Universities Research Journal - myanmar

Transcription

The Government of
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar
Ministry of Education
Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar)
and
Department of Higher Education (Upper Myanmar)
Universities
Research Journal
Vol. 4, No. 6
December, 2011
Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 6
Contents
Page
A Study of the Morphological Features of Ancient Scripts Found in
Konseit Pali Stone Inscription
Maung Maung Swe
1
Noteworthy Facts about "Thancho"
Ohmar Than
13
The Use of Hedges in the Short Story “The Stolen Letter” by Edgar
Allen Poe
Han Ni Lar Htun
19
A Comparative Study of the Two Types of News Stories from
Functional Perspective
Soe Soe Win
35
Analysing the English Pronunciation of Diploma in English
Language Teaching Students while Reading Aloud
Yu Yu Win
55
Improving Thinking Skill through Japanese Short Poems 'Haiku '
Minn Thukha
71
A Study of Sequential Verbs in Myanmar
San San Aye
81
A Brief Study on the Translation of Myanmar and English Proverbs
into French by Third Year BA French Students
May Thwe Htoon
91
A Study of Spatial Intelligence of Middle School Students
Aye Aye Myint and Nwe Nwe Win
111
Application of Big Five Personality Factors for Personality
Assessment of BEd Students from Yangon Institute of Education
Khin Pyone Yi and Ei Phyo Wai
133
An Investigation into the Effectiveness of Inquiry-based Learning
Kyi Swe and Soe Than
157
An Investigation of Some Influences on Student-Teachers' SelfEfficacy for Teaching
Naing Naing Maw and Khin Mar Swe
187
Page
The Assessment of Preschool Children's Development in Motor
Skills and Cognitive Skills
Khin Hnin Nwe and Hay Mar Myat Kyaw
207
Social Skills of Secondary Students
San Win and War War Oo
A Study of Students’ Learning Difficulties in Grade (10)
Mathematics
Htay Win and Soe Than
223
The Impact of Learning through the Internet on Student
Achievement
Kay Thi Maw and Soe Than
257
The Study of the Achievement in Science Process Skills of Grade
Five Students
San San Hla and Nan Ei Win
277
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions, Attitudes and Competencies for
Cognitive Development of Children in Selected Preschools
Thet Naing Oo and Khin Hnin Oo
293
239
The Government of
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar
Ministry of Education
Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar)
and
Department of Higher Education (Upper Myanmar)
Universities
Research Journal
Vol. 4, No. 6
December, 2011
Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4. No. 6
A Study of the Morphological Features of Ancient Scripts
Found in Konseit Pali Stone Inscription
Maung Maung Swe
Abstract
This work deals with the analytical study on an ancient stone inscription
at Konseit village in Kyaukkyi Township, Bago Region, based on the
context of inscription, form of scripts and language used for writing. It is
found that the Konseit inscription is recorded in the writing system of
scripts used in southern India of the past. In other words, the inscription is
described in Pali language but not in Pyu scripts and Pyu writing system.
Key words: Konseit Pali Stone Inscription, writing system, Pyu.
Introduction
Stone inscriptions are generally named after the locality where they
are discovered. For example, the gold parchment discovered from the
farmland of Ko Khin Ba can be called "Khin-ba-kon Shwe Pay-hlwar".
Shwe-pay-hlwar was written in Pali language but not in Pyu language. It is
mistakenly assumed that a piece of writing found in Pyu region belongs to
Pyu language. This concept becomes controversial to some extent. This
study suggests that every inscription found in Pyu region was not recorded
in Pyu language. This concept is explained in reference to the Konseit Pali
inscription which was written in ancient scripts unrelated to Pyu language.
Purpose and Field of Research
There is only one side that can be recognized as Myanmar writing in
the well-known Raja Kumara stone inscription. Other sides of this stone
inscription of Bagan period found in ancient Myanmar cultural region are
described in Mon, Pali and Pyu language.
Myanmar word "sar" means word or language. However, it is found
that records and inscription written in Pali have been called Pyu inscripition
just because they are found in Pyu cultural region.
Lecturer, Dr, Department of Myanmar, Pyay University
2
Finding condition of Konseit Inscription
The occurrence of Konseit inscription is based on personal
observation and Sein Win's statement. This stone inscription was first
discovered in 1996 by Saya U Hsint of Thaye Thamein Village from the
peak of Htingonsu Hill in Konseit village. At first, U Hsint kept the stone
inscription at some distance from the original place to preserve well. Then it
was shifted to the museum in Kanbawza Thadi Palace in Bago through the
office of Archeology Department (Bago Branch).
The stone inscription was studied on 29th, November, 2002 at the
office of Archeology Department (Bago Branch). The inscription measures
60 x 41 x 6.5 cm. There are 19 lines on the legible side. The size of the
script averages 1.5cm. The upper corner of the left side is broken. The
whole upper corner of the right side is also broken. The corners of the lower
part of the inscription below the thirteenth line are in ruin. It is believed that
this side contains the beginning but the end is not found. Except for some
words almost of all of the words are readable (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Konseit Pali Inscription (obverse)
There are writings on the reverse side too. However, they are written
upside-down against the obverse side. So the first line of the obverse side
coincides with the last line of the reverse side (Figure 2).
Figure 2 (A) Konseit Pali Inscription (normal position of the reverse side)
3
Figure 2 (B) Konseit Pali Inscription (upside-down position of the reverse
side)
There are 19 lines written upside-down on the upper part of reverse
side. The remaining lines could not be read as they were not preserved
together with the destruction of the upper surface of the slab. Only four
lines written upside-down are observed and they described the Padeitca
Samotpa-law of cause and effect expounded by the Buddha-and
consecration of the Buddha image by reciting.
The Subject Mentioned in Koseit Inscription
The points mentioned in Konseit inscription are excerpts from the
religious literature and they are written in Pali. The first line of the
inscription is given below.
1
.....| | |||weora,e Aka'¨g b*0g O½ka0v,H 0d[&wdeH.....
Figure 3 The first line of Konseit Inscription.
Saya Sein Win (Archeology) divided the inscription into four parts
as given below.
(1)
Removal of evil desires (kilesa)
- From the first line to the fourth line
(2)
Padeitca Samotpat Udeisa
- From the fifth line to the ninth line
4
(3)
Padilayvama Padeitca Samotpat
- From the ninth line to the fourteenth line
(4)
Miscellaneous
- From the fourteenth line to the nineteenth line
The symbol "
" is used at the start of the first line and at the end
of the seventeenth line in the stone inscription.
The attainment of enlighten in Uruvela forest is described in the first
four lines Padeitca Samotpat Gatha is written starting from the fifth line to
the beginning of the ninth line. Twelve points of Padeitca Samotpat and
Niyoda are described from the ninth line to the thirteenth line. The
achievements of Lord Buddha are written from the fourteenth line to the
seventeenth line. The last part of the obverse side of the stone inscription is
in ruin. According to the words of the 18th and 19th lines the subject of
Padeitca Samotpat is mentioned further.
The reverse side of the inscription is written upside-down. The last
part is from the fourth line to the first line. The symbol "_|| ||_" is used at
the end. It is the final part of Padiloma Padeitca Samotpat.
So, it is found that the subject matter mentioned in Konseit stone
inscription is excerpt from the Buddhist literature. It deals with the
Buddha's utterance of Padeitca Samotpat. They are written in Pali but not in
Pyu.
Comparative Study on the Writing Style of Scripts in Konseit Stone
Inscription
Pali is a language having pleasant voice. In the case of writing, only
locally accepted alphabets were used. So, the early scholars believed that
Pali inscriptions found in Pyu region were written in Pyu script.
The evidence of such a nature is found in the Pali words of
Razakumara stone inscription and Shwegugyi pagoda inscription. They
were written in Mon-Myanmar script. In India too, Pali words were written
in locally used scripts. Likewise, Sanskrit was also used with the locally
accepted script.
However, in Pyu cultural regions Pali and Sanskrit were not written
in Pyu scripts which were vocally exchanged. Morphological features of
5
Pali and Pyu scripts written on the upper rim and lower rim respectively of
the silver casket featuring Bodhi (Bo) tree discovered from the Farmland of
Ko Khin Ba can be comparatively analyzed (Figure 4).
Figure 4 (A) Pali writing on the upper rin of the silver casket
Figure 4 (B) Pyu writing on the lower rim of the silver casket
Similarly, Sanskrit and Pyu writings differ in alphabetical features
as well as writing style. That can be exemplified by the name of a king
described on the palm-leaf manuscript of the sixth century discovered from
Kanwetgaunggon (Table 1).
Table 1 Comparison between Sanskrit writing and Pyu writing
AD(6) Gupta script
AD(6) Pyu script
Inscription
Myanmar
Transliteration
&
&
N*DZ,pE¬ 0r®Pk
Bod ZBw0 rudGOrÆ
e
&
Z
According to the table mentioned above Sanskrit was written using
sixth Century AD Gupta scripts used in Rakhine kingdom in Vesali period
while Pyu words were written in Pyu writing system using contemporary
Pyu scripts.
The difference in writing style of scripts can be found in Payagyi
burial writings and Khin Ba palm-leaf writings of the same Sriksetra period
(Figure 5).
6
Figure 5 (A) Pyu writings found on the lower surface of the Payagyi burial
Figure 5 (B) Pyu writings found around the Payagyi burial urn
Figure 5 (C) Pali writings of Khin Ba palm-leaf manuscripts
It is noteworthy that Pali writings differ from the contemporary Pyu
writings both in script features and in writing style. This nature is also
common even if other Pyu writings and Pali-Sanskrit writings are
compared. So it can be deduced that Pyu people used their own scripts and
writing style for Pyu writings only. However, they did not use their own
linguistic character for Pali-Sanskrit writings using non-Pyu scripts they had
already obtained.
Script Features of Konseit Stone Inscription
The stone inscription under the present study does not use the Pyu
scripts as revealed by the script features shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Comparative study on the difference in script features between Pyu
writings and Konseit stone inscription
Present day
Myanmar
script
Pyu script
Konseit script
u
C
*
p
Z
n
w
'
"
7
Kadanpa
script
Present day
Myanmar
script
E
y
O
[
A
B
r
T
O
,
&
V
0
Pyu script
Konseit script
Kadanpa
script
Present day
Myanmar
script
Pyu script
Konseit script
Kadanpa
script
Twenty two scripts are used as consonant scripts as follows:
u? c? and * in u0*f
(Consonant Group of Ka)
p? Z? and n in p 0*f
(Consonant Group of Ca)
# and P in # 0*f
(Consonant Group of ta)
w? '? A and e in w 0*f
(Consonant Group of ta)
y? A? b? and r in y 0*f
(Consonant Group of pa)
,? &? v? 0? o and t in t 0*f (Consonant Group of a)
]]t}} and ]]O}}are used for vowel scripts.
Of the 24 scripts mentioned above]]#}} and ]]P}}have not varied
much in writing style in successive ages and there are few variations in Pyu
and Pali writings. In additions, ]]P}}is rarely used Pyu writings. For this
8
reason ]]#}}and ]]P}}are omitted and the remaining 22 scripts are used in the
comparison of morphological features of scripts.
Pyu scripts could be derived from Brahmi scripts by writing them
quickly and hastily. However, it is observed that the scripts of Konseit stone
inscription had experienced many transformations. Especially, marked
variance is found in the scripts of n? w? e? r? ,? v? ¡? 0 and b.
There are similarities in remaining scripts. The features of Pyu scripts are
systematic. It is found that Konseit inscription is written with effort to be
artistic and aesthetic with many ruffles.
It is also found that when comparing the scripts of Konseit stone
inscription and the scripts of ancient Indian stone inscriptions, they are
found similar to the Kadanpa scripts in the 5th to 6th century AD. In studying
the Pali scripts in Pyu cultural regions too, the Pali scripts written on the
upper rim of the Khinbagon silver casket resemble the Pallava scripts in the
fourth century AD (Figure 4). The remaining Pali scripts are found to be
Kadanpa scripts in the 5th to 6th century AD. They are not Pyu writings
written in Pyu scripts.
Writing Style of the Scripts of Konseit Stone Inscription
Pyu language and Pali language are different in writing system of
their scripts. In Pali Sankrit literature the quality of sound is described by
short vowels and long vowels. They are t? tm? td? tD? tk and tl. Apart
from them are vowels of { and Mo.
In Pyu language tone quality is described by five kinds of rising and
falling tone. One script can be represented by the following symbols.
(-? -h? -;? -h;? - )
As an example, the consonant]]u}}can be substituted as follows.
(u)?
(uh)?
(u;)?
(uh;)?
(u )?
The tone quality can be expressed by five rising and falling tones for
each vowel in combination with ud? uk? au? aum and uH. In Pyu
writing long vowels (tm? tD and tl) is described without using the
symbols and as in Indian writings. See Table 3.
Table 3
9
Comparison of difference in writing style between Pyu writing
and Konseit stone inscription
Present day Myanmar
language
tm
td tD
tk
tl
at
atm
symbolic
system
Pyu
writing
word
example
Myanmar word
symbolic
system
Kadanpa
writing
word
example
Myanmar word
Writing
symbolic
style of
system
Koseit
Pali
word
inscriptio example
n
Myanmar word
0d
Zm 0g
0d
Zm 0g
0d
0D
rk
½k
au a&m arm
rk
½k
rl
½l
au a&m arm
rk
½k
rl
½l
au a&m arm
By the above evidence, the writing of Pali literature did exist in Pyu
periods and Pyu regions. However it can be regarded that Pali words were
written in originally accepted Pali Sanskrit scripts without using Pyu scripts
and writing style. So Pali and Sanskrit writing should be described with
reference to the locality where they are discovered. It is important that they
should not be recognized as Pyu writing.
The Symbols of Konseit Stone Inscription
(
In the writing system of Pyu scripts the non-verbal symbol
) is used at the start of inscription and the symbol (
) is used
at the end. However, there are no punctuation marks indicating a short
pause and a long pause or termination of a sentence within the (paragraph
of) inscription. It is found that only Rajakumara stone inscription contains
the punctuation marks due to the influence of Mon-Myanmar language.
10
In the case of writing Pali inscription punctuation marks are used at
the beginning and at the end of the sentence and in the separation of
paragraph and section. Punctuation marks are found in some inscriptions as
shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Comparison of punctuation marks used in Pyu, Pali Koseit
inscription writings
The symbol
used at the
beginning of
inscription
Pyu writings
discovered from
Hanlin cemeteries
Pyu writings
recorded on the
silver casket
discovered from
the farmland of
Khin Ba
Pyu writing style
Kadapa writing
style
Western Salukya
writing style
Writing style of
the palm leaf
manuscript
discovered from
the farmland of
Khin Ba
Konseit Pali
Writing
The
symbol
used at
the
beginnin
g of the
text
The symbol
used at the
end of the
text
The symbol
used as the
separation
mark within
the paragraph
Termi
nation
or
pause
marks
11
The above mentioned points indicate that Pali writings differ from
Pyu writings in the morphological features of script, style of writing and use
of punctuation marks. They are found to be similar to those in southern
India in fourth to sixth century AD. So Pali writings of Pyu period are not
Pyu writings and they are not written in Pyu scripts.
Discussion
When reviewing the differences between Pyu and Pali it is observed
that they have intrinsic language characteristics. Even if they might have
derived writing system of scripts form the Indians, they modified them
using their own linguistic characteristics. It is found that ancient Indian
languages could be somehow exchanged with others that appeared later. For
example, the name of a king is written in Gupta script of Sanskrit language
N*DZMw0g&ref (Shrijatrawaraman) in throne manuscript of Kanwetgaunggon
Buddha image. However, it is transformed to BodBwdZMw0g&rP
(Shritrijatravaramana) in Pyu. This suggests that the sound of Pali Sanskrit
words is difficult to exchange with that of Pyu.
The exchange of Myanmar words with English words using sound
system is not easy as the families of both languages are somewhat distant.
Pali Sanskrit used in India can be exchanged with Myanmar language as the
writing system between them is not much different. In the case of Pyu the
writing system is different from them.
It is found that the present day Myanmar words would be difficult
by nature to be exchanged with the Pyu writing system as the vocal system
of both languages is different. Likewise, it will be difficult to exchange Pyu
words with the writing system of Myanmar scripts as the writing technique
is different. So sound and writing system used as media of a language will
be easy to be applied but it is not easy to be exchanged with other language.
This point indicates that Pyu people did not use their own language for Pali
Sanskrit writings; instead, they used the locally established scripts in
original, more particularly Kadanpa scripts.
Conclusion
People’s past social life is more or less reflected in the ancient
cultural evidences. It is known by these evidences that the ancient Myanmar
people settled in Konseit village of Kyaukkyi township, Bago Region in
12
fifth and sixth century AD. Buddhist literature and culture developed there.
Pali inscriptions were written in Kadanpa scripts, southern India suggests
that point. The people of the Konseit region who might be Pyu or Mon
could enjoy the Buddhist literature written in the southern Indian scripts.
This research firmly indicates that ancient Myanmars settled in Konseit
region with their own Buddhist culture in about fifth century AD.
References
Khin Thein, Daw and Kyaw Shein, U. (1976). Basic Pali Grammar (3rd ed.). Yangon;
University Press.
Nyein Maung, U. (1976). Ancient Myanmar Inscription, Vol. 1 (From ME 474 to ME
600). Yangon; Ministry of Culture, Department of Archeology.
Sein Win (Archeology). (July, 1998). Pyu inscription written in Pali from Konseit, Culture
Magazine, Vol. 5, pp 65-67.
Zaw Tun, Dr. (1968). The Art of Arian Writing, Takkatho Pyinnyar Padether Sarsaung,
Vol.3, Part 4, pp 189-121.
Maung Maung Swe. (2006). Studies of Pyu Writing System and Pyu Alphabetical Form
from Pyu Record in Myanmar. PhD thesis, University of Yangon,
Department of Myanmar.
Maung Maung Swe, Dr. (2007). Comparative Studies of Phayargyi Pyu Urn inscription and
Khin-ba-kon Shwe Pay-hlwar, Research Paper of Department of
Myanmar for 2006-2007 Academic Year. Pyi University, Department of
Myanmar.
Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4. No.6
Noteworthy Facts about "Thancho"
Ohmar Than
Abstract
In this paper, an attempt is made to explore a kind of verse called
"Thancho" (a kind of Myanmar lyric poem) which appeared in Konbaung
Period. Thancho poems are those composed to reflect the life of
Myanmar community. In this paper, the noteworthy facts about
"Thancho" are presented.
Key words; Thancho, Konbaung Period, Myanmar lyric poem.
Introduction
Kongbaung period was the time in which many kinds of literary
genres came into existence. The two significant literary genres were prose
and verse. Verses play an important role in Myanmar literature. Poetry is an
ornament to a language. Poetry is a literary genre in which the poet presents
his experience in life and his imagination with the use of the excellent
choice of words.
In the history of Myanmar literature, it is found that various kinds of
compositions such as Lay-lone-sat (four syllable verse), Dwe-gyo (couplet),
Tri-gyos, Lay-gyo (quatrain), Ain-gyin (a kind of Myanmar folk song),
Lwan-gyin (sentimental poem or song), Tay-htat (form of Myanmar lyric
poem), etc. emerge from the body of verse. Thancho is one of them.
Thancho is a kind of verse which became widespread during the late
Kongboung Period. In the earlier time, Thancho is recited in puppet shows.
The poems which the poet recites from the stage not only entertain but also
educate the audience. It is found that Thancho poems can describe the
contemporary account of the current affairs vividly.
The notable facts about Thancho poems with such excellent
characteristics are presented in this paper so that they will not die out in the
future.
Tutor, Department of Myanmar, Monywa University.
14
The Term "Thancho"
Thancho is a kind of poem with a stanza a break. Scholars defined
the term "Thancho" in different ways. According to Popa U Kyaw Yin,
Thancho got its name because it should be recited with soft and pleasant
sound produced by rising tone and glottal tone.
According to a complier of the treatise on the methods of composing
verses, this kind of verse is called "Thancho" because it can be recited with
soft and pleasant sound with rising tone, glottal tone, checked tone and
falling tone.
The poet Thura Zaw expressed that Thancho is a verse of four lines
which has to be recited softly, tenderly and sweetly.
In the Myanmar Dictionary (1991), the definition of Thancho is that
it is a kind of poem which has to be recited with a pleasant sound.
In Kavibharati the rules of composing Thancho is the same as those
of Lay-gyo-gyi. However, Thancho is remarkable that it has more syllables
in each line, longer lines than Lay-gyo-gyi and that it has five or six
syllables in its first and second lines.
According to the Myanmar Dictionary (1991), it means that
Thancho is a kind of Lay-gyo (quatrain) which has to be recited with sweet
and pleasant sound.
The History of Thancho Verse
Myanmar literature saw its highest development in the Konbaung
Period. Out of Lay-gyo verse family, a new form known as Thancho
appeared in the late Konbaung Period. Thancho verses were recited by the
performers of a puppet show. In the monarchical periods, every puppet
show had its own singer of Thancho verse (Thancho-kaing). Thancho-kaing
means a singer of Thancho verse1 while pulling the strings of the puppet.
The meaning of the word "Sar-so-kaing" is defined as follows:
In the monarchical periods, the comedian puppets entertained
the audience with amusing words. Since these words were
uttered by the comedian puppets, the audience did not pay
heed to them. Therefore, a new puppet was invented and
called "Sar-so" puppet. The person who pulled the strings of
15
the "Sar-so" puppet was known as "Sar-so Kaing". (Myanmar
old literature, 1997)
Sar-so-kaing is also known as Than-cho-kaing. However, some
Than-cho-gaing pulled the strings of the puppet in singing the Than-cho
verse and some did not pull the strings. Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla sang the
Than-cho song without pulling the strings of the puppet.
In the puppet show, Sar-so-kaing or Than-cho-kaing who
pulled the strings of the Let-swe-daw or Sar-so puppet used to improvise
the verse out of wits Thancho while holding the handrail on the backdrop of
the puppet stage. They used to ad-lib the Thancho while presenting
dramatic performance, and as such they came to be known as the composers
who improvised the lines of verse.
Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla was the composer who delivered lines of
Thancho verse or song ad-lib. He was a great famous composer of the
Thancho verse in the Yadanabon Mandalay and the early colonial periods.
It is said that he composed more than 500 Thancho, but only more than 150
were found published.
U Kyaw Hla improvised his Thancho verses on various subjects
ranging from his personal affairs to the state affairs. In this period, his rival
was U Nyan Kye.
The Thancho verse which became popular under the rule of
Myanmar kings of the Konbaung Period continued to flourish in the early
period of the British colonial administration. In the early colonial period,
Myanmar people felt sorry and bitter due to the loss of Myanmar's
independence. Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla composed Independence
Prophecy Thancho or Namate (omen) Thancho in order to uplift the morale
of the entire nation affected by the loss of independence.
The Thancho verse reappeared in "O-way" Magazine in the late
colonial, which reflected the efforts of the student youths who struggled for
independence.
During the World War II (1942), a new kind of verse known as
Khit-san Kabya came to appear. Saya Zaw-Gyi and Saya Min Thuwan,
composers of the new kind of verse, also wrote the Thancho. Saya Zaw Gyi
began composing Sa-ga-nhyat. Thancho in 1942 and wrote many Thancho
verses. Saya Min Thuwan also composed the Sa-ga-nhyat Thancho in 1952,
when poetess Ngwe Tar Yi wrote a Lay-gyo Thancho verse. The Thancho
16
verse died out gradually. In 1992, Myo-set-thit Thancho or Khit-thit Let-tan
Kabya was composed by writer Linyon Maung Maung.
Composers of Thancho verse in the Myanmar literature were
Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla, Nyan Kye or U Kyu of Se village of Chaung-U,
Saya Hmyin of Thawutti, U Kyi of Thawutti, U Myat Win of Kin Sar
village of Alon, U Kyaw of Kyaukka village, the court clerk, Pyaw Bwe,
and Saya Zaw Gyi.
Discussion
It is found that there were the Thancho verses on many different
subjects in Myanmar literature. The themes in the Thancho verses ranged
from personal affairs to those of the state. The composer used to compose
his Thancho verse in order to express the grandeur of Myanmar society. The
state affairs and the conditions of the time were not ignored by the
composer in writing his Thancho verse.
The Thancho verses of Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla, who was famous
for his pulling the strings of the puppet, were highly popular among the
sphere of Myanmar literature. His Thancho verses were many in quantity
and so also were their subjects. Different subjects in Thancho verses of U
Kyaw Hla were his personal affairs such as "Hmaing-ma-par-kyaung " and
"Kyan-daing Ma-aung Law-ka-baung" (guidance for freedom of the earthly
sufferings) such as Shwe Tha-htay Hnint Thay-bay and Ni-lu-lu-way, the
state affairs such as Tha-khin Ko Kyun-ma-lay, and Bon-tauk-hmyee-min,
and the mirrors of the period such as Kye-daing Ko Ma-Kyauk and Wuntha-nu A-hte.
Since the Thancho verses were born together with the musical
entertainment in the puppet show, they were very close to lives of ordinary
people. As they were composed according to the Na-bay Htut rule, they
enabled to provide the listeners with pleasant and sweet sounds. It can be
said that the Thancho composers vied with each other in their Thancho
verses by presenting their personal qualities and so they may be termed as
Ko-yi-thwe Kabya. The Thancho verses gave much knowledge to the
audience with the knowledge of both earthly and worldly affairs.
17
Conclusion
Many Thancho verses appeared in the history of Myanmar literature.
Thancho are the verses which reveal the wisdom and wits of the composer
and their literary influence. They are the verses which can enrich Myanmar
language, literature and culture. It is observed that the Thangyo verses
reflect the period in which they were composed and highlight the social life
of Myanmar people at that time.
References
Aung Thein, U, Researcher, (1984). Anthology of Thancho Verses by Maung-daung U
Kyaw Hla Yangon, Ministry of Culture.
Kyaw Yin, U Poppa. (1328), Kavibhārat, Yangon, Hanthawaddy Pitaka Press.
Lu Nyunt, U, Kani. (1963). Thancho Verses by U Kyaw Hla, Yangon, Than Htaik Yadana
Press.
Maung Maung Gyi, Takkatho. (1969), Public Poet Maung-daung U Kyaw Hla: His Age,
Life, and Writtings, Yangon, Sein Pan Myaing Sarpay.
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Photolitho Press.
Thura Zaw, (2000). Study on Some Poems, Yangon, Sarpay Beikhman Press.
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Tun Shwe, U, Dhammacariya. (1927), Anthology of Myanmar Poems, Yangon, Mingalar
Press.
The Use of Hedges in the Short Story “The Stolen Letter” by
Edgar Allen Poe
Han Ni Lar Htun
Abstract
In everyday conversations, social relationships among participants
should be maintained and successful communication should be achieved.
In other words, participants in a conversation follow the conversational
maxims. Hedges used as qualifiers, intensifiers, conversational
cooperative devices and politeness strategies etc. follow the
conversational maxims. This paper aims to examine how the characters
in the short story “The stolen Letter” by Edgar Allen Poe use hedges,
observing the conversational maxims. The types of hedges proposed by
by Brown & Levinson (1978), Pappas (1989), Yule (1996) and
Mahamood et al. (2007) were used to analyse the types of hedges in the
story. The result showed that among all the hedges, the one that follows
the quality maxim was mostly used in the story (91.90%). It can be
suggested from this research that English language teachers in Myanmar
should help their students use hedges in effective ways as it will enable
students to develop their language skills.
Key words: maxims, hedges
Introduction
In conversations, people use multiple options of language for
different purposes. The success of a conversation depends on various
approaches of the speakers during the interaction. According to Grice
(1975), in an ordinary conversation, speakers and hearers share cooperative
principles which can be explained by four underlying rules or maxims such
as the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and manner. These maxims
are useful for analysing and interpreting conversations and may reveal
purposes of which people were not previously aware. It is generally known
that, people involved in a conversation will cooperate with each other and
follow the conversational maxims. They use hedges because they observe
these maxims and try to follow them. Hedges are used not only in
conversations but also in written texts such as newspapers, magazines,
books and even in academic discourses such as research papers and
Lecturer, Department of English, Magway University
20
scientific text books. This paper discusses the use of hedges in
conversations of the characters in the selected literary text.
Objectives of the Research
The objectives of this research were to explore how the characters
observe the conversational maxims in their conversations in the short story
“The Stolen Letter” by Edgar Allen Poe and how they follow them by using
hedges.
Scope of the Research
In the present research, the short story “The Stolen Letter” by Edgar
Allen Poe was chosen in order to find out how the characters observe and
follow the conversational maxims in their conversations by using hedges.
Theoretical Background
Cooperative Principles
According to Grice (1975), there are four basic maxims of
conversation or general principles underlying the efficient cooperative use
of language. They are as follows:
The Maxim of Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
(i)
do not say what you believe to be false.
(ii)
do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The Maxim of Quantity
(i)
Make your contribution as informative as is required for the
current purposes of the exchange.
(ii)
Do not make your contribution more informative than is
required.
21
The Maxim of Relation
Make your contribution relevant.
The Maxim of Manner
Be perspicuous and specifically.
(i)
Avoid obscurity
(ii)
Avoid ambiguity
(iii)
Be brief
(iv)
Be orderly
Hedges
According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, a hedge is a
mitigating device used to lessen the impact of an utterance. Typically, they
are adjectives or adverbs, but can also consist of clauses.
According to Brown & Levinson (1978), the term hedge is defined
as a particle, word, or phrase that modifies the degree of membership of a
predicate or noun phrase in a set.
Bonano (1982) cited in Nugroho (2002) defines hedging as the way
people express their uncertainty about something or state something
uncertain, and hedges are words or phrases which carry the speaker’s
uncertainty.
Prince et al. (1982) cited in Nugroho (2002) classify hedges into
four types: (1) “rounders”, which show approximate ranges for quantitative
information; (2) “adaptors”, which suggest the similarity of non-identical
cases; (3) “plausibility shields”, when the speaker is not fully committed to
the assertion or the assertion is not based on deductive logic but plausible
reasons; and (4) “attribution shields”, when the speaker attributes the
assertion to another person or object. For example,
Rounder : This package is about 10 kilograms.
Adaptor : He was sort of tall.
Plausibility shield : It seems like it is going to rain.
Attribution shield : According to his mother he was good at sports.
22
Vande Kopple (1985) cited in Vazquez and Giner (2008) categorize
hedges as the elements providing “lack of full commitment to the
propositional content of an utterance.”
Pappas (1989) cited in Nugroho (2002) categorizes hedges as one
type of “qualifiers”, i.e., indicators of the level of approximation and
speaker commitment to a proposition. Hedges are qualifiers which suggest
approximation or uncertainty of the main assertions, for example,
“probably”, “appear”, “partially”, or “a tendency to”, while “intensifiers”
are those which point out the speaker’s confidence in the proposition, for
example, “always”, “never”, or “obviously”.
According to Yule (1996), speakers use certain expressions to mark
that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principles and these
kinds of expressions are called hedges. He gives some examples of hedged
sentences in terms of observing the conversational maxims in cooperative
principle. They are as follows:
Hedges observing the quantity maxim
1. As you probably know, I am terrified of bugs.
2. To cut a long story short, we grabbed our stuff and ran.
3. I won’t bore you with all the details, but it was an exciting trip.
Hedges observing the quality maxim
1. As far as I know, they’re married.
2. I may be mistaken, but I thought I saw a wedding ring on her finger.
3. I’m not sure, if this is right, but I heard it was a secret ceremony
in Hawaii.
4. He couldn’t live without her, I guess.
Hedges observing the relation maxim
1. I don’t know if this is important, but some of the files are missing.
2. This may sound like a dumb question, but whose handwriting is this?
3. Not to change the subject, but is this related to the budget?
23
Apart from the hedges mentioned above, “Oh, by the way, anyway,
well” are also hedges observing the relation maxim.
Hedges observing the manner maxim
1. This may be a bit confused, but I remember being in a car.
2. I’m not sure if this makes sense, but the car had no lights.
3. I don’t know if this is clear at all, but I think the other car was reversing.
Nikula (1997) cited in Mahamood et al (2007) defines hedging as a
strategy by which speakers mitigate and soften the force of their utterances.
Hyland (2005) cited in Vazquez and Giner (2008) says that the
cover term for the self-reflective expressions used to negotiate interactional
meanings in a text, assisting the writer (or speaker) to express a view point
and engage with readers or listeners as members of a particular community.
Hyland’s hedging items can be seen in different forms such as verbs, modal
verbs, adjectives, adverbs and phrases in the following tables.
Table 1. Hyland’s (2005) hedging items in the verb form
Verb
1 appear(s/ed)
9
2 argue(s/ed)
10 postulate(s/ed)
3 assume(s/ed)
11 seems
4 claim(s/ed)
12 suggest(s/ed)
5 estimate(s/d)
13 suppose(s/ed)
6 feels
14 suspect(s/ed)
7 felt
15 tend(s/ed) to
8 guess
indicate(s/ed)
24
Table 2. Hyland’s (2005) hedging items in the modal verb form
Modal Verb
1 could,
5
ought
2 couldn’t
6
should
3 may
7
would
4 may be
8
wouldn’t
Table 3. Hyland’s (2005) hedging items in the adjective form
Adjective
1 about
8
possible
2 almost
9
probable,
3 apparent
10 quite
4 around
11 rather X
5 doubt
12 typical
6 probable
13 uncertain
7 often
14 unclear
Table 4. Hyland’s (2005) hedging items in the adverb form
Adverb
1
apparently
10
probably
19
relatively
2
approximately
11
plausibly
20
roughly
3
broadly
12
largely
21
sometimes
4
doubtful
13
likely
22
somewhat
5
essentially
14
mainly
23
typically
6
fairly
15
mostly
24
uncertainly
7
frequently
16
possibly
25
unclearly
8
generally
17
presumably
26
unlikely
9
presumably
18
perhaps
27
usually
25
Table 5. Hyland’s (2005) hedging items in the form of phrase
Phrase
1
certain amount
7
in most instances
2
certain extent
8
in my opinion
3
certain level
9
in (my/our/this)view
4
from (my/our/this)
perspective
10
to my knowledge
5
in general
11
on the whole
6
in most cases
Mahamood et al. (2007) classify two groups of hedges such as
negative hedges (eg. unfortunately, sadly) and positive hedges (eg. happily,
hopefully).
Though many researchers, linguists and teachers define the terms
“hedge” from their points of view respectively, the underlying meaning is
related. There are many types and functions of hedges due to different
linguists and researchers. So, it is difficult to describe the exact numbers of
hedging items which depend on individual’s theory and assumption on the
term “hedge” and its functions. In this research, the definitions of the term
“Hedge” by Brown & Levinson (1978), Pappas (1989), Yule (1996) and
Mahamood et al. (2007)) were used as the working definitions on analysing
the use of hedges in the short story because their meanings and the types of
hedges they offer are common and useful to analyse the hedges in the short
story “The Stolen Letter” by Edgar Allen Poe.
Research Design and Procedure
In this research, the types of hedges by Brown & Levinson (1978),
Pappas (1989), Yule (1996) and Mahamood et al. (2007) were used to
analyse the type of hedges in the story. Then, the hedges used in the story
“The Stolen Letter” were analysed and categorized.
26
Summary of “The Stolen Letter”
The original name of the story is “The Purloined Letter". It is a short
story by American author, Edgar Allen Poe. It is the third of his three
detective stories featuring the fictional C. Auguste Dupin who is a brilliant
detective. This story is considered to be an important early forerunner of the
modern detective story.
There are three parts in this story. The main characters are C.
Auguste Dupin, a clever detective, Monsieur G who was the head of the
Paris police and the author himself who was the narrator of the story. At the
beginning of the story, Monsieur G visited Dupin to ask for help about a
stolen letter. Although the thief was known (Minister D —— ), the problem
was how to get the letter back from him. The police made a series of
investigations in all the possible places of the Minister’s house without his
knowledge by using logical methods according to their past experiences.
But they found nothing. Dupin advised the officer to make a careful search
in the house again. About a month later, Monsieur G —— returned without
having a good news for the problem. This time, he announced that he would
pay fifty thousand francs to anyone who could take the letter back for him.
Dupin asked him to write the check for him and then handed the officer the
letter without any further comment.
Dupin explained the authour how he obtained the letter. Before he
did anything else, he reviewed everything he knew about Minister D ——
and the case. Then, Dupin imagined himself in the place of the Minister's
thinking. He sensed that if he were the Minister he would very likely had
hidden the letter in a plain sight in which no one paid any notice. Using this
presumption, Dupin visited Minister D —— and discovered the letter in
plain sight but boldly disguised. He memorized the appearance of the letter,
and he deliberately left a snuffbox as an excuse to return. Having duplicated
the letter, he exchanged his copy for the original during a prearranged
diversion. Then, retrieving his snuff-box, he left the house.
Analysis of Part One of the Short Story
In the following paragraph of part one, it was observed that the
author uses hedges such as “in a few words”, following the quantity
maxim, ““but before I begin, let me tell you”, observing the relation maxim
and “I might lose my job if it became known that I had told someone about
it”, observing the quality maxim.
27
“I will tell you in a few words what it is,” he said, “but
before I begin, let me tell you that this is a matter of the
secrecy and I might lose my job if it became known that
I had told someone about it”.
In the sentence, “Well, I have received confidential information that
a document of great importance has been stolen from the royal
apartments,” the adjectives “confidential”, “great” and “royal” were used
as intensifiers which follow the quality maxim to indicate that the letter
stolen is not an ordinary one and the duty assigned to the police officer to
get that letter back is an important one.
Observing the maxim of quality, the officer uses the adverbs “badly”
and “openly” as intensifiers, in the sentence “The person from whom the
letter was stolen needs the letter badly. But, of course, he cannot proceed
openly,” showing how the problem is in an urgent and difficult situation.
In the following sentence, the adjective “careful” and the adverb
“secretly” are the evidences of the speaker observing the maxim of quality
indicating how the officer has sought the letter carefully. Moreover, these
words are intensifiers which point out the officer’s confidence in his
proposition.
“My first act,” he went on, “was to make a careful
inspection of the minister’s apartment. Of course, I had
to do this secretly and without his knowledge because we
do not want the minister to know that we suspect him.”
In the sentence “Fortunately, the daily habits of the minister helped
me greatly”, the officer uses the positive hedge “Fortunately” for having a
chance to investigate the minister’s house at night. Moreover, the adverb
“greatly” is used as an intensifier expressing how helpful the minister’s
habit is.
Observing the quantity maxim, the adverbs “frequently” and “only”
were used as intensifiers to express how informative the news that the
police officer has got about the situation of the house is. Moreover, the
intensifier “personally” is used to follow the quality maxim, showing how
hardworking and dutiful the officer is.
“He is frequently absent from home at night. He has
only a few servants and they do not sleep in his
apartment…….For three months, a night has not passed
28
in which I have not been busy personally searching his
apartment.”
In the sentence, “I am sure that I have examined every corner of the
apartment in which it is possible that the paper can be hidden,” the officer
uses “I’m sure that” as a quality hedge to indicate his certainty that he has
searched the hidden letter in every corner of the apartment thoroughly. And
also, the clause “it is possible that” is a quality hedge which shows his
uncertainty of the place of the hidden letter.
After listening to the problem of the officer, the author thinks that
the minister has hidden the letter somewhere outside the apartment. But,
this is just his imagination. As he is not sure about what he is going to say,
he uses the quality hedges “But is it not possible,” I suggested” and
“somewhere” in the sentence,
“But is it not possible,” I suggested, “that although the
minister has the letter, he has hidden it somewhere
outside the apartment?
The quality hedge “I suppose you know that” in the sentence “We
opened every drawer, and I suppose you know that for an experienced
police officer such a thing as a secret drawer is impossible”, indicates that
the officer wants the agreement of the two listeners in his opinion.
The officer and his men have examined everything and every place
to find the stolen letter. They think they cannot miss anything and any place
that should be looked for. However, being aware of quality maxim, he uses
“modal auxiliary + negation + adverb” as in:
“We divided the entire surface into sections, and gave a
number to each section so that we could not possibly
miss any.”
Analysis of Part Two of the Short Story
In the second part of the story, the officer uses quantity hedge
“little” in the sentence “Yes, but that gave us little trouble”, to indicate that
the problem is not much. To confirm how they did careful investigations, he
uses quality hedges “carefully” and “certainly” in the following sentences.
“Certainly, we opened every package. We not only
opened every book but turned every page in each
volume. We also inspected carefully the cover of
29
each book with our microscope.”………
“Certainly! We removed every carpet and
examined every board beneath the carpets.”
Moreover, in the above sentences, observing the quantity maxim, he
uses “each” and “every” as intensifiers, implying that the officer and his
men made a careful exploration in the library of the minister and indicating
their confidence in their search of the house.
In the sentence “I would advise you to make a second careful
search of the apartment”, Dupin uses a quality hedge by using the modal
verb “would” with the verb “advise” as he is not certain whether the letter
is in the apartment or not and to soften the act of advising to the officer.
The author uses a quality hedge of approximation in “About a month
later he visited us again” because he cannot express the exact period of the
time. To express what he thinks about the problem of the officer, he uses
the quality hedge “I suppose” in the sentence “I suppose you have decided
at last that the minister is too clever to be caught,” to show his uncertainty
to the response and agreement of the officer to his remark.
Analysis of Part Three of the Short Story
When Dupin explains the author how he thinks about the problem of
the stolen letter logically, he uses quality hedges because at that time, he is
not totally certain about what he thinks. In fact, it is only a guess which is
based on his logical thinking on the whole situation and experiences of a
clever detective. So, he uses “it appears, somewhat and it was possible” to
show his logical imagination. The word “never” is also used as an
intensifier to support his proposition. The way he thinks and deduces the
situation of the whole problem can be seen in the following sentences.
“But this is a point; it appears, somewhat above or
below the understanding of the police. The police
officer, for example, never once suspected that it
was possible that the minister had placed the letter
clearly under the nose of everybody in order to
prevent anyone from seeing it.”
In the sentence, “One of my own men had fired the shot in order to
attract attention. Anyway, while D----- was busy at the window, ………..”,
30
Dupin uses the relation hedge “Anyway” in order to continue explaining
the situation of the event while he is explaining his plans.
At the end of the story, Dupin uses the quality hedge “it is possible”
to point out the possible outcome of the foolish action.
“If I had done the foolish thing which you suggest,
it is possible I would never have left the place alive
and the good people of Paris would never have
heard of me again.”
Findings and Discussion
After analysing the story carefully, the hedges which belong to
respective maxims are listed in the following table.
Table 6. Hedges in “The Stolen Letter” by Edgar Allen Poe
Sr
Hedges
Word Class
Type of the
maxim
observed
1 in a few words
Phrase
Quantity
2 but before I begin, let
me tell you
Clause
Relation
3 I might lose my job
Clause
Quality
4 confidential
Adjective
Quality
5 great
Adjective
Quality
6 royal
Adjective
Quality
7 badly
Adverb
Quality
8 openly
Adverb
Quality
9 careful
Adjective
Quality
10 secretly
Adverb
Quality
11 Fortunately
Adverb
Quality
Sr
Hedges
Word Class
31
Type of the
maxim
observed
12 greatly
Adverb
Quality
13 frequently
Adverb
Quality
14 only
Adverb
Quality
15 personally
Adverb
Quality
16 I’m sure that
Clause
Quality
17 it is possible that
Clause
Quality
18 I suggested
Clause
Quality
19 But is it not possible
Clause
Quality
20 I suggested
Clause
Quality
21 somewhere
Adverb
Quality
22 I suppose you know that
Clause
Quality
23 could not possibly
Modal V + Not
+ Adv
Quality
24 little
Adjective
Quality
25 Certainly
Adverb
Quality
26 carefully
Adverb
Quality
27 each
Adjective
Quality
28 every
Adjective
Quality
29 I would advertise you
Clause
Quality
30 About
Adverb
Quality
31 I suppose
Clause
Quality
32 it appears
Clause
Quality
33 somewhat
Adverb
Quality
34 it was possible that
Clause
Quality
32
Hedges
Sr
Word Class
Type of the
maxim
observed
35 never
Adverb
Quality
36 anyway
Adverb
Relation
37 It is possible
Clause
Quality
According to the data collected, 37 hedges were used in the short
story, “The Stolen Letter” by Edgar Allen Poe as shown in the table.
Table 7. Distribution of Percentage of hedges used in the selected story
Number of
hedges
Percentage of hedges
Sr
Type of hedge
1
Quality hedge
34
91.90 %
2
Quantity hedge
1
2.70 %
3
Relation hedge
2
5.40 %
4
Manner hedge
0
0%
As can be seen in the table, among all the hedges, quality hedges
were mostly used (91.90 %). Not all types of hedges were found in the
story. Hedges that observe the manner maxim was not found at all. Quantity
hedge was used once (2.70 %) and relation hedge was used twice (5.40 %).
As the story is short and the characters involved are only three, there are not
many hedges in it. Moreover, this story is a detective story and the
characters are trying to get back a stolen letter from the Minister’s house
without his knowledge. As they have to respect his rank and position, they
cannot search the house legally. So, their search is based on their
imagination and previous experiences on solving crimes. In most of the
conversations between the characters, they are discussing and exchanging
their imagination about the possible places where the letter is hidden. So, it
seems that hedges which observe the quality maxim were mostly used.
However, all the hedges used in the story are very effective for
interpretation, characterization and understanding of the whole story.
33
Conclusion
Basically, people in conversation know and try to follow the
conversational maxims. Those who violate the maxims have their individual
purposes on what they are talking about. Those who want to follow the
maxims use different types of hedges such as verbs, modal verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses etc. to intensify or attenuate their
proposition. In our social life, it is necessary for people to understand the
meanings, functions and usages of the hedges used in conversations in order
to get the intended meaning and exact information of the speakers.
The knowledge of “hedges” is also useful in academic atmosphere.
In studying literary texts, students should pay attention not only to the
content, setting, plot and characterization of the stories but also to the
language use in texts.
In fact, language skills can be learnt from all sorts of texts. So,
students should be aware of the importance of the use of hedges when they
study English as well as any other languages. They should try to recognize
hedges in literary texts, understand their meanings, functions and usefulness
and learn how to use them appropriately. Language teachers should also
point out various functions, usages and benefits of the use of hedges and
help their students use these hedges. To sum up, a better understanding of
the usefulness and effectiveness of “hedges” in literary texts will have a
positive impact and effect to gain successful English language teaching and
learning. As there are hidden meanings in words, especially in
conversations, it is hoped that the knowledge of hedges will be helpful to
English specialization students in appreciating literary texts as well as to
achieve successful conversations in their everyday life.
Acknowledgements
My profound gratitude goes to Dr Aye Kyaw, Rector and Dr Saw Win, ProRector, Magway University for their encouragement and administrative assistance. I am
also greatly indebted to Daw Khin Myint Yi, Professor and Head, Department of English,
Magway University, who encouraged me and gave suggestions to write this paper. I would
like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr Aye Aye Khine, Professor, Department of
English, Magway University for her valuable guidance and kind help in carrying out this
research paper.
34
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Implications to Language Teaching. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from
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Vazquez, I & Giner, D (2008)Beyond Mood and Modality: Epistemic Modality Markers as
Hedges in Research Articles. A Cross-Disciplinary Study. Retrieved
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A Comparative Study of Two Types of News Stories from
Functional Perspective
Soe Soe Win
Abstract
In this research, two types of news stories: five crime news stories and
five health news stories from The New Light of Myanmar, published in
June 2010, were studied from functional perspective with the aim of
finding out how meanings in different text types are conveyed through
different choice of processes, circumstances and participants. To study
how the experiential meanings are configured, the clauses in these news
stories were analysed, based on transitivity system by Halliday (1994).
The findings showed that material processes dominated the crime news
stories with a fair spread of verbal process whereas health news stories
carried relational process and verbal process, apart from material process.
Accordingly, the participants ‘actor, goal and sayer’ were found to be the
major types in crime news stories and the participants ‘carrier, attribute
and sayer’ were observed to be the frequently used participant types in
health news stories. It was also found that circumstance of location was
the most frequent type in both types of news stories.
Introduction
In this research, two types of news stories from The New Light of
Myanmar were analysed in terms of Transitivity model proposed by
Halliday (1994) with a view to find out the types of participants, process
and circumstances used in them. According to Halliday (1994), a language
is interpreted as a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through
which the meanings can be realized. He also highlights that a text is a
semantic unit, not a grammatical one. But meanings are realized through
wordings; and without a theory of wordings - that is, a grammar – there is
no way of making explicit one’s interpretation of the meaning of a text.
Thus, the study also attempts to describe the ways in which meanings and
functions are realized through language in these news stories. To fulfil this
requirement, each and every clause in these news stories was analysed in
terms of process, participant and circumstance proposed by Halliday (1994).
Assistant Lecturer, Dr, Department of English, Meiktila University
36
Theoretical Background
Grammar is an important thing in processing units of language. It
also makes sense of language. Different grammars have their own strengths
and weaknesses. Functional grammar is a theory of grammar that is oriented
towards discourse semantics. It interprets language not as a set of structures
but as a network of systems to make meaning. The grammatical structure is
being explained with reference to meaning. In Halliday's analysis,
experiential meanings are accounted in clauses by the Transitivity System
(Halliday 1994: 102-137).
Transitivity
In this study, Halliday's transitivity model was applied for the
analysis of the style of the news stories. The transitivity system includes
choices of participant types and the configuration of possible processes and
circumstances which can be associated with a particular participant type.
Actor, agent, goal, attribute and identifier are the participant roles. Wales in
Breem (2005) defines transitivity as follows:
1. Transitivity in traditional grammar, in the categorization of verbs
and clauses, describes structures which have a subject and verb,
and an object which is affected.
2. In the functional grammar as developed by Halliday, the transitive
verb system is part of a broader, semantic network of relations
involving processes (the verb phrase), participant roles (the noun
phrase) and circumstances (adverbials).
In describing the experiential or ideational function of language,
three general categories of human experience typically occur in a clause:
Participant, Process and Circumstance.
Participant
Transitivity analysis specifies the different types of processes
recognized in the language, and determines the participants depending on
these types. The concept of participant, process and circumstance are
semantic categories which explain in the most general way how phenomena
of the real world are represented as linguistic structures (Halliday, 1994:
109). The participant can be expressed in various participant roles such as
Actor, Goal, Carrier, Token, Value, Attribute, Senser, Existent, Behaver and
Sayer. The functions assumed by the participants in any clause are
determined by the type of process that is involved (Halliday, 1994: 112).
37
Process
Processes are central to Transitivity. A process is realized in
grammar by means of a verbal group which is either one word, belonging to
the class verb or a group of words with a class verb word as the head or
nucleus of the group. The process can also be expressed in three basic
process types as Material, Mental and Relational.
Material Process
Material processes are processes of doing or action. Material
processes have an obligatory participant, the actor, which is the doer of the
action. A second participant, the goal of the action, is the participant in
some material processes to which the action is performed. The actor of a
passive clause is often described as the Agent rather than the Actor.
Sometimes, the actor in the material process is not the doer of the
action in abstract processes like resigning and dissolving (Halliday, 1994:
112).
Mental Process
Mental processes are processes of cognition, perception and affection. In a
clause of mental process, there is always one participant who is human.
Mental processes always have two participants: a Senser and a
Phenomenon. (Halliday, 1994: 113)
Relational Process
In relational processes, a relation is being established between two
terms. It is a process of being and the verbs as is/ was/ will be/ become/
seem/ look/ appear/ have/ feel represent this process.
The relationship can be one of two sub-types, attributive or
identifying. An attributive is assigned to a Carrier, specifying a quality,
classification, or description of the Carrier. The participants in identifying
clauses are called Token and Value. (Halliday, 1994: 119)
Other Process Types
The following are the subsidiary process types, located at each of the
boundaries:
1. behavioural process sharing characteristics of material and mental
process,
2. verbal process sharing characteristics of mental and relational process
and
38
3. existential process sharing characteristics of relational and material
process.(Halliday, 1994: 138)
(a) Behavioural Process
The doer in this process is the behaver. The actions in the
behavioural processes must be experienced by a conscious being.
The boundaries of behavioural processes are intermediate: near
mental (e.g. look, watch, etc); near verbal (chatter, grumble); physiological
processes manifesting states of consciousness (laugh, frown); other
physiological processes (breathe, cough,) and near material (bodily postures
and pastimes (sing, sit). (Halliday, 1994: 139)
(b) Verbal Processes
Verbal processes are verbal actions performed by a Sayer. A verbal
process may have a Verbiage participant, and may have a Recipient as well.
Sometimes, the Verbiage may be absent.
(c) Existential Process
Existential processes have only one participant, namely the Existent.
Existential clauses have the verb be. Other verbs functioning as
existential processes are verbs carrying the meaning exist, verbs embodying
some circumstantial feature of time and place.
Circumstances
Circumstances are those in which a circumstantial element is
attributed to or used to identify a participant. They are the third major
transitive function of the clause. They give additional information related to
the process of the clause and its participant in relation to location in space
or time, condition, manner, cause, contingency, and so on. Circumstantial
elements are realized by adverbial elements, including prepositional phrases
and participle phrases.
Table 1: Types of Circumstantial Elements
Type
Sub-type
Example
Distance,
Extent
For ten Yards; For two hours
Duration
Location
Place, Time In the room ; At three o'clock
Means,
Manner
Quality,
By plane, in silence, similarly
Comparison
Type
Cause
Contingency
Accompaniment
Role
Matter
Angle
Sub-type
Reason,
Purpose,
Behalf
Condition,
Concession
Comitation,
Addition
Guise,
Product
-
39
Example
Because of the fire, for the purpose of
winning the Gold Medal
In the event of their marriage, despite
the rain
Went out together, with me
As a manager
About the story
According to the report
Research Procedure
In this study, two types of news stories, five crime news stories and
five health news stories from The New Light of Myanmar, published in June
2010, were studied. A crime news story is a news story about destructive
actions that a person or people has or have done to someone or something in
a particular place of a particular time. A health news story is the one that is
related to health such as new findings for curing certain diseases, health
problems and giving warning to prevent from certain diseases.
These news stories were analysed based on Transitivity model
proposed by Halliday (1994). Based on the model, each of the news stories
was divided into meaningful clauses and each clause was analysed in terms
of process, participant and circumstance types. Firstly, each of the processes
was given a code. Material process was coded as pm, in relational
processes, relational identifying clauses were coded as pr(iden) and
relational attributive clauses as pr (attr), verbal process as pv, mental
process as pme, and existential process as pex. Then, circumstance of
location (place) was coded as Cl (place), circumstance of location (time) as
Cl (time), circumstance of manner as C (manner) and circumstance of
accompaniment as C(acc) and circumstance of angle as C(ag). The results
of the data analysis were then compared to draw a conclusion.
Similarly, crime news stories were coded as crime 1, crime 2, crime
3, crime 4 and crime 5. Health news stories were coded as health 1, health
2, health 3, health 4 and health 5. The tables below list the texts to be
40
analysed and provide information on the dates of issue and headlines of
news stories with the text reference to be used in the research.
Table 2: Texts to be Analysed (Crime News Stories)
Text
Date of Issue
Headline
Reference
Crime 1
24th June 2010 Four NATO soldiers killed in S Afghanistan
Crime 2
13th June 2010 Bombs kill 5, wound 24 in Iraq
Crime 3
22nd June 2010 Taleban-linked militancy, conflicts claim over
60 lives in 3 days
th
Crime 4
28 June 2010 Civilian killed in Baghdad bombings
Crime 5
3rd June 2010
Suspected ETA member detained in France
Table 3: Texts to be Analysed ( Health News Stories)
Text
Date of Issue Headline
Reference
Health
24th June 2010 High blood sugar in pregnancy raise
diabetes risk for children
th
Health
28 June 2010 Vitamins may not curb high blood pressure
in pregnant diabetics
rd
Health
3 June 2010 More cancer-causing chemicals in US
cigarette
nd
Health
22 June
Junk food, sugar may help some fat cells
2010
proliferate
th
Health
13 June 2010 FDA panel endorses 1st oral drug for
multiple sclerosis
An Analysis of Crime News Stories
Table 4: A Sample Analysis of A Crime News Story
Clause 1
goal
were killed
in southern Afghanistan,
Pm
Cl (place)
bringing to
14 the
number
to have died
in two days
in the war-torn
country,
pm
Goal
Pm
Cl(time)
cl (place)
Clause 2
Clause 3
Clause 4
Clause 5
Clause 6
Clause 7
Clause 8
Clause 9
Clause10
Clause 11
Clause 12
Clause 13
Clause 14
Clause 15
Clause 16
Clause 17
Clause 18
Clause 19
41
the military
said.
Sayer
pv
Two soldiers
Goal
another
Goal
and the fourth
Goal
The deaths all occurred
Pm
London
Sayer
that one of the soldiers
token
The
brought to
latest
deaths
were killed
Pm
Was
Pr(iden)
69 the number
of NATO
troops
in bomb attacks,
Cl (time)
in a small arm attack
Cl (time)
in another insurgent attack.
Cl(time)
on Tuesday.
Cl(time)
announced
pv
British.
value
to have
so far this according to an
died
month
AFP tally based
and 289
on the
this year,
independent
icasualities. org
website.
pm
Cl(time)
value
sayer
on Monday —
the second time
this month that
token
Pr(iden)
value
Ten
were killed
in attacks and a
NATO
helicopter crash
troops
goal
Pm
Cl (manner)
Cl (place)
Cl(time)
10 service members
were killed
in a single day.
goal
Pm
Cl(time)
Much of southern
is blighted
by the Taleban
now in its
Afghanistan
militants,
deadliest phase
goal
Pm
actor
Cl(time)
since the 2001 US –led invasion
ousted
the hardline Islamist regime
Actor
Pm
goal
and installed a
Western-backed
led
by Hamid Karzai.
administration
pm
Goal
pm
actor
The US military
has warned
Sayer
pv
that causalities
will inevitably
mount
Carrier
Cl(manner)
Pr(attr)
as foreign forces
build up
their campaign
actor
Pm
goal
to oust the militants
from the southern province of Kandahar, a hotbed of
bombings, assassinations and lawlessness.
pm
Goal
Cl (place)
42
A Sample Analysis of A Health News Story
Table 5: A Sample Analysis of A Health News Story
Clause 1
Clause 2
Pregnant
women
with high blood sugar
may lead
to low insulin
sensitivity in children,
carrier
C(acc)
Pr
Attribute
thus
raising
the risk of type 2 diabetes,
a new study
suggests.
Pr
Value
sayer
Pv
There is
an apparent link between high
blood sugar in pregnant women
and low insulin sensitivity in
children,
according to the study presented on
Tuesday at The Endocrine Society’s 92nd
Annual Meeting in San Diego ,about 90
miles (about 144 kilometres) south of Laos
Angeles.
Pex
existant
C(ag)
Clause 3
Clause 4
The children’s
reduced insulin
sensitivity
Token
researchers
was
independent of their amount of body fat,
Pr
Value
at the University of Alabama at Birmingham
said in the
study.
Clause 5
sayer
“We
Cl
know
that children
born to
women
Pv
with type 2 diabetes or
gestational diabetes
senser
Pme
Goal
Pm
actor
C(acc)
Clause 6
or who
, have
high blood
sugar
during
pregnancy
Are
at risk of
becoming
diabetic
themselves.
possessor
Pr
possessed
Cl
Pr
attribute
Clause 7
Clause 8
This study
suggests
Sayer
Pv
that the children’s increased
risk
appears to be
due, at least in part, to
their prenatal exposure to
relatively high maternal
blood glucose,”
carrier
Pr
Attribute
Clause 9
Clause
10
said
study co-author Paula Chandler-Laney, PhD, a postdoctoral fellow
at the
university.
Pv
Sayer
Cl
43
Both of the texts start with material clauses which describe what the
text is to be about. However, the second sentences that give the detail
information of the two stories carry different process types. In the crime
news story, material verb is used as it is about the actions and happenings of
people. The actions and happenings in southern Afghanistan are represented
in the text as material processes. Verbal processes contribute by suggesting
the sound evidence of the claim. The sound evidence of the lead in the
former is reported in verbal process with London news agency, representing
the government of England. The use of verbal process in the last clause as a
warning, persuade the reader to believe what is said in the lead. On the
other hand, the health news story carries relational process as it describes
the relationship between high blood sugar in pregnant women and low
insulin sensitivity in children. This is achieved through the successive use
of relational processes. The confirmation of the lead in the latter is almost
entirely reported in verbal clauses with Paula Chandler-Laney as sayer,
representing the viewpoint of mainstream medical researchers.
The participant ‘goal’ dominates in Theme position throughout the
crime news story. The participant ‘goal’ taking the subject role tends to
emphasize the receivers of the action, that is, who were treated how. The
participant ‘sayer’ is frequently used in both of the news stories to identify
the source of information. The participants ‘carrier, attribute, token,
possessor and possessed’ are used in health news story to describe the
relationship between high blood sugar and diabetes.
With regard to the use of circumstances, circumstances of location
(time) play quite an important role in crime news story as such type of news
story demands the exact time and place the accidents took place.
Circumstance of location (time) also describes when the incidents took
place. Those of location (place) specify where the incidents took place. The
way NATO soldiers were killed is also construed through the use of
Circumstance of manner.
In the health news story, circumstance of accompaniment is
frequently used representing the types of mothers who can have some health
effect on her children. The place where the medical finding is reported is
presented through the use of circumstance of location (place).
44
Actor
Goal
Sayer
Verbiage
Token
Value
Carrier
Attribute
Senser
Exitant
Possessor
Possessed
Table 6: Types of Participant Used in Crime News Stories
Crime1
3
9
3
0
2
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
Crime2
4
10
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Crime3
4
7
5
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Crime4
1
6
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Crime5
3
8
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
15
40
16
4
2
2
1
0
0
2
0
0
18.4
48.8
19.5
4.9
2.4
2.4
1.2
0
0
2.4
0
0
Type of
news
Percentage
Possessed
Possessor
Exitant
Senser
Attribute
Carrier
Value
Token
Verbiage
Sayer
Goal
Type of
news
Actor
Table7: Types of Participant Used in Health News Stories
Health1
0
1
4
0
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
Healt 2
4
4
0
0
1
2
4
3
0
2
0
0
Health3
3
3
3
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
Health4
2
4
3
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
Health5
0
0
5
1
2
2
3
3
0
0
0
0
Total
Percentage
9
11
15
1
5
7
11
12
2
3
1
1
11.4
14.1
19.2
1.3
6.4
9
14.1
15.4
2.6
3.9
1.3
1.3
As shown in Table 6 and Table 7, the most frequent type of
participant in crime news stories was the goal and its occurrence was
48.8%. So, the participant ‘goal’ dominated in Theme position throughout
the crime news stories. However, the participant ‘sayer’ took the dominant
role in the health news stories as its occurrence is 19.2%. The participant
‘sayer’ was frequently used in both of the news stories to identify the source
of information. As shown in the tables, the occurrences of ‘sayer’ in these
45
news stories were 19.5% in crime news stories and 19.2% in health news
stories. The participants ‘carrier and attribute’ were used in health news
stories to describe the relationship between a certain type of disease and the
lifestyle of a person or its related treatment. The ‘carrier and attribute’
occurred 14.1% and 15.4% respectively in health news stories although
their occurrences were 1.2% and 0% in crime news stories.
Figure 1 shows the comparison of participants found in the two types of
news stories.
Figure 1: Comparison of participants found in the two types of news stories
Table 8: Types of Process Used in Crime News Stories
Type of
Material Relational Verbal Existential
news
Crime 1
13
3
3
0
Crime 2
6
0
2
1
Crime 3
11
0
4
2
Crime 4
10
0
2
2
Crime 5
11
0
3
2
Total
51
3
14
7
Percentage 63.8
3.8
8.8
17.5
Mental
0
1
1
3
5
6.3
46
Table 9: Types of Process Used in Health News Stories
Type of
Material Relational Verbal Existential Mental
news
Health1
1
2
4
1
1
Health 2
8
8
3
2
0
Health 3
3
2
2
0
0
Health 4
7
2
1
0
0
Health 5
1
4
5
0
0
Total
20
18
15
3
1
Percentage
35.1
5.3
1.7
31.6
26.3
It was found that the use of material process in both types of news
stories was 63.8% and 35.1%. Thus, both types of texts mainly used
material clauses which describe what the texts are to be about. However, the
sentences that follow the lead giving detailed information of the stories
carry different process types. In the crime news stories, material verbs were
used as they are about the actions and happenings of people. On the other
hand, the health news stories also carried relational process as they describe
the relationship between the health and the lifestyle of the people. This is
achieved through the successive use of relational processes. The occurrence
of relational processes in health news stories was 31.6%. Verbal processes
contribute by suggesting the sound evidence of the claim in both types. The
statement in the lead is evidenced with the use of verbal processes. The
occurrences of verbal processes were 17.5% and 26.3%. Figure 2 shows the
types of process found in the two types of news stories.
Figure 2: Types of process found in the two types of news stories
47
Table 10: Types of Circumstance Used in Crime News Stories
Type of
news
Circum
of
location
Circum
of
manner
Circum of
accompaniment
Circum
of
Purpose
Circum
of Angle
Circum
of Role
Crime1
12
2
0
0
0
0
Crime2
7
0
0
0
1
0
Crime3
14
0
0
0
0
0
Crime4
12
0
0
0
0
0
Crime5
Total
Percentage
9
0
1
0
0
0
54
2
1
0
1
0
93.2
3.4
1.7
0
1.7
0
Table 11: Types of Circumstance Used in Health News Stories
Type of
news
Circum
of
location
Circum
of
manner
Circum of
accompaniment
Circum
of
Purpose
Circum
of Angle
Circum
of Role
Health1
4
2
2
0
1
0
Health2
9
2
7
0
0
1
Health3
4
0
0
0
0
0
Health4
Health5
5
1
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
Total
Percentage
23
4
9
3
1
5
51.1
8.9
20
6.7
2.2
11.1
Table 10 and Table 11 show the use of circumstances in these types
of news stories. As shown in the tables, circumstance of location dominated
in all these news stories as its occurrence was 93.1% in crime news stories
and 51.1% in health news stories. In the health news story, circumstance of
accompaniment was also frequently used and its occurrence was 20%.
Therefore, it can be concluded that different types of news stories carry
different participant, process and circumstance types. As shown in the
findings of the data, the participant goal was the main type of participant
found in all types of news stories whereas the participant carrier was also
the main type of participant in health news stories apart from the participant
goal. In addition, material process was the main type of process type used
in all these types of news stories although relational processes were also
frequently used in health news stories. With regard to the use of
48
circumstances, circumstance of location was significant in all types of news
stories though it was also frequent in health news stories. It can be
concluded that material process, the participant goal and circumstance of
location were the major types of transitivity elements in all news stories.
Moreover, the participant carrier and relational process were as common as
the participant goal and material process in health news stories. However,
other types of process were also found in these news stories, though their
occurrences were not so frequent in these news stories. Figure 3 indicates
the types of circumstances found in the two types of news stories.
Figure 3: Types of circumstances found in the two types of news stories
Conclusion
Functional grammar views language as a resource for making
meaning. It attempts to describe language in actual use and so it focuses on
text and their context. As the findings show, material processes dominated
the crime news stories with a fair spread of verbal process because it is
about the actions and happenings in a place and it also describes who said
this news. On the other hand, relational processes and verbal processes
played an important role in health news stories which describe the
relationship between a certain type of disease and a particular way of
lifestyle. So also, circumstances of location (time) played quite an important
role in crime news stories as such type of news stories demand the exact
time and place the accidents took place. In the health news stories,
circumstance of accompaniment was frequently used representing a
particular way of life that effects on health. Thus, functional grammar is
49
concerned not only with the structure but also with how those structures
construct meaning.
Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Maung Thin, Rector of Meiktila University for his kind
permission to carry out this research.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Khin Ma Ma Thin, Professor
and Head of Department of English, Meiktila University, for guiding me throughout this
research.
References
Downing, A. & Locke, P. (1992). A University Course in English Grammar. UK: Prentice
Hall International Ltd.
Duff, B. & Shindler, R. (1994). Language and Style in the Press. Oxford: Oxprint Limited.
Gerot, U. & Wignell, P. (1994). Making Sense of Functional Grammar. Tonya Stabler,
Apodean Educational Enterprise.
Halliday, MAK. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar(2nd edn). London:
Edward Arnold.
Martin, J. R et al. (1997). Working with Functional Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Appendix
Crime 1: Four NATO soldiers killed in S Afghanistan
Kabul, 23 June _ Four NATO soldiers were killed in southern Afghanistan,
bringing to 14 the number to have died in two days in the war-torn country, the military
said. Two soldiers were killed in bomb attacks, another in a small arm attack and the fourth
in another insurgent attack. The deaths all occurred on Tuesday. London announced that
one of the soldiers was British. The latest deaths brought to 69 the number of NATO troops
to have died so far this month and 289 this year, according to an AFP tally based on the
independent icasualities. org website. Ten NATO troops were killed in attacks and a
helicopter crash on Monday — the second time this month that 10 service members were
killed in a single day. Much of southern Afghanistan is blighted by the Taleban militants,
now in its deadliest phase since the 2001 US –led invasion ousted the hardline Islamist
regime and installed a Western-backed administration led by Hamid Karzai. The US
military has warned that causalities will inevitably mount as foreign forces build up their
campaign to oust the militants from the southern province of Kandahar, a hotbed of
bombings, assassinations and lawlessness. Xinhua
50
Crime 2: Bombs kill 5, wound 24 in Iraq
Baghdad, 12 June—Car bomb and roadside bomb explosions hit Iraq’s eastern
province of Diyala and capital city of Baghdad on Friday, killing 5 and wounding 14,a
local police source said.
A suicide car bomber hit a Iraq and US joint patrol team in Jalwlaa town, 90 km
northeast of Baquba, the capital of Diyala Province, killing 3 and wounding 15 others, the
source told Xinhua on quickly sealed off the blast site.
In the capital city of Baghad, a roadside bomb explosion in a market killed two
people and injured nine, according to the sources.
Sporadic attacks and waves of violence continue across Iraq three months after the
country held its landmark parliamentary election on 7 March, which is widely expected to
shape the political landscape of the war-torn country.
Xinhua
Crime 3: Taleban-linked militancy, conflicts claim over 60 lives in 3
days
Kabul, 21 June—Taleban-led militancy and conflicts have claimed over 60 lives
in the militancy-plagued Afghanistan over the past three days.
The militants, in the latest wave of violint incidents, organized twin blasts in
Lashkar Gah city, capital of Taleban hotbed Helmand Province, Sunday morning leaving
two civilians dead and injured 20 others majority of them civilians, spokesman for the
provincial administration Daud Ahadi said.
“The first explosion occurred in front of a bank at around 8:30 am local time
killing two civilians and injuring 15 others all civilians, but second blast minutes later near
a school left two children wounded, ”Ahmadi told Xinhua.
Hours later on the same day Sunday, a roadside bomb planted by militants struck
the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) armored vehicle causinf no
casualty in the country’s northern Kunduz city, capital of restive Kunduz Province, an
official with the alliance said.
“A roadside bomb struck a military vehicle of the ISAF this morning outside
Kunduz ciry causing no casualtees but a military vehicle was damaged in the blast,” a
spokesman for the NATO-led forces in Kunduz Lieutenant Colonel Webber told Xinhua.
Xinhua
Crime 4: Civilian killed in Baghdad bombings
A civilian was killed and four others injured in three bomb attacks in Baghdad, an
Interior Ministry source said on Sunday.
A civilian died of wounds sustained from an explosion caused by a sickly bomb
attached to his car while he was driving in Haifa street in central Baghdad in the morning ,
while a passerby was wounded during the attack , the source told Xinhua on condition of
anonymity. Meanwhile, an employee of the Education Ministry was wounded when a
51
bomb planted in his sport utility vehicle (SUV) detonated in Baghdad’s western District of
Khadraa, the source said. Late on Saturday night, a police officer and his wife were
wounded in a bomb planted in his car in Baghdad’s southwestern district of Jihad, the
source added. Sporadic attacks still common in Iraqi cities more than three months after the
country held its landmark parliamentary election which is widely expected to shape the
political landscape of the war-torn country.
Internet
Crime 5: Suspected ETA member detained in France
Madrid, 2 June—A suspected member of the Basque separatist group ETA has
been arrested in France, Spain’s public radio reported on Tuesday.
The arrest of Juan Carlos Iriate Perez by French and Spanish security forces was
linked to the detention of four other suspected ETA members last month in southwestern
France, including the group’s suspected military leader, Mikel Karrera Sarobe.
Iriate Perez was thought to be the person who provided the four with the flat
where they were staying at the time of their arrests.
He was also considered to have been a member of ETA since 2006 and suspected
of having participated in operations to extort money from businesses in the Basque region
in order to fund the group.
ETA, an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organization, was founded in 1959
and claims to have involved in a series of terrorist attacks that have killed more than 825
people since the late 1960s. Spanish and French authorities have launched several joint
operations in the past two years and arrested many ETA members. Data from the Spanish
Interior Ministry said the joint operations by Spain and France have led to the arrests of 50
ETA members this year alone.
Many Europeans countries as well as the United States, have defined the separatist
group, which is seeking an independent Basque homeland in northern Spain and
southwestern France, as a “terrorist” organization. Xinhua
Health 1: High blood in sugar in pregnancy raise diabetes risk for
children
Birmingham, 23 June—Pregnant women with high blood sugar may lead to low
insulin sensitivity in children, thus raising the risk of type 2 diabetes, a new study suggests.
There is an apparent link between high blood sugar in pregnant women and low
insulin sensitivity in children, according to the study presented on Tuesday at The
Endocrine Society’s 92nd Annual Meeting in San Diego. about 90miles (about 144
kilometers) south of Los Angeles.
Low insulin sensitivity is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes.
The children reduced insulin sensitivity was independent of their amount of body
fat, researchers at the University of Alabama at Birmingham said in the study.
52
“We know that children born to women with type 2 diabetes, or gestational
diabetes, or who have high blood sugar during pregnancy are at risk of becoming diabetic
themselves. This study suggests that the children’s increased risk appears to be due, at least
in part. to their prenatal exposure to relatively high maternal bold glucose.” said study coauthor Paula Chandler-Laney, PhD, a postdoctoral fellow at the university.
Xinhua
Health 2: Vitamins10 may not curb high blood pressure in pregnant
diabetics
London, 27 June _Taking Vitamin C and E supplements will not lower the risk of
the blood pressure disorder known as preeclampsia in pregnant women with type 1
diabetes, a new study finds.
Women with diabetes are at high risk for preeclampsia ( a sudden increase in the
mother’s blood pressure after the 20th week of pregnancy) and prior research has suggested
that because type 1 diabetes is associated with increased oxidative stress and lower levels
of antioxidents in the body taking antioxidant vitamins might help.
The British study included 762 pregnant women with type 1 diabetes. They were
randomly assigned to take 1000 milligrams of vitamin C and 400 international units (IU)
Vitamin E (379 women ) or placebo (383 women) daily from between eight and 22 weeks
of gestation and delivery.
The rate of preeclampsia was 15 percent in the vitamins group and 19 percent in the
placebo group. However, taking vitamins seemed to significantly lower the risk of
preeclampsia in women with the low antioxidant status at the start of the study and
appeared to reduce the risk of having a low birthweight baby (6 percent vs 10 percent) .
Also, fewer women in the vitamin C group had preterm babies.
Researchers from Queen’s University Belfast said the findings suggest that dietary
intervention rich in various antioxidents might have benefits that cannot be replicated by
individual supplements. Alternatively, prescription of antioxidant vitamins at 8-22 weeks
gestation might be too late to affect the pathological process for most patients with
diabetes. Internet
Health 3: More cancer-causing chemicals in US cigarettes
Washington, 2 June —American cigarettes could pack a more toxic punch than
foreign brands, say researchers at the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.
In one of the first studies of its kind, researchers compared the levels of tobaccospecific nitrosamines—a main carcinogenic component of tobacco—in cigarette butts and
in smokers from several countries.
The result: “All cigarettes are not the same, and cigarettes across countries do not
deliver the same amount of carcinogens to people,” said Dr.Jim Pirkle, deputy director for
science at the CSC’s National Centre for Environmental Health’s Division of Laboratory
Sciences.
In fact, the amount of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) in US brands is
about triple that of brands from Australia, Canada or the United Kingdom, he said.
Internet
53
Health 4: Junk food, sugar may help some fat cells proliferate
New York, 21 June—New research suggests that the ubiquitous sugar known as
fructose may cause certain fat cells in children to multiply faster, which might play a key
role in childhood and adult obesity.
Fructose is a component of high-fructose corn syrup, which is widely used in a
variety of foods, including soft drinks, candy and many processed foods.
But although the new studies did use cells taken from children, they were
performed only in test tubes and experts called for caution in interpreting the findings.
“You can’t draw a conclusion based on a single study, and this study was not done
in humans (only human cells). We need to take that into consideration,” said Keri Gans, a
spokeswoman for the American Dietetic Association.
Internet
Health 5: FDA panel endorses 1st oral drug for multiple sclerosis
An expert advisory panel of the US Food and Drug Administration on Thursday
recommended that the agency approve an oral drug, Gilenia, as a first line treatment for
multiple sclerosis (MS). Gilenia appears to be both safe and effective, the panel confirmed
in two separate votes. Approval would mark a major shift in MS therapy since other drugs
for the neurodegenerative illness require frequent injections of intravenous infusions, “This
is revolutionary ” said Dr Janice Maldonado an assistant professor of neurology at the
University of Miami Millare School of Medicine. “It’s a marvelous achievement of being
the first oral drug out for relapsing multiple sclerosis”. Maldonado who has participated in
trials with the drug said the results have been very encouraging.
Internet
Analysing the English Pronunciation of Diploma in English
Language Teaching Students while Reading Aloud
Yu Yu Win
Abstract
This research is an analysis of English pronunciation of Myanmar students
from the Postgraduate Diploma in English Language Teaching Course
(2007-2008) at Mandalay University. In this research, students’
pronunciation is mainly studied focusing on one of the suprasegmental
features, intonation. Setting a native speaker model as a standard, it
investigates how the students pronounce English words in connected
discourse while they are reading aloud. In doing so, computer analysis of
speech is applied using such features as F0 (fundamental frequency /
pitch) and duration which can be extracted automatically from the acoustic
signals of the pronunciation software, and extending these features to pitch
range, speaking rate, and loudness. Intonation was found to be the area the
learners failed to use correctly in reading aloud. Moreover, there were
certain disfluencies that students encountered in reading aloud such as
false start, repetition, making correction, etc. To reduce students' deviation
in pronunciation while reading aloud, it is suggested to teach English
pronunciation by making a comparison between English and Myanmar
sound systems. It is also recommended to introduce acoustic phonetics,
applying pronunciation software.
Introduction
To help and promote EFL learning, it is one of the duties of
language teachers to balance all four language skills – reading, writing,
listening and speaking. In doing so, grammar is the basic need for all four
skills and pronunciation plays an important role in practising listening and
speaking skills. Due to different characteristics between the English and
Myanmar languages, Myanmar learners encounter difficulties in learning
English. One of the main difficulties is pronunciation. For example, in
reading aloud either at the primary level or at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, students encounter difficulties in pronouncing English
words in sentences. So an empirical research was carried out on the
pronunciation of students attending Diploma in English Language Teaching
Course with an aim of exploring the areas where Myanmar learners tend to
fail to pronounce English correctly and of identifying their pronunciation
Tutor, Department of English, Meiktila Institute of Economics
56
difficulties focusing on one of the suprasegmental features, namely,
intonation.
Literature Review
A teacher who teaches English as a foreign language needs to give
special attention to communicative skills, and intelligible pronunciation is
essential for his or her teaching to be effective.
According to Gabrielatos (2002), Reading Aloud (RA) is
widely used in first language teaching at the initial stages of reading
programmes in order to help children match sounds with the symbols of
written language either by combining the sounds of single letters or letter
clusters or by decoding the whole word. RA does have a place among
modern teaching techniques, provided it is used in a principled way for
those EFL learners of elementary level upwards, who have mastered the
skill of assigning sounds to letter-combinations in English (with the
possible exception of the occasional ‘difficult’ or ‘irregular’ word). It is also
said that RA can be used to raise awareness of pronunciation, and provide
practice in certain phonological aspects of English as well as certain
strategies used to facilitate the production of spontaneous speech and
communication.
According to Jenkins (2004), the main interest of pronunciation
teaching research, for several decades of the 20th century, was in applying
contrastive analysis techniques to the sound segments of the L1 and L2 to
identify differences between them and so, it was assumed, to highlight areas
where L1 transfer errors were likely to occur. She also points out that, still
more recently and radically, a number of researchers have ceased treating
pronunciation as a somewhat isolated, self-contained linguistic and
pedagogic phenomenon, but are forging links with research into other
aspects of language and language teaching and also maximizing the
opportunities offered by technological advances.
Jia (2007) discusses that teaching pronunciation for English
majoring students has long been considered not as important as other
aspects of English learning, but numerous problems related to acquisition of
pronunciation have become stumbling blocks for students’ listening
comprehension, speaking and reading proficiency.
57
Since Myanmar is a syllable-timed language, Myanmar learners of
English may have difficulty in producing English words and sentences in
the way that corresponds to the characteristic rhythm of the English
language. The reason behind this difficulty seems to be the fact that, in a
syllable-timed language like Myanmar, each syllable is assigned an equal
amount of weight, regardless of whether the syllable is stressed or
unstressed. As a result, Myanmar speaker’s pronunciation of English words
and sentences may sound something so unnatural to the native speakers’
ears, and the particular type of rhythm can adversely affect the
comprehensibility of their English to the native speakers. In addition, the
difference in the way of stress markings between the Myanmar and English
languages also contributes to the difficulty for Myanmar students in both
producing and receiving the characteristic stress patterns and the overall
rhythm of English.
Finally, the issue of difficulty that Myanmar students might face in
realizing the characteristic intonation patterns of English should also be
addressed. Both Myanmar and English languages utilize the basic
intonation patterns such as rising intonation for yes-no questions or final
rising-falling for statements in conveying the meaning of the sentences and
also the intention of the speaker. However, the difference between the two
rests not in the way of creating intonation patterns but rather in the degree
of pitch change or pitch ranges employed differently in creating appropriate
intonation contours in each language. As a result, Myanmar students would
often fail to display the wider pitch range utilized in creating English
intonation patterns, relying heavily on their use of the narrower pitch range
of Myanmar intonation patterns.
For example, even if a Myanmar student intends to utter a sentence
as a statement, a native speaker might misinterpret the statement as a
question or assume that the speaker has not finished speaking yet. This
example of misinterpretation as to the intent of the speaker’s utterances
clearly illustrates one of the most common problems that Myanmar learners
of English may encounter in communication. When a speaker fails to lower
the pitch level far enough at the end of a sentence, the utterance might be
perceived as a continuation of the speech, in spite of the speaker’s initial
intention to finish the line.
Furthermore, it should be noted that since pitch changes can convey
not only the meaning of sentences but also the speaker’s attitude toward a
58
topic of conversation, narrower use of pitch ranges by Myanmar students in
their speech might be misinterpreted as a sign of boredom or lack of interest
by the native English speakers.
Therefore, depending on the comparison between Myanmar and
English pronunciation, many of the potential pronunciation difficulties for
Myanmar EFL learners are found to be a clear reflection of the L1
phonological transfer. Through detailed examination of Myanmar and
English sound systems, some of the specific problem areas have been
identified, especially with reference to some of the characteristic
phonological differences between the two languages.
It can also be assumed that pronunciation difficulties for Myanmar
learners of English may arise in the following situations:
(i)
when they encounter sounds in English that are not part of the sound
inventory of Myanmar;
(ii)
when the rules of combining sounds into words in Myanmar are
different from those in English (i.e., different syllable types); and,
(iii)
when the characteristic patterns of stress and intonation in English,
which determine the overall rhythm of the language, are different
from those in Myanmar (i.e., pitch accent vs. stress accent and
syllable-timed vs. stress-timed).
Design of the Empirical Research
The aim of this study is to analyze English pronunciation of students
of Diploma in English Language Teaching in Myanmar while reading texts
aloud. In fact, it focuses on what problems they encountered in reading
aloud.
The main objectives are:
(1) to give a description of Myanmar non-native pronunciation of English
sentences and
(2) to uncover the way Myanmar students actually pronounce them.
This research tries to answer the following research questions:
(1) What do Myanmar learners fail to do in pronouncing English sentences
while reading texts aloud?
59
(2) What are the possible causes of difficulties in their pronunciation?
(3) What are the probable solutions to these difficulties?
Participants
This research was conducted at the University of Mandalay in the
academic year 2007-2008. Out of fifty seven postgraduate students of
Diploma in English Language Teaching Course, twenty five students were
chosen as the subjects of this research. It is a one-year diploma course
having two semesters. The students held at least one degree. They were
from both upper and lower Myanmar and their age range was between 21
and 57 with an average age of 28.52 years.
The students had to take six modules in each semester. The allotted
period for each module is three periods for lectures and two periods for
tutorials per week. During some of their tutorial periods, the researcher
made recording. All students were given time to familiarize themselves with
the sentences in the tape-script before the recording began. They were asked
to read the tape-script naturally at a normal speed and no explicit
instructions were given. In other words, they were not explained how to
pronounce or what sort of intonation to use. The recording session for each
student lasted for about 5 minutes.
Material
In this research, a tape-script from Unit 13 of “English for the
Teacher” by Spratt (194: 134) which is the prescribed textbook for the
subjects under the module: Developing Communicative Skills (I + II), was
used as a model or standard. Then the sounds of students were recorded
while they were reading aloud. That the same tape-script was read by all
subjects means that the whole database contains individual differences of
the same sentences, which are expected to vary from subject to subject,
according to their proficiency and idiosyncrasy. The native speaker’s
model, already audio-taped for the purpose of EFL teaching, was used as a
model of Standard Southern British (SSB) or Received Pronunciation (RP)
so that a comparison between the native speaker’s pronunciation and the
students’ pronunciation can be made for all sentences in it. According to the
theory by Calhoun (2002), sentences of more than 20 words must be
excluded to form the statistical model of the data. Thus, fifteen out of
nineteen sentences were selected for comparison.
60
Moreover, a questionnaire was used to get information about the
background knowledge of students’ pronunciation. It includes personal and
academic information and how they learn English pronunciation.
To record students’ sounds, the MP3 recorder was used. For
analysis, sentences read by the native English teacher and students were cut
and
divided
from
length
signals
of
Cool
Edit
2000
(http://www.syntrillium.com), a 30-day trial version. It is the software based
audio system which is the most powerful and easy to use digital audio
recorder, editor, and mixer.
Another software, Praat (Version 5.0.18), retrieved March 31, 2008,
which was mainly used in this research, is a computer programme with
which we can analyze, synthesize, and manipulate speech, and create highquality pictures for the articles and theses. The Praat programme was
created by Paul Boersma and David Weenink of the Institute of Phonetics
Sciences of the University of Amsterdam. (http://www.praat.org or
http://www .fon. hum. uva.nl/praat/) Using this software, one can record a
sound and do spectral, pitch, formant and intensity analyses. All the
measurements used in this research were made interactively using Praat
(Version 5.0.18) software, based on simultaneous visual displays of the
waveforms and F0 or pitch contours.
Data Analysis
This research has focused on prosodic features which have been
found to have easily quantifiable acoustic correlates using automatically
derived prosodic features from the speech signal. Depending on the
methods experimented in the research of Calhoun (2002), the researcher
attempts to use the following measures that can automatically be extracted
and derived from the acoustic signal.
The researcher used the acoustic measures such as fundamental
frequency (F0) and duration features which primarily indicate prosodic
properties or discourse structure at the sentence level. Using Praat software,
all F0 features and their corresponding energy values were taken out. Two
types of duration features such as the speaking rate and the total duration of
each sentence were also calculated.
Calculating Fundamental Frequency (F0) Range
The first set of features extracted by the programme is the F0 features,
61
attempting to capture the F0 level of the sentence. These are the maximum
F0 and the minimum F0. Fundamental frequency (F0) range is calculated by
using the following formula.
F0 range = Maximum F0 – Minimum F0
Calculating Speaking Rate
Secondly, the speaking rate was calculated in words per second. The
Word file was used to find the length in words of each sentence. This was
then divided by the duration of uttering the sentence, taken as the length in
seconds between the end of the first word in the sentence and the end of the
last.
Speaking rate = No of words / Length in seconds between the end of the
first word in the sentence and the end of the last
Calculating Total Duration
Then the total duration of the sentence is the length in seconds of
each sentence. In the software, selecting the area by referring to the wave
form and using the display section of the sentence in the waveform can
show the time range in second or millisecond between the start time and the
end time of that selected area.
Calculating Total Energy
Another measure that can automatically be taken from the software
is total energy over the sentence in Pa2s.
Calculating Energy Ratio
The final set of features tries to capture the nature of the boundary of
the sentence. Energy values in Pa2s of the final 200 ms of the sentence and
the penultimate 200 ms are taken and then the energy ratio at the end of the
sentence is calculated by using the formula:
Energy ratio = Energy over the penultimate 200 ms / Energy over the final
200 ms
The researcher used three indicators to mark the prosodic events of
the sentences read by the students: F0, duration and energy or amplitude.
62
According to the F0 measures or pitch contours taken out in this
research, the students failed to signal rising and falling intonations of
English sentences. They indiscriminately used the low level pitch contours
which are produced due to the breathy voice quality as obviously seen in
most of the tone languages. Thus, mother tongue interference was one of
the factors why students failed to signal intonation or pitch of the target
language, English.
F0 Range
Similarity (%)
30
25
20
15
10
Sentence 19
Sentence 16
Sentence 15
Sentence 14
Sentence 13
Sentence 12
Sentence 11
Sentence 10
Sentence 9
Sentence 8
Sentence 6
Sentence 4
Sentence 3
Sentence 2
0
Sentence 1
5
Figure (a) Same F0 range in percent of the students as the Native Speaker
According to the research findings, the students failed to display the
wider pitch range utilized in creating English intonation patterns, relying
heavily on their use of the narrower pitch range of Myanmar intonation
patterns as can be observed in Figure (a).
Secondly, it was found that students’ speaking rate and total
duration are slower at the sentence level than those of the native speaker.
Similarities between the native speaker the students in this research in
percentage of students’ speaking rate and total duration can be seen in
Figure (b) and Figure (c).
63
Speaking Rate
Sentence 19
Sentence 16
Sentence 15
Sentence 14
Sentence 13
Sentence 12
Sentence 11
Sentence 10
Sentence 9
Sentence 8
Sentence 6
Sentence 4
Sentence 3
40
30
20
10
0
Sentence 2
60
50
Sentence 1
Similarity (%)
70
Figure (b) Same speaking rate in percent of the students as the Native
Speaker
There were similarities in speaking rate because the amount of time
to utter a sentence in Myanmar depends on how many syllables the sentence
contains, not how many stressed syllables it contains as in the English
sentences. Thus, mother tongue interference is one factor for slower
speaking rates of the students.
Moreover, while the students were reading aloud, they tried to make
such disfluencies as false start, repetition, making correction, coughing, etc.
These disfluencies are one of the causes for slower speaking rates of the
students rather than the influence of students’ mother tongue. These may be
due to students’ hesitation while trying to pronounce words in a foreign
language or due to their unfavourable characteristics in reading habit.
One more problem in reading sentences aloud is students’ tendency
to make longer and unnecessary pauses while trying to make tone unit
boundaries.
64
Sentence 19
Sentence 16
Sentence 15
Sentence 14
Sentence 13
Sentence 12
Sentence 11
Sentence 10
Sentence 9
Sentence 8
Sentence 6
Sentence 4
Sentence 3
Sentence 2
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sentence 1
Similarity (%)
Total Duration
Figure (c) Same total duration in percent of the students as the Native
Speaker
Another acoustic indicator used in the research is total energy in
Pa s over sentences read aloud.
2
Sentence 19
Sentence 16
Sentence 15
Sentence 14
Sentence 13
Sentence 12
Sentence 11
Sentence 10
Sentence 9
Sentence 8
Sentence 6
Sentence 4
Sentence 3
Sentence 2
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Sentence 1
Similarity (%)
Total Energy
Figure (d) Same total energy in percent of the students as the Native
Speaker
In the case of the students, all their total energy measures were
greater than the native speaker’s for the same sentences. Just a few
sentences of the students were found to be within the same total energy
range as the native speaker despite having greater energy values. They even
have the tendency to produce more energy in reading the sentences as seen
in Figure (d).
65
Why this occurs depends on voice quality the native speaker and the
students try to produce. The students are speakers of a tone language as L1
and familiar with breathy voice quality and so, in reading sentences in
English (FL/SL), they encounter such problems because of their mother
tongue influence. Thus, they found it difficult to read or speak English
words or sentences in a native-like manner due to the voice quality they
have in their nature.
Sentence 19
Sentence 16
Sentence 15
Sentence 14
Sentence 13
Sentence 12
Sentence 11
Sentence 10
Sentence 9
Sentence 8
Sentence 6
Sentence 4
Sentence 3
Sentence 2
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sentence 1
Similarity (%)
Energy Ratio
Figure (e) Same energy ratio in percent of the students as the Native
Speaker
The final acoustic measure taken in the comparison is the energy in
the penultimate 200 ms and the final 200 ms. Energy in Pa 2 s or amplitude
in Pa relates directly to the loudness when speaking or reading the
sentences. The energy ratio of the final 200 ms to the penultimate 200 ms of
all sentences when read by the students can be seen in Figure (e) in
comparison with the Native speaker.
The reason behind this may be because of students’ mother tongue,
Myanmar. Since it is syllable-timed, the students cannot tackle that problem
in sentence final or ending. Students are likely to end the reading of the
sentences assigning each syllable an equal amount of weight regardless of
whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed. According to the energy ratio
of the sentences between the native speaker and the students, it was found
that the students failed to lower the amplitude or energy far enough at the
end of the sentences and thus these sentence finals might be perceived as
not finishing or as a continuation.
66
In Myanmar, these students’ level of English is at the postgraduate
level. Their background knowledge of English pronunciation will be
discussed depending on the information from the questions used in the
questionnaire. It includes 16 questions which provide information related to
their learning of English pronunciation _ their personal and academic
information, when the students learnt Phonetics, how they practised
pronunciation, with which teaching aids they have learnt it and how they
tried to improve their pronunciation.
According to academic information, 44% of the students specialized
in English in their first degree and the other 56% are non-English
specialization students in their undergraduate courses. 32% of students held
Diploma in English from the University of Foreign Languages.
According to the questionnaire, 76% of the students learned
pronunciation in English at the undergraduate or postgraduate level. 68%
has practised their pronunciation by reading aloud and 56% through
speaking.
88% of the students attempted to learn English pronunciation
outside class. 58% studied it using such technological aids as tapesor CDs.
They studied it privately and the courses last 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 8 month(s) in
duration. It reveals that the students may have been familiar with English
phonetics or pronunciation.
While they were learning English pronunciation in their own way,
72% referred to the phonetic symbols in the dictionary, 68% used English
pronunciation practice books, and 76% of them used tapes or CDs as a
reference tool.
76% of the students had experiences in speaking with native English
speakers or other foreigners and 72% admitted that they tried to correct their
pronunciation while speaking with those by imitating their accent.
The final question in the questionnaire states other ways of learning
or practising their pronunciation. In our Myanmar context, these students
attempted to improve their pronunciation in one or more of the following
ways:
(i)
watching video films in English,
(ii)
listening to radio programmes in English such as BBC or
VOA,
67
(iii)
listening to news and songs in English,
(iv)
watching some English TV programs by native English
speakers,
(v)
checking phonetic symbols in the dictionary if the
pronunciation of the words are not sure,
(vi)
imitating the teacher’s pronunciation,
(vii)
observing other students’ pronunciation,
(viii) practising pronunciation depending on how speech organs
work (articulatory phonetics)
(ix)
asking teachers when facing with pronunciation difficulties
and
(x)
checking pronunciation with computer using pronunciation
software.
Students’ way of learning or practising English may be good each in
its own way. One of the students mentioned the final point, that is, to check
pronunciation with computer using the pronunciation software. It gives us
the idea that the use of pronunciation software is not so remote in our study
of a foreign language. Although the student does not point out which
computer software he/she is using, it is noticed that it should be used in the
study of English pronunciation because we are studying English as a foreign
language.
Conclusion
Every language teacher should know the characteristics of the
sounds of the language they teach. When English is spoken or read, there
are several different accents: British, American and others. Knowledge of
the sound system of the students’ mother tongue is found to be useful for
language teachers. This will help them to identify any problems their
students might have with sounds of the target language.
Moreover, the teaching of pronunciation should not terminate in its
segmental aspects of the sound system of the target language. The study of
segmental features leads to an inadequate degree of phonological control in
the new language.
68
In pronouncing English sentences, it was found that the students
failed to read the sentences with correct rising-falling intonation, to control
the flexibility in rate, volume and tone and to use pauses effectively.
In addition, students also tried to pronounce or read the sentences in
their own ways that reflected prosodic characteristics or features in reading
sentences that are likely to be found in their mother tongue. This is because
they are accustomed to the Myanmar sound system even though they are
introduced to the English sounds in Kindergarten or at the primary level.
Consequently, however hard they try to practise English pronunciation at
their undergraduate or postgraduate levels, weaknesses in this area of
language learning can still be found either in reading or speaking in English.
In this research, acoustic phonetics and computers were used for
analyzing speech sounds. Using acoustic analysis may enhance the valuable
ability to monitor students’ pronunciation while learning a language as a
foreign language.
Recommendations for the teaching of English pronunciation for
Myanmar students would be:
•
to concentrate on the matters that most impede intelligibility while
encouraging fluency and confidence;
•
not to neglect the need to interact with the native speaker;
•
to exploit the findings of contrastive analysis to help pinpoint likely
areas of difficulty.
It has been pointed out that contrastive analysis does not provide all
the answers for students’ learning problems in applied linguistics.
Nevertheless, it goes a good way towards pointing us in the right direction.
The researcher would like to suggest that students’ deviation in
pronunciation while reading aloud could be attributed to unconscious
interference from L1 phonological representations, so a contrastive analysis
of the sound system of L1 and L2 may help give learners pertinent
articulatory hints and help avoid anticipated errors.
Furthermore, the researcher thinks that it is also a useful skill for
students to be able to read aloud because there are occasions in social life
that require oral reading. For example, it is not uncommon for people to
share what they have read in a newspaper or magazine with others who are
interested in the content by reading orally excerpts to them. It also often
69
happens in social life that one needs to deliver a written speech to an
audience or to read aloud a circular or some instructions.
And even when someone wants to make or prove a point, he may
find written evidence to support his views and will choose to read it orally.
Moreover, while engaging in radio and television programmes, reading
aloud can be used increasingly by parents and teachers and other
professional people. The requirement in all these situations is the ability to
read well enough so that the interest of the listener is maintained. Thus,
reading aloud is a worth and interesting activity to have the audience listen
to good readers.
Therefore, in all levels of learning English as a foreign language, it
is preferable to conduct the reading aloud exercises and it is essential that
students copy the teacher’s or the model’s correct pronunciation, stress and
intonation.
This research only explains those events at sentence level but other
supra-segmental features such as stress and rhythm cannot be dealt with in
this research. Another limitation is the quality of recording. Recording of
students’ sound was done neither in the sound-proof room nor in an
unechoic studio. Using the same type of MP3 recorders, the researcher
collected the data in the classroom. Thus, there may be some background
noise effect in analyzing the data. The researcher takes only 25 students
whose first language is Myanmar. Considering the small size of the sample,
the results of this research may not constitute a conclusive evaluation of all
Myanmar postgraduate learners of English intonation patterns in reading
aloud.
The sentences used in this research are long or short affirmative
sentences of a tape-script. Further research could be done with focus on
intonation of selected sentences and sentence-types should be: statements,
yes-no questions, statement questions and wh-questions so that the
intonation patterns of Myanmar students can be studied in all aspects of
sentences. Moreover, in the further research on Myanmar students’
intonation of English sentences, the focus should also be on communicative
and pragmatic aspects. Hopefully, research in the future will investigate
other features at both the segmental and suprasegmental emphasizing on
stress, rhythm and other prosodic elements that are found in real-life
conversation, for example, dictation read out by the teacher.
70
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank heartily to my supervisor, Professor Ni
Ni Hlaing, Head of English Department, Mandalay University for her invaluable advice,
patience and precise guidance throughout the whole research work. Secondly, my heartfelt
gratitude goes to my co-supervisor, Professor Sein Thein May, Head of English
Department, Meiktila Institute of Economics. Without her thoughtful suggestions and
encouragement, this work would probably be still incomplete. My thanks are also due to
Dr. Thandar Soe, Professor of English Department, Mandalay University for her guidance
and useful comments. I gratefully acknowledge the contribution of students of Diploma in
English Language Teaching Course in the academic year 2007-2008 who gave their time
when I collected data to carry out this research. My sincere thanks also go to Major Kyaw
Zin, a researcher from Defence Services Science and Technological Research Centre for
his advice in using the pronunciation software.
References
Boersma, P. & D.Weenink, (2008) Praat: doing phonetics by computer (Version 5.0.18)
[Computer
program].
Retrieved
March
31,
2008,
from
http://www.praat.org/
Calhoun, S., (2002) Using Prosody in ASR: the Segmentation of Broadcast Radio News.
An M.Sc. Thesis in Speech and Language Processing, Department of
Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, University of Edinburgh.
Deterding,D.H. and G.R.Poedjosoedarmo, (1998) The Sounds of English: Phonetics and
Phonology for English Teachers in Southeast Asia. Simon& Schuster
(Asia) Pte Ltd.
Gabrielatos,C.(2002) Reading Loud and Clear: Reading Aloud in ELT.
http://www.gabrielatos.com/RA-ERIC.pdf
Jenkins, J. (2004) Research in Teaching Pronunciation and Intonation. Cambridge
University Press
Jia, L. Questions to be reconsidered in teaching pronunciation. Sino-US English Teaching,
ISSN1539-8072, USA, (2007) Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.45)
Spratt, M. (1994) English for the Teacher: A Language Development Course. Cambridge
University Press.
Thein Tun (2007) Acoustic Phonetics and The Phonology of Myanmar Language
(Theories and practices for practical language analysis). Winyadanar
Press, Yangon, Myanmar.
Department of the Myanmar Language Commission, Ministry of Education, Union of
Myanmar. (2001) Myanmar-English Dictionary.
http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/december 04 KO.php
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201/test2materials/prosody.htm
http://www.stanford.edu/~bresnan/duration-all.pdf
Improving Students' Thinking Skill through Japanese Short
Poems 'Haiku '
Minn Thukha
Abstract
Nowadays, Thinking Skill is also an important skill like speaking skill,
listening skill, reading skill and writing skill. There are many ways to
improve the thinking skill, such as using pictures, movies, written
paragraphs and so on. Haiku (Japanese Short Poems) can be used to
improve the thinking skill, for there are many secret thoughts created by
the poet in his Haiku-poems. It is an enjoyable way to think about the
poems not only the words but also the secret thoughts and ideas of the
poet when he made them.
Introduction
In the language universities, teaching methods are mostly based on
four skills: listening skill, speaking skill, reading skill and writing skill. In
addition to these skills, grammar is also taught to students. But nowadays,
thinking skill is also important for the students who work for companies
after their graduation. So it is necessary to teach how to develop thinking
skills in the classroom. Teachers use pictures, cards, movies, written
paragraphs, etc, to improve thinking skills of the students. This research is
to improve students' thinking skills by using Japanese short poems 'Haiku'.
These poems are made of 17 syllables, 5 in first verse, 7 in second and 5 in
third. 'Bashoo' (1644-1694) was a very famous poet in Haiku. He travelled
all around Japan on foot and wherever he went, he made poems about what
he saw, what he heard and what he felt. Most of the 'Haiku-poems' were
formed about the climate, nature, human beings, environment, daily lives of
the people, etc, but they were not shown in direct words. So it is like an
enjoyable game to think about poems or about poets from the words.
Aim
This research will introduce the Japanese short poems called
‘Haiku’. And it also aims to understand how to make ‘Haiku’. The most
important aim is to improve students' thinking skills through Japanese
‘Haiku’. Finally, it aims at helping all the teachers to make their own
‘Haiku-poems’ for thinking skills while teaching Japanese literature.
Lecturer, Department of Japanese, Yangon University of Foreign Languages
72
Data and Method
To prepare for this research, 10 Haiku-poems were chosen from the
Internet and Haiku books and then translated into Myanmar language. Then
questionnaires were made with the help of the teachers from the department
of Myanmar and that of Japanese, and answers were collected and
analyzed. Descriptive method is used to describe the Haiku and thinking
skills of the participants.
Findings
To improve the thinking skills through Haiku, it is necessary to
understand the background history of Haiku. Haiku is one of the most
important forms of traditional Japanese poetry. It is, nowadays, a 17syllable verse form consisting of three metrical units of 5, 7, and 5 syllables.
Since early days, there has been confusion between the three related terms
Haiku, Hokku and Haikai. The term hokku literally means "starting verse",
and was the first starting link of a much longer chain of verses known as
haika. Because the hokku set the tone for the rest of the poetic chain, it
enjoyed a privileged position in haikai poetry, and it was not uncommon for
a poet to compose a hokku by itself without following up with the rest of
the chain. Haiku-poems can describe almost anything, but you seldom find
themes which are too complicated for normal people's recognition and
understanding. Some of the most thrilling Haiku-poems describe daily
situations in a way that gives the reader a brand new experience of a wellknown situation.
Each Haiku must contain a kigo, a season word, which indicates in
which season the Haiku is set. For example, cherry blossoms indicate
spring, snow indicates winter, and mosquitoes indicate summer, but the
season word is not always very obvious. It is to be noticed that Haikupoems are written under different rules and in many languages. For
translated Haiku-poems, the translator must decide whether he should obey
the rules strictly, or if he should present the exact essence of the Haiku. For
Haiku-poems originally written in English, the poet should be more careful.
These are the difficulties, and the pleasure of Haiku. (Basho’s Haiku,
www.haikupoetshut. com/basho1) (Haiku,www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haik)
When studying Haiku, it is necessary to know about Bashoo, who
was the famous poet of Haiku all over the world. Basho Matsuo is known as
the first great poet in the history of haikai (and haiku). He wrote many
73
poems using jokes and plays upon words in his early stages, as they were in
fashion, but began to attach importance to the role of thought in haikai
(especially in hokku) from around 1680.
Before Bashoo, in Japan in the 15th century, a poetic form named
"renga" blossomed. Renga is a poem several poets create cooperatively.
Members alternately add verses of 17 syllables (5, 7, and 5 syllables) and
those of 14 syllables (7 and 7 syllables), until they complete a poem
generally composed of 100 verses. Renga was a dignified academic poem.
Members were traditionally demanded to present their verses following the
medieval aesthetics and quoting the classics. In the 16th century, instead of
renga, it was haikai - humorous poem - that became popular. Haikai
(haikai-renga) is a poem made of verses of 17 and 14 syllables like renga,
but it parodies renga introducing modern vulgar laughter. Haikai poets used
plays on words and treated preferably things of daily life renga had not
found interesting. The first verse of renga and haikai is called "hokku".
Haikai poets sometimes presented their hokku as independent poems. These
were the origin of haiku. It was traditionally demanded to adopt a kigo in
the first verse of renga and haikai. Therefore, they demand to introduce a
kigo in a hokku (and in a haiku) too. (www.geocities.com/Tokyo/island/5022)
Key words shown in the poem of Bashoo are Nature and Life.
Nature means land, forest, mountain, stream, sun, moon, human beings and
Life means difficulties and happiness, living, aging and death. To improve
Thinking Skills by studying Haiku, it is necessary to find season and
climate when the poem was made, conditions of the poet, his or her feelings
and the environment. (Basho’s Haiku, www.haikupoetshut.com/basho1) (Haiku,www.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku)
This paper analyses 10 Haiku-poems by was questionnaires and the
replies, some gave after thinking deeply.
74
Haiku No. 1
yama zakura
山桜
Mountain cherry blossoms
setsurei ten ni
雪嶺天に
Against the snowy peak
Koe mo nashi
声もなし
Silent harmony in heaven
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'What did the poet see before he
wrote the poem?' There were (33) persons who answered the question and
among them, 58% thought it was about the 'mountain' or 'mountain camp'.
15% thought it was about 'Mount Fuji' of Japan. 12% said it was about
'cherry tree' and another 12% meant 'nature'. 3% said it was about 'universe'.
The answers such as mountain or cherry tree can easily be understood, for
they are shown in the poem. But, the answer 'universe' is quite strange, may
be because it was given from deep thought.
Haiku No. 2
raku mo ari
楽もあり
There will be happiness
kuroo mo atte
苦労もあって
There will be pain
ma no tomo yo
真の友よ
What the best friend is
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'About who did the poet write the
poem?' For this Haiku, 64% said it was about 'friend', 12% said 'nature of
human', 6% was 'companion for life', 6% was 'happiness and sorrow', 12%,
meant 'money', 'self', 'literature' and 'life'. The answer ' friend' was clearly
75
understood by the word given at the end of the poem, and other answers
were also reasonable. So the answers meant that the participants thought
very deeply on this poem.
Haiku No. 3
minna issho
皆一緒
We altogether
umi no naka dewa
海の中では
In the wide and rough sea
kuni no tame
国のため
It's for our country
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'Which person did the poet talk
about in his poem?' question, 78% said it was about 'fisherman', 10% said
'navy soldier', and 3% said 'fishing boat', 'youth', 'pearl cultivation', and
'underground exploration'. The answers were appropriate for the question.
As there was the word 'sea', 3% of the participants thought about the
'underground exploration'. It was not a suitable answer.
Haiku No. 4
futari dake
二人だけ
Only you and me
sakuragi no sita
桜木の下
Under the cherry tree
wakamono da
若者だ
For we are young
76
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'Who did the poet talk about in his
poem?' Among the participants, 49% said it was about 'two lovers', 24%
said 'two young people', 12% was 'humans', 9% was 'youth', 3% said 'beauty
of nature' and 'park'. All the answers were appropriate for the question.
Haiku No. 5
sakura no ki
桜の木
Cherry blossom tree
koibito futari
恋人二人
Only two lovers are there
mawatte miru
回って見る
Looking for the dream
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'Who did the poet talk about in his
poem?' 45% said it was about 'friend or lovers', 14% each meant 'happiness'
and 'tranquility of life', 9% said 'flower festival', 3% each on 'sorrow and
happiness', 'youth', 'poet', flower blossom', 'scenery', 'no idea'. All the
answers, except 'no idea' were appropriate. The participants, who answered
'no idea', did not want to think about the poem.
Haiku No. 6
oishii ya
おいしいや
It is delicious
wakaba o totte ne
若葉を取ってね
Picking the young leaves
den too da
伝統だ
It is a traditional
77
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'What object did the poet want to
mention in his poem?' 82% said it was about 'tea plantation', 9% said
'culture', 3% each meant 'farmer', 'no idea', and 'no answer'. As there were
no words about the ' tea' in the poem, the participants could think deeply
about the poem.
Haiku No. 7
kin no hana
金の花
Flowers, made with gold
yozora ni hikaru
夜空に光る
Shining in the evening sky
tokai no ya
都会の夜
Nights of the city
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'What did the poet mean by the
words 'flowers made with gold' in his poem?' 58% said it was about 'firework', 21% said 'electricity', 3% each for 'civil life', 'stars' freedom'
airplane', 'moon', 'sunflower' and 'educated youth'. The participants could
easily think about the fire-works by the words, 'shining in the evening sky'
and 'nights of the city'. The participants who knew about the fire-works
could understand that fire-works can only be seen beautifully at night.
78
Haiku No. 8
shizukasa ya
静かさや
Calm and quiet
iwa no shimi iri
岩の染み入り
Go into the rock
semi no koe
せみの声
Sound of the cicadas
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'In which season and where did the
poet write this poem?'. For this question, 49% said it was about 'summer
beach', 24% said 'spring', 15% said 'autumn', 9% 'forest', and 3% others.
Haiku No. 9
haru no yoru
春の夜
On a spring night
nakinagara neru
泣きながら寝る
Cry to a peaceful sleep
kodomotashi
子供たち
All the children
The question for this 'Haiku' was 'Why were the children crying?'
36% of the participants said 'because it was hot', 12% each 'not understand',
'weak for life', 'separation of parents and children'. 9%each 'unsatisfied' and
'orphan', 3% each 'nature' and 'want to sleep while looking at the sky'.
Haiku No. 10
79
tamashi no
魂の
My soul and my heart
shizuka ni utsuru
静かに移る
Gently moved away
kiku no hana
菊の花
A view of chrysanthemums
The question for this last 'Haiku' was 'about what the poet wrote in
this poem?' 57% said it was about 'funeral', 34% said 'mind', 6% 'flower
field', and strangely 3% 'butterfly.
Discussion
To understand the Haiku, the Japanese Short Poem, we must first
have the background knowledge of Japanese Literature and Japanese
Culture. In the ancient times, the Haiku-poems were made about nature such
as mountains, rivers, forests, streams, paddy fields and so on. Then the poet
created the new style of Haiku made for humour about the daily lives of the
people. Some of the humours cannot make the non-Japanese people laugh,
for there are some underlying meanings for them to understand. The nature
and habits of Japanese people and Myanmar people are not very different,
so, as for the Myanmar people, Japanese Haiku-poems are easy to
understand and easy to get the feeling what the poet wants to convey. This
research was based on the thinking skills of the teachers from Myanmar
Department and Japanese Department of YUFL. Teachers are making an
attempt to develop the thinking skills as well as the writing skill of the
learners by making Haiku-poems. This research, therefore, can continue
with the Japanese Language students from first year to third year at YUFL.
In doing so, students are interested in making their own Haiku-poems and
also they can get exposure to improve the thinking skill and writing skill.
80
Conclusion
In conclusion, Myanmar people can understand the Japanese Haiku.
They can feel the heart of Haiku and can interpret the hidden meaning of
Haiku, which cannot be seen easily. The person who can understand and
feel the Haiku, can be in touch with the nature and culture of Japanese
people and Japanese literature. This research paper, about Haiku, showed
that Myanmar people can improve the thinking skill by studying the Haiku.
It is possible to make their own Haiku. I would like to find what students
will have new feelings on Haiku-poems. So I deeply believe that Haiku can
improve the Thinking Skills of students and it will be useful for their life.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Dr. Lwin Lwin Soe, Rector, Yangon University of Foreign
Languages, who gave the opportunity to present Thinking Skills and Haiku and her
guidance to the successful completion of this paper, and all the teachers from the
Department of Myanmar and Department of Japanese, who willingly participated in
questionnaires. Without their help, I could not have completed this research. I would like to
thank especially Daw Khin Myo Naing and Daw Khine Thu Thu Tun, tutors from the
Japanese Department, YUFL, who gave me a valuable book written about Japanese Haiku.
References
Min Thu Won, (1980). Haiku to taste. Yangon: Khittayar Press.
Miura Yuzuru, (1992). Classic Haiku A Master’s Selection (2nd Printing), Tokyo,Japan.
Charles E. Tuttle Company.
Ye Mya Lwin, (1995). Lovely Haiku Poem.Yangon Arr man thit Press.
Internet Resources
Biography of Basho www.haikupoetshut Retrieved from Date 19.11.2010
Basho’s Haiku,www.haikupoetshut.com/basho1, Retrieved from Date 19.11.2010
Haiku,www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku, Retrieved from Date 19.11.2010
geocities.(2010).www.geocities.com/Tokyo/island/5022, Retrieved from Date 19.11.2010
A Study of Sequential Verbs in Myanmar
San San Aye
Abstract
One of the main characteristics of the Myanmar language included in
monosyllabic languages is the combination of words. When studying the
structure of Myanmar verbs, most of them except for original
monosyllabic verbs and original polysyllabic verbs, are found to be
sequential verbs that combine themselves. It can be noticed that positions
are important in the combination of words in the Myanmar language. In
particular, depending on positions when they combine, their meanings
and functions are found to be different.
Key words: sequential verb, monosyllabic verbs, original polysyllabic
verbs, doubled verbs, ordinary compound, pre-verb compound, auxiliary
compound.
Introduction
One of the main characteristics of the Myanmar language included
in monosyllabic languages is the combination of words. For example, the
noun “tpm;” / s/ (eating) is derived from the combination of “t”//
(prefix) and “pm;”// (to eat). By combining “oGm;”// (to go) and
“vm”/l/ (to come) the compound verb “oGm;vm”/w l/ (come and go) is
derived. The combination of “arh”/me/ (to forget) and “oGm;” /w/ (to go)
gives rise to a sequential verb “arhoGm;” /me w/ (to forget). In this case,
the verb “oGm;” /w/ (to go) no longer carries the meaning “to move from
one place to another.” The pronoun “ol” /u/ (he) suffixed with “ukd” /go/
becomes a noun phrase “olUukd” /u / (him). If a creaky tone is added to
the pronoun “ol” /u/ (he) the suffix “ukd” /go/ changes to a voiced sound. In
Myanmar, there are a variety and series of combinations of words as
mentioned above. This paper aims to present the ways in which the
Myanmar verbs combine.
Aim
This study is aimed to seek and analyze sequential verbs in
Myanmar.
Lecturer, Department of Linguistics, Yangon University of Foreign Language
82
Data and Method Used
The data were collected on the basis of Myanmar Dictionary and
Text on Syntactic Structures in Myanmar by U Pe Maung Tin. Descriptive
method is used in this study.
Findings
Types of verb combinations
According to John Okell, a member of a compound verb may be
either ordinary, pre verb, or auxiliary and verb combinations can be
generally divided into three types:
(1) ordinary compound
=
main verb + main verb
(2) pre-verb compound
=
pre-verb + main verb
(3) auxiliary compound =
main verb + auxiliary (Okell: 1969: 2.4)
The text on Myanmar grammar published by the Myanmar
Language Commission states that more than two verbs can combine
(Myanmar Language Commission:2005:308). This paper presents ways of
verb combinations and their functions. On the basis of Okell’s definition of
a compound verb, Myanmar verb phrases will be analyzed.
Ordinary Compound
To make a complete sentence in Myanmar, it needs at least a verb
phrase containing a main verb, except for an equivalent sentence in which
two noun phrases can be found without verb or verb phrase, as in “ol
q&m0ef” //u sh ja -wi// (He’s a doctor.) or “a':at;at;u
ausmif;q&mrvm;” //d e  ga a sh ja ma la// (Is Daw Aye Aye a
teacher?). In English, two main verbs can be linked with the conjunction
“and”. Basically, it implies that the two main verbs from the two sentences
combine, for example:
(1) Kyi Kyi came in.
(2) Kyi Kyi sat down.
The two sentences above can combine in two ways as follows:
(3) Kyi Kyi came in and she sat down.
83
(4) Kyi Kyi came in and sat down. (Myanmar Language Commission,
2001:45)
In sentence (3), the two sentences combine, and in sentence (4), the
two main verbs combine.
In Myanmar, such a conjunction is not needed. Instead, the two
main verbs can directly combine. As found in common, such a feature is
called ordinary compound. It is found that when the two verbs combine, the
original sense of the combined verb cannot be normally interpreted, but a
new sense arises. For example,
Ordinary compound
BuD;us,f
= Main Verb
/t /
+ Main Verb
BuD; /t/
us,f //
(to be arrogant)
(to be grate)
(to be wide)
qif;ouf /shi  /
qif; /shi /
ouf / /
(to derive)
(to go down)
(to go down)
wkdufwGef; /t t/
wkduf /t/
wGef; /t/
(to urge)
(to crash)
(to push)
Among them, the first part of the main verb and the second part of
the main verb agree and combine. For example,
Doubled verb
=
Main Verb
+
Main Verb
csufjyKwf /th pjo/
csuf /th/
jyKwf /pjo/
(to cook)
(to cook)
(to boil)
Munfh½I /ti  u/
Munfh /ti  /
½I /u/
(to have a look)
(to look at)
(to look at)
a&;om; /je a/
a&; /je /
om; /a/
(to write)
(to write)
(to draw)
In these verbs, the two verbs with similar meanings can be seen to
combine, but their meanings are not identical (Myanmar Language
Commission, 2001:45). The verbs “csuf” /th/ (to cook) and “jyKwf”
84
/pjo/ (to boil) represent the two ways of cooking. Although the verb
“Munfh” /ti  / (to look at) can be used in both writing and speaking, the verb
]]½I” /u/ (to look at) is not used in speech. It is commonly used in literary
writings. The verb “a&;” /je / (to write) represents the vivid drawing of
characters and words, but the verb “om; ” /a/ (to draw) only stands for the
drawing of straight lines. In these verbs, the first part is supported by the
second part, in other words, the meaning of the first part can be said to carry
the main meaning.
Such a feature can also be seen in the combination of more than two
verbs, for example:
Doubled verb
= Verb
qkH;roGefoif
= qkH;r
+
Verb
+ Verb ….
oGefoif
/sho ma-u -i /
/sho ma/
/-u -i /
(to admonish)
(to admonish) (to teach)
a&mif;0,fazmufum;
= a&mif;0,f
/ja w pha ka/
/ja w/
/pha ka/
(to commerce)
(to trade)
(to engage in trade)
<ua&muftm;ay;csD;jr§ihf
azmufum;
= <ua&muf
tm;ay;
csD;jr§ifh
/a pe/
/thi  hmji /
/twa ja a pe thi  hmji /
/twa ja/
(to come, encourage and honour)
(to come) (to encourage) (to honour)
In some compound verbs, they indicate order rather than similarities
and differences in meaning, for example:
Compound verb
=
0,fpm; /w sa/
= 0,f /w /
(to buy and eat)
ajy;zuf /pje ph/
(to run and hug)
xkwfjy /tho pja/
(to take out and show)
Verb
+
(to buy)
= ajy; /pje/
(to run)
= xkwf /tho/
(to take out)
Verb
pm; /sa/
(to eat)
zuf /ph/
(to hug)
jy /pja/
(to show)
85
As the two verbs combine, they cannot always be said to be main
verbs. Only the first part is the main verb, and the second part is merely for
the sake of rhyme, and smoothness in sound. For example,
Compound verb
= Verb
jcm;em; /tha na/
= jcm; /tha /
(to differ)
½Sm;yg; /a ba/
(to be rare)
at;aq; /e she/
(to be calm)
+
Verb
em; /na/
(to differ)
( - )
= ½Sm; /a/
yg; /ba/
(to be rare)
( - )
= at; /e/
aq; /she/
(to be calm)
( - )
In these examples, the second part supports the first part in terms of
smoothness in sound. However, “jcm;” /tha / (differ) and “em;” /na/( ), “½Sm;” /a/ (to be rare) and “yg;” /ba/ ( - ) combine so often that they
rather convey single verbs than compound ones.
Pre-verb compound
In the Myanmar language, a verb tends to precede the main verb.
Such a combination can be considered to be pre-verb compound. For
example, some action verbs can combine as pre-verbs:
Pre-verb compound
=
Pre-verb
vSnfhjyef /hl -pja/
=
vSnfh /hl/
jyef /-pja/
(to turn)
(to go back)
( to turn and go back)
vkdufvkyf /lai lo/
=
(to follow and do)
xxkdif /tha - thai /
(to get up and sit up)
=
+
Main Verb
vkduf /lai/
vkyf /lo/
(to follow)
(to do)
x /tha /
xkdif /-thai /
(to get up)
(to sit up)
In fact, ordinary compound and pre-verb compound differ because
in the first example “vSnfhjyef” /hl -pja/ (to turn and go back) derives from
“vSnfhNyD;jyef” /hl pi  -pja/ ( to turn and go back) in which “vSnfhNyD;” /hl pi/
(to turn and) as a dependent clause modifies the main clause “jyefonf” /-
86
pja i/ (to go back). However, it turns out to be a compound verb as it is
often used without the verb “NyD;” /pji/ (to finish).
Auxiliary Compound
As Myanmar is a mono-syllabic language, each syllable carries a
meaning. If a meaning is added to another one, they combine, as stated
earlier. The main purpose of this paper is to present how verbs themselves
combine, and the ways they combine, which meanings they carry, and
which functions they perform have been presented in steps. Now, what
continues to be presented is the fact that the second verb loses its original
meaning in the combination of the two verbs, and it just has the meaning
that supports the main verb. The second verb in this case is regarded as an
auxiliary verb.
Compound verb
= Main Verb
pm;Munfh /sa ti/
= pm; /sa /
(to try eating)
vkyfMunfh /lo ti/
(to try doing)
ar;Munfh /me ti/
(to try asking)
+ Auxiliary Verb
Munfh /ti/
(to eat)
(to try)
= vkyf /lo /
Munfh /ti/
(to do)
(to try)
= ar; /me /
Munfh /ti/
(to ask)
(to try)
In these examples, the verb “Munfh” /ti/ (to try) no longer has the
meaning “to have a look”, and just has to support the main verb in a sense
of “testing”. In other words, it is no longer an action verb, but implies a
psychological state. If the compound verbs are in reverse forms, the verb
“Munfh” /ti/ (to try) emerges with its original sense, and serves as a preverb, for example:
Compound verb
= Pre-verb
+
Main Verb
Munfhpm; /ti sa/
(to have a look and eat)
Munfhvkyf /ti lo/
(to have a look and do)
Munfhar; /ti me/
(to have a look and ask)
87
= Munfh /ti/
pm; /sa/
(to have a look)
= Munfh /ti/
(to eat)
vkyf /lo/
(to have a look)
= Munfh /ti/
(to do)
ar; /me/
(to have a look)
(to ask)
It can be noticed that if in Myanmar a verb is to be used as an
auxiliary, it is to follow the main verb, and if it is to serve as a pre-verb, it is
to precede the main verb.
Some of the auxiliary verbs in common use can be seen in the
following examples:
Compound verb
= Main Verb
ajymay; /pj pe/
= ajym /pj/
(to tell on behalf)
zwfEkdif /pha -hnai /
(to be able to read)
pm;xm; /sa tha/
(to eat ahead)
+ Auxiliary Verb
(to tell)
= zwf /pha/
(to read)
= pm; /sa /
(to eat)
ay; /pe/
(to be on behalf)
Ekdif /-hnai /
(to be able to)
xm; /tha/
(to do something ahead)
In the examples above, the original meanings of the verbs used as
auxiliary verbs can be guessed, but it is hard to guess those of some
auxiliary verbs. Their grammatical functions can then be referred to. For
example, in the compound verb “ay;awmh” /pe d/ (give) the original
meaning of the auxiliary verb “awmh” /d/ cannot be sensed. It is learnt that
it can just be used in an imperative sentence according to its grammatical
function.
In the text of Myanmar sentence structure by Sayagyi U Pe Maung
Tin (1961:106), the auxiliary verb “awmh” /d/ is stated as follows:
(a)
“awmh” /d/ is used like “avmh” /l/ in giving instructions. However, it
implies agreement. For example, “umvwefNyD oGm;awmh” //ka la -ta bji
wa d// ( It’s time to go.) (Manikounnala: 38)
88
(b) “awmh” /d/ indicates the action of the verb which is about to occur in the
near future, as in: “a&csdKa&mif;xGufawmhrnf” //je do ja thw t mji//
( I’m about to go out for selling water.”) (Yethe: 92)
(c) “awmh” /d/ indicates profundity in meaning, as in: “olawmfaumif;wkdY
csD;rGrf;tyfaom "avhjzpfawmhonf” //u d ga do thi mu a  d le phji
t i//(It is truly a custom that deserves to be praised by the righteous
persons.) (Mahazanaka: 163)
(d) “awmh” /d/ indicates when associated with “r-ESifh” /ma hni / prohibition
against doing something, as in: “eifroGm;ESifhawmh" //-ni m wa n d//
( Don’t you go!) The auxiliary verb “awmh” /d/ is used either to give
instructions or to make emphasis. (Yethe: 102)
(e) “awmh” /d/ indicates when associated with “ap” /ze/ and “&ap” /ja ze/
deeper meaning of the verb, as in: “þrQom ajymyg&apawmh” // i hmja a
pj b ja ze d// (Just let me say this, and no more!” (Mahazanaka: 62)
As regards the use of compound verbs, Maung Khin Min
(2001:90-91) quoted that,
Sayagyi Shwe-U-Down saying that both in writing and in literay-like
speaking in Myanmar, verbs in series are used. For example, he pointed
out the habitual use of the verbs “oGm;a&muf” /wa ja/ (to go)? “zrf;qD;”
/pha shi/ (to arrest)? “ajymqkd” /pj sho/ (to tell), etc. In particular, the
verbs can hardly be used in isolation. By using them in series, some give
rise to profundity in meaning, but others not only are not deep in meaning
but also bring about incorrect or misleading sense, as pointed out with the
use of “oGm;a&mufvdrfhrnf” //wa ja lei  mji// (will go). As it is used in a
sense “will go” before actual going is done, the verb “a&muf” /ja/
(to arrive) is not only redundant but also incorrect.
In other words, if the verb phrase “vma&mufvnfywfvdrfhrnf” //la ja
l pa lei  mji// (will come, arrive and visit) is studied, the person in
question has not arrived yet. In the phrase “cspfMunfa&;c&D; vma&mufrnf
jzpfonf” //thi ti je kh ji la ja mji phji i// (will come on a friendship
visit) the expression “vma&mufrnf” // la ja mji// (will come, arrive and
visit) is used to indicate the fact that the sense of the verb “a&muf” /ja/ (to
arrive) is lost, but is merely meant for emphasis.
Discussion
89
The above-mentioned sequential verbs are used as they combine
among verbs with similar meanings, or among those with different
meanings. They combine in order to indicate the transaction of work in
succession. They combine in such a way that some verbs are used as
auxiliary ones.
It can be noticed that positions are important in the combination of
words in the Myanmar language. In particular, depending on positions when
they combine, their meanings and functions are found to differ.
The sequential verbs are in common use as they combine among
those with similar or different meanings so as to make their meaning more
profound, or more vivid. Only if they are in their right positions, they can
carry effective senses, as intended by the speaker.
Conclusion
One of the main characteristics of the Myanmar language included
in mono-syllabic languages is the combination of its words. When studying
the verb structure of Myanmar, it is found that most of the verbs except for
original mono-syllabic verbs and original poly-syllabic ones are sequential
verbs formed of the verbs themselves. This paper presents the nature of
such verbs. There may be some limitations and weaknesses. Suggestions are
requested for such drawbacks that might occur in this paper.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Lwin Lwin Soe, Rector of Yangon University of Foreign
Languages, who guided me for the accomplishment of this paper, Pro-rectors, Dr. Myo
Han and Dr. Tin Htwe, Dr Daw Hla Nyunt, Professor and head of Linguistics Department,
Professor Dr. Thant Sin Aye, Associate Professor Daw Than Than Htay, and all the
teachers at Linguistics Department.
References
Cornyn, W.S. (1944). “Outline of Burmese Grammar” (Language dissertation 38).
Language 20/4 supplement. Rangoon: Reproduced by Offset Process, at
the Rangoon University Press.
Crystal, David. (2000). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.
90
Khin Min, Maung (Danubyu). (1990). Portrait of Myanmar Language and Literature:
Yangon. Sarpaybeikman.
----- . (1992). Myanmar linguists and their views on the language: Yangon: Su sarpay.
----- . (2001). One, two, and three sounds. Yangon: Duwun Bookshop.
Ko Lay, Maung .(2002). Myanmar Grammar (Linguistic Study) Dissertation submitted for
the PhD degree to Yangon University.
Myanmar Language Commission. (1991). Myanmar Dictionary. Yangon: Department of
Myanmar Language Commission.
----- .(2001). English-Myanmar Dictionary. Yangon: Department of Myanmar Language
Commission.
----- .(2005). Myanmar Grammar. Yangon: Department of Myanmar Language
Commission.
Okell, John, (1969). A Reference Grammar of Colloquial Burmese, Part I. London: Oxford
University Press.
Pe Maung Tin, U. (1951). Text on Myanmar Sentence Structure. Yangon: Myanmar
Naingan Translation Association.
----- . (1956). Some Features of the Burmese Language, JBRS, XXXIX, ii.pp-p 193-202.
Yangon: University Press.
Tun Myint, U. (1995). Linguistics. Yangon: GEC Educational Co-operatives Association
Limited.
A Brief Study on translation of Myanmar and English
Proverbs into French by Third Year BA French Students
May Thwe Htoon
Abstract
This paper is a comparative study. French translation and interpretation
are taught to the third year BA students who are studying French at
Yangon University of Foreign Languages. Myanmar proverbs and
English proverbs are translated into French in Tutorial Classes. Their
translations are compared with French Original Proverbs. These proverbs
are studied comparatively with the original French proverbs. According
to the study, some difficulties occur when Myanmar proverbs are
translated to French. When English proverbs are translated to French, it
can be translated accurately. These proverbs of English and French also
have the same meaning. The research area is demarcated and it involves
fifteen proverbs which are metaphorical expressions concerning animals.
Introduction
Every nation has its own proverbs, adages and usages. It is very
difficult to translate these proverbs, adages and usages correctly to other
languages. When translation concerning proverbs is made from Myanmar to
French, English to French, French to Myanmar, and French to English some
proverbs are easy to be translated but some proverbs are difficult. In this
paper, a study is made on English and Myanmar proverbs, which are
metaphorical expressions concerning animals. According to the outcome of
translation, some proverbs can be translated as the same meaning of the
original French, some translations are different from the meaning of the
original French and some translations are entirely different from the
meaning of the original French. This paper intends to inform the students
that the differences occur due to the differences in culture, customs and
metaphorical expressions among nations.
Assistant Lecturer, Department of French, Yangon University of Foreign Languages
92
Aim and Objective
This paper will help students know that some difficulties will occur
in translation of proverbs from Myanmar to French and English to French.
This paper will help the students to use correct usages without making
mistakes in translation. This paper will help the students to know that as
there are differences of nations, the proverbs and metaphorical expression
will also be different among the nations. This paper will also help the
students when translation is made into other languages. This paper will help
students to achieve more vocabularies from English and French.
Materials and Methods
Some French, English and Myanmar proverbs are downloaded from
internet. Some data are collected from translations which are made by the
third year BA students in their tutorial class. In this paper, a study is made
by studying the similarities and differences of translation of proverbs along
with the original French. Descriptive method and comparative method are
used in this paper.
Finding
The original Myanmar and English proverbs are translated directly
into French by the students and these translations are studied in
comparison with original French proverbs.
In this paper, fifteen proverbs of Myanmar and French are
extracted. These are metaphorical expressions concerning animal.
Translation is made by third year BA students in tutorial class. A study is
made on the similarities and differences that occur in translation.
1. Myanmar Proverbs in English
English Proverbs
: aMumifr½Sd MuGufx?
 
(The cat gone, the mice dance.) 
(When the cat is away, the mice
will dance/ play.)
: When the cat away, the mice will
play.
93
French Proverbs and Literal translation of French proverbs in
English:
(1). Le chat parti, les souris dansent. (The cat gone, the mice dance.)
(2). Quand le chat n’est pas là, les souris dansent. (When the cat is not
there, the mice dance.)
(3). Absent le chat, les souris dansent. (The cat is absent, the mice
dance.)
Students’ Literal translation of Myanmar proverbs into French:
(1). Quand / S’il n’y a pas de chat, les souris sont amusantes/ dansent.
(When / If there is no cat, the mice are amusing/ dance.)
(2). Les souris sont amusantes sans le chat. (The mice are amusing, the
cat is absent.)
Students’ Literal translation of English proverbs into French:
Quand le chat est parti, les souris dansent. (When the cat away, the
mice will play.)
Result (1) Translation is acceptable when Myanmar and English proverbs
are translated into French as original meaning and metaphorical expressions
are the same among Myanmar, English and French proverbs.
:
zm;Edkifzm;pm;?ig;Edkifig;pm;?

(If the frog is greater the frog wins, if the fish is greater the fish wins.)
English Proverbs
: Big fish eat little fish.
English:
Les gros poisons mangent les petits. (The big fish eat the little fish.)
94
(1). Si la grenouille est grande, elle mangera des petits poissons et si le
poisson est grand, il mangera des petites grenouilles. (If the frog
is greater the frog will eat the little fish, if the fish is greater the
fish will eat the frog.)
(2). Si la grenouille gagne, elle mangera et si le poisson gagne, il
mangera. (If the frog wins, the frog will eat and if the fish wins,
the fish will eat.)
Les gros poisons mangent les petits. (The big fish eat the little fish.)
Result (2) The proverbs have the same meaning between Myanmar and
French but metaphorical expressions are different so it is different from the
original French proverbs when translated. When English proverbs are
translated into French, the original meanings do not change.
: a[mifvGef;aomacG;
vlrav;?
 
(Man is not afraid of the barking dog.)
English Proverbs
: (1). A barking dog does not bite.
(2). Barking dogs seldom bite.
English:
Chien qui aboie ne mord pas.(Barking dog doesn’t bite.)
(1). L’homme n’a pas peur du chien aboyé trop.(Man is not afraid of
the barking dog.)
(2). La personne ne respecte pas le chien qui aboie trop. (Man does not
respect a barking dog.)
Chien qui aboie ne mord pas. (Barking dog doesn’t bite.)
95
original French proverbs when translation is made. When English proverbs
are translated into French, the original meanings do not change.
: pdkifaoxuf?
pdkif½SifudkrrufeJY?

(Don’t want to have a live doe than a
dead doe.)
English Proverbs
:(1). A bird in one hand is worth two in the
bush.
(2). A living dog is better than a dead lion.
English:
(1). Un tiens vaut mieux que deux tu l’auras. (One of yours is better
than two that you will have.)
(2). Un chien vivant vaut mieux qu’un lion mort. (A live dog is worth
more than a dead lion.)
(3). L’alouette en main vaut mieux que l’oie que vole. (The lark in the
hand is better than the goose that flies.)
Ne voudriez pas le cerf vivant plus que le cerf mort. (Don’t want to
have a live deer than a dead deer.)
Un chien vivant vaut mieux qu’un lion mort. (A living dog is better
than a dead lion.)
Result (4) The proverbs which have the same meaning between Myanmar
and French but metaphorical expressions are different so it is different from
the original French proverbs when translated. When English proverbs are
96
: ESrf;wpfaphESifYqDrjzpfEdkif?

(One sesame seed will not make oil.)
English Proverbs
: One swallow does not make a summer.
English:
Une hirondelle ne fait pas printemps. (A swallow does not make a
summer.)
Une seule graine de sésame ne fait pas de l’huile. (One sesame seed
does not make oil.)
Une hirondelle ne fait pas printemps. (A swallow does not make a
summer.)
6. Myanmar Proverbs in English :
udk,fhig;csOf udk,fcsOf?
hi //
(He praises the pickling of his own
fish.) (Praise your own pickled fish.)
English Proverbs
: Every bird thinks his nest the finest.
English:
(1). A chaque oiseau son nid est beau. (Each bird his nest is beautiful.)
(2). A tout oiseau son nid est beau. (All birds his nest is beautiful.)
97
(1). On pense qu’on est le plus beau. (One thinks oneself the most
beautiful.)
(2). On pense qu’on est le mieux.
A chaque oiseau pense que son nid est le plus beau. (Every bird
thinks his nest the finest.)
: EGm;a½SY
xGefusL;?
 
(Harrow before the cow.) (The cow
before the harrow)
English Proverbs
: Don’t put the cart before the horse.
English:
(1). Il ne faut jamais mettre la charrue avant les bœufs.(One should
never put the plow before the oxen.)
(2). Mettre la charrue devant les bœufs.(Put the plow before the
oxen.)
Mettre la charrue devant les bœufs. (Put the plow before the oxen.)
Ne mettez pas la charrette avant le cheval. (Don’t put the cart before
the horse.)
Result(7) The proverbs have the different meaning between Myanmar and
French but metaphorical expressions are the same so when English proverbs
are translated into French, the meaning is the same but metaphorical
expressions are different, the translation is unacceptable.
98
8. Myanmar Proverbs in English : tvum;&onfhEGm;?oGm;jzJ
rMunfhoifh?
 
(Don’t look at the teeth of the ox
which is received as a gift.)
English Proverbs
: (1). Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth.
(2). Never look a gift horse in the mouth.
English:
(1). À cheval donné, on ne regarde pas la dent. (Don’t look at the teeth
of the horse received as a gift.)
(2). À cheval donné, on ne regarde pas la bouche. (Don’t look at the
mouth of the horse received as a gift.)
(3). À cheval donné, on ne regarde pas la bride. (One doesn’t look at
the reins of a horse given as a gift.)
Il ne faut pas regarder des dents du bœuf gratuit. (One should not look
at the teeth of gift ox.)
Ne regardez pas le bouche à cheval donné. ( Don’t look a gift horse in
the mouth.)
Result (8) Translation is correct when Myanmar and English proverbs are
translated into French as original meaning and metaphorical expressions are
the same among Myanmar, English and French proverbs.
: wpfaeYwpfvH?
yk*H b,fra½GY?

(One day six feet where Bagan move to?)
(One day one yard, Bagan cannot escape.)
English Proverbs
: Step by step one goes far.
99
English:
(1). Petit à petit l’oiseau fait son nid. (Little by little, the bird builds its
nest.)
(2). Rome ne s'est pas faite en un (seul) jour. (Rome wasn’t built in a
day.)
(3). Pas à pas, on va très loin. (Step by step one goes far.)
Un jour un mètre, Bagan ne s’enfuit pas. (One day one yard, Bagan
cannot escape.)
Pas à pas, on va très loin. (Step by step one goes far.)
translated into French, the original meanings are the same and translation is
acceptable.
10. Myanmar Proverbs in English : ,kefr&cif?
oHyk&m½Sm?

(Searching for a lime before he gets
the hare.)
English Proverbs
:(1). Don’t count your chickens before
they’re hatched. (GB)
(2). Don’t count your chickens before
they hatch. (US)
(3). Don’t sell the bearskin until you
have killed the bear.
100
English:
Il ne faut pas vendre la peau de l’ours avant de l’avoir tué. (You
shouldn’t sell the bearskin before killing the bear.)
Avant d’avoir le lapin, chercher le citron. (One should not search
for a lemon before he gets the rabbit.)
Il ne faut pas vendre la peau de l’ours avant de l’avoir tué. (You
shouldn’t sell the bearskin before killing the bear.) (Don’t sell the
bearskin until you have killed the bear.)
translated into French, as the original meanings are the same, translation is
acceptable.
11. Myanmar Proverbs in English : ESHjynfpkwf?
tajrmufESifhcsdef?
 //
( Point the cannon at the tailor
bird.)
(Aim a cannon at a sunbird)
English Proverbs
: He takes a spear to kill a fly.
English:
(1). Ecraser une mouche avec un marteau pilon. (Crush a fly with a
power hammer.)
(2). Tuer une mouche avec un canon. (Kill a fly with cannon.)
(3). Pointer un canon sur l’oiseau - couturier. (Point the cannon at the
tailor bird.)
101
(1). Pointer un canon sur l’oiseau - couturier. (Point the cannon at the
tailor bird.)
(2). Qui vise un petit oiseau avec un canon. (One aims the cannon at
the bird.)
(3). Le canon vise au petit oiseau. (The cannon point at the small
bird)
On prend une lance pour tuer une mouche. (He takes a spear to kill
a fly.)
Result(11) The proverbs have the different meaning between Myanmar and
French but metaphorical expressions are the same so the translation is
acceptable when translated from Myanmar into French. When English
proverbs are translated into French, as the meaning is the same but
metaphorical expressions are different, the translation is unacceptable.
: usm;aoudk?
toufroGif;ygESifh?

(1). Don’t make alive a dead tiger.
(2). Don’t wake up sleeping tiger.
English Proverbs
: Let sleeping dogs lie.
English:
(1). Ne réveillez pas le chat qui dort.
(2). Il ne faut pas réveiller un chat qui dort. (Don’t wake the sleeping
cat.)
102
(1). Ne réveillez pas le tigre qui dort. (Don’t wake up sleeping tiger.)
(2). Ne touchez pas la ruche avec le bâton. (Don’t poke a beehive with
stick.)
Laissez dormir le chien qui est couché. (Let sleeping dogs lie.)
Result (12)When translated from Myanmar and English proverbs into
French as the original meaning and usage among Myanmar, French and
English proverbs are the same but metaphorical expressions are different,
there a bit difference in meaning the original proverbs.
13. Myanmar Proverbs in English : wpfcgaozl;?
ysOfzdk;em;vnf?

(Once you have known death, you
come to know the price of a coffin.)
English Proverbs
: (1). Once bitten, twice shy.
(2). A burnt child dreads the fire.
English:
Chat échaudé craint l’eau froide. (Scalded cat fears cold water.)
Mourir une fois, comprendre le prix du bois. (Once you have died,
you know the price of wood.)
L’enfant brulé a peur du feu. (A burnt child is afraid of fire.)
Result(13) Translation is entirely unacceptable when Myanmar and English
proverbs are translated into French as original meanings are the same but
metaphorical expressions are different. Incorrect translation occurs because
of different usages.
14. Myanmar Proverbs in English : ig;&HUESpfaumifrzrf;ESifh?
103

( Don’t catch two catfish at the
same time.)
English Proverbs
: Don’t try to do two things at once.
English:
Il ne faut jamais courir deux lièvres à la fois. (One should never run
after two hares at the same time.) (Don’t follow two rabbits at the
same time.)
Il ne faut jamais attraper les deux poissons à la fois. (Don’t catch
two catfish at the same time.)
Il ne faut pas essayer de faire deux affaires à la fois. (Don’t try to do
two things at once.)
Result(14) Translation is entirely incorrect when Myanmar and English
15. Myanmar Proverbs in English : axmifjrif?&mpGefY?
 
(Risk a hundred to reap a thousand.)
English Proverbs
: Give a little to get a lot.
English:
(1). Il faut savoir donner un œuf pour avoir un bœuf. (You have to
know how to give an egg to get an ox.)
(2). Donner un œuf pour avoir un bœuf. (Give an egg to get an ox.)
104
Si on voit mille, on donne cent. (Give a hundred to get a
thousand.)
Donner un peu pour avoir beaucoup. (Give a little to get a lot.)
Result(15) Translation is entirely incorrect when Myanmar and English
Discussion and Conclusion
According to finding, discussion and conclusion are as follows:
(a) The proverbs have the same meaning between Myanmar and
French but metaphorical expressions are different so it is different
from the original French proverbs when translated into Myanmar
(1) Myanmar proverb
: a[mifvGef;aomacG;
vlrav;?
 
(Man is not afraid of the barking dog.)
English proverb
: A barking dog does not bite.
French proverb
: Chien qui aboie ne mord pas.
(Barking dog doesn’t bite.)
(2) Myanmar proverb
: pdkifaoxuf?
pdkif½SifudkrrufeJY?

(Don’t want to have a live doe than a dead
doe.)
English proverb
: A living dog is better than a dead lion.
French proverb
: Un chien vivant vaut mieux qu’un lion mort.
(A live dog is worth more than a dead lion.)
(3) Myanmar proverb
: ESrf;wpfaphESifhqDrjzpfEdkif?

105
(One sesame seed will not make oil.)
English proverb
: One swallow does not make a summer.
French proverb
: Une hirondelle ne fait pas printemps.
(A swallow does not make a summer.)
(4) Myanmar proverb
: udk,fhig;csOf?udk,fcsOf?
hi //
(He praises the pickling of his own fish.)
English proverb
: Every bird thinks his nest the finest.
French proverb
: A chaque oiseau son nid est beau.
(Each bird his nest is beautiful.)
(5) Myanmar proverb
: wpfaeYwpfvH?
yk*Hb,fra½GY?

(One day one yard, Bagan cannot escape.)
English proverb
: Step by step one goes far.
French proverb
: Petit à petit l’oiseau fait son nid.
(Little by little, the bird builds its nest.
(6) Myanmar proverb
: ,kefr&cif?
oHyk&m½Sm?

(Searching for a lime before he gets the hare.)
English proverb
: Don’t sell the bearskin until you have killed
the bear.
French proverb
: Il ne faut pas vendre la peau de l’ours avant
de l’avoir tué.
(You shouldn’t sell the bearskin before killing
the bear.)
(7) Myanmar proverb
: wpfcgaozl;? ysOfzdk;em;vnf?

106
(Once you have died you have to know how
to lay out the corpse.)
(Once you have known death, you come to
know the price of a coffin.)
English proverb
: A burnt child dreads the fire.
French proverb
: Chat échaudé craint l’eau froide.(Scalded cat
fears cold water.)
(8) Myanmar proverb
: axmifjrif?&mpGefY?  
(Risk a hundred to reap a thousand.)
English proverb
: Give a little to get a lot.
French proverb
: Il faut savoir donner un œuf pour avoir un
bœuf.
(You have to know how to give an egg to
get an ox.)
(b) The proverbs have the same meaning between Myanmar and
French and though the animals are different, metaphorical
expressions are the same so it is close to the original French
proverbs when translated into Myanmar
(1) Myanmar proverb
: zm;Edkifzm;pm;?ig;Edkifig;pm;?

(If
the frog is greater the frog wins, if the fish is
greater the fish wins.)
English proverb
: Big fish eat little fish.
French proverb
: Les gros poisons mangent les petits.
(The big fish eat the little fish.)
(2) Myanmar proverb
107
: tvum;&onfhEGm;?
oGm;jzJrMunfhoifh?

(Don’t look at the teeth of the ox which is
received as a gift.)
English proverb
: Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth.
French proverb
: À cheval donné, on ne regarde pas la dent.
(Don’t look at the teeth of the horse
received as a gift.)
(3) Myanmar proverb
: usm;aoudk?
toufroGif;ygESifh?
 
(Don’t wake the sleeping tiger.)
English proverb
: Let sleeping dogs lie.
French proverb
:Ne réveillez pas le chat qui dort.(Don’t wake
the sleeping cat.)
(4) Myanmar proverb
: ig;&HUESpfaumifrzrf;ESifh?

(Don’t catch two catfish at the same time.)
English proverb
: Don’t try to do two things at once.
French proverb
: Il ne faut jamais courir deux lièvres à la
fois.
(One should never run after two hares at the
same time.)
(Don’t follow two rabbits at the same time.)
108
(c) The proverbs have the different meaning between Myanmar and
French but metaphorical expressions are the same so they can be
translated exactly the same as the original French proverbs.
(1) Myanmar proverb
: EGm;a½SYxGefusL;?  
(The cow before the harrow)
(Put the plow before the oxen.
English proverb
: Don’t put the cart before the horse.
French proverb
: Mettre la charrue devant les bœufs.
(Put the plow before the oxen.)
The proverb of French about ‘The cow before the harrow’
and the proverb ‘Put the plow before the oxen’ have the same
metaphorical expression but the meaning is entirely different. In
French it means someone does the latter work first inconsistently
instead of doing former work first. But in Myanmar it means the
unimportant person does the work in the place of the important
person.
(d) The proverbs have the same meaning between Myanmar and
French and also the metaphorical expressions concerning animals
are the same so they can be translated exactly the same as the
original French proverbs.
(1) Myanmar proverb
: aMumifr½Sd
MuGufx?
 
(The cat gone, the mice dance.)
English proverb
: When the cat away, the mice will play.
French proverb
: Le chat parti, les souris dansent.
(The cat gone, the mice dance.)
(2) Myanmar proverb
: ESHjynfpkwf?
tajrSmufESifhcsdef?
 //
(Point the cannon at the tailor bird.)
109
English proverb
: He takes a spear to kill a fly.
French proverb
: Pointer un canon sur l’oiseau - couturier.
(Point the cannon at the tailor bird.)
(e) Proverbs in English are translated into French and proverbs in
Myanmar are translated into French. The comparison expression of
translation is as follows:
The percentage of
students which
translated correctly
The percentage of
students which
translated
incorrectly
Proverbs in Myanmar
are translated into
French
43%
57%
Proverbs in English
are translated into
French
76%
24%
Subject matter
(f) A Comparative study of translation from original English proverbs
into French and Myanmar proverbs into French
The translation which
is the same as the
original French
proverbs
The translation
which is different
from the original
French proverbs
Original Myanmar
Proverbs are
translated into French
25%
75%
Original English
proverbs are
translated into French
75%
25%
Subject matter
According to observation of translation done by students, the
weakness is found when proverbs in Myanmar are translated into French.
This weakness occurs because of the differences of culture, customs,
110
geographical condition, and climate between Myanmar and French. Due to
the differences of metaphorical expression, the mistake in usage and
grammar will occur. When translated from the original proverbs of English
into French, it is found that students can translate correctly because these
two countries of English and French have intimate culture, customs,
geographical condition and climate along with the same metaphorical
expressions.
In summary, the student will come to know that every nation has
proverbs and adages, but the metaphorical expressions are different because
there are differences of geographical and climatic condition among the
nations. Proverbs and adages cannot be translated directly into different
languages. It is crucial to know the culture and customs of original nation
before translation is done. It is also essential to look for the same usage
before translation is done. According to observation, it is crucial to know
one’s own culture and customs before translation is done. By knowing
one’s own culture and customs exactly, the translation will be precise when
we translation a text from foreign languages to one’s own mother language.
Acknowledgement
I am deeply grateful to Rector Dr. Lwin Lwin Soe , Pro-Rectors Dr. Myo Han and
Dr. Tin Htwe of Yangon University of Foreign Languages. I would like to extend my
sincere thanks to my teachers, Part-time Professor Daw Mu Mu Nwe, Lecturer, Head of
Department Daw Mi Mi Pyone, all my teachers and my colleagues from the Department of
French, Yangon University of Foreign languages for their valuable advice, opinions and
kind help and also to 3rd year B.A French specialization Students.
References
Le Robert. (1989). Dictionnaire du Proverbes et Dictions. Paris: Le Robert.
Pyin Nyar kyaw. (2009). Myanmar proverbs and Dictions. Ynagon : Unity Sarpay,.
English proverbs and French proverbs http://referaty.atlas.sk. Retrieved from 15.12.2010
Terebess Asia Online, Myanmar proverbs http: //www.myanmars.net/ people/ proverb.htm.
Retrieved from 15.12.2010
A Study of Spatial Intelligence of Middle School Students
Aye Aye Myint1 and Nwe Nwe Win2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the spatial intelligence of
middle school students. Moreover, this study was conducted with the
objectives of investigating the differences of the level of spatial
intelligence by categories of spatial intelligence, gender, strata, age group
and grade. The paper and pencil spatial intelligence test was applied and it
included four categories such as spatial perception, spatial orientation,
spatial visualization and spatial manipulation. A total of 982 students from
the selected 10 high schools and middle schools of Yangon Region
participated in this study. Survey descriptive research method was used in
this study.
The findings of this research pointed out that the spatial intelligence level of
middle school students were quite satisfactory. Among the four categories
of spatial intelligence, Myanmar middle school students were better in
spatial perception area than the others: spatial orientation, spatial
visualization and spatial manipulation. ANOVA results indicated that inner
city had significant differences from all other strata. Spatial intelligence test
scores were significant among age groups at 0.05 levels. Especially
thirteen-year-old students had the highest strength in the level of spatial
intelligence. The results of t-test by grade expressed that Grade 9 students
were higher than Grade 8 students in spatial intelligence. Students’ spatial
intelligence level could be promoted so that they might get opportunities to
choose their related careers when they go to work.
Key words: Spatial Perception, Spatial Orientation, Spatial Visualization,
Spatial Manipulation, Spatial Intelligence
Introduction
Intelligence is not a single, unitary ability but a composite of several
functions (Anastasi, 1997). The changing composition of intelligence can
also be recognized within the life of the individual, from infancy to
adulthood. The IQ is both a reflection of prior educational achievement
and a predictor of subsequent educational performance. Because of the
functions taught in the educational system are of basic importance in
modern, technical cultures, the scores on a test of academic intelligence
are also an affective predictor of performance in many occupations and
other activities of daily life in such cultures. Most intelligence tests can
1. Professor(Head), Dr., Department of Educational Psychology, Yangon Institute of
Education
2. Senior Teacher, S.H.S No. 2, Tamwe, Yangon
112
therefore be regarded as measures of scholastic aptitude or academic
intelligence.
Traditionally, intelligence has been viewed as mental
competence. Some psychologists believe that intelligence may be more
broadly conceived as relatively independent intelligences that relate to
different adaptive demands. Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner
(2003) is one of the strongest proponents of this view. According to
Gardner’s work there are nine intelligences: Linguistic intelligence,
Logical-mathematical intelligence, Visual-spatial intelligence, Musical
intelligence, Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence,
Intrapersonal intelligence, Naturalistic intelligence and Existential
intelligence.
From the time when Thurstone (1938) proposed seven group
factors or primary mental abilities until Gardner (2003) articulated the
nine types of intelligence, spatial intelligence is one of the primary and
prominent components in cognitive process. Accordingly, in everyday
life, people are often aware of objects, shapes, colors and patterns in their
environment. Sometimes they inevitably manipulate these objects with
shapes, colors and patterns. Similarly, the students think through pictures
and images of items in their mind such as characters, in a story or a
scientific process. By knowing student's cognitive and perceptual ability
with space and shape, teachers can train them to improve their achievement
with appropriate methods, predict their study areas, adjust their interest and
their ability with the particular subject areas, and develop their level by
training and practising.
So as to measure a student cognitive and perceptual ability with
space and shape, spatial intelligence tests are important. The spatial
intelligence tests are designed around geometry, physics, chemistry and
mechanical problems, depending upon the nature of applied job. In
addition, there are various instructional tools available for studying spatial
intelligence. An attempt to determine which tools are best at promoting student development of spatial intelligence and which tools work best for
students with different learning styles and intelligences was undertaken.
The ability related to things spatially is not restricted to the study of only
one academic subject, but is applicable to severable different topics in
learning sciences.
113
Especially spatial intelligence tests are very useful in measuring a
student's intelligence to predict his achievement and performance. Generally
students who finish their high schools have to select whether they go to
university or work. Certain careers are categorized with better spatial
intelligence. Such works require utilizing the visualization, conceptions and
imaginations in daily routine work. A few of such careers include
Engineering, Architects and the other natural sciences and mathematics
related jobs and Computer related careers.
Along with the aforementioned consideration, it is imperative to
focus the study of spatial intelligence for Myanmar middle school students.
It, therefore, arouses the researcher interest to analyze and evaluate their
performance in the spatial intelligence test and investigate the level of
spatial intelligence of the students so that the teachers can support them
promoting student development of spatial intelligence in the best way.
Objectives
This study is conducted with the following objectives.
1. To study the nature of spatial intelligence and how to measure spatial
intelligence;
2. To investigate the level of the students' spatial intelligence;
3. To explore the differences of students 'spatial intelligence by categories
of spatial intelligence, by gender, by strata, by age group and by grade.
Definition of Key Terms
The following definitions of the key terms were used in this study.
Spatial Intelligence: Spatial intelligence is generally accepted to be
related to skills involving the retrieval, retention and transformation of
visual information in a spatial context. Spatial intelligence can be
categorized into spatial visualization, spatial orientation, spatial perception,
and spatial manipulation and so on. Each emphasizes different aspects of
the spatial image (Halpern, 2000).
Spatial Perception: Spatial perception involves determining spatial
relationships with respect to gravity or one own body in spite of distracting
information (Velez, 2000).
114
Spatial orientation: Spatial orientation is the ability to keep track of
objects or locations in space even after a rotation or movement to a new
location (Velez, 2000)
Spatial visualization: Spatial visualization is the ability to recognize
and qualify the orientation changes in a sense (Velez, 2000).
Spatial manipulation: Spatial manipulation is the ability to mentally
rotate two-or-three dimensional figures rapidly and accurately. (Velez,
2000)
Related Research Review
Research on hemispheric specialization suggests that the difference
between verbal-sequential processing and spatial-analog processing is a
fundamental dichotomy in human cognition. Paivio (1971) has long argued
for a dual code theory of memory in which verbal and spatial information is
stored in different codes. More recently Anderson (1983), a long-standing
opponent of this view, proposed a multicode theory of memory, with
separate codes for temporarily ordered strings, spatial images, and abstract
propositions.
High levels of spatial ability have frequently been linked to
creativity, not only in the arts, but in science and mathematics as well
(Shepard, 1978; West, 1991). For example, on several occasions Albert
Einstein reported that verbal processes seemed not to play a role in his
creative thought. Rather, he claimed to achieve insights by means of
thought experiments on visualized systems of waves and physical bodies in
states of relative motion. Other physicists (such as James Clerk Maxwell,
and Michael Faraday), inventors (such as Nikola Tesla and James Watt),
and generalists (such as Benjamin Franklin, Francis Galton, and James
Watson) also displayed high levels of spatial abilities and reported that they
played an important role in their most creative accomplishments.
In psychology, Shepard (1978, 1990) has given particularly lucid
accounts of the role of spatial imagery in his own thinking. Involuntary
dream images were the source of many of his most creative and influential
contributions, including the idea for his experiment with Metzler on mental
rotation, the first method of nonmetric multidimensional scaling, and the
computer algorithm underlying additive nonhierarchical cluster analysis.
However, in spite of the prominent role of spatial abilities both in models of
human abilities and in models of cognition, tests of spatial abilities are not
115
widely used, except as tests of "performance" or "nonverbal" intelligence.
Smith (1964) and Ghiselli (1973) summarized studies in which spatial tests
have been used to predict job performance. Spatial tests added little to the
prediction of success in traditional school subjects, even geometry, after
general ability has been entered into the regression. Predictive validities
were somewhat higher for trade school courses (Bennett et al., 1974;
Newman, 1945), and engineering school courses, particularly engineering
drawing (e.g., Holliday, 1943). Tests of spatial and mechanical abilities are
the best predictors of successful completion of training for machine workers
and bench workers (Ghiselli, 1973) and for success in training courses for
air crew positions (Guilford & Lacey, 1947). Interactions between verbal
and spatial abilities and instructional methods designed to require
differential amounts of verbal and spatial processing are few, usually small,
and inconsistent for both statistical and psychological reasons (Cronbach &
Snow, 1977; Gustafsson, 1989).
Method and Procedure
Participating Students
In this survey research, the multistage stratified random sampling
method was used in selecting townships, schools and participating students.
The ten schools were randomly selected from three different strata, i.e. inner
city, inner suburb and outer suburb and outside of the Yangon City
Development Area of Yangon Region. A total of 982 students from Grade 8
and Grade 9 participated in this study. The 454 boys and 528 girls were
involved as the participants in this survey. The participants were middle
school children aged eleven to eighteen years.
Measures
Among the different spatial ability tests and spatial intelligence
tests, the SIT developed by Nu Nu Khaing (2009) was adapted and applied
to measure the students’ level of spatial intelligence. In her SIT, test items
were designed and originally developed by gathering useful information
from textbooks for middle school level. Types of item followed the Form
board, paper folding and the other spatial tests through the Kit of Factor –
Reference Cognitive Tests available at ETS. A 40 items test for both
parallel forms A and B required students to respond to test items using
multiple choice response from four alternative answers. The four subtests
(SP, SO, SV, SM) are involved in spatial intelligence test (See Appendix).
116
The first subtest was designed to measure participants’ spatial visualization
and it involved ten items. The second subtest which contained ten items was
used to assess spatial orientation. The third subtest measured spatial
perception and it consisted of ten items. Spatial manipulation was also
measured by the last subtest including ten items. The items in spatial
perception subtest elicited the ability to recognize relationship between
objects. Test items in spatial orientation subtest examined the ability of
finding one way in space. The spatial visualization test items explored
processing a visual imagination and ability in manipulating visual patterns.
The items in last section brought out students’ manipulating images and
ability to mentally rotate two or three dimensional figures rapidly and
accurately. The test was answered anonymously to encourage truthful
responses. Students completed the test in 45 minutes under actual test
administration.
For the use of SIT in this survey, editorial review of the item was
conducted for face validity and content validity by 10 middle school
teachers and 10 experts in the field of psychology and educational
psychology and testing. Preliminary testing was done with a sample of 100
students from middle schools in Tarmway Township. After doing
preliminary testing and analyzing test data, 40 item tests of form A and
form B were administered to middle school students of selected schools.
Test administrations were conducted from the last week of December to the
third week of January in 2010. Using the data from test administration, data
analyses were conducted by the use of descriptive statistics, t test, and
ANOVA and factor analysis.
Results
Students’ Demographic Characteristics
Among a total of 982 students, the percentage of 46.23 is male
students and the percentage of 53.76 is female students. The percentage of
Grade 9 students was more than that of Grade 8 students. The percentage of
Grade 8 students was 6.8 and the percentage of Grade 9 students was 93.20.
According to the distribution of students by age group, most of the students
(72.7 %) were thirteen- year- old students. The 176 students (17.9%) were
in fourteen- year aged old group. The percentage of it was 17.90. The
number of eleven-year-old students and eighteen-year-old students were
very few and there were 0.25 and 0.3%.
117
Results of Factor Analysis
In order to examine the categories of spatial intelligence, which
were explored by SIT of Nu Nu Khaing (2009), confirmatory analysis was
executed. When the principal factor analysis was for 40 items of SIT was
firstly done, the eigenvalues and its contributions ratios obtained from
principal factor analysis (PFA) are reported in Table 1. The scree plot of
Figure 1 also suggests that four groups of items loaded on factor 1, factor 2,
factor 3 and factor 4 respectively.
Table 1. Eigenvalues and its Contribution Ratios Obtained by Principal
Factor Analysis
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Eigenvalue
6.64
2.32
1.96
1.70
1.29
1.20
1.14
1.07
1.06
1.02
Contribution
0.34
0.12
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.05
7
6
Eigenvalue
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Component Number
Figure 1. Scree Plot of Eigenvalues for 40 Items of the SIT
Next, subsequent factor analysis by varimax procedures was
performed to determine these four factors. The rotated factor solutions from
the variance procedure are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Rotated Factor Solutions by Varimax
118
Factors
Item No.
Name of Factors
1
2
3
4
1
Spatial perception
.034
.032
.075
.576
2
Spatial perception
.061
.076
.043
.630
3
Spatial perception
.057
.000
.074
.626
4
Spatial perception
.072
.075
.055
.373
5
Spatial perception
.209
.123
.095
.495
6
Spatial perception
.003
.071
.069
.528
7
Spatial perception
.045
.081
.176
.494
8
Spatial perception
.097
.105
.169
.401
9
Spatial perception
.015
.070
.182
.378
10
Spatial perception
.109
.017
.063
.376
11
Spatial orientation
.130
.470
.244
.190
12
Spatial orientation
.100
.595
.117
.189
13
Spatial orientation
.014
.554
.129
.069
14
Spatial orientation
.080
.433
.037
.101
15
Spatial orientation
.102
.578
.072
-.104
16
Spatial orientation
.160
.448
.047
.092
17
Spatial orientation
.114
.610
.076
.141
18
Spatial orientation
.090
.589
.070
.050
19
Spatial orientation
.234
.375
.093
.083
20
Spatial orientation
.091
.498
.185
.004
21
Spatial visualization
.042
.165
.374
.146
22
.011
.051
.612
.119
23
.050
.077
.659
.109
24
.026
.121
.495
.229
25
.086
.064
.626
.097
26
.037
.114
.534
.074
27
.196
.061
.592
.188
28
.168
.099
.403
.046
29
.193
.164
.483
.080
30
.314
.064
.360
.091
119
Factors
Item No.
Name of Factors
1
2
3
4
31
Spatial manipulation
.668
.160
.091
.103
32
.751
.105
.092
.128
33
.755
.049
.084
.131
34
.502
.138
.123
.144
35
.276
.341
.021
.018
36
.566
.038
.022
.133
37
.434
.140
.069
.041
38
.361
.124
.189
-.051
39
.463
.150
.107
.039
40
.544
.136
.051
.067
Inspection of the factor pattern from Table 2 suggests that four
groups loaded on factor 1, factor2, factor 3, and factor 4. Factor 1 is loaded
primarily by the items of spatial perception; factor 2 is loaded by the items
of spatial orientation, and factor 3 is loaded by the items of spatial
manipulation. It was observed that the sequencing of test items follows the
results for the previous researches, except only one item within "spatial
visualization" (F 3) combined with "spatial perception" (F 1), and one item
within "spatial manipulation"(F 4) combined with "spatial orientation" (F
2).
Differences in Four Categories of Spatial Intelligence
The test data were analyzed with respect to each category of spatial
intelligence. Based on the descriptive statistics, the mean scores for spatial
perception is the highest among four categories. It may be said that the
student’s intelligence in spatial perception area is higher than other
categories of spatial intelligence. The mean scores of spatial visualization
and manipulation are the same. However, it was observed that spatial
orientation of Myanmar children is weak. It may be interpreted that
Myanmar middle school students are good in determining spatial
relationships with respect to gravity or one’ own body in spite of distracting
information. The ability of students to mentally rotate two or three
dimensional figures rapidly and accurately is the same with the ability in
manipulating visual patterns as indicated by level of difficulty and
120
complexity in visual stimulus material that can be handled successfully
without regard to speed of task solution. But it may be said that they are
weak in keeping track of objects or locations in space even after a rotation
or movement to a new location.
When the frequency distribution of spatial intelligence test scores
was inspected, mean score of spatial intelligence is 22.6. The percentages of
students who get above the score 21 are 58.94%. Above 50%of students
gets above mean score in spatial intelligence test and 17.5% of the students
attains high scores (over 30 marks out of 40 marks). So we can conclude
that middle school students in Myanmar are good in spatial functioning.
Moreover percentage of students who get the lowest scores is 5.7%. It is
therefore observed that the number of students who are weak in spatial
intelligence is very few. It is also illustrated in Figure 2.
100
Frequency
80
60
40
20
Mean = 22.6
Std. Dev. = 7.636
N = 982
0
0
10
20
30
40
Spatial IntelligenceTest Scores
Figure 2. Frequency Distribution of Spatial Intelligence
Comparison of Spatial Intelligence by Gender
Descriptive analysis revealed the differences in means and standard
deviations between genders with respect to each category of spatial
intelligence respectively (see Table 3).
121
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations of Spatial Intelligence Test Scores
by Gender
Gender
SP
SO
SV
SM
Total (SI)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Male
7.24
2.27
5.38
2.78
5.26
2.84
5.67
2.93
23.56
7.97
Female
7.23
2.20
4.64
2.54
5.15
2.64
4.80
2.51
21.78
7.25
Note. SP: Spatial Perception SO: Spatial Orientation SV: Spatial
Visualization SM: Spatial Manipulation Total SI: Spatial
Intelligence
It was observed that the mean score for spatial perception and spatial
visualization categories were almost the same between male and female
students. Therefore it may be concluded that there were no differences
between gender in these two categories of spatial intelligence. But, it was
found that the mean scores of male and female students in spatial
orientation and spatial manipulation were different and also the mean score
of total spatial intelligence test was different between male and female
students. To find out whether these differences were significant or not, the
independent sample t-test was conducted.
Table 4. The Result of Independent Sample t-Test by Gender for each
Categories of Spatial Intelligence
Categories
SP
t
.034
df
Sig (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
980
.972
.00
*
.75
SO
4.383
980
.000
SV
.631
980
.528
.11
SM
5.012
980
.000*
.87
980
*
1.77
SI
3.650
.000
Note. SP: Spatial Perception SO: Spatial Orientation SV: Spatial
Visualization SM: Spatial Manipulation Total SI: Spatial
Intelligence
According to the result of t-test, it was found that there were
significant differences between male and female in spatial orientation and
spatial manipulation at 0.001 level and there was also significant difference
in total spatial intelligence between male and female students at 0.001 level.
122
Comparison of Spatial Intelligence by Strata
Different strata from different geographical location may have
different socioeconomic status. Accordingly stratum wise analysis was
executed. Descriptive analysis revealed the differences in means and
standard deviations with respect to each category of SIT among the strata.
So as to observe clearly the significant difference of children’s
intelligence among the strata, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
executed again. ANOVA results showed that there were significant
differences among the strata for all categories of spatial intelligence at .001
level respectively (see Table 5).
Table 5. ANOVA Table for each Category of Spatial Intelligence
SP
SO
Between Groups
Sum of
Squares
Mean Square
2
93.248
Within Groups
4704.165 979
4.805
Total
4890.661 981
Between Groups
186.496
df
2
88.971
Within Groups
6868.764 979
7.016
Total
Between Groups
7046.706 981
263.222
2
131.611
Within Groups
7089.451 979
7.242
Total
7352.673 981
SM
Between Groups
1531.523
SI
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
SV
177.942
2
5871.744 979
7403.267 981
6302.673
F
Sig
19.406 .000
12.681 .000
18.174 .000
765.762 127.676 .000
5.998
2
3151.337
Within Groups
50900.643 979
51.992
Total
57203.317 981
60.611 .000
Note. SP: Spatial Perception,SO: Spatial Orientation, SV: Spatial
Visualization SM: Spatial Manipulation Total SI: Spatial Intelligence
It can easily be seen from these results that the spatial intelligence of
the students of inner city was significantly different from that of the
students of inner suburb and outer suburb and outside of the YCDA. To
obtain more detailed information of which particular strata had the
123
differences, Post Hoc Test was executed by Turkey HSD method and it
became apparent that the students from inner city and inner suburb had
higher spatial intelligence than those from outer suburb and outside of
YCDA. But in category of spatial manipulation it was found that the
students from inner suburb performed in spatial manipulation area of spatial
intelligence test better than the students from inner city (see Table 6).
Table 6. Multiple Comparisons for Spatial Intelligence by Strata
Categories of
Spatial
Intelligence
SP
SO
SV
SM
Total SI
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
(I) strata
(J) strata
Std. Error
Sig.
1
3
1.068(*)
.176
.000
2
3
.958(*)
.197
.000
1
3
.853(*)
.213
.000
2
3
1.157(*)
.238
.000
1
3
1.306(*)
.217
.000
2
3
.911(*)
.242
.001
1
3
2.595(*)
.197
.000
2
1
.749(*)
.186
.000
2
3
3.344(*)
.220
.000
1
3
5.822(*)
.580
.000
2
3
6.290(*)
.648
.000
* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Note. SP: Spatial Perception,SO: Spatial Orientation, SV: Spatial
Visualization, SM: Spatial Manipulation, Total SI: Spatial
Intelligence
Results of Chi-square Test for Spatial Intelligence by Age Group
In order to test whether students are different in spatial intelligence
with respect to their age, Chi-square Test was conducted. According to
Pearson Chi-square, spatial intelligence scores were significant among
different ages at 0.05 level. Spatial intelligence of students from one age
group was significantly different with that of the students with another age
group.
124
So as to investigate how different in age groups with respect to
spatial intelligence level, three groups of spatial intelligence level (high,
middle and low groups) were categorized by the use of mean score and
standard deviation. The students who obtained above 30.23 of SIT score are
in the high spatial intelligence level group, those who obtained between
14.97 and 30.23 are in the middle spatial intelligence level group, and those
who obtained below 14.97 are in low spatial intelligence level group.
According to cross tabulation, it was found that spatial intelligence
level of eleven- to fourteen-year-old students was higher than that of
fifteen-to eighteen-year-old students. Especially it was found that thirteenyear-old students have the highest spatial intelligence among all age groups.
It may however be concluded that, they may be good in other areas of
intelligence such as Linguistics, Mathematics, Bodily, Musical,
Interpersonal and Naturalistic intelligence although spatial intelligence
level of the elder students are weaker than the younger ones.
Chi-square test was employed to examine differences in the spatial
perception level among age groups. It was found that there were group
differences among age groups in spatial perception, spatial visualization and
spatial manipulation at 0.05 level. Nevertheless, there was no age group
difference in the spatial orientation level.
Furthermore, it explored the differences in age groups with respect
to the level of all four categories of spatial intelligence. Likewise, the
respective level of three groups (high, middle and low groups) for each
category were categorized by using the corresponding mean scores and
standard deviations.
The students who obtained above 9.47 of spatial perception test
score are in the high spatial intelligence level group, those who obtained
between 5.01 and 9.47 are in the middle spatial intelligence level group, and
those who obtained below 5.01 are in low spatial intelligence level group.
Related to spatial orientation, the students who obtained above 7.66 of test
score were in the high group, those who obtained between 2.3 and 7.66
were in the middle group, and those who obtained below 2.3 were in low
group. In spatial visualization test, the students who obtained above 7.93 of
test score were in the high group, those who obtained between 2.47 and
7.93 were in the middle group, and those who obtained below 2.47 were in
low group. In the last subtest of spatial manipulation, the students who
obtained above 7.94 of test score were in the high group, those who
125
obtained between 2.46 and 7.94 are in the middle group, and those who
obtained below 2.46 were in low group. The results of the differences in age
groups with respect to the level of all four categories of spatial intelligence
were as follows.
The result of the differences in ages with respect to spatial
perception revealed that spatial perception of students was the highest at the
age of thirteen. It was also found that spatial perception of students was
high at the age of fourteen. It may be concluded that the thirteen-year-old
and fourteen-year-old students were better in recognizing relationship
between objects than the other students. As to the strength of spatial
orientation, the 79.6 % of the students in high level group were at the age of
thirteen. So it may be said that the ability of these group of students were
very good in keeping track of objects or location in space even after a
rotation or movement to a new location. Concerning with the strength of
spatial visualization, the students were high at the age of thirteen and
fourteen. So, they were good in the ability to manipulate visual patterns as
indicated by level of difficulty and complexity in visual stimulus. The
results also expressed that most of the students at the age of thirteen and
fourteen were in the middle group of spatial manipulation level. Moreover,
the 81.7 % of the students who were in high group of spatial manipulation
level were thirteen-year- old students. So, it may be concluded that these
students were very skillful in manipulating images.
Comparison of Spatial Intelligence by Grade
The participants of this study were selected from two grades (Grade
8 and Grade 9). The mean differences of spatial intelligence between two
grades were statistically analyzed. The mean scores of students from Grade
9 are higher than that of students from Grade 8 in all categories of spatial
intelligence. Independent sample t- test was applied to confirm these
differences between grades were significant or not (see table 7).
Table 7. The Result of Independent Sample t-Test by Grade for each
Categories of
Spatial
Intelligence
t
df
Sig(2tailed)
Mean difference
SP
1.40
980
.161
0.39
SO
5.16
980
.000
1.73
126
SV
5.37
980
.000
1.84
SM
1.32
980
.187
0.46
SI
4.97
980
.000
4.75
The result of independent sample t-test for each category of spatial
intelligence by grade revealed that there were significant differences in the
categories of spatial orientation and spatial visualization at 0.001 level.
There was also significant difference for total spatial intelligence at 0.001
level. Therefore, this result pointed out spatial intelligence of students from
Grade 9 was better than that of students from Grade 8.
Conclusion
This study is conducted to investigate the level of spatial
intelligence of middle school students selected from Yangon Region by
using spatial intelligence test. It was observed that the spatial perception of
Myanmar middle students was higher than the other categories of spatial
intelligence. Spatial intelligence of middle school students was the same in
the area of spatial visualization and manipulation. Therefore, the ability of
visualizing how separate parts of complex physical system interrelate was
the same level with the ability of mentally rotating two or three dimensional
figures rapidly and accurately for Myanmar middle school students.
However, spatial orientation of Myanmar children was weaker than the
other categories of spatial intelligence. It may be remarked that middle
school students were weak in the ability to keep track of objects or locations
in space even after a rotation or movement to a new location.
Related to spatial intelligence there was significant difference
between male and female. The mean score of spatial intelligence of male
student was higher than that of female students. It may be concluded that
male students are better in spatial intelligence than female students. It may
be possible because male type activities such as cricket, football, computer
games are considered as stimuli behind development of spatial skills in
childhood.
In the analysis by strata, the spatial intelligence of the students from
inner city and inner suburb were better than that of the students from outer
suburb. So it indicates that such factors as geographical and socioeconomic
status may affect students’ spatial intelligence. Concerning the strength of
spatial intelligence there was significant difference among different ages. It
127
was observed that younger students were better than elder students in spatial
intelligence. It may be because the elder students (ages of 15,16,17,18) took
more than normal schooling period in primary and middle school level and
they were stronger in other areas of intelligence although they are weak in
spatial intelligence.
By grade, it was observed that grade nine students were better than
grade eight students in spatial intelligence. It may be assumed that grade
eight curriculums compose of the lessons which are considered as stimuli
behind strong development of spatial skills. This finding suggested that
spatial intelligence had strong relationship with academic subjects and it
was a specific talent that can contribute to success in mathematics, natural
science, recreate, architecture, and other field of study. Thus spatial
intelligence is equally important for careers in mathematics, physics,
accounting, auditing, economics, etc.
The following suggestions and recommendations would like to be
pointed out from this study.
It is remarkable that teachers should seek for different means and
ways of how to cultivate the students’ intelligence to be smart. It has been
accepted that human intelligence or cognitive ability can be cultivated by
the school, home, and community. In formal education, school is an
important place for teachers or educators in order to nurture human
intelligence. It is recommended that spatial intelligence, an important
component of human intelligence, also should be cultivated by the school in
order to predict their study areas, adjust their interest and their ability in
particular subject areas.
As presented in this research, spatial intelligence can be measured
by the use of spatial intelligence tests to predict academic achievement and
job performance. So, spatial intelligence tests should be used widely in
education and job selection in our country. West (1991) asserted that high
levels of spatial intelligence that have frequently been linked to creativity,
not only in the arts, but in science and mathematics as well, therefore it is
recommended to focus on the studies of spatial intelligence in all education
sectors.
Here in this study, only multiple choice test items are used in paper
and pencil spatial intelligence tests for this study. According to the research
of Lohman (1988), constructed-response tests are better measures of spatial
128
intelligence. Constructed-response questions are open ended, short answer
questions that measure application-level cognitive skills as well as content
knowledge. Constructed-response questions should be based on a given
stimulus and include a series of questions which build from simplex to
complex. Constructed-response questions can assess higher level thinking.
It is recommended that constructed-response items are the best to
investigate the level of students’ spatial intelligence and therefore
constructed-response items should be used in paper and pencil tests in the
studies of spatial intelligence for future researchers.
In the mathematics area of IGCSE (International General Certificate
of Secondary Education) for UK schools, three types of matrices and
transformations (translation, rotation, and reflection) are necessary and
important learning materials as IGCSE mathematics notes for enhancing
student's spatial intelligence. It is therefore suggested that this study of
spatial intelligence of middle school students should be extended to high
school level.
To sum up, further researches related to the contribution of spatial
intelligence to success in mathematics, natural sciences, architecture and
other related fields of study should be conducted.
References
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Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook
for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.
Guilford, J. P. (1973). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gardner, H. (2003). Frame of mind:The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:
Fontana press.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligences reframed: Multiple intelligences for 21st century. New
York: Basic Book Inc.
Ghiselli, E. E. (1973). The validity of aptitude tests in personnel selection. Personnel
Psychology, 26, 461-477
Gustafsson, J. E. (1989). Broad and narrow abilities in research on learning and
instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
129
Halpern, D. F. (2000). Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities, (3rd ed.). Mahnawah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lohman, D. F. (1988). Spatial abilities as traits, processes, and knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Shepard, R. N. (1978). Externalization of mental images and the act of creation. New
York: Academic Press.
Shepard, R. N. (1990). Mind sights. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company.
Slavin, R. E. (2003). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
Smith, I. M. (1964). Spatial ability. San Diego: Knapp.
Nu Nu Khaing (2004). Spatial ability test. Unpublished Research Report, University of
Okayama.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Velez, M. C. (2000). Understanding visualization through spatial ability differences.
Rutgers: State University of New Jersey.
West, T. G. (1991). In the mind's eye. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books.
130
Appendix
tjrifjzifhqHk;jzwfedkifaomOmPf&nfppfaq;vTm
(Spatial Intelligence Test)
Sample Test Items
Spatial Perception
atmufygar;cGef;vTm&SdyHkrsm;onf
puúLuwfrsm;udk
jzwfn§yfjyD;yHkazmfxm;aom
yHkrsm;jzpfygonf/ay;xm;aom
puúLtydkif;tprsm;udk pdwful;jzifh jzwfn§yfjyD; ab;u erlemyHkjzpfatmif
aygif;pyfMunfh&rnf/ yHkpHwlaygif;pyfí &Edkifaom tajzudk a&G;cs,fay;ygf/
4
A
B
C
D
Spatial Orientation
,ckar;cGef;vTm&SdyHkrsm;onf
b,fnmtxufatmuf
vnfywfvsuf&Sdygonf/ yHkrsm;xJwGif
vuf,m&pf r[kwfbJ
ajymif;jyefjzpfaeaom
yHkwpfyHkudkvnf;
xnfhoGif;xm;ygonf/
rl&if;yHkESifhyHkpHuJGaeaom
(vnfywfyHkrwlbJuJGjym;ae
aomyHk)udk
a&G;cs,fay;ygf/
12
A
B
C
D
131
Spatial Visualization
atmufygar;cGef;vTmwGif puúLudk ay;xm;aom acgufcsdK;t&mtwdkif;
acguf
MunfhjyD;wpfpHkwpfckaomtrSwftom;jyKvkyfjyD;aemuf
jyefajzvdkufaomtcg
awGY&aomyHkrsm;udk
azmfjyxm;ygonf/
rl&if;yHkwGifpuúLudk
rnfodkYacgufjyD;
trSwftom;jyKxm;onfudk
azmfjyxm;aomaMumifh ¤if;trSwftom;twdkif; jyKvkyfygu &&dSedkifaom
tajzrSefwpfckudk a&G;cs,fay;yg/
Spatial Manipulation
pdwfxJrS rl&if; bavmhwHk;udk txufatmuf ab;b,fnm vSnfhí
MunfhvQif (axmifhtrsdK;rsdK;rS vSnfhMunfhvQif) yHkpHrwlaom yHkwpfyHkudk
awGY&ygvdrfhrnf/ ¤if;yHkudk a&G;cs,fay;yg/
36
A
B
C
D
Application of Big Five Personality Factors for Personality
Assessment of BEd Students from Yangon Institute of
Education
Khin Pyone Yi1 and Ei Phyo Wai2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the personality level of
BEd students from Yangon Institute of Education by the use of
International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) Inventory. IPIP Inventory
consists of five traits: Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness including 120 items. Each item
has a five -point Likert scale. Total number of 600 BEd students (265
males and 335 females) was selected as participants by using random
sampling technique. A total number of 43 students (apparent responses)
and 52 items were discarded because the items had low reliability
coefficient. So, 557 BEd students and 68 items were used for data
analysis. According to this study, significant differences were found in
four personality factors such as Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness,
and Conscientiousness. Independent Sample t test pointed out that male
students were higher in Openness factor than female students but female
students are higher in Conscientiousness than male students. ANOVA
results by age indicated that the youngest age group (16-17) is
significantly different from the eldest age group (22-23) in Extroversion
factor. ANOVA results by specializations revealed that Science students
had significant difference in Extroversion from Arts students. The results
of ANOVA among student levels of study showed that first year students
were significantly different from fourth year students in Extroversion.
Fourth year students were significantly different from second year
students as well as third year students in Openness factor. The personality
of students from fourth year was also significantly different from third
year students in Agreeableness factor. Interpretation of students’
personality level highlights in accordance with the personality factors
they possessed.
Introduction
Individuals are unique in the sense that no two people are exactly
alike in terms of temperament, behavior, or preferences. Individuals do not
behave in identical ways in all situations. Although individuals are unique
and are not completely consistent across situations, there is considerable
commonality in human behavior. (Murphy, 1998).
1. Lecturer, Dr., Department of Educational Psychology, Yangon Institute of Education
2. Senior Teacher, BEHS (Branch) Htan Gong, Bago Region
134
Personality tests are administered for a wide variety of reasons, from
diagnosing psychopathology to screening job candidates. They may be used
in an educational or vocational setting to determine personality strengths
and weaknesses. Psychological measures of personality are often described
as either objective tests or projective tests (Murphy, 1998). Objective
personality tests can be designed to use in business for potential employees,
all of which are based on the Big Five . The Big Five are five factors
(dimensions) of personality traits. They are Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to Experience. The Big Five
factors are quite broad and consist of a range of more specific traits. The
Big Five structure was derived from statistical analyses of which traits tend
to co-occur in people's descriptions of themselves or other people.
Identifying the traits and structure of human personality has been one of the
most fundamental goals in all of psychology (Goldberg, 1993). Norman
(1967) found that five major factors were sufficient to account for a large
set of personality data.
Based on the above reasons, this study aimed to investigate
personality level of BEd students from Yangon Institute of Education by
using Big Five Personality Factors. By knowing personality level of
students, the teachers can understand their students’ personality strengths
and weaknesses and then they can give the most appropriate guidelines for
their students. Based on the personality factors their student favour most,
the teacher can predict career success and academic success of their
students. After that, they can actually realize which teaching method
motivates their student and can foster them to get a better success in their
lives. Thus, assessing personality level of BEd students from Yangon
Institute of Education can give usefulness to some extent for creating a
more alive, active, and warmer teaching learning environment.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate difference in personality
level among BEd students and personality level which varies according to
gender, age, student levels of study, and specialization.
Scope
The study is restricted to 600 BEd students from Yangon Institute of
Education (YIOE).
135
Definition of Key Terms
Extroversion:
a tendency to be energetic, surgency, to experience
positive emotions and seek stimulation in the company
of others.
Neuroticism:
a tendency to experience unpleasant emotion easily,
such as anger, anxiety, depression or vulnerability.
Openness:
a tendency to appreciate art emotion, adventure, unusual
idea curiosity and variety of experience
Agreeableness:
a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather
than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Conscientiousness: a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim
for achievement, planned rather than spontaneous
behavior.
Review of Related Literature
Big Five Personality Factors
The Big Five factors and their constituent traits can be summarized
as follows:
Extroversion
–
(outgoing / energetic vs. shy / reserved).
Neuroticism
–
(sensitive / nervous vs. secure / confident).
Openness
–
(inventive/
cautious).
Agreeableness
–
(friendly/ compassionate vs. competitive/
outspoken).
Conscientiousness –
(efficient/
careless).
curious
organized
vs.
vs.
consistent/
easy-going/
Extroversion, also called "extraversion," is characterized by
positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek out stimulation and
the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with
the external world. Extroverts enjoy being with people, and are often
perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented
individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for
excitement. The broad dimension of extraversion encompasses such more
specific traits as energetic. Extroverts are talkative, sociable, gregarious and
136
assertive; they get energy from groups and being in the spotlight. Indeed,
being alone and quiet is not fun at all. Introverts lack the exuberance,
energy, and activity levels of extroverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key,
deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social
involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts
simply need less stimulation than extroverts and more time alone.
Extroversion declines for women and doesn’t change in men, (McCrae &
John, 1992).
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such
as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability.
Neuroticism is characterized by traits like sensitive, insecure, embarrassed,
tense and moody. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally
reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary
situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult.
Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods
of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in
emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make
decisions, and cope effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale,
individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less
emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free
from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not
mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings. Frequency of
positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion domain, (McCrae &
John, 1992).
137
Openness to Experience is a general appreciation for art, emotion,
adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, insight, honesty and
variety of experience. The trait distinguishes imaginative people from
down-to-earth, conventional people. People who are open to experience are
intellectually curious, appreciative of art, inventive, original, imaginative
and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more
creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold
unconventional beliefs. People with low scores on openness tend to have
more conventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain,
straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle.
They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these
endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer
familiarity over novelty. They are conservative and resistant to change. This
trait declines slightly as both men and women age.
Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative
rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects
individual differences in concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals
value for getting along with others. They are generally considerate, friendly,
generous, helpful, flexible, trusting, courteous, tolerant, good-natured and
willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also
have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically
honest, decent, and trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self-interest
above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with
others’ well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people.
Sometimes their skepticism about others’ motives causes them to be
suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. This dimension includes having
wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful. Generous, helpful,
friendly, pleasant and easy to be around; these social people usually have
strong relationships. Researchers found that agreeableness increases during
30’s in both men and women, (McCrae & John, 1992).
Conscientiousness is a tendency to be thorough, planful and show
self-disciplined, act dutifully, dependable, persevering, hardworking and
aim for achievement. The trait shows a preference for planned rather than
spontaneous behavior. It influences the way in which we control, regulate,
and direct our impulses. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as
Need for Achievement (NAch).The benefits of high conscientiousness are
obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of
success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also
138
positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative
side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Organization,
discipline, excellent performance, and dedication (especially in the
workplace) are the hallmarks of this trait. Conscientiousness increases as
both men and women age, especially during your 20’s, (McCrae & John,
1992).
Previous Research Review
Gender differences
Cross-cultural research from 26 nations (N = 23,031 subjects) and
again in 55 nations (N = 17,637 subjects) has shown a universal pattern of
sex differences on responses to the Big Five Inventory. Women consistently
report higher Neuroticism and Agreeableness, and men often report higher
Extraversion and Conscientiousness. Sex differences in personality traits are
smaller in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women
have more opportunities that are equal to those of men. Both men and
women tend to grow more extraverted and conscientious and less neurotic
and agreeable as cultures grow more prosperous and egalitarian, but the
effect is stronger for men.
Big Five and Academic Success
Previous research has shown most of the personality traits to predict
academic success. Conscientiousness, as defined by organization,
persistene, and motivation in goal-directed behaviors, is the trait most
consistently associated with academic performance (Diseth, 2003). More
recently, Farsides and Woodfield (2003) found Openness was significantly
positively related to academic achievement. Some theorists suggested that
high levels of Neuroticism might impair academic achievement (ChamorroPremuzic & Furnham, 2003).
Big Five and Approaches to learning
The student approach to learning (SAL) tradition distinguishes
between deep, surface, and strategic learning approaches (see Entwistle &
McCune, 2004; Lonka, Olkinuora, & Makinen, 2004 for a review).The deep
approach to learning reflects (a) an intention to understand the material by
relating ideas to previous knowledge and experience, (b) searching for
patterns and underlying principles, (c) seeking evidence and relating it to
conclusions, (d) examining logic and argument critically, (e) developing
139
awareness of the learning that is occurring, and (f) showing an active
interest in the subject matter. The surface learning approach reflects (a) an
intention to cope with the course requirements by memorizing facts and
carrying out routine procedures, (b) studying without reflecting on either
purpose or strategy, (c) treating the information as unrelated bits of
knowledge, (d) finding difficulty making sense of new ideas, and (e) feeling
undue pressure and worry about work. The strategic learning approach
reflects (a) an intention to achieve the highest possible grades by consistent
effort in studying, (b) managing time and effort, (c) identifying good
conditions and materials for studying, (d) monitoring study effectiveness,
(e) developing alertness to assessment requirements and criteria, and (f)
working to the perceived preferences of lecturers (Entwistle, McCune, &
Walker, 2001). Positive predictive relationships have been found between
the trait Openness to Experience and the deep approach to learning. In
contrast, Conscientiousness has been shown to predict the strategic
approach to learning, and Neuroticism is a predictor of the surface learning
approach (Busato et al.,2000; Diseth, 2003; Duff et al., 2004; Zhang, 2005).
The aim of this study is to investigate personality level of BEd
students from Yangon Institute of Education and to study which personality
factors influence most of the students. Personality level of BEd students
was examined by using questionnaire survey method.
Participants
Total number of 600 students (265 males and 335 female) were
selected as the sample of this study by using random sampling technique.
There are altogether four student levels of study in BEd students such as
first year, second year, third year, and fourth year. Moreover, BEd third
year and fourth year have two semesters. Therefore, 100 students from first
year, 100 students from second year, 200 students from third year, and 200
students from fourth year were chosen as the participants for this study.
Most of them were majoring in Science (N=361), some were in Arts
(N=167), and the rest were in the combination of Arts and Science (N=72).
All the participants in this study were within the age of 16 and 23. Their
mean age was 19.86 years, and it was made up of 44% males and 56%
females.
140
Instrument
The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) Inventory developed
by Dr. Lewis R. Goldberg was used in this study to measure personality
level of BEd students from YIOE. Since each factor had six sub traits, this
inventory estimated an individual’s standing on the five broad domains and
thirty sub traits personality. In this study, the five traits of Extroversion,
Neuroticism, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were
measured with 120 items, each item had a five-point response scale (5=
strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= neither agree nor disagree, 2= disagree, and 1=
strongly disagree) and each factor included 24 items. The internal
consistency coefficient for the entire test was 0.692 and for the five factors
was within the range of 0.4 and 0.8. This inventory contained positive as
well as negative items to check whether the students’ responses were
confirmed or not. So, the scoring key for positive items was in the order of
5,4,3,2,1 and negative items was reversed: 1,2,3,4,5.
Procedure
First of all, International Personality Item Pool (IPPI) containing
120 items was found from the internet website. Then, it was used as an
instrument for this study because it possessed satisfactory internal
consistency ( α = 0.799) and required number of items. This inventory was
modified in Myanmar version so as to make the students comfortable in
responding these items. To acquire real results, expert judgment was also
conducted for face validity and content validity. A total number of 8 experts
in the field of Educational Psychology and Educational Test and
Measurement reviewed this inventory and then they corrected some items
and gave precious comments for these items. After that some items were
revised in accordance with experts' suggestions.
Pilot study was conducted during December, 2010 with a sample of
50 students from Yangon Institute of Education to check whether the items
in this inventory were clear and the students could answer them with no
ambiguity. After conducting pilot study, 5 items were discarded from this
inventory because they were similar in meaning and they had low reliability
coefficient. By this way, altogether 115 items (23 items for each personality
factor) were selected after pilot study. The wording and phrases of some
items were modified to adapt with student's understanding level. Test
administration was conducted during January, 2011. After collecting the
141
required data, data entry was carried out. Finally, data analysis and
interpretation were conducted.
Data Analysis and Results
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for IPIP Inventory
In this study, the Kaiser Meyer Olkin Measure of Sampling
Adequacy was 0.83, above the recommended value of 0.7, indicating
sufficient items for each factor. Besides, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was
significant (p < .01), this means that the variables are correlated highly
enough to provide a reasonable basis for factor analysis. The five factors
also have eigenvalues (a measure of explained variance) greater than 1.0,
which is a common criterion for a factor to be useful. Throughout this
analysis process, items with initial value of less than 0.25 and without
loadings were discarded. After doing several steps, 47 items were
eliminated because they had no loadings with any other factor. By taking
out 47 items, the communalities were all above 0.25, it indicated that the
relation between each item and other items is satisfactory. Therefore, the
responses of 600 students upon 115 items were analyzed by the use of
principal factor analysis and varimax rotation factor analysis methods.
After examining the results of principal factor analysis and varimax
rotation factor analysis methods, 68 items were selected to assess the
underlying factor structure of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP)
Inventory. Then, five factors were requested, based on the fact that the
items were designed to index five constructs: Extroversion, Neuroticism,
Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Table 1 displays the
factor loadings for the rotated factors and communalities based on principal
components analysis with varimax rotation for 68 items of Big Five
personality factors.
Table 1. Rotated Component Matrix for Five Personality Factors
Items
Factor
Communality
1
2
3
4
5
E item4
-.094
.410
-.083
.266
-.097
.283
E item5
-.054
.401
.055
.108
.123
.255
142
Items
Factor
Communality
1
2
3
4
5
E item6
-.134
.445
.106
.208
.033
.317
E item8
-.199
.525
.076
.136
-.039
.349
E item9
-.221
.518
.117
-.056
.044
.349
E item10
-.024
.331
.327
-.037
.047
.263
E item11
.336
-.026
.107
.121
.130
.252
E item13
.043
.018
.029
.412
.035
.259
E item14
.059
.208
.077
.378
-.126
.257
E item15
-.193
.208
.069
.346
-.057
.280
E item17
-.206
.046
.180
.396
-.088
.306
E item18
.089
-.011
.124
.625
.012
.359
E item19
-.154
-.045
.135
.567
.063
.330
E item20
-.083
.084
-.041
.575
.104
.347
E item21
-.200
.119
.075
.532
-.043
.331
E item23
-.007
-.005
-.197
.516
-.040
.282
N item24
.547
-.131
.095
.013
.110
.349
N item25
.499
.023
-.212
.001
-.202
.395
N item26
.616
-.010
-.115
-.090
.081
.411
N item27
.692
-.039
.052
-.065
-.053
.488
N item28
.584
-.090
.089
-.057
-.029
.376
N item29
.610
.029
-.152
-.118
-.086
.392
N item30
.362
-.178
-.139
-.173
-.061
.315
N item31
.545
-.273
-.013
-.197
-.068
.437
N item32
.545
-.096
-.166
-.052
-.022
.356
N item33
.403
-.233
-.281
-.099
.092
.409
Items
143
Factor
Communality
1
2
3
4
5
N item34
.568
.054
-.207
-.040
-.222
.434
N item35
.372
-.028
-.324
.044
.024
.305
N item41
.122
-.134
-.402
.417
-.136
.408
N item42
.350
-.330
-.188
.010
-.073
.344
O item47
-.122
.469
-.006
-.022
.248
.327
O item48
-.060
.156
-.032
.068
.544
.344
O item49
-.258
.390
-.171
.056
.130
.298
O item50
-.079
-.030
.064
.019
.548
.379
O item51
.036
.023
.109
-.111
.430
.329
O item53
-.065
.391
-.127
-.060
.349
.305
O item59
-.128
-.046
.007
.219
.389
.293
O item60
-.057
-.033
.178
.138
.496
.352
O item67
-.217
.538
.098
.017
-.052
.384
A item72
.051
.281
.091
.089
.411
.332
A item74
.021
.458
-.043
-.008
.315
.348
A item75
.084
.187
.193
-.173
.505
.358
A item76
.066
.165
.070
-.063
.448
.292
A item77
-.156
-.096
.454
.132
.135
.304
A item78
-.084
.014
-.047
.409
.340
.296
A item79
-.049
.071
.484
.041
.103
.327
A item80
-.155
-.103
.466
.001
.281
.381
A item81
-.100
.048
.572
.038
.084
.359
A item83
.000
.309
.328
-.096
.224
.335
A item84
.039
.361
.018
.199
.324
.321
144
Items
Factor
Communality
1
2
3
4
5
A item88
-.007
-.015
.486
-.022
.333
.353
A item89
-.107
-.055
-.082
.433
.255
.285
A item90
-.285
-.025
.319
.264
.124
.323
A item91
-.165
.026
.462
.058
.210
.339
C item96
-.001
.352
.217
-.047
.267
.326
C item97
.059
.382
.457
-.048
.067
.402
C item99
-.022
.427
.378
.087
.044
.410
Citem100
-.051
.363
.086
.088
.164
.288
Citem101
-.274
.153
.341
.196
.028
.332
Citem102
-.127
.071
.371
.052
-.088
.251
Citem103
-.331
.252
.218
.168
.000
.328
Citem104
.053
.158
.673
.034
-.002
.408
Citem106
.045
.161
.443
-.114
-.033
.270
Citem107
.001
.449
.033
.007
-.065
.252
Citem108
.089
.303
.381
-.057
-.027
.332
Citem109
-.016
.529
.227
-.020
-.021
.327
Citem110
.054
.390
.119
-.082
.008
.261
Citem112
-.162
.170
.564
.117
-.035
.371
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
E= Extroversion, N= Neuroticism, O= Openness, A= Agreeableness,
C= Conscientiousness
145
Table 2. Intercorrelation Matrix for Five Personality Factors
Personality Factors
E
N
O
A
C
-.316*
.298*
.364*
.388*
Sig (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
.000
N
557
557
557
557
1
-.311*
-.369*
-.392-
Sig (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
N
557
557
557
1
.424*
.323*
Sig (2-tailed)
.000
.000
N
557
557
1
.491*
Pearson Correlation
Extroversion(E)
1
Pearson Correlation
Neuroticism(N)
Pearson Correlation
Openness(O)
Pearson Correlation
Agreeableness(A)
Sig (2-tailed)
.000
N
557
Pearson Correlation
Conscientiousness
(C)
1
Sig (2-tailed)
.000
N
557
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
According to the results of Table 1, it was verified that Extroversion
items grouped into Factor (4), Neuroticism items grouped into Factor (2),
some items within Agreeableness combined with Openness items to form
Factor (5). This Factor (5) was named as Openness factor because Openness
items were clustered very closely with higher loadings than Agreeableness
items. Since most items of Agreeableness were grouped together very
closely within Factor (3), therefore, Factor (3) was assigned as
Agreeableness factor although some items of Conscientiousness were
mixed with it. Out of 14 items of Conscientiousness, 9 items were so
closely grouped together within Factor (1). Thus, Factor (1) was regarded
as Conscientiousness factor although some items from four factors, such as
Extroversion, Agreeableness and Openness were loaded within this factor.
Since all the five factors were under the construct of personality, some of
their sub -traits were similar to some extent and they all were correlated
with each other. So, items were mixed together based on the strength of
146
correlation between the factors. That's why; correlation among variables
was needed to find out. Table 2 pointed out the correlation among five
personality factors based on the 68 selected items from factor analysis.
It was found that all personality factors were significantly correlated
with each other. Moreover, Conscientiousness was not only significantly
correlated with Extroversion but also highly correlated with Agreeableness.
So, within Conscientiousness factor, some items of Agreeableness and
Extroversion were grouped together. Agreeableness factor was also
significantly correlated with Openness. That's why; items of these factors
were mixed with each other. Apart from Neuroticism, all personality factors
were positively correlated with each other. The reliability coefficients for
each personality factor were increased and could be observed in Table 3.
Table 3. Descriptive Analysis for Each Personality Factor
Personality Factors
No. of Items
Alpha-reliability
Mean
Standard Deviation
Extroversion
16
0.68
48.82
7.241
Neuroticism
14
0.81
36.94
8.459
Openness
9
0.60
34.49
3.850
Agreeableness
15
0.70
59.66
5.832
Conscientiousness
14
0.74
52.33
5.958
Total
68
0.711
46.45
6.268
232.24
14.9
Grand Total
In order to find out the percentages of average, high, and low
personality level students, the grand total mean and standard deviations
were then added and subtracted. The addition value was 247.14 and the
subtraction value was 217.33. So, 399 students (71.63%) who got the scores
within the range of 247.14 and 217.33 were regarded as average personality
level students, 82 students (14.72%) who got above 247.14 were high
personality level and the rest (13.65%) who got below 217.33 were assigned
as low personality level students. Thus, the results of this study indicated
that most of BEd students from YIOE can be assumed to have average
personality level.
Comparison of Personality Level by Gender
To examine whether gender differences exist within personality
factors, analyses were conducted again (see Table 4).
147
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations of Gender for Each Personality
Factor
Personality Factors
Extroversion
Neuroticism
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Gender
N
Mean
Standard Deviation
Male
240
48.47
7.405
Female
317
49.08
7.115
Male
240
36.32
8.348
Female
317
37.41
8.526
Male
240
35.07
3.848
Female
317
34.06
3.798
Male
240
59.58
6.272
Female
317
59.73
5.486
Male
240
51.63
6.251
Female
317
52.85
5.680
Based on the results shown in Table 4, male students were higher in
Openness factor than female students. Apart from it, female students were
fairly higher in personality level than male students especially in the factors
of Extroversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. The
independent sample t-test was used to examine whether these differences
were significant or not.
Table 5. The Results of Independent Sample t-test by Gender
Personality Factors
t
df
Extroversion
-.988
555
.324
-.612
Neuroticism
-1.517
555
.130
-1.097
Openness
3.102*
555
.002
1.014
Agreeableness
-.293
555
.770
-.146
-2.407*
555
.016
-1.222
Conscientiousness
Sig.(2-tailed)
Mean Difference
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
According to Table 5, the results of t-test confirmed that significant
differences by gender exist in both Openness and Conscientiousness factors
at the 0.05 level. In this way, male students were higher in Openness factor
than female. That's why, they tended to be intellectually curious,
148
appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They were likely to be more
creative and more aware of their feelings. In Conscientiousness factor,
mean scores of female students were greater than that of male. It can be
concluded that female students were likely to complete any task
successfully, avoid mistakes, keep their promises, work hard and aim for
achievement. Besides, they love order and regularity and so they were also
likely to do everything according to a plan rather than spontaneous
behaviour. To be specific, most of them were thorough, purposeful, selfdisciplined, and dutiful.
Comparison of Personality Factors Among Ages
Since the participants aged from 16 to 23, the differences in personality
level among students' age were then be analyzed. Descriptive analysis revealed
that the mean score of 16-17 age group was the highest in Extroversion
(mean=51.07) and Agreeableness factors (mean=60.17) whereas 22-23 age
group was the highest in Neuroticism (mean=38.78). Regardless of age groups,
it was found that mean scores of Agreeableness was higher than other
personality factors whereas Openness was the least. So as to observe clearly the
significant differences in personality factors among age, One Way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was conducted again (see Table 6).
Table 6. ANOVA Results for IPIP Inventory Among Ages
Personality Factors
Extroversion
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Between Groups
746.354
3
248.785
Within Groups
28405.600
553
51.366
Total
29151.953
556
F
Sig.
4.843* .002
According to ANOVA results, significant difference among age was
found only in Extroversion factor at the 0.01 level. To obtain more detailed
information of which age group had significant differences, Post-Hoc Test
was executed by Scheffe's multiple comparison procedure and it became
apparent that the age groups of 16-17 and 22-23 were significantly different
in Extroversion at the 0.01 level (see Table 7). From these results, the
students from age group of 16-17 are significantly different from age group
of 22-23 in Extroversion factor. Thus, students from 16-17 age groups were
more likely to be extroverted, active, assertive, sociable and energetic. The
149
result supports recent researches and meta-analyses of previous studies
which indicate that the level of Extroversion tends to decrease with time.
Table 7. Results of Multiple Comparison for Personality Factors Among Ages
Personality
Factor
Extroversion
(I)
Student Age
(J)
Student Age
Mean Difference
(I-J)
Standard
Error
Sig.
16-17
18-19
2.050
.973
.219
20-21
2.564
.945
.062
22-23
4.702*
1.269
.004
Comparison of Personality Factors Among Specializations
Since the selected participants were majoring in Science, Arts, and
Combination of Arts and Science, it was needed to assess whether
personality level varies among these three specializations.
Based on the results of descriptive analysis, mean score of students
majoring in Science was the highest in Extroversion (mean=49.42) but that of
students majoring in Arts were the highest in Neuroticism factor (mean=38.11).
Students majoring in Arts as well as majoring in Science had the same in
Openness factor (mean=34.49) Mean scores of students in each major were
nearly the same in other two personality factors. To obtain more precise results,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then conducted (see Table 8).
Table 8. ANOVA Table of Mean Comparison for Personality Factors Among
Specializations
Personality
Factors
Extroversion
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of Square
df
Mean square
F
Sig.
487.586
28664.367
29151.953
2
554
556
243.793
51.741
4.712*
.009
ANOVA results pointed out that significant difference was found
only in Extroversion factor at the 0.01 level. Hence, it showed the necessity
to find out the particular specialization showing the highest or lowest mean
value of Extroversion. Therefore, Scheffe comparison analysis was used.
Form this result, it can easily be seen that students majoring in Science were
150
significantly different from students in Arts in Extroversion factor (see
Table 9).
To be more exact, Science students were higher in mean scores than
Arts students in Extroversion factor (see Table 9). Because of this, Science
students were more extroverted than Arts students and they were more
likely to exhibit characteristics of extroverts such as being sociable,
gregarious, assertive, talkative, enthusiastic, and energetic. They all will be
happy in cooperation with others and they would never find it difficult to
approach other people. They may also involve enthusiastically in group
activities such as presentation, peer group teaching, assignments, and
projects and they may also participate actively in social affairs. They would
also feel comfortable with friends and enjoy being part of a loud crowd.
Table 9. The Results of Scheffe Multiple Comparison for Personality
Factors Among Specializations
(I)
(J)
Mean Difference
Personality
Factor
Specialization Specialization
(I-J)
Extroversion
Sig.
Arts
Arts + Science
Science
-1.988
-2.091*
.180
.011
Arts + Science
Arts
Science
1.988
-1.02
.180
.995
Science
Arts
Arts + Science
2.091*
.102
.011
.995
Investigation of Personality Factors Among Student Levels of Study
To study exactly which personality factors influence on the students
according to their levels of study, means and standard deviations were
computed.
According to the results of descriptive analysis, first year students got
the highest mean score in Extroversion factor (mean=50.90) and the second
highest in Agreeableness (mean=60.27) and Conscientiousness factors
(mean=52.43). The students from second year were the second highest in
Extroversion (mean=49.22) and Openness (mean=34.99) but the lowest in
151
Neuroticism factor (mean=35.59). Third year students got the highest mean
score in three factors such as Openness (mean=35.37), Agreeableness
(mean=60.64), and Conscientiousness (mean=52.80) although they got the
second lowest mean score in Extroversion (mean=48.57). The students from
fourth year were the highest in Neuroticism (mean=38.22). Apart from it, they
got the lowest mean score in other four factors. According to ANOVA results,
significant differences among student levels of study were found in
Extroversion, Neuroticism, Openness, and Agreeableness factors at the 0.05
level (see Table 10).
Table 10. ANOVA Results for Each Personality Factor Among Student Levels of
Study
Personality
Factors
Extroversion
Neuroticism
Openness
Agreeableness
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
594.697
3
198.232
3.839*
.010
Within Groups
28557.257
553
51.641
Total
29151.953
556
Between Groups
603.845
3
201.282
2.841*
.037
Within Groups
39177.200
553
70.845
Total
39781.045
556
Between Groups
346.591
3
115.530
8.095*
.000
Within Groups
7892.637
553
14.272
Total
8239.228
556
Between Groups
471.457
3
157.152
4.713*
.003
Within Groups
18441.089
553
33.347
Total
18912.546
556
To obtain more detailed information of which had significant
differences, Post Hoc Test was executed by Scheffe's multiple comparison
procedure. According to Table 11, the results revealed that first year
152
students were significantly different from fourth year students in
Extroversion factor at the 0.01 level. The mean scores of first year students
were higher than fourth year students in this factor and so they were more
likely to possess the traits of extroversion factor. In Openness factor, fourth
year students were significantly different from second year and third year
students. Fourth year students got the lower mean score in Openness factor
than second year and third year students. So, they were likely to attach to
conventional ways and have difficulty in imagining things.
Table 11. The Results of Multiple Comparison for Personality Factors
Among Student Levels of Study
Personality
Factors
Extroversion
Years (I)
Years (J)
Mean
Difference
(I – J)
First year
Second year
Third year
Fourth year
1.681
.330
3.037*
.478
.095
.012
Fourth year
First year
-3.037*
.012
Second year
-1.356
.534
Third year
-.707
.824
First year
.736
.631
Third year
-.381
.892
Fourth year
1.460*
.027
First year
1.117
.151
Second year
.381
.892
Fourth year
1.841*
.000
First year
-.724
.520
Second year
-1.460*
.027
Third year
-1.841*
.000
Second year
Third year
Openness
Fourth year
Third year
Agreeableness
Fourth year
Sig,
First year
.361
.971
Second year
1.097
.533
Fourth year
2.144*
.005
First year
-1.783
.119
Second year
-1.046
.568
Third year
-2.144*
.005
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
153
Third year and second year students got high mean scores in
Openness factor and they were likely to show Openness characters. In the
near future, they will become effective teachers in their profession because
of creative thinking. As they have imaginative and inventive mind, they can
always think about how to teach their students effectively and always
prepare their lessons to be attractive and interesting for their students. They
are the persons who recommend the saying "Teaching is an art". So, they
can become effective teachers in the near future.
In Agreeableness factor, third year students were significantly
different from fourth year students. As third year students got higher mean
scores in Agreeableness factor, they will exhibit traits of Agreeableness. As
they are student-teachers, they will treat their pupils warmly and
sympathetically when they become teachers. So, their pupils will love them
and always be ready to obey their sermon. Thus, they will also have
pleasure and love not only in their profession but also in their daily lives. In
this study, BEd fourth year students got lower mean score in Agreeableness.
Because they were trying to be qualified in the final exam, they took no
time for others and cannot be interested in other people's problems. So, they
got low score in this Agreeableness factor.
Conclusion
This study was conducted to investigate personality level of BEd
students from Yangon Institute of Education by using IPIP Inventory and
then to explore gender differences, age differences, specialization
differences, and student levels of study differences in five personality
factors. A total number of 557 BEd students, (240 males and 317 females)
participated in this study.
IPIP Inventory containing 115 items with 5 likert-type scale was
revised in Myanmar version. The internal consistency reliability coefficient
(Cronbach's alpha) for each factor ranged from 0.6 to 0.8.
The intercorrelation coefficients among five personality factors were
in the range of 0.29 to 0.49. So, all personality factors were highly
correlated with each other at the 0.05 level. Besides, significant differences
by gender, age, and specialization were found in some personality factors.
To be specific, gender differences were found in Openness and
Conscientiousness factors. Male students were higher in Openness factor
154
than female students but female students got higher mean scores in
Conscientiousness factor than male students.
According to age, significant difference was found between 16-17
age group and 22-23 age group in Extroversion factor. With respect to the
results of this study, younger age group was more extroverted than elder age
group. By specialization, there was significant difference between Arts and
Science students in Extroversion factor again. This research showed that
science students were higher in Extroversion factor than Arts students. In
terms of levels, significant differences were found in three personality
factors such as Extroversion, Openness, and Agreeableness. In
Extroversion, first year students were significantly different from fourth
year students. To be more exact, the mean score of first year students were
more than that of fourth year students in Extroversion factor. In Openness
factor, fourth year students were significantly different not only from
second year but also from third year students. Third year students got the
highest mean score in this factor. According to descriptive results, mean
scores of third year students were significantly higher than fourth year
students in Agreeableness factor.
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An Investigation into the Effectiveness of Inquiry-based
Learning
Kyi Swe1 and Soe Than2
Abstract
The primary purposes of this study are to develop the Inquiry-based
learning performance model and to investigate its effectiveness in Grade
(9) students’ science learning. First, a survey was conducted to explore
the teachers’ attitude towards the actual and preferred classroom
environment through the Inquiry-based learning perspective. A total of
(24) items in the questionnaire focusing on the concepts such as teacher’s
attitude and its influence on his or her instructional decisions was set for
science teachers. A total of (291) teachers from (65) schools in Yangon,
Mandalay and Sagaing participated in the study. The results indicated that
all teachers believed that providing opportunities for student participation
was essential. But they asserted that it was difficult to implement in
practice. For the Basic Education Middle School science teaching and
learning, it is necessary to develop an Inquiry-based learning performance
model, which demands more thinking activities from teachers and
students. Thus, the Inquiry-based learning performance model was
developed based on cognitive, behavioral and constructivist learning
theories. The effectiveness and applicability of the Inquiry-based learning
performance model were tested in five Basic Education High Schools.
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to obtain the
required data. The scores obtained from the application of the Inquirybased learning performance model were higher than those from the
traditional method of teaching. Examination of the means and t test
(t=9.497, df=44, MD=16.61 p<0.001) indicated that there was significant
difference between the two groups. The students, teachers and principals
claimed that they became more confident in learning science. Thus, the
Inquiry-based learning performance model has been proved to be
effective in Myanmar classrooms and it is believed that this model of
teaching will contribute to optimalize success in teaching and learning
science.
Key words: attitude; inquiry-based learning; inquiry-based learning
performance model; student participation
Introduction
Science plays an important role in helping students understand the
relevance of science to society and the responsibility of the scientists of
1. Assistant Lecturer, Dr., Department of Methodology, Yangon Institute of Education
2. Professor (Head), Department of Methodology, Yangon Institute of Education
158
tomorrow. It offers exciting challenges to creativity and encourages
innovation which can solve problems. It is generally accepted that creative
thinking evolves from science education programmes, particularly at the
basic level, which should be capable of providing valid learning
experiences.
A school is a part of the school system. A teacher is responsible for
the progress of pupils. So, the teacher must have ample knowledge
concerning teaching models to accomplish his or her task. The focus of
learning environment is the students’ excitement about solving a problem or
addressing an issue they find meaningful. The teacher needs to understand
not only the students’ outcomes associated with particular content, but also
the nature of Inquiry-based learning that foster those outcomes.
Aims of the Research
The fundamental aims of the research are:
1. To investigate the importance of Inquiry-based learning,
2. To develop the Inquiry-based learning performance model, and
3. To explore the effectiveness of the Inquiry-based learning
performance model.
A Survey on the Importance of Inquiry-based Learning Performance
Model
Science is a systematic inquiry about natural phenomena. The broad
aim of learning science is developing an inquiring mind and a scientific
approach to problems. Science and innovation are at the root of social
progress and improvement of a quality life. Inquiry-based learning is a
process that students can be encouraged to develop their thinking skills.
Myanmar is a developing country that has many difficulties and issues for
building a modern developed nation. One of the factors that can help to
overcome such a situation is to nurture the youths to be able to do Inquirybased learning. Inquiry-based learning takes students to new levels of
awareness and involvement in science. Moreover, students need to develop
critical thinking and creative thinking. In Inquiry-based learning, students
use their own thinking skills to make their own generalizations or
conclusions. It is the synthesizing of critical and creative aspects of the
mind, which helps students to have reasoning ability. The development of
thinking and reasoning ability is an important objective of education. If they
159
have such reasoning ability, they can solve problems successfully in their
lives. Thus, it is necessary to do research on Inquiry-based learning with
Myanmar teachers and students in the field of science education.
The purpose of the survey is to find out teachers’ attitude of the
actual and preferred classroom environment through the Inquiry-based
learning perspective.
Traditional method is largely teacher-centred. This method's basic
technique is to give learners information and then insure remembering.
Teacher's role is to provide students with knowledge that will provide a
foundation for higher thinking (Callahan & Clark, 1988, p.177). Inquirybased learning is a way of acquiring knowledge through the process of
inquiry. In Inquiry-based learning, students either ask their own questions
or are posed a question by the teacher. In the former case the question
concerns a topic the students wish to learn about, and in the latter case the
question concerns a topic the teacher wishes students to learn about.
Regardless of the source of the question, Inquiry-based learning requires
that students play a major role in answering the question. This can occur
through designing and executing controlled experiments, making
measurements and observations or building and testing models (Duke
University, 2000, p.1).
In the study, (12) items were used to find out the teachers' attitudes
toward science teaching by using traditional method and other (12) items
were used to explore the teachers' attitude toward science teaching by using
Inquiry-based learning. The questionnaire was based on Margaret and
Lynne (1999). In the questionnaire, each statement was followed by five
responses: Never, Seldom, Sometimes, Often and Always. Arbitrary scoring
weights (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), were assigned for the responses (see Appendix A).
The sample chosen for the study consisted of (291) science teachers,
randomly selected from (65) schools in Yangon, Mandalay and Sagaing
Divisions. Science teachers from Grade (6) to Grade (9) were involved in
the study. Therefore, at least (4) science teachers from each school were
chosen. Among them, (21) science teachers were males and (270) science
teachers were females. Data collection was carried out in September 2008.
All the questionnaires were received at the end of December. The sample
size (or) the number of science teachers from Yangon, Mandalay and
Sagaing Divisions is presented as follows.
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Table 1. Number of Science Teachers from Yangon
Strata
No. of
Townships
No. of Selected
Townships
No. of
Selected
Schools
No. of
Teachers
Inner City
8
5
7
48
Inner
Suburb
9
5
6
30
Outer
Suburb
6
2
3
12
Satellite
10
6
13
40
Total
33
18
29
130
Table 2. Number of Science Teachers from Mandalay
No. of
Townships
Selected
Townships
Selected
High
Schools
Selected
Middle
Schools
Total
Teachers
30
Chanayetharsan
2
2
17
Chanmyatharsi
2
2
24
Mahaaungmyay
2
2
22
Aungmyaytharsan
2
2
14
Phyigyitagon
1
2
12
Amarapura
1
0
4
6
10
10
93
Total
161
Table 3. Number of Science Teachers from Sagaing
No.
Selected
Townships
Selected
High Schools
Selected
Middle
Schools
Total
Teachers
1
Sagaing
4
4
38
2
Myinmu
2
2
21
3
Chaungoo
2
2
9
Total
3
8
8
68
Results of the Survey
A total of (24) items in the questionnaire set for science teachers
was classified into two categories: Teachers’ attitudes towards science
teaching by using traditional method (12 items) and Teachers’ attitudes
towards science learning by using Inquiry-based learning (12 items). The
traditional method Scale focuses on the teacher’s role to provide students
with knowledge. Inquiry-based learning Scale focuses on the teacher’s
primary role to facilitate student inquiry. The scales of items ranged from
“1” for never, “2” for seldom, “3” for sometimes, to “4” for often and “5”
for always. Decisions on the scales of items were made on the basis of the
level of scores. It is assumed that scores below (3.0) are regarded as
unfavourable response, the score of (3.0) is neutral and scores above (3.0)
are favourable responses. The overall percentages of teachers’ attitudes
towards science teaching and learning from Yangon, Mandalay and Sagaing
Divisions are presented as follows.
Table 4. Overall Percentage of Teachers’ attitudes towards Science
Teaching and Learning from Yangon, Mandalay and Sagaing
Regions
Attitudes
No. of items
Percentage
Yangon
Favorable to Traditional
Method
12
66.15%
Favorable to Inquirybased learning
12
33.85%
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Regions
Attitudes
No. of items
Percentage
Mandalay
Method
12
70.74%
Favorable to Inquirybased learning
12
29.26%
Method
12
72.16%
Sagaing
Favorable to Inquiry12
27.84%
based learning
The result showed that (66.15%) of science teachers investigated in
Yangon favoured traditional method and (33.85%) of science teachers
surveyed favoured Inquiry-based learning.
The result described that (70.74%) of science teachers investigated
in Mandalay favoured traditional method and (29.26%) of science teachers
The result indicated that (72.16%) of science teachers investigated
in Sagaing favoured traditional method and (27.84%) of science teachers
Reflection on the Survey
According to the responses received, (95%) of science teachers
made introduction to the lesson to arouse students’ interest before teaching.
All science teachers used questioning techniques but they dominate the
classroom activities with their lengthy explanations. Most of the science
teachers prepared the lesson with summaries and suitable examples. Only
(5%) science teachers showed up to provide opportunities to do learning
activities for students.
The results indicated that the majority of science teachers favored
traditional method. Teachers’ desire to teach perfectly was evident.
However, all teachers believed that providing opportunities for students’
participation was essential. But they described that it was difficult to
implement in practice. Moreover, they felt that students should be trained
how to conduct an investigation using Inquiry-based learning. Therefore,
for basic education middle school science teaching and learning, it is
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necessary to develop an inquiry-based learning performance model, which
demands more thinking on teachers and students.
Developing Inquiry-based Learning Performance Model
Dick and Carey (1985, cited in Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1988, p.
22) developed the systems approach model for designing instruction.
Moreover, Vern S. Gerlach and Donald P. Ely (1989, cited in Seels &
Glasgow, 1990) developed an instructional design model. Considering
these, Inquiry-based learning performance model has been developed based
on cognitive, behavioral and constructivist learning theories (see Appendix
B). Inquiry-based learning performance model is an information processing
model that is sequential and linear. A model is presented based largely on
theorization to how human beings may process information. First, there is
the multi-trace notion of memory. Second, the apparent compatibility of
active information processes with determinism has resulted in their
legitimization in theory. Third, there is the notion that information
processing mechanisms themselves require memory space as stored data.
Amount of structure is moderate and appropriate conceptual level is
moderate. Its goal is to develop reasoning ability and critical thinking. This
model has been developed to be used with flexibility in the Basic Education
Middle School Level science learning.
The description of Inquiry-based learning performance model is
presented as follows.
1. Suitable content
2. Instructional goal
3. Performance objective
4. Preparing test items
5. Preliminary evaluation
6. Analysis of individual differences
7. Instructional procedure
(a) Identifying a problem
(b) Collecting data
(c) Students’ performance
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(1) Minds-on and hands-on learning activities
(2) Instructional materials
(d) Interpreting data
(e) Generalization
8. Summative evaluation
9. Feedback
Suitable Content
A teacher decides which topic provides the best opportunities for
Inquiry-based learning. Moreover, he/she makes a list of generalizations or
main concepts. The teacher can change his or her list of generalizations as
needed to match what the teacher finds in the chapter if he/she wants to
stick closely to the textbook’s contents. It leads to the feeling that, if
needed, the teacher can make a few changes and add some ideas. It helps
the teacher decide what is important and what is not.
Instructional Goal
The main purpose of an instructional goal is to develop reasoning
ability and critical thinking. These skills can be taught and enhanced
through Inquiry-based learning. A teacher’s instructional goal is to provide
the best materials and learning situations to make learning individually
meaningful for each student.
Performance Objective
The purpose of performance objective is to be able to measure a
student’s performance to decide whether the objective has been reached. A
teacher needs to identify the performance objective. The achievement of
performance objective can be assessed from the changes of students’
behaviour through their learning activities and their test scores.
Preparing Test Items
The teacher must evaluate whether or not the student has an
acceptable scientific concept and simply attempts to establish what the
student’s ideas are. Testing is the most recognized source of assessment
information. Teachers can ask not only what happened but also "how" and
"why" to evaluate developing critical thinking. What-questions generally
ask for descriptions and are the simplest type. How–questions require
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greater Inquiry-based learning because they usually use some process.
Why-questions are the most difficult to answer. They rarely have a final
answer, and each successive answer leads to another, more fundamental
question.
Preliminary Evaluation
Preliminary evaluation is used to find out which knowledge and skill
students understand and can use, and then to build on these strengths during
the Inquiry-based learning. It allows teachers to track students’ needs, while
providing a basis for lesson planning, instructional modification and
reflection. It is also based on a set of beliefs about the kind of task or
situation that will prompt students to do something.
Analysis of Individual Differences
Before implementing Inquiry-based learning activities with students,
the teacher must investigate the individual differences. Investigation for
individual differences provides the foundation for thinking about what
students already know, what they want to know and what they need to
know. Students differ according to their physical, social, emotional and
mental ability. Some have exceptional abilities and talents while others have
exceptional needs. A teacher is aware of students’ needs and capabilities.
Instructional Procedure
The instructional procedure is a key to success for teachers. In an
Inquiry-based learning classroom, students are often out of their seats,
examining items, collecting data and talking with one another. It is
important to help them have effective interaction skill. It includes having
whole-class discussions on working together productively, assigning
students different roles (i.e. one collects, one records the data) and calling
timeouts to assess everyone’s progress during an investigation.
(a). Identifying a Problem
In Inquiry-based learning, it begins with asking or framing an
essential question. An essential question is defined as a question that
requires students to make a decision or to carry out the minds-on and
hands-on learning activities. After the essential question has been framed,
the teacher writes foundation questions. The foundation questions are
directly listed below the essential question. Foundation questions are very
important; they provide path to the Inquiry-based learning investigation so
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that students know what they need to do. Students need to consider the
problems or issues by themselves. Identifying a problem includes
activities designed to: Generate interest, Establish current experiences,
Draw on prior knowledge, and Define possible aspects for investigation.
(b). Collecting Data
Students generally can collect as many resources as they need.
They observe phenomena and gather data on their own. They seek to
collaborate and work cooperatively with peers and the teacher. The
collection of data is not an end in itself, but a means towards improving
understanding concepts. Students record observations and data, working
either individually or in small groups. The teacher assumes the role of
facilitator, asking questions and suggesting ideas. The teacher goes from
group to group, asking each question about their collections. Therefore,
the teacher can understand their thinking and explanations. The teacher
keeps notes on each group and records their responses to questions and
any misconceptions that he or she detects.
(c). Students’ Performance
Students gather information and work out what they need to
understand and do. They find something out for themselves rather than
being told by the teacher. They have time to think about the observation
and to discuss with other students. Discussions help current false beliefs
and prevent the construction of new misconceptions.
Minds-on and Hands-on Learning Activities
The use of minds-on and hands-on activities in the classroom
improves a student’s making sense of the world and developing scientific
concepts. Example of minds-on learning activity is drawing concept
maps. Hands-on learning activity is particularly well-suited to
collaborative learning environments and team projects. They are based on
experiences gained through the senses. The teacher limits the scope of the
activity in terms of time, content selection and end product. He or she
considers how many activities he or she is willing to guide. Students take
responsibility for their own learning such as cooperative grouping or
pairing. They observe similarities and differences in the properties of
things and discover conditions that can produce or change properties. And
then, they explore, figure out how they are going to test their ideas.
167
Instructional Materials
Instructional materials are learning tools for the teacher and
students. There are seven types of instructional materials such as
language, printed media (books, handouts, work sheets, etc.), non-printed
media (specimens and real objects), display media (wall display, table
display), electronic media (radio and audio tape recordings, TV/Video
recordings), Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) and projected media
(overhead projector, films, slides, films strips). The teacher selects
appropriate instructional materials and plan for their use. Museum,
Library, Science magazines, Science program videos and the Internet
provide students with access to outside instructional materials. Students
can carry out using instructional material as a tool for applying content
knowledge in authentic contexts. The teacher goes to students to discuss
how they will carry out the activities by using instructional materials.
(d). Interpreting Data
Data and information are to be interpreted by students and the
teacher. First, students will analyze data on a lesson and then they will be
asked to answer questions on what they found out. The teacher asks openended questions such as “How do you know? And how does your data
support generalization?” in order to encourage further probing and
investigation. The interpretation expresses how the observations from a
given task constitute evidence about the performance being assessed as it
bears on the targeted knowledge. It is only sensible to look for evidence
when one knows how to reason from or interpret.
(e). Generalization
Drawing generalization requires students to express their
understandings and communicate with others. They make connections to
previous ideas. They may synthesize what they have found into
generalization which can be used to decide on possible solutions. They
use their own thinking skill to make generalization. The teacher helps
them to decide how to do the generalization.
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is used by the teacher and students mainly to
assist Inquiry-based learning, but also to gauge students’ achievement.
Summative evaluation assesses both the content and the process of the
Inquiry-based learning activities. The teacher can identify students’ existing
168
knowledge and ensure that their thinking is sufficiently challenged during
their investigations.
Feedback
Feedback is essential to guide, test, challenge, or redirect the
learner’s thinking. Inquiry-based learning involves the students in thinking
about scientific concepts and how new information fits or does not fit with
what the students already know about the world. The teacher needs to
consider how students achieved what she set out to do. If a student draws
incorrect conclusion or misinterpret information, the teacher will ask
question to redirect the student to a more accurate path of Inquiry-based
learning.
Materials and Methods
Inquiry-based learning performance model provides opportunities
for students to: develop reasoning ability and critical thinking skill they will
need all their lives, learn cooperatively with teacher and peers, find out
some of their own idea, be more confident in learning and feel competent
and successful in their lives.
It is necessary to explore the effectiveness and the practical
application of Inquiry-based learning performance model in schools.
Not only qualitative but also quantitative research methods were
used in this study. Qualitative research includes collecting data by using
interviews. Science teachers were asked to describe demographic
information concerning age, gender, academic qualification, training,
science teaching service and designation. Interviews ranged from 35
minutes to 50 minutes for each science teacher.
Both experimental and descriptive research designs were used in the
quantitative research. Experimental research was used to compare students’
science achievement between two groups: Experimental group and
Controlled group. After using the Inquiry-based learning performance
model in schools, a descriptive research was used to explore both teachers’
attitudes towards science teaching and students’ attitudes towards science
learning by using questionnaires.
The sample for the experimental design was selected from the (3)
high schools in Yangon Region. There are (33) townships in Yangon
Region. These townships were stratified into (a) Inner city (b) Inner-suburb
169
and (c) Outer-suburb. Among them, (3) townships were randomly selected
from different strata.
Moreover, the sample chosen for the present study includes a high
school in Mandalay Region and a high school in Sagaing Region. In this
study there were altogether (5) schools from Yangon, Mandalay and
Sagaing Regions.
The Effectiveness of Inquiry-based Learning Performance Model
A study was designed to test the effectiveness of Inquiry-based
learning performance model, which was used in schools for three periods of
two weeks (from 22 June to 7 July, 2009 in Mandalay Region and Sagaing
Region. from 19 October to 30 October, 2009 in Yangon Region). In terms
of the scores of the placement test, the students were randomly divided into
two groups: Experimental group and Controlled group. On 22nd June 2009,
the lesson (Acid, Base and Salts - Chapter 3) was taught to two groups in
Mandalay Region and Sagaing Region. On 19th October 2009, the lesson
(Energy and Work - Chapter 4) was taught to two groups in Yangon
Region. The data from the post-test were recorded systematically. Then, the
data were analyzed using the independent samples t test to describe the
effect of using Inquiry-based learning performance model. The school,
population and sample size are described. The results of the t test, the mean
scores, standard deviations and mean differences of both groups are
presented as follows.
Table 5. Number of Population and Number of Subject in Yangon,
Mandalay and Sagaing in 2009 Academic Year
Region
School
No. of Population No.of Subject
Yangon
Latha BEHS(1)
182
46
Yangon
Insein BEHS(1)
678
68
Yangon
Shwepyithar
BEHS(3)
546
64
Mandalay
Myitnge BEHS
513
80
Sagaing
Sagaing BEHS(3)
220
90
170
Table 6. Mean, Standard Deviations, Mean Differences and t-test for
Experimental and Control Groups in Yangon
School
Group
N
Mean
Standard
Deviations
Mean
difference
t
df
Sig
(2
tailed)
Latha
BEHS (1)
Experimental
23
40.26
5.52
16.61
9.497
44
**
Control
23
23.65
6.31
Insein
BEHS (1)
Experimental
34
40.88
5.36
5.7
4.22
66
**
Control
34
35.18
5.77
Shwephithar
BEHS(3)
Experimental
32
42.28
9.44
62
**
Control
32
30.22
5.45
Myitnge
BEHS
Experimental
40
37.05
11.16
Control
40
25.43
11.34
Sagaing
BEHS (3)
Experimental
45
32.55
7.21
Control
45
16.02
4.44
12.06
6.25
0.000
0.000
0.000
11.62
4.62
78
**
16.53
13.1
88
**
0.000
0.000
**
Note: p< .001
In Latha BEHS (1), results showed that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group. Examination
of the means and t test (t=9.497, df=44, MD=16.61 p<0.001) indicated that
there was a significant difference between the two groups. Thus, it can be
said that the scores obtained from the application of the Inquiry-based
learning performance model are higher than those from the traditional
method of teaching.
In Insein BEHS (1), results revealed that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group. The finding
of the post-test (t = 4.22, df=66, MD=5.7, p<0.001) showed a significant
difference between the two groups. Therefore, it can be said that the
experimental group performed better than the controlled group.
In Shwepyithar BEHS (3), results indicated that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group as well. The
t-value proved that there was a significant difference between the two
groups. ( t=6.25, df=62, MD=12.06, p<0.001) (see Table 6). Thus, it can be
said that the achievement scores of the students taught by using the Inquiry-
171
based learning performance model are higher than those who are taught by
using the traditional method.
In Myitnge BEHS, results showed that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group ( t=4.62,
df=78 and p<0.001) (see Table 6). Therefore, it can be said that the scores
obtained from the application of the Inquiry-based learning performance
model are higher than those from the traditional teaching.
In Sagaing BEHS (3), results also described that, statistically the
mean score of experimental group is significantly higher than that of the
controlled group. The finding from the post-test (t=13.1, df=88, MD=16.53,
p<0.001) proved that a significant difference between the two groups was
found. Thus, it can be said that the scores of the group using the Inquirybased learning performance model are higher than those obtained from the
group of traditional method.
Practical Application of the Inquiry-based Learning Performance
Model in 2010 Academic Year
The sample chosen for the present study consisted of (5) science
teachers from (65) selected schools in Yangon, Mandalay and Sagaing.
Then, they were interviewed in accordance with the results of the survey
questionnaire. They have at least (25) years’ experience in science teaching.
They were all over (40) years old. They took the degree in science such as
Chemistry, / Physics / and Botany. Demographic information about the
teachers is as follows.
Table 7. Demographic Information about Teachers by Gender, Age, Science
Teaching Service, Qualification and Designation
N
Male
Female
Age
Science
Teaching
Service
Qualification
Designation
Training
5
1
4
>40
>25
BSc
JAT
PAT, JAT
A study was also made to test the differences in terms of the locality
of the schools. Inquiry-based learning performance model was used in
schools for a period of one month (from 21st August to 21st September,
2010 in Mandalay, Sagaing and from 7th September to 7th October, 2010 in
Yangon). According to the scores of the placement test, the students were
172
randomly assigned into two groups: Experimental group and Controlled
group. The lesson (Acid, Base and Salts - Chapter 3) was taught by two
teachers in Mandalay and Sagaing Region. The lesson (Energy and Work Chapter 4) was taught by three teachers in Yangon Region. The data from
the post-test were recorded systematically. Population and subjects are
presented in Table 8. Then, the data were analyzed using the ANOVA to
explore the differences in the students’ mean scores in terms of locality (see
Tables 9 and 10).
Table 8. Population and Subjects in 2010 Academic Year
Region
School
No. of
Population
No. of
Subject
Yangon
LathaBEHS(1)
196
35
Yangon
InseinBEHS(1)
662
35
Yangon
ShwepyitharBEHS(3)
676
35
Mandalay
MyitngeBEHS
443
80
Sagaing
SagaingBEHS(3)
280
80
Table 9. Means and Standard Deviation by Strata
Strata
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Inner City
35
55.83
12.2
Outer-Suburb
35
54.11
8.49
Satellite
35
46.46
8.65
The result showed that there were differences in means and standard
deviation by strata; inner city, outer-suburb and satellite. Mean Comparison
of post-test scores is presented as follows.
173
Table 10. Mean Comparison of post-test Scores by Strata
Sum of
Square
df
Mean
Square
F
8.838
Between
Groups
1742.933
2
871.467
Within
Groups
10057.200
102
98.600
Total
11800.133
104
Sig.
**
0.000
The ANOVA result showed that there were significance differences
in terms of the locality of the schools (F (2, 102) = 8.838, p<0.001). It can
be said that students’ achievement scores are different in terms of the
locality of the schools.
The Applicablity of Inquiry-based Learning Performance Model by
Science Teachers
Table 11. Mean, Standard Deviations, Mean Differences and t - test for
Experimental and Control Groups in Mandalay and Sagaing
Regions
School
Group
N
Mean
Standard
Deviations
Mean
difference
t
df
Sig
(2
tailed)
Myit nge
BEHS
Experimental
40
68.30
9.81
6.98
3.66
78
**
Control
40
61.32
7.00
Sagaing
BEHS(3)
Experimental
40
67.83
10.08
4.53
2.399
78
*
Control
40
63.30
6.38
0.000
0.019
Note: **p< .001 , *p< .05
In Myitnge BEHS, results showed that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group. The finding
for post-test (t=3.66, df=78, MD=6.97, p<0.001) indicated that there was a
significant difference between the two groups. Thus, it can be said that the
scores obtained from the application of the Inquiry-based learning
performance model are higher than those from the traditional method of
teaching.
174
In Sagaing BEH (3), results also indicated that the mean score of
experimental group is higher than that of the controlled group. The t-value
proved that there was a significant difference between the two groups
(t=2.399, df=78, MD=4.53, p<0.05) (see Table 11). Thus, it can be said
that the average scores of the students for the application of Inquiry-based
learning performance model are higher than those obtained by using the
traditional method.
Interpretation
It was evident that the effect of Inquiry-based learning Performance
Model is significant. The applicability of Inquiry-based learning
performance model is satisfactory because every experimented group
performed far better than every controlled group in the study.
However, students’ related factors such as socio-economic
background, family support, intellectual aptitude, personality and selfconfidence ...etc, may influence either positively or negatively on students’
academic outcomes. Generally, the students in satellite are from the school
environment that are over-crowded. The facilities in these schools are
inadequate and so it becomes impossible for good teaching and learning to
take place. Therefore, the findings of the post-test showed that students’
achievement scores are different in terms of locality (as shown in Tables 9
and 10) (Inner city> outer-suburb >satellite ). The quality of a teaching
learning strategy depends not only on its inherent characteristics but also on
the context and manner in which it is implemented. Importantly, teachers
have to learn and be familiar with the skills of using varieties of teaching
models accordingly.
Teachers’ and Students’ attitudes towards Science Teaching and
Learning after using the Inquiry-based Learning Performance Model
A Total of (10) items in the questionnaire was prepared for teachers
and principals: Teachers’ attitudes towards science learning by using
Inquiry-based learning performance model and Principals’ attitudes towards
science learning in accordance with Inquiry-based learning performance
model (see Appendix C). Moreover, (18) items in the questionnaire were set
for students’ attitudes towards science learning through Inquiry-based
learning performance model (see Appendix D). The scales of items ranged
from “1” for never, “2” for seldom, “3” for sometimes, “4” for often and
“5” for always. Decisions on the scales of items were made on the basis of
175
the level of scores. It is assumed that scores below (3.0) are regarded as
unfavorable response, the score of (3.0) is neutral and scores above (3.0)
favorable response. The internal consistency of the instrument for teachers
and principals in the study, estimated by computing Cronbach alpha
coefficients for the full scales was (0.89) and the internal consistency of the
instrument for students in the study, estimated by computing Cronbach
alpha coefficients for the full scales was (0.78). Overall means and standard
deviations of teachers, principals and students are presented as follows.
Table 12. Overall Means of Principal and Teachers’ attitudes towards
Science Teaching
No.
1
Subject
N
Method
No. of items
Mean
Teachers
and
Principals
10
Favourable to Inquirybased learning
Performance Model
10
4.34
Table 13. Overall Means of Students’ attitudes towards Science Learning
No.
School
N
Method
1
Latha
BEHS (1)
43
2
Insein
BEHS (1)
57
3
Shwepyithar
BHS (3)
73
4
Myitnge
BEHS
47
5
Sagaing
BEHS (3)
53
Performance Model
Performance Model
Performance Model
Performance Model
Performance Model
No. of items Mean
18
4.04
18
4.23
18
3.74
18
4.26
18
4.16
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Findings
In terms of the responses received, the students demonstrated a
desire to learn in different ways. All teachers who were examined agreed
that instructional activities which create opportunities for students to
explore their reasoning ability, critical thinking, decision-making and
finally creative thinking are very productive. Most of the principals and
teachers described that interactions to support the challenging and clarifying
of ideas were necessary. The majority of the principals and teachers said
that it produced active involvement and better confidence in students’
performance. However, all principals and teachers examined suggested that
this model required a lot of time and it can be applicable to other subjects
and classes as well. The results indicated that all principals and teachers
surveyed favored Inquiry-based learning performance model.
According to the values of means, all students surveyed favored
inquiry-based learning performance model (see Table 13). Moreover, all
students described that the teacher’s experience and abilities helped to think
through an issue for themselves. Most of the students agreed that they want
to work together happily to learn. The majority of the students described
that they were arguing a lot and justifying their views happily. Furthermore,
all students accepted that they were more confident in learning and were
interested in science.
Suggestions
A teacher’s classroom performance is one aspect of professional
work. Teaching includes decision making that goes beyond the selection of
the appropriate teaching skills. Teachers must develop teaching procedures
which not only transmit information but also encourage students to learn
independently. In using Inquiry-based learning performance model, teachers
must consider three sets of factors that may influence their teaching.
One set consists of the teacher’s abilities, and how to plan the
learning activities. Learning activity can help students to improve their
concept, understanding, acquisition of knowledge, the encouragement of
thinking and the increasing of social and academic skills.
A second set involves the teacher’s experience in education. This set
includes how the teacher has been taught, how he/she prefers to be taught,
how he/she prefers to teach, his/her knowledge of subject matter and
pedagogical preparation.
177
A final set of factors affecting teaching derives from the context or
setting in which the teacher teaches. Context is determined by the kinds of
students, individual differences and class size, availability of instructional
equipment and material, time available for instruction, the nature of lesson
and the dominant views about the best way to teach.
Teachers are usually very clear about these differences as they are
faced day by day with the equally starting differences in what students
know and can do and how rapidly they learn.
Moreover, the most important fact depends not only on the
intellectual and emotional development of the students included, but also on
the nature of the subject matter and the objectives that the teacher and the
students want to attain. Doing laboratory activities, making hands-on and
minds-on science learning activities and engaging in lively classroom
discussions of scientific data are very important. In the classroom
discussion, the teachers normally initiate through asking questions. The
types of questions the teachers use to structure the teaching skills play an
important role in (1) the kinds of thinking skills learners employ; (2) the
range of information to be covered; and (3) the thinking skills they may
learn.
If teachers have a solid background in science content, they may feel
confident in using Inquiry-based learning performance model. It is
important to have an understanding of science content, but deciding how to
find information is also important. Attending workshops, taking science
courses, watching science television programs and accessing online science
information are all excellent ways to build content knowledge. During the
Inquiry-based learning, the teacher guides students, instead of leading them
and becomes a facilitator.
If the teacher gives careful attention to gathering necessary
resources and determining the nature and order of the activities, a lot of
time is not needed. Moreover, the teacher can make it easier to spend time
gauging students’ levels of content knowledge at the start of the lesson.
Therefore, pedagogical training courses and workshops for science
teachers should be conducted every year. Networking should be set with
educational developers nationally and internationally so that the teachers
will become knowledgeable and skillful in understanding science concepts
and the natural world.
178
Conclusion
Science teachers should help students construct their knowledge
with an emphasis on Inquiry-based learning. Inquiry-based learning
emphasizes that students have to build their own scientific knowledge and
understanding. Students should investigate environmental science problems
and report by group. Students have an opportunity to discuss the ideas in the
investigation with the teacher and with each other. They should ask
questions and offer answers. They need to interpret new knowledge in the
context of what they have already understood. Each student must build his
own understanding and meanings from the experiences he has. The task of
teachers is to help students to use all their experiences in their Inquiry-based
learning.
Science teachers should prepare, organize and have a direction and
purpose for their teaching. Three things: Time, Experience and Preparation
will increase the effectiveness of teaching. Science teachers are responsible
for developing students’ scientific understandings and skills; observing,
classifying, measuring, communicating, inferring and experimenting.
Thus, teachers should fundamentally understand the Inquiry-based learning
performance model to learning and instruction. If they actually understand
this model, they can easily use it. In addition, teachers need to capitalize on
opportunities in the activities normally done in the classroom.
References
Callahan, J. & Clark, L. (1988). Teaching in the Middle and Secondary School:Planning
for Competence. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Department of Biology. (2000). Why Inquiry-based Teaching and Learning in the Middle
School Science Classroom? New York: Duke University Press.
Gagne. R. M, Briggs, L. J. & Wager, W. W. (1988). Principles of Instructional Design.
Orlando, Florida: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,Inc.
Margaret, A. & Lynne, M. (1999). The Constructivist Teaching Inventory: A New
Instrument for Assessing Constructivist Teaching Practices in the
Elementary Grade. London: Lawcence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
179
Appendix A
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180
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181
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182
183
Appendix B
Suitable
content
Instruction
al goal
Performanc
e
objective
Preliminar
y
evaluation
Analysis of
individual
differences
Instructional Procedure
- Identifying a problem
- Collecting data
- Students’
performance
- Minds-on and
handson learning
activities
Preparing
test items
Feedback
Summative
Evaluation
184
Appendix C
Inquiry-based Learning Performance Model
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185
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Appendix D
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An Investigation of Some Influences on StudentTeachers' Self-Efficacy for Teaching
Naing Naing Maw and Khin Mar Swe
Abstract
This study investigates the major sources of influence contributing to
teacher self-efficacy among student-teachers and the relative strength of
these influences in predicting teacher self-efficacy. Bandura (1986, 1997)
asserted that successful performance depends not only on one's
knowledge and skills but, importantly, upon the personal judgment that
one can mobilize those knowledge and skills that he/ she possesses. This
study utilized questionnaire survey method to examine the relationships
between various sources of influence and teacher self-efficacy.
Participants were 500 student-teachers from Yangon Institute of
Education (YIOE) and Sagaing Institute of Education (SIOE). Two
questionnaires were used in this study: (1) Teacher Sense of Efficacy
Scale (TSES) (2) Sources of Self-efficacy Inventory (SOSI). According
to descriptive results, all participants had high self-efficacy. The
independent sample t-test showed that significant difference was not
found among gender although significant differences found concerning
grade and institutions. Teacher self-efficacy was significantly related to
sources of self-efficacy. Regression analysis revealed that institutions,
mastery experience and vicarious experience were key predictors of
teacher self-efficacy. The results of the final regression model revealed
that the combined effect of all predictor variables explained 28 % of the
variance in teacher self-efficacy. The findings of this study provided a
framework for teacher educators in providing learning opportunities for
student-teachers to engage in experiences that could foster high teacher
self-efficacy.
Key words: self-efficacy, teacher self-efficacy
Introduction
The most fundamental element in the nation's building process is
"human resources", and "education" and "training" must be in the heart of
the nation's wider economic plans. Education is vital to any person or any
country. In Myanmar, the Ministry of Education is the main provider of
education and is functioning with the vision to create an education system
that will generate a learning society capable of facing the challenges of
the Knowledge Age. The Ministry of Education is implementing short and
1. Assistant Lecturer, Dr., Department of Educational Psychology, Yangon Institute of
Education
2. Junior Teacher, Htankingyi Post-Primary School, Palai Township
188
long-term education development plans to develop a life long learning
society. Nurturing teachers and upgrading the quality of basic education
teachers are two main tasks of the education promotion programme in
Myanmar.
Two institutes of education: Yangon Institute of Education and
Sagaing Institute of Education, conduct pre-service BEd Degree programme
which is open to those who have completed two years of training at
education colleges and are qualified to attend the course. Matriculates may
also join the Direct Intake Pre-service BEd programme. The duration of the
course is four years. Graduates from these courses are appointed as upper
secondary teachers. University of Development of National Races (UDNR)
is also conducting pre-service B.Ed programme.
The purpose of teacher education is to develop the general qualities
of a personal and social kind as well as those of an intellectual kind. This is
apart from providing subject knowledge they hope to instil a sense of
efficacy to ensure that when the pre-service teachers graduate they have the
confidence to apply their knowledge to bring about changes in the students
they teach. Mortin and Welsh, 1991 (as cited in Wah, W.K., 2007) stated
that "an educator with high teaching efficacy will engage in activities that
promote the development of competencies, whereas teachers with low
efficacy may avoid engaging in those activities".
Teacher self-efficacy has been shown to be a powerful construct
related to positive teacher behaviour and student outcome. Pre-service
teachers' beliefs have been linked to attitudes towards children and control
(Woolfolk, A .E., & Hoy, A., 1990). A teacher self efficacy is the beginning
of a chain of efficacy needed to achieve optimum student academic
achievement in schools. A teacher self-efficacy will have an effect
regarding student academic achievement, the collective efficacy of a school,
internal influences of a school, administrators' self-efficacy, and the external
influences of a community's school. When educators and professionals in
the field of education fully understand every aspect of a teacher selfefficacy, educators can then begin to create initiatives to raise the selfefficacy of all teachers (Evers, 2001, cited in Wah, W.K., 2007).
There is a growing interest among local researchers who have
contributed to the understanding of the role of self-efficacy in affecting
teachers' behaviour and students' outcome over the past decade (Lim, 1997;
Nagamuthu, 1995; Rosna, 1999; Wong, 2001, cited in Wah, K. W, 2007).
189
Despite the increasing interest in teacher self-efficacy over the years, there
is no published research that explores the interplay of sources and their
influences on the development of teacher self-efficacy, in contrast to the
research that focuses on correlates and outcomes of teacher self-efficacy.
To summarize, there is also a need for greater understanding about
influences on teacher self-efficacy for teaching. Consequently, the primary
focus of this study is to investigate the sources which influence teacher selfefficacy. Additionally, the secondary purpose is to examine studentteachers' self-efficacy on their teaching. Finally, it also sought to find out
the relationships between the influences and teacher self-efficacy. And the
current study also examines the reciprocal relationships among the sources
of influences. Clearly, an investigation into pre-service teacher self-efficacy
and how these beliefs are conceived and natured can provide meaningful
information to teacher educators and professionals responsible for designing
and implementing more meaningful teacher preparation programs. Thus, the
present study is really needed for Institutes of Education in Myanmar which
conduct pre-service teacher training.
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships
between some influences on student-teachers' self-efficacy and their teacher
self-efficacy on teaching. Then, to examine the intercorrelations among
these influences and the relative strength of these influences is of next
interest.
Scope and Procedure
The population for this study consists of all final year students from
Yangon Institute of Education (YIOE) and Sagaing Institute of Education
(SIOE). By using purposive sampling method; participants were selected
based on their respective specializations. Then, a total of 500 student
teachers (250 from YIOE and 250 from SIOE) were selected as the research
sample.
Definitions of Key Terms
Self-efficacy
:
people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce
designated levels of performance that exercise
influence over events that affect their lives
(Bandura, 1998).
190
Teacher-efficacy
:
a teacher's perceived belief that the teacher can
create positive academic change in students'
cognitive development regardless of a student's
external influences (Bleicher, 2004).
Teacher self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a teacher's perceived belief the teacher can create
positive academic change in student's cognitive development regardless of a
student's external influences (Bleicher, 2004). A teacher self-efficacy
influences a teacher's motivation to teach; a teacher's effort in attempting to
create positive academic change as it pertains to students; and the teacher's
motivation to overcome adversity in all teaching situations (Strom, 2005;
Irizarry, 2002). Teachers with a high self-efficacy will believe they can
instruct any student for the purpose of creating greater academic
achievement in any situation, and will seek out students to help
academically (Milman, Kortecamp, Peters, 2007). Teachers who have high
self-efficacy are willing to implement new academic learning strategies; are
able to persevere through difficult academic sessions; are less likely to
criticize students academically (Protheroe, 2008).
To summarize, Jerald (2007) highlights some teacher behaviours
found to be related to a teacher’s sense of efficacy. Teachers with a strong
sense of efficacy:
-
tend to exhibit greater levels of planning and organization;
-
are more open to new ideas and are more willing to experiment
with new methods to better meet the needs of their students;
-
are more persistent and resilient when things do not go
smoothly;
-
are less critical of students when they make errors; and
-
are less inclined to refer a difficult student to special
education.
But all participants comprised in this research are pre-service
student-teachers because it also needs to reveal the role of pre-service
teachers’ self-efficacy.
191
Influences on teacher self-efficacy
Bandura (1997) postulated four sources of self-efficacy information:
mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, physiological/emotional
arousal, and social/verbal persuasion.
Mastery Experiences. A teacher mastery experiences are a
teacher’s successful endeavors as they pertain to students’ academic
achievement. After a teacher completes an exceptionally difficult task as
compared to a less difficult task, and is successful as it pertains to the
outcome of the referenced task, the teacher self-efficacy will increase more
(Kirk, 2010).
Vicarious Experiences. Watching others’ teaching, whether from
the vantage point of a student or from images portrayed in the media,
provides impressions about the nature of the teaching task and its context.
Images from during teacher education, from the professional literature, and
from gossip in the teachers’ lounge contribute information. Through these
and other vicarious experience one begins to decide who can learn and how
much, who is responsible, and whether a teacher can really make a
difference.
Social/Verbal Persuasion. It can provide information about nature
of teaching, give encouragement and strategies for overcoming situational
obstacles, and provide specific feedback about the teacher’s performance.
Emotional Arousal. A teacher’s emotional arousal refers to his
anxiety as it pertains to situations he is positioned: either a job or a task
assigned to the teacher. When a teacher experiences significant emotional
arousal, it can cause symptoms such as sweaty palms, perspiration, and
upset stomach. If a teacher has a very high self-efficacy for the task, the
amount of emotional arousal will be less.
Conceptual Framework of the Study
The conceptual framework of this study draws upon Bandura’s
(1986, 1997) model of triadic reciprocal causation, whereby personal
factors, environment and behaviour are complexly interactive sources of
influence on efficacy development (see Fiigure 1).
192
Mastery
Experience
BEHAVIOUR
TEACHER
SELF-EFFICACY
Instructional
Strategies
Classroom
Management
Physiological
Arousal
PERSONAL
FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
Vicarious
Experience
Verbal
Persuasion
Demographic
Factors
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study
Methodology
Participants
The sample of this study consists of the 500 final year students at
Yangon Institute of Education (YIOE) and Sagaing Institute of Education
(SIOE). Out of the subjects, 39.4 % (N = 197) of subjects were males and
60.6 % (N = 303) were females.
Instrumentation
All participants completed the Teachers' Senses of Efficacy Scale
(TSES) (Tschannen - Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) as well as items that
assessed influences on teacher self-efficacy with Sources of Self-Efficacy
Inventory (SOSI) (Kevin M. Kieffer, James A. Haley VA Medical Center,
Tampa and Texas A & M university, and Robin K. Henson, university of
193
Sourthern Mississippi) and demographic information about their teaching
context.
Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale: Teachers' self-efficacy beliefs
were measured using the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES)
(Tschannen - Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). This measure consists of 12
items, assessed along a 5-point continuum with anchors at 1-Nothing, 2Very Little, 3-Some Influence, 4-Quite A Bit, 5-A Great Deal.
Sources of Self-Efficacy Inventory (SOSI; Henson, 1999): The
SOSI is an inventory that measures influences on teacher self-efficacy and it
includes 35 items. It is an instrument of likert-type scale (from "1" strongly
disagree, to "5" strongly agree). It consists of four scales: (nine items) for
Mastery Experience, (nine items) for Vicarious Experience, (10 items) for
Verbal Persuasion and (seven items) for Emotional Arousal. In the previous
research, coefficient alphas for the four subscales were .75 for (Mastery
Experience), .79 for (Vicarious Experience), .46 for (Verbal Persuasion)
and .65 for (Emotional Arousal).
These two instruments (SOSI and TSES) were adapted to Myanmar
version. After preparing the measuring scales, expert review was conducted
for face validity and content validity by five experts from YIOE who were
qualified in Educational Psychology. After translating the items into
Myanmar language, pilot testing was conducted with a group of 50 studentteachers during the first week of December 2010. The reliability coefficient
of the subscales was .71 for Mastery Experience, .75 for Vicarious
Experience, .52 for Verbal Persuasion and .60 for Emotional Arousal. Then
the coefficient for the whole scale of teacher self-efficacy was 0.89.
Procedure
The study was conducted with two instruments (TSES and SOSI).
The required data were collected during December 2010. The participants at
YIOE were asked in the 2nd week of December 2010. The selected
participants were assessed in their usual class. The participants were
allowed 30 minutes to respond the questionnaire. After collecting the
required data, data analysis process was conducted.
194
Findings of Student-Teacher's Self-Efficacy
Descriptive analyses revealed that the mean and standard deviation
for the whole sample is 3.88 and .42. It can be estimated that the
respondents’ self-efficacy was somewhat satisfactory.
Gender is undoubtedly a vital variable for teaching profession. But
descriptive data analysis revealed that there was no difference in mean and
standard deviation of TSES test between genders. For grade and institution,
descriptive data analysis revealed differences in mean and standard
deviation.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for TSES by Gender, Grade, and Institution
Gender
TSES
Grade
Institution
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
male
197
3.91
0.43
female
303
3.87
0.41
4.1
250
3.82
0.46
4.2
250
3.95
0.37
YIOE
250
3.78
0.45
SIOE
250
3.99
0.36
Figure 2. Mean Comparison for Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale
195
To obtain more detailed information of particular aspect,
independent sample t test was used again (see Table 1). The results of t test
by gender also revealed that there were no differences in teaching efficacy
between male and female. Therefore, it can be satisfactorily interpreted that
teacher self-efficacy of the male respondents in this study is not lower than
that of females. In other words, the male teachers are also fond of their
teaching profession and their beliefs on their teaching efficacy seem to be
high, too.
The results of independent sample t test by grade described that
there was a significant difference in teaching efficacy at 0.01 level. In other
words, senior final year (4.2) students showed their firmer belief on their
teaching performance than junior final year (4.1) students. Again the result
of t test by institution also presented that there was significant difference in
teaching beliefs at 0.001 level. It can be interpreted that efficacy of
participants in SIOE was higher than that of participants from YIOE (see
Table 2).
Table 2. Results of t test for TSES by Gender, Grade and Institution
TSES
t
df
Sig (2- tailed)
MD
Gender
1.123
498
0.262
0.043
Grade
-3.307
473.633
0.001
-0.123
Institution
-5.661
480.149
0.000
-0.206
Findings of Influences on Teacher Self-Efficacy
"Sources of Self-efficacy Inventory" was categorized into four partmastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasions, and
emotional arousal. The student-teachers were influenced by four sources of
self-efficacy with the mean scores ranging from 3.47 to 3.78 on a five-point
scale. The highest mean score was obtained on vicarious experiences (mean
= 3.89, SD = .45). This finding implied that the participants might have
experiences of learning under successful, skillful teachers throughout their
student life.
The mean score on mastery experience (mean = 3.78, SD = .32)
and verbal persuasion (mean = 3.78, SD = .32) were relatively high, too.
196
It also revealed that the participants also have adequate teaching practices
and they also received the suggestions and exhortation from their admired
persons. Although, emotional arousal showed the lowest mean (mean =
3.47, SD = .33), it was still above the mid- point of five-point scale
implying that they have moderate level of emotional arousal. So, it can be
interpreted that they are likely to keep their excitement, stress and anxiety
while teaching (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Mean Comparison for SOSI
Descriptive statistics of SOSI between Genders
Descriptive Statistics revealed the differences in means and standard
deviations of influences on teacher self-efficacy concerning gender. The
result showed that there were mean differences in mastery experience,
vicarious experience and verbal persuasion by gender. Figure 4 presented
the result of mean comparisons between genders.
Figure 4. Mean Comparison of SOSI by Gender
197
The result of t test also described that there were significant
differences in mastery experiences at .05 level. Again, regarding vicarious
experiences and verbal persuasion, significant differences were found at
0.01level and 0.05level. But, for emotional arousal, significant difference
was not occurred.
Table 3. Results of t test for SOSI by Gender
t
df
Sig .(2-tailed)
MD
ME
-2.006
498
0.045
-.059
VE
-3.434
498
0.001
-.139
VP
-1.974
498
0.049
-.059
EA
-0.44
365.823
0.66
-.014
Total
-2.942
498
0.003
-.071
According to the t test result, the emotional level of male and female
students was the same. The participants’ mastery experience, vicarious
experience and verbal persuasion of others were significantly different. The
female student-teachers were more experienced in teaching practices,
imitation of other teachers and getting persuasion from others than the
males.
Descriptive statistics of SOSI between Grades
To examine whether influences would have differences by grade,
descriptive statistics and t test were conducted (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Mean Comparison of SOSI by Grade
198
To ensure the obtained information, t test was utilized. The results
revealed that significant differences were not found for mastery experience
and emotional arousal level. But vicarious experience and verbal persuasion
of the participants differ significantly. This finding can be interpreted that
the senior final year (4.2) student-teachers were more experienced on
vicarious experience and verbal persuasion than junior ones. The results of t
test are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Results of t test for SOSI by Grade
t
df
Sig (2- tailed)
MD
ME
-1.276
475.04
0.203
-.037
VE
-2.97
474.33
0.003
-.118
VP
-5.027
498
0.000
-.142
EA
0.673
480.97
0.501
-.020
Total
-3.278
461.26
0.001
-.077
Descriptive statistics of SOSI between Institutions
The results showed that differences in mean values were found on
all influences variables. The results can be seen more clearly in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Mean Comparison of SOSI by Institution
199
To inform more exact data, the results will be analysed by using t
test. The results indicated that all variables were significantly different. The
student-teachers of SIOE were more influenced by mastery experience,
vicarious experience and verbal persuasion more than those of YIOE.
Similarly, the participants of YIOE were less likely to keep their
excitement/emotion than those of SIOE (see Table 5).
Table 5. Results of t test for SOSI by Institution
t
df
Sig .(2-tailed)
MD
ME
-5.484
497.984
0.000
-.154
VE
-5.956
490.298
0.000
-.233
VP
-5.535
493.171
0.000
-.156
EA
-4.287
496.263
0.000
-.123
Total
-7.541
493.343
0.000
-.169
The Relationship between Teacher Self-Efficacy and Predictor
Variables (Influences on Teacher Self-Efficacy)
Table 6 showed that the means, standard deviations and
intercorrelations for all the variables included in this study. It can be seen
that the teacher self-efficacy was significantly correlated with the mastery
experiences (r = .42, p < 0.001) and the vicarious experience (r = .43, p <
0.001). It was not surprising that the growing amount of evidence links
teacher self-efficacy to mastery experience and vicarious experience. Again,
the teacher self-efficacy was found to be correlated with the verbal
persuasion (r = .35, p < 0.01). Next, teacher self-efficacy was also
correlated with the emotional arousal (r = .09, p < 0.01), despite its
relatively weak relationship if compared to the other variables. Moreover,
all predictor variables were also positively and significantly correlated with
one another.
200
Table 6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations of Teacher SelfEfficacy and Predictor Variables (Influences on Teacher SelfEfficacy)
Variable
1
2
3
4
5
M
SD
1.Teacher Self -Efficacy
1
.42**
.42**
.35**
.09*
3.88
.42
1
.49**
.49**
.19**
3.78
.32
1
.48**
.28**
3.89
.45
1
.14**
3.78
.32
1
3.47
.33
2.Mastery Experience
3.Vicariou Experience
4.Verbal Persuasion
5.Emotional Arousal
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The result can be predicted that their perceived level of teacherefficacy would be positively correlated with influences on teacher selfefficacy. It can also be predicted that student-teachers who have more
experiences on influences of teacher self-efficacy would have higher level
of teacher-efficacy.
Hierarchical Regression Analysis
The following regression analyses were conducted to measure
teacher self-efficacy using the influences on teacher self-efficacy scale. A
five step hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to assess how
much additional variance in teacher self-efficacy score can be explained by
incrementally adding predictor variables to the equation. Hierarchical
multiple regression was chosen because theoretical relevance was given
priority over statistical considerations.
Variables that explained teacher self-efficacy were entered in five
steps. In Step 1, “Teacher Self-Efficacy” was the dependent variable and
demographic data (grade, institution and support) was the independent
variable. In Step 2, mastery experience was entered into the Step 2 equation.
The process was repeated at Step 3 with vicarious experience, at Step 4 with
verbal persuasion and Step 5 with emotional arousal. Before the hierarchical
multiple regression analysis was performed, the independent variables had
been examined for collinearity. Results of the variance inflalction factor (all
less than 2.0) and collinearity tolerance (all greater than .73) suggested that
the estimated βs are well established in the following regression model. The
201
results of the regression analysis showed that (grade, institution and
support) was able to account for 9.9% of the variance in teacher selfefficacy when entered at Step 1, R2 = 0.99, F (1,496) = 18.140, p<0.01.
Mastery experience was able to account for 22.5% of the variance in
teacher’s self-efficacy at Step 2, R2 = 0.225, F (1,495) = 35.389, p<0.01.
However, vicarious experience was also able to account for 26.6% of the
variance in teacher self-efficacy at Step 3, R2 = 0.041, F (1,494) = 35.791,
p<0.01. And also, verbal persuasion was able to account for 26.7% of the
variance at Step 4. Furthermore, emotional arousal was able to account for
26.9% of the variance at Step 5.
Based on the results, the R-square increased from .09 to .27 with the
addition of subsequent sets of variables. In the first step, the grade,
institution and support were significant predictor of teacher self-efficacy, (β
= .118, p < .01), (β = .245, p < .01), (β = .133, p < .01). Results revealed
that mastery experience was positive and significant predictor of teacher
self-efficacy, (β = .367, p < .01) in Step 2. The demographic data was also
significant in this Step. When vicarious experience was entered into step 2
equation, all variables were positive and significant predictors of teacher
self-efficacy, for vicarious experience (β = .241, p < .01). In step 4,
institution, mastery experience and vicarious experience were significant. In
step 4, the result showed that the above three variables were significant
predictor of teacher self-efficacy. Based on the results, the multiple R2 was
.27, which means that the total contribution by the combined set of efficacy
sources accounted for approximately 27% of the variance of teacher selfefficacy. Thus, the collective relationship between teacher self-efficacy and
the set of predictor variables can be characterized as moderately strong. The
final result showed that institution (demographic data), mastery experience
and vicarious experience were key predictors on teacher self-efficacy (see
Table 7).
Table 7. Standardized Beta Coefficients from Hierarchical Multiple
Regression Analysis of Teacher Self-Efficacy
Predictors
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
1.Grade
Institution
Support
.12**
.25**
.13**
.11*
.16**
.09*
.08*
.12**
.08*
.08
.12*
.07
.08
.12*
.08
202
Predictors
Step 1
2.Mastery
Experience
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
.37**
.26**
.25**
.25**
.24**
.23**
.24**
.04
.04
3.Vicarious
Experience
4.Verbal
Persuasion
5.Emotional
Arousal
-.05
6.R Square
.09
.23
.27
.27
.28
7.Adj R Square
.09
.22
.26
.26
.27
.09**
.13**
.04**
.01**
.02**
F(3,496)=
18.14,
p<0.01
F(4,495)=
35.839,
p<0.01
F(5,494)=
35.791,
p<0.01
F(6,493)=
29.937,
p<0.01
F(7,492)=
25.89,
p<0.01
8.R Square
Change
9.F value
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
At last, based on the findings of regression analyses, a model
describing how influences factors significantly effecting teacher selfefficacy was obtained in this study. Through the following figure that is
figure 7 shows the result more clearly.
DF
ME
VE
VP
EA
=
=
=
=
=
203
Demographic Factors (grade, institution, support)
Mastery Experience
Vicarious Experience
Verbal Persuasion
Emotional Arousal
Figure 7. Influencing Factors Affecting on Teacher Self-Efficacy
Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendations
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the teacher selfefficacy of the participants. The second purpose was to find out influences
contributing to teacher self-efficacy among participants. Next, the relative
strength of these influences in predicting teacher self-efficacy was the final
purpose of this study. The total of 500 final year student-teachers from
YIOE and SIOE participated in this study. The subjects were selected
equally from each institution. Half of them were senior and the rest studentteachers and junior ones. The current study included 39.4% of male
participants and 60.6% of female participants. This study utilized
questionnaire survey method to investigate teacher self-efficacy. Based on
the result of teacher self-efficacy, the participants’ self-efficacy level was
satisfactory. With regard to gender, significant differences were not found
in teacher self-efficacy. Beliefs on their teaching performance were the
same among the male and female participants. Moreover, different grades
204
point out different beliefs in teacher self-efficacy because the senior
participants had more experience in teaching tasks than the junior ones.
Next, by comparing the teacher self-efficacy of participants among
institution, it was found that the participants at SIOE were better than those
of YIOE.
In comparing two institutions, it was also found that the participants
of SIOE were more aware of their own capabilities as a teacher and got
information about the complexity of the teaching task more than those of
YIOE. Concerning the vicarious experience, it could be said that the
participants of SIOE were more experienced in watching others’ teaching in
observing admired, credible and similar model more than those at YIOE.
Again, with respect to verbal persuasion, the participants at SIOE got more
information about the nature of teaching, encouragement and acceptance for
overcoming their difficulties and received feedbacks about teacher
performance when compared with the participants at YIOE. The
participants of SIOE expressed stress and anxiety more than those of
YIOE. The result of correlation analysis showed significant relationship
between teacher self-efficacy and predictor variables. The intercorrelation
coefficients teacher self-efficacy and predictor variables were in the range
of .09 to .49.
In order to find out whether demographic variables (grade,
institution and support) and influences variables could account for a
significant amount of the variance in teacher self-efficacy, hierarchical
regression analysis was conducted. The results showed that the R squared
increased from .09 to .28 with the addition of subsequent sets of variables
and the F statistics became statistically significant with the addition of each
variable. Moreover, demographic variables made a significant independent
contribution (grade, beta = .19), (institution, beta = .25) and (support, beta =
.13) in the first model. Next, mastery experience (beta = .37) was added as
significant predictor and all demographic variables were also significant as
the second time. When vicarious experience was added, it was significant
(beta = .24). In this third model, mastery experience (beta = .26) and
demographic variables (grade, beta = .08), (institution, beta = .12) and
(support, beta = .08) were also significant predictors in the next time.
Concerning the fourth model, institution (beta = .12), mastery experience
(beta = .25) and vicarious experience (beta = .23) were significant
205
predictors. The above three variables were still regarded as significant
predictors until emotional arousal was added as the final model. Twentythree percent of the variance in student-teacher self-efficacy was explained
with the combination of demographic and mastery experience variables,
27% of the variance for student-teachers can be explained when vicarious
experience, 27% with the addition of verbal persuasion and 28% with the
addition of emotional arousal.
Discussion and Recommendations
Teacher preparation programs need to give pre-service studentteachers more opportunities for actual experiences with instructing and
managing children in a variety of contexts with increasing levels of
complexity and challenge to provide mastery experiences and specific
feedback. An apprenticeship approach of breaking down element of the
complex task of teaching, allowing an apprentice teacher to work on
developing one set of skills at a time should encourage a compounding
sense of efficacy over various contexts and skills (Tschannen - Moran, Hoy
& Hoy, 1998).
The current study revealed that emotional arousal was also related to
teacher self-efficacy. And it can predict 28% variance on teacher selfefficacy. According to descriptive statistics, the mean score for emotional
arousal was slightly high. It can affect the teacher efficacy level. Emotional
and physiological arousal impairs or enhances self-efficacy beliefs, and
thereby influences subsequent judgements. Mood despondency, anxiety,
and depression are likely to have a negative effect on self-efficacy in that
the teacher is less likely to believe they are capable of making a difference
in challenging situations. Thus, teacher preparation programmes ought to
explore strategies whereby teachers (a) become aware of their physiological arousal, emotions and moods
(b) become aware of the effects on their self-efficacy and performance,
and
(c) develop strategies to exercise control over physiological states,
moods, and emotions.
The degree of confidence they possess could be gauged by the
physiological arousal they experience as they contemplate an action. Strong
arousal such as fear and anxiety could lower self-efficacy perceptions and
trigger further stress and agitation about their capabilities.
206
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The Assessment of Preschool Children's Development in
Motor Skills and Cognitive Skills
Khin Hnin New1 and Hay Mar Myat Kyaw2
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to assess preschool children’s development in
motor skills and cognitive skills. 80 preschool children from 12
preschools, their respective parents and teachers were the subjects for this
study. Survey questionnaires, an observation checklist and semi-structured
interviews were used in the present study. Two assessment questionnaires
for motor and cognitive skills development of preschool children were
constructed: one for their teachers and the other for their parents. The
results revealed that (i) children from the preschools those have fullfacilities, reasonable teacher-pupil ratio and proficient preschool teachers
can have a chance to get high development in motor skills and cognitive
skills, (ii) preschool children who are allowed to play freely presented
superior development in motor and cognitive skills. It was also found in
this study that the length of schooling was the most significant predictor
for children’s cognitive and motor skills. Then eight preschool children
were observed and their respective teachers and parents were interviewed
in order to investigate factors which influence upon the development of
children in motor skills and cognitive skills. In addition to school factors,
family related factors such as caring style, high quality of parent child
relationship, affection of family members are the prominent factors for the
development of cognitive and motor skills in children.
Key Words : cognitive skills, motor skills
Introduction
Nowadays, one of the aims of Myanmar parents for sending their
children to preschool is just to have foundations for advanced education
levels. One can say that this aim is not sufficient for the preschool
education. The major goal of preschool education is to train children to have
all-round development and also a habit formation needed in their later
learning for their survival.
By giving training to preschool children in order to improve their
cognitive skills, children can also possess high level of thinking concerning
problem solving, initiative, creativity, insight and so on. Similarly by
assisting children to raise their motor skill, they will attain self-confidence
and healthy ways of living.
1. Assistant Lecturer, Dr. Department of Educational Psychology, Yangon Institute of
Education.
2. Senior Teacher, Basic Education High School (Branch), Lamudangyi, Htandabin.
208
Developing motor skills is sometimes ignored in this knowledge
age. But if someone goes to deeper level of developmental stages, he can’t
deny how much extent it plays an important role in a child’s life. Therefore,
whether preschool children actually develop their cognitive and motor skills
in preschool years or not is becoming a prominent question in education
field.
Preschool assessment takes place for many reasons: screening,
diagnosis, placement, decisions and remediation of problems. Research has
shown that early intervention in a child’s life is necessary to minimize
lasting effects of a child’s difficulties. Thus a comprehensive cognitive and
motor assessment in the preschool years can be a key component of a
thorough multidisciplinary education.
It is wisely recognized that although many preschool educators are
aware of the guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice, putting
this practice to work effectively in the classroom is more challenging.
Besides, preschool is not the only place which is responsible for the
development of motor and cognitive skills as family should be taken into
account as an important place in developmental history of the children.
Therefore, it is essential to investigate factors which influence on the
development of children, especially cognitive and motor skills which are
required throughout children’s lives.
The major purpose of this study is to assess preschool children’s
development in motor and cognitive skills. The specific objectives of this
research are;
- to examine the effect of preschooling on the development of
preschool children in motor and cognitive skills.
- to investigate factors which influence on cognitive and motor skills
development of preschool children.
Scope of the Study
Subjects of the study were preschool teachers, children and their
respective parents from ten selected preschools under Department of Social
Welfare (DSW), Myanmar Maternal and Child Welfare Association
(MMCWA), Department of Basic Education (DBE) and two private
preschools in Yangon Region.
209
Cognitive skills involve processes such as memory, association,
concept formation, language, attention, perception, problem solving and
mental imagery (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia; 2010).
Motor skill is a learned sequence of movements that combine to
produce a smooth, efficient action in order to master a particular task. It
includes fine motor skills, gross motor skills and ambidexterity (Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia; 2010).
For the past three decades, there has been increasing emphasis on
the assessment of preschool children. Many factors have influenced this
movement, including the effectiveness of preschool programs, the national
agenda of having all children ready for school, and research with young
children that has demonstrated the importance of early experiences for later
development (R.J. Nagle, 2007). Preschool assessment is a complex and
challenging professional task. Effective assessment activities may be
bounded by a limited understanding and conceptualization of the growth
and development of preschool children.
Research by Bailey (1989) suggested that rapid growth across
various domains may be discontinuous and unstable. By Romeo (1992)
suggested that many children will show highly diverse rates of maturation
and spurts in development are common observations during the preschool
years. A critical point derived from these developmental issues is
understanding the importance of emerging skills as extensions of and
complements to acquired skills and learning processes as vital adjuncts to
products of learning (Cited in Nagle,2004).
In the Montessori approach, children are given considerable freedom
and spontaneity in choosing activities. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather
than a director of learning. The teacher shows the child how to perform
intellectual activities, demonstrates interesting ways to explore curriculum
materials, and offers help when the child requests it. Some
developmentalists favour the Montessori approach, but others believe that it
neglects children’s social development (Santrock, J. W., 2006).
Grace J. Craig and Don Baucum (2002) stated that children often
use their bodies as a means of testing their developing knowledge and
210
understanding. Motor development is also linked during the early years to
general psychological health, to social and emotional adjustment, and to
educational achievement (Clark & Phillip, 1985). Underachievement in
school, lack of concentration, low self-esteem, poor social competence, and
behavioural problems have all been linked to or associated with deficits in
motor development in early and later years of childhood. Motor
development has been considered an important part of child development
and is a universally recognized means for assessing the overall rate and
level of development of the child during the early months and years after
birth (Gesell, 1973; Illingworth, 1975).
Four factors are necessary for the developmental transitions from
one form of reasoning to another. They are the physical environment,
maturation, social influences, and the processes referred to as equilibration
(Piaget, 1977). Cheung, Y.B. and his colleagues (2000) examined that
whether there is a relationship between growth failure in early postnatal
period and motor development. The design in this study was longitudinal
and the result from this paper is that both fetal and postnatal growths affect
motor development in early childhood.
Ellen S. Peisner-Feinberg (2004) conducted one study to examine
the impact of child care upon the development of children. The research
evidence supports the contention that better quality child care is related to
better cognitive and social development for children. Hence, this is equally
important to investigate the effect of preschool upon the development of
young children in Myanmar and the factors which influence on Myanmar
children’s development in motor and cognitive skills.
As an initial phase of this study, the pilot testing was carried out in
December, 2010. For the pilot study, two preschools, one from Basic
Education and another one from DSW were selected. Samples were 18
preschool teachers, 10 preschool children and their parents. Based on the
results of the pilot study, the researcher improved the weaknesses of
wording and changed kinds of questions which were inappropriate and
could get incomplete responses. After that, the questionnaires were sent to
selected preschools in the third week of December, 2010. The data were
analyzed by SPSS version 16 for quantitative data and categorizing
qualitative data. Observations were done to investigate the effectiveness of
211
preschooling upon the development of children in cognitive and motor
skills. Eight preschool children were observed in their classroom and
playground. Each child was observed for 2 days and the researcher recorded
information of each sample, according to the observation checklist. Then
the respective teachers and parents of these children were interviewed in
order to examine main factors which influence cognitive and motor skill
development of preschool children.
Participants
Random sampling method was used. 40 teachers from 12 preschools
of Yangon Region were selected as the sample. Out of 12 preschools, two
are under Department of Social Welfare (DSW), four from Basic Education
Schools and another four established by Myanmar Maternal and Child
Welfare Association (MMCWA), and the last two are private preschools.
Each teacher had to answer questionnaire for two children (a boy &
a girl) in her class. Furthermore, 80 parents were requested to fill for their
child. Again, 8 students and their respective teachers and parents were
selected by using purposive sampling method for the qualitative study.
Instruments
In order to get necessary information for the study, two
questionnaires were constructed; one for preschool teachers and the other
one for respective parents.
Questionnaire for teachers was comprised with 39 items: personal
information such as age, education level, service, name of the school, are in
Section A and developmental status of their children concerned with
cognitive and motor skills and their suggestions for how to develop children
are in Section B. Section B can be divided into two parts; cognitive and
motor skills. To be specifically, it included 5 items for memory (e.g., Does
the child know his or her name?), 2 items for concept formation and
perception (e.g., Does the child understand today, yesterday and
tomorrow?), 1 item for association (e.g., Does the child have the idea how
to associate objects in his or her environment?), 1 item for reasoning (e.g.,
Does the child have reason if he or she is asked why he or she behaves like
that?), and 3 items for mental imaginary (e.g., Can the child retell about
cartoon characters he or she like?) in cognitive part and includes 7 items
assessing fine motor skills (e.g., Can the child paint within lines), 8 items
for gross motor skills (e.g., Can the child skip some objects while he or she
212
is running), and 1 item for ambidexterity (e.g., Does the child use only left
or right hand while eating, playing and writing?) in motor part.
Questionnaire for parents included 20 items; name of the child, age,
name of school, duration of schooling, how much he or she shows
development at home and opinion of the parents. Questionnaire for parents
was used to get complete pictures of the sample children because abilities
that are targeted as weaknesses in a preschool or day care setting may be
stronger at home.
Observation checklist was constructed based on Milestones by New
York University Child Study Center (NYUCSC). There were 34 items in
observation checklist. It began with child’s profile and included 14 items
for cognitive skills and 16 items concerning motor skills. In this study, two
types of semi-structured interview questions were prepared based on these
facts such as members of family or extended family, socio-economic status
of the family, the condition of the house, parenting style, nutrition and
health history and also mother’s health while she was pregnant.
Results
Descriptive analyses showed that the mean and standard deviation of
survey questionnaire were 85.89 and 8.28 (See Figure 1).
For making interpretation of preschool children’s scores of survey
questionnaire, both addition and subtraction of mean and standard deviation
were calculated. Hence, the values above and below one standard deviation
were 94.17 and 77.61. According to these values, scores greater than 94.17
was regarded as above average and less than 77.61 as below average and
between 77.61 and 94.17 as average.
213
Motor and Cognitive Scores
Figure 1 Frequency Distribution of Mean Scores of Preschool Children
Comparison of Motor Skills and Cognitive Skills by Preschools under
Different Organizations
In the present research, the samples were selected from preschools
under different organizations with different nurturing styles, but also a
variety of demographic factors and socioeconomic status. Therefore, the
researcher conducted a comparative study of motor and cognitive skills
among preschools under 4 different organizations. Descriptive analysis
revealed the differences in means and standard deviations of surveyquestionnaire among preschools under these organizations respectively.
214
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations for Survey Questionnaire by
Preschools under Different Organizations
Preschools opened by
Different organizations
S-1
S -2
S -3
S -4
90.85
(8.16)
84.19
(6.20)
82.64
(5.76)
83.07
(10.33)
Note. Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations.
S-1=Preschools under DSW
S-2=Preschools opened by MMCWA,
S-3 = Preschools under D.B.E,
S-4=Preschools from Private Sector.
In order to obtain more detailed information on the difference of
children’s cognitive and motor skills among the types of preschool, one way
analysis of variance was conducted. According to ANOVA results, there
was significant difference at 0.05 level within the groups ( See Table 2).
Table 2. ANOVA Table of Mean Comparison for Survey Questionnaire
by Preschools under Different Organizations
Motor and
Cognitive Skills
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
972.422
3
324.141
5.546
.002
Within Groups
4441.566
76
58.442
Total
5413.987
79
To get more specific difference, Tukey HSD test was used. It
revealed that preschool under DSW differed significantly from preschools
of other sectors at 0.05 level ( See Table 3).
215
Table 3. The Results of Tukey HSD Multiple Comparison by Preschools
under Different Organizations
I
Preschool
J
Preschool
(I-J)
Mean Difference
Sig
1
2
3
4
6.654*
8.20*
7.78*
0.01
0.09
0.015
If survey questionnaire was divided into cognitive skills part and
motor skills part, difference in means and standard deviations for each part
can be seen through descriptive analyses.
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations of Cognitive Skills and Motor
Skills by Preschools under Different Organizations
Preschool
Cognitive skills
Motor skills
S-1
42.88
(2.41)
48.08
(5.80)
S-2
41.04
(2.62)
43.31
(3.88)
S-3
39.79
(2.12)
42.64
(4.11)
S-4
40.64
(3.52)
43.14
(5.23)
Note. Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations.
S-1=Preschools under Department of Social Welfare
S-2=Preschools opened by MMCWA
S-3 = Preschools under D.B.E
S-4=Preschools from Private Sector
Again, for further detail analysis, computation by using one way
analysis method was done. Here, significant differences were found at 0.01
level for cognitive skills and at 0.001 level for motor skills ( See Table 5).
216
Table 5. ANOVA Table of Mean Comparison for Cognitive Skills and
Motor Skills by Preschools under Different Organizations
Skills
Cognitive
skills
Motor skills
Types of
School
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F
Sig
Between
Groups
105.013
3
35.004
4.971
.003
Within
Groups
535.187
76
7.042
Total
640.200
79
Between
Groups
440.074
3
146.691
6.227
.001
Within
Groups
1790.313
76
25.557
Total
2230.388
79
Results from one way analyses indicated the necessity to find out the
particular types showing the highest and the lowest mean values of motor
and cognitive skills. Therefore Tukey HSD comparison procedure was
again utilized. By considering results shown in Table 6, it can easily be seen
that preschools under Department of Social Welfare were significantly
different from the other three types, in motor skills and were significantly
different from preschools under D.B.E in cognitive skills.
Table 6. The Results of Tukey HSD Multiple Comparison for Motor and
Cognitive Skills by Preschools under Different Organizations
Preschools (I)
Preschools (J)
Motor Skills
1
Cognitive
Skills
1
Motor Skills
3
Cognitive
Skills
3
2
3
4
2
3
4
1
2
4
1
2
4
Mean Difference
(I – J)
4.769 (*)
5.439 (*)
4.934 (*)
1.846
3.099 (*)
2.242
- 5.434(*)
- .665
- .500
- 3.099(*)
- 1.253
- .857
Sig.
.004
.006
.016
.067
.004
.061
.006
.976
.993
.004
.448
.828
217
The Relation Between Personal Factors of Preschool Teachers and
Development of Children in Early Childhood
In this study, personal factors of preschool teachers include age,
educational qualification, service years of teachers and spending time with
children per a day. A correlation was computed if there was a statistically
significant relationship between teacher’s age and development of children
in motor skills and cognitive skills. The Pearson Correlation was calculated,
r (78) = - .3, p = .001. The direction of the correlation was negative. It means
that children who are in the class of young teachers tend to display high
level of development and vice versa (See Table 7).
Table 7. Correlations Between Age of Teachers and Motor and
Cognitive Skills of Preschool Children
Motor and
Cognitive Skills Age of teachers
Motor and
Cognitive Skills
Pearson
Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Age of teachers
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.323**
.004
80
80
-.323**
1
.004
80
80
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Again, a correlation was computed whether there was a statistically
significant relationship between teacher’s education level and children
development in motor skills and cognitive skills. Based on the Pearson
Correlation, r (78) = .28, p = .05, the direction of the correlation was
positive which reveals that children who were pupils of teachers who have
high educational qualification were likely to express high development in
motor and cognitive skills, and vice versa (See Table 8).
218
Table 8. Correlations Between Level of Education of Teachers and
Motor and Cognitive Skills of Preschool Children
Level of education of
Motor and
teachers
Cognitive Skills
Level of education
of teachers
Pearson Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Motor and
Cognitive Skills
.254*
.023
80
80
Pearson Correlation
.254*
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.023
N
80
80
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Class-type and Development of Children in Motor Skills and Cognitive
Skills
ANOVA analysis was again conducted to compare the mean scores
for the motor and cognitive skills of children with regard to their age. It was
evident that children from the classrooms of same age showed different
development in cognitive skills from those who were placed in mixed age.
It becomes clearer for 4+ children by comparing their development with
regard to their class-type. This may be because children can fully participate
in learning activities that are appropriate with their level of cognition.
Hence, it may be more favorable to consider the age level of children to
place them in age-appropriate class (See Table 9).
219
Table 9. The Results of Tukey HSD Multiple Comparison for Cognitive
Skills by Age of Children in the Class
Cognitive skills
I
J
I-J
(Mean Difference)
Sig
2
1
3
2.34 ( *)
1.71 (* )
.000
.000
* The mean difference is significant at .005 level.
1= class of 3+ages,
2= class of 4+ages,
3= class of both 3+ and 4+ ages
The Relation Between Children’s Motor Skills and Cognitive Skills and
Personal Factors of Children
The results of t test on the Cognitive and Motor Skills by gender
revealed that there was no gender difference for the Cognitive and Motor
Skills in this study. This finding may be related to the Value of Children
(VOC) and gender preference in the Myanmar families. In Myanmar,
children have been valued as treasure since ancient times regardless of their
gender. This caring style makes the girls think of themselves not weaker
than the boys and another point different from other cultures is that
Myanmar girls are never reluctant to compete with boys in all aspects.
Simultaneous multiple regression was conducted to investigate the
best predictors of children’s motor and cognitive skills (MCS). The
combination of variables to predict these skills included age of children
(AC) and duration of schooling (DS).
The result was F (2, 77) = 16.58, p < .000. The adjusted R squared
value was .28. This indicates that 28% of the variance in cognitive and
motor skills can be explained by the model. According to Cohen (1988),
this is a large effect.
Then, the model can be defined as in the following equation:
MCS = 1.93 AC + 8.37 DS
The results revealed that duration of schooling was the most
significantly related variable to children’s cognitive and motor skills.
220
The Relation Between the Development of Cognitive Skills and Motor
Skills
Simple regression was conducted to investigate how well motor
skills (MS) predict cognitive skills (CS). The results were statistically
significant. F (1, 79) = 200.72, p < .000. The identified equation to
understand this relation was CS = 21.02 + .455 (MS).
The adjusted R squared value was .72. This indicated that 72% of
the variance in cognitive skills was explained by the motor skills.
According to Cohen (1988) this was a large effect. This finding can be
interpreted that the motor skills of children will develop if parents and
teachers support them to improve their cognitive skills. It also indicated that
the developmental areas of children were related with each other and thus
the caregivers of the children should facilitate them as far as they could.
Results of Observation and Interviews
To analyze the qualitative data, the researcher reviewed the purpose
of the study and findings of the quantitative data. The results of observation
and interview were combined to interpret in order to get understanding of
factors which have impact on development of children. Findings described
that several factors concerning family and school environment have impact
upon the development of motor and cognitive skills. Besides, as shown in
quantitative study, children who showed high motor skills expressed
satisfactory cognitive skills and children who have low motor skills were
also slow in development of cognitive skills. Thus caregivers of young
children should not focus only on one aspect of development but on all
areas of development. Finally it can be concluded that above factors should
be taken into consideration since the very beginning of early childhood in
order to become all-round developed children.
Conclusion
As the primary purpose of the study was to assess the preschool
children’s development in motor skills and cognitive skills, the researcher
conducted an assessment by using both quantitative and qualitative method.
Then, the study explored that there was a statistically significant correlation
between personal factors of preschool teachers and development of
preschoolers in early childhood, it may be concluded that children who
were in the class of young teachers tended to display high level of
221
development and vice versa. In addition, the fact that children who were
pupils of teachers who have high educational level were likely to express
high development in motor and cognitive skills and vice versa can be
interpreted. As the cognitive mean difference between 4+ children from the
classes in which they were divided according to their age and from the
mixed classes acquired from Tukey HSD test was significant at .005 level,
it may be generalized that it would be more favorable to divide children at
preschools according to their age. This may be because children can
participate in activities appropriate with their level of cognition. From these
analyses, family related factors were found to be strongly related with the
development of cognitive and motor skills in children. Moreover, all young
children in Myanmar will be physically and mentally strong if the family
shares the responsibility which is to equip children with motor skills and
cognitive skills with early childhood educators.
References
Clark, J.E., & Philips, S.J. (1985). A developmental sequence of the standing long jump.
Inm J.E. Clark & J.H. Humphrey (Eds), Motor development: Current
Selected Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company.
Criag, G.J & Baucum, D. (2002). Human Development (9th ed). New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Nagle, R.J. (2004). Issue in Preschool Assessment. In B. Bracken & R.J. Nagle (Eds),
Psychoeducation Assessment of Preschool Children, Third Edition.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associate : Mahwah, NJ. Pp.39-48.
Nagle, R.J. (2007). Issue in Preschool Assessment. In B. Bracken & R.J. Nagle (Eds),
Psychoeducation Assessment of Preschool Children, Fourth Edition.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associate : Mahwah, NJ. Pp.39-48.
Piaget, J. (1977). Problems in equilibration In M.Appel & S. Goldberg (Eds.), Topics in
Cognitive Development : Vol. 1, Equilibration : Theory, Research and
Application. (pp.3-13). New York Plenum.
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structure. New
York: Viking.
Santrock, J.W (2006). Life-span Development (10th ed). New York : McGraw Hill.
Social Skills of Secondary Students
San Win1 and War War Oo2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to study social skills of secondary
students. Quantitative approach was used in this study. The participants
for the study were chosen 5 high schools from Yangon City Development
Area (YCDA) and 2 high schools and 3 high schools (branch) from
Paukkhaung Township in Bago Region (West). This research involved
450 students for YCDA and 425 students for Paukkhaung Township.
Hence, there were 875 students including this study. The questionnaire
consists of two sections A and B. The purpose of section A was to gather
biographical data about each respondent and section B was the Social
Skill Inventory for Middle School Students (SSI-M) scale. SSI-M was a
scale for measuring social skills that is composed of 5 subscale skills:
relationship-building skills, basic manners skills, skills in consideration
toward others, assertiveness skills, and emotion regulation skills. Each
subscale includes 10 items, for a total of 50 items. The findings of this
study revealed that students were high enough in their social skills level
and it was remarkably satisfactory. Overall, results showed that
participants could be classified into three groups: socially high group
(19.1%), socially middle group (64%), and socially low group (16.9%)
according to their SSI-M scores. The result of t-test by gender revealed
that there was no influence by gender for social skills of the whole
sample. However, there was statistically significant difference between
male and female students on the subscales of Relationship-building, Basic
manner and Consideration towards others. ANOVA results by strata
indicated that there was significant difference with regard to students’
social skills for the strata in YCDA. In addition, the findings of present
study showed that the students of urban schools have developed more
social skills than the students of rural schools for the subscales of
relationship-building, basic manner and emotion regulation.
Key words: Social skills, Social competence
Introduction
Man is a social being influencing the conduct of others and being
influenced by their behaviour, in his turn. Social relationships depend upon
the mutual adjustment between such behaviours. Every society has some
norms and standards regarding social development. A child who accepts
1. Assistant Lecturer, Dr., Department of Educational Psychology, Yangon Institute of
Education
2. Senior Teacher, State High School No( 1) Pyay
224
and obeys the traditions, customs and adjusts with the social norms is said
to be sociable.
Social skills are very important for all students. There are two
reasons. Unless children achieve minimal social competence by about the
age of six years, they have a high probability of being at risk throughout
life. Peer relationships contribute a great deal to both social and cognitive
development and to the effectiveness with which we function as adults
(Hartup, 1992).
Murphy (2005) found that underdeveloped social skills could lead to
isolation, loneliness, and frustration. Failure to develop adequate social
skills can lead to negative feelings, self-doubt, and low self-esteem. While
James (2002) contended that social skills are the foundation for getting
along with others. A lack of social skills can lead to behavioural difficulties
in school, delinquency, inattentiveness, peer rejection, emotional
difficulties, bullying, difficulty in making friends, aggressiveness, problems
in interpersonal relationships, poor self-concept, academic failures,
concentration difficulties, isolation from peers, and depression.
Kavale et al. (2004) stated that students who have deficits in social
skills often experience low self-esteem, loneliness, and peer rejection. Also,
students who have been rejected by their peers will change the way they
interact in social situations after that rejection almost immediately. They
come into new social situations carrying negative expectations that actually
lead them to interact less competently with peers than they are capable
(Coie, 2004). According to Strain and Odom (1986), "social skill deficiency
in early childhood was the single best predictor of significant problems in
adulthood" (as cited in Elksnin & Elksnin, 1998).
Friendships are very important for all students. A study found that
children with friends had higher measures of self-concept and self-worth
than did children without friends (Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardman, 2001).
Therefore, obtaining appropriate social skills helps students to interact
better with their peers, which in turn aids them the opportunity to create
friendships with others.
Students who are able to display sound social and emotional skills
are more likely to be accepted by their peers, be academically successful,
and have more self confidence (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2004). Conversely,
students who lack these skills may experience peer rejection and academic
225
challenges, be at-risk for dropping out, and exhibit emotional instability
(Elksnin & Elksnin, 2004). This has become a central area of concern for
everyone involved in the process of inclusion, due to the magnitude of
social and emotional issues that are arising as a result (Csoti, 2001).
Good social skills play a role in healthy psychological development,
academic success and even later life relationships such as marriage and
parenting. Social skills allow children to interact with other children and
adults, make friends and act appropriate in different situations. Many skills
are important in children’s development of relationships with adults and
peers. We know effective social skills are fundamental to smooth
relationships and interactions.
Developing the appropriate social skills depends upon various
influences during childhood. Success in adult life is often related to the
development of skills needed to adapt to a variety of social setting. Social
development refers to the set of behaviours that a child displays in
situations that involve others. Possession of social skills may be a necessary
condition, but fluent performance of social skills are based not only on
proficiency but also on motivation to use such skills, which in turn is an
issue of social understanding and of valuing the positive consequences
which successful social exchanges bring. As social skills are important for
every individual, it is essential to undertake maximum studies in these
aspects.
Children who persistently exhibit social skills deficits experience
both short and long-term negative consequences and these consequences
may often be precursors of more severe problems later in life. Researchers
have indicated that social skills deficits in early childhood are relatively
stable overtime, related to poor academic performance and may be
predictive of social adjustment problems and serious psychopathology in
adolescence. The development of social skills is one of the most important
outcomes of the schooling process. Children with social skills deficits are at
risk for social-emotional difficulties and poor academic performance
(Parker & Asher, 1987). Learning how to interact with other is necessary
for being a member of any group-family, neighborhood, school, and work
or community organization.
In summary, it is evident that there are strong interrelations among
social skills, academic functioning, and social support when working with
all students. Therefore, the study of social skills in secondary students will
226
provide students how to interact in their respective environment and to get
successful academic and social outcomes by using these skills.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the social skills of
secondary students. Specific objectives are to examine the differences of
social skills between students in urban area and students in rural area , to
observe social skills is different between male and female students.
Scope of the study
Subjects of the study are secondary students from five selected
schools in Yangon Region and five selected schools in Paukkhaung
Township in Bago Region (west). A total of 875 students were participated
in this study.
Social skills are the social behaviours that lead to the achievement
of social competence (Del Prette & Del Prette, 2009).
Social competence is the ability to interact, build and maintain
friendships and relationships, and terminate negative or insidious
interpersonal relationships (Gresham, 2002).
Ask anyone who has ever lived with, known, or been a teenager:
adolescence is a time of dramatic change. With adolescence come puberty,
expanded cognitive abilities, a new sense of self and identity, and often new
and increased expectations at school and work. Relationships with parents
and peers change too. As they mature, adolescents’ social skills are called
upon to form and maintain relationships. Fortunately, with these
relationships, especially those of high quality, come beneficial outcomes,
such as psychological health, improved academic performance, and success
in relationships as adults (Engels, R. C., Finkenauer, C., Meeus, W., &
Dekovic, M. 2001). Conversely, the absence of such quality relationships is
associated with negative outcomes, such as delinquency and psychological
problems (Miller, R. 1990). With the goal of better understanding how
adolescents gain the skills needed to engage in and maintain relationships,
researcher examined the factors that lead to high-quality social relationships
and good social skills.
227
Parents. As expected, teens’ relationships with their parents are strongly
associated with teens’ healthy social development. For example, the parent
child relationship is associated with the development of such social skills as
conflict resolution and intimacy (Engels, R. C., Finkenauer, C., Meeus, W.,
& Dekovic, M. 2001). In addition, good parent-child relationships appear to
influence the development of other social relationships, such as
relationships with friends and romantic partners and also affect adolescents’
psychological and psychosocial development (Franz, C. E., McClelland, D.
C., & Weinberger, J.1991).
Siblings. Interactions with siblings can influence adolescents’ relationship
styles and whether they engage in delinquent behaviors. Good sibling ties
can help protect teens from family stress and may enhance cognitive
development (Slomkowski, C., Rende, R., Conger, K. J., Simons, R. L., &
Conger, R. D. 2001).
Grandparents and Other Adult Family Members. Nonparental adults
who are family members can serve as role models, teachers, and supporters
to teens. More specifically, grandparents may serve as a source of support
and influence, as well as provide information about family history and
culture. (Hendry, L. B., Roberts, W., Glendinning, A., & Coleman, J. C.,
1992).
Relationships with Adults Outside the Family. Teens’ relationships with
adults outside their families – teachers, mentors, neighbors, and unrelated
adults who may be called “aunts” or “uncles”– can promote their social
development. Respected older adults can teach social skills, model
behaviour, give positive or negative reinforcement, and introduce young
people to diverse social interactions and contexts (Schirm, V., RossAlaolmolki, K., & Conrad, M. 1995). These relationships can also provide
advice, emotional support, companionship, opportunities for socialization,
and even real-life examples of positive social relationships that teens may
not find at home (Larkin, E. 1999).
Relationships with Peers. Adolescents’ social relationships with their
peers, whether platonic or romantic, can promote social skills. Through
their friendships, teens can develop constructive interpersonal skills,
autonomy, positive mental health, self-confidence, and satisfaction with
social support. In addition, interacting with friends helps teens learn to
make joint decisions, express empathy, and deepen their perspectives.
228
Positive peer relationships also appear to discourage aggression, emotional
distress, and antisocial behaviors (Bender, D., & Loesel, F. 1997).
Components of social skills
Many professionals have suggested lists of social skills. Caldarella
and Merrell (1977) derived taxonomy from their review that included five
broad dimensions of social skills: (a) peer relation skills (b) selfmanagement skills (c) academic skills (d) compliance skills and (e)
assertion skills.
Communication Skills
Many of the initial investigations into the social impairment of
children looked at differences in adaptive skills or behaviour. Social skills
are one of the main components of adaptive behaviour, which also includes
communication and daily living skills. Measures of social skills and
adaptive behaviour provide a wealth of information that can be used to
obtain an overall picture of how an individual functions on a daily basis.
Communication is the way in which we stay connected to our world.
It puts us in touch with others, allows us to express ideas and feelings, give
direction and exert control over our environment. Listening, speaking,
reading and writing are the traditional forms of communication. Being able
to communicate with others is one of the best life skills a person can
develop. Someone who can effectively communicate thoughts, ideas, and
feelings is better equipped for success both on the job and in personal
relationships. Effective communication is much more than being able to
talk; it is also the ability to listen and understand others, to “read” and
interpret body language and to know the best ways to get our points across.
There are two types of communication - verbal and non-verbal.
Verbal communication is for correctly providing facts. This is important,
but is only one component of communication. The other component is nonverbal communication. Non-verbal communication creates the atmosphere
of the interaction. It can create either a welcoming, caring environment that
makes the facts acceptable and easy to understand, or a formal, confusing,
or even hostile environment that makes it difficult for the facts to be
understood or accepted.
Effective communication skills include active listening, praise and
encouragement, paraphrasing (repeating in slightly different words),
questioning, reflecting, and non-verbal communication. Communication is a
229
process by which information, ideas and/or feelings are exchanged between
individuals. The ability to communicate effectively can be learnt. Effective
listening is a master skill, which serves as the basis on which all other
communication is built.
Social Competence
Social competence is the aptitude and effectiveness of one’s dealing
with others in social interaction and has two important aspects: the quality
of social relationships and good social skills. The quality of social
relationships is dependent on good social skills and good social skills
increase the quality of relationships. Both aspects are in mutual dependence,
the one influencing the other. Good relationships strengthen good social
skills and practicing social skills increase the quality of relationships. Social
is the condition of possessing the social, emotional, and intellectual skills
and behaviours needed to succeed as a member of society.
Distinctions Between Social Competence and Social Skills
Social skills are the specific behaviours that an individual exhibits to
perform competently on a task. Social competence is an evaluative term
based on judgments of a person’s performance on a task (Gresham, 1984).
Social competence has also been considered important in psychiatric
diagnosis, treatment, and adjustment of psychiatric patients to social life in
his/her society. Kazdin (1979) asserted that social competence, which
includes not only interpersonal behaviours, but also demographic factors
such as age, a socioeconomic status, and marital status (as cited in James,
2002). From a psychological perspective, social competence consists of the
social skills acquired by some combination of developmental process and
learning (Sarason, 1981, cited in Hops, 1983).
Gresham (1984) has conceptualized social competence as
comprising two components: adaptive behaviour and social skills. Adaptive
behaviour for children would include independent functioning skills,
physical development, language development, and academic competencies.
Social skills would include interpersonal behaviours (e.g., accepting
authority, conversation skills, cooperative behaviours play behaviours),
self-related behaviours (e.g., expressing feelings, ethical behaviour positive
attitude towards self), and task-related behaviours (e.g., attending
behaviour, completing tasks, following directions, and independent work).
230
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the social skills of
lower secondary students. Quantitative perspective was used in this study.
Participants
Division
Gender
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Total
Male
76
73
78
227
Yangon
Female
74
77
72
223
Bago
(Paukkhaung)
Male
68
73
65
206
Female
77
71
71
219
295
294
286
875
Total
Instrument
The questionnaire consists of two sections A and B was used in this
study. The purpose of section A was to gather biographical data about each
respondent. Respondents were asked to furnish personal details such as age,
gender, grade, siblings and their parents’ jobs and education level. For
section B, the social skill inventory for middle school students (SSI-M) was
used. SSI-M is composed of 5 subscale skills: relationship-building skills,
basic manners skills, skills in consideration toward others, assertiveness
skills, and emotion regulation skills. Each subscale includes 10 items, for a
total of 50 items. It features two response methods; “rather true (1)” and
“rather false (0).”
Table 1. Result of Students’ Social Skills
Division
N
Mean
Std
Deviation
Min
Max
Yangon
450
82.65
5.85
63
97
Paukkhaung
425
81.44
5.89
65
96
Total
875
82.06
5.89
63
97
231
Descriptive analysis showed that the mean and standard deviation
for the whole sample were 82.06 and 5.89. This result revealed that students
were high enough in social skills for their interpersonal relationship.
Based on descriptive analyses, the students were identified into three
groups: 19.1% of the students with scores one standard deviation above the
sample mean were considered socially high group; 64% of students with
scores equal to the sample mean were identified as socially middle group
and the remaining students of 16.9% who scored one standard deviation
below the sample mean were selected as socially low group (See figure1).
Figure 1. Three Different Groups of Social Skills for secondary students
Mean Comparison for Social Skills by Gender
To find out gender differences for social skills, descriptive analysis
was conducted. The means and standard deviations of male and female
students were reported in table 2.
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviation for Social Skills by Gender
Gender
N
Mean
Std Deviation
Male
428
82.14
5.76
Female
447
81.98
6.04
232
Table 2 showed that there were slight differences in mean scores by
gender in social skills. Again, to find out this difference significantly, t-test
was used.
Table 3. The Result of t-test on Students’ Social Skills by Gender
t
df
Mean
Difference
p
.402
873
.688
.161
.403
872.9
.687
.161
Based on the result of t-test, social skills were not influenced by
gender. Significant differences were not found in social skills by gender.
Total of
social skills
Mean Comparison for Five Subscales of Social Skills by Gender
Table 4. Difference in Social Skills by Gender
Variables
Gender
N
Mean
SD
t
p
Relationshipbuilding
Male
Female
428
447
15.23
14.72
2.15
2.23
3.44
.001
Basic Manner
Male
Female
428
447
16.56
16.89
1.98
1.85
-2.26
.01
Consideration
toward Others
Male
Female
428
447
18.45
18.65
1.55
1.38
-2.02
.04
Assertiveness
Male
Female
428
447
16.95
16.86
1.69
1.91
.73
.46
Male
428
14.95
2.14
.63
.53
Female
447
14.86
2.2
Table 4 showed that there was statistically significant difference
between genders on the subscales of relationship-building, basic manner
and consideration towards others. The male students have developed more
in relationship-building skill than female students. The results on the
subscale (t=3.44, p=.001) respectively were significant at 0.01 level.
Significant differences were also found between genders on the subscales
basic manner and consideration toward others showed that female students
have developed more these skills more than male students. The result on
Emotion
Regulation
233
the subscales (t=-2.26, p=.01) and (t=-2.02, p=.04) was significant at the
0.05 level. No statistically significant difference between male and female
students was found for the subscales of assertiveness and emotion
regulation skills as described in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Mean Comparison for Five Subscales of Social Skills by Gender
Mean Comparison for Five Subscales of Social Skills by Location
Table 5. Difference in Social Skills by location
Variables
Locality
N
Mean
SD
t
p
Relationshipbuilding
Urban
Rural
450
425
15.14
14.79
2.28
2.11
2.38
.02
Basic Manner
Urban
Rural
450
425
17
16.44
1.85
1.95
4.43
.000
Consideration
toward
Others
Urban
Rural
450
425
18.54
18.57
1.5
1.43
-.27
.78
Assertiveness
Urban
Rural
450
425
16.85
16.96
1.84
1.77
-.95
.34
Emotion
Regulation
Urban
Rural
450
425
15.11
14.69
2.21
2.11
2.89
.004
234
Table 5 showed that statistically significant difference was found between
students of urban and rural localities for the subscales of relationshipbuilding, basic manner and emotion regulation. Students of urban localities
have developed these skills more than rural localities. The results on the
subscales (t=2.38, p=.02), (t=4.43, p=.000) and (t=2.89, p=.004) were
significant at 0.05 level. There were no statistically significant differences
between students of urban and rural localities for the subscales of
consideration toward others and assertiveness skills (See Figure 4.3).
Figure 3. Mean Comparison for Five Subscales of Social Skills by Location
Mean Comparison for Social Skills by Location (urban and rural area)
Table 6. Means and Standard Deviation for Social Skills by Location
Location
N
Mean
Std Deviation
Yangon
450
82.65
5.85
Paukkhaung
425
81.44
5.88
Table 6 showed that there were slightly different in mean scores in social
skill due to location. Moreover, t-test was used to determine this difference
significantly.
Table 7. The Result of t-test on Students’ Social Skills by Location
Total of
social skills
t
df
p
Mean
Difference
3.03
3.03
873
869.51
.003
.003
1.2
1.2
235
Based on the result of t- test, statistical significance was found
between students of urban localities and students of rural localities.
Conclusion, Discussion and Suggestion
The findings of present study showed that the students of urban
schools achieved more social skills than the rural schools for the subscales
of Relationship-building, Basic Manner and Emotion Regulation. Direct
instruction is needed for developing social skills so that the students
engaged in overt behaviors and teachers lead the students through the
process in a similar way that academic facts, skills and concepts are taught.
This research was designed as an initial attempt to assess social
skills of secondary students. Nowadays, most of the students encounter
many problems in their interpersonal relationship at home or school.
Personal development concerns the development of the individual in
relation to the self. In contrast, social (interpersonal) development concerns
the relationships of the individual with others, including how these
relationships change over time (Sternberg, R.J. & Williams, W.M., 2010).
In fact, teachers play a critical role in promoting students’ social
development in the classroom through direct instruction, modeling,
planning the environment and discipline. Teachers can plan the
environment to facilitate to support and facilitate peer interactions. Many
approaches can be adapted to particular situations and needs of individual
student. Teachers need to model appropriate social skills. Students look up
to their teachers and if their teachers have good social skills, the students
are more likely to imitate those skills.
As children age into adolescence, parents often think that they become
less important in the healthy development of their children. The review of
social competency in adolescence highlights the continued need for
supportive and warm relationships between parents and youth. Quality
relationships with parents are key to the development of social competency.
Quality social relationships and good social skills play a role in healthy
psychological development, academic success, and even later life
relationships, such as marriage and parenting. Fortunately, a number of
relationships with extended family members, nonfamily adults, and peers.
In addition, more studies need to be carried out on the development of
specific social skills.
236
Based on the research examined for this review, there have been many
studies completed on students’ social skills. However, there is limited
research on specific age, levels and the grades of the students. More
research can be done on other students’ different social skills with a study
of longitudinal design to clarify the age appropriate differences in social
skills and how their age affects their social skills.
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A Study of Students’ Learning Difficulties in Grade (10)
Mathematics
Htay Win1 and Soe Than2
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to study students’ learning difficulties in
Grade (10) mathematics. The sample size for this study was (980)
students. A specially designed test, a questionnaire for Grade (10)
students, and a questionnaire for Grade (10) mathematics teachers were
used to know students’ learning difficulties in Grade (10) mathematics.
According to the findings, some difficulties of the Grade (10) students
from the selected Basic Education High Schools are; (1) difficulty in
written symbols, (2) difficulty in definitions of exponents, (3) difficulty in
formulas and rules for exponents and logarithms, (4) difficulty in
definition of logarithms, (5) difficulty in the formulas and equations of the
slope, (6) difficulty in properties of chords, (7) difficulty in circle
theorems, (8) difficulty in basic identities of trigonometry, and (9)
difficulty in using scientific notation.
Key
words:
Learning difficulty; meaningful
memorization; rationalization
learning;
pedagogy;
Introduction
Education plays a vital role in the realization of sustainable human
resource development of any nation. The education of children is the central
purpose of any school and the teacher is the single most important resource
in producing quality education. The words highly qualified, highly
educated, highly skilled and highly creative are found to be influential in
today’s education sector, reflecting the need to possess the ability to interact
with the demands of the times. The future scenarios of the political, social,
cultural and economic sectors will depend on the contributions of the
students of the schools today.
The central role of the teacher is to promote growth and
achievement in learning. The teacher needs to find out his students’
difficulties in learning the subjects. A mathematics teacher needs to help his
students to overcome their difficulties in learning mathematics.
Educational improvements that really make an impact on the
pedagogic process will not grow out of minor variations of teaching content
1. Tutor, Dr., Department of Methodology, Yangon Institute of Education
2. Professor(Head), Dr., Department of Methodology, Yangon Institute of Education
240
and method. Effective educational designs, worth careful development and
field trial, can emerge only from a deep understanding of learning. Thus, it
is important to consider the conditions which give the cause of learning and
the effect of learning (Khin Zaw, 1993).
Learning mathematics with understanding is the desire and hope of
every teacher of mathematics for the students. In order to develop learning
environments that promote understanding efficiently, teachers need to be
aware of students' difficulties in mathematics learning (Cecil and Ann,
1989).
In Myanmar, most high school students are afraid of mathematics.
They cannot solve mathematical problems effectively and correctly. They
usually avoid solving the problems concerning circles, and trigonometry.
They do not understand these areas. Lastly, no in-depth studies have been
conducted in this area in Myanmar. Therefore, it is deemed important to
identify students’ difficulties in learning mathematics and to find ways and
means to overcome them.
The purpose of this research is to study students’ learning
difficulties in Grade (10) mathematics for improving teaching-learning
process in mathematics.
Scope of the Study
(1) This study is geographically restricted to Yangon City Development
Area (YCDA).
(2) This study is concerned with the schools with matriculation
examination pass percent below 50% during the three academic
years: 2006-2007, 2007-2008 and 2008-2009.
(3) This study investigated the possible difficulties of the students in
five chapters of Grade (10) mathematics textbook: Chapter (2),
Chapter (3), Chapter (4), Chapter (9), and Chapter (10).
The participants in this study are Grade (10) students and their mathematics
teachers in the selected high schools of Yangon City Development area
(YCDA).
241
Mathematics is an essential element in the curriculum of any learner
who intends to pursue a career in the Mathematics, Physics, Computer, Life,
Earth, Space and Environmental Sciences or in Technology. Mathematics
learning is also important for the personal development of any learner
(Department of Education of Republic of South Africa, 2005).
The essence of mathematics teaching lies helping the pupils to learn
mathematics effectively. The teacher needs to help the pupils to discover
rules and formulas and apply them to novel situations. A good resourceful
teacher of mathematics always seeks ways and means to adopt the
materials, and to overcome the difficulties of the problems, and exercises
given in the textbook. The teacher should lead students to think for
themselves thereby enabling them to avoid rote memorization
(Mattuvarkuzhall, 2010).
The students can copy the answers for the exercises and homework
from the reference books. Hence, mathematics teachers should try to
ascertain and develop the students’ learning based on differences in
capability, background, talent and interest to learn. Successful learning in
mathematics is more likely to occur when learning activities are carefully
sequenced in relation. Thus, mathematics learning must be meaningful.
Meaningful Learning in Mathematics
Meaningful learning in mathematics is learning which is oriented
towards good experiences and outcomes. It must ensure positive results. It
is constructive, productive, purposeful and progressive in nature. It can
consist of the mathematical experiences: which are useful in learning
aspects of mathematics, which are useful in the proper learning, which
stimulate and maintain interest in mathematics, and which lead to the
development of proper attitude towards mathematics (Sidhu, 1995).
Difficulties in Mathematics Learning
Cecil and Ann (1989) describe that students with learning
difficulties often have mathematical concepts. Difficulties in mathematics
are common at all age levels. During the preschool and primary years,
many children cannot distinguish objects by size, match objects, understand
the language of arithmetic and grasp the concept of rational counting.
242
During the elementary years, they have difficulties with
computational skills (Otto & Smith, 1980, cited in Cecil & Ann, 1989). In
the middle and upper grades, students experience difficulty with fractions,
decimals, percentages and measurement. They may experience difficulties
in these areas (Cecil & Ann, 1989).
High school students in Myanmar are afraid of geometry. Some of
them usually avoid answering geometric problems. According to Butler and
Wren (1960), the difficulty of geometry may be high due to the difficulty of
the subject and an ineptitude or laziness on the part of the students. Some
students lose interest in geometry because of its abstract nature. Geometry
is not the easiest of subjects to learn.
Nevin (2007) conducted a research called “Student’s Mistakes and
Misconceptions on Teaching of Trigonometry”. Nevin describes that if
students do not understand the trigonometric problems, they go away from
creativeness and learn by heart. According to Nevin’s findings, many
students have difficulties in understanding the concept of domain of
trigonometric functions. The aim of trigonometry teaching is to make it
easy to learn and to develop the abilities of communication and
rationalization.
The Importance of Cognitive Psychology in Mathematics
Taking into consideration that the main responsibility of education
or pedagogy is to ensure the formation of rational receptors of cognitive
actions, modern pedagogy must discover ways and means of controlling
cognitive activities in this aspect, and not only by the resulting output. In
the process of education, activities of student-learners include not only the
actions directed upon them but also their conditions of cognitive flux (Khin
Zaw, 2001).
As a teacher of mathematics, he/she must know not only effective
teaching-learning strategies for the learners but also Bloom’s Taxonomy of
educational objectives of cognitive domain. Bloom and his colleagues
(1956, cited in Sang, 2003) developed a taxonomy for learning outcomes.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives of Cognitive Domain is used
in constructing test items and questions from the first level of factual
knowledge until the sixth level of evaluation.
243
(1) Knowledge
This level is to test the ability of the candidates to recall certain
facts, meaning, term, principle, law and definition that have been learned.
Example: Which of the following is (are) true?
1. φ = {φ}
2. φ ⊂ {0,1,2,3}
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 3 only
D. 2 and 3 only
3. φ = {0}
Ans: B.
(2) Comprehension (Understanding)
This level is to test the ability of understanding or skills including
the ability to explain certain facts, concept, principle, law or theory that
have been learned.
Example: If ABCD is a parallelogram and A = (4,–9), B = (10, –3) then
m CD = ?
A. 0
B. –1
C. –2
D. 1
Ans: D.
(3) Application
This level is to test the ability of using fact, concept, principle, law,
theory or skill for problem-solving.
Example: If (0.2)-x = 125 then x = ?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Ans: C.
(4) Analysis
This level is to test the ability to compare and contrast, relate or to
extract the attributes of the concept, knowledge or skills that have been
learned.
Example: Which of the following statement is true?
A. If ∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF then ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF.
B. Any two parallelograms are similar.
C. Any two rectangles are similar.
D. If two polygons are similar, they have the same number of sides.
Ans: D.
244
(5) Synthesis
This level is to test the ability to combine or integrate knowledge or
skill learned for problem-solving.
Example: In ∆ABC, ∠ C = 90• , c = 5, a = 4, find the value of sin B.
A. 0.6
B. 0.75
C. 0.8
D. 1.6
Ans: A.
(6) Evaluation
This level is to test the ability to prove, to evaluate, to criticize, or to
conclude a certain statement.
Example: If log 2 3 + log 4 15 = log 4 x, then x =?
A. 9
B. 15
C. 60
D. 135
Ans: D.
Research Instrument
Three research instruments were used in this study. The major
research instrument was Grade (10) Mathematics Multiple Choice Test
which includes Likert scale items. The scale of Likert items were assigned
by 5 responses (1 = very easy, 2 = easy, 3 = ordinary, 4 = difficult, 5 = very
difficult). Firstly, the students had to answer the multiple choice questions.
Secondly, they had to answer the level of difficulty which they encountered
from the given test and from learning the Grade (10) Mathematics
Textbook. A questionnaire for Grade (10) students and a questionnaire for
Grade (10) mathematics teachers were also used to know the reasons of
students’ difficulties in mathematics.
Research Method
This research is concerned with students’ learning difficulties in
Grade (10) mathematics in YCDA. There are (33) townships in YCDA.
These townships of YCDA are stratified into four main strata based on the
geographical nature, namely, inner city (8 townships), inner suburb (6
townships), outer suburb (8 townships), and satellite town (11 townships).
It is important to know what difficulties Grade (10) students had in
mathematics and which schools had these difficulties. Thus, the schools
which had low pass percentage in mathematics were investigated. The list
of the schools of townships in matriculation examination pass percentage in
245
mathematics below 50% during the three consecutive academic years
2006 – 2007 AY, 2007 – 2008 AY and 2008 – 2009 AY was from the
Department of Basic Education No(3).
Sample
There are (23) townships with matriculation pass percentage below
(50%) in YCDA. Among them, (17) townships (73.91%) were selected as
the sample.
There were (2) townships in inner city, (4) townships in inner
suburb, (7) townships in outer suburb and (10) townships in satellite town.
Both of (2) townships in inner city, (3) townships in inner suburb, (6)
townships in outer suburb and (6) townships in satellite town were selected
by using random sampling method for this study. Among them, (3) schools
were selected from each township in inner city and inner suburb, and (6)
schools from each township in outer suburb and satellite town.
There are (46) Basic Education High Schools in YCDA with
matriculation pass percentage in mathematics below (50%) from 2007 to
2009. For this study, (18) Basic Education High Schools (39.13%) were
selected to investigate the difficulties in mathematics learning of Grade (10)
students.
Table 1. Selected High Schools and Townships from each Stratum
Stratum
Sr. No.
Name
Township
Inner City
1
2
3
BEHS(2) Ahlone
BEHS(5) Ahlone
BEHS(1) Pazundaung
Ahlone
Ahlone
Pazundaung
Inner Suburb
4
5
6
BEHS(1) Bahan
BEHS(5) Kyimyindine
BEHS(7) Mingalataungnyunt
Bahan
Kyimyindine
Mingalataungnyunt
Outer Suburb
7
8
9
10
11
12
BEHS(5) Insein
BEHS(3) Hlaing
BEHS(4) Mayangone
BEHS(4) Mingaladon
BEHS(1) Dala
BEHS(1) Dawbon
Insein
Hlaing
Mayangone
Mingaladon
Dala
Dawbon
Satellite Town
13
14
BEHS(1) Hlaing Tharyar
BEHS(4) Shwepyitha
Hlaing Tharyar
Shwepyitha
246
Stratum
Sr. No.
15
16
17
18
Name
BEHS(2) North Okkalapa
BEHS(5) South Okkalapa
BEHS(4) Thaketa
BEHS(4) North Dagon
Township
North Okkalapa
South Okkalapa
Thaketa
North Dagon
Population and Sample Size
The total population of Grade (10) Students was (5608). Among
them, (1767) students took Biology Combination and the other (3841)
students took Economics Combination.
The sample for this study was (980) students. Among them, (460)
students took Biology Combination and (520) students took Economics
Combination.
Planning of the Test
Grade (10) mathematics MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions) test was
constructed based on the researcher’s high school mathematics teaching
experience, Grade (10) mathematics textbook and an Education Course for
K.P.L.I (Student development, teaching-learning process & evaluation).
A pilot test was administered on (14.1.2010, Thursday) in BEHS (1)
Hlaing. Then multiple choice items were modified according to the results
of the pilot test and the advice of mathematics experts. After some
modification, (45) good items were selected for the test. These items were
also constructed according to a table of specifications.
Scoring the Test Results
Time allocation for specially designed multiple choice test was
(1:30) hours and the questionnaire for Grade (10) students was (00:30)
hour. An answer sheet to be used for calculation and consideration was
given for each chapter. The mathematics marks from multiple choice
questions for each student were scored and the test results were recorded.
The students (respondents) who could give correct answers and who gave
incorrect answers were tallied. By using this method, the total number of
respondents who were correct and incorrect could easily be seen. Moreover,
by scoring and checking the step by step computation of the students
systematically, not only the students’ mathematics achievement but also the
strengths and weaknesses of the students in the test can easily be seen.
247
Results
The difficulties of the scores on Likert scale items were analyzed in
terms of the difficulties of chapters (2,3,4,9,10); and the difficulties of
mathematics. Independent samples t-test was used to find out the
differences among them. There were significant differences in the
difficulties in chapter 9 between male and female students (t (978) = .022,
p<.05). Again, there were statistically significant differences in the
difficulties in chapter 9 between two subject combinations. The mean scores
are 27.69 (SD=5.349) and 29.33 (SD= 5.942) respectively.
The test was administered systematically. According to the
responses of the participants, it was found that some participants of selected
high schools had written difficulties in mathematics. The respondents who
chose the correct answers from each selected school were recorded and
tallied. In this way, the respondents whose answers were correct and
incorrect could be seen easily. Moreover, the strengths and weaknesses of
the respondents for each item could easily be seen. (See Table 2)
Table 2. Percentage of Students who Chose Correct and Incorrect Answers
from each Selected High School
Item
No.
Respondents
who chose
correct
answers
Respondents who chose incorrect answers
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11
S12
S13
S14
S15
S16
S17
S18 Total
%
Total
%
1
11 30 26 31 33 1
3 29 27 11
23
47
35
45
26
35
38
38 489 49.90% 491 50.10%
2
16 38 25 35 33 41 30 42 34 33
4
40
34
36
45
29
36
44 595 60.71% 385 39.29%
3
22 38 38 33 44 36 35 34 29 33
22
38
38
40
47
35
35
29 626 63.88% 354 36.12%
4
23 47 40 36 46 55 44 47 27 42
33
45
35
40
38
40
40
34 712 72.65% 268 27.35%
5
21 43 28 33 44 49 32 40 23 37
34
39
42
37
40
45
35
41 663 67.65% 317 32.35%
6
24 36 33 37 32 41 35 45 23 41
22
38
41
38
36
22
36
31 611 62.35% 369 37.65%
7
20 43 30 36 37 46 37 52 28 42
25
45
40
39
40
34
42
45 681 69.49% 299 30.51%
8
21 43 34 30 40 42 34 49 35 42
30
51
45
39
42
38
42
43 700 71.43% 280 28.57%
9
25 52 36 41 42 50 36 51 41 49
39
50
53
49
40
46
40
49 789 80.51% 191 19.49%
10 22 47 34 33 45 49 33 42 42 53
17
56
37
54
50
54
41
49 758 77.35% 222 22.65%
11 23 36 26 25 35 21 22 34 31 39
20
27
25
26
36
20
32
24 508 51.22% 478 48.78%
12 27 50 38 43 53 59 40 49 47 42
34
49
55
44
49
50
47
49 825 84.18% 155 15.82%
13 24 34 32 39 48 56 41 48 36 39
35
48
51
45
55
47
43
50 771 78.67% 209 21.33%
14 24 51 35 36 51 51 39 47 41 46
15
45
50
51
58
43
41
48 772 78.78% 208 21.22%
15 13 41 30 34 33 45 36 45 31 34
26
45
46
47
48
35
37
42 668 68.16% 312 31.84%
248
Item
No.
Respondents
who chose
correct
answers
Respondents who chose incorrect answers
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11
S12
S13
S14
S15
S16
S17
S18 Total
%
Total
%
16 26 43 22 38 44 54 37 40 37 38
28
43
44
42
36
44
31
43 690 70.41% 290 29.59%
17 23 46 24 37 45 57 38 45 39 50
38
49
48
44
45
39
42
47 756 77.14% 224 22.86%
18 20 40 33 36 33 50 29 47 26 43
33
46
39
48
42
35
40
46 686 70.00% 294 30.00%
19 27 49 36 31 46 47 39 50 41 45
35
53
53
51
51
47
41
50 794 81.02% 196 18.98%
20 23 49 33 43 43 53 40 51 41 44
16
48
51
42
55
32
42
48 754 76.94% 226 23.06%
21 24 49 32 32 49 40 36 49 33 41
14
49
46
48
53
42
42
45 730 74.49% 250 25.51%
22 21 37 32 31 45 45 34 42 36 32
25
43
43
37
39
40
47
50 679 69.29% 301 30.71%
23 19 42 25 33 32 45 29 43 17 36
15
41
39
49
42
33
32
37 607 61.24% 373 38.06%
24 24 48 37 36 50 56 41 52 43 50
24
52
54
52
52
45
45
49 810 82.65% 170 17.35%
25 26 44 28 37 44 47 38 44 36 42
37
43
44
48
41
48
49
51 747 76.22% 233 23.78%
26 17 38 32 31 32 51 25 47 33 33
29
45
46
27
38
37
28
38 627 63.98% 353 36.02%
27 16 43 29 31 38 47 32 44 38 36
33
50
49
40
43
36
42
43 690 70.41% 290 29.59%
28 24 41 34 25 30 11 25 30 12 27
30
28
19
31
22
19
20
21 449 45.82% 531 54.18%
29 24 50 31 29 27 34 27 30 24 38
32
36
31
32
20
29
29
28 551 56.22% 429 43.78%
30 16 49 39 34 35 54 27 47 38 47
30
53
54
42
42
45
44
44 740 75.51% 240 24.49%
31 22 44 35 16 23 26 25 34 15 33
27
31
25
46
39
21
26
30 518 52.86% 462 47.14%
32 25 48 23 39 38 50 38 44 23 49
36
45
40
48
26
44
39
41 696 71.02% 284 28.98%
33 22 44 33 29 37 36 31 49 25 39
40
47
37
48
31
35
36
34 653 66.63% 327 33.37%
34 20 50 39 37 46 56 39 46 48 49
40
53
55
55
53
44
42
44 816 83.27% 164 16.73%
35 27 39 29 37 40 45 29 47 33 43
50
53
52
42
50
36
49
44 745 76.02% 235 23.98%
36 22 48 34 39 48 32 35 42 37 49
36
45
51
46
49
45
40
48 746 76.12% 234 23.88%
37 23 43 31 21 34 44 36 34 21 31
8
44
45
36
22
32
35
28 568 57.96% 412 42.04%
38 26 44 32 35 37 39 31 38 37 41
31
42
35
27
26
31
36
37 625 63.78% 355 36.22%
39 27 44 37 32 36 18 37 40 36 40
20
52
30
37
37
46
43
29 641 65.41% 339 34.59%
40 25 46 27 34 41 43 37 45 33 40
30
45
46
41
40
35
41
31 680 69.39% 300 30.61%
41 23 47 35 35 35 48 32 51 33 45
29
47
44
47
43
37
40
43 714 72.86% 266 27.14%
42 16 30 26 25 29 18 27 38 18 25
32
27
22
33
31
25
29
25 476 48.57% 504 51.43%
43 15 35 26 33 32 35 28 43 32 36
39
32
37
35
37
34
30
39 598 61.02% 382 38.98%
44 26 47 34 37 37 49 37 49 35 41
44
46
52
35
40
49
41
44 743 75.82% 237 24.18%
45 23 46 32 37 37 43 40 46 41 49
42
40
47
37
55
40
40
39 734 74.90% 246 25.10%
249
Interpreting the test results
Chapter 3 (Exponents and Radicals)
Item No.
Findings
(1)
(491) students (50.10%) got correct answers. Item (No.1) is the
knowledge of the properties of exponents. It was found that
other (49.90%) did not know the properties of exponents and the
basic concept of exponents. These students had difficulties in
understanding properties of exponents and the basic concept of
exponents.
(2)
(39.29%) of respondents got correct answers. (60.71%) of
respondents did not remember the rules of exponents. They had
difficulties in the rules of exponents. They need to practise the
rules systematically.
(3)
(63.88%) of students got wrong answers. They did not know the
formula of the multiplication of addition and subtraction of two
numbers. They need to study the formulas thoroughly. The
difficulty is that the students did not know the formula and the
multiplication by using brackets.
(4 to 6)
Students must understand the change from negative exponents to
positive exponents and the rules for exponents. If they did not
know the change of exponents and the rules, they could not
answer these (3) items. They had difficulties in understanding
the change of exponents and the rules of exponents.
(7 to 9)
From item (No.7) to (No.9), the students had difficulties in item
(No.9). Only (191) students could apply well the basic concept
of exponents and the concept of subtraction of fractions. It was
found that some students solved ( 2 + 1)2 and ( 2 – 1)2 without
noticing the exponents. Thus, the teacher needs to point out and
correct their errors systematically.
Chapter 4 (Logarithms)
(10)
(22.65%) of students got correct answers and (77.35%) did not.
Item (No.10) was the question designed to test whether the
students know the rules of logarithm or not. (758) students
250
(77.35%) did not know the rules. It seemed that they had
difficulties in understanding rules concerned with logarithms.
(11)
Item (No.11) is the question of scientific notation. It is easy to
answer but (502) students (51.22%) did not know the basic
concept of scientific notation. For not knowing this standard
form of scientific notation, they could not easily solve some
problems in mathematics and physics. Thus, they had difficulties
in the basic concept of scientific notation.
(12)
(825) students (84.18%) were wrong. It is Theorem-1 for
logarithms but they did not know that this problem was
concerned with theorem (1). These students had difficulties in
understanding theorems of logarithms. Thus, they need to
remember the theorems clearly.
(13 to 18) These (6) items are included in chapter (4), Logarithms. Students
must understand theorem (1) of logarithms (L5, L6 and L7).
Only a few of them knew theorem (1). Thus, it can be assumed
that they had difficulties in digesting the theorems of
logarithms.
Chapter 2 (Introduction to Coordinate Geometry)
(19)
For this item, the students must know the formula of the slope in
coordinate geometry and the basic concept of the nature of slope.
(794) students (81.02%) need to study the formula of slope
thoroughly.
(20)
Item (No.20) is also the distance formula of slope. Most of the
students (76.94%) did not know the distance formula. Thus,
these students need to study the distance formula carefully.
(21)
Item (No.21) is the question to check whether the students know
the equation of the straight line y = mx + c or not. It was found
that only (250) students knew this equation. It seemed that (730)
students might not thoroughly know the equation of straight
line in slope-intercept form.
(22 to 27) To answer these questions, students must know and understand
the formulas: the formula of slope, the distance formula, and the
mid-point formula. It was found that most students had
weaknesses for these questions. It is sure that these students had
251
difficulties in working out with formulas at that time. The
teachers need to practise regularly the formulas in coordinate
geometry at the beginning of instruction in teaching this chapter.
Chapter 9 (Circles, Chords and Tangents)
(28)
Item (No.28) is the tangent theorem of circles. If the students
know that tangent and radius (at point of tangency) are
perpendicular, they will be able to solve this problem. Thus, they
must know circle theorem (8).
(29)
Respondents (43.78%) knew Theorem (9) of chapter (9)
(Circles, Chords and Tangents) but the rest (56.22%) had
weaknesses. Some students were confused with theorem (8) and
Theorem (9). Thus, they need to remember all theorems
(Theorem 1 to 9) of circles clearly.
(30)
Item (No.30) is concerned with the knowledge of chords. It is
easy for Grade (10) students because they had studied it in the
middle school level mathematics. It was found that most of the
respondents had difficulties in understanding basic concept of
chords.
(31 to 36) These items are concerned with circle theorems. By studying the
responses, it was found that they did not understand the
properties of chords and chord theorems well. They need to
know difficulties in properties of chords and chord theorems
definitely.
Chapter 10 (Trigonometric Ratios and their Applications)
(37 to 39) Item (No.37) to (No.39) are from chapter 10 (Trigonometry). To
solve these problems correctly, respondents must know the
change from degree to radian and the basic identities. It is sure
that some respondents need to be equipped with the basic
identities in trigonometry and need to study thoroughly and the
teacher needs to explain the basic identities systematically.
(40 to 45) Among these items, the students could not answer item (No.42)
to (No.45). Most of them did not understand and could not apply
circle theorems in their computation. Most students responded
that they were afraid of solving problems in circles so their
difficulties are related to the field of in circles.
252
According to the test results, it was found that most students made
errors because of their misunderstandings and difficulties in the selected
chapters of Grade (10) mathematics. Thus, it may be the cause that makes a
large number of students fail in mathematics in the examination.
Some Difficulties in Mathematics Learning of Grade (10) Students
According to the research findings from this study, some difficulties
in mathematics learning of Grade (10) students can be summarized as
follows.
(1) Difficulty in written symbols
(2) Difficulty in definitions of exponents
(3) Difficulty in formulas and rules for exponents and logarithms
(4) Difficulty in definitions of logarithms
(5) Difficulty in the formulas and equations of slope
(6) Difficulty in properties of chords
(7) Difficulty in circle theorems
(8) Difficulty in basic identities of trigonometry
(9) Difficulty in using scientific notation
Causes of Difficulties in Mathematics Learning of Grade (10) Students
In this study, according to the qualitative findings of Questionnaires
for Grade (10) Students and Grade (10) mathematics teachers some causes
for student difficulties are as follows. They are described from high to low
per cent in order.
(1) Students did not understand middle school level mathematics well.
(2) Students did not follow the teachers’ instructions while their
teachers were teaching in class.
(3) Students did not do their mathematics homework.
(4) Students were not interested in mathematics subject and
mathematics teaching.
(5) Parents could support their children in mathematics.
253
(6) Students did not study definitions, rules and theorems in
mathematics.
(7) Students did not have self-confidence in mathematics.
(8) The teacher did not explain the weakness of their students in
mathematics.
(9) The teacher’s method of teaching was not interesting.
(10) Students only copied the teacher’s sample solutions to the problems.
(11) The teacher did not do the correction of the students’ mathematics
exercises regularly.
(12) The mathematics teacher did not teach everyday.
(13) The explanation of mathematics teacher was not good and clear.
(14) Students did not understand the English language used in
mathematical calculation.
(15) Students did not attend the class regularly.
Conclusion
Teaching and learning are related. There can be no teaching where
there is no learning. The teacher must know that teaching is a skilled
occupation, an art and a social service. If the teacher’s teaching is good and
clear, it will develop the students’ initiative, independence in thought, selfreliance and confidence among students.
To be effective and successful, mathematics teacher should use
effective teaching methods. The teacher needs to understand the students'
learning difficulties. Even good students who are interested in mathematics
face some difficulties and problems. The more clearly teachers can point out
the problems, the more effectively the students can diagnose and understand
the problems and think of the suitable ways to overcome their difficulties.
Thus, the teacher needs to help his students to overcome their
difficulties. The teacher should be well prepared, study the lessons
thoroughly, and explain clearly. Moreover, the mathematics teacher must
regularly check the answers and computation of problems done by his
students.
254
References
Butler, C. H., & Wren, F. L. (1960). The Teaching of Secondary Mathematics. (3rd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cecil, D.M., & Ann, R.M. (1989). Teaching Students with Learning Problems. (3rd ed.).
New York: Macmillan.
Department of Education of Republic of South Africa (2005). Mathematics Learning
Programme Guidelines (Grades 10-12).
Khin Zaw, (1993). Theories of Learning. M. Phil. (Education)/M.Ed. Course Research
Reference. University for the Development of National Races of the
Union, Sagaing (Myanmar).
Khin Zaw, (2001). Pedagogic Technology (Cybernetical Thought & Practice in Education)
YIOE. Yangon: PhD Programme Course Material DS 3/8.
Mattuvarkuzhall, C. (2010). Teaching of Mathematics. New Delhi: A.P.H Pulishing
Company.
Nevin, (2007). Student’s Mistakes and Misconceptins on Teaching of Trigonometry,
Research Paper, Anadolu University Science Faculty Mathematics
Department, Turkey.
Sang, M. S. (2003). An Education Course for K.P.L.I. Theme 2: Student Development,
Teaching-Learning Process & Evaluation. Subang Jaya: Fulson Trading
Co.
Sidhu, K. S. (1995). The Teaching of Mathematics. (4th ed.). New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private Limited.
255
Appendix
Sample Multiple Choice Questions from the Test
Grade (10)
Mathematics
Time Allowed (1:30) hours
oifESifYudkufnDonfh ae&mwGif (Â) oauFwjyyg/
J
usm;^r
usm; ( bmomwG
)
r
(
)
)
tvGef vG,f
vG,f
No.
Questions
(1) (2)
2
Chapter (3) Exponents and Radicals
If m and n are positive integers, and m
≥ 2,
n ≥ 2, which of the following
is true?
1. ( x m ) n = x m+ n , 2.
25
x =n
m
x , 3.
xn = xn
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 3 only
D. 1,2, and 3
Chapter (4) Logarithm
If log 2 (log 3 x) = log 5 5 , then x = ?
A. 2
B. 3
C. – 9
D. 9
Chapter (2) Introduction to
Coordinate Geometry
Area of ∆ABC whose vertices are
A(0,0),
B. (3,0) and C(0,4) is____.
A. 3
B. 4
1
C. 6
D.
6
n
16
m n
2
twGJ - 7 (ZD0) (
twGJ - 1 (abm*)
omref cuf tvGef rSwf
cuf csuf
(3) (4) (5)
)
(
256
tvGef vG,f omref cuf tvGef rSwf
vG,f
cuf csuf
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
No.
Questions
28
Chapter (9): Circles, Chords and
Tangents
In  O, OA = 9, tangent AB = 12, the
distance OB=?
O
B
A
45
A. 3
B. 6
C. 15
D. 21
Chapter 10: Trigonometric Ratios
and their
Applications
In the diagram,
sin θ tan θ
=?
cosθ
a
bc
a2
C. 2
b
A.
b
θ
c 2
c
B. 2
a
a2
D. 2
c
a
The Impact of Learning through the Internet on Student
Achievement
Kay Thi Maw1 and Soe Than2
Abstract
The primary focus of this study is to investigate the impact of learning
through the Internet on student achievement and learning transfer
differences in Chemistry. This is a quantitative research study for
identifying teaching and learning process integrated with the Internet.
The aim is to identify the impact of effective means of new modern
technology to improve student achievement. This study has two phases:
survey research for student achievement and experimental research for
learning transfer differences. In the sample population for phase I, survey
research consisted of 1000 Grade (10) students from three types of
schools: Pilot School, Net School, and Ordinary School. The phase II,
experimental research was done with 62 Grade (10) students from a Basic
Education High School. The results were analyzed by using t-test,
ANOVA and Scheffe’s multiple comparisons of Post hoc method. For
student achievement, there are significant differences among three types
of school. The students get better learning by using multiple learning
sources via the Internet in addition to their school texts to study. There
are also significant differences on location, facilitator and gender, time
spent on the Internet, opinion of students and influencing factors of
learning. It was found that there is no significant difference in the near
transfer type and literal transfer type between two groups: the
experimental and control. However, there is obvious difference in far,
positive, negative, horizontal, vertical and figural transfer types. This
study invited further interesting investigation into the cause and effect of
social impact on students and to develop an instructional model for the
enhancement of learning through the Internet use.
Key words: The Internet; Cybernetics; Technology; Student Achievement ;
Learning Transfer
Introduction
In the 21st century, the development of skills is critical to the
success of students. Today’s students require new abilities to blossom in the
future. Student achievement must be improved in order to prepare students
to succeed in the global world.
1. Tutor, Dr., Department of Methodology in Science, Thingangyun Education College
2. Professor(Head), Dr., Department of Methodology, Yangon Institute of Education
258
Effective use of technology must be supported by significant
investments in hardware, software, infrastructure, professional
development, and support services, over the last decade worldwide.
Myanmar has also invested in school technology. This investment in
school educational technology should meet the raising expectations of
development in education. Online services, the Internet, bulletin-board
services and databases give student access to vast amounts of information
and enable them to interact with other people around the world.
Meeting the challenges is impossible unless educators are willing to
join the revolution and embrace the new technology tools available. Thus, it
is necessary to consider the uses of technology and student achievement and
the contextual factors that affect learning goals.
So, many educators and philosophers are considering how to
develop and create appropriate learning environments. Therefore, it is really
essential to get sound evidence for this new learning stream by doing
systematic and scientific research.
Significance of the Study
The Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) have made the
computer a dynamic force in education, providing a new and interactive
means of overcoming time and distance to reach learners (Wagschal, 1998).
The Internet is the largest, most powerful computer network in the world.
Increasingly more colleges, universities, elementary and secondary schools,
companies and private citizens connect to the Internet. Through the Internet,
all sources of information on different subjects are available any time,
anywhere. In 1997, large leading-edge firms delivered 21% of their training
via learning technologies, with 70% as instructor led courses (Bassi and
Van Buren, 1998).
Many researchers increasingly recognize the Internet as an
impressive learning and teaching tool but the impact of learning through the
Internet on the student achievement is still questionable. The impact of the
Internet use on kid, was studied by Professor Dr. Linda Jackson (2002) and
her team at Michigan State University. Researchers noted that in the first six
months of the study, the results are very likely to stir debate among
educators, parents, and hopefully policymakers as well. As the Internet
becomes more of a necessity in the modern classroom of developed
259
countries, it is necessary to discuss the implications for students who lack
the Internet access at home. On the other hand, Dr. Scott B. Wegner (2005),
Associate Professor, Department of Educational Administration, Southwest
Missouri State University, and his assistants studied the effects of Internetbased instruction on student learning. Researchers found no significant
difference between the test scores of the two groups. Students in the
experimental group had a more positive feeling about their experience than
the control group. In addition, researchers are still involved in discussing
about the Internet for student learning.
There has never been a unanimous agreement over the use of the
Internet as a learning tool for student achievement. Moreover, in recent
years, the role of educational technology has been recognized as an
important part in classrooms and has become a cornerstone for government
efforts to improve student learning. The common hope of educators and
officials is that educational technology can serve to improve the quality of
education, to extend access to educational opportunities and to act as a
catalyst to revitalize teaching and learning. Perhaps the important
consideration is that, in spite of the investment in modern technology, its
effectiveness may be both hazy and indistinct. Although some researchers
have noted that the Internet is effective for student learning, it is still a topic
of heated debate. Nevertheless, currently (100) Basic Education High
Schools in Myanmar provide their students with the Internet access. This
information presents the impetus to analyse the effectiveness of educational
technology in Myanmar schools.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of learning through the
Internet on student achievement and learning transfer differences in Basic
Education High Schools throughout Myanmar (rural and urban).This
quantitative research study intends to find out the impact of teaching and
learning processes integrated with the Internet. Its aim is to identify
effective means of technology to improve teaching and to raise student
achievement.
260
Research Questions
•
Is there any significant difference in student achievement among
three types of schools; Pilot School, Net School and Ordinary
School?
•
Is there any significant difference in learning transfer between
students who use the Internet and who do not use the Internet?
Scope and Procedure
This study has two phases: survey research in phase I of the study
and experimental research in phase II. The first phase of the study involved
investigating the student achievements among three types of schools by
using (3) sets of questionnaire. In phase II, a post-test was conducted to
examine learning transfer differences between teaching and learning
through the Internet and traditional teaching-learning situation.
The sample population for phase I survey research consisted of 1000
Grade (10) students from three types of 50 secondary schools; 500 students
from Ordinary schools (Ordinary means that they still do not have access to
the Internet), 440 students from Net schools (Net means that having access
to the Internet) and 60 students from Pilot schools [Pilot means that they
have access to the Internet and are also initiated with Strengthening ICT in
Schools and Schools Net Project]. The sample population for phase II
experimental research consisted of 62 Grade Ten students from a Basic
Education High School.
Figure 1. Three Types of School
For Phase I (preliminary survey research), three sets of
questionnaire [set (A), set (B) and set (C)] were constructed to investigate
the impact of student achievement. In set (A), 20 questions were used to
261
trace biography, application and access to the Internet of students. In set
(B), 25 questions were designed as likert-type response scale to look into
the student’s point of view on the use of the Internet for their learning. In
set (C), 30 questions for student achievement test in Chemistry subject were
designed.
For Phase II (experimental research), a post-test question was used
to examine learning transfer differences. Throughout the study, both groups
were taught by the same teacher in the classroom and both groups used the
same text. Although experimental group worked in the Internet room, the
other group worked in the school library. Both groups did the same home
work and assignments, which were reviewed in class the following day.
After the teacher had introduced and discussed the daily lesson, the students
worked in pairs to discuss or solve the given topic or problem. After two
weeks, a test was administrated to both groups to compare their learning
transfer in Chemistry.
Literature Review
Related literature review on learning theories, transfer of learning
and Educational technology was exhaustively dealt with first. Recent
researches on the effectiveness through the use of Educational technology
in Asia-Pacific Region and in Myanmar were also reviewed to enable
choosing the most suitable research method.
Learning
Learning is a permanent change in behaviour brought about by
experience (Skinner, 1953). On the other hand, learning is the acquisition of
knowledge by study (19th century theory). Learning is described as the
acquisition and development of memories and behaviours, including skills,
knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. It is the product of
experience and the goal of education.
From the behaviourist view, Contiguity helps explain the learning of
simple memorized information through the paring of stimuli and responses.
Classical conditioning occurs when a formerly neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a naturally occurring unconditioned stimulus to produce a
response similar to an instinctive or reflexive response. Operant
conditioning focuses on overt, voluntary responses that are influenced by
consequences. From a cognitive perspective, learning is a change in a
262
person’s mental structures that provides the capacity to demonstrate
different behaviours. From a constructivist perspective, learners construct
knowledge from perplexing experiences in two ways.
To sum up, learning is a relatively broad concept, it plays a central
role in education and it can happen in many different ways, with a number
of different outcomes.
Transfer of Learning
Men have learned and transferred from the beginning of time, Stone
Age. Men first used a rock as a tool to crack a nut, then later applying this
knowledge to use the rock as tool to crack a skull for food or defense. At
some levels, the act of transferring learning has enabled survival and the
evolution of the human race.
The first formalized study of transfer of learning was initiated by
Thorndike and Woodworth in 1901.
"Transfer of learning is the process of applying knowledge learned
in one setting to another situation" (Knapp, 1992).” There is a close
relationship between transfer of learning and problem solving, since transfer
of learning generally occurs when previous knowledge is applied to solve a
problem in a new situation. Perkins and Salomon (1992) generalize that
there are twelve types of transfer of learning. Any type of true learning must
involve transfer at some level, while the student moves on to repeat the skill
or exhibit understanding in a different context. Transfer of learning is the
ability to apply concepts, knowledge and/or skills in new situations.
‘Problem solving’ is a common manifestation, or form, of transfer'
(Ormrod, 2004). Anderson (2006) expresses that researchers in the fields
ranging from psychology to education tend to agree on the basis of what
transfer of learning entails and on the overarching importance it holds for
education and learning. Haskell (2001) presents this as transfer of learning’s
“double paradox”; that transfer is of utmost importance, but measuring the
outcome is met largely with failure.
Some professors of psychology and educators have studied
biotechnical (RNA / Enzyme Inducing) theories of learning transfer (Khin
Zaw, 2011).
263
Educational Technology
Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as
an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning.
Technology of Education: Technology of education is educational theory,
educational pedagogy and educational psychology to help improve the
overall efficiency of the teaching learning process. Technology in
Education: Technology in education is generally the audiovisual aids,
software and hardware, to help student learning. Internet: The Internet is a
worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks
that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol
(IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller
domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together
carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat,
file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents from the
World Wide Web.
After developing the instruments, the impacts and differences of
student achievement and learning transfer were examined among three
types of schools and two different teaching and learning methods. Then the
impacts of learning through the Internet on student achievement and
learning transfer differences were found out.
By using the statistical analyses, findings and results are discussed
in two sections: survey research findings and experimental research
findings.
Findings of Survey Research
Fifty schools from the Basic Education Department of Upper
Myanmar, Lower Myanmar and Yangon Region was randomly selected as
the sample for the survey research. The results were analyzed by six
focuses.
Students’ Achievement by School
(a) Type of school
Based on the descriptive analyses, Grade Ten students’ achievement
in Chemistry subject was identified into three groups. Data graph showed
the students’ achievement differences in these schools (see Figure 2).
264
Despite the mean scores being not too much differences, it should not be
ignored, if its later consequences are taken into consideration.
Figure 2. Achievement Differences by Types of School
One way analysis of variance was conducted to find out the
differences between different types of school. ANOVA results showed
students’ achievement differences (see Table 1). The observed F value is
9.187 [df = (2, 47), p > 0.001]. It means that there are significant differences
among three types of school.
Table 1. Achievement Differences among Three Types of School
Chemistry
mean scores
Between Groups
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
df
528.902
2
264.451
Within Groups
1352.895
47
28.785
Total
1881.797
49
F
Sig.
9.187
0.000*
(b) School location: Another impact of learning through the Internet is
school location. The mean score of Pilot school (58.70) and Net school
(62.07) in rural area is higher than the mean score of Ordinary school
(45.52) in urban area.
Table 2. Mean Scores by School Location and Types of School
Schools and
locations
rural
Students’ Achievement Mean Score in Chemistry Subject and
Number of student
Pilot
Net
Ordinary
58.70 (20)
62.07 (80)
40.22 (100)
Schools and
locations
265
Students’ Achievement Mean Score in Chemistry Subject and
Number of student
Pilot
Net
Ordinary
urban
72.56 (20)
75.16 (160)
45.52 (200)
Semi-urban
72.73 (20)
68.29 (200)
44.04 (200)
Achievement Differences by Facilitator and by Gender
The responses of 500 students from 23 Net schools and 3 Pilot
schools point out that the facilitator differences have impact on the students’
achievement. The subject teachers in six schools have new technology skills
and are enthusiastic about using the Internet as a teaching learning aid. But
it was not found in every Net school and Pilot school. In four schools, it was
found that the co-operative work of the subject teacher and the computer
room teacher led to successful teaching and learning. Comparing mean
scores in Chemistry achievement test among three groups highlighted that
there was a positive effect on student’s achievement when teachers did
cooperative work in their teaching-learning process (see Table 3).
Table 3. Mean Scores by Facilitator Differences
Facilitator for
learning
Only subject
teacher
Only computer
teacher
Both
teachers
Mean Scores in
Chemistry
66.5
59.7
67.1
Number of School
2
19
4
For gender differences, as Table (4) data shows, female students
used the Internet more than male students for learning the subject but male
students used the Internet more than female students for others. According
to the means scores and t- values (p<0.05), there are significant differences
between male and female students when they used the Internet for learning
the subject and for playing games.
266
Table 4. Mean Scores and t Values by Gender Differences
Mean
scores in
Chemistry
Test
Reasons
Gender
Number
of
student
Learning
subject
male
125
69.45
female
236
68.77
male
547
50.31
female
93
45.46
male
348
58.22
female
109
61.34
male
220
54.32
female
165
56.04
Playing
games
Searching
others
Chatting
Sig
(2
tailed)
MD
df
t
0.68
359
3.539
0.013*
4.85
638
1.680
0.027*
-3.12
455
0.894
0.062
-1.72
383
1.112
0.054
* (P<0.05).
Time Spent on the Internet, Internet Use Places and Student
Achievement
Although some students are in the Ordinary schools, they may use
the Internet at Net café. Thus, the responses of (1000) students from all (50)
selected schools were analyzed for time spent on the Internet and student
achievement (see Table 5). It was found that between (1) hour and (5) hour
per week can be regarded as an appropriate time for learning per week.
Again, students’ achievement was also found on places where students used
the Internet. The students (who used the Internet at school, net café and
home) got the highest mean score (67.60) and the students (who use it at
school only) got the lowest score (65.83).
Relation between Students Achievement and Browsing Subjects
Browsing the Internet is essential to search information or to learn
something without wasting time. This study found that students explored
and browsed different subjects on the web pages and they favoured to learn
English and Biology through the Internet.
The study found that some students learned more than one subject
through the Internet. It also found the benefit of learning through the
Internet as the students got the highest mean score when they learned
Chemistry on it.
267
Table 5. Multiple Comparisons of Test Scores by Expending Hours
Mean
differences
Std
error
less than 1 hour
- 9.23
0.7472
0.147
between 1 hour and 5 hour
- 10.99
0.7472
0.034*
more than 5 hours
- 11.73
0.7472
0.011*
non-use
9.23
0.7472
0.147
- 1.76
0.7472
0.860
more than 5 hours
- 2.50
0.7472
0.035*
non-use
10.99
0.7472
0.034*
less than 1 hour
1.76
0.7472
0.860
more than 5 hours
- 0.74
0.7472
0.052
non-use
11.73
0.7472
0.011*
less than 1 hour
2.50
0.7472
0.035*
0.74
0.7472
0.052
Groups
non-use
less than 1 hour
more than 5 hours
Sig.
* The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level
Student’s Opinions on the Use of the Internet
The responses of the questionnaire (B) and (C) highlighted some
opinions of students from (23) Net schools and (3) Pilot schools concerning
the use of the Internet (see Table 6). It pointed out three main impacts:
teacher activities, advantages and difficulties.
Students’ Achievement and Influencing Factors on Learning
Five related factors concerned with learning were found in some
educational research works; promoting initial learning, understanding
versus memorizing, time to learn, beyond time on task and
motivation to learn. This study found the impacts of these five factors by
the responses of students who use the Internet for their learning.
268
(i) Promoting initial learning: In this study, (78.2 %) of students strongly
agreed that learning through the Internet could enhance the original
learning.
(ii) Understanding than memorizing: According to the result, (89.3%) of
students strongly agreed, with (4.2) mean, they had understood the lessons
and could apply the knowledge they gained in other subjects or dissimilar
problems. Learning is affected by the degree to which people learn with
understanding rather than merely memorize sets of facts or follow a fixed
set of procedures.
Opinions on Advantage
Opinion on Teacher activities
Analysis
Table 6. Opinions of Students
Opinions on the
Use of the
Internet
Related statements in the
questionnaire
% of
sample
Number
of student
responded
(n=500)
Internet aided
teaching
ausmif;wGif tifwmeufoHk; oifcef;pm
oifMum;jcif; &Sdygonf/
347
69.4
Teaching
Chemistry subject
ausmif;wGif
"gwkaA' bmom&yfudk
tifwmeufoHk;oifMum;rI &Sdygonf/
168
33.6
Regular teaching
ausmif;wGif tifwmeufoHk;
oifMum;jcif;udk yHkrSef jyKvkyfygonf/
261
52.2
Occasional
teaching
ausmif;wGif tifwmeufoHk;
oifMum;jcif;udk tcgtm;avsmfpGm
jyKvkyfygonf/
252
50.4
With Subject
Teacher
bmom&yfq&meSifhtwltifwmeuf wGif
oifcef;pmudk avhvmvdkygonf/
437
87.4
With Computer
room Teacher
uGefysLwmq&m^reSifhom
tifwmeuf
oifcef;pmudk avhvm&ygonf/
374
74.8
Better
achievement
tifwmeufwGif oifcef;pmudk avhvm
&jcif;udk jyefvnf toHk;csedkifonf/
463
92.6
Understanding
tifwmeufwGif oifcef;pmudk avhvm
&jcif;onf ydkrdkem;vnfapygonf/
445
89.0
Meaningful
learning
rlv r&Sif;vif;ao;onfh oifcef;pmudk
em;vnf oabmaygufvmygonf/
493
98.6
Apply to
environment
"gwkaA' oifcef;pmrS todrsm;udk
tjcm;bmom&yf ESifh rdrdywf0ef;usif
wGifvnf; qufpyfoHk;vmedkifygonf/
445
89.0
Analysis
Opinions on the
Use of the
Internet
% of
sample
Number
of student
responded
(n=500)
Getting new
knowledge
zwfpmtkyfwGifryg&Sdaom
tjcm;tcsuftvuf rsm;udkvnf;
xyfrHodvmedkifygonf/
478
95.6
Motivation to
learn
"gwkaA'udk oif,l&onfudk
aysmf&Tifvmygonf/
490
98.0
Computer
application skills
tifwmeuf oHk;í oifMum;&jcif; aMumifh
uGefysLwm toHk;jyKrI ydkrdkuRrf;
usifvmygonf/
467
93.4
tifwmeufudk jynfhpHkaom pmMunfh
wdkufMuD; [kxifrSwfygonf/
443
88.6
Inadequate
leaning time
ausmif;wGif tifwmeufoHk; oifcef;
pmavhvmjcif;onf tcsdef rvHk
avmufyg/
492
98.4
Computer Skills
uGefysLwmudk aocsmpGm roHk;wwf
aomaMumifhtcuftcJtcsKdU&Sdonf/
345
69.0
Time spent to
search websites
rdrdodvdkaom oifcef;pmudk vG,ful
jrefqefpGm &Smwwfvdkygonf/
380
76.0
Browsing speed
ausmif;wGifoHk;&aomtifwmeufeIef;onf
aeS;auG;onf/
486
97.2
Being a huge
library for
learning
Opinion on Difficulty
Related statements in the
questionnaire
269
(iii) Time to learn: (88.6%) of students strongly agreed that learning
through the Internet helps them to understand the lessons better if they got
enough time to learn. So, providing students with time to learn also includes
providing enough time for them to process information.
(iv) Beyond time on task: (78.5%) of students strongly agreed to the
statement. “Learning Chemistry both, in the text book and on the Internet, is
better than only using the text book.” It means that different ways of using
one’s time have different effects on learning and transfer.
(v) Motivation to learn: In this study, (96.3%) of students strongly agreed
to the statement: “They wanted to study the lesson more and more when
they used the Internet for their learning.” Motivation makes the students
devote to learning.
270
According to the results and analysis of research phase I of the
study, it is a viable preliminary findings. It implies that students understood
the concepts meaningfully and got a better achievement when they could
explore and search the subject matter on the Internet because it served as a
good library within the appropriate time by himself or herself or with
teacher.
Experimental Research Findings
The results were analyzed on the post-test by t test between
experimental and control groups as follows;
•
Learning transfer differences by two groups and
•
Effects of teaching and learning strategy on learning transfer
(i) Learning Transfer Differences by Two Groups
A t test for independent samples was used because the groups were
randomly assigned and the data were interval. Table 7 indicates mean,
standard deviation and t test for independent samples (p<0.001). There is a
significant difference between two groups. In other words, the Internet
aided learning group is better in learning transfer than the traditional
learning group.
Table 7. Mean, Standard Deviation, and t test Value by Groups
Group
N
experimental
31
group
control
group
31
Standard
Mean
Deviations
21.129
3.103
18.000
2.403
Mean
Difference
3.129
Sig
t
df
(2
tailed)
4.17 60
.000*
(ii) Effects of Teaching and Learning Strategy on Learning Transfer
To find the students’ learning transfer differences, the results of
post-test were analyzed by different learning transfer (see Tables 8 and 9).
271
Table 8. Findings of Learning transfer Differences by 2 Groups
Types of Learning
Transfer by Perkins
and Salomon
Characteristics
Significant
Difference
(Yes/ No)
Near
Overlap
between
situations,
original and transfer contexts are
similar
No
Far
Little overlap between situations,
original and transfer settings are
dissimilar
Yes
Positive
What is learned in one context
enhances learning in a different
setting
Yes
Negative
What is learned in one context
hinders or delays learning in a
different setting
Yes
Vertical
Knowledge of a previous topic is
essential
to
acquire
new
knowledge
Yes
Horizontal
Knowledge of a previous topic is
not essential but helpful to learn a
new topic
Yes
Literal
Intact knowledge transfers to new
task
No
Figural
Use some aspect of general
knowledge to think or learn about
a problem
Yes
In addition, it is found that the Internet aided teaching learning
group is better in learning transfer than the traditional group in different
learning types by t-test data. So, this study found that there is positive
impact of the learning through the Internet on student learning transfer.
272
2
3
4
5
t
df
Sig
(2-tailed)
Mean differences
Standard Deviation
Mean Scores
%of
students
No. of students
who answered
Standard Deviation
Mean Scores
%of
students
No. of students
who answered
Learning transfer type
Control Group
Definition
Fill in the blanks
Short question 2 Short question 1
(1 mark for each question,
(1 mark for each question,
(2 marks)
(2 marks)
total 5 marks )
total 4 marks)
1
Experimental Group
horizontal
24
77.42
0.774 0.032
22
70.97
0.710 0.023
0.065
3.699
44
0.013*
near
28
90.32
0.903 0.032
29
93.55
0.935 0.030 -0.032
1.406
55
0.024
vertical
20
64.52
0.645 0.032
18
58.06
0.581 0.019
0.065
2.370
36
0.040*
far
21
67.74
0.677 0.032
18
58.06
0.581 0.019
0.097
3.321
37
0.018*
literal
26
83.87
1.677 0.032
25
80.65
1.613 0.026
0.065
0.811
49
0.167
positive
negative
28
90.32
1.806 0.032
19
61.29
1.226 0.020
0.581
7.527
45
0.000**
31
100.00 1.000 0.032
30
96.77 0.968 0.031 0.032 0.718
59
0.067
31
100.00 1.000 0.032
31
100.00 1.000 0.032 0.000 0.000
60
0.094
24
77.42 0.774 0.032
26
83.87 0.839 0.027 -0.065 -1.353 48
1.235
27
87.10 0.871 0.032
26
83.87 0.839 0.027 0.032 0.694
51
0.114
31
100.00 1.000 0.032
31
100.00 1.000 0.032 0.000 0.000
60
0.275
Problem 1
( 1 mark for each
question, total
4marks)
No.
Question type
and
given marks
Table 9. Mean, standard Deviation, and t test Values by Each Learning
Transfer Type
near
28
90.32 0.903 0.032
28
90.32 0.903 0.029 0.000 0.000
54
0.184
positive,
negative
27
87.10 0.871 0.032
16
51.61 0.516 0.017 0.355 7.069
41
0.000*
*
near
29
93.55 0.935 0.032
28
90.32 0.903 0.029 0.032 0.707
55
0.129
near
6
Problem 2
(8 marks)
273
t
df
Sig
(2-tailed)
Mean differences
Standard Deviation
Mean Scores
%of
students
Control Group
No. of students
who answered
Standard Deviation
Mean Scores
%of
students
Experimental Group
No. of students
who answered
Learning transfer type
No.
Question type
and
given marks
near
26
83.87 0.839 0.032
26
83.87 0.839 0.027 0.000 0.000
50
0.232
figural
24
77.42 6.194 0.032
13
41.94
35
0.000*
*
2.52 0.014 3.677 6.591
Note: * p <0.05 and ** p < 0.001
Conclusion
This paper revealed that technology is undoubtedly effective in
increasing student achievement but this effectiveness depends upon how
technology is used. It is not the amount of amenities of the Internet that will
help the increase of students’ Chemistry scores but the frequency in which
they use the Internet for learning. Furthermore, how classroom teachers use
the Internet and what web pages of contexts they use are essential to
improving the student achievement in Chemistry. Hence, the question
should no longer be whether the Internet could work, as it has already been
shown in this paper that the students use the Internet in certain conditions.
Attention should instead be focused on how these modern information
technology is being used, recognizing that their impact is because of the
characteristics of the Internet itself but to the specifics of the applications.
Applications of educational technology should be specific and targeted and
not seen as general catalysts for reform. Care must however be taken to
ensure that all the educational reforms are comprehensive and they take into
account all students in the country.
The present study confirms the positive impact of learning through
the Internet on students’ achievement and learning transfer.
(i) There are significant differences in students’ achievement between three
types of school - Net, Pilot and Ordinary schools.
274
(ii) There are significant differences in far, positive, negative, horizontal,
vertical and figural transfer type between traditional teaching method.
This study raises a couple of other interesting issues that are worth
further investigations. The first one is to find out the social impacts on the
students using the Internet in their learning. Second, this will lead to
develop an instructional model based on the enhancement of learning via
the Internet or to refine and revise the design and development framework,
both instructional design theoretical framework and instructional
development model, based on the above learning style.
Education of this globalized world of cybernetics and ICT will
demand equipping children with basic education and other complex cyber
age skills for living. Myanmar Education Vision is to create an education
system that can generate a learning society capable of facing the challenges
of the Knowledge Age. The degree of achievement of this noble aim will be
manifested in the general level of education, attainment, and the number of
citizens that has acquired a sound education and other necessary skills
(Khin Zaw, 2011).
In Myanmar, schools are provided with the facilities to improve
technology integration in teaching and learning process by the Ministry of
Education. It must be remembered that, teachers have to consider both the
traditional method and technology effectiveness to provide their students
with appropriate knowledge in the global world. In other words, many
schools are provided with basic infrastructure but not much attention has
been given to the crucial matter of educational technology and/or
educational technology based pedagogics. In conclusion, teachers must
change to accommodate new developments in the way students can learn
and access information.
275
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The Study of the Achievement in Science Process Skills of
Grade Five Students
San San Hla1 and Nan Ei Win2
Abstract
This study intended to investigate the achievement in science process
skills of grade five students from the selected township. Quantitative
approach was used in this study. A total of 374 grade five students from
14 schools in urban area of selected township were selected as subjects
by using cluster sampling method. In this study, the Science
Achievement Test Instrument developed by Cho Cho Mar (2006) with a
few modifications was used. Mean Percent Correct (MPC), Item Percent
Correct (IPC), Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative
data in this study. Achievement level in science process skills of grade
five students from the selected township was average (MPC = 72.72%).
Key words: Science Process Skills, Achievement in Science
Introduction
In the twenty-first century, science and technologies are strongly
standing at the top of the priorities. Science and technologies play an
essential role for the holistic development of the country. Various
inventions can be created by scientific investigations. Today, many
electronic devices, modern technologies in various fields such as medicine,
agriculture, forestry and astronomy are the results of the scientific inquiry.
That is why all countries have increasingly seen science and technology as a
main element that needs to be developed ultimately for the development of
their countries and science has been emphasized all over the world. In doing
so, primary education plays a vital role for cultivating scientific literate.
Moreover, the primary school years are considered to be critical for
the development of positive attitudes towards science (Mechling, 1983;
Nelson & Landel, 2007; NRC, 1996; Shapiro, 1994; Victor & Kellough,
2000, cited in Lanier, 2009). Nelson & Landel, (2007, cited in Lanier, 2009)
also stated that primary school years lay the foundation for more
sophisticated understandings in science, nurturing the natural curiosity
inherent in young children.
1. Assistant Lecturer, Dr., Department of Theory, Yangon Institute of Education
2. MEd Student, Department of Educational Theory, Yangon Institute of Education
278
Gagne (1965, cited in Letsholo & Yandila, n.d.) and Schwab (1962,
cited in Letsholo & Yandila, n.d.) defined science as a search for
explanations of events in nature. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary (1991), science is the organized knowledge, especially when
obtained by observation and testing of facts, about the physical world,
natural laws and society. Moreover, science is the systematic observation of
natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to
formulate laws and principles based on these facts (Academic Press
Dictionary of Science & Technology, 1991, cited in Wikipedia, 2010).
Science is a way of thinking, a way of understanding of the world.
The understanding of the world around depends upon the development of
concepts, but this development depends on the use of process skills such as
observing, classifying, measuring, predicting, hypothesizing and
communicating, etc (Cho Cho Mar, 2006).
Therefore pupils need to acquire not only factual knowledge but also
the process skills of scientific inquiry. UNESCO (1992) stated that children
who develop the process skills can learn through their own activities and get
a real understanding of physical and biological worlds around them.
Moreover, primary science education is typically a background frame of
secondary science education. Increasing science achievement is needed to
prepare youth to assure future science oriented careers in business and
industry. It is obvious that scientific literacy in the youth cannot be fulfilled
if they were taught science when they attend middle and high school. In
order to be scientific literates, students require science process skills in the
primary level. Thus, in Myanmar, improvement of science achievement in
primary level is still needed to study. Therefore, in this study, achievement
of grade five students in science process skills will be explored.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the achievement level in
science process skills of grade five students.
Research Question
What is the achievement level in science process skills of grade five
students?
279
Limitations of the Study
This study was concerned only with achievement in science process
skills of grade five students from the selected schools in one of the
townships of Ayeyarwady Region. The Science Achievement Test
Instrument developed by Cho Cho Mar (2006) with a few modifications on
some items was used to measure the students’ achievement of science
process skills including observation and classification, measuring,
hypothesizing, predicting, and communicating.
Science Achievement
Science achievement is “the degree of achievement in science
process skills possessed by grade five students”.
High-Achieving School
“A school whose students obtained high-achievement of science
process skills by Mean Percent Correct (MPC) value (i.e., the value greater
than 75%)” is referred to as high-achieving school .
Average-achieving School
“A school whose students obtained average-achievement of science
process skills by Mean Percent Correct (MPC) value (i.e., the value from
51% to 75%)” is referred to as average-achieving school.
Low-Achieving School
“A school whose students obtained low-achievement of science
process skills by Mean Percent Correct (MPC) value (i.e., the value below
51%)” is referred to as low-achieving school.
Operational Definitions
Science Achievement
In this study, science achievement refers to the scores obtained by
students in the Science Achievement Test used as an instrument.
Science-Achieving Groups
In this study, science achieving groups means two groups of
schools: one contained students who obtained high-achievement of science
process skills by Mean Percent Correct (MPC) value (i.e., the value greater
280
than 75%) and the other contained students who obtained averageachievement of science process skills by Mean Percent Correct (MPC)
value (i.e., the value from 51% to 75%).
Theoretical Framework
Since science is a way of thinking and a way of understanding of the
world, science process skills are at the heart of what learning is all about.
They help people think critically. Crain & Sund (1989) pointed that
competence in using process skills provide children with the ability to apply
knowledge, not only to science and other subjects in their classrooms, but
outside the classroom in their everyday lives as well. Science process or
inquiry skills have been called lifelong learning skills. When children learn
the process of science, they gain insight and practice in the different
methods that scientists use to solve problems.
Among many science process skills, the five science process skills
were used to measure the science achievement of grade five students. These
skills are as follows:
Observation and classification: Observation can be defined as the process
of using the senses to gather information about an object or event.
Classification can be defined as the process of grouping or ordering objects
or events into categories based on properties or criteria. Observation is the
most fundamental of all the processes. One can make classification through
observation.
Measuring: Measuring can be defined as the process of using both standard
and nonstandard measures or estimating to describe the dimensions of an
object or event.
Predicting: Predicting can be defined as the process of stating the outcome
of a future event based on a pattern of evidence.
Hypothesizing: Hypothesizing can be defined as the process of stating the
expected outcome of an experiment.
Communicating: Communication can be defined as the process of using
words or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event (Padilla,
1990).
281
Theories Related to Science
Two theories based in this study are the constructivist perspective on
science teaching and Piaget's cognitive-development theory.
Constructivism in science education
The study of science achievement was also guided by the factors of
constructivist pedagogy. The following factors are essential to constructivist
teaching and learning.
• Learning should take place in authentic, real world environments;
• Learning should involve social negotiation and mediation;
• Content skills should be made relevant to the learner;
• Content skills should be understood within the framework of the
learner's prior knowledge;
• Students should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, selfmediated, and self-awareness;
• Teachers serve primarily as guides and facilitators of learning, not
instructors; and
• Teachers should provide for and encourage multiple perspectives
and representations of content (Doolittle & Camp, n.d., cited in
Ricketts, Duncan & Peake, 2006).
Cognitivism in Science Education
An understanding of how children develop intellectually, and also
how children learn, is essential to teaching science effectively in the
classroom. Cognitive psychologists believe that learning occurs through the
development of new patterns of thoughts called insights. Jean Piaget, one of
the cognitive psychologists, has made a wide-ranging impact on the
constructing of the elementary school science program.
According to Piaget in his Cognitive-Development Theory,
knowledge is a process that is created by the activity of the learner.
Children develop intellectually in a sequence of stages by age from infancy
to adulthood. There are four major stages in Piaget’s theory of intellectual
development. They are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational
and formal operational periods. These stages are sequential. Each child
progresses through each stage in the same order, but not necessary at the
282
same rate. At the level of concrete operations, the child develops logical
structures in the following domains of numerical operations: conservation
of number, length, weight; classification and categorizing; and ordering
relations, or seriation.
Concrete operational stage children between the age of 7 and 12
have the ability to perform elementary logical operations, but only through
concrete means. Grade 5 students (ages of 9 – 10) are at concrete
operational stage. During this stage, children also develop the ability to
isolate variables and are able to think in steps without relating each step to,
all the others. They begin to be aware of contradictions and will try to
resolve them. However, concrete operational children cannot get go beyond
that which is empirically given and are able to deal only with ideas and
thoughts that results from direct personal experiences. The ability to think
about one’s own thought is not yet present (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
Methodology
Quantitative methodology was conducted and descriptive research
was designed in this study.
Population and Sample
Out of 23 schools in urban area of Maubin township, one Basic
Education High School, one Basic Education Middle School and twelve
Basic Education Primary Schools were chosen as the sample of this study
by using cluster sampling method. Therefore, fourteen schools were
included in this study. All of the grade five students from selected schools
were used as samples of this study. Thus, the number of grade five students
was 374. Of all the grade five students, 205 were males and 169 were
females.
Instrumentation
In order to measure the science achievement of grade five students,
Science Achievement Test Instrument developed by Cho Cho Mar (2006)
was used. This test instrument was modified a few items in order to be
consistent with the Monthly Syllabus. Out of 30 items contained in the
original test instrument, item number 21, 22, 23, 24 and 30 were removed
and one item for communication skills was incorporated. Therefore, the
instrument consisted of 26 items. Six multiple-choice items and four
classification questions measure student performance on observation and
283
classification, two multiple-choice items on measuring, six multiple-choice
items on predicting, six multiple-choice items and one short-answered
question on hypothesizing, and one item on communicating.
Data Analysis
The data obtained from the Science Achievement Test was analyzed,
using two statistics, namely, Mean Percent Correct (MPC) and Item Percent
Correct (IPC) in order to describe student performance on this assessment.
MPC refers to the average percentage correct attained by all students on all
items in a topic (i.e., a process skill). Then, the percentage of students that
correctly answered each item has been calculated and is referred to as the
IPC.
Number of students correctly answered the item
×100
Total number of students
Total IPC values for the items of each process skill
MPC (for each process skill) =
Number of items measured for this process skill
Total IPC values for all items
Total MPC =
Total number of items
IPC =
For some items which need more than one response, the following
procedure was used to calculate the IPC. For example, item 25 of the
instrument was used to give answer to the cause of each of four motions. If
50% of the students correctly gave the answer for the first motion, 60% for
the second, 50% for the third and 80% for the fourth, then the average
percentage of students that correctly answered this item was 60%. This
value was used as the IPC on this item. The same procedure was used for
similar items (Item number: 21, 22, 23, 24).
In interpreting the MPC and IPC values, the value less than or equal
to 50% was considered as low achievement, the value from 51% to 75%
was average and the value greater than 75% was high.
284
Findings
Achievement of Science Process Skills of the Selected Students by Mean
Percent Correct (MPC)
Table 1. Achievement of Science Process Skills of the Selected Students by
MPC
Process
MPC (%)
Interpretation
Observation and Classification
76.83
High
Measuring
74.99
Average
Predicting
61.59
Average
Hypothesizing
75.94
High
Communicating
71.39
Average
Overall
72.72
Average
Table 1 shows that the MPC values ranged from 61.59% to 76.83%.
The MPC for overall science process skill was 72.72% (average). The MPC
for observation and classification was 76.83% (high), for hypothesizing was
75.94% (high), for measuring was 74.99% (average), for predicting was
61.59% (average), and for communicating was 71.39% (average). Student
performance in predicting was the lowest. Student performance in
observation and classification was the highest. It can comparatively be seen
in the following bar chart also.
High
Average
90
80
76.83
75.94
74.99
70
71.39
72.72
61.59
MPC (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Observation &
Classification
Measuring
Predicting
Hypothesizing
Communicating
Overall
Science Process Skills
Figure 1. Achievement of Science Process skills of the Selected Students by
MPC
285
Achievement of Students’ Science Process Skills by Mean Percent
Correct (MPC) in each School
The achievement of science process skills by MPC in each school is
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Achievement of Students’ Science Process Skills by MPC in each
Selected School
School Level
Name of School
MPC (%)
Interpretation
B.E.H.S
A
77.88
High
B.E.M.S
B
62.11
Average
B.E.P.S
C
95.77
High
B.E.P.S
D
73.69
Average
B.E.P.S
E
89.69
High
B.E.P.S
F
67.70
Average
B.E.P.S
G
64.66
Average
B.E.P.S
H
78.39
High
B.E.P.S
I
70.07
Average
B.E.P.S
J
64.50
Average
B.E.P.S
K
91.73
High
B.E.P.S
L
68.08
Average
B.E.P.S
M
63.51
Average
B.E.P.S
N
62.40
Average
Note: B.E.H.S
= Basic Education High School
B.E.M.S
= Basic Education Middle School
B.E.P.S
= Basic Education Primary School
Table 2 shows that the MPC values for science process skills by
school ranged from 62.11% to 95.77%. Of these values, five schools, being
more than 75% were high, and nine, being from 62.11% to 73.69%, were
average. Low MPC values were not found in all selected schools. It can
comparatively be seen in the following bar chart also.
286
High
Average
120
95.77
MPC (%)
100
80
91.73
89.69
77.88
78.39
73.69
67.7
62.11
64.66
70.07
68.08
64.5
63.51 62.4
60
40
20
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Schools
I
J
K
L
M
N
Figure 2. Achievement of Students’ Science Process Skills by MPC in each
Selected School
Achievement of each Science Process Skill by Mean Percent Correct
(MPC) in each School
The achievement of each science process skill in accordance with
MPC responded by grade five students in each school is shown in Table 3.
The MPC values for observation and classification skill were in the range of
62.32% to 95.25%. Of fourteen MPC values for these skills, seven values
fall the range of 62.32% to 70.25% (average) and another seven were
greater than 75% (high). Thus, it could be said that students’ achievement in
observation and classification skill was average in seven schools and high
in the rest seven.
It was found that the students from high-achieving schools were
allowed to observe the natural environment and had more chance to use
their senses than those from average- achieving schools.
For measuring skill responded by the students from the respective
schools, each MPC value was from 50% to 100%. Among fourteen MPC
values, one was equal to 50% (low), six were from 55% to 73.34%
287
(average), and seven were greater than 75 % (high). Thus, it could be said
that students’ achievement in measuring skill from one school was low, six
schools were average and seven schools were high.
It can be assumed that students from some high-achieving schools
had the most experiences of measuring real objects among the three groups
through using measuring devices.
For predicting skill of students from the selected schools, the MPC
values were in the range of 46.21% to 96.67%. Of these values, two were
less than 50% (low), nine were from 51% to 70.83% (average), and three
were greater than 75% (high). Hence, students’ achievement in predicting
skills was low in two schools, average in nine schools and high in three
schools.
The MPC values of hypothesizing skill responded by students from
selected schools ranged from 56.79% to 95.36%. Of these values, nine were
average (from 56.79% to 74.71%) and five were high (greater than 75%).
Thus, achievement of students’ process skills in hypothesizing was average
in nine schools and high in five schools.
It was found that students from high-achieving schools got
predicting and hypothesizing skills, based on their prior knowledge as they
got opportunities to discuss openly. On the other hand, students from
average-achieving schools and lowachieving schools had no chance for
developing predicting and hypothesizing skills.
As regards to communicating skill, the MPC values of all
participants ranged from 40% to 92.31%. Of these values, two were less
than 50% (low), five ranged from 56% to 70% (average), and seven were
greater than 75% (high). So, students’ achievement in communicating skill
was low in two schools, average in another five schools and high in the
remaining schools. According to these findings, in some schools, the
achievement level of measuring, predicting and communicating skills was
found in low level. It can comparatively be seen in the following table and
bar chart also.
In high-achieving school, the students obtained high communicating
skills through hand-on experiences. The students from average and lowachieving schools who had no chance to get this opportunity were found
low in communicating skills. Most average-achieving schools were weak in
performing measuring, predicting and communicating skills.
288
Observation & Classification
Measuring
Predicting
Hypothesizing
Communicating
120
MPC (%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
Schools
Figure 3. Achievement of each Science Process Skill by MPC in each
School
Table 3. Achievement of each Science Process Skill by MPC in each School
Science Process Skill
Observation &
Classification
Measuring
Predicting
Hypothesizing
Communication
MPC
%
Interpre
tation
MPC
%
Interpre
tation
MPC
%
Interpre
tation
MPC
%
Interpret
ation
MPC
%
Interpre
tation
A
80.6
High
75.5
High
69.5
Average
81.68
High
79
High
B
62.32
Average
69.05
Average
52.38
Average
70.24
Average
47.62
Low
C
95.25
High
100
High
96.67
High
95.36
High
90
High
D
78.75
High
73.34
Average
64.45
Average
73.57
Average
80
High
E
93.75
High
95.84
High
77.89
High
93.16
High
83.33
High
F
70.13
Average
87
High
51
Average
74.71
Average
56
Average
G
72.88
Average
55
Average
61.67
Average
57.5
Average
70
Average
H
81.19
High
80
High
70.83
Average
81.61
High
70
Average
I
77.31
High
55
Average
66.67
Average
68.39
Average
60
Average
J
70.19
Average
67.5
Average
49.17
Low
72.14
Average
40
Low
K
89.18
High
98.08
High
91.02
High
94.09
High
92.31
High
L
70.25
Average
70
Average
56.67
Average
71.07
Average
90
High
M
67.88
Average
82.5
High
56.67
Average
56.79
Average
70
Average
N
72.13
Average
50
Low
46.21
Low
63.8
Average
77.27
High
School
289
Summary of Quantitative Findings
To sum up, with regard to achievement of science process skills, the
findings of the Science Achievement Test lead to the following conclusions.
• The MPC for science process skills was 72.72% (average). It could
be said that the achievement level of science process skills
possessed by Grade five students was average.
• The MPC for observation and classification was 76.83% (high), and
for hypothesizing 75.94% (high). So, it could be said that the
students’ achievement levels of observation and classification and
hypothesizing skills were high.
• The MPC for measuring was 74.99% (average), for predicting
61.59% (average) and for communicating 71.39% (average). Thus,
it could be said that the students’ achievement levels of science
process skills such as measuring, predicting and communicating
were average.
• Out of MPC values for science process skills, the MPC for
observation and classification was the highest. Hence, students’
highest performance was found in observation and classification
skill.
• Out of MPC values for science process skills, the MPC for
predicting was the lowest. Therefore, students’ lowest performance
was found in predicting skill.
Conclusion
Today, the world is influenced by technological development and
changes. People in the world must keep abreast of these technological
challenges. In order to face these technological challenges, people must
have scientific knowledge and skills. Scientific knowledge and skills are
essential for the economic and cultural development of a country. Science
seeks to understand natural principles and ways of harnessing them to solve
life problems. It demands a longing to understand events in nature, logical
search and verification of data, and therefore, arrival at the most plausible
interpretations of relationships which exist among phenomena. The nature
of science brings about an obvious need for a good foundation to be laid in
children (Victor, 1989). Lanier (2009) stated that if children want to
develop scientific attitude, they must be built from the very early childhood,
290
on conceptual understanding and reasoning rather than on retention and
reproduction of bits of information.
According to the findings, it is clear that the level of achievement in
science process skills, namely, predicting, measuring and communicating
was average. The low and average-achievement on many items showed that
students had no opportunity to learn these concepts. Moreover, it was found
that many students never have the chance of experiencing hands-on, mindson science activities, science resources and learning aids. Bredderman,
(1982); Brooks & Brooks, (1993, cited in Cho Cho Mar, 2006) mentioned
that student-centered, inquiry teaching methods have positive effects on
improving content understanding, science process skills, logic, language
skills, and attitude toward science and science learning. National Research
Council (1996, cited in Lanier, 2009) also pointed out "The National
Science Education Standards" that students should engage in scientific
inquiry as one approach to learning about science. Thus, students should be
allowed actually to learn science as they construct meaning and
understanding.
However, based on the research findings, it was found that students
required more opportunity not only to observe similarities and differences
but also to classify objects and living things. For the development of
measuring skills, students needed more experience of measuring real
objects by using measuring devices. Since students possessed the lowest
achievement in the process of predicting, they should be provided with
active learning and past experiences. Teachers should foster children to
make predictions and to justify them before carrying out the action or
observation that will check their accuracy. In order to develop
hypothesizing skills, children should be provided opportunities to
investigate phenomena which they are able to explain from their past
experiences. Similarly, for the development of communicating skills, they
should be provided with more opportunities to communicate about science,
using a variety of suitable media and interpreting graphs, maps, charts and
diagram.
In order to achieve the development of science process skills,
principal instructional leadership practices are essential. Jacobs (2006)
noted that fostering the growth of science education is one of the most
challenging and rewarding tasks and instructional leaders will have to do in
the twenty-first century. Therefore, principals should effectively perform
291
instructional leadership practices in order to enhance high levels of student
achievement in science process skills. Additionally, they need to encourage
teachers to utilize “hands-on, minds-on” approaches for science.
Recommendations
Based on the analyses of the survey, the following suggestions and
recommendations were drawn to improve the primary science education.
•
Pupils should be given practical experience relating the science
lessons in order to acquire skills in handling apparatus and to
conduct experimental investigations.
•
A suitable professional development programme should be
provided to teachers and educators to have a broad knowledge of
science content and pedagogical techniques, skills in using a
variety of teaching strategies such as cooperative learning
strategies, effective questioning strategies, problem-solving
strategies with a focus on hands-on, minds-on, authentic
approaches to teaching, appropriate attitudes towards science
teaching and attitudes for the continuous updating of these
professional qualification and scientific outlook.
•
School principals should arrange science related activities as
field trips for teachers and students, hold talks by external
experts and arrange visitation to other outstanding schools.
•
Teachers and students should be adequately supported with
library materials for science teaching and encouraged to use
libraries.
•
The school environment should be created as supportive learning
resource for science teaching and teachers should be encouraged
to use the school environment for science teaching.
Need for Further Research
This study intended to investigate the achievement in science
process skills of grade five students from selected township. Consequently,
the need for further inquiry is obviously necessary. Further study in this line
is needed for the improvement of science education at all levels of Basic
Education. There is a need for further research concerned with achievement
of further science process skills.
Acknowledgements
We are deeply grateful to Dr. Aung Min (Rector), Dr. Lwin Lwin Soe (Acting
Rector of YUFL) and Dr. Pye Thein (Pro-Rector),Yangon Institute of Education. We
292
would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Aye Aye Cho (Professor, Head of Department,
Department of Educational Theory, Yangon Institute of Education). We would like to
convey our heartfelt thanks to Daw Su Su Thwin (Lecturer, Department of Educational
Theory, Yangon Institute of Education) and Dr. Khin Mar Yee (Assistant Lecturer,
Department of Educational Theory, Sagaing Institute of Education). Especially, we most
sincerely wish to thank the principals, primary teachers and grade five students who
participated in the essential task of data collection. Finally, we are very thankful to every
person who helped us complete our study.
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Company.
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions, Attitudes and
Competencies for Cognitive Development of Children in
Selected Preschools
Thet Naing Oo1 and Khin Hnin Oo2
Abstract
The primary purpose of this research is to study preschool teachers’ skills for
cognitive development of children from selected preschools in Yangon. A
total of 60 preschool teachers from selected preschools participated in this
study. The samples were selected using simple random sampling technique.
Preschool teachers’ perceptions on cognitive development of children, their
attitudes towards cognitive development of children and their perceived
competencies for cognitive development of children in selected preschools
were explored. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were applied in
this study. Descriptive statistics, One-Way ANOVA, Independent Samples ttest and post-hoc test by Tukey HSD were employed for the analysis of
quantitative data. A significant difference was found in preschool teachers’
perceptions on cognitive development of children grouped by teacher
training (F=4.56, p<0.05). According to mean scores, preschool teachers
agreed that cognitive development was important for preschool children
(mean=4.49). Preschool teachers perceived that it was important to make
activities that promote cognitive development of children (mean=4.26).
Preschool teachers had moderately high level of perceived competency to
make activities that promote cognitive development of children (mean=3.96).
Therefore, early childhood educators and policy makers should consider the
findings of the research in planning preschool teacher training program in
order to improve the skills of preschool teachers for promoting cognitive
development of children.
Key Word: cognitive development
Introduction
Myanmar Education for all Forum sets its national goals according
to the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal. Among them, the goal on
"Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and
education" aims to address the issues of holistic development of children
especially in their earlier ages. The importance of early years especially in
the first 3 years through up to 5 years to prepare the children to develop
holistically in the areas of physical, psychological, social, cognitive and
1. Tutor, Dr., Department of Educational Theory, Yangon Institute of Education
2. MEd. Student, Department of Educational Theory
294
language development are well recognized by the policy makers (Myanmar
UNICEF, 2001).
A child's early environment plays a crucial role in determining later
success in his life. Normal cognitive development does not occur when the
environmental risks such as family disorganization, extreme poverty,
parental drug and alcohol use, poor parent care, neglect and poor childparent interaction interfere. Overcoming these environmental risks
represents a real challenge to our society.
Preschool teacher, child-care and family providers have both the
wonderful opportunity and the important responsibility to teach and to
nurture young children. The years from birth through age five are a time of
extraordinary growth and change. Children normally develop the basic
knowledge, understandings and interests they need to reach the goal of
being successful learners, readers and writers in these years.
Teachers should support the rights of children to live and learn in
environments that are responsive to their developmental needs since
teachers’ personal knowledge, emotional and intellectual commitment will
determine the future of early childhood. Teachers should improve their
competencies in providing for children's needs and also appreciate each
child's uniqueness, thus enhancing the child's self-respect.
Bush (2001) stated that everyone has the duty to all attention to the
science and seriousness of childhood cognitive development because the
years between birth and age five are the foundation upon which successful
lives are built. Children aged 2 to 5 go through fascinating, swiftly
accomplished stages of development. They possess vigorous personalities,
rich enthusiasm, an astonishing amount of physical energy, and strong wills.
With the exception of infancy there is no other time in human life when so
much is learned in so brief a period (Bloom, 1964 cited in Hendrick, 1988).
Preschool educators have always been concerned with the
development of the whole child. This concern requires providing activities
and experiences that promote growth and development in the physical,
emotional, social and cognitive areas. These are interrelated and good
programs try to balance activities to address these areas.
Today, parents recognize that early education benefits their children
and their families. They seek early educational experiences for their
children because they know their children will have the opportunity to:
295
increase their intelligence and problem solving abilities, strengthen their
emotional control, grow in physical health, develop self-confidence, selfunderstanding and esteem, promote social skills, developing their ability to
relate with both other children and adults, and offer children freedom for
self-expression in art, music, literature and dance (Law, 1983, p. 13).
On the other hand, the purpose of early education is to foster
competence in young children not only in intellectual areas. Competence
should be thought of as relating to all aspects of the self (Connolly and
Bruner, 1974): learning to live comfortably with others, learning to master
and safely express one's feelings, and learning to love life and welcome new
experiences. Accordingly, the important task of teachers is to foster
competence in five aspects of the children's personality (the physical,
emotional, social, creative and cognitive selves).
One of the most interesting aspects of teaching young children lies
in the area of mental development, because young children usually come to
school filled with curiosity, wonder and the wish to learn. This eagerness
makes cognitive education a delight for both teachers and children, if the
teachers have a clear idea of the children's capabilities and how to develop
these further in an appropriate way. To accomplish this most effectively,
teachers must take time to clarify their own educational values and decide
for themselves what the real purpose of educating the children's cognitive
selves should be. Mental development should not be just learning a large
array of facts, recognizing the alphabet, and parroting memorized replies to
questions. Such education should foster the ability to think and reason, to
generate new ideas, to relish learning about a fascinating world and to feel
confident enthusiastic when approaching new intellectual challenges.
Advancing cognitive skills in young children involves helping them develop
their intellectual or thinking abilities. Preschool teachers should have the
skills to promote children's questioning, exploring and problem-solving
skills in order to develop their thinking ability. The preschool should be
concerned with playing. Many programs seem to have overlooked the fact
that young children are progressing in their intellectual development with or
without help. Cognitive development is just as important as physical or
language development. In fact, they go hand in hand. It occurs at the same
time and is integrated into every other aspect of the child's development.
Therefore, it is essential that teachers of young children understand how
cognitive abilities develop and how they can utilize classroom activities in
their classrooms to promote cognitive development and give direction.
296
Purposes of the Research
This study is aims:
(1) To study preschool teachers' perceptions on cognitive development
of children;
(2) To study preschool teachers'
development of children;
attitudes
towards
cognitive
(3) To study preschool teachers' perceived competencies for cognitive
development of children
Definition of the Terms
Cognitive Development: The word cognitive development is defined as
follows:
(i) how a person perceives, thinks and gains understanding of his or her
world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors
(Encyclopedia of Children’s Health).
(ii) the construction of thought process, including remembering,
problem-solving and decision-making from childhood through
adolescence to adulthood (Encyclopedia of Children’s Health).
(iii) is the development of thought process by which knowledge is
acquired including perception, intuition and reasoning (Oxford
Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine).
Perception: the process of attaining awareness or understanding of the
environment by organizing and interpreting sensory information.
Attitude: a hypothetical construct that represents an individual’s degree of
like or dislike for something.
Competency: an observable behaviour which demonstrates that preschool
teachers have the knowledge and skill to perform their tasks and functions
with competence.
Limitations of the Study
a. This study is geographically limited by Yangon City Development
Area.
b. Participants of this research are the preschool teachers from selected
preschools.
297
c. This study is designed to investigate preschool teachers’ skills for
cognitive development of children in selected preschools.
Theoretical Framework
Cognitive approach to learning emphasizes the importance of
cognitive to human development and behaviour. The word “cognition” was
derived from Latin meaning to know or to think. Cognition refers to the
processes by which the mind acquires, represents and uses knowledge,
encompassing sensation, perception, reasoning, learning language and
production, problem-solving and memory.
Cognitive psychologist generally view learning as an internal
process which occurs in rational thinking and cannot be observed directly
from human behaviours. Cognitive psychologists believe the best way for
children to learn acceptable behaviour is through experiencing. Cognitive
learning should be based on actual experience (Kamii, 1985; Piaget and In
elder, 1969).
To understand more about mental abilities, it is first necessary to
review the most basic conclusions of Jean Piaget, because his work has
made a significant contribution to what is known about the development of
cognitive structures in childhood (Gruber and Voneche, 1977). Piaget has
long maintained that children's mental growth is the result of dynamic
interaction between children and their environments and that the activity of
play and actual experience are vital ingredients in fostering mental
development. He also maintains that the thought processes of children differ
from those of adults and that these processes pass through a series of
developmental stages as the child matures.
According to Piaget, development is influenced by physical
maturation, experience, interaction with other people (socialization) and
equilibration. The significance of experience – in particular concrete,
tangible experience – has been stressed as being a fundamental, essential
component of teaching young children. Constance Kamii (1982), who has
an important role in implementing Piagetion principles in early childhood
classrooms, lists these primary abilities as including classification, seriation,
structuring time and space, social knowledge and representation.
According to Piaget, in the preoperational stage of children, seeing
is believing objects into more than one kind of category (sorting large pink
circles and pink squares, small blue circles and blue squares into separate
298
categories), or arranging a long series of graduated cylinders in regularly
ascending order. However, they no longer have difficulty graphing these
concepts. Children reason differently from the way adults do.
Nancy Balaban (1984) described, in classroom that encourage
natural, spontaneous, lively, intense curiosity, children will gain
experiences needed for developing both linguistic and mathematical
concepts. The environment can yield other experience that are patterned (a
brick wall is patterned): parts and wholes (cuffing applies, oranges and
bananas for salad), things that have direction (a pulley lifts the pail up):
objects that have size, weight texture.
Good teachers embed instruction in activities that make sense to
young children. Teachers need to be responsive to children’s individual
skills and interests. Good teachers know well what each child knows and
understands, and they use that knowledge to plan appropriate clear learning
goals, plan activities carefully to achieve those goals, assess children’s
learning regularly and make modifications when activities are not helping
children learn.
Good teachers are busy asking questions, focusing children’s
attention, helping them document and interpret what they see, and providing
scaffolds and suggestions. Teachers need to facilitate children develop
understanding of concepts about themselves, others and the world around
them through observation, interacting with people and real objects and
seeking solutions to concrete problems, learning about maths, science,
social students, health and other content areas are all integrated through
meaningful activities such as those when children build with blocks;
measure sand, water, or ingredients for cooking; observer changes in the
environment; work with wood and tools; sort objects for a purpose; explore
animals, plants, water, wheels and gears; sing and listen to the music from
various cultures; and draw, paint and work with clay (Maxim, 1989).
Teachers need to promote children’s questioning, exploring and
problem-solving skills in order to develop their thinking skills. Early
childhood classroom workers need to be aware of how children use their
sensory apparatus to explore the world around them and need to set up
classroom activities to promote such exploration. Teachers need to bring in
new materials, pose questions about them, take children on nearby field
trips, and be sure to record the questions the children are asking so that the
299
teachers will know what direction to take in planning cognitive
development activities.
Teachers need to help children develop cognitive concepts such as
shape, colour, size, classification, seriation, and number through real
activities in the classroom. Teachers need to interact with the children to
stimulate their curiosity and encourage them to think and solve problems,
ask open-ended questions and listen to the children’s answers. This should
give teachers clues as to what direction teachers should take with
individuals and the group in providing them with new cognitive activities or
extending the present ones (Beaty, 1986).
This theoretical framework leads to the following research work.
Methodology
In this study, the descriptive method of research was used to
investigate preschool teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and competencies for
cognitive development of children in selected preschools with the survey
questionnaire survey. It was used because it gathers required data faster than
any other method. Qualitative methodology was also used to investigate
preschool teachers' perceived competencies to perform activities that
promote cognitive development of children qualitatively.
Sample
The sample was comprised of thirteen preschools selected from four
townships in YCDC. A total of sixty teachers were selected as subjects from
these schools in YCDC using simple random sampling method. To obtain
necessary qualitative data, preschool teachers from these preschools were
randomly selected. The number of teachers is 30.
Instruments
In this study, questionnaire survey was used to collect information
about preschool teachers' skills in promoting cognitive development of
children. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. The first one was
aimed to collect demographic data concerning age, experience, gender,
academic qualification and teacher training. The second part included three
dimensions such as: 1) Preschool teachers' perceptions on cognitive
development of children, 2) Preschool teachers’ attitudes towards cognitive
development of children, 3) Preschool teachers’ perceived competencies for
cognitive development of children.
300
The first dimension consisted of 14 items including one open-ended
question. The second dimension included 20 items and the third dimension
also included 20 items with three open-ended questions. There were
altogether 57 items in the questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed
by using Five-Point Likert Scale.
In order to get the required qualitative data, the structured interview
schedule was used; it contained seven items and it was based on cognitive
development activities that promote children's cognitive development.
Validity
The questionnaire was constructed after reviewing related literature.
Construct validity and content validity of the questionnaire for preschool
teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and competencies for cognitive development
of children was examined and confirmed with five teacher educators of
Yangon Institute of Education who have experiences in preschool
education.
Reliability
In order to measure the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach's
alpha was used. The internal consistency for preschool teachers' perceptions
on cognitive development was 0.91, for preschool teachers’ attitude towards
cognitive development of children was 0.88 and for preschool teachers'
perceived competencies for cognitive development of children was 0.76.
Procedure
Firstly, the relevant literature concerning the research was explored.
In order to collect the required data, the instrument for cognitive
development was constructed after reviewing related literature. After
receiving permission from the Director General of Education DBE (3), the
questionnaires were distributed to the selected schools in the first week of
December, 2010. All questionnaires were collected after two weeks. Valid
response rate was 100%.
After the questionnaires were returned, the data were entered into a
computer data file and were analyzed by using SPSS software version 16.
Interview was conducted in the third week of December, 2010. It
took the researchers about half an hour to make interview for each and
every participant. The researchers took notes about the responses of the
subjects.
301
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics, One-way
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) and Independent-Samples t Test.
Descriptive statistics was used to compare the preschool teachers’ perceived
degree of importance of activities that promote cognitive development of
children and their perceived competencies of activities that promote
cognitive development of children. One way ANOVA and IndependentSamples t Test were used to know whether there were any significant
differences in preschool teachers' skills for cognitive development of
children according to age, experience, academic qualification and teacher
training.
Findings
In this study, concerning preschool teachers’ perceptions on
cognitive development, mean scores between 1.00 and 1.49 was regarded as
“strongly disagree”, 1.50-2.49 “disagree”, 2.50-3.49 “neither agree nor
disagree”, 3.50-4.49 “agree” and 4.50-5.00 “strongly agree”.
In preschool teachers’ attitude towards cognitive development of
children, mean values of degree of importance between 1.00 and 1.49 was
considered as “not important”, 1.50-2.49 “slightly important”, 2.50-3.49
“moderately important”, 3.50-4.49 “important” and 4.50-5.00 “very
important”.
In preschool teachers’ perceived competencies for cognitive
development of children, mean values between 1.00 and 1.49 was identified
as “very low level”, 1.50-2.49 “low level”, 2.50-3.49 “satisfactory level”,
3.50-4.49 “moderately high level” and 4.50-5.00 “very high level”.
Quantitative Findings
Related to preschool teachers’ perceptions on cognitive development
of children, preschool teachers agreed that cognitive development was
important for preschool children ( x = 4.49) (SD=0.38). Related to
preschool teachers’ attitude towards cognitive development of children
They agreed that it was important to perform activities that promote
cognitive development of children ( x = 4.26) (SD=0.27). Moreover,
concerning preschool teachers’ perceived competencies for cognitive
development of children they had moderately high level of competency to
perform activities that promote cognitive development of children ( x =
3.97) (SD=0.29).
302
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Skills for Cognitive
Development of Children of Preschool Teachers Grouped by
Age
No
1
Age
Variables
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions
on Cognitive Development of
Children
2
Preschool Teachers’ Attitudes
toward Cognitive Development
of Children
3
Preschool Teachers’ Perceived
Competencies for Cognitive
Development of Children
20-35 Yrs
Mean(SD)
36-50 Yrs
Mean(SD)
Above 50
Mean(SD)
4.39(0.37)
4.52(0.38)
4.59(0.43)
4.25(0.22)
4.24(0.31)
4.34(0.26)
4.01(0.25)
3.95(0.24)
3.96(0.47)
According to Table 2, concerning preschool teachers’ perceptions on
cognitive development of children, the group of teachers who were between
20 and 35 years of age ( x = 4.39) agreed that cognitive development was
important for preschool children. The group of teachers who were between
36 and 50 years of age ( x = 4.52) and the group of teachers who ware
above 50 years of age ( x = 4.59) strongly agreed that cognitive
development was important for preschool children. In their attitudes toward
cognitive development of children, the group of teachers who were between
20 and 35 years of age ( x = 4.25), the group of teachers who were between
36 to 50 years of age ( x = 4.24) and the group of teachers who were above
50 years of age ( x = 4.34) perceived that it was important to perform
activities that promote cognitive development of children. In their perceived
competencies for cognitive development of children, the group of teachers
who were between 20 and 35 years of age ( x = 4.01), the group of teachers
who were between 36 and 50 years of age ( x = 3.95) and the group of
teachers who were above 50 years of age ( x = 3.96) had moderately high
level of competency to perform activities that promote cognitive
development.
303
Teaching Service
Years of Teaching
Service
1-5 Yrs
Mean(SD)
6-10 Yrs
Mean(SD)
Above
10Yrs
Mean(SD)
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions
on Cognitive Development of
Children
4.40(0.36)
4.53(0.39)
4.50(0.45)
toward Cognitive Development
of Children
4.28(0.25)
4.35(0.28)
4.39(0.38)
3.99(0.22)
3.94(0.33)
4.19(0.15)
No.
Variables
1
2
3
In table 2 concerning the preschool teachers’ perceptions on
cognitive development of children, the group of teachers who had 1 - 5
years of teaching service ( x = 4.40) agreed that cognitive development was
important for preschool children. Both groups of teachers who had 6 - 10
years of teaching service ( x = 4.53) and the group of teachers who had
above 10 years of teaching service ( x = 4.56) strongly agreed that cognitive
development was important for preschool children. In their attitudes toward
cognitive development of children, the group of teachers who had 1 - 5
years of teaching service ( x = 4.28), the group of teachers who had 6 - 10
years of teaching service ( x = 4.35) and the group of teachers who had
above 10 years of teaching service ( x = 4.39) perceived that it was
important to perform activities which promote cognitive development of
children. In their perceived competencies for cognitive development of
children, the group of teachers who had 1 - 5 years of teaching service ( x =
3.99), the group of teachers who had 6 - 10 years of teaching service
( x =3.94) and the group of teachers who had above 10 years of teaching
service ( x =4.19) had moderately high level of competency to perform
activities which promote cognitive development of children.
304
Table 3
No
Means and Standard Deviations of Skills for Cognitive
Academic Qualification
Variables
Undergraduate
Mean(SD)
Graduate
Mean(SD)
4.60(0.39)
4.46(0.38)
1
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions on
Cognitive Development of Children
2
Preschool Teachers’ Attitudes towards
Cognitive Development of Children
4.24(0.22)
4.27(0.28)
3
3.86(0.15)
4.00(0.30)
In Table 3 concerning the preschool teachers’ perceptions on
cognitive development of children, the group of teachers who were
undergraduate ( x = 4.60) strongly agreed that cognitive development was
important for preschool children. The group of teachers who were graduate
( x = 4.46) agreed that cognitive development was important for preschool
children. In their attitudes towards cognitive development of children, both
groups of teachers who were undergraduates ( x =4.24) and graduates ( x =
4.27) perceived that it was important to perform activities that promote
cognitive development of children. In their perceived competencies for
cognitive development of children, both groups of teachers who were
undergraduates ( x = 3.86) and graduates ( x = 4.00) had moderately high
competency level to perform activities that promote cognitive development
of children.
Teacher Training
No
1
2
Variables
Preschool Teachers’
Perceptions on Cognitive
towards Cognitive
Group A
Mean(SD)
Group B
Mean(SD)
Group C
Mean(SD)
4.39(0.38)
4.67(0.32)
4.35(0.41)
4.27(0.33)
4.33(0.23)
4.12(0.15)
No
Variables
3
305
Group A
Mean(SD)
Group B
Mean(SD)
Group C
Mean(SD)
3.98(0.25)
4.00(0.36)
3.92(0.22)
The subjects were categorized into three groups in accordance with
teaching training. There were 24 teachers in Group A, who attended
Preschool Teacher Training Conducted by Department of Myanmar
Education Bureau, 23 teachers in Group B, who attended Preschool Teacher
Training by Pyinnyatazaung and 13 teachers in Group C, who attended
other training and workshops.
According to table 4 concerning with preschool teachers’
perceptions on cognitive development of children, Group A ( x = 1.39) and
Group C ( x = 4.35) agreed that cognitive development was important for
preschool children. Group B ( x = 4.67) strongly agreed that cognitive
development was important for preschool children. In their attitude towards
cognitive development of children, Group A, ( x = 4.27), Group B ( x =
4.33) and Group C, ( x = 4.12) perceived that it was important to perform
activities which promote cognitive development of children. In their
perceived competencies for cognitive development of children, Group A ( x
= 3.98), Group B ( x = 4.00) and Group C ( x = 3.92) had moderately high
level of competency to perform activities which promote cognitive
development of children.
Table 5. One-Way ANOVA Results Showing Mean Values of Skills for
Cognitive Development of Children of Preschool Teachers
Grouped by Age
Variables
Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions on
Cognitive Development of
Children
towards Cognitive Development of
Children
Group
N
Mean (SD)
F
p
20-35 Yrs
22
4.39 (0.37)
1.18
ns
36-50 Yrs
27
4.53 (0.38)
Above 50
11
4.59 (0.43)
20-35 Yrs
22
4.26 (0.22)
.59
ns
36-50 Yrs
27
4.24 (0.32)
Above 50
11
4.34 (0.26)
306
Variables
Group
N
Mean (SD)
F
p
20-35 Yrs
22
4.01 (0.25)
.25
ns
36-50 Yrs
27
3.95 (0.24)
Above 50
11
3.96 (0.47)
ns = no significance
The subjects were categorized into three groups according to their
age. There were 22 teachers who were 20 – 35 years of age, 27 teachers
who were 36-50 years of age and 11 teachers who were above 50 years of
age.
The data presented in the Table 5 described that there was no
significant difference among the group of teachers in the area of their
perceptions on cognitive development of children, their attitudes towards
cognitive development of children and their perceived competencies for
cognitive development of children.
Cognitive Development of Children of Preschool Teacher
Grouped by Teaching Service
Variables
towards Cognitive
Perceived Competencies for
Cognitive Development of
Children
Group
N
Mean (SD)
F
p
1-5 Yrs
22
4.41 (0.36)
.77
ns
6-10 Yrs
34
4.53 (0.39)
Above 10
4
4.55 (0.49)
1-5 Yrs
22
4.28 (0.25)
.15
ns
6-10 Yrs
34
4.25 (0.28)
Above 10
4
4.31 (0.28)
1-5 Yrs
22
3.99 (0.22)
1.32
ns
6-10 Yrs
34
3.94 (0.33)
Above 10
4
4.18 (0.14)
The subjects were categorized into three groups according to their
teaching service. There were 22 teachers who had 1-5 years of teaching
service, 34 teachers who had 6-10 years of teaching service and 4 teachers
who had above 10 years of teaching service.
According to Table 6 there was no significant difference among the
group of teachers in the area of their perceptions on cognitive development
307
of children, their attitudes towards cognitive development of children and
their perceived competencies for cognitive development of children.
Grouped by Teaching Training
Variables
towards Cognitive
Group
N
Mean (SD)
F
p
Group A
24
4.39 (0.38)
4.56
.014
Group B
23
4.67 (0.32)
Group C
13
4.35 (0.41)
Group A
24
4.27 (0.33)
2.64
ns
Group B
23
4.33 (0.23)
Group C
13
4.12 (0.15)
Group A
24
3.98 (0.25)
1.37
ns
Group B
23
4.00 (0.36)
Group C
13
3.92 (0.22)
According to Table 7, there was significant difference among the
group of teachers, in the area of their perceptions on cognitive development
of children (F = 4.56, p < 0.05).
Table 8. One-Way ANOVA Results Showing Preschool Teachers’
Perceptions on Cognitive Development of Children
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F
p
Between Groups
1.236
2
.618
4.56
.014
Within Groups
7.700
57
.135
Total
8.936
59
Variable
Perceptions on
Cognitive
Development of
Children
308
Table 9.
Tukey HSD showing Multiple Comparisons for Preschool
Teachers’ Perceptions on Cognitive Development of Children.
Variable
(I)
Group
(J)
Group
Mean
Difference
(I – I)
Group A
Group B
Group C
-.28122*
.03600
.030
.956
Group B
Group A
Group C
-.28122*
.31721*
.030
.041
Group C
Group A
Group B
-.03600
-.31721*
.956
.041
p
*p < 0.05
To examine the difference among the groups of teachers, Post hoc
Tukey HSD test was executed. Post hoc Tukey HSD Tests indicated that
Group A and Group B differed significantly in their perceptions on
cognitive development of children (p< 0.05). It also indicated that Group B
and Group C differed significantly in their perceptions on cognitive
development of children. (p < 0.05).
Table 10. Independent-Samples t Test Showing Mean Values of Skills for
Grouped by Academic Qualification
Variables
Group
N
Mean(SD)
t
df
p
Preschool teachers’
perceptions on cognitive
undergraduate
10
4.60(0.39)
.95
57
ns
graduate
50
4.46(0.38)
.94
attitudes towards
cognitive development
of children
undergraduate
10
4.24(0.22)
-.31
57
ns
graduate
50
4.27(0.28)
-.36
perceived competencies
for cognitive
undergraduate
10
3.86(0.15)
-1.33
57
ns
graduate
50
4.00(0.30)
-2.01
309
The subjects were categorized into two groups according to
academic qualification. There were 10 teachers who were undergraduate
and 50 teachers who were graduated.
According to Table 10, there was no significant difference among
the group of teachers in the areas of their perceptions on cognitive
development of children, their attitudes towards cognitive development of
children and their perceived competencies for cognitive development of
children.
Qualitative Findings
The qualitative study was conducted through interviewing the
preschool teachers from selected schools. The interviews focused on factors
such as the importance of helping children develop cognitive skills,
reawakening curiosity of children, performance of cognitive development
activities, field trips, teaching colours, classification and asking sensory
questions.
Importance of helping children develop cognitive skills
Most of the teachers said that it was important to help children
develop cognitive skills during the preschool years because promoting
cognitive skills was building for future academic competence and also
enhancing children’s potential for later academic success. Some teachers
stated that the intellectual development of preschool aged children was
high. They also responded that advancing cognitive skills during preschool
years could develop children’s thinking abilities needed to view things
logically. It was found that preschool teachers perceived helping children
develop cognitive skills as an important one.
Cognitive Development Activities
Teachers responded that they conducted the children activities such
as comparing materials, seriation, and classification to promote cognitive
development of children. They allowed the children to play with sorting
blocks and paints. Some teachers said that they used teaching aids in
teaching activities to develop cognitive development of children. It was
remarkable from the teachers’ responses that preschool teachers could
perform some cognitive development activities.
310
Reawakening Curiosity of Children
Teachers responded that they served as behavioural model of
children to reawaken curiosity of children and helped them learn how to
explore with their five senses through the interesting activities. One teacher
said that she showed the children ‘jasmine’ and let them smell it and asked
a question, “What does it smell?” Some teachers said that they helped the
children to distinguish objects around them and the children to distinguish
objects around them on the basis of the objects’ look, feel, sound, smell and
taste. They gave children opportunities for sensory practices to explore and
play with the objects in their environment.
Field Trips
Most of the teachers said that they sometimes made field trips. One
teacher responded that she took the children to the shops near their
preschool and let them explore the materials and goods sold in the shop.
The other teachers said that they went for a walk around the preschool. The
school environment offered opportunities to children to explore and
discover. They asked the children to distinguish materials and objects
around them according to their size, colour, and nature to stimulate
children’s curiosity.
Teaching Colours
Most of the teachers responded that they taught the children white
colours firstly. Some teachers said that they taught the children white and
green colours first by showing school uniform. Some taught white and
black colours first by showing a piece of white paper and pointing to the
colour of their hair. Other teachers said that they started with primary
colours of red, yellow and blue such as the colour of the blood, the colour of
gold, the colour of silver (plus black and white).
Classification
Teachers responded that classification skills were important for
preschool children. They gave reasons that classification skills could
promote their cognitive development. Classification is the early
mathematical concepts for their later mathematics learning. By classifying
the objects, children will develop their thinking ability.
311
Asking Sensory Questions
All teachers responded that they asked their pupils sensory
questions. For example, they let the children eat some fruits such as orange,
pineapple, and asked questions, “What does it taste? What does it smell?
What is its’ shape? They asked the children “Have you ever eaten icecream?” ‘Is it hot or cold? And they let the children touch the materials and
asked questions whether it was hard or soft.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this research was to study preschool teachers’
Perceptions attitudes and Competencies for cognitive development of
children. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were conducted to obtain
the required data. The design adopted in this study was descriptive research
design.
The sample was randomly selected from selected preschools in
Yangon. The subjects were 60 preschool teachers from these schools. The
instruments used in this study were questionnaires for quantitative study
and interview for qualitative study.
Discussion
Early childhood education is now a bona fide profession (Hymes,
1983, p.6). It is fully developed as a separate field, and distinguished from
elementary education or any other type of education. It is important to
increase the fundamental needs of the young children’s development in day
care centre and in the community.
Cognitive learning should be based on mental abilities (Kamii 1985,
Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). The significance of experience – in particular
concrete, tangible experience – has been stressed as being a fundamental,
essential component of teaching young children. Preschool teachers should
provide preschoolers with many activities in classrooms. Highly abstract
learning experiences such as rote-memory or reading exercises or “sit still
and listen” instruction should be avoided in the preschool years because
children cannot learn if they do not have to handle and explore real objects.
Most of the teachers commented that teachers should try to make
teaching fun and interesting. Another aspect of cognitive development is
encouraging children to ask questions, offering opportunities for exploration
and choices. They believed that encouraging exploration could stimulate
312
children’s thinking and allowed children to solve problems by themselves.
Asking questions and accepting mistakes could cultivate a positive habit
and attitude to learning. The teachers should provide the children sufficient
time to think and respond to the questions.
In response to questionnaire they perceived that the ways to
facilitate children’s cognitive development could provide enough time to
engage in activities such as comparing, seriation, and classification etc,
giving children freedom, providing enough materials for children,
interactions and open-ended questions and learning through play. But they
needed to improve proper teaching methods both in theory and practice to
meet the needs of the children.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are based on the research findings.
1.
Preschool teachers should choose developmentally appropriate toys
that allow children to explore and interact.
2.
Preschool teachers should give children many opportunities to develop
basic number concepts best by actively manipulating and playing with
concrete such as blocks, toys, cars or themselves, not by rote counting.
3.
Preschool teachers should ask distancing questions that encourage
children to think about persons, objects, or events that are not
immediately present.
4.
Preschool teachers should provide the children learning experiences for
preschool children that involve using the senses.
5.
Preschool teachers should take great care in explaining phenomena to
children. They should encourage children in discussions concerning
which things are alive and which are not.
Need For Further Research
In this study, the teachers were sampled from 13 preschools in
Yangon City Development Area. So, it is difficult to generalize the findings
of the study to all teachers in Myanmar. It is necessary to investigate
preschool teachers’ skills for cognitive development of children from other
states and regions to represent the whole country especially the schools in
rural areas.
313
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Lwin Lwin Soe, Rector, and
Dr. Pyay Thein, Pro-Rector for their permission to do this research. We would like to
express our heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Aye Aye Cho (Professor and Head of Department,
Department of Educational Theory, Yangon Institute of Education) for her support, expert
guidance, valuable suggestions throughout the study.
We would like to express our special thanks to U Tha Aung Kyaw (Retired
Professor and Head of Department of Educational Theory, Sagaing Institute of Education),
Daw Su Su Thwin (Lecturer, Department of Educational Theory, Yangon Institute of
Education) and Dr. Naing Naing Maw (Lecturer, Department to Educational Psychology,
Yangon Institute of Education), for their precious suggestions and academic help toward
the completion of this study.
References
Beaty, Janice J. (1986) Observing Development of Yangon Child. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill
Publishing Company.
Connolly, K., and Bruner, J. (Eds). (1974). The growth of competence. London: Academic
Press.
Gruber, H.E., and Voneche, J.J (Eds.) . (1977). The essential Piaget. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, Ltd.
Hendricks, J.B. (1988). The whole child: Developmental Education for the Early Years (4th
Ed.), Merrill Publishing Company, London.
Hymes, J.L. (1983). A Look at 1982. Carbel, Ca. Hecienda Press.
Kamii, C. (1982). Number in preschool and kindergarten: Educational Implication of
Piaget’s theory. Washington, D.C: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Law, N.R. (1983). “What is early childhood education?” In Annual editions: Early
childhood education 1983-1984. Sluice Dock, Guilford, Ct: The Duskin
Publishing Group, Inc.
Maxim, G.W. (1989). The Very Young: Guiding Children from Infancy through the Early
Years, (3rd Ed.) Ohio, Merrill Publishing Company.
Ministry of Education. (2005). Implementation of EFA in Myanmar. Yangon, Union of
Myanmar.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In P.H . Mussen (Ed). Handbook for child psychology
(4th ed.)

Universities Research Journal - myanmar

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