Erythema Nodosum - pneumonologia.gr

Erythema Nodosum
Luis Requena, MD,* and Evaristo Sánchez Yus, MD†
Erythema nodosum is the most frequent clinicopathologic variant of panniculitis. The
process is a cutaneous reaction that may be associated with a wide variety of disorders,
including infections, sarcoidosis, rheumatologic diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases,
medications, autoimmune disorders, pregnancy, and malignancies. Erythema nodosum
typically manifest by the sudden onset of symmetrical, tender, erythematous, warm nodules and raised plaques usually located on the lower limbs. Often the lesions are bilaterally
distributed. At first, the nodules show a bright red color, but within a few days they become
livid red or purplish and, finally, they exhibit a yellow or greenish appearance, taking on the
look of a deep bruise. Ulceration is never seen, and the nodules heal without atrophy or
scarring. Histopathologically, erythema nodosum is the stereotypical example of a mostly
septal panniculitis with no vasculitis. The septa of subcutaneous fat are always thickened
and variously infiltrated by inflammatory cells that extend to the periseptal areas of the fat
lobules. The composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in the septa varies with age of the
lesion. In early lesions edema, hemorrhage, and neutrophils are responsible for the septal
thickening, whereas fibrosis, periseptal granulation tissue, lymphocytes, and multinucleated giant cells are the main findings in late stage lesions of erythema nodosum. A
histopathologic hallmark of erythema nodosum is the presence of the so-called Miescher’s
radial granulomas, which consist of small, well-defined nodular aggregations of small
histiocytes arranged radially around a central cleft of variable shape. Treatment of erythema
nodosum should be directed to the underlying associated condition, if identified. Usually,
nodules of erythema nodosum regress spontaneously within a few weeks, and bed rest is
often sufficient treatment. Aspirin, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, such as oxyphenbutazone, indomethacin or naproxen, and potassium iodide may be helpful drugs to
enhance analgesia and resolution. Systemic corticosteroids are rarely indicated in erythema nodosum and before these drugs are administered an underlying infection should be
ruled out.
Semin Cutan Med Surg 26:114-125 © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
KEYWORDS septal panniculitis, erythema nodosum, Miescher radial granuloma
E
rythema nodosum is the most frequent clinicopathologic
variant of panniculitis. The disorder usually exhibits an
acute onset and is clinically characterized by the sudden
eruption of erythematous tender nodules and plaques located predominantly over the extensor aspects of the lower
extremities. The lesions show spontaneous regression, without ulceration, scarring, or atrophy, and recurrent episodes
are not uncommon. Erythema nodosum is a cutaneous
reactive process that may be triggered by a wide variety of
*Department of Dermatology, Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Universidad Autónoma, Madrid, Spain.
†Department of Dermatology, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad
Complutense, Madrid, Spain.
Address reprint requests to Luis Requena, MD, Department of Dermatology,
Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Avda. Reyes Católicos 2, 28040-Madrid,
Spain. E-mail: lrequena@fjd.es
114
1085-5629/07/$-see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sder.2007.02.009
possible stimuli, being infections, sarcoidosis, rheumatologic
diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, medications, autoinmune disorders, pregnancy, and malignancies the most common associated conditions.
Etiology
Erythema nodosum may be associated with a wide variety of
disease processes, and its observation must always be followed by a search for underlying etiology. A review of the
literature reveals that the list of etiologic factors that can lead
to erythema nodosum is long and varied, including infections, drugs, malignant diseases, and a wide group of miscellaneous conditions (Table 1).1-104 Although there are considerable geographic variations related to endemic infections, in
our country streptococcal infections are the most frequent
Erythema nodosum
Table 1 Etiologic Factors in Erythema Nodosum
Infections
Bacterial infections
Atypical mycobacterial infections2
Borrelia burgdorferi infections3
Boutonneuse fever4
Brucellosis5
Campylobacter infections6
Cat-scratch disease7
Chancroid2
Chlamydia psittaci infections8
Corynebacterium diphteriae infections2
Escherichia coli infections104
Gonorrhea9
Klebsiella pneumoniae infections10
Leptospirosis11
Lymphogranuloma venereum12
Meningococcemia13
Moraxella catarrhalis infections14
Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections15
Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis infections16
Propionibacterium acnes17
Pseudomona aeruginosa infections18
Q fever19
Salmonella infections20
Shigella infections21
Streptococcal infections22
Syphilis23
Tuberculosis24
Tularemia25
Yersinia infections26
Viral infections
Cytomegalovirus infections27
Hepatitis B28
Hepatitis C29
Herpes simplex2
HIV infection30
Infectious mononucleosis31
Measles32
Milker’s nodules33
Parvovirus B19 infections34
Varicella35
Fungal infections
Aspergillosis36
Blastomycosis37
Coccidioidomycosis38
Dermatophytes39
Histoplasmosis40
Protozoal infections
Amebiasis41
Ascariasis42
Giardiasis41
Hydatidosis43
Hookworm infestation2
Sparganum larva44
Toxoplasmosis45
Trichomoniasis46
Drugs
Acetaminophen47
Actinomycin-D48
All-trans retinoic acid48
Aminopyrine2
115
Table 1 Continued
Amiodarone47
Amoxicillin104
Ampicillin104
Antimony2
Arsphenamine9
Azathioprine47
Bromides49
Busulfan47
Carbamazepine47
Carbenicillin50
Carbimazole47
Cefdinir47
Chlordiazepoxide47
Chlorotrianisene47
Chlorpropamide47
Ciprofloxacin47
Clomiphene47
Codeine47
Cotrimoxazole47
D-penicillamine51
Dapsone47
Diclofenac47
Dicloxacillin47
Diethylstilbestrol52
Disopyramide47
Echinacea herbal therapy52
Enoxacin47
Erythromycin104
Estrogens47
Fluoxetine47
Furosemide47
Glucagon47
Gold salts53
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor47
Hepatitis B vaccine54
Hydralazine47
Ibuprofen47
Indomethacin47
Interleukin-255
Iodides49
Isotretinoin56
Leukotriene modifying agents (zileuton and
rafirlukast)57
Levofloxacin47
Meclofenamate47
Medroxyprogesterone47
Meprobamate47
Mesalamine47
Methicillin47
Methimazole47
Methyldopa47
Mezlozillin47
Minocycline58
Naproxen47
Nifedipine47
Nitrofurantoin2
Ofloxacin47
Omeprazole59
Oral contraceptives60
Oxacillin47
Paroxetine47
L. Requena and E. Sánchez Yus
116
Table 1 Continued
Penicillin54
Phenylbutazone36
Phenytoin33
Piperacillin47
Progestins47
Propylthiouracil61
Pyritinol9
Sparfloxacin47
Streptomycin47
Sulfamethoxazole47
Sulfixoxazole47
Sulfonamides62
Sulfosalazine47
Thalidomide63
Ticarcilin47
Trimethoprim64
Typhoid vaccination65
Verapamil47
Malignant diseases
Adenocarcinoma of the colon66
Carcinoid tumor67
Carcinoma of the uterine cervix68
Hepatocellular carcinoma69
Hodgkin’s disease70
Leukemia71
Lung cancer72
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma73
Pancreatic carcinoma74
Post-radiotherapy for pelvic carcinoma1
Renal carcinoma55
Sarcoma9
Stomach cancer104
Miscellaneous conditions
Acne fulminans75
Acupunture therapy and flu-like infection76
Adult Still’s disease77
Ankylosing spondylitis78
Antiphospolipid antibodies syndrome79
Behçet’s syndrome80
Berger’s disease81
Breast abscesses82
Chronic active hepatitis83
Coeliac disease84
Colon diverticulosis9
Crohn’s disease85
Diverticulitis86
Granulomatous mastitis87
IgA nephropathy88
Jellyfish sting89
Lupus erythematosus90
Pregnancy91
Radiotherapy92
Recurrent polychondritis93
Reiter’s syndrome94
Rheumatoid arthritis95
Sarcoidosis96
Sjögren’s syndrome97
Smoke inhalation in a house fire98
Sweet’s syndrome99
Systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome due to
C4 deficiency100
Table 1 Continued
Takayasu’s arteritis101
Ulcerative colitis102
Vogt-Koyanagi disease97
Wegener’s granulomatosis103
etiologic factor for erythema nodosum in children, whereas
other infectious processes, drugs, sarcoidosis, autoimmune
disorders, and inflammatory diseases of the bowel are the
most commonly associated disorders in adults.
The relationship between a previous episode of upper respiratory tract infection by group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus and erythema nodosum is well-known, especially in
children and young adults. Usually, the cutaneous lesions
appear 2 or 3 weeks after the throat infection, and they are
accompanied by an elevation of the antistreptolysin O (ASO)
titer. An intradermal positive test to streptococcal antigens is
often found in patients with erythema nodosum secondary to
streptococcal infections, although when the cutaneous nodules develop, the cultures of routine throat swabs usually do
not detect microorganisms.22,104
Tuberculosis is now an uncommon etiologic factor for erythema nodosum in our country104 and other areas of southern Europe.105,106 These cases are seen mostly in children,
and the cutaneous lesions usually indicate a primary pulmonary infection, being concomitant with the conversion of the
tuberculin test.24
Drugs frequently are implicated as the cause of erythema
nodosum. Sulfonamides, bromides, and oral contraceptive
pills have been long recognized as the most common medications responsible for acute bouts of erythema nodosum,
but the list of possibilities is very large (Table 1). In recent
years, the amount of hormones in contraceptive pills has
been lowered markedly and, thus, erythema nodosum secondary to this medication is now rare. In those cases in which
the patient develops erythema nodosum when is taken an
antibiotic for an infectious disease is difficult to discern
whether the cutaneous reaction is due to the antiobiotic or
the infectious agent.
Sarcoidosis constitutes one of the most common etiologic
factors in adult patients with secondary erythema nodosum
in our country.104 In some countries, specially in northern
Europe, erythema nodosum and bilateral hilar adenopathy
frequently are seen as early manifestations of sarcoidosis
(Löfgren’s syndrome).107 However, erythema nodosum and
bilateral hilar adenopathy are not exclusive of sarcoidosis,
and they also have been associated with lymphoma, tuberculosis, streptococcal infections, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and acute infections by Chlamydia pneumoniae.108,109
In adults, erythema nodosum associated with enteropathies often correlates with a flare-up of the disease, although
the cutaneous eruption may precede the clinical appearance
of the inflammatory bowel disease. Ulcerative colitis102 is
more frequently associated with erythema nodosum than
Crohn’s disease.85
Erythema nodosum
Many patients with Behçet disease develop lesions that
clinically resemble those of erythema nodosum.81 Histopathologic studies, however, have demonstrated that a significant proportion of these patients with Behçet syndrome
and erythema nodosum-like lesions showed a mostly lobular
panniculitis with the frequent finding of leukocytoclastic or
lymphocytic vasculitis110,111 and therefore some patients with
Behçet disease show a panniculitis different from that of erythema nodosum.
The simultaneous occurrence of Sweet’s syndrome and
erythema nodosum have been considered a rare association.112-117 In these patients, the concomitant development of
Sweet’s syndrome and erythema nodosum is associated with
sarcoidosis,113 upper respiratory tract infection,113,114 acute
myelogenous leukemia,115,116 and Crohn’s disease.116 However, recently Ginarte and Toribio117 commented that the
association between Sweet’s syndrome and erythema nodosum is not as rare as the review of the literature seems to
indicate, because 15% to 30% of patients of several series of
Sweet’s syndrome showed biopsy-proved erythema nodosum.118-122 On the basis of these data, Ginarte and Toribio
concluded that the simultaneous occurrence of these 2 reactive processes is a frequent feature that may be caused by a
common underlying mechanism of pathogenesis (streptococcal upper respiratory tract infection or inflammatory
bowel disease) and they respond to the same treatment (corticosteroids, potassium iodide), also supporting a close relationship between them.117 The same opinion has been recently supported by other authors.123
Despite thorough clinical and laboratory investigations,
the etiology of erythema nodosum remained uncertain in a
significant percentage of the cases that ranged from 37% to
60% of the cases in all reported series.36,104,106,124-127
Pathogenesis
Erythema nodosum is considered to be a hypersensitivity
response to a wide variety of inciting factors. The variability
of possible antigenic stimuli that can induce erythema nodosum indicates that this disorder is a cutaneous reactive process and that the skin has limited responses to different provoking agents. Erythema nodosum probably results from the
formation of immune complexes and their deposition in and
around venules of the connective tissue septa of the subcutaneous fat. Circulating immunocomplexes128 and complement activation129,130 have been recorded in patients with
erythema nodosum. Histopathologic features in fully developed lesions also suggest a delayed hypersensitivity mechanism131 and direct immunofluorescence studies have shown
deposits of immunoglobulins in the blood vessels walls of the
septa of subcutaneous fat.132 However, other authors failed to
demonstrate circulating immunocomplexes in patients with
erythema nodosum,133 and a type IV delayed hypersensitivity
reaction may also play an important role in the pathogenesis
of the disorder.
Early lesions of erythema nodosum are histopathologically
characterized by a neutrophilic inflammatory infiltrate involving the septa of the subcutaneous tissue. Recent investi-
117
gations have demonstrated that patients suffering from erythema nodosum had a fourfold higher percentage of reactive
oxygen intermediates (ROIs) produced by activated neutrophils in their peripheral blood compared with healthy volunteers. Furthermore, the percentage of ROI-producing cells in
patients with erythema nodosum correlated with the clinical
severity. These data support the fact that ROI might play a
role in the pathogenesis of erythema nodosum. ROI might
exert their effects by oxidative tissue damage and by promoting tissue inflammation.134
Patients with erythema nodosum associated with sarcoidosis produce an uncommon tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-␣II.
These patients showed a nucleotide exchange, (G-A) at position –308 in the human TNF-␣ gene promoter, whereas patients with erythema nodosum without underlying sarcoidosis displayed a similar allele frequency compared with
controls. These results support the notion that erythema nodosum in association with sarcoidosis might be pathogenetically linked to altered TNF-alpha production due to a genetic
promoter polymorphism.135 In contrast, other authors have
found that the proinflammatory cytokine pattern showed increased interleukin-6 serum concentrations both in infectious and non infectious disease-related erythema nodosum,
whereas a minor involvement of TNF was found in these
patients.100
The reason why the anterior aspects of the legs are so
susceptible for the development of lesions of erythema nodosum is unknown. Some authors have proposed that there is
no other site in the skin surface where the combination of a
relatively sparse arterial supply is associated with a venous
system subject to gravitational effects and cooling and a lymphatic system which is hardly rich enough to meet the requirements of any increase in fluid load and which has no
mechanical stimulus. The skin of the shins has no underlying
muscle pump and receives little in the way of massage. All
these local anatomic factors would favor the location of the
lesions of erythema nodosum on the shins.1
Clinical Features
Erythema nodosum can occur at any age, but most cases
appear between the second and fourth decades of the life,
with the peak of incidence being between 20 and 30 years of
age, probably attributable to the high incidence of sarcoidosis
at this age.136 Several studies have demonstrated that erythema nodosum occurs 3 to 6 times more frequently in
women than in men,137 although the sex incidence before
puberty is approximately equal.124 Racial and geographic differences of incidence vary depending on the prevalence of
diseases that are etiologic factors. Prevalence of erythema
nodosum in a semirural area of England during a 2-year
period gave a figure of 2.4 per 1000 population per year.138
Prevalence varies also according to the type of the patients
attended to in a clinic: the average hospital incidence was
approximately 0.5% of new cases seen in Departments of
Dermatology in England1 and approximately 0.38% of all
patients seen in a Department of Internal Medicine in
Spain.139 In a recent study, the average annual incidence rate
118
of biopsy-proven erythema nodosum in a hospital of the
northwestern Spain for the population 14 years and older
was 52 cases per million of persons,104 although certainly this
rate underestimated the authentic incidence of the disease
because only included cases confirmed by biopsy. Most cases
of erythema nodosum occur within the first half of the
year,104 probably because of the more frequent incidence of
streptococcal infections in this period of the year, and there is
no difference in distribution between urban and rural areas.1
Familial cases are usually due to an infectious etiology.
The typical eruption is quite characteristic and consists of
a sudden onset of symmetrical, tender, erythematous, warm
nodules and raised plaques usually located on the shins, ankles and knees. The nodules, which range from 1 to 5 cm or
more in diameter, are usually bilaterally distributed (Fig. 1).
Nodules may become confluent resulting in erythematous
plaques. In rare instances, more extensive lesions may appear, involving the thighs, extensor aspects of the arms, neck,
and even the face. At first, the nodules show a bright red color
and are raised slightly above the skin. Within a few days, they
become flat, with a livid red or purplish color. Finally, they
exhibit a yellow or greenish appearance often taking on the
look of a deep bruise (“erythema contusiformis”). This contusiform color evolution is quite characteristic of erythema
nodosum and allows a specific diagnosis in late stage lesions.
L. Requena and E. Sánchez Yus
Ulceration is never seen in erythema nodosum and the nodules heal without atrophy or scarring. Usually acute bouts of
erythema nodosum are associated with a fever of 38 to 39°C,
fatigue, malaise, arthralgia, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, cough, or diarrhea. Episcleral lesions and phlyctenular
conjunctivitis may also accompany the cutaneous lesions.
Less frequent clinical manifestations associated with erythema nodosum are lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly,
splenomegaly and pleuritis.125 The eruption generally lasts
from 3 to 6 weeks, but persistence beyond this time is not
unusual. Recurrences are not uncommon. Erythema nodosum in children has a much shorter duration than in adults.
Arthralgias are seen in a minority of the patients, and fever is
an accompanying manifestation in fewer than half of the
cases.140-142
Some clinical variants of erythema nodosum have been
described under different names. These variants include erythema nodosum migrans,143-146 subacute nodular migratory
panniculitis of Vilanova and Piñol,147,148 and chronic erythema nodosum.105 In our opinion, the proposed clinical and
histopathologic differences are not enough to separate these
variants from classic erythema nodosum, and probably they
are just expressions of the different stage of evolution of lesions of a single pathologic process rather than different entities. At present moment, most authors believe that erythema nodosum migrans, subacute nodular migratory
panniculitis, and chronic erythema nodosum are clinical
variants which may all be included within the spectrum of
erythema nodosum.149 We agree with them.
A rare variant of erythema nodosum in children and young
adults is characterized by lesions only involving the palms or
soles and, often, the process is unilateral.150-153 These children developed painful erythematous nodules usually after
physical activity. Histopathologic features of these lesions of
unilateral palmar or plantar erythema nodosum are similar to
those of classical erythema nodosum.
Laboratory Anomalies
Figure 1 Characteristic eruption of erythema nodosum consists of
bilateral erythematous nodules and plaques on the anterior aspect of
the legs of an adult woman.
Because the list of possible etiologic factors in erythema nodosum is extensive, a rational, cost-effective diagnostic approach in patients with erythema nodosum is desirable. A
complete clinical history should be elicited in all patients,
with reference of previous diseases, medications, foreign
travel, pets and hobbies, as well as familial cases.
Initial evaluation should include complete blood count,
determination of the sedimentation rate, ASO titer, urinalysis, throat culture, intradermal tuberculin test and chest
roentgenogram. The white blood count is normal or only
slightly increased, but the erythrocyte sedimentation rate is
often very high, returning to normal when the eruption fades.
In children, the elevation of the erythrocyte sedimentation
rate correlates significantly with the number of cutaneous
lesions.142 The rheumatoid factor is usually negative, and
there is a temporary increase in the ␣2-globulin. A high antistreptolysin titer is seen in those cases of erythema nodosum
associated with a sore throat streptococcal infection. Usually,
a significant change, at least 30%, in ASO titer in two con-
Erythema nodosum
119
secutive determinations performed in a 2 to 4 weeks interval
indicates recent streptococcal infection.104 When the etiology
is doubtful, a sample of blood should be serologically investigated from those bacterial, virological, fungal or protozooal
infections more prevalent in that area.
In those cases suspected of being tuberculous an intradermal tuberculin test should be performed, but the results must
be valued in the context of the tuberculous prevalence in the
studied area. In Spain a significant percentage of healthy
adults show positive results for tuberculin test. In sarcoidosis, there is a decrease in the degree of reactivity of previously positive patients. The Kveim test is now less used because of fears of AIDS.
A chest radiograph should be performed in all patients
with erythema nodosum to rule-out pulmonary diseases as
the cause of the cutaneous reactive process. Radiologically
demonstrable bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy with febrile
illness and erythema nodosum with no evidence of tuberculosis characterize Löfgren’s syndrome, which in most cases
represents an acute variant of pulmonary sarcoidosis with
benign course, more frequent in females, specially during
pregnancy and puerperium.107
Histopathology
Histopathologically, erythema nodosum is the stereotypical
example of a mostly septal panniculitis with no vasculitis.
The septa of subcutaneous fat are always thickened and infiltrated by inflammatory cells that extend to the periseptal
areas of the fat lobules. Usually, a superficial and deep
perivascular inflammatory infiltrate predominantly composed of lymphocytes is also seen in the overlying dermis.
The composition of the inflammatory infiltrate in the septa
varies with age of the lesion. In early lesions, edema, hemorrhage, and neutrophils (Fig. 2) are responsible for the septal
thickening,126 whereas fibrosis, periseptal granulation tissue,
lymphocytes, histiocytes (Fig. 3) and multinucleated giant
cells (Fig. 4) are the main findings in late stage lesions of
erythema nodosum. In rare instances eosinophils are the predominant inflammatory cells in early lesions of erythema
nodosum.154 Sometimes, in these early lesions, the inflammatory cell infiltrate may be more apparent in the fat lobules
than in the septa, because inflammatory cells extend into the
periphery of the fat lobules between individual fat cells in a
lace-like fashion, and the process appears as a predominantly
lobular panniculitis. However, in contrast with authentic lobular panniculitis, necrosis of the adipocytes at the center of
the fat lobule is not seen. A histopathologic hallmark of erythema nodosum is the presence of the so-called Miescher’s
radial granulomas,155-157 that consist of small, well-defined
nodular aggregations of small histiocytes around a central
stellate or banana shaped cleft (Fig. 3). The nature of the
central cleft is unknown and, although some authors have
considered them as lymphatic spaces,1 our immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies of cases of Miescher’s
radial granulomas have failed to demonstrate endothelial or
other cellular lining of these clefts.
Figure 2 Histopathologic features of an early lesion of erythema
nodosum. (A) Scanning power showing a mostly septal panniculitis
with thickned connective tissue septa of the subcutis. (B) Higher
magnification demonstrated numerous neutrophils interstitially arranged between collagen bundles of the septa.
In early lesions, Miescher’s radial granulomas appear scattered in the septa and surrounded by neutrophils. In older
nodules of erythema nodosum, histiocytes coalesce to form
multinucleated giant cells, many of which still keep in their
cytoplasm a stellate central cleft reminiscent of those centers
of Miescher’s radial granuloma. Sometimes Miescher’s radial
granulomas are conspicuous in the septa, but occasionally
serial sections may be necessary to identify them. In our
experience, these Miescher’s radial granulomas are present in
all stages of the evolution of erythema nodosum lesions and
they should be searched for to make a specific diagnosis.157
However, other authors consider that similar granulomas
may be present in lesions of Sweet’s syndrome, erythema
induratum of Bazin, Behçet disease, and necrobiosis lipoidica.149 Recent immunohistochemical studies have demonstrated that the central cleft of Miescher’s radial granulomas express myeloperoxidase, which suggest that myeloid
cells were present in some stage of the Miescher’s radial granuloma formation.158 Myeloperoxidase immunoexpression
has been also described in the small, elongated, twisted ap-
120
L. Requena and E. Sánchez Yus
Figure 3 Histopathologic features of a fully developed lesion of erythema nodosum. (A) Scanning power showing thickened septa of the
subcutaneous tissue with inflammatory infiltrate. (B) Higher magnification shows that the inflammatory infiltrate of the septa extends to
the periphery of the adjacent fat lobules. (C) Higher magnification
shows the characteristic features of Miescher’s radial granuloma: Aggregations of small histiocytes around a central cleft.
pearing mononuclear cells of the so-called histiocytoid Sweet
syndrome,159 which are actually immature myeloid cells,
providing a link between erythema nodosum and Sweet syndrome, two conditions in which neutrophils participate.
Another histopathologic characteristic of erythema nodosum is the absence of vasculitis although, in rare instances, a
necrotizing small vessel vasculitis with fibrinoid necrosis of
the vessel walls has been described in the septa.160 Sanchez
Yus et al, in a histopathologic study of a series of 79 cases of
erythema nodosum,157 demonstrated that authentic leukocytoclastic vasculitis is usually absent, and only 18 of 79 specimens disclosed slight nonspecific changes in some isolated
veins and venules, whereas many other vessels were intact in
the middle of the inflammatory nodule. In a recent histopathologic study of four cases of erythema nodosum the
authors described unusual findings that consisted of lobular
panniculitis with neutrophilic infiltrate and vasculitis of medium size arteries. In our opinion, however, these features
cannot be interpreted as histopathologic findings of erythema nodosum and the inflamed vessels that they interpreted as medium sized arties are in our opinion medium
size veins and the illustrated histopathologic features
show findings of superficial thrombophlebitis rather than
erythema nodosum.161 Ultrastructural studies in lesions of
erythema nodosum have not demonstrated authentic vasculitis, although damage to endothelial cells of the small
vessels of the septa of subcutaneous fat with some extension of inflammatory cells into the vessel walls have been
described.162-164
In late stage lesions of erythema nodosum, the inflammatory infiltrate in the septa is sparse, and there are markedly
widened septa with granulation tissue at the interface between connective tissue septa and fat lobules. As erythema
nodosum evolves, the septa become fibrotic and replaced by
granulomas, and the fat lobules become progressively replaced and effaced by widening septa, which can even completely obliterate the lobules. In these late lesions may be
difficult to establish whether the lesion is a mostly septal or
mostly lobular panniculitis, because the entire subcutaneous
tissue is effaced by a fibrotic and granulomatous process.
With time, despite the striking fibrosis, the lesions resolve
without atrophy or scarring of the involved septa. Lipomembranous or membranocystic panniculitis, a histopathologic
pattern that has been described in residual lesions of different
Erythema nodosum
121
Figure 4 Histopathologic features of a late stage lesion of erythema
nodosum. (A) Scanning power showing a mostly septal panniculitis. (B) Higher magnification showing granulomas at the septa of
the connective tissue of the subcutaneous tissue. (C) Still higher
magnification showing multinucleate giant cells within the septal
granulomas.
types of panniculitis, has been also seen in late stage lesions of
erythema nodosum.165
Prognosis
Most cases of erythema nodosum regress spontaneously in 3
to 4 weeks. More severe cases need about 6 weeks. Relapses
are not exceptional, and they are more common in patients
with idiopathic erythema nodosum and erythema nodosum
associated with nonstreptococcal or streptococcal upper respiratory tract infections. Complications are uncommon. A
patient developed retrobulbar optic nerve neuritis during the
acute episode of erythema nodosum,166 and another patient
with chronic hepatitis C had erythema nodosum with concomitant erythema multiforme and lichen planus that coincided with the reactivation of viral replication.167
Treatment
Treatment of erythema nodosum should be directed to the
underlying associated condition, if identified. Usually, nodules of erythema nodosum regress spontaneously within a
few weeks, and bed rest is often sufficient treatment. Aspirin
and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs such as oxyphenbutazone, in a dosage of 400 mg per day,168 indomethacin, in
a dosage of 100 to 150 mg per day,169 or naproxen, in a
dosage of 500 mg per day,170 may be helpful to enhance
analgesia and resolution. If the lesions persist longer, potassium iodide in a dosage of 400 to 900 mg daily or a saturated
solution of potassium iodide, 2 to 10 drops in water or orange
juice three times per day, has been reported to be useful.171-173 The mechanism of action of potassium iodide in
erythema nodosum is unknown, but it seems that it causes
heparin release from mast cells and heparin acts to suppress
delayed hypersensitivity reactions. The reported response in
some patients with erythema nodosum lesions to heparinoid ointment under occlusion supports this proposed
mechanism of action.174 On the other hand, potassium
iodide also inhibits neutrophil chemotaxis.175 Potassium
iodide is contraindicated during pregnancy, because it can
produce a goiter in the fetus. Severe hypothyroidism secondary to exogenous intake of iodide has been also described in patients with erythema nodosum treated with
potassium iodide.176
122
Systemic corticosteroids are rarely indicated in erythema
nodosum and before these drugs are administered an underlying infection should be ruled out. When administered,
prednisone in a dosage of 40 mg per day has been followed by
resolution of the nodules in few days. Intralesional injection
of triamcinolone acetonide, in a dosage of 5 mg/mL, into the
center of the nodules may cause them to resolve. Some patients may respond to a course of colchicine, 0.6 to 1.2 mg
twice a day,177,178 and hydroxychloroquine 200 mg twice a
day has been also reported to be useful in a recent report.179
References
1. Ryan TJ: Cutaneous Vasculitis, in Champion RH, Burton JL, Burns
DA, Breathnach SM (eds): Textbook of Dermatology (ed 6). Oxford,
Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1998, pp 2155-2225
2. White JM Jr: Erythema nodosum. Dermatol Clin 3:119-127, 1985
3. Kramer N, Rickert RR, Brodkin RH, Rosenstein ED: Septal panniculitis
as a manifestation of Lyme disease. Am J Med 81:149-152, 1986
4. Jimenez Nacher JJ, Navarro Ibanez V, Nieto Garcia A, et al: Rickettsia
conorii: una nueva causa de eritema nodoso. An Med Interna 8:241242, 1991
5. Perez Arellano JL, Martinez Martinez LM, Fernandez Lopez E, et al:
Eritema nudoso y brucelosis. Med Clin (Barc) 90:81, 1988
6. Ellis ME, Pope J, Mokashi A, et al: Campylobacter colitis associated
with erythema nodosum. BMJ 285:937, 1982
7. Sundaresh KV, Madjar DD, Camisa C, et al: Cat-scratch disease associated with erythema nodosum. Cutis 38:317-319, 1986
8. Palmer JR: Psittacosis in man—recent developments in the UK: A
review. Proc R Soc Med 75:262-267, 1982
9. Hannuksela M: Erythema nodosum. Clin Dermatol 4:88-95, 1986
10. Vaccaro M, Guarneri F, Guarneri C, et al: Sweet’s syndrome and
erythema nodosum after Klebsiella pneumoniae cystitis. Acta Derm
Venereol 83:290-291, 2003
11. Derham RJL, Owens GG, Wooldridge MAW: Leptospirosis as a cause
of erythema nodosum. BMJ 2:403-404, 1976
12. Kousa M, Saikku P, Kanerva L: Erythema nodosum in chlamydial
infections. Acta Derm Venereol 60:319-322, 1980
13. Whitton T, Smith AG: Erythema nodosum secondary to meningococcal septicaemia. Clin Exp Dermatol 24:97-98, 1999
14. Periyakoil V, Krasner C: Moraxella catarrhalis bacteremia as a cause of
erythema nodosum. Clin Infect Dis 23:650-651, 1996
15. Teyssandier R, Guidet B, Pinta B, et al: Pneumopathie á mycoplasma
pneumoniae avec anémie grave et érythème noueux. Presse Med 14:
1613, 1985
16. Wilkinson DS, Turner TW, Mair NS: Erythema nodosum due to Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis. BMJ 2:226-227, 1969
17. Williamson DM, Cunliffe WJ, Gatecliff M, et al: Acute ulcerative acne
(acne fulminans) with erythema nodosum. Clin Exp Dermatol 2:351354, 1977
18. Watanakunakorn C: Multiple painful indurated erythematous nodular skin lesions associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa septicemia.
Clin Infect Dis 27:662-663, 1998
19. Conget L, Mallolas J, Mensa J, et al: Erythema nodosum and Q fever.
Arch Dermatol 123:867, 1987
20. Scott BB: Salmonella gastroenteritis—another cause of erythema nodosum. Br J Dermatol 102:339-340, 1980
21. Tami LF: Erythema nodosum associated with Shigella colitis. Arch
Dermatol 121:590, 1985
22. Favour CB, Sosman MC: Erythema nodosum. Arch Intern Med 80:
435-453, 1947
23. Alinovi A, Lui P, Benoldi D: Syphilis—still a cause of erythema nodosum. Int J Dermatol 22:310-311, 1983
24. Simila S, Pietilla J: The changing etiology of erythema nodosum in
children. Acta Tuberc Scand 46:159-168, 1965
25. Kleibl K: Erythema nodosum rapricinene yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Cesk Dermatol 46:74-76, 1971
L. Requena and E. Sánchez Yus
26. Debois J, Vandepitte J, Degreef H: Yersinia enterocolitica as a cause of
erythema nodosum. Dermatologica 156:65-78, 1978
27. Spear JB, Kessler HA, Dworin A, et al: Erythema nodosum associated
with acute cytomegalovirus mononucleosis in an adult. Arch Intern
Med 148:323-324, 1988
28. Maggiore G, Grifeo S, Marzani MD: Erythema nodosum and hepatitis
B virus (HBV) infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 9:602-603, 1983
29. Domingo P, Ris J, Martinez E, Casas F: Erythema nodosum and hepatitis C. Lancet 336:1377, 1990
30. Fegueux S, Maslo C, de Truchis P, et al: Erythema nodosum in HIVinfected patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 25:113, 1991
31. Bodansky HI: Erythema nodosum and infectious mononucleosis. BMJ
2:1263, 1979
32. Anderson PC: Erythema nodosum, in Demis JE (ed): Clinical Dermatology, vol. 2. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1990, pp 7-13
33. Kuokkanan K, Launis J, Mortinnen A: Erythema nodosum and erythema multifome associated with milker’s nodules. Acta Derm Venereol 56:69-72, 1976
34. Imbert B, Brion JP, Janbon B, et al: Erytheme noueux associe a une
infection par le parvovirus B19. Presse Med 18:1753-1754, 1989
35. Tay YK: Erythema nodosum in Singapore. Clin Exp Dermatol 25:377380, 2000
36. Miranda M, Fonseca E, Maza P: Eritema nodoso. Estudio de 133 casos.
An Med Intern 2:433-438, 1985
37. Miller DD, Davies SF, Sarosi GA: Erythema nodosum and blastomycosis. Arch Intern Med 142:1839, 1982
38. Dickson EC: Erythema nodosum. JAMA 109:36, 1937
39. Martínez Roig A, Llorens Teral J, Torres JM: Erythema nodosum and
kerion on the scalp. Am J Dis Child 13:440-442, 1982
40. Ozols II, Wheat LJ: Erythema nodosum in an epidemic of histoplasmosis in Indianapolis. Arch Dermatol 117:709-712, 1981
41. Harries AD, Taylor J: Erythema nodosum associated with invasive
amoebiasis and giardiasis. Br J Dermatol 114:394, 1986
42. De Paz Arranz S, Pérez Pimiento A, Santaolalla Montoya M, et al:
Eritema nudoso asociado a infección por Ascaris lumbricoides. Actas
Dermosifiliogr 90:384-385, 1999
43. Cabeza F, Simal E, Mur M, et al: Eritema nudoso como primera manifestación de hidatidosis. Rev Clin Esp 188:267-268, 1991
44. Sheskin J: Erupción tipo eritema nodoso por larva de Sparganum.
Actas Dermosifiliogr 68:269-272, 1977
45. Longmore HJA: Toxoplasmosis and erythema nodosum. Br J Med
1:490, 1977
46. Rockl H: Erythema nodosum bei Trichomoniasis. Hautarzt 26:57,
1975
47. Litt JZ: Drug Eruption Reference Manual 2000. New York, The Parthenon Publishing Group, 2000, pp 628
48. Hakimian D, Tallman MS, Zugerman C, et al: Erythema nodosum
associated with all-trans-retinoic acid in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia. Leukemia 7:758-759, 1993
49. Eng AM, Aronson IK: Dermatopathology of panniculitis. Semin Dermatol 3:1-13, 1984
50. Marazuela M, Sanchez de Paco G, Jimenez I, et al: Acute pancreatitis,
hepatic cholestasis, and erythema nodosum induced by carbimazole
treatment for Graves’ disease. Endocr J 49:315-318, 2002
51. Grauer JL, Fonteille J, Zaski JP, et al: Erythéme noueux et hépatite
cholestatique au cors d’un traitment par D pénicillamine. Presse Med
12:1997, 1983
52. Soon SL, Crawford RI: Recurrent erythema nodosum associated with
Echinacea herbal therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 44:298-299, 2001
53. Stone RL, Claflin A, Penneys NS: Erythema nodosum following gold
sodium thiomalate therapy. Arch Dermatol 107:602-604, 1973
54. Di Giusto CA, Bernhard JD: Erythema nodosum provoked by hepatitis
B vaccine. Lancet 2:1042, 1986
55. Weinstein A, Bujak D, Mittelman A, et al: Erythema nodosum in a
patient with renal cell carcinoma treated with interleukin 2 and lymphokine-activated killer cells. JAMA 258:3120-3121, 1987
56. Kellett JK, Beck MH, Chalmers RJE: Erythema nodosum and circulating immunocomplexes in acne fulminans after treatment with isotretinoin. BMJ 290:820, 1985
Erythema nodosum
57. Dellaripa PF, Wechsler ME, Roth ME, et al: Recurrent panniculitis in
a man with asthma receiving treatment with leukotriene-modifying
agents. Mayo Clin Proc 75:643-645, 2000
58. Bridges AJ, Graziano FM, Calhoun W, et al: Hyperpigmentation, neutrophilic alveolitis, and erythema nodosum resulting from minocycline. J Am Acad Dermatol 22:959-962, 1990
59. Ricci RM, Deering KC: Erythema nodosum caused by omeprazole.
Cutis 57:434, 1996
60. Salvatore MA, Lynch PJ: Erythema nodosum, estrogens, and pregnancy. Arch Dermatol 116:557-558, 1980
61. Keren G, Lehr V, Boichis H: Erythema nodosum related to propylthiouracil treatment for thyrotoxicosis. Isr J Med Sci 21:62-63, 1985
62. Beurey J, Jeandidier P, Bermont A: Les complications dermatologiques
des traitments antidiabetiques. Ann Dermatol Syphiligr 93:13-42,
1966
63. Viraben R, Dupre A: Erythema nodosum following thalidomide therapy for Behçet disease. Dermatologica 176:107, 1988
64. Bartram R, Kastrup J, Andersen C: Erythema nodosum ved trimetoprimbehandling. Ugeskr Laeger 145:1070, 1983
65. Thomson BJ, Nuki G: Erythema nodosum following typhoid vaccination. Scott Med J 30:173, 1985
66. Lillo A, Gil MJ, Jimenez R, et al: Eritema nudoso y adenocarcinoma de
colon. Med Clin (Barc) 108:318, 1997
67. Lin JT, Chen PM, Huang DF, et al: Erythema nodosum associated with
carcinoid tumour. Clin Exp Dermatol 29:426-427, 2004
68. Altomare GF, Capella GL: Paraneoplastic erythema nodosum in a
patient with carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Br J Dermatol 132:667668, 1995
69. Glinkov S, Krasnaliev I, Atanassova M, et al: Hepatocellular carcinoma
associated with paraneoplastic erythema nodosum and polyarthritis.
J Hepatol 39:656-657, 2003
70. Reynolds NJ, Kennedy CTC: Erythema nodosum and cutaneous vasculitis associated with recurrence of Hodgkin’s disease. Br J Dermatol
123:101-102, 1990 (suppl)
71. SuLLivan R, Clowers-Webb H, Davis MD: Erythema nodosum: A
presenting sign of acute myelogenous leukemia. Cutis 76:114-116,
2005
72. Perez NB, Bernad B, Narvaez J, et al: Erythema nodosum and lung
cancer. Joint Bone Spine 73:336-337, 2006
73. Parodi A, Costari R, Rebora A: Erythema nodosum as the presenting
symptom of gastric centro-follicular lymphoma. Int J Dermatol 28:
336-337, 1989
74. Durden FM, Variyam E, Chren MM: Fat necrosis with features of
erythema nodosum in a patient with metastatic pancreatic carcinoma.
Int J Dermatol 35:39-41, 1996
75. Reizis Z, Trattner A, Hodak E, et al: Acne fulminans with hepatosplenomegaly and erythema nodosum migrans. J Am Acad Dermatol
24:886-888, 1991
76. Inoue T, Katoh N, Kishimoto S: Erythema nodosum induced by the
synergism of acupuncture therapy and flu-like infection. J Dermatol
32:493-496, 2005
77. Torinuki W, Funyu T: Adult Still’s disease manifesting as erythema
nodosum. J Dermatol 23:216-217, 1996
78. Gillott TJ, Struthers GR: Cutaneous necrotizing vasculitis, erythema
nodosum and ankylosing spondylitis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 38:
377-378, 1999
79. Nekhlyudov L, Gradzka M, Conti-Kelly AM, et al: Erythema nodosum
associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: A report of three cases.
Lupus 9:641-645, 2000
80. Behçet R: Immunological studies on aphthous ulcer and erythema
nodosum-like eruptions in Behçet disease. Br J Dermatol 113:303312, 1985
81. Glassey F, Saurat JH: Erythema nodosum and Berger’s disease. Dermatologica 177:327-328, 1988
82. Ujiie H, Sawamura D, Yokota K, et al: Intractable erythema nodosum
associated with severe breast abscesses: Reports of two cases. Clin Exp
Dermatol 30:584-585, 2005
83. Cervia M, Parodi A, Rebora A: Chronic active hepatitis and erythema
nodosum. Arch Dermatol 118:878, 1982
123
84. Durand JM, Lefevre P, Weiller C: Erythema nodosum and coeliac
disease. Br J Dermatol 125:291-292, 1991
85. McCallum DI, Kinmont PDC: Dermatological manifestations of
Crohn’s disease. Br J Dermatol 80:1-8, 1968
86. Ruiz-Rodriguez R, Winkelmann RK: Erythema nodosum and diverticulitis. Arch Dermatol 126:1242-1243, 1990
87. Adams DH, Hubscher SG, Scott DGI: Granulomatous mastitis—a rare
cause of erythema nodosum. Postgrad Med J 63:581-582, 1987
88. Dux S, Grosskopf I, Rosenfeld JB: Recurrent erythema nodosum arthritis and IgA nephropathy. Dermatologica 176:293-295, 1988
89. Auerbach PS, Hays JT: Erythema nodosum following a jellyfish sting.
J Emerg Med 5:487-491, 1987
90. Dabski K, Winkelmann RK: Histopathology of erythema nodosum in
patients with coexisting lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol
19:131-132, 1988
91. Bombardieri S, Dimunno O, Dipunzio C, et al: Erythema nodosum
associated with pregnancy and oral contraceptives. BMJ 1:1509-1510,
1977
92. Fearfield LA, Bunker CB: Radiotherapy and erythema nodosum. Br J
Dermatol 142:189, 2000
93. Ramos JM, Blazquez RM, Climent A, et al: Meningitis aséptica, eritema
nudoso y eritema anular centrífugo como primera manifestación de
una policondritis recidivante. Med Clin (Barc) 114:196-197, 2000
94. McMillan A: Reiter’s disease in a female presenting as erythema nodosum. Br J Vener Dis 51:345-347, 1975
95. Jorizzo JL, Daniels JC: Dermatologic conditions in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Am Acad Dermatol 8:439-457, 1983
96. James DG, Neville E, Diltzbach LE: A worldwide review of sarcoidosis.
Ann N Y Acad Sci 278:321-334, 1976
97. Gouet D, Anquez M, Risse JF, et al: Association d’une maladie de
Vogt-Koyanagi d’un syndrome de Goygerot-Sjögren et d’un érythéme
noueux. Presse Med 13:624, 1984
98. Srivastava S, Haddad R, Kleinman G, et al: Erythema nodosum after
smoke inhalation-induced bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Crit Care Med 27:1214-1216, 1999
99. Blaustein A, Moreno A, Noguera J, et al: Septal granulomatous panniculitis in Sweet’s syndrome. Arch Dermatol 121:785-788, 1985
100. Picco P, Gattorno M, Vignola S, et al: Clinical and biological characteristics of immunopathological disease-related erythema nodosum in
children. Scand J Rheumatol 28:27-32, 1999
101. Acha Arrieta V, Fuertes Perez J, Gonzalez de Zarate P, et al: Eritema
nudoso y arteritis de células gigantes. Med Clin (Barc) 88:171-172,
1987
102. Sams WM, Winkelmann RK: The association of erythema nodosum
with ulcerative colitis. South Med J 61:676-679, 1968
103. Barksdale SK, Hallahan CW, Kerr GS, et al: Cutaneous pathology in
Wegener’s granulomatosis. A clinicopathologic study of 75 biopsies in
46 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 19:161-172, 1995
104. García-Porrúa C, González-Gay MA, Vázquez-Caruncho M, et al: Erythema nodosum. Etiologic and predictive factors in defined population. Arthritis Rheum 43:584-592, 2000
105. Fine RM, Meltzer HD: Chronic erythema nodosum. Arch Dermatol
100:33-38, 1969
106. Cribier B, Caille A, Heid E, et al: Erythema nodosum and associated
diseases. A study of 129 cases. Int J Dermatol 37:667-672, 1998
107. Löfgren S: Primary pulmonary sarcoidosis. Acta Med Scand 145:424431, 1953
108. Löfgren S: Erythema nodosum studies on etiology and pathogenesis in
185 adult cases. Acta Med Scand 174:1-197, 1946 (suppl)
109. Marie I, Lecomte F, Levesque H, et al: Lofgren’s syndrome as the first
manifestation of acute infection due to Chlamydia pneumoniae: A
prospective study. Clin Infect Dis 28:691-692, 1999
110. Chun SI, Su WPD, Lee S, et al: Erythema nodosum-like lesions in
Behçet’s syndrome: A histopathologic study of 30 cases. J Cutan
Pathol 16:259-265, 1989
111. Kim B, LeBoit PE: Histopathologic features of erythema nodosum-like
lesions in Behçet disease: A comparison with erythema nodosum focusing on the role of vasculitis. Am J Dermatopathol 22:379-390,
2000
124
112. Cohen PR, Holder WR, Rapini R: Concurrent Sweet’s syndrome and
erythema nodosum: A report, world literature review, and mechanism
of pathogenesis. J Rheumatol 19:814-820, 1992
113. Wilkinson SM, Heagerty AHM, English JSC: Acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis in association with erythema nodosum and sarcoidosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 18:47-49, 1993
114. Ben-Noun L: Sweet’s syndrome associated with erythema nodosum.
Aust Fam Phys 24:1867-1869, 1995
115. Suzuki Y, Kuroda K, Kojima T, et al: Unusual cutaneous manifestations of myelodysplastic syndrome. Br J Dermatol 133:483-486, 1995
116. Waltz KM, Long D, Marks JG, et al: Sweet’s syndrome and erythema
nodosum. The simultaneous occurrence of 2 reactive dermatoses.
Arch Dermatol 135:62-66, 1999
117. Ginarte M, Toribio J: Association of Sweet syndrome and erythema
nodosum. Arch Dermatol 136:673-674, 2000
118. Mizoguchi M, Chikakare K, Goh K, et al: Acute febrile neutrophilic
dermatosis (Sweet’s syndrome) in Behçet disease. Br J Dermatol 116:
727-734, 1987
119. Zamora E, Martín L, de Castro A, Barat A: Síndrome de Sweet: estudio
de diez casos y revisión de la literatura. Rev Clin Esp 186:264-269,
1990
120. Sitjas D, Puig L, Cuatrecasas M, et al: Acute febril neutrophilic dermatosis (Sweet’s syndrome). Int J Dermatol 32:261-268, 1993
121. von den Driesch P: Sweet’s syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis). J Am Acad Dermatol 31:535-556, 1994
122. Ginarte M, García-Doval I, Toribio J: Síndrome de Sweet: estudio de
16 casos. Med Clin (Barc) 109:588-591, 1997
123. Wasson S, Govindarajan G, Folzenlogen D: Concurrent occurrence of
Sweet’s syndrome and erythema nodosum: An overlap in the spectrum of reactive dermatoses. Clin Rheumatol 25:268-272, 2006
124. Gordon H: Erythema nodosum: A review of one hundred and fifteen
cases. Br J Dermatol 73:393-409, 1961
125. Psychos DN, Voulgari PV, Skopouli FN, et al: Erythema nodosum:
The underlying conditions. Clin Rheumatol 19:212-216, 2000
126. Förstrom L, Winkelmann RK: Acute panniculitis: A clinical and histological study of 34 cases. Arch Dermatol 183:909-917, 1977
127. More Monreal J, Rodríguez de la Serna A: Eritema nudoso: Revisión de
68 casos. Rev Clin Esp 171:405-408, 1983
128. Hedfors E, Norberg R: Evidence for circulating immune complexes in
sarcoidosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 16:493-496, 1974
129. Baldock NE, Catterall MD: Erythema nodosum from Yersinia enterocolitica. Br J Dermatol 93:719-720, 1975
130. Jones JV, Cumming RH, Asplin CM: Evidence for circulating immune
complexes in erythema nodosum and early sarcoidosis. Ann NY Acad
Sci 278:212-219, 1976
131. Winkelmann RK, Fostrom L: New observations in the histopahology
of erythema nodosum. J Invest Dermatol 65:441-446, 1975
132. Niemi KM, Forstrom L, Hannuksela M, et al: Nodules on the legs. Acta
Derm Venereol 57:145-154, 1977
133. Nunnery E, Persellin RH, Pope RM: Lack of circulating immune complexes in uncomplicated erythema nodosum. J Rheumatol 10:991994, 1983
134. Kunz M, Beutel S, Brocker E: Leucocyte activation in erythema nodosum. Clin Exp Dermatol 24:396-401, 1999
135. Labunski S, Posern G, Ludwig S, et al: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha
promoter polymorphism in erythema nodosum. Acta Derm Venereol
81:18-21, 2001
136. James DG: Dermatological aspects of sarcoidosis. Quart J Med 28:
109-124, 1959
137. Söderstrom RM, Krull EA: Erythema nodosum. A review. Cutis 21:
806-810, 1978
138. Vesey CMR, Wilkinson DS: Erythema nodosum. Br J Dermatol 71:
139-155, 1959
139. Hens M, Ruiz Moral R, Pérez Jiménez F: Eritema nudoso: Ventajas de
un protocolo para su estudio. Med Clin (Barc) 89:638-640, 1987
140. Labbe L, Perel Y, Maleville J, et al: Erythema nodosum in children: A
study of 27 patients. Pediatr Dermatol 13:447-450, 1996
L. Requena and E. Sánchez Yus
141. Hassink RI, Pasquinelli-Egli CE, Jacomella V, et al: Conditions currently associated with erythema nodosum in Swiss children. Eur J Pediatr 156:851-853, 1997
142. Kakourou T, Drosatou P, Psychou F, et al: Erythema nodosum in
children. J Am Acad Dermatol 44:17-21, 2001
143. Bafverstedt B: Erythema nodosum migrans. Acta Derm Venereol 34:
181-193, 1954
144. Hannuksela M: Erythema nodosum migrans. Acta Derm Venereol
3:1-64, 1973 (suppl 7)
145. Rostas A, Lowe S, Smout MS: Erythema nodosum migrans in a young
man. Arch Dermatol 116:325-330, 1980
146. De Almeida Prestes C, Winkelmann RK, Su WPD: Septal granulomatous panniculitis: Comparison of the pathology of erythema nodosum
migrans (migratory panniculitis) and chronic erythema nodosum.
J Am Acad Dermatol 22:477-483, 1990
147. Vilanova X, Piñol Aguade J: Hypodermyte nodulaire subaigue migratice. Ann Dermatol Syphiligr 83:369-404, 1956
148. Perry HO, Winkelmann RK: Subacute nodular migratory panniculitis.
Arch Dermatol 89:170-179, 1964
149. White WL, Wieselthier JS, Hitchcock MG: Panniculitis: recent developments and observations. Semin Cutan Med Surg 15:278-299, 1996
150. Hern AE, Shwayder TA: Unilateral plantar erythema nodosum. J Am
Acad Dermatol 26:259-260, 1992
151. Suarez SM, Paller AS: Plantar erythema nodosum: Cases in two children. Arch Dermatol 129:1064-1065, 1993
152. Ohtake N, Kawamura T, Akiyama C, et al: Unilateral plantar erythema
nodosum. J Am Acad Dermatol 30:654-655, 1994
153. Joshi A, Sah SP, Agrawal S, et al: Palmar erythema nodosum. J Dermatol 27:420-421, 2000
154. Winkelmann RK, Frigas E: Eosinophilic panniculitis: A clinicopathologic study. J Cutan Pathol 13:1-12, 1986
155. Miescher G: Zur Histologie des Erythema nodosum. Acta Derm Venereol 27:447-468, 1947
156. Miescher G: Zur Frage der Radiärknötchen beim Erythema nodosum.
Arch Dermatol Syphl 193:251-256, 1951
157. Sanchez Yus E, Sanz Vico MD, de Diego V: Miescher’s radial granuloma. A characteristic marker of erythema nodosum. Am J Dermatopathol 11:434-442, 1989
158. LeBoit PE: From Sweet to Miescher and back again. Am J Dermatopathol 28:381-383, 2006
159. Requena L, Kutzner H, Palmedo G, et al: Histiocytoid Sweet syndrome: A dermal infiltration of immature neutrophilic granulocytes.
Arch Dermatol 141:834-842, 2005
160. White WL, Hitchcock MG: Diagnosis: Erythema nodosum or not?
Semin Cutan Med Surg 18:47-55, 1999
161. Thurber S, Kohler S: Histopathologic spectrum of erythema nodosum. J Cutan Pathol 33:18-26, 2006
162. Haustein UF, Klug H: Ultrastrukturelle Untersuchungen der Blutgefässe beim Erythema nodosum. Dermatol Monatsschr 163:13-22,
1977
163. Honma T, Bang D, Lee S, et al: Ultrastructure of endothelial cell
necrosis in classical erythema nodosum. Hum Pathol 24:384-390,
1993
164. Requena L, Sánchez Yus E: Panniculitis. Part I: Mostly septal panniculitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 45:163-183, 2001
165. Snow JL, Su WPD: Lipomembranous (membranocystic) fat necrosis:
Clinicopathologic correlation of 38 cases. Am J Dermatopathol 18:
151-155, 1996
166. Tanaka M, Inoue K, Yamasaki Y, et al: Erythema nodosum complicated by retrobulbar optic nerve neuritis. Clin Exp Dermatol 26:306307, 2001
167. Calista D, Landi G: Lichen planus, erythema nodosum, and erythema
multiforme in a patient with chronic hepatitis C. Cutis 67:454-456,
2001
168. Golding D: Treating erythema nodosum. BMJ 4:560-561, 1969
169. Ubogy Z, Persellin RM: Suppression of erythema nodosum by indomethacin. Acta Derm Venereol 62:265-267, 1982
170. Lehman CW: Control of erythema nodosum with naproxen. Cutis
26:66-67, 1980
Erythema nodosum
171. Schulz EJ, Whiting DA: Treatment of erythema nodosum and nodular
vasculitis with potassium iodide. Br J Dermatol 94:75-78, 1976
172. Miyachi Y, Niwa Y: Effects of potassium iodide, colchicine and dapsone on the generation of the polymorphonuclear leukocyte-derived
oxygen intermediates. Br J Dermatol 107:209-214, 1982
173. Horio T, Imamura S, Danno K, et al: Potassium iodide in the treatment
of erythema nodosum and nodular vasculitis. Arch Dermatol 117:2931, 1981
174. Bondi EE, Lazarus GS: Panniculitis, in Fitzpatrick TB, Eisen AZ, Wolff
K, et al (eds): Dermatology in General Medicine (ed 3). New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1987, pp 1131-1151
125
175. Honma K, Saga K, Onodera H, et al: Potassium iodide inhibits neutrophil chemotaxis. Acta Derm Venereol 70:247-249, 1990
176. Johnson TM, Rapini RP: The Wolff-Chaikoff effect: Hypothyroidism due to potassium iodide. Arch Dermatol 124:1184-1185,
1988
177. Wallace SL: Erythema nodosum treatment with colchicine. JAMA
202:1056, 1967
178. De Coninck P, Baclet JL, Di Bernardo C, et al: Traitment de l’erytheme
noeux par la colchicine (letter). Presse Med 13:680, 1984
179. Jarret P, Goodfield MJD: Hydroxychloroquine and chronic erythema
nodosum (letter). Br J Dermatol 134:373, 1996