried out from a Norwegian vessel, we assume that the vessel and her crew will abide by NORSOK requirements. NGI and his O&G Partners are certainly aware of all regulations applying in the Norwegian Waters. AP AP AP AP AP ASSEM key personnel participating to Ormen Lange pilot should speak English. AP A project operation manual should be prepared prior to Ormen Lange pilot. Question to NGI: What is the deadline to deliver this document ? AP ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. 7.3.2 demobilisation. All marine operations close to third part installations or their surrounding safety zones shall be performed in compliance with third party requirements. L – PIPING / LAYOUT • M-001 M - MATERIAL Materials selection, Rev 2 M-102 Structural aluminium fabrication, Rev 1 ASSEM operations should comply with O&G Operators requirements if Ormen Lange pilot is in the vicinity of their installations. AP Deal with pipes, fittings, flanges and valves N/A Standards provides general principals, engineering guidance and requirements for material selection and corrosion protection Standard covers requirements for • fabrication and inspection of aluminium structures. • INV • • Fabrication and Welding sections are fully relevant to ASSEM fabrication of MN. Testing sections may be, nevertheless, not so critical for ASSEM. The standard refers to many norms (EN, BS, NS) The whole standard should be reviewed by IFREMER key engineers. INV M-121 Aluminium structural material, Rev 1 Standard presents aluminium material specifications for use in aluminium structures. It gives recommendations on alloy grade and temper. • • • Selection of material is a section relevant to ASSEM. QC testing may be, however, not so critical for ASSEM. The whole standard should be reviewed by IFREMER key engineers. INV M-501 Surface preparation and protective coating Standard gives requirements for selection of coating materials (paints, thermally sprayed metallic coatings, passive fire protective coatings), surface preparation, application procedures and inspection • • • • • 334 Mainly deals with steel material Numerous references to ISO norms but all refer to steel Aluminium is supposed not to be coated The general guidelines are probably known by IFREMER Engineering Department The whole standard should be reviewed by ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. N/A IFREMER key engineers INV M-503 M-CR505 Cathodic protection, Rev 2 Corrosion monitoring design, Rev 1 M-506 CO2 Corrosion rate calculation, Rev 1 M-CR621 GRP piping materials, Rev 1 M-650 Qualification of manufacturers of special materials, Rev 2 Standard gives requirements for cathodic protection design of submerged installations and manufacturing of sacrificial anodes. • • • Standard applicable to design and installation with monitoring systems for external and internal corrosion on offshore structures and production systems. Standard presents calculation of corrosion rates. The corrosive agent is CO2. Apply in hydrocarbon production for topside piping, vessels, pipelines and subsea production facilities. Standard defines requirements for design, manufacturing, installation, etc of GRP piping systems • Standard establish a set of qualification requirements to verify competence and experience of manufacturer. • • • • • • • 335 Cathodic protection generally not used by IFREMER. Furthermore, standard deals mainly with steel structures But gives interesting anode design parameters. The standard should be reviewed by IFREMER key engineers, to assess the applicability for ASSEM Objective is to monitor the efficiency of the cathodic protection system. Deals with steel submerged structures Deals with piping systems and flowlines Fully refers to a UKOOA Specifications and lists amendments to this norms. Piping covers flowlines for all kind of liquid, i.e. various waters, aggressive fluids (acid) but not hydrocarbons. Standard describes how to assess knowledge of manufacturer experience, how to check facilities and equipment. Also described is qualification of the process and testing procedures to produce a Qualification Test Record. The term “Manufacturer” seems to cover, in the standard, activities under responsibilities of SemiFinished Product Provider (i.e. the foundry) and IFREMER (final designer) ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. INV N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M-710 Qualification of non-metallic sealing materials and manufacturers, Rev 2 Standard defines requirements for critical polymer sealing materials for permanent use subsea (well, X-mas trees, control systems, valves). It covers requirements and procedures for qualification of polymer for use in such applications. • The document should be scanned by key engineer to check if all qualifications are valid. • Standard describes in detail the tests to qualify manufacturers of sealing materials (thermoplastic and elastomeric) and the materials themselves. Test procedures require conditions of temperatures, pressure and fluids that are not relevant to a project like ASSEM. It may be useful, however, to review this standard by key engineers, to confirm that those sealing materials will / will not be used in ASSEM and under which conditions. • • INV N/A N/A INV N - STRUCTURAL • N/A N/A No Standard available on NTS web site N/A N/A Provides requirements for topside process piping and equipment design on offshore production facilities. N/A N/A Describes technical requirements for design, manufacture, assembling, product inspection, installation and testing of mechanical equipment, except lifting equipment. Pumps, compressors, turbines, transmissions, and more are addressed. No equipment N/A • Specifies general principles and guidelines for the structural design of load bearing structures. Deal with all types of offshore structures, even sub sea structures but not applicable to ASSEM equipment. O - OPERATIONS P - PROCESS R-001 336 R - MECHANICAL Mechanical equipment, Rev 3 ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. R-CR002 Lifting equipment, Rev 1 Annex A Equipment data sheets (normative) R-003 Lifting equipment operation, Rev 1 R-100 Mechanical equipment selection, Rev 2 Describes basic requirements for design, fabrication, testing and other relevant services of lifting equipment. applicable to ASSEM project. • All requirements presented in this standard are in agreement with basic international rules for work at sea, with lifting gears. They are fully applicable for operations in ASSEM. • Note 1: It is expected that the Ormen Lange operations will be carried out from a Norwegian vessel. It is assumed that the vessel and her crew will abide by NORSOK requirements. Data sheets and sketches are provided for various lifting appliances: hoists, trolleys, chain slings, shackles, load hooks, lifting lugs, eyebolts and eyenutes. There are no dimension shown but it may be wise to match MN lifting devices to the shape of those appliances. • All requirements presented in this standard are in agreement with basic international rules and procedures for work at sea, with lifting gears. They are fully applicable for operations in ASSEM. • See Note 1 Covers guidelines for the selection and sizing of rotating machinery and other mechanical equipment, in critical service, in oil installations. AP AP AP N/A S - SAFETY • S-001 337 Technical Safety, Rev 3 All requirements deal with health, safety and work environment, on offshore installations. By extension, requirements apply to vessel working in the vicinity of offshore installations. • Note 2: Requirements are applicable to ASSEM during system deployment at Ormen Lange. Installation vessel and crew should abide by NORSOK requirements. ASSEM team should abide by installation vessel safety procedures. Apart from this deployment phase at Ormen Lange, there are no specific obligations to the ASSEM system design. Describes principles and requirements See Note 2 above. for the development of the safety design for offshore production ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. AP AP N/A S-002 Working Environment, Rev 3 S-CR002 S-003 Health, Safety and Environment During Construction, Rev 1 Environmental Care, Rev 2 S-005 Machinery-working Environment Analyses and Documentation, Rev 1 S-006 HSE-Evaluation of Contractors, Rev 1 T - TELECOMMUNICATION . U-001 U - SUBSEA Subsea Production Systems, Rev 2 U-002 Subsea Structures and Piping, Rev 2 U-006 Subsea Production Umbilical, Rev 2 338 installations, including vessels Describes design principles related to the working environment (noise, illumination, chemical hazards, vibrations, …). See Note 2 above. AP Defines requirements for HSE during See Note 2 above. construction activities. Deal with discharges of chemical and See Note 2 above. wastes on installations (offshore drilling, production and transportation of petroleum). Describes methods for working See Note 2 above. environment analyses applicable to offshore machinery, and other technical products having similar hazards. AP Describes items and methodology for evaluation of contractor’s HSE management. See Note 2 above. AP Requirements deal with telecom systems and subsystems (intercom, alarm, UHF radio, sonar, radar, real time clock, …) onboard manned offshore installation and exploration rig. N/A Set the overall design requirements for underwater production systems and interfaces between subsea system and surroundings systems Deal with minimum requirements of subsea structures and In NORSOK, “structures” means O&G offshore piping systems. installations i.e. platforms, pipes and subsea production equipments. Some requirements may, however, apply to smaller subsea structures such as ASSEM nodes. See details of U-002. Deal with umbilical, tube, wire, cable specifications. In NORSOK, “umbilical” means various sealines connecting surface offshore installations to subsea production equipments. ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. AP AP N/A AP AP U-007 Subsea Intervention Systems, Rev 2 Deal with ROV requirements when working on offshore installations. U-100 Manned Underwater Operations, Rev 1 Diving Respiratory Equipment, Rev 1 Y - PIPELINES Deal with diving operations (personnel, equipment, …). U-101 Some requirements may, however, apply to wires connecting ASSEM nodes. See details of U-006. Some requirements fully apply, however, to ROV operations on ASSEM nodes. They are applicable to ASSEM during system deployment at Ormen Lange. Therefore, It is assumed that the ROV and support vessel crew are aware of NORSOK requirements and will abide by them. See details of U-007. Not applicable for Ormen Lange. Deal with design and test of breathing apparatus for divers. AP N/A N/A No Standard available on NTS web site N/A Z - MULTIDISCIPLINE Most of the requirements in this standard deal with coding and identification systems, documentation, libraries, …, not fully applicable to ASSEM project. Except, maybe, the two following requirements: Z-001 Documentation for operation, Rev 4 A.4.1 & System design reports 2 and operation manuals Z-010 Electrical, Standard covers functional and technical requirement instrumentation and related to installation of electrical, instrumentation and telecommunication telecommunication equipment. installation, Rev 3 4.5 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) N/A Page 5 of the text presents typical contents for System Design Reports and Operation Manuals Deal principally with installation on platforms with voltage => 1000 Volts. • • AP N/A All equipment and installation shall comply with Norwegian Directorate for Product and Electrical Safety: Regulation on electrical equipment (Chapter 4) regarding EMC requirements for both emission and immunity. It may be useful to review this Norm. INV 339 ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. N/A N/A 340 ESONET Annex 2 APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL OFFSHORE STANDARD NORSOK. ANNEXE 2 Example of environmental tests for each subsystem in the Assem project. – Qualification Tests d173000 d171800 d171200 d171100 d140000 SUB SYSTEMS Energy Pack C/DC Mechanism JB Energy + Circuit Breaker JB Comms and Sensors CLSI Pen d174000 Flexible Mast and Bell-shape Protection d175000 ORCA Transducer - Marine Unit d175100 ORCA Transducer - Vessel Unit d172500 COSTOF - Set of boards d172000 COSTOF – Complete container d170000 Instrumented Structure d176000 d167000 d276000 d276100 d273000 d273100 d273200 d275000 d272000 d191300 Wiring Anti Trawling Shield Benchmark – Anchor Benchmark - Clamp System IPGP Sensor - Distancemeter Mast IPGP Sensor - Distancemeter Container IPGP Sensor - Pressiometer Container CAPSUM Sensors NGI Sensors Buoy – Flotation d191310 Buoy – Frame d191400 Buoy – Containers d175200 Buoy - ORCA Transducer ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS - REFERENCE NUMBER (*) A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 A12 Comments F F S S F S S F S S F S S F S S S S S S S S S F S S F F F S S Note 7: Test the perturbations generated by THETIS propellers S S S S F S F S S F F S S F S F F F S S S F S F S F S S S S S S S S S S F F F S F F F S S F F F S S F F F F F S S S S S F F S F F F F S F F F S Structure geared with a hook compatible NORSOK Note 8: Flotation is optional Note 9 : See Family E1 Note 9 : See Family E1 Note 9 : See Family E1 341 ESONET Annex 2: ASSEM EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF TESTS d191410 Buoy - GSM Bay NOTES F 1 S 2 F F 6 12 10 3 11 4 F 5 Note 9 : See Family E1 Notes: S = Severity for STORAGE F = Severity for OPERATION (“FUNCTIONING”) (*) References are made to the document:[R2]. This document includes two references: XP X 10-800: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide Environmental Tests. XP X 10-812: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged Equipment. 1 – ACCEPTANCE tests on equipment for Norway will serve as QUALIFICATION tests (as there is only 1 equipment). 2 – SALT SPRAY tests will be replaced by BASIN tests on the complete instrumented structure. 3 – MARINE FOULING tests are mandatory but would require 6 months immersion on several sites. They will be planned on another project. An anti fouling coat is recommended on the buoy. 4 – LIGHTNING STRIKE is a risk for the buoy. However, IFREMER is not equipped to undertake this test. No incident was reported on previous IFREMER buoys. A lightning rod and conductor are, however, recommended on the buoy. 5 – BASIN test is not referenced in [R3]. Test will be carried out in the IFREMER Brest pool, on the instrumented structure and the instrumented buoy, in operation. 6 – Usefulness of ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY tests need to be assessed, as they are complex. As per IFREMER experience with buoys, no perturbation was ever reported. 7 – If ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY test is carried out, test on CLSI would serve as monitoring the level of (possible) perturbations generated by the THETIS propellers, on CLSI system. Propeller characteristics should be obtained from NCMR. This point is to be checked out in September 2003, in NCMR, during the tests on THETIS. 8 – During BASIN test, the flotation is optional. Aerial equipment can be stored on pool ledge. 9 – Tests on structure sub systems, sensors and transducers should relate to “Family E2”. Tests on buoy sub systems (except transducer) should relate to “Family E1” more appropriate than “Family E2” as for aerial equipment. The severity is identical on both Families except for SOLAR RADIATION, more severe in case of “Family E1”. 10 – CONDENSATION test: In case of work on an air-filled container, onboard the vessel, special work procedure should apply to dispel air inside the container with nitrogen spray (or equivalent). 11 – DISTURBANCE OF THE MAIN SUPPLY test: Incidence of low battery voltage on the operation should be considered. Does it lead to no data ? Erroneous data ? Or equipment damage ? 12 – ASSEM contractual operation depth is 4000 m. Norm is Ps = 41.2 MPa (412 bars), Ts = 2°C. 342 ESONET Annex 2: ASSEM EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF TESTS – Acceptance Tests d173000 d171800 d171200 d171100 d140000 d174000 d175000 d175100 d172500 d172000 d170000 d176000 d167000 d276000 d276100 d273000 d273100 d273200 d275000 d272000 d191300 d191310 d191400 d175200 d191410 SUB SYSTEMS Energy Pack C/DC Mechanism JB Energy + Circuit Breaker JB Comms and Sensors CLSI Pen Flexible Mast and Bell-shape Protection ORCA Transducer - Marine Unit ORCA Transducer - Vessel Unit COSTOF - Set of boards COSTOF – Complete container Instrumented Structure Wiring Anti Trawling Shield Benchmark – Anchor Benchmark - Clamp System IPGP Sensor - Distancemeter Mast IPGP Sensor - Distancemeter Container IPGP Sensor - Pressiometer Container CAPSUM Sensors NGI Sensors Buoy – Flotation Buoy – Frame Buoy – Containers Buoy - ORCA Transducer Buoy - GSM Bay NOTES ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS - REFERENCE NUMBER(1) A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 A12 F S S S S S S S S S F S S S F S S F S S F S S S F S F Structure geared with a hook compatible NORSOK S S F F S S S S S S S S Note 9 : See Family E1 Note 9 : See Family E1 Note 9 : See Family E1 S S Note 9 : See Family E1 13 343 ESONET Annex 2: ASSEM EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF TESTS Notes: S = Severity for STORAGE F = Severity for OPERATION (“FUNCTIONNING”) 13 – Acceptance tests with STORAGE severity, followed by tests in operation.. Above recommended tests do not only apply to Corinth and Norway Pilots. They may apply, as well, to operations in very hot or very cold weather conditions. This list of tests may be reduced if only the Corinth and Norway environmental conditions need to be taken into considerations. For each test on each sub system, a form will be filled-in, describing conditions of test (personnel, resources, packaging, period, special procedures, …). A test report will be issued. so recommended as it deals with ROV requirements including ROV tools. (1) References are made to the document:[R2]. This document includes two references: XP X 10-800: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Guide Environmental Tests. XP X 10-812: Marine Environment – Oceanographic Instrumentation – Environmental Tests and Recommendations for Submerged Equipment. 344 ESONET Annex 2: ASSEM EXAMPLE OF A PROGRAMME OF TESTS Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems ANNEXE 3 Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 1. Introduction This document intends to synthesise some information about different telecommunication means, which can be used in Europe in order to transmit data coming from a data collector system. This device could be for example a buoy relaying the data from an underwater station, this system being implemented offshore. 2. Medium list One can distinguish three types of communication link: - Terrestrial network: GSM, GPRS - Satellite: Iridium, Globalstar™, Mini-M, Inmarsat,… - Free space: HF, VHF 3. Medium choice The choice for appropriate telemetry medium is depending on different criteria. The distance between the data collector system and the coast, which is influencing the choice of the radio technology as well as the necessary power, itself conditioning the requisite energy. The foremost decision elements are listed below not necessarily in importance order: - Coverage of the area by a telecommunication operator - Budget of the experiment: investment, maintenance and communication budget - Volume of the transmitted data during the mission - Number of messages - Data throughput - Energy autonomy of the system - Special specifications such as TCP/IP implementation 345 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 4. GSM/GPRS system 4.1. Presentation GSM technology is the most known of the terrestrial universal telecommunication standards. GSM has started in 80's. GPRS is its natural evolution allowing easier data transfers. Notably GPRS permits to use TCP/IP protocol with help of some development mainly software. With this technology and thanks to its protocol, the data transmissions are reliable. This well-tried technology is very attractive. Its drawback is its coverage. Indeed the operators do not cover the areas which are little inhabited, thus even more the sea area. 4.2. Implementation Different techniques can be used with GSM/GPRS for transferring the data. For little data volume like alarm signals it is possible to communicate by SMS and thus to receive the data on an Email box or Web site if they need to be consulted by several users. This method is used for information indicating that an automatic distributor is empty. The drawback is that the SMS does not have priority on the network and can be delayed until the traffic has decreased. Among others, the difference between GSM and GPRS is that the GPRS is well adapted to TCP/IP protocol. Moreover the communications are charged according to the data volume and not to the time connection. Therefore, the connection can be permanent Concerning the system development the user has to be aware that the equipment using the GPRS is not capable to be called and shall be seen as server. When the user want to be able to call his system, it is necessary to have a trick for signalling his intention to the remote system and then to initialise the call. The solution can be a ring sequence or another simpler system communication used to wake up the device. In the present state of art of the technology, it seems to be the less expensive provided that the targeted area is covered. Moreover, the service is very reliable with a rate of unsuccessful communication very low. These failures are depending on the area but except in big cities, which is not, our daily topic, remains marginal. The devices too are very reliable and it is possible to implement two modules in order to have a spare link if the first is out of service. The advantage of the implementation of the same technology for the main and the second link is that the software is identical and the use voltage and requisite current are the same, limiting the development costs. However, we have to admit that the offshore areas are not much covered. Nevertheless, GPRS use can be easily envisaged in estuary or close coast. See the annex 1 and 2 346 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 4.3. System architecture using GPRS GPRS architecture GPRS Provider server Offshore unit Web ou PSTN GPRS modem PDS RS232 link Measurement coullector unit INTERNET NETWORK LAN 347 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 5. Satellite technologies More and more satellites are dedicated to telecommunications. One can share the satellite technologies in two classes. - GEO : Geosynchronous Earth Orbits with orbits at an altitude above 15,000km - MEO : Medium Earth Orbits with orbits at an altitude between 3,000km and 15,000km - LEO : Low Earth Orbits at an altitude below 3,000km At present, the trends of the planned networks are leading towards the LEO satellite. Indeed if the GEO networks need less satellites than the low orbit networks, it is hindered by a transmission delay very long, very cramping in particular for the voice communications. But even for data transfer this latency time is a problem for duplex system. Moreover, these systems need user equipment's more powerful, thus needing more available energy and sometimes directive antennas. Contrary to the LEO satellites, the coverage area of GEO satellite is less big. Therefore, it is necessary to dispose of an important satellite constellation for covering the entire world. The advantage of the LEO network is an answer time less long. Moreover, the devices require less power and the antennas are smaller. Generally, satellite network providers offer roaming services allowing connecting you with other networks like GSM, thus artificially expanding their coverage. It is the case for example for Thuraya. Thuraya network covers South Europe, North Africa, Near and Middle East. But the handsets are also GSM, enabling its use in the most parts of the world. Generally the fees are important and for the GEO networks, the material is expensive. A table §10 summarises some characteristics of these networks in term of performances and costs. In order to set up these technologies, a minimum communication protocol should be achieved for guaranteeing a good data integrity. 348 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 5.1. A GEO network: Inmarsat 5.1.1. Description Inmarsat is a GEO communication satellite network. It can come in several modes, A, B, C, D, M, according to the wanted use. It is built up with four satellites. Inmarsat C is the more rugged system, which, due to the answer delay very long, is suitable for positioning and distress system. The most advanced is Inmarsat D+, which enables data packet transfers from a mobile. The maritime equipment well adapted for data transmission is Inmarsat M. Called "Mini M" its transmission consumption is around 20W. 5.1.2. Inmarsat coverage 5.2. A MEO network: ICO Global Communications The project concept launched in 1995 with a first satellite put on orbit in 2001 is planned to be in full operation in 2005. But it has already undergone many delays. It should be made up with 12 satellites. It is supposed a trade-off between GEO networks requiring few satellites for a global coverage but having high latency delay and LEO satellites with very good propagation delay comparable to terrestrial network but needing many satellites. 349 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 5.3. LEO network: 5.3.1. Iridium After many setbacks (bankruptcy in 1999), Iridium Satellite System® now seems to have a good financial health. The commercial services have been relaunched since March 2001. The company name is referring to the atomic number of this metal, which is 77. At the beginning, it was scheduled to have a 77 satellites constellation. Now, the total coverage of the earth including oceans, airways and Polar regions, is get with a number of 66 plus 6 in-orbit for backup. All the system satellites are shared out at an altitude of 780 km along six polar orbits. This technology uses the inter-satellite links to deliver its services. When a network terminal initiate a communication (data or voice), the nearest system satellite handles it, send it through the constellation to the Earth Gateway. Then, the communication will be dispatch to a Iridium mobile or to the terrestrial wireless transceiver switch for roaming agreements with other telecom services providers around the world (GSM, Internet, PSTN.). The maximum total capacity of the system is 253,440 users but due to the inter-satellite connection the real possible traffic is 172,000 users with a digital voice and data transmission rate of 2,4 kbits/s Note: The frequencies used between the mobiles and the satellites are in L-Band (1616 MHz to 1626.5 MHz), in Ka-band (23,18 to 23,38 Ghz) for inter-satellites link. The system modulation is mixing both time division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA). 5.3.2. Globalstar™ description The most serious Iridium competitor is Globalstar™. Its 48 satellites plus 4 for spare are flying around an altitude of 1400km. The first coverage was the US in October 1999, expanded to UK in 2000. The Globalstar™ frequency band is included between 1.6 and 2.5 GHz and uses a QPSK modulation. Currently thanks to about hundred gateways the coverage is vast but not total due to the lack of intersatellite link. Some uninhabited areas without close gateway are not covered although satellites are above. The coverage should not be improved for a while. 350 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 5.3.2.1. Globalstar™ coverage : Globalstar™ coverage 6. Free space transmissions This designation gathers all the systems, which do not need special substructure or network. They can use any frequencies provided that the frequency distribution peculiar to each state is respected. This communication mode has a drawback sometimes crippling its lack of confidentiality. For our type of application we can distinguish two main frequency bands: VHF and HF. HF frequencies are those ones between 5 and 40 MHz while VHF communications are between 40 and 500 MHz. Their functioning mode is very different. 6.1. VHF mode For VHF the maximum theoretical propagation reach is simply the distance defined by the line of sight. This one is depending on the heights of the transmitter and receiver. The theoretical distance is governed by the equation: ( ) D (km) = 4.1 * H1 + H 2 where H1 and H2 are the transceivers antennas heights from the sea level. Ex: Communication between a buoy at 2 meters above the sea surface and a terrestrial station on a hill at an altitude of 900 m. The equation yields an expected distance of 128 km. Due to their wavelength values, the VHF waves are not reflected by ionosphere. Therefore, their performances in term of distance flown are much or less higher than HF waves. Conversely, they are also less affected by atmospheric noise and interferences from electrical equipment than lower frequencies. For deriving the real distance expected the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity and the antenna gains have also to be accounted. 351 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems Knowing these elements and taking into account the free space attenuation equation: A = 32.4 + 20*Log F + 20*Log D with F in MHz and D in km, it is possible to calculate the real propagation distance conceivable. Therefore the VHF can be used for short distances around 100 km. Beyond their transmission success can be randomly. In order to guarantee a reliability in the transmission it is advisable to implement a radio protocol between the two entities. This protocol could be based on checksums and acknowledgements of the transmissions. This demands a software development in order to manage this protocol and check the data integrity and the correct transmission. 352 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 7. HF mode 7.1. Introduction When one is talking about HF link, one is standing for frequencies up to 40 MHz. This kind of transmission mean is often based upon SSB (Single Side Modulation). This type of radio link is used a lot by amateur radio often called ham. It is still very used in the maritime world where it remained long times the sole to be able to communicate at more than 100 km. Nevertheless, with satellite communications this media is a little neglected for professional communications. But HF communication keeps its advantages for ham radio. Indeed, the equipment is less expensive than satellites. It needs no subscription and the communications are free conversely to satellite communications, which are very expensive. For this subject, examples of system communication and equipment prices can be found paragraph 10. Now companies like ICOM offers through radio station such as Monaco radio some sophisticated service like transmission mail. This service is intended to become available world-wide. Another disadvantage is the difficulty to guarantee always a good reception. Indeed the transmission quality is very dependent on random physical phenomena strongly difficult to handle such as weather or geomagnetic configuration. A brief overview of the HF propagation laws is necessary at this stage. 7.2. Overview about HF propagation The principle of the HF propagation consists in ionosphere propagation. The ionosphere is located between 50 and 1000 km above the earth's surface. It is mainly composed of three layers designated by letters D, E and F, F layer itself subdivided into 2 layers, F1 and F2. The thickness, height and electron density is fluctuating along time. HF waves take benefit of their reflection by the ionosphere layers in order to travel up to several thousand kilometres when the optimal conditions are available. But this can only be achieved provided that perfect management of the frequency range and power emitted would be undertaken with respect to the current propagation conditions. Because this range is very random it is difficult to use for data applications. More generally, with average conditions one can expect easily more than 400 km with a single skip. Indeed, we will see later that it is possible to reach further distances using several reflections between earth and the ionosphere. Without explaining in detail the theory, some basics about the general principles can be introduced. 353 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems Examples of ionosphere simple propagation modes 7.2.1. Propagation parameters What are the more important parameters acting upon the HF propagation conditions and thus the expected range? In fact the propagation conditions are tied up to the electron concentration in the layers, this one depending upon different parameters whose the mains are listed hereafter: - Geomagnetic activity. - Seasons. - Transmission site area: ex: Equator, polar area - Travel path: ex: through the polar area - Daytime: sunset, night, sunrise. - Influence of sun: zenith angle, intensity, solar cycle, and so on… - Solar wind - D layer absorption - Aurora absorption. - Frequency and transmission power. - Height of the different ionosphere layers - Weather - So on... These items are dependent upon each other. The signal quality prediction must take into account all the previous parameters. For a given electron density there exits a maximum frequency above which the signal is no longer reflected but penetrates into the ionosphere. Therefore, this critical frequency is according to the parameters above listed. Therefore, for optimal propagation efficiency (large distances) it is mandatory to manage the frequency value in order to keep it below this critical frequency. In order to reach the maximum distance limit, the experts also adjust the radio source angle with the help of directional antenna. In this manner the wave penetration angle is optimised and using a frequency near the critical frequency allow getting the farthest distance, sometimes achieving several skips between ionosphere and earth surface. 354 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 7.2.2. Propagation forecasts The determination of best frequency to use is not an easy task. Day Night Day: best frequencies to use: Night: best frequencies to use: A to B: possible optimum: 3 MHz A to C: possible optimum: 7 to 9 MHz A to D: possible optimum: 13 to 16 MHz A to B: possible optimum: 3 MHz A to C: possible optimum: 5 to 7 MHz A to D: possible optimum: 9 to 12 MHz The determination of ionosphere propagation conditions is not an easy task. Conditions can vary widely from hour to hour and are strongly tied up with the area location. But like the weather the propagation conditions can be foreseen. On some web sites, maps of the current electron density in respect to the height are broadcasted. The following map allows evaluating the probability of those radio propagation conditions. 355 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems Current electron density map 7.2.3. Consequences The issues exposed just above show that care has to be taken in order to maintain a good transmission quality when using HF frequencies. Mainly it is convenient to manage dynamically the frequency in order to get the best radio path. Moreover, the radio-transmitted power shall be monitored in order to save battery energy. Thus a frequency scanning should be considered enabling the device to attempt a transmission on a given frequency value. Without response from the receiver it changes the frequency automatically until receiving a correct answer. In case of total communication failure the RF power could be increased in order to try again the previous sequence. 7.3. HF set-up 7.3.1. Hardware The frequency range offered by the professional devices are from 1 MHz to 30 MHz and their available RF powers from 5 to 150 W. Generally various modulation types are available including SSB. In addition, the device can be driven by software through a NMEA80 bus. 7.3.2. HF management 356 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 7.3.2.1. Frequency scanning Given the important power delivered by the devices even in reception (refer to §10) and assuming that the available energy is limited, to keep the RF link on all the time is not possible. In order to have a quasi real time link; radio beacon system offers a solution. It consists in a radio signal emitting periodically during few seconds. These ‘time-slots’ are distributed regularly along the day. Their periodicity will depend on the terrestrial station requests. 7.3.2.2. Communication scenario Due to the high consumption of the HF receiver when the energy autonomy is limited, it is advisable not to stay in receive mode all the time. A scenario, which could be thought, would be the following one. During the scheduled ‘time-slots’, the buoy electronic wakes up and switches to its receive mode until it detects the beacon by frequency scanning. On shore, at the same time, the beacon will be transmitted successively on several frequencies. Naturally, this frequency scanning would take into account the previous frequency values stored in order to reduce the average search time. The success and the connection speed are propagation's conditions dependent. If they were identical to previous communication, the right frequency would be quite the same. The buoy will be in receiving mode successively with the same frequency scenario. When it will identify the beacon, it broadcasts its own identification frame. As soon as the shore station and the buoy will have recognised each other and if the signal quality is sufficient, the shore station will keep the same transmission frequency. Then the two units will be able to communicate and exchange their data and commands, either on buoy initiative concerning the alarm and event messages, either on initiative of the shore station for the data message requests 7.3.2.3. HF link Synoptic 357 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems Terrestrial station MODEM HF MODEM PC Data transfer IN/OUT Interface board module RS232 Electronic card for radio management User Application NMEA bus Offshore station MODEM HF IN/OUT Interface board module Data transfer RS232 Electronic board for radio management liaison HF NMEA bus 358 DATA COLLECTOR Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 7.4. Conclusion Analysing the impact of using a HF transmission this chapter has shown that the HF technology is very interesting for transmitting data through area without network and over very long distances as several kilometres offshore. The power management is the key for the system reliability. The need of a preliminary trial with the actual equipment in orders to optimise the dynamic choice of the frequency values and power levels is mandatory. Then software able to manage the radio link must be developed. 8. TCP/IP implementation Except the GPRS technology, the others technologies discussed here are not dedicated to TCP/IP implementation. However, it is mandatory to develop Internet applications. Due to the specificity of this process, TCP/IP is not yet a commonly used protocol in radio communication especially for half-duplex. Indeed TCP/IP protocol has a very bad yield in radio transmissions. Due to the TCP/IP error management, the propagation delay and the radio noise are seen like collision problems. These confusions are resulting in several process errors. Therefore they are inducing a growth in transmission time, causing troubles like untimely disconnection's, without taking really benefit from the protocol error management. Some providers have developed specific applications compatible with the implementation of TCP/IP. In France, let us name Monaco radio for HF technology or France Telecom for Iridium which distribute software's allowing to transmit a TCP/IP protocol for Internet access. Another solution example is a device, VDC500 made by Viasat, enabling to transmit data with TCP/IP format without altering the yield of the radio link. But in fact for example when linking by radio two LAN networks, the VDC500 only uses the IP address through the radio path and compresses TCP data at the start and decompresses it at the arrival. 359 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 9. Media association In order to assure a good reliability of the system it can be advisable to associate two media, one is the main, the other being a relief link assuring the relay in case of the main has trouble whether it should be temporary or definitive. Temporary outage can be due to bad atmospheric conditions (HF), occupied channels (VHF) or busy network (GSM). We have seen just above that concerning GSM/GPRS link, one can consider the network reliability correct enough for advocating the same technology for main and second link. Concerning free space media, the communication attempts are not successful at 100%. So it could be opportune to use as second link such as satellite link. Now, Iridium seems to be the most adapted for data transfer from offshore. Its coverage is total around the world including the poles. 9.1. VHF-HF/Satellite link association SHORE STATION V.H.F + Modem RS232 User Network INTERNET RS232 PSTN modem Software application for link management ETHERNET Offshore station IRIDIUM V.H.F or HF RS232 Data collector + Link management RS232 360 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 10. Media comparative The table below summarises the main characteristics of the radio technology described above. System designation Transmission Power SSD (BLU) VHF GSM/GPRS 150 W (tunable) 5W 2W Iridium Globalstar™ Thuraya Inmarsat D 0.6 W 0.4 W 2W 40 W Power consumption Transmission Reception mode mode 400 W (for 13 W 150W)* 24 W 0.96W 7.2 W 0.48W Subscription fees (€) Roll out fees (€) Communication fees (€) Equipment price** (€) free free free 3340€ free 33€ (set price for free None free Out of set price: 1254€ 170€ free 75 € 44€ 45 € 0.3€/mn 1.65€/month 1€/mn 1.7€/mn 2.64€/mn 1392€ 1790€ 1392€ 4200€ 2h) 9.7 W 15 W 12.3 W 20 W 0.53W 2.5W 0.7 W 5W 20 €/month 30 €/month 20€/month 45 €/month * 65W consumption for 20W output power **Antenna included All these technologies can provide a throughput of at least 2400 bauds. This throughput is generally sufficient for the aimed applications. Given the weak throughput generally transmitted each time the energy spent is mainly due to the radio protocol rather than the transmission of payload data. 11. Conclusion This document gives the reader data in order to choose a radio medium adapted to its need. All these technologies have their justifications function of the different parameters of the desired transmission: localisation, traffic, distances… Some technologies need more development than others do. As seen chapter 7, the use of HF propagation system over long distances will make mandatory a software development for power and frequency management in order to optimise the probability of link success. Other technologies like GPRS are proposed with comprehensive solutions. The only need is the development of the interface between the radio link and the data collector. When several technologies can be used in a given site, the choice of the technology resides in the trade-offs between energy requirements and cost objectives. 361 Annex 3. Review of Offshore Telemetry Systems 12. Bibliography Internet documents: - Computer simulations by Marcel H. De Canck http://www.qsl.net/on5au/ VHF/UHF/ Microwave Radio Propagation by Barry www.tapr.org/tapr/html/ve3jf.dcc97/ve3jf.dcc97.html - ICOM web site: www.icom-france.fr - Monaco Radio website: www.icom-france.fr/icom2/proxsea - NAL Web site: www.nalresearch.com/ Book: -Antennas and Radio Waves Propagation by R.E. Collin, Editor: McGraw-Hill 362 McLarnon Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Gary Waterworth Nazeeh Shaheen Steve Thumbeck gary.waterworth@asn.alcatel.co.uk nazeeh.shaheen@nautronixmaripro.com SThumbeck@oceandesigninc.com Alcatel Optical Networks Division Greenwich SE10 0AG, UK Nautronix Maripro Goleta, CA 93117, USA Ocean Design Inc Ormond Beach, FL 32174, USA ABSTRACT Ocean scientists have been studying the deep sea for many years, during cruises aboard specialist research vessels. They have now started to make the transition from exploration to understanding, where a permanent presence on the sea floor is required to monitor both sporadic short-term events such as earthquakes and long-term trends such as global warming. These multidisciplinary projects require integrated industrial products such as deep-water fibre optic cable, science instrument nodes and underwater connectivity to ensure the cost effective flow of reliable data to and from the sea floor. 1. 2. SEA CHANGE Since the 1800s, oceanographers have been exploring and sampling the Earths oceans using research vessels as their primary observation platform. This work has produced a vast quantity of data with limited resolution in time. Analysis of this information has resulted in the growing recognition of how complex the process that takes place in and below the worlds oceans really is. This early work has been termed the “Exploration Phase” [1] and scientist now embark upon the new “Understanding Phase” where the existing Tools-of-theTrade cannot answer all the questions now posed. Scientists are now starting to observe Earth-Ocean systems by entering the ocean environment for ever increasing periods. Long-term access to the sea floor and water column is essential for the study and predictive modeling of temporal and episodic processes and events. Much of the natural phenomena of interest are highly variable, spanning many scales of space and time. CABLED OCEAN OBSERVATORIES In order to study this new ocean sciences paradigm a relatively new tool is being advocated with innovative facilities that will provide unprecedented levels of power and communication to access and manipulate real-time sensor networks deployed within many different seawater environments. This new facility is the cabled ocean observatory. These new facilities with their Real-Time information flow; high power and associated data archives will allow entirely new approaches to this corner of science. Cabled ocean observatories facilitate the possibility of bringing the sea floor to the student’s classroom or the general public’s own home, dramatically impacting on the general understanding and attitudes toward, the ocean sciences and science in general. Many ocean observatory programs are well underway around the world; some are planning to implement major cabled ocean observatory infrastructure. Programs are under consideration in Japan, ARENA (Advanced Real-Time Earth monitoring Network in the Area)[2], in Europe, ESONET (The European Seafloor Observatory Network)[3]; and the United States, OOI (Ocean Observatories Initiative). The largest component of the OOI is a US-Canadian regional cabled observatory called NEPTUNE (North East Pacific Time-integrated Undersea Networked Experiment) [4], for which the Canadians have received 62 Million Canadian Dollars in late 2003, (See Fig 2.) Fig 1 Modern Research Vessel Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 1 of 8 events such as seaquakes, which is crucial for some multiple node observatories concepts. Short-term observatories have used microwave or satellites to provide near real-time communications to the shore. These are however limited in terms of operational weather window, transmission capacity and quality. The long transmission delays do not support accurate timing distribution. 4. Fig 2 Neptune 3. BENEFITS OF LONG TERM CABLED OBSERVATORIES Cabled observatories out perform traditional short-term experimentation platforms such as moorings or Landers in two main areas: • Power Management • Real-Time Communications Power is supplied from the shore through the cable via a single conductor to the Science Node. The return takes place through the seawater using an electrode at the Science Node. The power requirements of a single Science Node observatory can be as much as 10kW [5]. This high power capability is available for the complete system lifetime of 25 years using Power Feeding Equipment (PFE) in the shore station. Short-term observatories are limited to battery power of a few hundred Amp hours at low voltage. This limits the operation of cameras and lights that consume as much as 200W [6], to only a few hours per mission before the observatory or modules are replaced. Logistics and costs often limit this replacement cycle to 3 or 6 months, resulting in the cameras and other power hungry experiments such as oceanography being available for less than 0.1% of the year. The other area of high performance that cabled observatories bring to the scientist is the ability to use the optical fibres of the cable for high-speed broadband communication, to and from the shore. Optical fibres also minimise the transmission delay in sending back data to shore. Accurate timing distribution is therefore possible with fibre based on protocols such as Network Time Protocol (NTP). With further enhancements it is possible to achieve a timing accuracy of 1µsec. This enables the synchronisation of monitored episodic CABLED OBSERVATORIES INFRASTRUCTURE No two cabled observatory systems would be the same. Some are short coastal systems with a single cable landing, one Science Node and limited instrumentation. Other, so-called, regional systems might have several cables coming ashore, multiple nodes and hundreds of Science Instruments. However, many of the elements and technology choices are similar. Most of these are also readily available as Commercially Off The Shelf (COTS) products. Some of the more integrated products are currently under development and will be available by 2005. The key elements of a Cabled Observatory Infrastructure are the: • Shore Station • Submarine Optical Cable and Installation • Science Node • Science Instrumentation Figure 3 Elements of a Cabled Observatory Shore Station A shore station is required to locate the Medium Voltage (up to 12kV) Power Feeding Equipment and the optical transmission Line Terminating Equipment. This station can be close to the shore or several kms away from the point at which the cable lands. An ideal location is within a research institute’s premises. Many marine institutes have facilities located close to the coast. This Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 2 of 8 allows for some of the build and operating costs to be shared with other activities. The data transmission lines can be backhauled from the shore station to another location or connected directly to the Internet or private optical network via optical cross connects and IP Routers. Submarine Optical Cable and Installation Submarine optical cable connects the shore station to the Science Node, providing suitable protection to the optical fibers and the power conductor. The cable will normally house up to 48 fibers, the number depending on the degree of Wavelength Division Multiplexing and redundancy that is employed. There are many types of optical fiber available today that are already qualified for use in submarine cable. [7] The choice would depend on the distance between the shore station and the Science Node, the number of optical channels per fiber and the transmission rate and format. Submarine Cables provide varying degrees of protection depending on the deployment depth, seabed conditions and local hazards. This is achieved through varying levels of external protection. (See fig 4) • • Bathymetry – the shape of the sea-bed, Side scan sonar data – the surface details of the seabed, • Sub-bottom profiler data – The sub surface material of the sea-bed, • Samples – physical analysis of the sea bed material, • Current and temperature – The dynamic conditions over the sea-bed, • Fishing and near-shore activity – Human impact on the route, • Other existing or planned submarine cables and pipe-lines. A route is then engineered from the survey swath data, both geophysical and geo-technical, to ensure that the route is optimised with regard to: steep slopes, inhospitable seabed, in-service cable and pipeline crossing angles, seabed debris, burial potential, and the limits of the possible installation vessel and tools. Where necessary and where the seabed structure allows, the submarine cable is typically buried to depths between 0.8 and 4m. Modern powerful installation vessels with 130 Ton bollard pull are equipped with ploughs that can bury the cable quickly and safely down to 3 meters directly during installation, at rates of between 4 and 40kms per day. (See Figs 5 and 6) Figure 4 Typical range of Submarine Cable The protection provided by the cable alone is insufficient to protect it against repeated aggression such as entanglement with fishing trawls or ships anchors. It is standard practice today to carefully plan the route of the submarine cable avoiding where possible both natural and man-made hazards and risks. An initial ‘Desk-Top’ study is carried out looking at existing information and by visiting possible cable landing sites. A marine survey of the most promising route is then conducted looking at: Fig 5 Latest Generation Cable Ship Science Node The submarine cable is connected to the Science Node via a Cable Terminating Assembly (CTA), which provides safe optical and electrical connectivity and adequate axial and torsional strength even when articulated through 90° [8]. The Science Node consists of the following main elements: • Trawler Resistant Frame • Electrical Power Converters • Data Communications Equipment • Science Instrument and Extension Ports Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 3 of 8 power needs to be transferred to the external seawater heat sink, in order to keep internal component operating temperatures down to around 50°C. As maintenance at the bottom of the ocean is a costly and reasonably complex task, all active and passive components of the Science Node must meet higher reliability standards than those of their on-shore counterparts. This is achieved by way of careful physical design, built in redundancy, component and assembly selection, construction and qualification. The design of a compact and highly reliable converter is important to a successful Science Node design. [9] Figure 6 Meter Plough Trawler Resistant Frame The Science Node equipment and Instrument Ports are protected by a fabricated frame work with sloping sides to deflect bottom trawled fishing equipment such as otter boards or beams (See Fig 7). This Trawler Resistant Frame (TRF) is only required for observatories in less than 2000m, however a structure that houses the various node elements and the Cable Terminating Assembly is always necessary. The Trawler Resistant Frame must also provide Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) access to the Science Instrument Ports. Figure 7 Trawler Resistant Frame (TRF) Electrical Power Converters Power supplied from the shore at 10kV or 400V must be converted down to a lower voltage for the operation of science experiments and the internal data communication equipment. These power converters must work reliably and efficiently inside pressure resistant housings. The size of the pressure resistant housing impacts greatly on the overall weight, size and cost of the science node, therefore there are limits on the volumetric space and diameter of the sub sea power converters. Even at 90% efficiency up to 1 kW of locally dissipated Figure 8 10kV to 400V Power Converter Module Data Communications Equipment Data transport requirements from science experiments, cameras and sensors back to the shore may vary from a few Mb/s to 20Mb/s with an aggregate data rate of up to 1 Gb/s [1]. In addition to this an overhead needs to be included for system functions such as framing, error retransmission and a time synchronous clock. Data transport from the shore to command cameras, lights, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and other interactive experiments is also a requirement. In a multi Science Node system the node might also have to handle the system backbone aggregate data of up to 8Gb/s. There are several technologies available with their associated pros and cons. Direct Science Node to shore communication using a few pairs of optical wavelengths and Synchronous SONET or SDH WDM transport over distances of <500km without underwater amplification and up to 13,000km with amplification is one option. Shore station to Science Node or Science Node to Science Node communication using multiplexed channels over a high speed serial or Gigabit Ethernet links of up to 100km is another option. There is a clear advantage to standardise the transport function, but some flexibility is required since no two Science Node locations and associated networks will be identical. Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 4 of 8 Again as for the power converters size, thermal management and reliability are of key importance. The communication system design therefore takes into account redundancy, automated sub-sea switching and unit Failures In Time (FIT) rates in order to provide a cost effective and workable solution [10]. Two additional parameters that are considered are the distance that science sensors or experiments are located from the Science Node and the conversion of sensor serial data to and from Ethernet data. Figure 9 Communications module with 400 to 48 V converter Science Instrument and Extension Ports To facilitate flexible connectivity to science experiments and sensors, a number of pre-installed and configured Science Instrument Ports (SIP) are required. These are safely housed and protected within the Trawler Resistant Frame. A door is provided to allow access to the ROV for connection of the science experiment to the port. (See Fig 10). The need for flexibility of experiments in terms of duration, type, evolving technology and demands results in a simple to reconfigure architecture. Each port is equipped to provide low voltage power and serial or Ethernet data communications to science experiments or sensors up to 1km from the Science Node. The Science Node can be configured so that one of these ports has sufficient power to extend the observatory to remote location up to 100km away. Figure 10 Ports accessible for ROV connection of Science Instruments Serviceable Science Module It is not economically possible to develop specialist subsea equipment with very low FIT rates. Therefore some sub sea communications or power converter equipment failure is expected over the 25 year life time of the system. The Science Node is therefore designed so that the active communication and power modules can be recovered to the surface for repair or replacement (See Fig 11). This is achieved by mounting the serviceable units within an integrated, detachable and almost neutrally buoyant module. A repair operation would begin with a Remote Operated Vehicle disconnecting the underwater Wet-Mate optical and electrical connectors that link the Cable Terminating Assembly to the Science Module, before docking with the module and recovering it to the surface, leaving the Trawler Resistant Frame, cable and Cable Terminating Assembly in place on the sea floor. Once the Science Module is onboard the vessel, it can be repaired or replaced with a spare module. Fig 11 Serviceable Science Module Wet-Mate connectors Underwater connectors are now available which can provide reliable and repetitive mating and un-mating of electrical signal, electrical power and optical fibres. Connectors available today have been proven to provide multiple connect / disconnect cycles underwater at full ocean depth. A typical Remotely Operated Vehicle actuated Wet-Mate connector is shown in Figure 12. Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 5 of 8 5. TYPICAL SINGLE SCIENCE NODE SPECIFICATION Table 1 provides a rough guide to a cabled observatory Science Node specification. It assumes for simplicity that only a single Science Node with an engineered extension capability. Operating Depth Down to 8000m Supply Voltage 10 000VDC Total Power Available 10 000W Node internal power load <500W Shore to Node Data 2.5Gb/s or 1 Gb/s Communications 400km or 100km Shore to Node Distance* Instrument distance from SIP <1km Number of SIPs 8 SIP Voltage 48VDC or 400VDC SIP Data Communications Ethernet 10/100Mb/s Input / Output SIP data Serial or Ethernet Extension Capability 100km / 1 Gb/s *Without multiple nodes or sub-sea amplification Table 1 Typical Science Node Specification Fig 12 Wet-Mate ROV Connector The architecture of the Science Node utilises these connectors in two areas, firstly in providing flexible connectivity to the science experiments and secondly by enabling the Science Module to be serviceable at sea. There are three basic types of wet-mate connectors that are utilized in a Science Node. The first type is an optical wet-mate connector that is integrated to the Cable Terminating assembly (CTA). This wet-mate connection allows for direct optical hook-up of the communications equipment located in the Science Module. In addition to the main CTA connection, these wet-mate optical connectors allow for system extension or where multiple Science Nodes are deployed. The second type of wet-mate provides medium voltage electrical power connectivity (10kV) between the same elements as the optical connector. The third type is a wet-mate electrical connector that is used for connection of the science instrument at the Science Interface Ports on the Science Module. Instruments such as, Ocean Bottom Seismometers (OBS), Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP), Cameras or modified ‘Landers’ are typical experiments connected by electrical wet-mate connectors. Figure 13 Mating a Connector on the Sea Floor with an ROV 6. ROUGH ORDER OF MAGNITUDE COST ANALYSIS The following is a simplified comparison of the related costs of a new cabled observatory and those of a noncabled (short term) observatory deployed and recovered by research vessel cruises. The scenario chosen for estimation purposes is a reasonably long new cabled observatory 400kms off the Western Coast of Europe with an operational life of 20 Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 6 of 8 years, equipped with 8 Science Instrument Ports and one additional port for expansion to a future science experiment 100km away. The 8 Science Instrument Ports can provide more than 500W to power hungry science experiments or studies such as oceanography or marine biology. This is compared to 8 short term non-cabled Landers regularly deployed in the same location. The assumptions made are by no means applicable to all long or short-term observatories, just to the scenario in question. Appling the following assumptions: i. Ocean going research vessel cost is €30,000 per day ii. 8 Non-Cabled Observatories can be deployed / replaced during a 20 day cruise iii. The Non-Cabled Observatories are replaced every 6 months (twice a year) iv. The Non-Cabled Observatories can provide 150A hours of power @ 12V for experiments. v. A High Power Science experiment such as High Definition TV and Lights requires 100W of power. vi. Low Power Science Experiments such as Geophysics requires 15W of power. vii. The Long Term cabled observatory cost is €10,000,000 including Shore Station Equipment, Cable, Installation and a single Science Node. viii. The working life of a cabled observatory is 20 years ix. The cabled observatory Science Node has 8 Science Instrument Ports x. The cabled observatory is visited once per year for sensor deployment and / or servicing of the Science Module with a deep water ROV xi. The Cabled Observatory Science Module servicing / maintenance and sensor / instrument deployment takes 10 days at sea per year. xii. A deep water Vessel equipped with ROV costs €65,000 per day for cable and observatory maintenance and sensor / instrument deployment and Science Module servicing. xiii. Other operational expenses and capitol costs for both cases are ignored. Initial Costs / 20 years Annual Costs Total Cost per year Cost per hour for High Power Experiments Cost per hour for Low Power Experiments Real Time Communications Accurate Time Synchronous Clock Non-cabled Short Term Observatory €1,200,000 €1,200,000 €4167 Cabled Long Term Observatory €500,000 €600,000 €1,050,000 €16 €625 €16 No Yes No Yes Table 2 Comparison of Non-Cabled and Cabled Observatories It can be seen that the long term costs per year are similar between cabled and non-cabled systems. The high power availability of the cabled system dramatically reduces the related cost per hour of the science experiments. It could be argued that the benefits of Real-Time communications and the Synchronous Clock come free with a cabled system. As mentioned before this is only an estimate to compare the relatively high upfront cost of a cabled observatory with the lower capital investment required for a noncabled observatory. The benefits of a cabled observatory are by no means just lower long-term costs, but it is important to attempt to put the costs of such systems in to context with existing projects. Table 2 shows rough estimates and comparisons between a traditional short-term non-cabled observatory and a long term cabled observatory. Figure 14 NO NADIR connecting experiments at a water depth of 2500m with the ROV NAUTILE Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 7 of 8 7. CONCLUSION Long-Term Cabled Observatories are now being planned and built using robust industry available products and solutions. Cabled Observatories bring new and powerful facilities into the reach of those studying the ocean margins and the deep sea, from the Principal Investigator to the student in the classroom. Continuous Real-Time communications with accurate timing and abundant electrical power are available at costs not un-similar to those of ongoing un-cabled systems. Cabled Observatory designs include Science Node architectures which support the rapid development of science experiment sensors and their relatively short life spans. Sensors can be replaced as required and do not have to meet the high reliability requirements of the cabled observatory backbone infrastructure. Existing short-term observatories are easily connected to cabled observatories with the associated improved efficiencies. Cabled observatories with their high power availability and reliable fast broadband communications are now readily available and represent the future of sea bottom science. They enable a vast new realm of undersea study to be performed in Real-Time utilising the latest and future generations of sensors and experiments. 8. [4] Delaney, J.R. et al: Real-time ocean and earth sciences at the scale of a tectonic plate, Oceanography, 13, 71-83 (2000) [5] Chave, A.D. et al: Science Requirements and the Design of Cabled Ocean Observatories, Ann. Geophys., in press (2004). [6]Shirasaki, Y. et al: Proposal of Next-Generation Real-Time Seafloor Global Monitoring Cable-Network, Proc Oceans 2002. [7] Waterworth, G. : High Reliability submarine Cables and Their Scientific Application. Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 181 (2003) [8] Waterworth, G. : Submarine Communications Cable for Deep-Sea Application, proc Oceans 2003. [9] Kirkham, H. et al: The NEPTUNE power system: design from fundamentals, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 301 (2003). [10] Maffei, A. et al: A Modular Gigabit Ethernet Backbone for Neptune and other Ocean Observatories, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 191 (2003). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank Antoine Lecroart of Alcatel Submarine Networks, Jean-François Rolin of IFREMER and Monty Pride and Martin Solan of the University of Aberdeen for their kind assistance. The pictures shown in this paper are by the courtesy of Alcatel, Nautronix Maripro, Ocean Design Inc, IFERMER, The Neptune Consortium and UNOLS. 9. REFERENCES [1] Waterworth, G. and Chave, A.D. : A New Challenge and Opportunity for the Submarine Telecommunications Industry – Ocean Observatory Networks, Proc. SubOptic 2004 (In Print) [2] Shirasaki, Y. et al: ARENA: A versatile and multidisciplinary scientific submarine cable network of next generation, Proc. 3rd Int. Workshop on Scientific Use of Submarine Cables and Related Technologies (Piscataway: IEEE), pp. 226 (2003) [3] Pride, I : ESONET- European Sea Floor Observatory Network, Ocean Margin Research Conference, Paris, 2003. Connecting Long Term Sea Floor Observatories to the shore Page 8 of 8