2011 (Vol. 2, Nr. 2) - LASE Journal of Sport Science

Transcription

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE
is a Scientific Journal published two times per year in Sport Science
LASE Journal for sport scientists and sport expert/specialists
Published and financially supported by the Latvian Academy of Sport Education in
Riga, Latvia
p-ISSN: 1691-7669
e-ISSN: 1691-9912
ISO 3297
Language: English
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Latvian Academy of Sport Education
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Copyright © by the Latvian Academy of Sport Education in Riga, Latvia
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BORD
Chief Editor
Juris Grants (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Members of the board:
Agita Ābele (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Miklos Banhidi (Hungary)
PhD, Professor
University of West Hungary
Rolf Carlson (Sweden)
PhD, Professor
Swedish School of Sport and Health
Sciences
Algirdas Ćepulėnas (Lithuania)
PhD, Professor
Lithuanian Academy
of Physical Education
Albrecht Claessens (Belgium)
PhD, Professor
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Leonīds Čupriks (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Andra Fernāte (Latvia)
PhD, Asoc. Professor
Uldis Grāvītis (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Juri Hanin (Finland)
PhD, Professor
Research Institute for Olympic Sports
Vello Hein (Estonia)
PhD, Asoc. Professor
University of Tartu
Vladimir Issurin (Israel)
PhD, Professor
Wingate Institute for Physical
Education and Sport
Rasma Jansone (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Toivo Jürimäe (Estonia)
PhD, Professor
University of Tartu
Jānis Lanka (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Kazys Milasius (Lithuania)
PhD, Professor
Vilnius Pedagogical University
Inese Pontaga (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
Oscar Romero Ramos (Spain)
PhD, Professor
University of Malaga
Jerzy Sadowski (Poland)
PhD, Professor
The Jozef Pilsudski Academy
Jānis Žīdens (Latvia)
PhD, Professor
2 | CONTENTS
ISSN 1691-7669 (ISO 3297)
LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE
Vol. 2, (2011) Nr. 2, pp. 2-128
CONTENTS
Publisher‟s Note ......................................................................................................................................
3
Original research papers
MUSCLE STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LATVIAN WEIGHTLIFTERS IN SINGLE
JOINT MOVEMENTS
Čupriks L., Ciematnieks U., Knipše G., Vidze A., Saulīte S., Lesčinskis M. ........................................
4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-RATED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND HEALTH
OUTCOMES IN OLDER ADULTS
Kaupužs A., Lāriņš L. .................................................................................................... .........................
13
SMART MOTION CAPTURE SYSTEM MEASURING MOVEMENTS OF PROFESSIONAL
STANDARD SPORTS DANCERS IN PROMENADE POSITION
Kļonova A., Kļonovs J., Giovanardi A., Cicchella A. …………………………………………………
26
ESTIMATION OF BODY MASS INDEX IN TEAM SPORTS ATHLETES
Pontaga I., Žīdens J. ............................................................................................................................. ...
33
CORRESPONDENCE OF NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS USED BY ATHLETES TO THEIR
SPORT AIM AND REGULATED DEMANDS FOR SAFETY
Rubana I.M., Karpikova I. .......................................................................................................................
45
THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN BIAŁA PODLASKA
INCLUDING SEX OF THE RESPONDENTS
Soroka A., Baj-Korpak J., Korpak F., Pocztarska-Dec A. .....................................................................
57
A MULTIDIMENTIONAL FACTOR MODEL FOR TEAM PREPARATION IN BASKETBALL
Vazne Ž., Malinauskas R. .......................................................................................................................
68
Review papers
PROBLEMS OF SUCCESSFUL LUGE SPORTSMEN CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Amantova I., Ābele A. ............................................................................................................................
82
SPORT CLASSES FOR SUSTAINABLE STUDENT HEALTH PROMOTION
Fernate A., Jansone R., Immere I., Bula-Biteniece I. ..............................................................................
91
BASIC EDUCATION LEARNERS‟ INTEREST IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THEORETICAL
ASPECTS
Gerina N. .................................................................................................................................................
102
Schort communication
Review of Agita Ābele monograph " Foundations of Sports Psychology”
Rimbenieks J. ..........................................................................................................................................
119
Review of Aivars Kaupužs book “Physical Activities for Older Adults”
Lāriņš V. ............................................................................................................................. .....................
121
Review of Juris Grants book “Let Us Learn Skiing!”
Nilsson J. ............................................................................................................................................ .....
122
CURRENT NEWS...................................................................................................................
CONGRATULATION............................................................................................................
123
124
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS.................................................................................
REVIEWRS OF ARTICLE 2011............................................................................................
125
128
LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE 2011/2/2 | 3
Publisher‟s Note
Dear Friends,
Welcome to the second annual edition of the "LASE Journal of
Sport Science" in 2011. Every year, the Latvian Academy of Sport
Education (LASE) is issuing the following two journals. This year for the
institution of higher education is special, because at the beginning of the
academic year we celebrated its 90th anniversary. During the year, we
evaluated what has been done in the preparation of sports education
specialists and in the development of Sports Science in Latvian and
European context. In honour of the 90th anniversary of LASE we have
organized the International Scientific Conference in Sport Science.
Although the journal is published just for two years, we have
observed a great interest from both the practitioners, who study it and
integrate the innovations of sport achievements, sport education and health
care in their practice, and young sports scientists, who publish their original
research in this sports science edition. We are glad to see the increasing
competition of submitted works; hence the editorial board has the
opportunity to select the best manuscripts for the publication in the journal.
Our higher education institution promotes the cooperation of young
scientists and doctoral students with other European universities, thus
emerging the generation of inter-university research and publications. We
also welcome the idea that second PhD work supervisors of several our PhD
students are from abroad Based on the International Promotion Council in
Sport Science, which is currently operating in LASE, students can obtain a
PhD degree in different disciplines.
I express my deepest gratitude both to manuscript reviewers and to
international journal publishing commission for their great efforts in the
preparation of the two journal editions in 2011.
On behalf of the Journal Editorial Board,
Prof. Juris Grants
4 | Čupriks et al: MUSCLE STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS ...
ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER
MUSCLE STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF
LATVIAN WEIGHTLIFTERS IN SINGLE JOINT
MOVEMENTS
Leonīds Čupriks, Uģis Ciematnieks, Gundega Knipše,
Aleksandra Vidze, Sergejs Saulīte, Māris Lesčinskis
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV 1006, Latvia
Phone: +371 67543410, fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: smagatletika@lspa.lv
Abstract
In the world the weightlifters training process includes development
of of muscular strength as very important of sportsmen physical condition.
In scientific literature can be found guidances of overall muscle strength
development, but there is lack of information about research of various
muscle strength characteristics. Nowadays, it is technically possible to
determine the physical work capacity in reciprocating movements of the
joints in the laboratory and obtain standardized data. The aim of our study
was to determine peak torque peculiarities of various muscle groups flexors
and extensors of Latvian weightlifters comparing with sportsmen of different
kind of sports. In the study was investigated the maximal torque in following
movements: leg, thigh, torso, upper arm, forearm and foot flexion and
extension. Study results were processed by methods of mathematical
statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient. There has been found medium
correlation between the torso and feet flexors (r=0.642), as well as feet
extensors (r=0.556) and with the combined maximal torque (r=0.598). By
contrast, the torso extensors are closely related to the thigh flexors
(r=0.758), as well as medium correlation was observed between the
forearm flexors and extensors (r=0.555 and r=0.561). Studying the
experimental results we concluded that the leading muscle groups of
Latvian weightlifters are the torso, thigh and lower leg extensors and foot
flexors, this conclusion was approved by contribution of these muscle
groups in absolute (56.7%) and relative (56.6%) sum of torque of all muscle
groups. So, the essential in weightlifting snatch and clean jerk movements
performance of Latvian athletes are level of torque development of torso,
thigh, lower leg flexors and foot extensors.
In the study we analyzed only the middle and strong correlation results of
the maximum torque in test movements. The obtained results of muscle
torque in selected Latvian weightlifters muscle movements can be used as a
guideline for athletes' training programs individualization as weightlifters
model-characteristics. If there is observed insufficient level of strength
development in certain muscle groups, related to execution of weightlifting
competition exercises, then obtained results of the experiment should be
included in training process.
Key words: muscles, peak torque, dynamometer, weightlifter, isometric
force
Introduction
There is worldwide acceptance that the optimal level of muscle
strength development is one of the main foundations of high results in sport
(Brown, 2000). Various muscle strength characteristics are one of the
athletes most objective physical condition and physical fitness indicators.
Analysis of literature source shows that these characteristics according to
weightlifters are studied insufficiently (Виноградов, 2009; Frolovs,
Krasovs and Upmalis 1987; Zawieja-Koch).
Nowadays, it is important to determine the most effective means of
physical work capacity incensement for weightlifters. As the new physical
capacity monitoring tools, who simulates single joint reciprocating
movements, appears, the study was started in Muscle functional diagnostic
center of Latvian Academy of Sport Education, so it were sought to clarify
the effectiveness of weightlifters testing program and develop
recommendations for weightlifters. The key in this process was to provide
development of athletes strict physical readiness direction and to form
variety of possible actions of strength development forms.
During experiment the test movement must be sufficiently prolonged
for athlete to have time for reaching maximum strength. The time needed to
reach the peak torque in studied movement is mainly adjective of isometric
testing system flexibility, the athlete's individual characteristics and applied
recommendations of execution of necessary muscle contractions. Typically
5 sec lasting isometric contractions allows for almost all the performers to
achieve the peak torque (Hood and Forward, 1965; Murray et.al., 1977).
Therefore testing protocols in experiment includes contractions form
2 to 5sec (Andersen and Henckel, 1987). As 5sec are required to reach
maximal isometric strength, then it is possible to reach 90% of maximal
isometric strength in period of time less than 2sec (Hakkinen, Alen and
Komi, 1985). Analogically reaching maximal peak torque remains for 1sec
or less (Hislop, 1963; Murray, 1977).
Following literature sources (Lunnen, Yack and Le Vean, 1981),
determination of athletes body position for appropriate joint testing, the
angle of motion and angle of joint in tested movement must be standardized.
Accordingly, there will be established the means to artificially prevent
distorting factors for weightlifters to execute movement with the minimum
disruption as result of applying technical means.
The aim of our research was to determine peak torque peculiarities
of various muscle groups flexors and extensors of Latvian weightlifters
comparing with sportsmen of different kind of sports.
Material and methods
Monitoring of muscles isometric force was carried out on 16 Latvian
weightlifters. Athletes training experience was in average 7.5±0.7 years,
average age of athletes 20.5±1.2 years, average weight 58±4.6kg, height
169.4±3.5cm.
To determine peak torque of 12 muscle groups – upper arm, forearm,
thigh, shin, foot and body flexors and extensors – polidynamometric method
was used, performed on system REV 9000 (Technogym Italy).
Determination of muscle peak torque was held out in the Muscle functional
diagnostic center of Latvian Academy of Sport Education from June 2010
till September 2010.
In our research testing of peak torque of flexion and extension
movement provided standardization of joint angle (see fig. 1-7), as strength
can significantly vary in all amplitude of movement. Practically, joint angle
was chosen by the maximal level of torque are close to it in motion
amplitude curve.
Figure 1. Isometric tension of
forearm flexors and extensors in
angle of 800 (Catani, 1992)
Figure 2. Isometric tension of upper
arm flexors and extensors in angle of
1000 (Catani, 1992)
Figure 3. Isometric tension of lower extremity flexors and extensors in
Figure 4. Isometric tension of shin
flexors in agnle of 350 (Catani, 1992)
shin extensors in angle of 900
(Catani, 1992)
Figure 6. Isometric tension of foot
flexors and extensors in angle of 50
(Catani, 1992)
body flexors and extensors in
Test protocol begun with stretch movements of muscles flexors and
extensors for 5min, 8 minutes warm-up with free motions and 3min special
warm-up performed in isokinetic dynamometer REV-9000.
Determination of optimal position in choosed joints can be
discutable question.
Test protocol also included three pre-test muscle contractions
(Murray et.al. 1980).
Best repeat was chosen as measurement of peak torque (Andersen
and Henckel, 1987). Rest periods between sets lasted for 1 minute.
Instructions given to athletes according to performed contraction
could affect results of isometric strength test. Considering intensity of
strength development where explosive contraction was needed, the main
parameter in our experiment was peak torque. Obtained results were
processed with methods of mathematical statistics, by the Microsoft Excel
addon „Statistics”. For comparison of weightlifters single joint movements
with results of sportsmen of other individual kind of sports, we used results,
obtained by scientists in previous researches (Баршай, 1973; Малинский,
1999; Дворкин, 2003; Frolovs, Krasovs and Upmalis, 1987).
Results
Corelation analysis of absolute strength between different muscle
groups of Latvian weightlifters showed following: there was recognized
strong correlation between peak torques of upper extremities as mutually, as
between peak torques of lower extremities and body (table 1).
Table 1.
Correlation between peak torques of separate muscle groups of Latvian
weightlifters (n=32; r=0,362; p<0,05)
N. Muscle
groups
1. Forearm
flexors
2. Forearm
extesors
3. Upper arm
flexors
4. Upper arm
extensors
5. Thigh flexors
6. Thigh
extensors
7. Shin flexors
8. Shin
extensors
9. Foot flexors
10. Foot
extensors
11. Body flexors
12. Body
extensors
13. Sum of
muscle
groups peak
torque
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
0,710
0,658 0,549
0,630
0,627 0,534
0,655
0,642 0,556
0,551 0,561
0,758
0,704 0,748 0,667
0,622
0,616
0,698 0,547
13.
Peak torque of forearm flexors and extensors have strong correlation
(correlation coefficient r=0,710), forearm flexors and upper arm flexors
have medium correlation (r=0,665), forearm flexors and thigh flexors
medium correlation (r=0,627), forearm flexors and shin flexors medium
correlation (r=0,655) and forearm flexors and body extensors medium
correlation (r=0,555). Forearm extensors have medium correlation with
upper arm flexors (r=0,549), with thigh flexors (r=0,574) and body
extensors (r=0,56).
Mentionable is also peak torque correlation between upper arm
flexors and extensors (r=0,630).
Importance of upper extremity muscles peak torque development of
different weight category Latvian weightlifters is characterized with strong
correlation between peak torque of forearm flexors and extensors; strong
and medium correlation between upper arm flexors and sum of peak torque
of all other muscle groups involved in experiment (correlation coefficients
accordingly: r=0,704; r=0,746; r=0,667).
Comparision between peak torque of Latvian weightlifters upper
extremity muscles and acrobats, powerlifters, gymnasts and freestyle
wrestlers with same sport level and experience, shows following results
(table 2).
Table 2.
Indicators of different muscles peak torque of sportsmen of various kind of
sports (Nm) (Баршай, 1973; Малинский, 1999; Дворкин, 2003; Frolovs,
Krasovs and Upmalis, 1987)
Muscle group/Kind
of sport
Forearm flexors
Forearm extensors
Upper arm flexors
Upper arm extensors
Weightlifting
Powerlifting
Acrobatics
Gymnastics
83Nm
100Nm
265Nm
350Nm
85Nm
105Nm
255Nm
365Nm
80Nm
70Nm
190Nm
300Nm
90Nm
80Nm
240Nm
340Nm
Freestyle
wrestling
70Nm
65Nm
160Nm
240Nm
Peak torque of weightlifters muscles is slightly lower than
powerlifters‟ muscles, except upper arm flexors, but higher than freestyle
wrestlers and acrobats. Its related to higher upper extremity muscle work in
heavy athletics kind of sports.
Discussion
Analysis of competition exercise technique of Latvian weightlifters
(Frolovs, Krasovs and Upmalis, 1987) shows, that main factor for Latvian
weightlifters is development of body, thigh, shin extensors and foot flexors,
which composes 56,7% of total sum of all muscle peak torque.
Same results were acquired by other scientists (Виноградов, 2009; ZawiejaKoch).
So relation between Latvian weightlifter peak torque of thigh flexors
and extensors are 1:3,5; but of shin accordingly 1:3,6. Comparing the
proportional relation between analog muscle groups of other kind of sports
we can conclude, that specifics of weightlifting exercises stimulates
increased development of mentioned muscle groups. For example, for
freestyle wrestlers these relations for thigh is 1:0,7; but on shin - 1:2,1
(Малинский, 1999).
Moreover, there was found increasement of peak torque indicators of
foot extensors versus flexors (1:2,7), but increasement of body flexor
muscles peak torque versus extensors strength was 1:2,1. For Latvian
weightlifters and freestyle wrestlers these proportions are respectively 1:4,1
and 1:3,4.
Analysis of correlation shows importance of relations between
development of body extensors and flexors peak torque. There was found
also medium correlation between body flexors and foot flexors (r=0,642),
also with foot extensors (r=0,556) and sum of all muscle groups peak torque
(r=0,598). Otherwise, body extensors are related with thigh flexors
(r=0,758), as with forearm flexors and extensors (r=0,555 and r=0,561).
Must be mentioned, that foot flexors, having great importance in weight bar
push-up phase and jerk phase in weightlifting competition exercises, have
medium correlation with sum of peak torque (r=0,616).
Conclusions
Latvian weightlifters are characterized with strong correlation of
muscle peak torque of upper extremities as mutually, and between body and
lower extremities muscle strength indicators.
Comparing development level of upper and lower arm flexor and
extensor muscles peak torque, for weightlifters it is lower than acrobats,
gymnasts, powerlifters peak torque, but higher than freestyle wrestlers with
same physical condition.
Analyzing results of our research we found, that main muscle groups
for Latvian weightlifters are body, thigh and shin extensors and foot flexors,
which is approved by the total investment of these muscle groups in whole
muscles peak torque absolute (56,7%) and relative (56,6%) indicators. So,
the important role in snatch and clean&jerk for Latvian weightlifters are
body, thigh, shin flexors and foot extensors strength moment development
level.
As the weightlifting is individual kind of sport, obtained results of
Latvian weightlifters in single joint movements can be used as base for
individualization of sportsmen training program for modeling individual
characteristics of weightlifters. If there is observed insufficient level of
strength development in certain muscle groups, related to execution of
weightlifting competition exercises, then obtained results of the experiment
should be included in training process. Then it is possible to choose
necessary means for each weightlifter individually, so the training plan can
be improved by adding or excluding certaing exercises from training plan of
weightlifter.
References
1. Andersen, L.B.,& Henschel, P. (1987). Maximal voluntary isometric
strenght in Banith adorescents 16 – 19 years of age. European
Journal of Applied Physiology, 56., 83-89.
2. Brown, L.E. (2000). Isokinetics in human performance. Champaigh.
Human Kinetics, 458 p.
3. Catani, F. (1992). User Manual REV 9000. Forli: Technogym
research centre, 55-60.
4. Frolovs, V., Krasovs, J., & Upmals J. (1987). Svarcelšana
iesācējiem. Rīga, Avots, 86 lpp.
5. Hakinen, K., Alen, M., & Komi, P.V. (1985). Changes in isometric
force and relaxation time, electromyographic and muscle fibre
charasteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and
detraining. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125; p. 161 – 172.
6. Hislop, H.J. (1963). Quantitative changes in human muscular
strength during isometric exercise. Journal of the American Physical
Therapy Association, 43; 21-38.
7. Hood, L.B., & Forward, I.M. (1965). Strength variations in two
determinations of maximal isometric contractions. Physical Therapy,
45; 1046-1053.
8. Lunnen, I.D., Yach, I., & Le Veau, B.F. (1981). Relationship
between muscle length, muscle activity and torque of the hamstring
muscles. Physical Therapy, 61; 190-195.
9. Zawieja-Koch, M. [online] Weightlifting in training for athletics
[cited
23th
of
July,
2011].
Retrieved
from
http://www.coachr.org/weightlifting_in_training_for_athletics.htm
10. Murray, M.P., Baldwin, I.M., Gardner, G.M., Sepic, S.B., &
Downs,W.I. (1977). Maximum isometric knee flexor and extensor
muscle
contractions:Normal paterns of torque versus time. Physical
Therapy, 57; 637-643.
11. Murray, M.P., Gardner, G.M., Mollinger, L.A., & Sepic, S.B.
(1980). Strength of isometric and isokinetic contractions: Knee
muscles of men aged 20 – 86. Physical Therapy, 60; 412- 419.
12. Баршай, В.М. (1973). Исследование взаимосвязи процессов
развития физических качеств и формирование двигательных
навыков у юных акробатов. Дис. канд.пед.наук. Москва, 176 с.
13. Виноградов, Т.П. (2009). Атлетизм. Теория и методика
тренировки. Учебник для высшых учебных заведений. Москва,
Советский спорт; 328 с.
14. Дворкин, Л.С. (2003). Силовые единоборства.Атлетизм,
кулътуризм, пауерлифтинг, гиревой спорт. Москва, Феникс;
384 с.
15. Малинский, И.И. (1999). Индивидуальные особенности
скоростно-силовых возможностей квалифицированных борцов
вольного стиля . Физическое воспитание студентов творческих
специальностей. Сборник научных трудов под ред. Ермакова
С.С., № 11. Харьков: ХХПИ, 38-41 с.
Submitted: November 4, 2011
Accepted: December 13, 2011
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-RATED PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY AND HEALTH OUTCOMES IN OLDER
ADULTS
Aivars Kaupužs1 Viesturs Lāriņš2
1
Rezekne Higher Education Institution
Address: 115 Atbrivosanas Street, Rezekne, LV 4600, Latvia
Phone: + 371 64623709, fax: + 371 64625901
E-mail: aivars.kaupuzs@inbox.lv
2
Phone: +371 67543444, fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: viesturs.larins@lspa.lv
Abstract
Inactive people are nearly twice as likely to develop heart disease as
those who are more active. This study examines the relationships between
self-rated physical activities (PA), heart risk assessments and health related
quality of life (HRQOL) in older adults. 359 community dwelling adults
aged 60-75 years were recruited for this study (63.5% - female, 36.5% male). We used interviewer-administered International Physical Activity
Questionnaire (IPAQ), short version, the Medical Outcomes Study, short
form 36 item questionnaires (SF-36v2). For the measuring of objective
health determinants we used the Heart Health Cabinet cardiovascular risk
factors assessment data. Findings show that 49.0% of the respondents are
”high” physical active, 30.4% are “moderate” and 20.6% have “low” PA
level. The study results show high CVD risk. 73.6% of respondents have
more than 10% risk of a cardiovascular event occurring over next 10 years.
At this study we found out the statistically significant relationship between
PA and HRQOL questionnaire SF-36 data (Pearson Correlation PA and
PCS r=0.499; PA and MCS r=0.578; p<0.01). The obtained data shows
significant correlation between moderate domain of PA and health related
variables (with systolic blood pressure r= -0.430 and total cholesterol level
r=-0.315).
Key words: cardiovascular risk, health related quality of life, older adults,
physical activity.
14 | Kaupužs et al: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-RATED ...
Introduction
The structure of modern society is changing. Population aging will
have essential impact on social, economical and political issues. The United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs estimates that in 2006,
21 percent of Europeans were older than 60, but until 2050, nearly 34
percent will be above 60 years old (World Population Ageing 2009).
Consequently, the age-related decline in physical and cognitive performance
has been the focus of many studies. A general conclusion from this research
seems to be that the maintenance of functional capacity, and thereby the
independence of the older person, is beneficial for an individual and society
alike. Demographic changes lead to the necessity to focus on the prevention
of diseases and improving quality of life through nonmedical interventions
such as physical activity.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the largest cause of death in
Europe and account for approximately over 4.35 million deaths. It is nearly
a half of all deaths (49%) in Europe (Petersen et al. 2005). Risk factors
(inactivity smoking, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol,
overweight, and diabetes) greatly increase the chances of developing heart
disease.
Physical inactivity (PA) is a modifiable risk factor for CVD and may
cause variety of other chronic diseases. A recent systematic review shows
the health benefits of physical activity for the reduction of chronic diseases,
including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cancer, bone and joint
diseases, and depression. (Centers for Disease Control 1996). Recent
updated studies findings have comfirmed reductions in the risk of death
from any cause and from cardiovascular disease (Sofi et al. 2008; Nocon et
al. 2008).
Physical activity both reduces heart disease risk and enhances health
related quality of life (HRQOL) that provides “successful aging”. Older
adults‟ participation in physical activity can also improve the quality of
social life and facilitate independent living. Several authors are summarized
the evidences of PA effects on HRQOL in systematic reviews and metaanalyses (McAuley et al. 2006; Netz et al. 2005; Rejeski 2001). Results
from the 2001 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, which include a
large sample with a wide range of physical and demographic characteristics,
show that people achieving the recommended physical activity level had
better physical, functional, social, and psychological well-being
characteristics than their less active counterparts (Brown et al. 2003).
Despite strong evidences about the benefits of regular physical activity for
people of all ages, there is still a high rate of inactivity at the population.
According “Sporting habits of the inhabitants of the Republic of Latvia”
survey data, 48.6% percent of Latvian population is not engaging in sport or
regular physical activities and at the age group over 55 years it is 68.5% of
respondents (SKDS 2007). There are still incomplete data of physical
activity level in the over 60 age group.
This study examined the relationships between self-rated PA, health
related variables and HRQOL in older adults.
Participants
The random sampling from official national Population register is
not possible according to Latvian legislation on protection of personal data.
Thus, the sampling strategies were evaluated by availability and costeffectiveness. The recruitment of volunteers who visited the Heart Health
Cabinets across 5 Latvia regions for cardiovascular risk assessment was
chosen. The study samples consisted of 359 respondents 60-75 years old.
The mean age ± SD of the participants was 67.3±7.1 years. 228 were female
(63.5%) and 131 male (36.5%). The sampling diversity criteria (age, gender,
place of residence) ensured that samples are a representative of population
of Latvia at this age group.
Physical activity
To assess the level of physical activity we used International
Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), short version (Craig et al., 2003).
The items in IPAQ are structured to provide separate domain-specific scores
for walking, moderate-intensity, and vigorous-intensity activity. All
questions are referred to the previous 7 days. The results were presented as
the estimation of energy expenditure in metabolic equivalent-minutes per
week (MET-min/week). Although Ainsworth et al. (2006) point to the
potential overestimates of the prevalence of the PA showed by the IPAQ,
there are numbers of studies that confirm validity and reliability of
questionnaire under different socio-cultural conditions in population based
studies (Alexander et al., 2006; Hagstromer et al., 2006). The long IPAQ
version consists of higher number of questions that increase the
overestimating risk. The long version includes the job related domain that is
not so relevant to senior population. Considering that reasons and taking
into account of the IPAQ committee suggestions that the IPAQ short version
is the format of preference for both national and internationally comparable
prevalence studies (Craig et al., 2003) the questionnaire short version was
chosen.
HRQOL assessment
Short form 36 version 2 (SF-36v2) is widely used as an extensive
health related quality of life measurement. The SF-36 contains 36 items
measuring 8 dimensions of health and well-being. These attributes are
combined using a regression equation and standardized to population norms
to provide a physical component summary (PCS) and a mental component
summary (MCS) (Ware et al. 2000). This is a reliable and valid measure in
community-dwelling elderly. Evidences for a high degree of internal
consistency and construct validity were obtained in study of sample of 827
older adults (Lyons et al. 1994). A Latvian version of SF-36v2 was used in
this study with the permission of the Medical Outcome Trust.
Health-Related Variables
The European Society of Cardiology has developed a risk score
system (SCORE) using data from 12 European cohort studies covering a
wide geographic spread of countries at different levels of cardiovascular
risks. SCORE assessment consists of detecting cardiovascular diseases
(CVD) risk factors. CVD risk factors assessment is based on untreated level
of systolic blood pressure, cholesterol and glucose level, age and smoking
status. All measurements were recorded by trained Heart Health Cabinet
nurses in 5 consulting rooms across Latvia regions. There are totally 21
Heart Health consulting rooms in Latvia. In 2010, there were more than 23
thousands of people that pass the cardiovascular risk assessment and receive
consultation from medical staff (Ministry of Health of the Republic of
Latvia Health Inspectorate 2010). SCORE assessment algorithm enables the
medical staff to determine the risk of a cardiovascular event occurring over
next 10 years. Blood pressure, total cholesterol, glucose concentrations and
body measurements were recorded by Heart Health Cabinet nurses. Blood
pressure was measured by Aneroid Sphygmomanometer device in sitting
position. Total cholesterol and glucose level were measured by The
Accutrend Plus system as an express blood strip method. Height was
measured using a portable stadiometer, and weight was measured using a
calibrated portable scale; body mass index (BMI) was calculated from these
measures. Waist-to-hip (WHR) ratio is waist circumference divided by hip
circumference. Waist circumference was measured around the narrowest
point between the coastal margin and the iliac crest. Hip circumference was
measured at the level of the widest diameter around the gluteal region. Body
measurements were done with light clothing on and without shoes. Smoking
status was obtained by self-report.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed with SPSS version 15.0 for Windows.
Standard methods: the mean, median, standard deviation (SD) and % were
employed for descriptive statistics for each variable. Correlations between
continuous variables were tested by the use of Pearson‟s correlation
coefficient. Differences between the participants with low, moderate, and
high physical activity and health related variables were analysed with the
Chi-square test. The comparison of men and women results of IPAQ
questinnaire shows that there are no significant differences between groups
in level of physical activity. Therefore, the data were analysed for the whole
group throughout the article.
Results
All data are presented as means, median and standard deviation (SD)
(table 1). The results show high risk of a cardiovascular event occurring
over next 10 years for these samples. 73% of respondents have more than
10% CVD risk. The average value is 16%. Also the anthropometrical data
(BMI and WHR) of the respondents are on the CVD risk zone. Only 26.2%
of subjects have a healthy BMI score, but 86.1% have waist-to-hip ratio
score which indicate increased health risk (male > 0.95; female > 0.85).
There are also many subjects with hypertension (64.1%) and with total
cholesterol score above the recommended 5mmol/l level (74.9%).
Table 1.
Characteristics of the study respondents
Characteristics
Age (years)
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Body mass index (kg/m2)
Systolic (mmHg)
Diastolic (mmHg)
Hypertension (%)
Waist circumference (cm)
Hip circumference (cm)
Waist-hip ratio**
Total cholesterol (mmol/l)
Glucose level (mmol/l)
Diabetes mellitus (%)
Physical activity (MET-min/week)
Sitting time (min/day)
SCORE risk (%)*
*
Mean
67.3
166.95
78.29
29.49
138.1
86.3
64.1
97.6
102.3
0.95
5.5
5
13
4387.2
393.7
16
Median
66.5
166
77
30.48
140
90
Standard deviation
7.1
10.2
15.7
4.25
19.8
12.1
98
100
0.96
5.4
4.9
12.1
13.1
0.04
0.96
1.2
3786
360
3426
208
The risk of a cardiovascular event occurring over next 10 years
Waist circumference (cm) divided by hip circumference (cm)
**
To estimate the level of physical activity, the short form Latvian
version of IPAQ was used, because compared with the long version there is
reduced risk to overestimate self-rated activity. The short version
systematically underestimates physical activity level, since it consists of
fewer questions (7 questions in the short version compared with 27
questions in the long version). The findings show that 20.6% of the
respondents have “low” PA level, 30.4% are “moderate” and 49.0% are
”high” physically active. Also the median result of total physically activity
for the whole sample was quite high - 3786 MET-min/week. The mean
value was 4387.2 MET-min/week; (SD=3426). There are many evidences of
PA overestimating usage of self reported instruments (Hagströmer et al.
2007). Also for older samples it is relevant (Mahabir et al. 2006). For this
reason we examined whether the relationship between physical activity and
CVD risk differed according to the type of physical activity performed
(table 2).
Table 2.
Pearson correlation coefficients comparing physical activity with health
related variables
PA walking
PA moderate
PA vigorous
SCORE
risk
-0.220
-0.296*
-0.033
Systolic blood
pressure
-0.206
-0.430**
-0.046
Total
cholesterol level
-0.094
-0.315*
-0.056
WHR
-0.395**
-0.180
-0.135
BMI
0.157
-0.011
0.203
**
*
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
As the results show there is a correlation between moderate PA and
cholesterol level (r=-0.315; p>0.05), systolic blood pressure (r=-0.43;
p>0.01), and SCORE risk assessment (r=-0.296; p>0.05). There is also
statistically significant relationship between walking PA and waist-to-hip
ratio results (r=-0.395; p>0.01). We found no significant correlations
between vigorous PA domains and any other CVD risk factors.
The results of this study show a significant relationship between a
self-reported level of physical activity and blood pressure. Figure 1
illustrates the statistically significant differences (p<0.05) between the total
physical activity level and blood pressure reduction. There are 78.4% of
respondents with high blood pressure (systolic >140mmHg;
diastolic>90mmHg) who are sedentary, but 44.9% persons with “high” PA
level have normal blood pressure. Although the study results justify the
benefits of physical activity for cardiovascular health, there are still
problematic questions about PA dose-response relationship.
The data from figure 1 show the tendency of reducing a blood
pressure, but still 55.1% of respondents with “high” PA level have high
blood pressure. Also results of IPAQ and CVD risk assessment show that
people with high CVD risk (21-40%) mostly have “moderate” (37.1%) or
“high” (38.6%) total physical activity level.
Figure 1. Relationship between physical activity level and blood
pressure assessment
This leads to the assumptions that, firstly, the used thresholds of total
PA levels are not connected with health benefits and, secondly, the
concomitant factors (heredity, illness, environment etc.) are more substantial
determinants of health status. Further research is needed to develop
evidence-based cut-off points of required total physical activity for health
benefits in the older adult population.
Next, we computed relationships between HRQOL assessment
results with other variables. The data from SF-36v2 questionnaire indicate
that 55% of Latvian population at this age has physical component summary
(PCS) below the General Population Norm. The score below the norm of
mental component summary (MCS) is 52%. Only 13% of respondents
reported better health than average.
We found the most significant correlation between two aggregated factors of
SF-36v2 (PCS and MCS) and total physical activity level (table 3).
Table 3.
Pearson correlation coefficients comparing SF-36v2 results with total
physical activity and health related variables
PCS
MCS
Physical
activity
0.499**
0.578**
SCORE
risk
-0.045
-0.058
Systolic blood
pressure
-0.375**
-0.097
Total
cholesterol
-0.082
-0.336*
WHR
BMI
-0.387**
0.014
-0.072
0.173
**
*
Study data show the statistically significant correlation between
IPAQ results and HRQOL questionnaire SF-36v2 data (Pearson Correlation
PA and PCS r=0.499; PA and MCS r=0.578; p>0.01). There are also some
interactions between PCS and health related variables (systolic blood
pressure and WHR).
Discussion
Cardiovascular disease has been the leading cause of death in the
EU. Clinical trials have demonstrated that lowering blood pressure reduces
incidence of heart attack and death from cardiovascular disease. Physical
inactivity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and persons who
are less active and less fit have a 30% to 50% greater risk for high blood
pressure (American Heart Association 2009). Whelton and colleagues
(2002) in the meta-analysis study showed that an aerobic exercise has an
impressive blood pressure–lowering effect: 3.84 mm Hg for systolic blood
pressure and 2.58 mm Hg for diastolic blood pressure. Wing and colleagues
(1998) reported even much larger reduction in blood pressure. Maintaining
the reached physical activity level for prolonged time is an essential element
for the maximum benefit of exercise on blood pressure. However
associations between physical activity and blood pressure have been
inconsistent in cross-sectional studies. There are some studies which have
observed an inverse association between physical activity and blood
pressure among both genders (Hickey et al. 1975; Burke et al. 1992), but
other studies did not support these findings (Sesso et al. 1999).
In younger persons, hypertension often results from a higher cardiac
output state, whereas in older persons, hypertension more often results from
increased peripheral vascular resistance and large artery stiffening. Several
considerations may explain the smaller than expected correlation between
PA and health related variables. First, there is a progressive increase in
arterial stiffness with aging that contributes to systolic hypertension (Berry
et al. 2004). This elevated arterial stiffness is primarily due to a replacement
of elastic fibers in the large arteries by less distensible collagen and calcium.
These aging changes in arterial structure may not be amenable to
modification by physical activity or exercise training. Ferrier and colleagues
(2001) also found that exercise training did not improve arterial compliance
in persons with systolic hypertension. Some of the study‟s results were
significant for diastolic blood pressure (Stewart et al. 2005). They found a
greater reduction in diastolic blood pressure among exercisers despite their
normal baseline. Second consideration, it remains unclear whether the lack
of association among physical activity and health related variables is a result
of overestimating of total PA that lead to computing errors or the mentioned
amount of the physical activity is not sufficient for CVD risk reduction.
As Hawken and colleagues (2005) found WHR can be used as a
CVD risk predictor. WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of
mortality in older people than waist circumference or BMI for persons aged
over 75 years (Price et al. 2006). The excess health risk associated with a
high BMI declines with increasing age (Calle et al. 1999). Our findings
support this statement and results show that WHR has a statistically
significant correlation with SCORE risk (0.449 p>0.01), but we did not find
any correlation between BMI and CVD risk.
Our findings approve the theoretical relationship between physical
activity and HRQOL. This study results concur with recently conducted
meta-analysis that addressed the effects of physical activity on
psychological well-being in older adults (Kelley et al. 2009). Our data show
the statistically significant correlation between IPAQ results and HRQOL
questionnaire SF-36v2 data. Respondents who report higher physical
activity report significantly less limitation in all physical scores and higher
vitality scores.
Our study has several limitations. The main problem is that physical
activity level was obtained by a questionnaire. Using this method, the results
of total physical activity might potentially overestimate. As with any
questionnaire approach, the responses were dependent on respondent
recollection and how attentive subjects may have been in their responses.
The second problem is a sampling of participants as they were community
dwelling persons without mobility limitations.
Conclusion
The most of the respondents‟ IPAQ results refer to “moderate” or
“high” PA level, but there is a risk of overestimating of the total activity at
this age group. Our findings approve the theoretical relationship between
physical activity and HRQOL. Study results indicate the statistically
significant relationship between total physical activity level and subjective
and objective health variables. People with higher physical activity level
have lower CVD risk and reported better health-related quality of life. We
found out that mainly moderate PA domain has statistically significant
correlation with health related variables. A quality of life is an important
component of “successful aging” for older persons. Our findings reveal that
persons who are more active reported higher level of life satisfaction. The
results of the study are representative in Latvian elderly population and
could provide the important background for future research.
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Submitted: October 3, 2011
26 | Kļonova et al: SMART MOTION CAPTURE ...
SMART MOTION CAPTURE SYSTEM MEASURING
MOVEMENTS OF PROFESSIONAL STANDARD SPORTS
DANCERS IN PROMENADE POSITION
Alīna Kļonova1, Juris Kļonovs2,
Andrea Giovanardi3, Antonio Cicchella3
1
Phone: +371 26163304, fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: alina.klonova@lspa.lv
2
Ventspils University College,
Address: 101a Inzenieru Street, Ventspils, LV 3601, Latvia
Phone: +37126567701
E-mail: juris.klonovs@venta.lv
3
University of Bologna,
Faculty of Exercise and Sport Sciences and
Department of Psychology
Address: 5 Viale C. Berti Pichat, 40126 Bologna, Italia
E-mail: antonio.cicchella@unibo.it
Abstract
The Smart motion capture has become the main method for
measuring movements of the dancers. Motion capture provides „snapshots‟
of the complexity of movement patterning. Standard sport dancers keep
partners‟ body contact and move complicatedly in a couple during
competitive performance. In fact, partnering and posture are main factors
for judging to achieve top results at competitions. We have explored how
complexity can be mapped to specific variables for analysis such as joint
angles, and what such analyses both reveal and mask in relation to the
choreographic practices involved. We have used the highly accurate Smart
Motion Capture System 2011 for measuring sport dancers‟ kinematic
parameters. The main aim of our research was to determine the kinematic
parameters of Professional Standard Sport dancers with Smart Motion
Capture System in promenade position. Kinematics is described for Slow
Waltz, Tango, Slow Foxtrot and Quickstep. For this purpose we have
measured and analyzed data of hip and knee angles. Results show that the
angles are different in each Standard dance. In tango both knees angles
behave in a very similar way. It is clearly visible that they follow the tempo.
Finally, profile of kinematic characteristics in promenade position was
proposed as performance model in dance sport which is useful for
developing sport dancing training techniques and methodologies.
Key words Standard dance sport, hip and knee kinematics, promenade
position, smart motion capture system
Introduction
Dance sport is a highly technical sport, in which performance is
characterized by specific dexterity, coordination, harmony in movements
and synchronization with the partner. To dance means to move the body in
time with the music and to perform actions with the body or its parts. To
define dance sport actions and movements is not particularly easy, because
it can be made in an endless number of directions and often involve several
parts of the body. All movements in compositions were made in partners‟
contact. It is important to have a performance profile in order to plan the
training.
Dance sport is increasing its popularity and it becomes to be
considered as a real sport. Albeit it exists many studies on the kinematic
characteristics of classical dancers [1], very few studies exists on sport
dance [2]. Partnering, which requires couple to keep close body contact, and
posture are main judging criteria to achieve top results, based on
International Dance Sport Federation (IDSF) Judging System [4],[5].
Knowledge of these aspects could be of help for couples‟ matching and for
improving the dance technique through the assessment of relevant
parameters. Unfortunately, it is nearly impossible to analyze kinematic
characteristics of competitive couples during real competitions and
performances of standard dances due to the fact that partners are wearing
long dresses. Thus special laboratory tests for 3D analysis of standard sport
dance couples are needed. In our study dancers knees and hips kinematics
are described for every dance, which has promenade position in
compositions of Standard Sport dancing program: Slow Waltz, Tango, Slow
Foxtrot and Quickstep. Viennese Waltz is not present in our study, because
this dance has no promenade position at all.
The investigation included four main sessions:
1. Static and dynamic calibrating of Motion Capture SMART system
2011;
2. Adjusting markers to subjects;
3. Determine angles between partners‟ flexion and extension of knee and
determine angles of hip line transversal plane in promenade position
during Standard dances sequences;
4. Recorded data processing and statistical analysis.
First, we have configured cameras and made the static and dynamic
space calibration. Second, we have recorded necessary initial parameters of
subjects. Third, we have adjusted markers on the joints of each dancer and
measured biomechanical parameters of partners‟ contact in promenade
position during Standard dances.
Sixteen professional level dancers (8 female and 8 male athletes)
participated in the study. Dances were completed in accordance with the
IDSF Competition rules [7] and all couples danced to the same music and
same basic compositions with promenade position included. Biomechanical
parameters of hip alignment in promenade position and knees
flexion/extension were computed during Slow Waltz, Tango, Slow Foxtrot
and Quickstep using Smart Motion Capture System. Videos were captured
with 10 high performance infra-red cameras (Bts Engeneering, Italy) using
reflective markers and a sampling frequency of 250 Hz. A model consisting
of 18 markers (Fig.1) were used for the computation, allowing recording the
movements of the body of one dancer at time, while only the hip of the
partner were marked. According to definition of International Standard for
Anthropometric Assessment of ISAK (International Society for the
Advancement of Kinanthropometry) edited in 2006, markers were placed in
following positions: head (four markers), acromiale point (shoulder), radiale
point (elbow), stylion (wrist), trochanterion (hip), tibiale laterale (knee),
lateral malleolus (ankle). Hip angles between hips of the couple in the
transversal plane (from above) and right and left knees excursion angles in
all the style were computed in 3D and the absolute value was considered
using the Smart Analyzer software ver. 4.3.3 and reported according to ISB
standards in reporting kinematics data [3].
Figure 1. 3D model of standard sport dancer with connected 18 markers.
Results
Angle (deg)
Results for biomechanical parameters of knee flexion-extension and
hip alignment in promenade position were summarized. After processing
recorded data, we established that there was a statistical difference between
partners‟ flexion and extension of knees. Angle of partners‟ hip line
transversal plane in promenade position is bigger in quicker dances like
Tango and Quickstep and smaller during Slow Waltz and Slow Foxtrot (Fig.
2).
Standard dances
Figure 2. Maximal angles between dancers‟ hips in standard dances in
promenade position (SW – Slow Waltz; T – Tango; SF – Slow Foxtrot; Q –
Quickstep)
Angle (deg)
Above results represent threshold of maximum angle between
partners‟ hip line transversal planes that were acceptable during performing
promenade position: 81° for Slow Waltz, 92° for Tango, 75° for Slow
Foxtrot and 98° for Quickstep. Furthermore, in promenade position near this
threshold couples reached maximum speed of movement without losing
timing. After additional tests, where couples were forced to exceed this
threshold, asynchronous movements appeared and partners were not able to
continue dancing synchronously, so that contact was lost.
As far as knee angles of promenade position are concerned (Fig. 3
and 4), deeper squats were observed during slower dances, such as Slow
Waltz – 112° and Slow Foxtrot – 105°, where left knee were relatively more
straightened (for 2° in both dances) than the right knee. In Tango we
observed the biggest difference in knee angles between right and left leg,
where the difference exceeded 10°, while lowest squat was observed at 116°
knee angle for left leg and 126° knee angle for right leg. Finally, in
Quickstep knee angles were significantly wider in comparison with other
dances, with 124° and 127° for left and right leg accordingly. Maximum
knee angles of promenade position prove that dancers maximally
straightened legs to (up to 177°) during slower dances: Slow Waltz and
Slow Foxtrot, but in Quickstep and especially in Tango, legs remained
slightly bent in promenade position (Fig. 4).
Standard dances
Figure 3. Dancers‟ minimum knee angles in standard dances in promenade
position
(SW – Slow Waltz; T – Tango; SF – Slow Foxtrot; Q – Quickstep)
Angle (deg)
Standard dances
Figure 4. Dancers‟ maximum knee angles in standard dances in promenade
position
(SW – Slow Waltz; T – Tango; SF – Slow Foxtrot; Q – Quickstep)
Conclusions
In conclusion, biomechanical characteristic was proposed as
performance model in Standard sport dances. Slower dances (Slow Waltz
and Slow Foxtrot) enable deeper squats and smaller angles between dancers‟
hips in promenade position, while in dances with faster tempo (Tango and
Quickstep) legs remain relatively straightened and position is more open in
hips. The given results might be useful for matching the couples for sport
dance performance. We have also proposed applicable biomechanical
parameters for improving dancing technique.
References
1. Koutedakis, Y, & Jamurtas, A. (2004). The dancer as a performing
athlete: physiological considerations. Sports Med.; 34(10):651-61.
2. Dalla Vedova, D., Besi, M., Cacciari, D., Bria, S., & Faina, M.
(1987). A kinematic biomechanical approach to the study of
dancesport. In Cacciari D. & O.: Dancesport: the advanced technique
manual. FIDS, Roma
3. Wu, G., & Cavanagh, P.R. (1995). ISB recommendation for the
standardization in the reporting of kinematic data. J Biomech. Oct;
28(10):1257-61.
4. IDSF, IDSF Gland Slam in Seoul 2011: The Result of Standard
Final, Retrieved April 30, 2011 from
http://www.worlddancesport.org/results/40850/W.pdf, Seoul,
5. Dance Sport Events, Dance sport Competitions: “How they work,
How to win, How they are judged?”, Retrieved August 20, 2010,
from http://dancesportevents.com/how-ballroom-competitions-arejudged
6. Marfell-Jones, M., Olds, T., Stewart, A.D., & Carter, J.E.L. (2006).
International
Standards
for
Anthropometric
Assessment,
International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry,
Potchesfstroom, South Africa.
7. IDSF, IDSF Competition Rules, AGM Macau, Rule 14, 8-9., 2009
June.
Submitted: October 3, 2011
ESTIMATION OF BODY MASS INDEX IN TEAM
SPORTS ATHLETES
Inese Pontaga, Jānis Žīdens
Phone: +371 67543449, mob.: +371 29439468, fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: inese.pontaga@lspa.lv, janis.zidens@lsps.lv
Abstract
The aim of our investigation is to prove that an increased body mass
index (BMI) in football and handball players does not always give evidence
about overweight or obesity, but may appear due to skeletal muscles
hypertrophy, and that higher body mass index does not influence the
vertical jump height in athletes. 29 male football players and 20 handball
players participated voluntary in the investigation. The anthropometrical
characteristics and the body mass composition are measured by the
bioelectrical impedance analysis method using the Body Composition
Analyzer „X – Scan Plus”. Vertical jumps heights are measured on special
platform “PD 3A”. The significant correlation is determined between the
BMI and the lean body mass (r=0.36, p<0.05), as well as, between the BMI
and the body fat content in % (r=0.54, p<0.003) in the football players. This
proves that high BMI can be caused by growth of the body fat content and
by skeletal muscles hypertrophy. The BMI is close to the upper border of
norm in football players (23.4±1.4 kg/m2) and handball players (24.2±1.7
kg/m2) from the team of students. The overweight can be determined due to
high BMI (25.1±2.9 kg/m2) in handball players from Murjani Sports
Gymnasia, but this is due to high lean body mass. The body fat content in
handball players (13.6±2.8 %) is in norm. The vertical jumps height is not
possible to predict from the value of the BMI because the significant
correlation between the BMI and the height of vertical jumps is not
determined in team athletes (p>0.05).
Key words: body mass index, lean body mass, fat content, football,
handball, vertical jump
34 | Pontaga et al: ESTIMATION OF BODY MASS ...
Introduction
Human body contains different tissues. The main of them are
muscles (35 - 50 % from the body weight), bone tissues and internal organs.
These tissues together form body lean mass (LM). It provides all body
movements, strength and power production. Other kind of tissues is fat (7 20 % from the body weight in males), which is passive body mass. Increase
of the body fat content causes overweight or obesity in people.
Body mass index (BMI) is a useful screening tool for overweight
and obesity diagnostics in children, adolescents and adults. BMI can be
detected quickly and inexpensively. It is possible to calculate using the
equation (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000): BMI = m (kg)/ h2 (m2); where: m – a
body mass in kg, h – a height of athlete in m. BMI correlates with adult
morbidity and mortality. High BMI is associated with increased risks for
hypertension, atherosclerosis etc. (Witt K. and Bush E., 2005). BMI gives
evidence about overweight if its value varies from 25 to 29.9 kg/ m2, but
obesity can be determined it BMI is greater than 30 kg/ m2 (Mathews E.M.
and Wagner D.R., 2008).
Human body parts proportions and body mass composition are not
taken into account if anybody determines BMI from tables of norms. There
are from 12 to 15 % of fat tissue in young male‟s body in norm, and from 25
to 28 % of fat in young female‟s body (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000). The
body mass index depends not only on the fat content in the human body, but
also on the muscles and bones mass, as well as, on the water content in the
body of athletes. High value of the MBI can be estimated as overweight in
athletes with great skeletal muscles mass. It means that training in many
sports specializations causes increase of the body mass index (Ode J.J. et al.,
2007). High value of the BMI is observed in weight lifters, body builders,
rowers, professional football and handball players etc. For example, the
mean body mass index in seven defensive linemen from a former National
Football League Super Bowl team is 31.9 kg/ m2, but the mean BMI in all
players of the team is 28.7 kg/ m2 (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000). However,
their fat content – 18 % for linemen and 12.1 % - average for the team,
misclassified them for fatness using only BMI as the overweight standard.
The body mass composition in football players depends on their specific
role during the game: linemen, goal keepers, backs, forwards, midfielders
etc. (Melchiorri G. et al., 2007). From the data from Wittich A. et al. (2001)
the fat content in the body of football players varies from 6.1 % to 19.5 %,
and it depends on the position of the football player in the game: the
midfielders have a significantly higher percentage of fat (13.5 ± 3.3 %) than
backs or forwarders (11.0 ± 2.3 %). These authors determined significant
positive correlation between age and fat content in the body of football
players. BMI in basketball players differs from its value in football players.
For example, the mean BMI in USA National Basketball league players is
only 24.5 kg/ m2 (upper limit of norm) (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000).
The average fat content in female long distance runners‟ body 15.2
% is significantly lower than its value in the same age sedentary females –
26 % (Pollock M.L. et al., 1977). Male endurance runners have extremely
low body fat content – only approximately 3 %. These endurance runners
represent the lower end of the fat – to – lean continuum for top flight
athletes. It gives them some advantages in long distances running: improves
heat dissipation during sport load and allows to maintain thermal balance
because the isolation layer of fat tissues is thin; the greater amount of fat
tissues forms passive body mass, which causes increase of energy cost to
bear the additional weight.
Thickness of skinfolds in champion wrestlers is smaller than in elite
wrestlers. It means that elite wrestlers have greater lean mass in the body.
The mean fat content in their body is 11.0 ± 4.0 % (from Minnesota and
Nebraska high schools) (Clarke K.S., 1974, Housh T.J. et al., 1989).
Mean fat content in the body of bodybuilders is 9.3 %, in weight lifters – 9.1
%, but in the Olympic level weight lifters – 10.8 % (McArdle W.D. et al.,
2000). These athletes can be estimated as “overweight” using only BMI as
criterion of obesity. The skeletal muscles mass in body builders is higher by
16 kg in comparison with the height and weight norm. The muscles mass in
weight lifters is by 15 kg higher than in norm. All these athletes have
increased body mass index due to great lean body mass.
One of the methods to determine fat content in the body is skinfolds
thickness measurement by kalipometer. This gives possibility to estimate
the fat tissue amount, but does not allow directly measurement of the
skeletal muscles mass in the body.
A small, alternating current flowing between two electrodes passes
more rapidly through hydrated fat – free body tissues (lean body mass) with
greater electrolyte content (lower electrical resistance) in comparison with
fat tissues. Therefore bioelectrical impedance analysis is useful method to
determine the human body mass composition (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000,
Bovell D. et al., 1996). Increase of the body weight can be due to additional
amount of skeletal muscles in trained athletes or due to growth of the fat
content in the body (Witt, K. A., and Bush E. A., 2005, Temfemo A. et al.,
2009).
The aim of the present investigation is to prove that an increased
body mass index in football and handball players does not always give
36 | Pontaga et al: ESTIMATION OF BODY MASS...
evidence about overweight or obesity, but may appear due to skeletal
muscles hypertrophy, and that higher body mass index does not influence
the vertical jump height in athletes.
Material and Methods
Twenty nine male football players from the team “Skonto” (Riga),
11 male handball players from the team of Latvian Academy of Sports
Education (LASE) (Pontaga I. and Zidens J., 2006) and nine young male
handball players from Murjani Sports Gymnasia (Rusko D. and Pontaga I.,
2009) participated voluntary in the investigation. The study was performed in
conformity with the standards of the Ethics Committee of the Latvian Council
of Sciences. The measurements of football players and LASE handball
players were performed in the laboratory of the Latvian Olympic team, and
the measurements of handball players from Murjani Sports Gymnasia - in
the Latvian Sports Medicine Agency.
The standard conditions during the tests were: the air temperature in
the room was 22˚ ± 2˚ C, the measurements should be performed
approximately two hours after eating and within 30 minutes of voiding.
The body mass composition was measured by the bioelectrical impedance
analysis method using the Body Composition Analyzer „X – Scan Plus”
(Jawon Medical, Korea).
Every athlete had to stay straight on the platform of the apparatus
during the measurements. All athletes were weighted by the scales included
in the Body Composition Analyzer. The height was measured by special
ultrasound device (UHM – 101) build in the Body Composition Analyzer.
Body mass composition is estimated by measurement of the electrical
resistance to a small, alternating current flowing between four electrodes:
two electrodes are positioned below the feet of every athlete and two
electrodes are hold in the hands. The duration of measurement was one
minute. The obtained data were automatically processed by Dr. Lukasaki
body mass composition formula taking into account the height, body mass,
gender, age and body tissues electrical resistance of every examined athlete.
The characteristics measured and calculated by the Body Composition
Analyzer are: the body mass, height, body mass index, lean body mass and
fat content in the body in percentages. The error of measurement of the
equipment was ± 4 %.
Vertical jumps heights are measured on special platform (PD. 3A,
Moscow, Russia). Two kinds of jumps are performed: from standing
position on the apparatus platform: 1) with the knees at the angle 90˚ and
the hands on hips (SJ) and 2) from the standing position and before to
jumping counter - moved until the knee was flexed approximately to 90˚
and free movements of the arms (CMJ). Every kind of jumps repeated five
times, and the best results (highest SJ and CMJ) are taken into account.
The mean values and standard deviations were calculated for all determined
characteristics in football players and young handball players. The
relationships between the body mass index (BMI), the body lean mass, body fat
content and the height of jumps (SJ and CMJ) are determined.
Results
The mean anthropometrical characteristics of the football and
handball players are shown in the Table 1. The mean height of all team
sports players is above 180 cm. The mean body weight is close to 80 kg in
football players and LASE handball players, but in young athletes from
Murjani Sports Gymnasia the mean weight is greater - 86.3 ± 8.2 kg. The
mean value of the body mass index is close to the upper border of norm in
football players and LASE handball players, but in the players from Murjani
Sports Gymnasia the BMI gives evidence about overweight. The differences
between the mean values of every characteristic in three groups of athletes
are not significant (p > 0.05).
Table 1.
The mean anthropometrical characteristics of team sports athletes
Sports
specialization
Football (Skonto)
Handball (LASE)
Handball (Murjani)
Age, years
(±SD)
23.6 ± 5.1
20.0 ± 1.0
17.6 ± 1.0
Height, cm
(±SD)
183.7 ± 7.3
186.7 ± 8.1
182.4 ± 7.1
Body mass,
kg (±SD)
79.3 ± 8.0
84.7 ± 11.1
86.3 ± 8.2
Body mass index,
kg/m2 (±SD)
23.4 ± 1.4
24.2 ± 1.7
25.1 ± 2.9
Body mass composition analysis by bioelectrical impedance measurement
allows us to estimate the main reasons of the BMI growth in team athletes.
The BMI shows overweight in young handball players (25.1 ± 2.9 kg/m2),
but this is due to high lean body mass, Table 2. The lean body mass is
significantly greater in the handball players than in the football players,
p<0.05. The body fat content in handball players (13.6 ± 2.8 %) is
significantly lower in comparison with football players (18.4 ± 3.7 %), but
the BMI in football players is not significantly higher (p > 0.05).
Table 2.
The body mass composition in male football and handball players
Sports
specialization
Football (Skonto)
Handball (Murjani)
Signif. of diference
Body mass index,
kg/m2 (±SD)
23.4 ± 1.4
25.1 ± 2.9
p > 0.05
Lean body mass,
kg (±SD)
64.6 ± 6.1
73.9±5.2
p < 0.05
Fat content, %
(±SD)
18.4 ± 3.7
13.6±2.8
p < 0.05
Vertical jump height, cm
The correlation between the body mass index in the football players (Fig.1.), the
handball players from the LASE team (Fig.2.) and squat jump height is not
statistically significant (p> 0.05), as well as, the correlation between the BMI
and counter – movement jump height (p> 0.05).
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Body mass index, kg/m2
Figure1. Relationship between the body mass index in the football players
and the vertical jump height
Relationship between the body mass index in the football players
and the vertical jump height from static squat position is not significant (●),
coefficient of correlation r = 0.14; p> 0.05;
Relationship between the body mass index in the football players
and the vertical jump height with previous squat and movements of arms is
not statistically significant (○), r = 0.08; p > 0.05
Relationship between the body mass index in the handball players
(Fig.2.) and the vertical jump height from static squat position is not
significant (●), coefficient of correlation r= -0.08; p> 0.05;
Vertical jump height, cm
Relationship between the body mass index in the handball players
and the vertical jump height with previous squat and movements of arms is
not statistically significant (○), r = -0.11; p > 0.05
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Figure 2. Relationship between the body mass index in the handball players
and the vertical jump height
The significant relationship is determined between the body mass
index in the football players and the lean body mass (correlation coefficient
r = 0.36, p < 0.05), Fig.3. This means that increase of the BMI in the
athletes can be explained by growth of the skeletal muscles mass. The
similar significant relationship is detected between the body mass index and
the fat content in the body in % (r = 0.54, p < 0.003), Fig.4. Therefore the
increased value of BMI depends also on the greater content of fat tissue in
the body.
Lean body mass, kg
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
19
21
23
25
27
Figure 3. Relationship between the body mass index (BMI) and lean body
mass (LM) in football players
Relationship between the body mass index (BMI) and lean body
mass (LM) in football players: LM (kg) = 26.57 + 1.62 · BMI (kg/m 2);
where: r = 0.36; standard error of the regression equation Sxy = 5.70 kg; p <
0.05
Body fat, %
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
19
21
23
25
27
Figure 4. Relationship between the body mass index (BMI) and body fat
content (BF) in football players
Relationship between the body mass index (BMI) and body fat
content (BF) in football players: BF (%) = 1.45 · BMI (kg/m2) – 15.55;
where: r = 0.54; Sxy = 3.13 kg; p < 0.003
Discussion
Our results are in positive agreement with the data of many other
authors (Melchiorri G. et al., 2007, Ode J.J. et al., 2007, Wittich A. et al.,
2001) opinion concerning estimation of the body mass index value with
caution in athletes. The body mass index depends not only on the body fat
content, but also on skeletal muscles mass. From our data: the significant
correlation is determined between the body mass index and the lean body
mass (r = 0.36, p < 0.05), as well as, between the BMI and the body fat
content in % (r = 0.54, p < 0.003) in the football players. High value of the
MBI can be estimated as overweight in athletes with skeletal muscles
hypertrophy.
Some authors determined high BMI in high qualified football
players (the mean value- 28.7 kg/ m2), which can be misclassified than
overweight or fatness of these athletes (McArdle W.D. et al., 2000).
However the fat content in their body 12 – 18 % was in norm. Sutton L. et
al. (2009) determined that the body composition is important for elite
English football players, but homogeneity between players at top
professional clubs results in little variation between individuals. The body
fat content depends on inheritance: the non-Caucasian players demonstrated
significantly lower percent body fat (9.2 ± 2.0%) than the Caucasian players
(10.7 ± 1.8%).The body mass composition in football players depends on
their specific role during the game (linemen, goal keepers, backs, forwards,
midfielders etc.) (Melchiorri G. et al., 2007). The midfielders have a
significantly higher percentage of fat than backs or forwarders (Wittich A. et
al. 2001). The body mass index (23.4 ± 1.4 kg/m2) and body fat content
(18.4 ± 3.7 %) in Latvian highly qualified football players is close to the
upper border of norm. This can be explained by the young age of our
players (23.6 ± 5.1 years) in comparison with elite international level
football players, because the significant positive correlation between age
and fat content in the body of football players is determined (Wittich A. et
al. 2001).
The height and weight of our handball players correspond with these
characteristics in European National level players (Gorostiaga E.M. et al.,
2005, Rannou F. et al., 2001.). Our athletes are 2 – 4 cm shorter and have
approximately 10 kg less weight (the team handball players of Latvian
Academy of Sports Education) and 8 kg less weight (the team from Murjani
Sports Gymnasia) in comparison with the Spanish International level
handball players (Gorostiaga E.M. et al., 2005). This can be explained by
lower qualification and young age (17 – 21 year old) in Latvian handball
players in comparison with International level professional players. The
skeletal muscles mass must be larger in elite professional handball players
than in our amateur level handball players. The BMI (25.1 ± 2.9 kg/m2) is
high in young handball players from Murjani Sports Gymnasia, but this is
due to high lean body mass. The body fat content in handball players (13.6 ±
2.8 %) is in norm.
The muscle power characteristic of our athletes (counter – moved
jump height) coincides with the data of Spain players (Gorostiaga E.M. et
al., 2005). The significant correlation between the BMI and the height of
vertical jumps (squat jump and counter – moved jump) is not determined in
Latvian football and handball players (p > 0.05). This means that the
vertical jumps height is not possible to predict from the value of the BMI.
The main reason of the BMI increase is skeletal muscles mass growth or
hypertrophy due to long term training in handball or football. This allows
maintain the same vertical jump height in team players with smaller and
larger body weight.
Conclusions
1. The significant correlation is determined between the body mass
index and the lean body mass (r = 0.36, p < 0.05), as well as,
between the BMI and the body fat content in % (r = 0.54, p < 0.003)
in the football players. This means that high body mass index can be
caused by growth of the body fat content and by increased skeletal
muscles mass (muscles hypertrophy).
2. The body mass index mean value is close to the upper border of
norm in football players (23.4 ± 1.4 kg/m2) and handball players
(24.2 ± 1.7 kg/m2) from the team of Latvian Academy of Sports
Education.
3. The overweight can be determined due to high BMI (25.1 ± 2.9
kg/m2) in young handball players from Murjani Sports Gymnasia,
but this is due to high lean body mass. The body fat content in
handball players (13.6 ± 2.8 %) is in norm.
4. The significant correlation between the BMI and the height of
vertical jumps (squat jump and counter – moved jump) is not
determined in football and handball players (p > 0.05). This proves
that the vertical jumps height is not possible to predict from the
value of the BMI.
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17. Wittich, A., Oliveri, B., Rotemberg, E. & Mautalen, C. (2001). Body
composition of professional football (soccer) players determined by
dual X – ray absorptiometry. Journal of Clinical Densitometry, 4,
51-55. DOI: 10.1385/JCD:4:1:51.
Submitted: September 6, 2011
Accepted: November 25, 2011
CORRESPONDENCE OF NUTRITIONAL
SUPPLEMENTS USED BY ATHLETES TO THEIR
SPORT AIM AND REGULATED DEMANDS FOR
SAFETY
Inta Māra Rubana1, Irina Karpikova2
1
Latvian Academy of Sport Education,
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia
Phone: +371 26823548
E-mail: Inta.Rubana@lspa.lv
2
SIA Locija,
Address: 149 K.Valdemara Street, Riga, LV1013, Latvia
Phone: +371 29243382
E-mail: irina@locija.lv
Abstract
The current study was devoted to the problem of nutritional
supplementation among amateur and professional athletes. The aim of the
study was to evaluate the used food supplements in two aspects: adequacy
to expected results and compliance with regulated demands for
supplements. Participants were 145 athletes: 21 professional and 124
amateur athletes (75 males, 70 females). For the purpose of the study we
used the questionnaire of 26 items that comprised three blocks: a kind of
sport and profile of trainings; use of nutritional supplements; confidence
about the results and safety of use. For the evaluation of supplements‟
compliance with the regulated demands the analysis of supplement market
was carried out. The main conclusions were: part of athletes take food
supplements inappropriately and unnecessary; part of food supplements
was not registered in Latvia and /or does not correspond to regulated
demands, for that reason the use was not safe.
Keywords: sport, athletes, nutrition, nutrition supplements, ergogenic aids,
use purposes, food safety, compliance with legislative demands of the
Republic of Latvia and the European Union.
46 | Rubana et al: CORRESPONDENCE OF NUTRITIONAL ...
Introduction
Alimentary aids are widely used to increase physical working
capacity in sport. Both nutritional products with definite content and a wide
variety of nutritional supplements serve as ergogenic aids (Maugham,
1999). Supplementation practices vary between sports and individual
athletes however there is evidence that some athletes use a large number of
supplements concurrently, often in doses that are very high in comparison
with normal dietary intakes (Burke, Read, 1993). An absence of compelling
regulation has lead to considerable variation in concentrations, terminology
and combinations of supplements, even within the same country, making a
choice of adequate supplements difficult (Molinero, Marquez, 2009).
It can be foreseen that the number of amateur and professional athletes, who
use nutritional supplements, is going to increase. Both athletes and coaches
need to understand for what reason each of nutritional supplements is used,
what its influence is and how safe is the use of the corresponding product.
Aim of the research is to evaluate trends in the use of nutritional
supplements among athletes in two aspects: as to the adequacy of the
purpose set forth by the athletes and the compliance with the legislative
demands, in force in the Republic of Latvia.
Objectives of the research
1. To evaluate:
- the popularity of nutritional supplements among athletes having
different age – men and women, as well as among professional and
amateur athletes;
- the sources of information, according to which the choice of
nutritional supplements is made;
- objective justification that athletes take into account when choosing
nutritional supplements;
- the correspondence of the chosen products with the purpose set forth
by athletes;
- user assurance about the safety of products and the results of using
them.
2. To evaluate the compliance of the nutritional supplements used
with the legislative demands in force in the Republic of Latvia:
corresponding label, recommended doses and indication about
nutritional value and health claims, as well as about safety.
Participants and research methods
The research is carried out as cross-sectional research. Nonrandomized purposeful sample is chosen for the research. The sample of the
respondents involves the visitors and coaches of the sport club „Sportima”,
as well as students from the Latvian Academy of Sport Education (LASE)
regularly doing sport. 289 persons were involved in the study. The age of
the respondents is 18-40 years. For data analysis the respondents were
divided into three age groups: 18-24, 25-30 and 26-40 year old. An inquiry
was carried out in the 1st quarter of the year 2010. A questionnaire was used
to reach the aim of the research. 145 valid questionnaires were obtained in
the inquiry. The response rate in the sports club can be evaluated as good
(57.5%) and in LASE - as very high (90%).
Market research was carried out to evaluate nutritional supplements
used in sport. To evaluate the compliance of the products with regulated
demands the information in Internet shops and in the shops “Veselības
pasaule” (The world of health), “Prosport”, Ltd., and “Vipsport”, Ltd, was
analyzed.
For the evaluation of the products the following criteria are used:
- registration in Latvian Food Centre;
- registration of health claims label in Health Inspection;
- the correspondence of vitamin dose, which is in user instructions, with
recommended daily doses;
- the adequacy of the text on the label.
RASW Statistics software is used for data procession.
Results
The correspondence of nutritional supplements, used by athletes, with
their objectives
Participants of the inquiry basically are amateurs (80%) and
professional athletes (20%). 48.3% of the participants are women and 51.7%
are men. The majority of the respondents (75.8%) are people between 18
and 30 years of age. The respondents have sufficiently large sporting
experience: only 21.7% of the respondents do sports less than 5 years,
31.7% - from 5 to 10 years, and 46.7% - more than ten years. All of the
inquired people are involved in regular sports trainings, only a small part of
them train at least twice a week, a third of the athletes attend workouts three
times a week, but 45% of the inquired people train 5-6 times a week.
Most of the athletes are engaged in sport games (football, volleyball,
hockey, badminton, basketball, and handball), a significant proportion of the
athletes represent cyclical sports (swimming, rowing, triathlon, cycling,
running, athletics, cross country skiing, etc.) (see Fig. 1). A large proportion
of respondents (48.3%) believe that it is unnecessary to use food
supplements (FS), if the traditional diet is balanced; a little more than a
quarter (26.9%) consider that nutritional supplements are necessary for
everyone who is engaged in doing sports, the rest of the respondents think
that nutritional supplements are needed only in professional sports.
More than half of the respondents, who use nutritional supplements,
mention the duration of the use: "more than six months” (62.7%); 19.4% of
the respondents use a supplement for more than one and less than six
months, while 17.7% have recently embarked on using it and do it for the
first month. 48 of 124 amateurs use nutritional supplements, but among
professionals the proportion of the persons who answered the question in the
affirmative, is higher.
Figure 1. Distribution of respondents in accordance with sports they are
involved in (percentage of respondents)
Analyzing the popularity of food supplements in different age
groups, it is found that the highest proportion of food supplement adherents
are in the age group 31-40 years, but the lowest - in the age group 25 to 30
years (see Table 1). Among women the popularity of food supplements is
slightly higher than among men, but overall significant difference in the
habits of using them has not been observed.
Table 1.
Use of nutritional supplements in different groups of athletes
Groups of athletes
Amateurs
Professionals
18-24 year olds
25-30 year olds
31-40 year olds
Length of doing sports: up to 5 years
5-10 years
more than 10 years
Percentage of users of food supplements
38.7
57.1
40.5
20.8
42.9
29.5
30.4
43.8
The inquired participants had an opportunity to name two goals of
using FS. Most often as the first goal athletes mention strengthening the
immunity, which is followed by rapid recovery of working capacities and
the increase of endurance. About one quarter of the athletes named other
objectives: promoting the development of strength and the increase of
muscle mass. A small proportion of the respondents selected nutritional
supplements for weight loss (see Fig. 2).
other
weight loss
1,6
8,3
36,7
increase of endurance
development of strength
increase of muscle mass
26,7
23,3
48,3
recovery of working capacity
51,7
strengthening immunity
%
Figure 2. The main purpose of using nutritional supplements
(percentage of respondents)
To achieve the goals set forward most commonly used products are
proteins, amino acids, creatine monohydrate, carnitine or food supplements
containing it, vitamins and minerals (see Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Choice of nutritional supplements (percentage of
respondents)
Since only a small percentage of athletes were able to name the
nutritional supplement, it is not possible to assess accurately the adequacy
of the chosen food supplement to the objectives of its use. The analysis of
the choice of dietary supplements in connection with a kind of sport shows
that there is a tendency to choose adequate dietary supplements. People
involved in strength sports, for example, more frequently choose creatine
and protein or amino acids. It is more difficult to make any assumptions
about sport games and endurance sports, because there is not found
expressed dominance of a certain group of products. Creatine is also used in
endurance sports, this choice is difficult to justify.
The inquiry revealed that 36.7% of athletes use FS following their
coach advice. A sufficiently large proportion of athletes (25%) seek for
information in mass media, 16.7% responded that they selected product in
accordance with other athlete recommendation. The impact of trade
representatives is less than expected - 8.3%.
Mostly athletes named one place of purchasing the product, some of
them mentioned two places. 36% of respondents as the places of purchasing
product named a definite shop, 10% - the Internet, 17% - a sports club. Half
of the respondents cited "other places", including the purchase of food
supplements from the coach. Several athletes indicated that the dietary
supplement was given to all team members without information about its
origin and/or composition.
Athlete responses suggest that athletes virtually have no information on the
regulations of the dissemination of dietary supplements, as well as about
using them safely. A very high proportion of athletes are convinced that all
dietary supplements are registered in Latvia/Europe (85.3%), adequately
tested (85.2%), doses are adequate and safe (80.3%) and products do not
contain harmful impurities (65.6%). Obviously, paying for supplements,
most of the athletes rely on the competence of coaches or authors,
publishing articles in media, and the compliance with ethical principles.
Slightly more than half of the respondents are satisfied with the
results of using FS (very satisfied: 16.4% and almost satisfied: 44.3%),
despite the fact that the majority (70%) do not have objective, field and
laboratory tests confirming the data about the use of FS. One third (29.5%)
admitted that they could not evaluate the results. Tenth of the respondents
are unsatisfied with the results of the use of FS.
Since insufficient number of respondents made it impossible to
determine whether the differences in different age and gender groups were
statistically significant, the results of the research should be regarded as
trends in the use of food supplements.
Compliance of nutritional supplement with regulated demands
In the research the compliance of nutritional supplements, offered by
three limited liability companies – Veselības pasaule, Prosport and Vipsport
- was evaluated with the regulated demands: registration in Latvian Food
Centre; compliance with the Regulations of the Latvian Cabinet of
Ministers (CM) on minimum safety and labeling requirements for dietary
supplements and registration procedure of dietary supplements (2005), the
Regulation on nutritional value and food additives indications (Regulation
No. 964 of the LR Cabinet of Ministers of 23 November 2004 "Regulations
on food products labeling”; Regulation No.146 of the LR Cabinet of
Ministers of 6 February 2010 “Minimum safety requirements for food
supplements and food products, in which are used food additives"),
compliance with the Regulation of the European Commission on nutritional
value and health claims on foods (Regulation No. 1924/2006 of the
European Parliament and Council of 20 December 2006 on the nutrition and
health claims on food labels).
Dietary supplements manufactured and registered in the European
Union and Member States of European Economic Area and consisting
solely of vitamins and minerals mentioned in Annex 1 of the CM regulation
No.725 "Regulations on the minimum safety and labeling requirements for
dietary supplements and the registration procedure of dietary supplements",
may be imported for dissemination and disseminated in Latvian, in a written
notice informing Latvian Food Centre and the Food and Veterinary Service
and sending them a sample label of food supplement label. Other dietary
supplements, to which this condition does not refer, are allowed to be
imported and distributed in Latvia only after their registration in accordance
with the procedure of Latvian Food Centre. Unfortunately, some products
that distributors sell as dietary supplements could not be found in the
Register of food centers. Food supplement registration is very important
also in the aspect that it serves as a proof that products are manufactured in
a company in which implemented and maintained food safety system is
ensured.
A number of products in labeling and advertising contain health
claims, but none of the analyzed products is in the Register of Health
Inspectorate. In 2008, the European Commission received European Union
Member States lists with more than 44,000 health claims, including around
500 Latvian health claims. In cooperation with the European Food Safety
Authority, the submitted documents will be evaluated up to the end of 2011,
therefore health claims, which are in labeling and advertising of nutritional
supplement products, but are not included in the Register of Health
Inspectorate, do not allow expressing judgments about non-compliance with
mandatory requirements.
Analyzing food product labels, it has been found that claims about
the nutritional value more correspond to the content of proteins, vitamins
and minerals, but the energetic value and carbohydrate content is not
indicated, suggesting that in fact the nutrition claim does not meet the
Cabinet of Ministers Regulations on food labeling. In labeling of several
nutritional supplements, indicating the composition, food additive claim
does not correspond to the requirements of normative acts. In accordance
with the requirements the number of E substance and name of the group, for
example, acidity regulator (or another group), E 330, etc. should be
indicated.
The biggest vendor of nutritional supplements, used in sports, in
Latvia is „Veselības pasaule”, Ltd. In Latvian Food Centre 21 dietary
supplement of the company is registered, although the company product
range is wider. In eight of the registered products the amount of vitamins
exceeds the recommended daily intake, although, in accordance with the
requirements of normative acts, label text contains warning "do not exceed
the acceptable daily intakes". Formally the requirements of normative acts
are taken into consideration, but in fact the consumer information is
contradictory.
Two other companies – Prosport, Ltd. and Vipsport, Ltd. - offer
nutritional supplements, of which a significant proportion is not included in
the register of the Food Center, and food for athlete consumption with
health claims, which are not in the Register of Health Inspectorate. Due to
the fact that in consumer information there are no indications about the
groups of products, (food supplement or other product group), the number
of food supplements for distribution cannot be accurately determined. In the
group of such products there are complexes of vitamins and minerals, amino
acids, complexes of proteins and amino acids, and other products that could
be classified as dietary supplements. The information about the products
available to consumers contains indications, which suggest or imply that the
products or the ingredients have a positive impact on health and working
capacity.
Discussion
There is a wide variety of literature reflecting the results of studies
on the influence of various food supplements and ergogenic aids on the
athlete working capacity (Burke LM, Read RS., 1993; Maugham R.J. ,
1999; Dale M., Ahrendt M.D., 2001; Williams M.H., 2004) The motives
for the use and usefulness of their use is evaluated less, however, statements
in which this problem is analyzed from both the sports nutrition and ethical
aspects can be found. One of the studies analyzing motives for the use of
supplements in sports was carried out by Burns R.D. et al (2004). Survey of
236 university student athletes was conducted to determine supplement use.
Results showed that 88% used one or more nutritional supplements. Primary
sources of nutritional information were athletic trainers (40%), strength and
conditioning trainers (24%).
Studies of dietary practices of athletes report that several ergogenic
aids have really proved convincingly effective, such as sports drinks and
creatine monohydrate (Randy E., Eichner M.D., 1997). At the same time,
despite the very wide application, research does not justify vitamin mega
dose, the effectiveness of carnitine, chromium picolinate and many other
products (Gilbert N., 2009; Rodriguez N.R, Di Marco N.M, Langley S.,
2009). The position of the American Dietetic Association and the American
College of Sports Medicine that physical activity, athletic performance, and
recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition and
supplementation is not necessary at all.
Burke LM, Read RS. (1993) stress that supplementation practices
vary between sports and individual athletes however there is evidence that
some athletes use a large number of supplements concurrently, often in
doses that are very high in comparison with normal dietary intakes.
Molinero O. and Marquez S (2009) warn that the absence of compelling
regulation has lead to considerable variation in concentrations, terminology
and combinations of supplements, even within the same country, making it
extremely difficult to conduct detailed studies concerning nutritional
supplementation in sport.
Nutritional supplement marketing and advertising are powerful,
while both amateur athletes and professional athletes' knowledge of the
influence of various alimentary aids on the body in most cases is inadequate.
Some authors draw attention to coach incompetence in nutritional issues and
unethical behavior, distributing food supplements in partnership with
manufacturers and distribution companies (Gilbert N., 2009). In the
materials of recent international sports congresses and conferences the
necessity is emphasized to prepare good sports nutrition specialists, as well
as widely educate coaches and all-level athletes (Kalman D.S., Campbell B.,
2004). This would help both to evaluate and modify the athletes' daily diet,
and adequately choose food supplements and ergogenic aids.
Conclusions
1. Food supplement use is common both among amateur and
professional athletes: a half of athletes participating in the survey turned
out to be food supplements users.
2. Most often athletes use nutritional supplements to strengthen
immunity, accelerate the recovery of working capacities, and increase
cardio-respiratory endurance.
3. The most popular groups of dietary supplements are vitamins and
mineral complexes, proteins and amino acids.
4. The choice of nutritional supplements is based on athlete belief in
product safety, coach recommendations and information in advertising
materials. However, the necessity of the use of food supplements is not
always justified and safe, because:
a. large percentage of athletes (45.9 %) do not evaluate actual
diet before making the decision about the use of dietary
supplements;
b. frequently products without information about their origin
and composition are used;
c. majority of athletes (69.5 %) lack objective data certifying
the results of the use;
d. a wide variety of products, which can easily be overdosed,
are available in the market.
5. Although in general food supplements correspond to regulated
demands, in connection with shortcomings in legislation and incomplete
consideration of legislative acts some aspects of the dissemination of food
supplements can be evaluated as risky:
a. in the content of a number of food supplements doses of
vitamins and minerals exceed the recommended daily intake,
because of this there is a risk of excessive intake of these
substances;
b. inadequate indications about food additives and nutritional
value are found on the labels of several dietary supplements;
c. considering that the list of health claims has not yet been
published, it is possible that the information on dietary
supplements, not included in the Register of Health
Inspectorate, is not yet available, therefore their compliance
with health claims cannot be evaluated.
References
1. Burke, L.M., & Read, R.S. (1993). Dietary supplements in sport.
Sports Med, 15(1), 43-65.
2. Burns, R.D, Schiller, M.R, Merrick, M.A, & Wolf, K.N. (2004).
Intercollegiate student athlete use of nutritional supplements and the
role of athletic trainers and dietitians in nutrition counselling. J Am.
Diet Assoc, 104, 246-249.
3. Dale, M., & Ahrendt, M.D. (2001). Ergogenic Aids: Counseling the
Athlete. American Family Physician, 1 (1), 1-13.
4. Regulation No. 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and Council
of 20 December 2006 on the nutrition and health claims on food
labels.
5. Gilbert, N. (2009). Practical aspects of nutrition in performance.
Proc. Nutr. Soc., 68, 23-28.
6. Kalman, D.S., & Campbell, B. (2004). Sports nutrition: what the
future may bring. Sports Nutr.Rev. J., 1, (1), 61-66.
7. Regulation No. 964 of the LR Cabinet of Ministers of 23 November
2004 "Regulations on food products labeling”. (Ministru kabineta
noteikumi Nr.964 „Pārtikas preču marķēšanas noteikumi”. 2004.
gada 23. Novembrī).
8. Regulation No.146 of the LR Cabinet of Ministers of 6 February
2010“Minimum safety requirements for food supplements and food
products, in which are used food additives". (Ministru kabineta
noteikumi Nr.146 „Obligātās nekaitīguma prasības pārtikas
piedevām un pārtikas produktiem, kuros izmantotas pārtikas
piedevas”. 2010. gada 6. Februārī).
9. Regulation Nr.725 of the LR Cabinet of Ministers of 20 September
2005 „Regulations on the minimum safety and labeling requirements
for dietary supplements and registration procedure of dietary
supplements”. (Ministru kabineta noteikumi Nr.725 „Noteikumi par
obligātajām nekaitīguma un marķējuma prasībām uztura
bagātinātājiem un uztura bagātinātāju reģistrācijas kārtību”. 2005.
gada 20. Septembrī).
10. Maugham, R.J. (1999). Nutritional ergogenic aids and exercise
performance. Nutr.Res.Rev, 12, 255-280.
11. Molinero, O., & Márquez SA. (2009). Use of nutritional
supplements in sports: risks, knowledge, and behavioural-related
factors. Nutr.Hosp, 24, 2, 128-134.
12. Randy, E., & Eichner, M.D (1997). Ergogenic Aids: What Athletes
Are Using and Why. Phys. Sportsmed., 25 (40), 1284-1290.
13. Rodriguez, N.R., Di Marco, N.M., & Langley, S. (2009). American
College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic
performance, 41 (3), 709-731.
14. Williams, M.H. (2004). Dietary Supplements and Sports
Performance: Introduction and Vitamins. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr, 1, 16. Doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-1-2-1.
THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS IN BIAŁA PODLASKA
INCLUDING SEX OF THE RESPONDENTS
Andrzej Soroka, Joanna Baj-Korpak
Filip Korpak, Agata Pocztarska-Dec
Pope John Paul II State School Of Higher Education
Address: 95/97 Sidorska Street, 21-500 Biała Podlaska, Poland
Phone: + 48 83 344 99 00
Abstract
Despite a tangible increase in the health-related awareness of active
participation in physical culture, the vast majority of the society does not
notice any dependency between health and physical activity. The study was
conducted with the method of a diagnostic survey in the form of
International Physical Activity Questionnaire. The research sample
consisted of 212 respondents linked with education. Results obtained were
subject to a statistical analysis using Statistica 7.0 software. There was
shown that boys had higher physical activity (p = 0.049) than girls.
However, girls were more active in the area of professional work (with no
evidence of significance), while boys in the area of sports and recreational
activities at the level of p = 0.044, particularly in intensive activities (p
<0.001). There were no differences in the activeness associated with
movement and housework. In domestic works, girls, to a greater extent were
engaged in working at home (p<0.001) while boys in the activities of the
high intensity (p = 0.049).
Key words: physical activeness, IPAQ, school youth
Introduction
Movement should accompany us, regardless of age, sex or
profession. However, it should be noted that the amount of physical exertion
should be adjusted individually (Starosta, 1997). Directed and intentionally
undertaken physical activeness leads to the development of conscious prohealth attitudes, extremely important for a healthy lifestyle. Its level should
provide the stabilization of health condition or its improvement. On this
basis, it can be concluded that all physically inactive individuals
58 | Soroka et al: THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF HIGH SCHOOL ...
demonstrate their activeness at a level lower than required to maintain a
satisfactory condition of health.
As a natural stimulus, physical activity may influence the entire
body, affecting positively functions of all organs. It is an axis of the whole
strategy of healthy lifestyle which can be built on condition that the
undertaken effort is below the critical value, is moderate and appropriately
dosed, and its loads are being increased gradually and systematically (BajKorpak et al. 2010). The physical activeness unites an individual with
nature and – contemporarily – is one of the few forms of individual‟s
contact with natural environment, a part of its niche in the specified natural
and social environment.
Despite a tangible increase in the awareness of healthy lifestyle and
the need for active participation in the physical culture, the vast majority of
the society do not notice any dependency between health and physical
activity. Only a few find deficiency of physical activeness to be one of the
most detrimental factors to health (Kantoma et al. 2008; Litwiniuk et al.
2004; Booth et al. 2002, Blair et al. 2001, Bouchard et al. 1994), whilst
physical activity is one of the basic needs of individuals at every stage of
their life.
Various authors, in their own way, determine a minimum level of
physical activeness. According to some, the insufficient physical activeness
indicates the effort which does not exceed the intensity of 4-5 units on the
Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) cale or does not produce the additional
500 kcal of energy expenditure per week. For others, he insufficient
physical activity defines as the energy expenditure associated with the
physical activity lower than 10% of the total daily energy expenditure
(Varo, Martinez-Gonzalez and de Irala-Estevez 2003).
Regular physical activity is considered to be an effective means of
promoting physical and mental health (Chakravarthy, Joyner and Booth
2002). In addition, it has a positive effect on our organism and promotes the
values strengthening health. There has been proved a positive correlation
between physical activeness and improved mood, better self-perception and
higher self-esteem (Raglin, Wilson and Galper 2007). Undertaken physical
activeness also has an influence on the reduction of depression and anxiety
(Harris, Cronkite and Moos 2006).
Considering the arguments given above, the measurement of
physical activeness becomes a thought-out challenge for researchers from
around the world. The formation of positive habits of spending free time, of
recuperation and active recreation, directly requires the knowledge of the
current level of society‟s participation in the wider physical culture (HukWieliczuk et al. 2003a, 2003b).
Examining the issue of human physical activity, there should be a
focus not only on the activities deliberately and consciously undertaken
during free time, but also on physical effort undertaken within the activities
connected with work, school activities, housework or with moving from
place to place (Baj-Korpak et al. 2010). Considering the issue of human
physical activity, there should be a focus not only on activities that are
undertaken consciously and deliberately as in the case of school youth
during school activities, housework or moving from place to place
(Strawbridge et al. 2002), but primarily on after-school physical activity,
which raises the level of physical fitness and health as well as constitutes an
important factor in shaping human personality (Cynarski et al. 2005,
Litwiniuk et al. 2007, 2009).
Materials and methods
Procedure
This paper was aimed at determining the physical activeness of the
secondary school youth in Biała Podlaska. The aim was also to clarify
whether there is a differentiation in the physical activeness between sexes
and whether any differences concern particular areas of the activity. The
following questions were asked:
1. Were there any differences in physical activity between girls and
boys of secondary schools in Biała Podlaska?
2. In which areas did differentiations in physical activity appear
between sexes?
3. In the structure of activity areas, which ones were preferred by girls
and which ones by boys?
The study was conducted with the method of diagnostics survey using
an International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), the long version.
Contemporarily, the IPAQ seems to be a genuine measuring method,
even referred to as the only real method to be used in surveys of vast
populations in developed and developing countries. It is the most reliable
tool for measuring physical activity in various groups or populations of
adults. It is claimed that nowadays the IPAQ is one of the most credible and
widely applied methods used to determine the physical activity in the world
(Welk, 2002). The expenditure was computed by multiplying the frequency
and duration of physical effort by the corresponding intensity expressed in
MET unit (metabolic equivalent) here 1 MET corresponds 02 consumption
at rest and accounts for 3.5 ml 02/kg body mass/min (Baj-Korpak, Soroka
and Korpak, 2010).
Participants
The questionnaire survey consisted of 212 secondary school pupils
aged from 17 to 19 of whom 117 were girls, while 94 were boys.
Statistical analysis
The results obtained were subjected to a statistical analysis – student
t test was used to determine significant differences between the physical
activities expressed in MET and sex variable.
Results
When examining physical activity of the secondary school students,
it was found that between sexes significant differences occurred at p = 0.049
in the overall activity. Among boys it amounted in average to 7252.1 METminutes/week, while among girls to 6691.3 MET-minutes/week (Tab.1).
Table 1.
Differentiation of physical activity in particular fields of life and the type of
activity considering sex of the respondents (U Mann-Whitney test)
Develop the
categories
Girls
Total rang
Work-vigorous
12235.0
Work-moderate
12309.5
Work - walking
11770.5
Total at work
11835.5
Transport12814.5
cycling
Transport12569.5
walking
Total
for
12803.5
transportation
Chores-intensity
11647.0
Chores-moderate
11793.5
Chores-moderate
14076.0
inside
Total
from
13083.0
domestic
Leisure-walking
12487.0
Leisure-intensity
10895.0
Leisure-moderate
11542.5
Total in leisure
10771.0
time
Total Physical
11542.0
Activity
* means
level of essentiality p<0.05
n
Boys
Total rang
n
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
10131.0
10056.5
10595.5
10530.5
9551.5
9796.5
9562.5
10719.0
10572.5
8290.0
9283.0
9879.0
11471.0
10823.5
11595.0
10824.0
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
94
Z Value
p
Value
-0.378
-0.209
-1.432
-1.289
0.935
0.380
0.911
-1.958
-1.419
3.797
1.548
0.194
-3.503
-2.013
-3.703
-1.961
0.704
0.833
0.151
0.197
0.209
0.703
0.362
0.049*
0.155
0.001*
0.121
0.845
0.001*
0.044*
0.001*
0.049*
There were no significant differences in physical activity associated
with work, which in the case of students took the form of school duties.
In this area, the most active were girls who reached the average at the level
of 2869.3 MET-minutes/week, whereas boys 2305,7 MET-minutes/week.
Girls showed greater activeness in walking 983.4 MET-minutes/week and in
moderate activities 811.2 MET-minutes/week, comparing to boys who
reached respectively: 530,2 MET-minutes/week i 676,6 MET-minutes/week
(Fig.1).
Figure. 1. Physical activity linked to work (education) considering sex of
the respondents (in MET-minutes/week)
Particular areas of activeness also indicated significant
differentiations between sexes. The most noticeable differences occurred in
a field related to spending free time. In boys, the overall sport and
recreational activeness reached the level of 2919.7 MET-minutes/week and
was significantly higher (p <0.001) than among girls who attained the level
of 1773.5 MET-minutes/week. In particular types of sport and recreational
activeness, the greatest differences at the level of significance p
<0.001appeared in the actions of high intensity, which proved to be higher
among boys at 1783.5 MET-minutes/week than among girls METminutes/week 880.0. Additionally, significant differences at p = 0.044
occurred in moderate sports and recreational activities, which in the case of
boys were higher 549.2 MET-minutes/week than in the case of girls 305.2
MET-minutes/week. In this area, just walking as a form of recreation had
for both sexes the comparable values (Fig. 2).
2919,7
4000
2000
588,3 587
1783,5
1773,5
880
305,2549,2
0
(leisure)
walking
(leisure)
(leisure)
Total in
moderate leisure time
girls
boys
Figure 2. Physical activeness of students during leisure time considering
sex of the respondents
The smallest differences between sexes occurred in the area of
movement. Girls showed minimally higher activeness at the level of 1066.0
MET-minutes/week than boys 1028.0 MET-minutes/week. In particular
types of activeness in this area the differences were insignificant (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Physical activity linked to the movement of respondents and the
overall physical activeness considering sex (in MET-minutes/week)
In general activity connected with housework, no significant
differences in physical activity between the sexes were shown as girls
received an average at the level of 982.5 MET-minutes/week, while boys
slightly higher 998.3 MET-minutes/week. However, differences in the
particular types proved to be significant, and in the case of the activities
connected with the cleaning housework of a moderate intensity appeared at
significant level of p <0.001. In this case girls showed much greater activity
at the level of 512.2 MET-minutes/week than boys - 288.1 METminutes/week. However, boys were significantly at p = 0.049 more active in
the work of high intensity reaching an average of 413.0 MET-minutes/week,
comparing to girls - 232.8 MET-minutes/week (Fig.4).
982,5 998,3
1000
800
600
400
200
0
232,8
413
(chores)
vigorous
intensity
237,5 297,2
512,2
288,1
(chores)
(chores) Total from
moderate moderate domestic
yard work
inside and garden
chores
girls
boys
Figure 4. Physical activity of students associated with housework
considering sex of the respondents (in MET-minutes/week)
Examining particular areas of physical activity, there was shown that
the greatest differentiations of significant character between sexes at p
<0.001 in the share of the structure occurred in the activities associated with
work and with spending free time (Fig.5).
Figure 5. Participation of particular areas in the physical activity of young
people considering sex of the respondents
Girls were more active at work (study) engaging 42.9% of their
activity in this area of functioning, comparing to 31.8% of boys, whereas
boys 40.2% of their physical activity devoted to sport and recreational
activities, comparing to 26.5% of girls.
Discussion
Scientists trying to determine the structure of physical activity within
particular socio-occupational groups face a severe methodological problem
trying to compare results obtained from findings of other researchers. These
difficulties are posed chiefly with the application of varied terminology
(Biernat, Piątkowska and Gajewski 2006) as well as with the fact that
carried investigations are conducted using different methods and often
different research tools.
The study presented in this paper was conducted with the use of long
version of the IPAQ. Comparison was made between the results gained
using the short version and those gained using the total energy expenditure
in the longer version of the questionnaire (Biernat et al. 2008). Worth
mentioning is the fact that in shorter version respondents declared the total
physical activity without division into categories, which is the longer
version of the IPAQ.
A comparative analysis of the level of declared physical activity with
sex of the respondents used as the criterion, demonstrated men to be more
active. The literature presented the regularities, which showed that women
had lower physical activity than men (Talbot, Metter 2000), which was also
showed in this paper. Girls showed significantly lower general activity than
boys, who were substantially more active in sports, in intensive activities (p
<0.001) and moderate ones (p = 0.044). In domestic work, boys were more
active in intensive activities around the house (p <0.001), while girls in
housework demonstrated moderate intensity (p = 0.044). Additionally,
studies on physical activity in 20 countries showed similar dependencies.
Men more often defined themselves as more active than women and these
differences concerned especially young people of secondary school age
(Bauman et al., 2009). Studied physical activity of women confirmed that it
decreased with their age. Studies showed that every second young woman
under 20 years was not active in accordance with general guidelines, while
after 20 years of age these proportions were declining (Belander et al. 2004).
Conducted studies showed the lack of physical activity or its significant
reduction among young people, associating it with their emotional
problems. It was suggested that research should be conducted to determine
the mechanisms responsible for the effect of physical activity on the
treatment of emotional problems of young people. This applied both, to girls
and to boys (Kantomaa et al. 2008). Health behaviours associated with
physical activity of young people were comparable to behaviours of older
people in different countries. Low physical activity was transferred to low
activity of adults and vice versa (www.health.gov/pagviolelines, 2008). It
was suggested that the lack of physical activity caused obesity, which raised
to a global problem and affected all countries in the world. Physical activity
in most countries was insufficient to ensure the healthy functioning of
societies (Currie et al. 2004). Despite such claims, the studies should be
systematically carried out that would show the current state of health of
inhabitants of particular country as well as various social groups, one of
whom is a group of young people of secondary schools, who are surveyed in
this paper. Early detection of dangers can protect from the consequences of
the lack of activity and thus obesity and health problems.
Conclusions
A thorough analysis of physical activity declared by the respondents
enabled formulating the following conclusions:
1. Boys showed higher physical activity of a significant differentiation,
compared to girls.
2. Girls were more active in the area of professional work (school
activities), while boys in the area of sports and recreational activities.
There were no differences in activities connected with movement
and housework. Girls were more closely engaged in the work at
home, while boys in the activities of high intensity.
3. In the structure of activity including the areas of activity between
sexes no significant differences appeared in professional work (more
active girls) and in spending leisure time (more active boys).
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Submitted: July 26, 2011
68 | Vazne et al:... MULTIDIMENTIONAL FACTOR MODEL ...
A MULTIDIMENTIONAL FACTOR MODEL FOR TEAM
PREPARATION IN BASKETBALL
Žermēna Vazne1, Romualdas Malinauskas2
1
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV1006, Latvia,
Phone: +371 67 54 34 39
e-mail: zermena.vazne@gmail.com; zermena.vazne@lspa.lv
2
Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education
Address: Sporto 6, 44221 Kaunas
Phone: +370 37 20 90 50
E-mail: e.malinauskas@lkk.lt
Abstract
Aim of the research: development of a scientifically proven
multidimensional factor model for team preparation for youth basketball
championships and evaluation of its contents in youth basketball team cohesion
and psychological stability for its optimisation.
Methods of the research: Group Environment Questionnaire test (adapted
version), players‟ psychological stability test, discussion, testing, documental
material analysis, pedagogical experiment and mathematical statistics. The
research was carried out from year 2007 to year 2009 (N=131). During the
research, a statistically credible, mutually correlative link was determined
between team cohesion, players‟ psychological stability, overall physical training
and game performance indices, as well as between the three factor structure
multidimensional model for team preparation for youth basketball. Team cohesion
structure consisted of three components with weight in factors above 0.5 (GI-T
r=0.839; GI-S r=0.853; ATG-T r=0.577; ATG-S r=0.726). Psychophysical factor
structure consisted of two components: overall physical condition (r=0.701) and
emotional stability (r=0.652). Self-regulatory factor structure consisted of two
components – self-regulatory skills (r=0.787) and motivational component
(r=0.823). The multidimensional factor model team training for championships
optimises team cohesion, players‟ psychological stability and, therefore, also team
performance is improved. It was concluded that in both experimental and control
group there were no statistically credible differences between teams (p>0.05), this
verifies that the teams were homogeneous. In the experimental group (before and
after the experiment) there were statistically significant differences in all team
cohesion and psychical stability scales. The changes in indices are statistically
significant (p<0.05).
Key words: multidimensional factor model, team cohesion, players‟
psychological stability.
Introduction
Basketball is one of the most popular sports, not only in Latvia and
Lithuania, but also in other parts of the world. In high ranking competitions
psychical tension increases and players are not always capable of
concentrating their attention during the championship, sometimes not even
during a single game and are not able to eliminate the stress caused by
various elements during the most important moments of the game. Sports
scientists mention a players‟ ability to regulate one‟s own psychical
condition as one of the criterions of a player‟s psychological stability
(Мильман, 1990; Moran, 2004; Jowett, Lavallee, 2007; Malinauskas,
2010).
Term “psychological stability” characterises a player‟s ability to
deal with stress, not give up when they are facing difficulties and bad luck,
their ability to continue playing till the end of the game even in extreme
situations (Блюменштейн, Мильман & Худадoв, 1997). Psychological
stability consists of the player‟s emotional stability, self-regulatory skills,
motivational energy component and performance stability, which is
characterised by the player‟s ability to concentrate for longer periods of
time in action. The basis of psychological stability consists of a player‟s
physical training, former championship experience, level of self-regulatory
skills development, belief in oneself and ability to structure one‟s aims
(Malinauskas, 2001). In psychological stability development a wide variety
of methods are used. The different tasks are: autogenic training, visual
relaxation, self-suggestion, psychological consulting, methods of dialogue,
neuromuscular relaxation, and training under a high level of tiredness
(Morris, Summers, 2003).
In team and other sports, cohesion is considered to be a major factor
in promoting team efficiency; sports specialists frequently link a team‟s
success to it. Team cohesion level and, therefore, also their results in
championships is a matter of major importance in modern dynamic sports,
when different ways of improving results are constantly sought. Research
shows that team cohesion correlates positively with team performance
(Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley, 2002; Vazne, Rudzitis; 2007; Vazne, 2008;
Vazne, Rudzitis & Larins, 2008; Vazne, 2010). Team players‟ faith in their
ability to reach their goals, as those players are able to keep their
concentration ability even if they score less, maintain power of
concentration and fighting spirit even if the circumstances are bad (Feltz,
Lirgg, 1998). Meanwhile cohesion might not just improve team work, but
also it can increase the level of team cohesion after a successful game.
Nowadays basketball is characterised by a dynamic playing style,
high level of movement activity and growing tension in the most important
moments of the game, it requires the players to use their maximum speed,
power and functional mobilisation.
One of the main tasks in youth athletes‟ training is development of
optimal physical ability, because based on good physical condition they will
also be able to perform at other tasks better. Physical training is one of the
most important parts of the basketball training process. On the one hand, it
promotes an athlete‟s personality development, body strength, development
of physical qualities and improvement of functional possibilities; on the
other hand, it also develops the qualities which are necessary to achieve
great results in this kind of sport.
In basketball, physical training is linked closely to other kinds of
training – technical, tactical and also psychological (Moran, 2004). Physical
training, if it is focused and carried out according to didactical requirements,
has effect on every age and qualification group – it improves players‟ skills,
it also acts as a basis of players‟ psychological stability (Озеров, 2002).
Insufficient strength and speed will not allow the player to use the
methods of basketball of our times; those must be done in high speed. Lack
of strength will make the player feel tired faster and, therefore, create
problems with skilled movements. The player will lose throw accuracy,
height of jumps and start speed.
Basketball coaches‟ practical experience shows that it is difficult to
maintain team cohesion and players‟ psychological stability during
championships. Especially, in Olympic Games, world championships and
other tournaments, the competing teams are usually equally well trained,
both physically, technically and tactically.
Research aim: development of a scientifically proven
multidimensional factor model for team preparation for youth basketball
championships, and evaluation of its contents in youth basketball team
cohesion and psychical stability for its optimisation.
Subject of the research: youth basketball team cohesion and players‟
psychological stability development in the process of training for
championships.
Research methods consisted of: test, discussion, documental
material analysis, pedagogical experiment and mathematical statistics. This
research was carried out from year 2007 to year 2009, total number of
respondents was 131. Group Environment Questionnaire test (to determine
team cohesion in sports).To determine team cohesion level a Group
Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) test developed by Canadian
psychologists A.Carron, L.Brawley and Widmeyer was used (Widmeyer,
Brawley, Carron, 1985; Carron, Widmeyer, Brawley, 2002). Theoretical
basis of the GEQ test consists of sports dynamics (Carron, Widmeyer,
1997; Murphy, 2005). GEQ helps to research impact of environment (group
and individual) on team cohesion (Brawley, Carron, Widmeyer, 1985), this
is one of the most widely used methods in the world to research team
cohesion. GEQ has been used in cohesion researches of many teams and the
results prove that GEQ can be used to obtain varied information in sports
science also those results indicate high validity of obtained results (Carron,
Bray & Eys, 2002; Brawley, Carron & Widmeyer, 1987; Sprink, Carron,
1992; Dion, Evanss, 1992).
During this research the Group Environment Questionnaire,
developed by the Canadian scientists was adapted for usage in the Latvian
environment. After adaptation, the adapted test version in Latvian was used.
In the research cohesion evaluation criteria were used, developed by the
author during its standardisation process (Vazne, 2008). The evaluation
criteria respondent base consisted of Latvian youth basketball league team
players of 2007 and 2008, who participated in the European basketball
championship (Cronbach‟s alpha coefficient 0,762).
Psychological Stability test (Мильман, 1990) was used.
Psychological Stability test helps to evaluate a specific player‟s personality
trait such psychological stability. This test is based upon a
multidimensional model; it consists of four scales: emotional stability in
championships, self-regulatory skills, energetic component of motivation,
and performance stability during championships (Malinauskas, 2008).
Analysis of the test results helps to determine the dominant emotional
reactions during the training period, before an important championship in
long term.
Discussions were carried out based on standardised questions;
results were used as a supplementary aid of quality data interpretation.
Testing (overall physical condition determination tests was used). In
years 2007 and 2008 a check-up of basketball players‟ physical condition
during training period for European championship was carried out. The
result evaluation was based upon criteria developed at the Latvian Academy
of Sport Education (Rudzītis, Lāriņš, 2008).
In order to evaluate players‟ performance during championships, a
championship technical protocol analysis was carried out. Twelve Latvian
youth basketball teams‟ games technical protocol analysis was carried out
after the European championship (six teams after championship in year
2007 and six teams after championship in year 2008). The efficiency
coefficient calculation was based upon a formula developed by
Preobrazhensky (Преображенский, 1970).
Pedagogical experiment was carried out from January till May, in
year 2008. Aim of the pedagogical experiment: team cohesion and
psychological stability determination in both experimental and control
groups, multidimensional factor model content for team preparation for
youth basketball championships usage impact on team cohesion and
players‟ psychical stability evaluation. Object of the pedagogical
experiment: team training process for most important championships of
the season. Subject of the pedagogical experiment: 17 year old female
basketball players. Methods of the pedagogical experiment: questionnaire
(GEQ, Psychological stability test); discussions; mathematical statistics.
Research procedure
The Group Environment Questionnaire was adapted for the Latvian
sports environment (team sport). To determine test credibility Cronbach‟s
alpha coefficient was used, for test validity determination a factor analysis
was used. Pilot researches after GEQ adaptation showed that there were
statistically credible correlation coefficients between players‟ individual
cohesion scales and team performance in championships, thus proving that
there is a positive mutual connection between team cohesion and
performance in championships (p<0,01). (Vazne, Rudzitis, 2007). Each
basketball team‟s cohesion level, psychical stability and overall physical
training levels were determined in years 2007 and 2008 during training
period before the European championship. Individual profiles for each team
were developed and analysed for both years 2007 and 2008 (Vazne, 2008).
A three factor structure was used: ”team cohesion factor”, ”self-regulatory
factor” and ”psychophysical factor” (results of respondents in years 2007
and 2008, U-18, U-20 age groups). Team cohesion structure consists of
three components with its weight in factors above 0.5 (GI-T r=0.839; GI-S
r=0.853; ATG-T r=0.577; ATG-S r=0.726). Psychophysical factor structure
consists of two components: overall physical condition (r=0.701) and
emotional stability (r=0.652). Self-regulatory factor structure consists of
two components – self-regulatory skills (r=0.787) and motivational
component (r=0.823) (Vazne, 2008). A multidimensional factor model was
developed and its contents used for training a youth basketball team. Model
contents were developed according to factor analysis‟ results, also by
evaluation of important mutual links between team cohesion, players‟
psychical stability, overall physical training and performance results in
championships (efficiency coefficient and ranking) (p<0,05). During the
research (published in Ph.D. Dissertation by Z.Vazne) contents were
developed for each of the above-mentioned factors (Vazne, 2009).
Results of the research
The “Multidimensional factor model for team preparation for youth
basketball championships” has two independent and four dependent
variables (Fig. 1): Two independent variables ”Socio-environmental
Factors” and ”Individuality Factors” consist of “Social environment”,
which consists of the micro-environment (upbringing in family, closest
friends, relatives) and the macro-environment (which consists of sports club,
school, society, championship level, etc); “Individuality”, which includes
gender, age, athlete‟s personal characteristics, etc. Four dependent variables
are “team cohesion”, “self-regulatory factor”, “psychophysical factor” and
“performance”. “Team performance factor” consists of four cohesion scales.
“Self-regulatory factor” consists of two scales characterising player‟s
psychical stability – self-regulatory and motivational component.
“Psychophysical factor” consists of overall physical training and emotional
stability as means of player‟s psychical stability. “Performance” is an
integral, affected by all above-mentioned.
Figure 1. Multidimensional factor model for team training for
basketball championships (by Vazne, 2009)
This model can be regarded as a multidimensional factor model for
team training for championships in basketball, because it is based upon
many factor structures which are connected to each other.
First, team cohesion factor – team cohesion is evaluated as:
multidimensional, as team sports are based on more than just one factor;
dynamic, as team cohesion is not a constant, it can change as time goes by;
instrumental, as it reflects team development and reasons of its existence;
emotional, as it is linked to emotional factors which influence players‟
individual value scale and attitude.
Second, according to psychological stability definition, psychical
stability is multidimensional, as it characterises players‟ abilities to:
understand and know how to regulate one‟s own emotional conditions; carry
out emotional control; know how to maintain self-confidence and believe in
oneself; regulate consciously one‟s own psychical condition; keep up the
spirit till the end of the game even if the conditions are not favourable.
Third, overall physical condition is characterised altogether by
speed, strength, endurance, coordination and prowess. In this research it was
estimated in grades. Emotional stability during championships is one
component of psychical stability and it is characterised by players‟ ability to
keep the fighting spirit in difficult circumstances.
Model contents were developed according to factor analysis results,
also by evaluation of important mutual links between team cohesion,
players‟ psychical stability, overall physical training and performance
results in championships (efficiency coefficient and ranking; p<0.05).
During the pedagogical experiment, a multidimensional factor
model for players‟ training for championships content implementation
impact on team cohesion and psychological stability evaluation in both
experimental and control groups was carried out as follows: homogeneity
tests in experimental and control groups, and a part of the model contents
and programme for team cohesion and psychical stability components
improvement was chosen. After the programme implementation the
dynamics of results were evaluated in both experimental and control
groups and its link to team‟s rank in final tournament.
Team cohesion is characterised by two scale indices: ATG-T, ATGS (individual attractions to group task accomplishment and individual
attachment to group in social tendency), GI-T, GI-S (group integration for
task accomplishment and group integration in social tendency). Team‟s
psychical stability is characterised by: emotional stability (ES), selfregulatory skills (SR), motivational component (MC) and performance
stability (PS).
In the experimental group GI-T indices (26.08+4.1) are regarded as
low ones (Fig. 2).
Experimental Group before Experiment
Control Group before Experiment
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
ATG-T
ATG-S
GI-T
GI-S
ES
SR
MC
PS
-10
Figure 2. Experimental and control group team cohesion and psychological
stability scale indices in the beginning of the experiment (n=24)
Psychological stability scale contents (ES − emotional stability; SR − selfregulatory skills; MC − motivational content). Team cohesion scale contents
(ATG-T − individual attractions to group task accomplishment; ATG-S −
individual attractions to group in social tendency; GI-S − group integration in
social tendency; GI-T − group integration for task accomplishment).
After analysing individual answers it can be concluded that team
players have a tendency to have different points of view regarding team
goals and task implementation, as well as that the team cooperation style is
not open and there is a ”blaming process” between the girls in case of bad
performance. Other team cohesion indices are average.
In experimental group emotional stability indices (-3.08+1.31) and
self-regulatory skills indices (-2.5+2.39) are below average. This indicates
that the team is below average in understanding its emotional conditions,
therefore, more prone to provocations during championships and negative
emotional reactions in stressful situations. Low self-regulatory skills also
affect this. Motivational component is below average (1.25+2.0).
Performance stability is below average, it indicates that the team players
probably have problems with attention stability in long term. Control group
indices are similar to those of the experimental group. T-criterion
(Independent Samples Test) for independent team comparison (both
experimental and control groups) shows that team cohesion and
psychological stability indices have no significant differences between
teams (p>0.05), it means that the groups are homogeneous.
Before the multidimensional factor model implementation for
preparing, individual discussions with each of experimental group players
were carried out in order to get to know them and to determine each player‟s
individual needs. Individual training plans were developed. After those,
content implementation team cohesion and psychological stability tests were
repeated and analysed.
In Figure 3 are shown experimental group indices before and after
content implementation. After dynamics evaluation of the indices it can be
concluded that indices have improved in all cohesion structures in the
experimental group.
Team Cohesion
Experimental Group after Experiment
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
ATG-T
ATG-S
GI-T
GI-S
Figure 3. Team cohesion scale indices in the beginning of the
experiment and at the end of the experiment
Team cohesion scale contents (ATG-T − individual attractions to group task
accomplishment; ATG-S − individual attractions to group in social tendency; GI-S
− group integration in social tendency; GI-T − group integration for task
accomplishment).
Also, in indices of players‟ psychological stability, the results are
higher in all its structures. Changes in the beginning of the experiment and
at the end of the experiment, after the content was implemented, are
statistically valid (p<0.05) (Fig.4).
Before the pedagogical experiment in both experimental and control
groups it was determined (using a T-test) that there is no significant
difference between teams (p>0.05), this indicates team homogeneity.
Analysis of results of discussions allows concluded that for players
the most important influence on performance is linked to ability to”cope”
with stress before important championships, and also it is linked to self-
confidence. As the most important factor in team performance improvement
players mention team cohesion.
Players' Psychical Stability
Experimental Group after Experiment
3
2
1
0
-1
ES
SR
MC
PS
-2
-3
-4
Figure 4. Players‟ psychological stability scale indices in the
beginning of the experiment and at the end of the experiment
Psychological stability scale contents (ES − emotional stability; SR − selfregulatory skills; MC − motivational content).
In the experimental group (before and after the experiment) there
were statistically significant differences in all team cohesion and players‟
psychical stability scales. Changes in indices are statistically valid (p<0.05).
In the control group there were insignificant changes, but, when tested with
T-test‟s conditional sets, it was determined that those differences are not
statistically significant
(p =0.34...0.93). Respondents in the experimental group, when the
content was implemented, ranked as the second best in the final tournament
(in previous researches it was statistically proven that there was a tight link
between team cohesion, psychological stability scales and team
performance). There were no changes in control group.
Discussion
By analysing the data of the basketball players in the beginning of
the experiment and at the end of the experiment we established that
multidimensional factor model for team training for basketball
championships was confirmed.
The approbated team training system, which is based upon
scientifically tested evaluation criteria, can be applied in sports science (it
is recommended to use it during team training process). Results of the
research suggests to develop team performance prognosis and show ”a
way to go” to improve this performance. Experimentally tried and tested
multidimensional factor model content can be used in team training for a
championship (Vazne, 2008).
The consequences of the present study may be grounded by
researchers proving that team cohesion positively correlates with team
performance (Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley, 2002, Vazne, Rudzitis &
Larins, 2008) and by researches proving that the players‟ ability to regulate
one‟s own psychical condition as one of criterions of player‟s psychological
stability (Morran, 2002, 2004; Jowett, Lavallee, 2007; Malinauskas, 2010).
Limitations and further suggestions
The present research not only revealed some tendencies of team
training in basketball, but also discovered the perspectives for further
research. Another factor that may influence youth basketball players‟ team
training is the kind of sport - basketball. A multidimensional factor model
was created and its contents used in training of a youth basketball team. It
was established that in the basketball players‟ respondent groups (age 18 to
20) team cohesion, psychological stability and overall physical condition
components determination was predominant. Multidimensional factor model
team training for championships contents implementation optimizes team
cohesion, players‟ psychological stability and also improves team
performance. Correlations between model variables were established only in
basketball – this is the kind of sport that requires communication between
team members. We suggest analysis of tendencies of teams in sports where
there is less communication required between the players.
Conclusions
Statistically credible mutually correlative link determination between
team cohesion, players‟ psychological stability, overall physical training and
performance indices, as well as the three factor structure promoted
development of scientifically proven multidimensional factor model for
team training in youth basketball. Team cohesion structure consisted of
three components with its weight in factors above 0.5 (GI-T r=0.839; GI-S
r=0.853; ATG-T r=0.577; ATG-S r=0.726). Psychophysical factor structure
consisted of two components: overall physical condition (r=0.701) and
emotional stability (r=0.652). Self-regulatory factor structure consists of two
components – self-regulatory skills (r=0.787) and motivational component
(r=0.823).
A multidimensional factor model team training for championships
contents implementation optimises team cohesion, players‟ psychological
stability and therefore also improves team performance. It was concluded
that in both experimental and control groups, after evaluation of team
cohesion and players‟ psychological stability indices, there were no
statistically credible differences between teams (p>0.05). This verifies that
the teams were homogeneous. In the experimental group (before and after
the experiment) there were statistically significant differences in all team
cohesion and psychical stability scales. Changes in indices are statistically
significant (p<0.05).
References
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success in sport. Journal of Sport Sciences, Retrieved from
http://www.montana.edu/craigs/team%20cohesion.htm
2. Carron, A., Widmeyer, W. & Brawley L. (2002). Group
environment questionnaire test manual. Morgantown, WV:
Fitness Information Technology, 30 p.
3. Carron, A.V., Widmeyer, W.N. & Brawley, L. R. (1997). The
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5. Jowett, S., Lavallee, D. (2005). Social Psychology in Sport.
Human Kinetics, 353 p.
6. Malinauskas, R. (2000). Didelio meistriškumo dviratininkų
psichinio patikimumo ypatumai. Sporto mokslas. Nr.2(20), 42-45.
7. Malinauskas, R. (2008). The influence of phychological training
programm on the psychological skills in elite basketball players.
Sport Science. Nr.2(52), 6.-11.
8. Malinauskas, R. (2010). Taikomoji Sporto Psichologija. Kaunas,
Lietuvos Kuno kulturos akadēmija, 448 p.
9. Moran, A. P. (2002). In the mind eye. The Psychologist. Nr.15,
414-415.
10. Moran, A.P. (2004). Sport and exercise psychology: a critical
introduction, 347 p.
11. Morris, T., Summers, J. (2003). Sport psychology: theory,
applications and issues. J.Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd., 655 p.
12. Murphy, S. (2005). The sport psychology. Human Kinetics
Publishers, Inc., 349 p.
13. Vazne, Z., Rudzitis, A. (2007). Team game sport cohesiveness
study in Latvia. ATEE Spring University. Changing Education in
Changing Society (1): Klaipeda University, Lithuania, 192-204.
14. Vazne, Ž., Rudzītis, A., Lāriņš, V. (2008). Jauno basketbolistu
psiholoģiskās sagatavotības faktoru struktūra. ATEE Spring
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82 | Amantova et al:... PROBLEMS OF SUCCESSFUL LUGE...
REVIEW PAPER
PROBLEMS OF SUCCESSFUL LUGE SPORTSMEN
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Ingrīda Amantova, Agita Ābele
Latvian Academy of Sport Education,
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia
Phone: +37167543430
E-mail: ingrida21@inbox.lv, agita.abele@lspa.lv
Abstract
The article aims to evaluate the problematic stages of successful luge
sportsmen career development and current situation in luge sport. Several
recognized psychology theories are used, evaluated and related to
successful luge sportsmen career development in Latvia. The author
analyses results of a survey conducted among Latvian and Russian junior
team members of luge sport to draw conclusions which contribute to further
development of luge sport in Latvia.
Key words: Luge sport, Sportsmen career
Introduction
Luge sport is an elitist Winter Olympic sport with a long tradition in
Latvia. Latvian luge sportsmen have received awarded prizes in all Winter
Olympic Games. But, in order to let this tradition continue, magnificent
effort must be contributed in luge sport and sportsmen career development
at its very root.
Luge sport is quite extreme sport with corresponding factors of high
risk, number of accidents, psychological instability and fear factor; all
causing considerable problems of trainee attraction to the sport and their
selection at the beginning stage of the luge sport. Productive selection in
luge sport is hindered by economical and social factors and their interaction.
Luge sport is one of the most financially expensive sports with a specific
sports track designed to practice and compete. Therefor it is impossible to
take part in this sport without the financial support of the country as well as
living nearby the track.
Aim of research: summarize theoretical conclusions and results of
empirical investigation and analyze the essential problems of successful
luge sportsmen career development
Investigation methods:
1. Theoretical: analysis of literature and information resources.
2. Empirical: conducting a questionnaire and statistic processing of
its results.
Theoretical guidelines: Participation in scientific conferences, study
of educational and psychological literature, afterthoughts of discussions and
individual conversations have established conviction that it is highly
necessary to activate the dialogue about successful luge sportsmen career
development. Sportsman‟s career – it is successive and systematic work
aimed at high achievements and continuous development and perfection in
the chosen sport.
Psychologist V. Filin divides sportsman‟s career in four phases:
1. Initial preparation phase.
2. The phase of undertaking sport specialization.
3. The phase of in-depth sport specialization.
4. Sports performance improvement phase:
- First big success zone,
- Optimum capability zone,
- The zone of maintaining high achievements (Филин, 1974).
Development of sportsmen career is not easy; it is a complicated
multi-effect process, which develops individually in its own way. Sports
psychologist N. Stambulova has described seven main crises during
sportsmen career:
1. Crisis of undertaking sport specialization.
2. Transitional crisis undertaking in-depth sport specialization in the
chosen sport.
3. Transitional crisis from mass sports to high achievements sports.
4. Transitional crisis from junior to adult sports.
5. Transitional crisis from the amateur to professional sport.
6. Transitional crisis from the peak of sports achievements towards
career decline and career exit.
7. Final crisis of active sports career exit (Stambulova, 1999).
At the end of a luge sportsmen‟s career in Latvia, it is important to
note that only a few sportsmen can become a couch, since this type of
sport is not widely spread throughout the country. The majority of
sportsmen will have to think about their further source of income, because
even reaching the top ranks of the world the financial resources will not be
enough to sustain their further life.
The psychologist points out the exact demands for the specific sport
which influence the sportsmen career:
General demands and conditions of sports activities. These are
competition, rivalry, the need for self-improvement, increase of
physical and mental load and the need of specialization;
Specific requirements of the chosen sport. These include specific
demands of the microenvironments, sportsman‟s psychological state,
psychomotor requirements, correspondence level of mental
characteristics, communicative demands and demands for trainer‟s
personality;
Individual factors of sports activities. These relate to giftedness,
training conditions, influence of social, micro- and macroenvironments, and sportsman‟s individual character traits.
The most significant sportsmen career development factors are linked to
the improvement process of sportsman's personality:
- Independence and the ability to organize and manage their activities
purposefully are an integral part of the sportsman's growth;
- Self-analysis is an important part of the sportsman's personality
improvement process, because only by sportsman understanding
himself, his own potential and real opportunities helps the sportsmen
assess themselves and move on in their career;
- The process of self-development is the key element of motivation.
The term "motivation" implicates a set of motives that encourages
and justifies personal activities, actions, behaviors, attitudes, needs
and interests (Abele, 2009).
Expressions of motivation are:
Activity directed at personality;
Individual effort, its quantity in purposeful activity (overcoming
obstacles);
Persistence to achieve the goal at given time period.
Quite often we observe and encounter lack of motivation among
junior sportsmen, especially the lack of inner motivation, what hinders
junior sportsmen to develop and reach high results. In the Coaches
Handbook it says that sportsman‟s performance depends not only on his
skills, abilities and resources, but also the motivation (Trenera
rokasgrāmata, 2004).
Motivation is a human psychological characteristic, which includes
the factors that create, promote and support human behavior in a particular
work. In its turn, motivation is „means‟ to get the men work better.
Sportsmen will work to their full potential if they can perform selfrealization, feel psychologically comfortable and envisage potential
development in their activities and the career. Sportsman with a high level
of performance motivation it is important to be recognized at his work.
Career development mainly depends on sportsman‟s own desires, skills
and abilities to move forward. Sportsman with a high level of performance
motivation is able to realize their individual development needs by
deepening his knowledge and professional skills (Ильин, 2009). Results
indicate that a sportsman who is constantly showing initiative, willingness
to work, is setting new goals when the current target is reached is more
prone to professional career development in this direction.
To a large extent sportsman‟s career rise is influenced by several
environmental factors:
Socio-psychological factors:
- Positive and appropriate work and rest climate is one of the most
important factors. A good cooperation model between general
schools and sports schools is a sports boarding school, or special
sports classes in general schools, which helps to combine education
with professional sports. This solution facilitates everyday life of the
sportsman, his trainer - teacher, and his parents for productive work
and facilitates achievement of set targets. A boarding school or
special sports classes promotes wider sportsmen selection,
comprising the area of whole Latvia.
- It is very important that the family and the general school support the
sportsmen and ensure close and understanding cooperation. All three
components of this system are expected to ensure corresponding
work climate to facilitate achievement of the planned targets.
- For the trainer to ensure professional training process, he should
preferably be professionally educated in sports education, general
education and psychology, be a strong personality with
organizational skills as well as experience and professional skills in
luge (Trenera rokasgrāmata-2, 2006).
- Sportsman‟s formation is the result of long and systematic work.
Every sportsman has to grow and develop his personality
(individuality) physically, intellectually, emotionally and socially.
- The impact of socio-economic environment has very important
impact on the development of luge sport at the state and municipal
level.
In Latvia the first obstacles in successful luge sportsmen career
development are encountered at luge sport specialization start-up phase
when facing specific difficulties of luge sport. From my own personal
experience and from dialogues with my colleagues – trainers and
sportsmen, the majority point out the following:
- Aerodynamic overload after specialized training in luge track on ice
and head and back pains afterwards.
- Fear of injury, which create psychological instability during training.
These reasons are essential when talented trainees terminate their
sports career. During this period, much depends on the trainer's individual
educational and psychological skills, helping the sportsmen to overcome
this phase, the relative difficulties and obstacles.
Empirical results
Considering the most important state investments in the development
of luge sport infrastructure and financial planning from year 2002 up to
now, it should be noted that the founded State agency „ Latvian Children
and Youth Luge Sport School” (Latvijas bērnu un jauniešu kamaniņu
sporta skola) is an institution with analytically well stated by-laws un selfsustainable financial budget and created positive changes and opened
opportunities for Latvian children and youth luge sport development. More
specific with the analysis:
- This provided opportunity to open boarding school for 20 trainees
with state ensured financing,
- This provided co-financing for feeding of the trainees,
- This allowed agency to obtain a transport vehicle (micro-bus) to
assist educational and training process,
- Promoted participation of trainees at international level competitions
(3 or 4 contests per season),
- Ensured possibility to obtain new and qualitative inventory (sports
sleighs and spare parts) for each trainee corresponding to their
physical parameters.
This socio-economic environment contributed to a meaningful
children and youth luge sport high level performance, which has now been
materialized in the results of Latvian national team level. In this season
five trainees are getting trained for the Youth Olympic Games in
Innsbruck and they are also Latvian national team candidates.
Unfortunately we can talk about this well created environment and
success in the past as due to the state financial crisis all specialized State
sport agencies were closed, including the Children and youth Luge Sport
State Agency with state financing (Cabinet of Ministers Order No.813).
Only thanks to the fact that Latvian Children and Youth Luge Sport School
is the only one in Latvia, it was possible to maintain its functioning as a
branch of Murjani Sports Gymnasium, but with much less state financing.
This is the second season when school trainees cannot participate at
international competitions outside Latvia. The boarding school is also
closed and to admit, all these factors lead to the following:
1. Considerable decrease in the number of sport school‟s trainees;
2. Lost opportunity to attract children living in different parts of Latvia
to luge sport.
Specific training conditions can be ensured only in Sigulda Bobsleigh
and Luge Track with artificial ice. Therefore, considering the above
situation, wide geographic selection of sportsmen is limited. Riga region has
absolute dominance of 94.5 % (namely Sigulda and the places in its
vicinity). Only 2 % or just one sportsman from all Children and Youth luge
sport school trainees is from Jekabpils region. Let me stress once again, that
Sigulda and its surrounding places provide majority selection, thus regional
selection of potential sportsmen is minimal and this thus endangers the
future of Latvia luge sport. (See fig.1)
Figure 1. Geographical location of sportsmen
3. Limited financial means is the main reason of limited training
time in the ice track;
4. Sports pedagogues –trainers are leaving for better paid jobs as no
perspective and future is clear to obtain necessary financing.
The above situation is not favorable for positive results and high
achievements of future luge sport.
In order to find out the future development of luge sport and sports
career today, anonymous survey was conducted among 30 respondents –
sportsmen of Latvia luge sport aged between 14 till 23 (average age 18.5
years), (men 28, women 2). (Tab.2)
Table 2.
Experience of Sportsmen at different level competitions
Competitions of local area
0
0%
Competitions of regional level
0
0%
State level competitions
10 50%
Europe level competitions
0
Worldwide competitions
10 50%
0%
The results show that the sportsmen who have had good
performance at the state level competitions, are engaged in the sport not less
than 5 years (figure 3), are motivated to move up in their professional sports
career and show willingness to increase their level of education and
experience support from their families (figure 4).
Figure 3. Duration of sportsmen active career (by years and %)
Sportsmen were offered to evaluate their value priorities and friends, family
and career were pointed out as the most important.
Figure 4. Value priorities among luge sportsmen
Keeping in mind the future development of luge sportsmen career, a
question about their plans for the next three years was asked and the results
stated that career is the most important (100%), followed by family and
good education almost for everybody – 90% (Tab.3)
Table 3.
The most important values of sportsmen in three year time span
Family
28
90%
Career
30
100%
Education
28
90%
Appearance
0
0%
Religion
0
0%
Love Affairs
0
0%
Conclusion
Conducting theoretical and empirical investigation the author
makes the following conclusions:
1. The main factors contributing to successful sportsmen career are factors
of personal development and material and technical base.
2. Investments in material and technical infrastructure in luge sport in
Latvia could be classified as sufficient during the time period from 20022010, however, starting from year 2010 – as insufficient.
3. Sportsmen point out family, education and career as the most important
values in their self-evaluation.
4. Sportsmen of Latvia luge sport orient themselves towards national and
world level competitions which clearly point out the importance of this
sport in Latvian sports life.
5. The main problems of successful career development are family
support, presence of friends and reliable partners in sport activities and
financials feasibility to engage in training and competition process.
References
1. Ābele, A. (2009). Sporta psiholoģijas pamati. Rīga: RaKa, 296 lpp.
2. Andersen, M. B. (2005). Sport psychology in practice. Human
Kinetics, 338 p.
3. MK rīkojums Nr.813 Par Izglītības un zinātnes ministrijas padotībā
esošo sporta politikas īstenošanā iesaistīto valsts aģentūru
reorganizāciu. Rīgā, 2009.gada 30.novembrī (prot. Nr.84 52.§)
4. Trenera rokasgrāmata (2004). Rīga: Jumava, 407 lpp.
5. Trenera rokasgrāmata 2 (2006). Rīga: a/s Preses nams, 312 lpp.
6. Ильин, E. П. (2009). Психология спорта. Питер: Пресс, 34 с.
7. Филин, B. П. (1974). Воспитание Физических Качеств У юных
Спортсменoв. Москва: ФиС, 92 с.
8. Стамбулова, Н.Б. (1999), Психология спортивой каръеры. С-Пб.:
Центр каръеры, 94-96 с.
REVIEW PAPER
SPORT CLASSES FOR SUSTAINABLE STUDENT
HEALTH PROMOTION
Andra Fernate, Rasma Jansone
Inta Immere, Inta Bula-Biteniece
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV1006, Latvia
Phone: +371 67453430; fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: andra.fernate@lspa.lv, rasma.jansone@lspa.lv
inta.immere@lspa.lv, inta.bula-biteniece@lspa.lv
Abstract
Sports is the only school subject which seeks to prepare children for a
healthy lifestyle and focuses on their overall physical and mental
development, as well as imparting important social values such as fairness,
self-discipline, solidarity, team spirit, tolerance and fair play. At present it
is necessary to implement changes in the orientation of physical education
as a subject, taking into account children health and social needs and
expectations. The aim of the research was to evaluate reaching the
objectives, set forth in public health policy documents to promote Latvia
student health, revising the means for reaching the objectives concerning
quality in sports classes. The material and methods of the research included
content analysis of policy documents, conceptions, programmes,
investigations. The results and main conclusions: schools strive to formally
reach the objectives of physical education, set forth in public health policy
documents, but there are reserves in improving the means of assuring
quality, and widening the space of possibilities for students in closer
relationship among all parties, involved in student health promotion. As a
result of the research suggestions for the improvement of the quality of sport
education to promote student health in long term are worked out.
Keywords: Physical education, sports class, student health promotion,
assessment of student achievements.
Introduction
Recently, with the development of information technologies and the
increase of study load children and youngsters become more sedentary –
92 | Fernāte et al:... SPORT CLASSES FOR SUSTAINABLE...
they spend more time, working on a computer or doing home tasks rather
than do sports or participate in other physical activities (State Health
Promotion Agency 2004, 2007a). Because of this there is no wonder that
due to the lack of movements young people face such problems as obesity
(State Health Promotion Agency 2007b), posture and cardiovascular system
disorders, as well as other health problems, caused by sedentary and
emotionally strained study regimen (State Health Promotion Agency 2008).
For successful growth a human body needs sufficient movement activity
and balanced diet (World Health Organization 2008). Movements promote
the development of regulating and coordinating mechanisms of the CNS, as
well as the processes of the body humoral regulation (World Health
Organization 2010).
Insufficient physical condition of Latvia students and their health
indicators justify the necessity to investigate the causes and work out the
strategy for promoting student health, as well as evaluate reaching
objectives, set forth in policy documents, concerning the sphere of society
health, revising the quality of means used for reaching the objectives.
The material and methods of the research included content analysis of
international and national-level policy documents, conceptions, programs,
investigations related to student physical activity promotion.
Results and discussion
Exploration of political context of Latvia
Children health as a fundamental right is referred in many international
and national-level policy planning documents. Numerous documents,
strategies, plans and regulations have been developed and accepted by the
Latvia Government in the course of the last several years, intending to
develop, improve and reform the health care system in Latvia (Tragakes et
al. 2008). There is a problem that Latvia people do not consider the
importance of physical activities as a health-promoting factor (State Health
Promotion Agency of Latvia 2004). Since 2006 the Latvia Government
announced the objective to pursue investments in promotion of healthy
lifestyles, including physical activities and sports. Latvia approved the
following international documents related to children physical activity
promotion:
- Declaration of the Rights of the Child (Adopted by UN General
Assembly Resolution 1386 (XIV) of 10 December 1959) which envisages
that the member states should create possibilities for children and more
favourable conditions for health promoting physical activities. The child
shall be entitled to grow and develop in health. The child shall have the
right to adequate nutrition, housing, recreation and medical services. The
child shall have full opportunity for play and recreation, which should
be directed to the same purposes as education; society and the public
authorities shall endeavour to promote the enjoyment of this right.
- A World Fit for Children (2002) calls for the mobilization and
allocation of new and additional resources at both national and international
levels for promoting a healthy lifestyle among children and adolescents.
Children should get the best possible start in life. Their survival, protection,
growth and development in good health and with proper nutrition form the
essential foundation of human development.
- The Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health (2004)
addresses two of the main risk factors for non-communicable diseases,
namely, diet and physical activity. School policies and programmes should
support the adoption of healthy diets and physical activity. Schools should
protect student health by providing health information, improving health
literacy, and promoting healthy diets, physical activity, and other healthy
behaviours. Schools are encouraged to provide students with daily physical
education. Equally important is the need to put in place effective
mechanisms for evaluating the efficacy of prevention of non-communicable
diseases.
- European Strategy for Child and Adolescent Health and
Development (2005) gives insight in children health problems and the most
successful solutions of them in European countries and how to carry out
different activities in order to improve children health: policies, programmes
and health systems should be in place to work towards the following target:
healthy lifestyle development – adequate diet, physical activity, oral
hygiene. Our investment in the next generation is also a matter of
encouraging healthy lifestyles. Sufficient physical activity and a
nutritionally balanced diet are the foundation stones for good health.
- The focus of the Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for
Health (2010) is primary prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs)
through physical activity at population level, because physical inactivity is
now identified as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality. For
children and young people aged 5–17 years old physical activity includes
plays, games, sports, transportation, recreation, physical education or
planned exercise, in the context of family, school, and community activities.
The sub-goals of the programme Conformable for Children Latvia 20042007, accepted by the order Nr. 646 of LR MK, envisage facilitation of
healthy lifestyle: qualitative health care available for all children,
environment and infrastructure friendly for children.
The programmes accepted by the orders of MK in the field of education
and science policy, youth policy and sports policy which include the
facilitation of physical activities are as follows:
- Education Development Basic Positions for 2007–2013, the aim of
this document is to provide every inhabitant with a possibility to
obtain qualitative lifelong education in accordance with individual
interests, abilities and the needs of state economic development, and
the tasks, connected with schoolchildren education about healthy
diet, reproductive health, different addictions, exercises, a.o.;
- National Sports Development Programme for 2006–2012 with the
aim to create conditions for healthy, physically and mentally
developed individuality;
- Youth Policy State Programme for 2009-2013 with the aim to
improve youth life quality, facilitating their initiatives, participation
in making decisions and social life, supporting work with youth and
making it easier for children to become adults.
Latvia also participates in the WHO programme Healthy Schools.
Sports classes
The acquisition of basic education is compulsory. It starts in the
calendar year when a child turns seven. The content of the compulsory basic
education programme is determined by the State Basic Education Standard.
Anyone, without any age limits, has the right to acquire secondary education
programmes, if he/she has a certificate attesting basic education. There are
four-direction general secondary education programmes: comprehensive;
humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural sciences and
technology; and professionally-oriented ones. The content of the
compulsory general secondary education programme is determined by the
State General Secondary Education Standard.
All schools have sports classes two times a week. Schools also organize
mass physical activities such as sports days and games for their students.
Additionally, many students engage in extracurricular activities after school
classes.
Increasing the number of sports classes is one of the most direct policies
to increase student physical activity. Strategies for the improvement of
student health are focused on qualitative sport education at school. The
focus of School Policy Framework (World Health Organization 2008) is put
on policy-makers encouraging the provision of the following:
- Physical education classes contribute to the overall daily physical
activity of students throughout the school years;
- The majority of the physical education class time is actually spent on
physical activity. This includes aerobic endurance, strength,
flexibility, and coordination activities;
- A variety and choice of physical education classes is offered so that
each student age, gender and disability needs and interests are taken
into consideration;
- Physical activity is enjoyable, developmentally appropriate,
promotes fair play and encourages maximum participation of all
students;
- Students learn about physical activity and health, and develop the
confidence and skills for lifelong participation in physical activity;
- Physical education teachers are well-qualified and properly trained;
- Adequate safety precautions are established and enforced to prevent
injuries and illness resulting from physical activity;
- Undertaking or withholding of physical activity is not used as
punishment.
Research shows that quite often physical education teachers dose
workload in a uniform fashion, disregarding student physical and functional
development (Hardman, Marshall 2000). Adequate physical workload in
sports classes activates body physiological processes, promotes adaptation
abilities and increases body functional reserves. Sedentary lifestyle or
inadequate workload can promote student health disorders and even
negatively influence the indicators of body individual physical and
functional development (Jansone, Krauksts 2005). If the dosage and
intensity of physical workload for all students is uniform, then there is the
possibility of negative influence on health characteristics of particular
individuals (Patte, Shepard1989).
Choosing the workload, a teacher should dose it for physically
weaker and stronger students, because individualized approach will help to
adapt more successfully to biological changes in body, rejoice in physical
activities, promote future raise of competitiveness in the conditions of
contemporary market economy (Malina, 2004).
The results, obtained in the framework of LASE research project
The Implementation of Sport Education in Latvia Schools for Sustainable
Student Health Promotion (2008) confirm that the indicators of student
(Grade 6, Grade 8 and Grade 11) physical development and functional and
physical condition, considering schoolchildren age and gender, show
remarkable result dispersion or variation. This finding means that
schoolchildren are very different as to the indicators of their physical
development, and functional and physical condition.
There are correlative connections between the indicators of
schoolchildren physical development and functional and physical condition,
which confirm the dependence of schoolchildren physical condition on the
peculiarities of their physical development. Therefore, the approach to
schoolchildren during pedagogical process and the assessment of
schoolchildren achievements in sports classes should be individualized.
Scientist Ann Susan Capel (2000) considers that testing school
student physical condition, and comparing it with the norms in sports
classes does not promote the formation of positive attitude to the
participation in physical activities in the duration of the whole life span.
This conclusion is affirmed by Kondrtajuka, Lismane and Sauka (2010)
investigation, stating that the number of school students, who are released
from taking state exam in Sports increases with every year; in Grade 12, for
example, more students are released from taking the state exam in Sport
than in Grade 9 – in the study year 2007/2008 per 4.6 % more, and in the
study year 2008/2009 – per 5 % more. Doctors confirmed that release from
sports classes really is asked for. We can conclude that family doctors
support non-attendance of sports classes. The main justification – if
requirements in sports classes cannot be met and they create stress it should
be the cause for the release.
Scientist Ann Susan Capel (2000) states that although in Great
Britain and the USA schools student health strengthening programme is
implemented, in schools the previous tendency to assess student results is
maintained (the fulfilment of the norms of physical condition), not the
amount of physical activities and their connection with student health.
The conclusion can be drawn that student assessment in Sports
subject is a problem not only in Latvia, but also in other countries. The
assessment of student achievement is essential in reaching educational aims
in Sports subject.
The assessment of student achievement always includes comparison.
Usually there are three ways, how to make assessment:
- comparing with the achievement of other students (normative
assessment);
- comparing with student previous assessment in the same activity or
task (formative assessment);
- comparing with previously set criteria (criterial assessment).
Assessment in Sports can be made, when a student is ready for it.
Considering that student physical health indicators depend on the
peculiarities of student physical development, it is necessary to revise what
is understood under student achievement in a sports class. The normative
assessment, in which student physical preparedness is compared with that of
others, does not promote learning in the majority of children. This is
especially true for those, who do not reach high results, because it shows
that their abilities in sports are not high, and most probably in future they
will avoid sports classes in order not to bring shame upon themselves.
Therefore, normative assessment promotes negative experience and
“excludes” students from participation in physical exercises, rather than
attracts them. Increasing student personal control over their achievement in
sports, i.e. carrying out the formative assessment, students will develop
understanding that the requirements in Sports subject are personally
meaningful. The formative assessment is child-centred, since its aim is to
evaluate the growth of each child. Therefore, to reach the aim of Sports
subject – to strengthen and improve student health promoting student
participation in systematic physical activities it is necessary to increase
student personal control over their achievement in sports.
In the framework of LASE research project The implementation of
sport education in Latvia schools for sustainable student health promotion
(2008) it is confirmed that student attitude to sports in the majority of cases
is positive, the awareness about the role of sports in the growth of the
personality has also increased, but sports classes outside school are admitted
to be more attractive.
Emotionally positive assessment of a sports class shows negative
dynamics: it decreases from 67.7% in Grade 5 to 46.4% in Grade 7, and
drops to 37.8% in Grade 9; this fact reveals sports class inadequacy to
student needs. To develop positive attitude to sports classes it is necessary to
improve the quality of sports classes both listening to student suggestions
and considering psycho emotional factors, relating to student age group.
Taking into consideration that now in Sports subject new Standard
(2008/2009) is being implemented, the contents of which asserts that a
sports class is meant for strengthening health, further research is needed in
how the new Standard is being implemented, whether the improvement of
student health is really reached.
The results obtained in the framework of LASE research project The
implementation of sport education in Latvia schools for sustainable student
health promotion (2008) confirm that large variety as to student (Grade 6,
Grade 8 and Grade 11) physical development, functional and physical
condition is observed. High result variety as to student age and gender in all
indicators of student physical development, and functional and physical
condition asserts high result variation. This finding means that students are
very different as to the indicators of physical development, functional and
physical condition. In general there are correlative relations between the
indicators of student functional and physical condition, this finding means
that the indicators of physical condition depend on the peculiarities of
student physical development.
Conclusions
These results mean that in Sports subject students need individual
pedagogical approach and the assessment of the achievements. The
assessment of the achievements is essential in reaching educational aims to
strengthening health in Sports subject.
Schools strive to formally reach the objectives of physical education,
set forth in public health policy documents, but there are reserves in
improving of means of assuring quality, and widening the space of
possibilities for students in closer relationship among all parties, involved in
student health promotion.
As a result of the research suggestions for the improvement of the
quality of sport education to promote student health in long term are worked
out.
The suggestions for the improvement of the quality of sport education to
promote student health in long term are as follows:
1. In the Standard of Sports subject: to increase the amount of physical
activities, foreseeing and implementing three obligatory sports classes.
2. Self-government and educational institutions manager competence: to
increase the variety of physical activities, accessible to students and
inhabitants.
3. In further education of the managers of self-government and educational
institutions: to include themes about the importance of physical activities
in promoting children and youngster health and versatile their
implementation possibilities in self-governments, as well as about sports
education implementation regulating documents.
4. In teacher further education: to include themes about the importance of
physical activities in promoting children and youngster health and
versatile opportunities of their realization in pedagogical process.
5. In sports teacher further education: to improve competences in individual
approach to children of different physical condition in pedagogical
process and the assessment of achievement in sports classes.
6. In higher education institution: to broaden the horizons of future sports
pedagogue professional competence, promoting sports pedagogue
innovative activities in promoting students‟ having different physical
condition health.
7. Within a Grade: to promote student body awareness and understanding
(motivation, self-confidence, physical competence, understanding and
knowledge, maintaining physical activities individually at adequate level
during the life span) by increasing student personal control (the amount
of physical activities and health) over their achievements in sports.
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102 | Geriņa: BASIC EDUCATION LEARNERS‟...
REVIEW PAPER
BASIC EDUCATION LEARNERS’ INTEREST IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION:
THEORETICAL ASPECTS
Natālija Geriņa
Daugavpils University, Department of Teaching Methodologies
Address:13 Vienības Street, Daugavpils, LV5417, Latvia
E-mail: natalijagerina@inbox.lv
Abstract
The research data produced by European scholars reveal a
significant insufficiency of physical activity of young learners. This is one of
the reasons for the deterioration of learners‟ health and physical fitness. To
improve this situation, greater attention must be paid to the development of
children‟s interest in physical education. The article is based on the
analysis of theoretical literature. Theoretical literature analysis results in
determining and describing three topics that characterize the theoretical
aspects of the interest that basic school learners show in physical
education: (1) the understanding of the notion of interest in physical
education; (2) kinds and levels of interest in physical education; (3)
opportunities of developing the interest in physical education for basic
education learners. The above mentioned topics particularize the
understanding of the notion of interest in physical education, locate the
indicators of interest in physical education, and reveal the opportunities of
developing the interest in physical education for basic education learners.
Key words: interest in physical education, learners, attitude, needs,
development
Introduction
Good health is a way how people can stay socially active and
facilitate the cultural, social, and economic development of the society.
However, the good health indicators in Latvia are still lower than those in
other European Union member states. According to the data of the Health
Economy Centre, in 2010 only about 60% of school learners were
recognized to be in a good health condition (Veselības ekonomikas centrs,
2011). Only about 46% of learners got sufficient physical activity and the
level of their physical training was going worse as compared to the average
indicators of the preceding years. There are a growing number of learners
having problems with bearing, excessive weight (only 4.9% of learners in
Latvia have a correct bearing), heart diseases and other ailments caused by
sedentary life (Gobiсa, et al., 2011). Research shows that children and
adolescents who are physically active enough have a greater probability of
being physically active also when they reach adult age (Malinra, 2001;
Tammelin & Nayha, 2003). Hence, habits of healthy lifestyle in the period
of school age may affect health and its indicators (e.g. being overweight)
also in adulthood.
Scientific research by a number of authors (Кисапов, 2007;
Трофимова, 2004; Ābele, 2007 etc.) demonstrates a decrease in the basic
school learners‟ interest in physical education and sports activities. Already
in ancient Greece the philosophers like Socrates and Aristotle acknowledged
the great importance of sports activities in an individual‟s life and health
including it even in school academic programs and realizing that sports
improves not just the physical health but also the spiritual balance (Ābele,
2009).
Chen & Ennis (2004) emphasized that without a motivating strategy
physical education teachers find it difficult to get learners involved in
healthy and active lifestyle. The teacher usually pays the basic attention in
physical education lessons to teaching how to move and developing
physical qualities but they do not pay sufficient attention to the development
of learners‟ continuous and stable interest in physical education and sports
(Shen & Chen, 2006).
Though interest is the main motivating factor of learning, teachers
still do not have a clear understanding of its potential role in the
development of learner‟s personality (Chen& Darst, 2002). Teachers usually
think that learners either have or do not have interest, and it is impossible to
state how to facilitate its growth and development, especially for learners
without learning motivation (Ennis et al., 1997; Lipstein & Renninger,
2006).
Taking into consideration these conditions, the aim of the present
article is to study the three topics that characterize the theoretical aspects of
the interest that basic school learners show in physical education: (1) the
understanding of the notion of interest in physical education; (2) kinds and
levels of interest in physical education; (3) opportunities of developing the
interest in physical education for basic education learners.
The article provides analysis of theoretical literature.
Results and discussions
Understanding of the notion of interest in physical education
Interest in physical education is an issue that has been studied little,
while already the classics of education studies acknowledged the importance
of interest in education. They emphasized that the process of learning must
be designed so that it would arouse interest. Helvetius has stated that the
same as the physical world is subject to the laws of motion, the spiritual
world is subject to the law of interest. Upon the earth interest is the most
powerful magician that can considerably change in our eyes the image of
any object. Rousseau emphasized that interest is a driving force of child‟s
development, while Declorat thought that interest is an inner drive that is
common for all people, inquisitiveness being the outer manifestation of
interest. However, interest may be both conscious and unconscious.
According to Herbart, interest has the decisive role in the development of
human‟s spirituality and it is created by learning. Learning is transient, but
interest should be sustained all life long. This idea of Herbart is especially
significant thinking of lifelong education and the fact that in a democratic
society everybody must assume responsibility for one‟s fate, personality
development, professional career choice and career development
(Пискунов, 1981).
Interest has been widely studied in pedagogy and psychology; hence
the understanding of interest differs. According to Shorokhova (Шорохова,
2007), the interpretations of the notion of interest are classified into three
groups.
The first group unites those accounts of the notion of interest that
characterize interest as an attitude (e.g. Ковалев, 1988; Морозова, 1979;
Люблинская, 1971; Щукина, 1971 etc.). Morozova (Морозова, 1979) and
Kovalyov (Ковалев, 1988) consider that interest is a stable emotional
attitude. According to Lyublinska (Люблинская, 1971) and Morozova
(Морозова, 1979), interest is the relation of cognition between subject and
object based on the reflex of research (Люблинская, 1971). Shchukina
(Щукина, 1971) pointed out that interest is a specific attitude of an
individual to the world based on its significance and emotional attraction.
Dneprov (Днепров, 1998) pointed out that the account of this interest is
close to the social position that determines the attitude of a personality
towards objects and has a personal significance.
The second group interprets interest as a specific drive of personality
(Рубинштейн, 2000). In Bondarevskiy‟s (Бондаревский, 1985)
interpretation it is a specific drive of cognition. Gordon and Nezaimov have
characterized interest as a totality of emotional and will processes enhancing
the activity of the functioning of consciousness and action (Амбурцев,
1998). Shchukina (Щукина, 1971) pointed out that interest is a drive of
selecting psychic processes in relation to objects and the external
environment. Markova (Маркова, 1986) considers that interest is an activity
drive, while according to Zeer (Зеер, 1990) it is manifested in a conscious
tendency of personality to focus attention, thoughts, and action on an
emotionally attractive object. Focusing an individual‟s attention on object
means arousing the individual‟s interest. Later on the notion of goal object
attraction was consolidated (Henkhauzens, 2003).
In the third group interest is explained as a motive or need. Interest
is treated as a motive by several scholars, e.g. Zinchenko, Mescheryakova
(Зинченко & Мещерякова, 1997); Petrovskiy, Yaroshevskiy (Петровский
& Ярошевский, 1990); Rean, Kolominskiy (Реан &, Коломинский, 2000);
Rubinstein (Рубинштейн, 2000), etc. Zinchenko and Mscheryakova
(Зинченко & Мещерякова, 1997) pointed out that interest is a state of
motivation. Petrovskiy and Yaroshevskiy (Петровский & Ярошевский,
1990) consider that interest is a motive that is an inner stimulus of
personality for cognition processes but stimulus is in turn related to meeting
one‟s needs (Реан & Коломинский, 2000). Matyukhina (Матюхина, 1984)
and Schukina (Щукина, 1979) point out that interest is a motive of learning
activity. Several scholars, e.g. Petrovskiy and Yaroshevskiy (Петровский &
Ярошевский, 1990), Platonov (Платонов, 1981), Zimnyaya (Зимняя,
1997) explain interest as emotional experience of the need of cognition that
provides the personality directedness. Kiknadze thinks that need arouses
experience only when in its realization an individual faces subjective or
objective difficulties. When satisfying a need does not face any obstacles,
interest does not arise. Hence, according to this author, interest reflects
contradictions between needs and the conditions of their satisfaction
(Ильин, 2002).
In their understanding of interest researchers agree that: (1) interest
is the basis for a child‟s all-rounded development (Выготский, 2000,
Морозова, 1979); (2) interest possesses the positive attitude of learner‟s
choice to diverse sides of learning (Маркова, 1986; Ковалев, 1988); (3)
interest may be stated by the learner‟s emotional tone and attention towards
the object of interest (Hidi, 2000; Петровский & Ярошевский, 1990;
Щукина, 1971); (4) interest possesses an expressed component of will
anifested in learner‟s desire to learn as much as possible, constantly search
for novelty, concentration of attention (Маркова, 1986; Щукина, 1988,
Hidi, 2000); (5) interest is marked by expressions of thinking activity, i.e.
questions asked by learners, their active involvement in class without
teacher‟s directions and demands, correction of mistakes and additions,
desire to make clear what they do not understand (Hidi, 2000;
Щукина,1979); (6) interest is a totality of intellectual, emotional, volitional
expressions of a personality with thinking processes as its nucleus
(Зинченко & Мещерякова, 1997; Hidi, 2000; Щукина, 1971); (7) the main
features of interest are that interest refers to objects and is conscious
(Рубинштейн,2000; Щукина, 1971).
Proceeding from the ideas of physical education researchers (Ильин,
2000; Трофимова, 2004; Дуркин, 1995), we may conclude that all above
mentioned accounts of interest refer also to interest in physical education.
Gruyev (Груев, 1977) concerning interest in relation to the sphere of
physical education suggests the following elements of learners‟ interest in
physical education: the attractive sides of physical education, personal
active attitude, ideal athlete, favourite sports, desire to win (achieve results),
beauty of one‟s body. Interest in sports and physical education is
characterized by broadness (interest in several kinds of sports), depth
(special interest in one kind of sports), stability, motivation, effectiveness
(Ильин, 1987).
Kinds and levels of interest in physical education
People have very diverse interests, as diverse as human action.
However, interests may be classified uniting them according to certain
features.
According to the research of Rubinstein, English, and Maslow,
Gomezo et al. (2003) has made a conclusion that the main mechanism of
spreading life interests and their functioning is acquiring information in the
form of skills or knowledge. Thus he classifies interests in two groups:
information interests and physical activity interests.
Information interest is characterized as a deliberate striving of a
personality for information with the aim of making it personal knowledge.
Knowledge is applied by means of person‟s behaviour (Гомезо, et al.,
2003). For instance, a learner does not play football but he regularly watches
football games and sports programs, reads the latest news on football, mixes
with football fans and thus is in the know of recent events in the lives of
football teams, national teams, players, coaches, and referees as well as
information about football stadiums, cities, organizations, and other.
Physical activity interest is a deliberate striving of a personality for
continuous learning and developing new skills that enable successful
performance of activity (Гомезо, et al., 2003). The basic questions of this
interest are – “what should I do?” and “how to do it?” For instance, in
football a learner tries to improve and develop skills of dribbling and
serving a ball to reach a standard of these elements.
Gomezo (Гомезо, et al. 2003) points out that if a personality has
developed an interest about a certain life sphere activity, s/he may set a goal
of learning the basic skills of this sphere. In the process of learning them, a
new goal is set – to improve the existing skills in certain activities. In case
of a positive result, the skill is improved and the person sets a new goal in
its development, and so on. A progression chain is formed: goal – skill –
goal, etc. The development of physical activity interest may incite the
development of information interest. For instance, when an athlete goes to
contest to another city or country, s/he memorizes the design of the stadium,
the city, the team they played with, certain players of the competitor team –
all this is information that builds up his/her information interest. Therefore
physical activity interest is developed mainly in relation to information
interest, helping each other‟s development. In this case an athlete will have
both kinds of interest oriented at the respective kind of sports s/he plays.
Information interest may develop without attracting physical activity
interest. Person may not be interested in learning a certain skill but s/he may
be interested in the information that is formed as a result of using skills of
other persons. This may sometimes lead to fanaticism.
Several researchers (Рубинштейн, 2000; Груев, 1977) have
classified interests according to the kind of activity into passive and active
interests.
Passive interest is that of observing when a person is satisfied with a
perception of the object s/he is interested in and may be characterized with
the word “I like it”. For instance, a learner is interested in different
components of physical education but s/he does not get involved in any
sports activities. This means that the learner enjoys watching or listening to,
e.g. sports contests, festivals (in case of an opportunity) but does not try to
get actively involved in this, raise new knowledge and skills on the object
that attracted his/her interest. Active interest is that of activity when a
person does not confine him/herself to observing but takes action to master
the object of interest. For instance, the learner not only watches and listens
but gets actively involved in different physical activities and procedures of
tempering one‟s body. Active interest is an impetus for personality
development, stimulator of knowledge, skills, abilities, and character.
Passive interest may turn into the active but may remain as it is.
Depending on the stability of interest, several researchers (Shen &
Chen, 2006; Hidi, 2000; Renninger, 2000; Морозова, 1979, etc.) divide it
into the following categories: 1) situative, episodic; 2) personal, stable.
Situative interest is a short-term action in a particular context and a
particular moment. Situative interest is related to the personality strivings.
Interest may arise ad hoc and unawares as the consequence of the object‟s
emotional attraction, and only then comes awareness of its significance that
may be caused by many conditions: needs, community demands, capacities.
For instance, a basketball ball seemed emotionally attractive to a learner
thus inviting to perform different physical exercises with it. Next time the
same object may seem indifferent and temporarily uninteresting to the
learner.
Personal interest is defined as an individual‟s long standing striving
for particular objects and events (Renninger, 2000) and thus personalities
are formed in the whole life course (Морозова, 1979). For instance, a
person whose interest in sports arose during the first physical education
classes at school is striving to satisfy this interest throughout his/her life.
Interest formation and development are among the basic tasks of
education. Working at this problem, Rubenstein (Рубинштейн, 2000)
determined the direction of the basic tendency of interest development in the
process of learning: from information interest to that of physical activity;
from uncertain interest to differentiated interest (about certain subjects);
from passive to active interest; from situative to personal interest; from
episodic to stable interest. Therefore teachers need to understand the
development of learner‟s interest in order to form an efficient learning
strategy for the development of interest.
Analyzing the research on the development of interest, the author of
the present paper argues that there is no unified research terminology that
reflects the development of interest. Some authors (e.g. Repkin, Shchukina,
1971, etc.) characterizing interest development in their work mention levels
of interest development while others (e.g. Leontyev, 1972, Маркова, 1986,
etc.) mention stages of interest development, though the characteristics of
these notions is essentially similar.
For instance, Leontyev (1972), proceeding from the interest
orientation towards the content of learning, singled out three levels of
interest development for children. The first stage is characterized by the fact
that a child has not formed differentiated (personal) interest about the
content of the lesson or tasks of learning. The second stage is characterized
by the fact that a child develops a differentiated (personal) interest about a
particular content of learning. In the third stage a child develops and
deepens personal interests about a particular content of learning (Синякова,
2003).
Repkin in stating the level of interest development proceeded from
reaching the goal of learning of a learner: (1) situative interest related to
subjected goals of learning; (2) stable interest related to a set final goal; (3)
selectivity of interest when a learner with different means independently
reaches the goals of learning (Синякова, 2003).
Schukina (Щукина 1971) determining the levels of interest
development proceeded from the process side. She singled out the following
levels of interest: low, medium, high.
A low level of interest is characterized by the child having curiosity.
Desire for knowledge is based on the object‟s emotional attraction (new
facts, unusual phenomena, lack of evaluative judgements). At the medium
level the learner forms cognitive interest manifested by the solution of the
set problems and questions, search for reasons/factors, cognition of the
features of objects or phenomena. A high level of interest is characterized
by the learner using knowledge in practice, cognizing the causeconsequence relation and regularities, getting involved in research activities.
Despite the fact that researchers have different approaches in stating
the level of interest, they have a common opinion of what characterizes a
particular level of interest development.
A low level of interest is characterized by a very low dynamic.
Interest is not stable; it is incidental and oriented at the novelty and
distinctiveness of the subject, aimed at using the information. The medium
level of interest is not sufficiently stable either. If at this level of learner‟s
interest development the back-up of pedagogical influence slackens, there is
a temporary loss of the interest object, no sufficient emotional tone, but then
this cognition interest may return to the previous level. A high interest
development level is characterized by a very high dynamic. Cognition
interest is transformed into a personality trait and does not disappear even if
there is no object or action of interest for a long time. This kind of interest is
typical of a creative, inquisitive personality with distinctly expressed
activity of cognition.
On the basis of Shchukina‟s classification (Щукинa 1971), Ilyin
(Ильин 1987) singled out three levels of development of interest in sports:
low, medium, and high.
A low level of development is characterized by the lack of learners‟
interest in sports, but for a reflective passive interest (that of a fan). Learners
lack any knowledge on sports, they do not have any sports
accomplishments, they often miss physical education classes or attend them
just to get a grade, being passive in classes and performing just simple tasks
suggested by the teacher; they usually have a poor academic performance.
A medium level of interest development refers to learners who
demonstrate general interest in sports. They willingly attend physical
education classes and perform tasks suggested by the teacher; they are
physically active and get good and excellent grades. They participate in
sports events of their class and school and have rather extensive knowledge
in the sphere of sports.
A high level of interest development refers to learners who have a
narrow interest in going in for one particular kind of sports. They have high
accomplishments in the selected kind of sports and profound knowledge in
the history of sports. These learners usually have high academic
accomplishments in physical education classes. However, Ilyin (Ильин
1987), proceeding from his observations of school reality, considered that
learners who go in for sports may often have contradiction between their
interests and purposefulness and tasks set for them in physical education
classes. In this respect learners with a high interest in sports have a careless
attitude to physical education classes and cause teachers no less difficulty
than learners with a low interest development level. Therefore the medium
level of interest in sports development is most favourable for a teacher of
physical education. The classified levels of interest development in physical
education (class) may be used as landmarks when forming education
strategies for learners‟ interest development.
Opportunities of developing the interest in physical education for basic
education learners
Learners‟ interests must be driven to objectively justified goals based
on the tasks of education in the process of learning. Interests should not
become a fetish or be ignored; they should be taken into consideration and
developed. Development of interests partially takes place by way of
channeling them in a desirable direction. The existing interest of the learner
is developed in compliance with the needs of the process of learning.
Development of interest for a basic school learner depends on factors that
facilitate personality development. In educator‟s work it is especially
significant to develop in learners interests that are valuable for the society
(Рубинштейн, 2000) including interest in sports and physical education.
According to Shchukina (Щукинa, 1988), a teacher may use three
kinds of stimulation in the development of learners‟ interest in physical
education. The first kind of stimulation is the content of the academic
subjects: innovation of this content and the acquired knowledge, novelty,
bond with history, applied orientation of knowledge and skills, modern
scientific accomplishments, etc. The second kind of stimulation is realized
in the organization of the process of learning: diversity of teaching methods
and forms of lessons, creation of problem situations, elementary research,
creative work, etc. The third kind of stimulation is based on the factor of
communication and concerns relations among the learners and between
learners and a teacher in the process of learning: emotional comfort,
teacher‟s emotionality, pedagogical optimism, mutual support, etc.
Kisapov (Кисапов 2007) points out that, in order to efficiently form
and develop basic education learners‟ interest in physical education, the
following conditions must be observed in schools:
1. in the formation of the official documents (programmes) of the subject
of physical education, learners‟ preferences in certain kinds of sports
must be respected;
2. organization of physical education classes respecting learners‟
interests in sports;
3. the competence of physical education teacher in the kind of sports
selected by learners;
4. making physical education classes more „sport-like‟;
5. getting involved teachers of other subjects, senior grade learners and
children‟s parents in organizing extra-curricular sports events;
6. introducing a non-grade system in school for the evaluation of
learners‟ performance in physical education lessons;
7. designing situations for successful performance of learners.
Basic school learners‟ interest in physical education differs, e.g. in
relation to improving health, forming good bearing, developing physical and
will qualities. Interests for girls and boys differ. Girls often think about a
beautiful figure and movements, suppleness, while boys pay more attention
to the development of stamina, speed, and bodily force. Teachers must
respect these aspects of learners‟ interests. The development of learners‟
interest in physical education greatly depends on whether the learner is
satisfied with the physical education lessons, doing physical exercise. If
learners are satisfied with physical education at school, they develop a
positive and active attitude towards sports that is characterized by the
understanding of the significance of physical education lessons and looking
forward to them in order to satisfy their needs for physical activities. This
interest will not disappear if it is satisfied. Just on the contrary, a stable or
personal interest in sports will develop (Ильин, 1987; Трофимова, 2004;
Амбурцев, 1998). Thus interest enhances a learner‟s energy that simplifies
the performance of action, stimulates will-power, patience, persistence, and
determination.
Trofimova (Трофимова, 2004) emphasized that an appropriate
structure of a physical education lesson facilitates learners‟ interest in it.
Weak load of learners in lessons and low demands set by the teacher give
rise to boredom, lack of discipline, and poor attendance of lessons.
Developing learners‟ interest in physical education, a teacher must
use both the progressive methods of learning (e.g. project method,
cooperation method, etc.) and traditional ones: method of strictly regulated
exercise, games and contests. For instance, Amburtsev (Амбурцев, 1998)
states that the use of methods of exercise in different correlations affect
basic school learners‟ interest in physical education and their cognition
activity in different ways. Learners simultaneously develop: (1) interest in
sports, (2) capacities of strength and speed, (3) physical activity and
cognition grows if strictly regulated exercise method is used for 55% but
game and contest method – 45% of all lesson duration. If any of these
methods is used more than 75-80% of the total duration of lesson, learners‟
interest in physical education falls.
To develop an active interest in sports for learners, a teacher must
systematically provide information on the process of mastering physical
activities and perfecting them. This information must reveal the significance
of the exercise and opportunities of its use. For instance, starting to teach
support jump over a buck, it is not an end-in-itself, but numerous repetition
of the exercise develops children‟s muscle force, coordination of movement
and capacity to get orientated in space. When learner acquires new skills of
a movement it is very important for a teacher to provide systematic,
scientifically based knowledge. Learners‟ interest in sports is also
stimulated by teacher‟s questions inciting their thinking and wit
(Трофимова, 2004; Дуркин, 1995; Амбурцев, 1998).
Trofimova (Трофимова, 2004) emphasizes that one of the factors of
the development of learners‟ interest in sports is implementation of intersubject links in physical education lessons. This knowledge meets learners‟
needs of cognition and makes the process of physical education more
attractive. Teacher cannot develop a stable interest in learners if they do not
have knowledge about their organism, criteria of physical development
assessment, norms and regimes of healthy lifestyle.
It is necessary for the learner to be responsible for his/her academic
performance in classes and be able to explain one‟s failures by insufficient
effort for achieving a goal instead of a lack of physical abilities. Learner
must be oriented to an appropriate result to be reached that is treated as
success and victory over oneself both by the learner and the teacher,
classmates, and parents. Each learner needs to select individual progressing
and adequate results: adequate exercises, tasks, demands, etc. that enhance
the learner‟s inner motivation. For instance, in a physical education lesson
each learner has minimal tasks set individually: stronger learners have more
complex tasks than weaker ones. While performing their tasks, learners by
teacher‟s help produce self-assessment of their learning accomplishment.
Irrespective of the result, learners must be praised and supported by the
teacher (Кисапов, 2007; Трофимова, 2004; Амбурцев, 1998 etc.).
One of the reasons of learners‟ dissatisfaction with the physical
education lessons is lack of emotionality in them. Many authors (Амбурцев,
1998; Shen & Chen, 2006; Hidi, 2000 etc.) suggest in this respect the
following solutions: the aesthetic attraction of learners, teacher, and sports
base; use of musical accompaniment; expressive and easily perceivable
explanation of the task and the course of the lesson; innovation in physical
education lesson by changing methods of organizing learners‟ work, e.g.
change of the place and means of falling in and switching places; inclusion
of new nontraditional exercises in the content of physical education lessons;
variations of the physical load.
Durkin (Дуркин 1995) pointed out the necessity of using visual aids
in physical education classes: learning cards, stands, and technical means.
Visuality is one of the efficient means of information provision and
acquisition that facilitates the development of learners‟ interest in sports.
Therefore it is necessary to use it from the first stages of the development of
learners‟ interest in sports.
Learners‟ cognition interest development is stimulated by the
independent work (home tasks). Checking results and supporting learners
are compulsory conditions for it.
Learners‟ interest in sports may be formed and developed not only in
physical education lessons but also extra-curricular sports events by getting
involved in them teachers of other subjects, senior grade learners, children‟s
parents, athletes, and sports veterans. If the school staff and learners‟ parents
have an active lifestyle, children are also much more motivated for physical
activity and get involved more often in various sports events. Cooperation
with experienced participants of these events improves learners‟ knowledge
about traditions, history, sports accomplishments of their school, town, and
country, thus stimulating the development of their interest in physical
education and sports (Кисапов 2007).
According to Durkin (Дуркин 1995), learners‟ interest is aroused
also by the information aids used at school: posters about planned and past
sports events; lectures on topics that are of interest for learners; meeting
popular athletes and sports veterans; sports festivals and parties.
Hence, we may conclude that teacher‟s competence has the main
role in the development of learner‟s interest in sports.
Conclusions
1. The analysis of theoretical literature revealed the whole complexity
and diversity of the conception of interest that accounts for the
diverse interpretations of the notion of interest. Three groups of such
interpretations may be distinguished: 1) interest as a personality
attitude (Ковалев, 1988; Морозова, 1979; Щукина, 1971, etc.); 2)
interest as a specific drive of personality (Рубинштейн, 2000;
Маркова, 1986; Henkhauzens, 2003 etc.); 3) interest as a motive or
need (Зинченко & Мещерякова, 1997; Рубинштейн, 2000; Ильин,
2002; Hidi, 2000, etc.).
2. Interest in sports and physical education is a specific personality
drive that determines a conscious, stable, and active attitude to sports
to satisfy one‟s personally significant needs.
3. Interest in sports is classified according to: 1) the mechanism of
functioning; 2) kind of action; 3) interest stability.
4. Levels of interest in sports are classified according to: 1) interest
orientation at the content of learning; 2) learner‟s achievement of the
goal of learning; 3) the process of interest development.
5. The process of learning is based on the learner‟s interest; it forms the
learner‟s feeling of satisfaction, active and positive attitude to sports
characterized by realizing the significance of the physical education
lesson and looking forward to it in order to satisfy one‟s needs for
physical activities.
6. Teacher‟s competence is the main factor affecting the development
of learners‟ interest in sports. For the development of learners‟
interest in sports and physical education it is necessary to get
involved all social institutions related to physical education: family,
school, sports organizations, and mass media.
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psychology]. Санкт-Питербург: Питер.
34. Синякова, М. (2003). Дифференцированный подход в развитии
познавательных интересов младших подростков [Differentiated
approach to the development of cognition interests of junior
adolescents]. Екатеринбург, Pоссия.
35. Трофимова, O. (2004). Физкультурное образование школьников
как фактор, повышающий интерес к уроку физкультуры и
здоровому образу жизни [Physical education of learners as a
factor raising interest in physical education lesson and healthy
lifestyle]. Ярославль. Pоссия.
36. Хенкхаузен, Х. (2003). Мотивация и деятельность [Motivation
and action]. Санкт-Питербург: Питер
37. Шорохова, Т.В. (2007). Проблема определения категории
«интерес» в современной отечественной психологии и
педагогике [Problem of determining the category of interest in the
contemporary psychology and education in Russia]. Интернетжурнал „ЭЙДОС” Nr.9. (38-41c.)
http://www.eidos.ru/journal/science.htm (21.07.2011)
38. Щукина, Г. (1971). Проблема познавательного интереса в
педагогике [The problem of cognition interest in education].
Москва: Педагогика.
39. Щукина, Г. (1988). Педагогические проблемы формирования
познавательных интересов учащихся [Education problems of the
formation of cognition interests of school learners]. Москва:
Педагогика.
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Review of Agita Ābele monograph
”FOUNDATIONS OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY”
The monograph of LASE professor of Agita
Ābele ”Foundations of Sports Psychology” that
was created as a summarization of sport
psychology`s theorical basis and the author`s
resaerch and practical work experience i san
important written work with lasting value in both
theoretical and practical aspect.
High performance sport nowadays is
associated with very high, even extreme physical
loads, maximum personal capacity. Besides
these major requirements in the field of athlete
ISBN 978-9984-46-017-8
physical, technical and tactical preparation,
[In Latvian. P. 295]
increases also psychological burden, with which
the athletes themselves cannot always cope. The tension of both
competitions and training, and the individual and social problems of athlete
personality form a rather wide range of psychological issues that
significantly affect the success of athlete activity. In recognition of this,
coaches increasingly often focus on the issues of athlete psychological
preparedness, help and support. Training of the development of different age
athlete's psychological skills causes an increasing interest among children,
youth and high performance level sports coaches.
The involvement of sports psychologist in sports training and
competition process for the promotion of athlete results is a self-evident
thing in many national sports schools, sports clubs, teams and national
teams. Therefore, the increase of sports specialist professional competences
is closely linked to understanding of the fundamental issues of psychology
and the application of its basic insights in the training process. Not all
coaches will be able to involve sports psychologists in their workouts, but
many issues of psychological preparedness can be solved also by coaches,
athletes and athletes' parents themselves.
Sports psychology, being no "miracle" in raising the athlete
performance, can nevertheless offer for every coach and athlete
opportunities of improving the quality of their lives and careers.
First Part of the Monograph focuses on the characteristics of athlete
and coach personalities, including the issues of personal development,
120 | Rimbenieks: REVIEW OF AGITA ĀBELE MONOGRAPH ...
mental processes, states and individual characteristics. The second part is
devoted to athlete preparation to competitions and key psychological issues
of athlete preparation process, as well as to practical issues of player and
coach activities. The third part could be more attractive to the
representatives of team sports and to those readers who are interested in
social-psychological issues in sport – peculiarities of athlete activity in
teams and the formation of the relationships between people involved in
sports. The fourth part in its turn gives an insight in psychological help and
the necessary support to different age and level athletes, including both
those who have just started their athlete lives and those who are at the top of
their sportive achievements.
Although at the beginning of the monograph there is a reference:
"Psychology for education", having covered the issues involved, and got
acquainted with the author's own and other professional opinions, everyone
engaged in practical pedagogical coaching process will find in the
Monograph personally important and significant insights.
The monograph is intended not only for sports professionals, but
also for a wide range of sports-related readership. I recommend this
substantial Monograph, the motto of which should be “Psychology for
education and sports", to each and every coach as a useful tool in their work.
Jānis Rimbenieks
Master of Education
Basketball coach with 38 years' experience
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Review of Aivars Kaupužs book
“PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES FOR OLDER ADULTS”
Throughout the world, and especially in
Europe, as well as in Latvia in recent decades are
observed significant demographic changes.
Major changes in population structure are
associated with a strong aging of the country's
population. With improved health care and
socio-economic conditions, increases the
predicted life expectancy. The increased
proportion of older people, in today's economic
conditions they create additional difficulties for
the national social security and health care
systems. Such demographic changes cause also
social problems, because reduces the working
population.
ISBN 978-9984-44-026-2
[In Latvian. P. 88]
Therefore securing older people health, work
capacity and social welfare are not only theoretical, but also practical, nationally
important issues.
The book by Aivars Kaupužs, the student of doctoral studies at the LASE,
based on extensive literature analysis, is systematized gerontological knowledge
about the body's aging process and its causes. As one of the main factors
influencing this process is analyzed the role of physical activity, its effect on major
organ systems and the maintenance of work capacity. The benefits of physical
activities in keeping healthy are shown vividly. The collected material provides
multilateral information on the methods of evaluating the physical preparedness, as
well as the minimum physical activity required for older people. Practically
important are recommendations for the promotion of physical activity for older
people, summarized in the book. The developed study aid "Physical activity for
elder persons" can be recommended as a study aid for students, sports specialists,
organizers of the classes of physical activities, physical therapists, social care
workers, as well as a wide range of readers.
Viesturs Lāriņš
PhD, Professor
122 | Nilsson: REVIEW OF JURIS GRANTS BOOK ...
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Review of Juris Grants book
“LET US LEARN SKIING!”
The book by Juris Grants “Let us Learn Skiing!” is
the English translation of the book in Latvian
“Mācīsimies slēpot!” which was first published in
2007.
The book includes study material in skiing on mastering the ways of moving in skiing with pictures and
video. There is also the text placed in the margin of
the pages, which will definitely attract attention
reflecting origins of skiing, insights in the history of
skiing in Latvia and interviews with athletes and
veterans, who consider this sport as life-long stimulus.
The author pays attention to the educational
ISBN 978-9934-8138-2-5
process in skiing planned by the teacher, as well as
[In English P. 141]
students‟ individual reaction and action. As prof.
J.Grants points out, in this process both the teacher and the student are active and
influence each other. Thus interaction in outdoor education process is understood
as mutual cognition of learning subjects in the process of teaching and learning,
where the exchange of information, ideas and behavioral patterns take place, as
well as the changes of opinions, evaluations, self-evaluations and attitudes.
Teaching and learning philosophy is based on three different models of
pedagogical interaction: on behaviorist philosophy, cognitive theories and a
humanistic attitude towards a student.
The principle “learning by doing” is implemented by performing 51 way of
movement in cross-country skiing (classified in ten groups) using exercises and
control tasks, thinking about the acquired, doing self-assessment and assessing
others, using the acquired knowledge and skills in practice.
The methodological basis of the book is formed by conclusions of various
Western and Eastern authors about the methodology of teaching and learning,
education philosophy, terminology and classification of skiing.
In my opinion the book is mainly meant for sports higher education
institution students acquiring the basis of cross-country skiing and skiing didactics,
as well as for general education teachers, their students and everyone interested in
learning skiing basis. Prof. J. Grants has with this well written book made valuable
contribution to cross-country ski technique, learning and teaching process.
Johnny Nilsson
PhD, Assoc. Professor
Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH)
CURRENT NEWS
LASE 4th PhD and Master Student Scientific Conference
"Theory and Practice in Sport Science"
15 March, 2012 Riga, Latvia
LASE 64th Student Scientific Conference.
5 April, 2012 Riga, Latvia
International Scientific Conference in Sport Science
12 April, 2012 Riga, Latvia
The official languages of the Conference are Latvian and English for oral and poster
presentations. The information is placed on the website: www.lspa.lv
OSRESS 2012
Outdoor Sports and Recreation Education Summer School 2012
Outdoor Games from the Historical Perspective in Latvia
August, 2012 Madona, Latvia
Organizers: Latvian Academy of Sport Education and Latvian Association of Outdoor
Education and Recreation in collaboration with Jozef Pilsudski University of Physical
Education in Warsaw, Faculty of PE in Biala Podlaska, Poland, State College of
Computer Science and Business Administration in Lomza, Poland, Swedish School of
Sport and Health Science, Sweden and University of Malaga, Spain.
The information is placed on the website: www.lspa.lv
124 | CONGRATULATION ...
CONGRATULATION
We congratulate Inga Liepiņa, the student
of doctoral studies at the Latvian Academy of
Sport Education, to have defended her thesis
“Promotion of balance abilities for sport
climbers” (Sport Science) at the Latvian
Academy of Sport Education on December 13,
2011. Supervisor prof. D. Krauksta.
Phd Inga Liepiņa lecturer of the
Department of Skiing, Shooting, Orientation,
Tourism and Recreation in Latvian Academy
of Sport Education. Expert in Riga
methodological centre of leisure time
education. Pedagogue at the sport tourism
group, children and youth centre “Rīgas
skolēnu pils”.
We congratulate Aivars Kaupužs, the
student of doctoral studies at the Latvian
Academy of Sport Education, to have
defended his thesis “Health-enhancing
physical activities for 60-75 years Old
seniors” (Sport Science) at the Latvian
Academy of Sport Education on December
13, 2011. Supervisor prof. V. Lāriņš.
Phd Aivars Kaupužs Lecturer of Rezekne
Higher Education Instituion Study Coure:
”Sport”.
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Instruction to Authors
The LASE Journal of Sport Science is a journal of published manuscripts in English
from various fields of sport science. It covers the following types of papers:
 original research papers (maximum 12 standard pages of typescript, including
tables, figures, references and abstract),
 review papers commissioned by the Editor (maximum 20 standard pages of
typescript, including documentation),
 short communications (maximum 3 standard pages of typescript plus two table or
figure and up to 5 references),
 letters to the Editor delivering an opinion or a comment to published manuscripts
(maximum 2 standard pages of typescripts),
 current news (information on conference, abstracts of PhD. theses and Post-Doc.
theses, book reviews, biographical notes),
 advertisements that may be covered on separate pages of the journal (prices are
subjects to individual negotiations).
Papers must be accompanied by the following submission letter (form available at
journal‟s website), signed by all Authors: “The undersigned Authors transfer the ownership
of copyright to the LASE Journal of sport science should their work be published in this
journal. Authors state that the article is original, has not been submitted for publication in
other journals and has not already been published except in abstract form, preliminary
report or thesis. Authors state that they are responsible for the research that they have
carried out and designed; that they have participated in drafting and revising the manuscript
submitted, which they approve in its contents. Authors also state that the reported article (if
it involves human experiments) has been approved by the appropriate ethical committee
and was undertaken in compliance with The Helsinki Declaration.”
Research papers and short communications will be sent anonymously to two reviewers.
Depending on the reviewers‟ opinion, the Editors will make a decision on their acceptance
or rejection. The Editors‟ decision is ultimate.
Manuscript specification
Articles must be submitted in English and only to the LASE Journal of Sport Science.
Authors should observe the ethics of manuscript preparation (avoiding duplicate
publication, inaccuracy of citations, fraudulent publication, plagiarism and selfplagiarism).
Copyright will be owned by the publisher: LASE Journal of Sport Science. A properly
completed Transfer of Copyright Agreement must be provided for each submitted
manuscript. A form is available at journal website.
Authors are responsible for the factual accuracy of their papers, for obtaining permission to
reproduce text or illustrations from other publications and for an ethical attitude regarding
the persons mentioned in the manuscript.
Format
Document format – Microsoft Word 97-2003 or 2007.
Page format – 210x297 mm (A4).Text – single column (font Times New Roman, letter size
12 pt), line spacing – Single, paragraph alignment – Justified, left margin – 20mm, right
margin – 20mm, bottom margin – 25mm.
126 | GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Style
Papers must be written in a clear, concise style appropriate to an international readership.
Familiar technical terms may be used without explanation. Acronyms and abbreviations are
likely to need full presentation at least once.
Content
Research or project reports, case studies of practice, action research reports, and reports on
teaching practice or techniques will be accepted.
Research reports should include a description of the practical application(s) of the ideas
tested, while reports of teaching practice or techniques should contain an explanation of the
theoretical foundation underlying the practice or technique in question.
Material in the form of illustrations or photos is welcomed. This material should be
accompanied by text clearly setting out its philosophical or practical origins or implications.
All material should be clearly referenced to its sources.
The manuscripts should be arranged as follows: title page, abstract and body text
Title page should contain: title of the paper, first and last names of authors with affiliation,
first and last name of corresponding authors with postal address, telephone, fax and e-mail.
Abstract (up to 250 words) consisting of the following sections: justification and aim of
the study, material and methods, results, conclusions, as well as 3-6 key words, should be
provided before the body text.
Body text should be sectioned into: Introduction, Material and Methods, Results,
Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgements (If necessary) and References. In articles of
others types, the text should follow in a logical sequence and headings of its particular
sections should reflect issues discussed therein.
Introduction – should be short and concise; it should introduce readers into research
problems addressed in the study as well justify undertaking the research and specify its aim.
Material and methods – should describe the subject of the study (in the case of human
subjects data should include their number, age, sex and any other typical characteristics)
and methods applied in a sufficiently exhaustive way to enable readers to repeat the
experiments or observations. For generally known methods only references should be
given, whereas detailed descriptions are to be provided for new or substantially modified
methods.
Results – should be presented in a logical sequence in the text, tables and figures. Data
collated in table and figures should not be repeated in the text which should summarize the
most important observations.
Discussion – should emphasize new or important aspects of experimental results and
discuss their implications. Results of own studies are to be compared with findings
described in the respective domestic and international references used by the Authors.
Conclusions – should be started in points or descriptively and should be logically
connected with objectives stated in the Introduction. Statements and conclusions not
derived from own observations should be avoided.
References – following instructions for Authors on References (APA style).
Citing in-text
Following artificial text shows different types of in-text citation:
Claessens (2010) found evidence that attention will be given to multi-compartment models,
such as the 3-water, 3-mineral and 4-compartment models, to assess percentage of body fat.
However, Raslanas, Petkus and Griškonis (2010) noted that Aerobic physical load of low
intensity got 35.1 % of total trainings time. Research on physical loading also focused on
identifying the basis of many years‟ research of physical activity (Bytniewski et al. 2010).
According to Ezerskis (2010), “… heavy physical loads had the undulating character
depending on the dynamics of workloads…” (p. 71) yet girls are more ascertained that the
Track & Field training helps to develop courage.
Instructions for Authors on References (APA style)
This document describes standards for preparing the references in the APA style. The
following sections give detailed instructions on citing books, journal articles, newspaper
articles, conference papers, theses, web pages and others.
Please provide all the required elements in the references to your paper. Please pay
particular attention to spelling, capitalization and punctuation. Accuracy and completeness
of references are the responsibilities of the author. Before submitting your article, please
ensure you have checked your paper for any relevant references you may have missed.
A complete reference should give the reader enough information to find the relevant
article. If the article/book has DOI number, the author should include it in the references.
And most importantly, complete and correct references may allow automatic creation of
active links by the MetaPress technology that we use for making the electronic version of
our journal. Active reference linking is regarded as the greatest benefit of electronic
publishing and it adds a lot of value to your publication.
Additional information about APA style writing is found on LASE web page:
http://www.lspa.lv/ .
Tables – should be prepared on separate pages (saved in separate files) and
numbered using subsequent Arabic letters. They should be provided with titles (above).
Every column in a table should have a brief heading and more extensive explanation should
be given under the table, e.g. statistical measures of variability.
Figures – should be prepared in an electronic form and saved in separate files. A
separate page should be provided with legends to figures, authors‟ names, manuscript‟s
title, and consecutive number of figure with “bottom” or “top” identification. Photographs
or other illustrative materials may be submitted in an electronic form (*.tif, *.jpg, image
resolution: 300 or 600 dpi) or any other form suitable for final technical typesetting by the
Editorial Office. In the appropriate places in the text consecutive numbers of tables or
figures should be provided in parentheses, e.g. (Tab. 1) or (Fig. 1). Places of insertion of the
illustrative material should be marked with pencil on the margin of the typescript.
General principles – the Editorial Office reserves for itself the right to correct
stylistic errors and to make necessary changes (abridgements) in the text without Author‟s
knowledge. Articles not accepted for publication are not returned. Manuscripts not prepared
following Instruction to Authors will be sent back to Authors for revision. Galley proofs of
manuscripts will be sent to Authors for proofreading. It is the Author‟s responsibility to
return the proof within one week. Each Author will receive free-of-charge one copy of the
issue in which their work appears.
Manuscripts are liable to copyright resulting from the Berne Convention for the Protection
of Literary and Artistic Works and from the Universal Copyright Convention. Any part of
the manuscript may be reproduced, archived nor transferred in any form without consent of
the copyright owner.
Submission of manuscripts
The articles should be sent to:
Inta Bula – Biteniece
Address: 333 Brivibas Street, Riga, LV1006, Latvia
Phone.: +371 67543412, fax: +371 67543480
E-mail: inta.bula-biteniece@lspa.lv
128 | REVIEWRS OF ARTICLE 2011
Reviews of article in 2011
Agita Ābele (Latvia) PhD, Professor Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Miklos Banhidi (Hungary) PhD, Professor, University of West Hungary
Rolf Carlson (Sweden) PhD, Professor, Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences
Algirdas Ćepulėnas (Lithuania) PhD, Professor, Lithuanian Academy
Albrecht Claessens (Belgium) PhD, Professor, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Leonīds Čupriks (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Ruta Dadeliene (Lithuania) PhD, Professor Vilnius Pedagogical University
Andra Fernāte (Latvia) PhD, Asoc. Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Juris Grants (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Uldis Grāvītis (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Juri Hanin (Finland) PhD, Professor, Research Institute for Olympic Sports
Vello Hein (Estonia) PhD, Asoc. Professor, University of Tartu
Vladimir Issurin (Israel) PhD, Professor, Wingate Institute for Physical
Education and Sport
Rasma Jansone (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Toivo Jürimäe (Estonia) PhD, Professor, University of Tartu
Jānis Lanka (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Kazys Milasius (Lithuania) PhD, Professor, Vilnius Pedagogical University
Inese Pontaga (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education
Oscar Romero Ramos (Spain) PhD, Professor, University of Malaga
Jerzy Sadowski (Poland) PhD, Professor, The Jozef Pilsudski Academy
Jānis Žīdens (Latvia) PhD, Professor, Latvian Academy of Sport Education

2011 (Vol. 2, Nr. 2) - LASE Journal of Sport Science

Transcription

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