Changing Hearts and Minds? - Stephen F. Austin State University

CHANGING HEARTS AND MINDS?: EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
LITTLE ROCK CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE EXHIBITS
By
TAMMY ROBERSON, Bachelor of Arts, Elementary Education
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School
Stephen F. Austin State University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Masters of Science in Resource Interpretation
STEPHEN F. AUSTIN STATE UNIVERSITY
(August 2009)
UMI Number: 1472522
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ABSTRACT
This study was conducted as a part of a larger summative evaluation of the visitor
center exhibits at Central High National Historic Site, Little Rock, Arkansas. The study
examined exhibit effectiveness related to civic engagement, interpretive outcomes, and
accessibility. A conceptual model of civic engagement was developed that identified the
emotional and intellectual connections visitors made with exhibit content, and illustrated
a pathway for civic engagement: encountering the arena of civic memory, engaging in
civic reflection, and considering appropriate civic action. Additional research is
necessary to examine in what ways, to what extent and under what circumstances the
proposed conceptual model of civic engagement accurately reflects visitor pathways for
those who encounter civil rights exhibit content at this and related historic sites..
The researcher conducted 11 focus group interviews with educators, community
leaders, students, visitors with disabilities, disability advocates, and general park visitors
during January and February, 2009. Participant feedback revealed that as visitors
encountered the arena of civic memory related to the Little Rock crisis of 1957-59, they
emphasized: understanding the constitutional foundation, denying rights and challenging
the status quo, examining the use of power and legal authority, and the extent to which
individual actions showed courage, perseverance and the power of action. When
I
participants engaged in civic reflection, they realized "that could have been me," shared
personal experiences, linked current events to history, asked themselves tough questions,
reflected on privileges and symbols, and became motivated to take a stand. As
participants discussed how the exhibits prompted civic action, they indicated that
expressing opinions, voting, and taking part in social change were essential to securing
equal rights and increasing freedom for all. Participants also provided specific feedback
to improve exhibit accessibility for all, including incorporating multi-sensory elements,
ensuring that audio-visual elements that are fully captioned and audio-described, and
facilitating increased involvement of the disability community in exhibit planning.
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are numerous people in all aspects of my life to thank for their help with
this research project. First and foremost, I need to thank my partner and friend—Laura
Miller. She started this ball rolling with giving me information about the MSRI program,
thinking I would be interested. She was correct. She has supported me, guided me, and
listened to me when I was excited and frustrated. She dried my tears and shoved me back
out into the ring and told me to go for it. She was also my constant editor and made me a
better writer.
Secondly, I want to thank Dr. Theresa Coble for instructing me within the
program and for asking me to be a part of this research study. I have learned invaluable
lessons and feel like I made a friend. She opened her home to me for visiting and
celebrating. She is tough but wants you to succeed. She spent many hours reading,
talking, and brainstorming over my thesis. Theresa has this way of being unbelievably
busy but very much in tune with you at the same time. She truly cares about others and
the interpretation field.
I have to thank my thesis committee, Dr. Theresa Coble, Laura Miller, Dr. Chris
Comer, and Dr. David Smaldone. Dr. Comer provided a different, inquisitive perspective
to this qualitative research as this was not his main area of research. He was very helpful
by asking questions that made me more clearly define the project. David was involved in
iii
the overall research project from day one. He was an invaluable resource throughout—
with each conference call and personal meetings. He definitely challenged me in a quiet
way.
Mary Ramos and Dr. Pat Stephens Williams are wonderful representatives of the
MSRI program and never hesitated to help me and challenge me along the way. I would
not have made it without their instruction and assistance.
I love my job at Pfeifer Camp and have to thank my boss and co-workers whom I
consider family. They supported me through graduate school and celebrate my finishing.
Thanks to Jana for not only being my sounding board and taking up my slack at work but
mostly for keeping me sane by making me laugh every single day.
I have to thank the staff at Central High National Historic Site. They are
inspirational and gave me lots of support. Keep challenging visitors to dive into their
souls and find their own personal stories of struggle and triumph.
My friends and family were wonderful. They kept me connected to the world
when I was wrapped up in the land of books and computer. They were a part of my
programs and research, adding their honesty and intelligence to the mix. Thanks for the
laughter and the Starbucks.
This may be a silly addition but without my pets, my blood pressure would have
been a lot higher.
There are many names I should be listing here but space does not allow. I have
not traveled this journey alone.. .thanks...
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
v
LIST OF TABLES
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
viii
INTRODUCTION
1
OBJECTIVES
11
LITERATURE REVIEW
12
Interpretation
13
Accessibility
21
METHODS
27
Evaluating museum experiences
31
RESULTS
42
Participant Overview
42
Civic Memory
46
Understanding constitutional foundation
Denying rights and challenging the status quo
Showing courage, perseverance, and power of action
Civic Reflection
46
48
51
53
Realizing: "That could have been me"
Sharing personal experiences
Linking current events to history
Asking oneself "tough questions" and reflecting on privileges and symbols
Having motivation to take a stand
Civic Action
53
54
57
59
61
62
Accessibility
66
v
Participant Concluding Comments
73
DISCUSSION
76
Implications for Managers
84
Conclusion
91
REFERENCES
94
APPENDIX A
103
Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site Crisis Timeline
APPENDIX B
103
108
Exhibit Schematic
108
APPENDIX C
110
The Principles of Universal Design
110
APPENDIX D
115
Exhibit Text
115
Introduction
We the People
Rights Granted and Denied
Taking it to the courts
The South Resists Integration
Portico
The Event
Beyond Central High
Quest for Rights
Individuals Make a Difference
Exit Experience
APPENDIX E
116
116
119
122
125
127
128
136
137
141
145
146
Pictures of exhibit components
146
APPENDIX E
147
Pictures of exhibit components
147
VITA
153
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Case Study Tactics for Four Design Tests
30
Table 2. Focus Group Participants
43
vn
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Civic Engagement
viu
45
INTRODUCTION
History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, but if faced with courage,
need not be lived again. -Maya Angelou
The mission of the National Park Service (NPS) states that it preserves
unimpaired the natural and cultural resources and values of the national park system for
the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations (National Park
Service, 2008). Electronic, audiovisual, and graphic media represent important channels
through which the NPS communicates and strives to meet its mission. Historic sites
provide a unique opportunity for visitors to make personal connections, learn new
information, immerse themselves in the resource, and have memorable experiences.
These are the goals for NPS interpretive exhibits and programs (Larsen, 2003). This
research provided Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site (CHNHS) and
the NPS as a whole with baseline information on the effectiveness of interpretive
exhibits. It answered the question: Are the interpretive goals and mission of the NPS
met through non-personal interpretive media and to what extent?
In 1995 the NPS created the Interpretive Development Program (IDP) to
establish standards for the development and implementation of interpretive exhibits and
programs (Larsen, 2003). The IDP helps interpreters learn to create and to deliver quality
programs and services. A key tenet of the IDP is that visitors seek something of value for
1
themselves. Besides anecdotal evidence there has been little specific research to prove
that following the standards for interpretation as articulated in the IDP helps the visitor
find meaning in the resource and in turn meet the mission of the NPS.
This research study concentrated on the focus group interview component of a
mixed method summative evaluation project to examine the effectiveness of exhibits at
CHNHS. There is limited information about what visitors find most meaningful in parks
in general and especially within the exhibits. CHNHS park officials were interested in
knowing the interpretive outcomes related to the exhibit. The research referenced key
concepts related to meaning making, cognitive processes, the affective domain,
interpretive connections, civic memory, civic engagement, and exhibit accessibility for
persons with differing abilities and disabilities. Assessing these concepts was a way to
evaluate if indeed visitors are making connections and are personally impacted by the
exhibit content. For example, if a visitor mentioned that he or she decided to vote in an
election for the first time after visiting the exhibit, then a connection was made that
pushed the visitor to join the civic process (National Park Service, 2004).
When most people think about history they tend to think of their high school
social studies classes in which memorizing dates and timelines was the goal. The lessons
never moved much beyond World War II as summer approached. Most people do not list
history as their favorite subject nor do they see the relevance of classroom instruction of
past events to their own lives (Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998). In Rosenzweig and
Thelen's pivotal study, respondents eagerly talked about the past in their own terms. A
2
large percentage had investigated the history of their families in the previous year and
many worked on a hobby or collection related to the past. They felt at home with the
personal past. They used it to define themselves and their families. While visiting
museums and historic sites, they felt connected to the past, as they were able to
experience authentic artifacts and the place where history was made. Respondents spoke
of books and films with indifference but described studying history in school in vividly
negative terms, from boring and irrelevant to hate. Strong emotions came through in
comments such as, "class was a narrow, white middle-class version of U.S. history," or
"they force-fed subjects," and "the content seemed so fake.. .it does not give you an
anchor, or anything to relate to" (p. 111). In contrast, respondents almost never described
encounters with the past as boring when those encounters took place outside of a
traditional learning environment (Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998).
Even though in Rosenzweig and Thelen's study (1998) many people stated that
they found history classes boring, one has but to look at all the television specialty
network programming associated with history (i.e. The History Channel, The Biography
Channel, Military History Channel, and History International) to see that there is a strong
interest in learning about the past. Also, family history and genealogy studies have
become a popular hobby for many people that may have been triggered early on with oral
histories from parents and grandparents alike. One study respondent who was organizing
his family reunion talked of knowing his genealogy. "I have known my family, and that
has always made me want to leave something like they have left" (Rosenzweig & Thelen,
3
1998, p. 16). Another participant explained that he had a deep obligation to preserve
family history, "a promise I made to my brother before he died; it's always on my mind"
(Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998, p. 17). Our houses are also filled with antiques and family
treasures that tell the story of our collective past and our family's history. We surround
ourselves with items that stimulate meanings, emotions, and remembrances, both positive
and negative. It is our collective identity and tells a story of our cultures. Also, in
Rosenzweig and Thelen's (1998) study, collectors talked of the reasons behind their
collecting. One participant adds to a collection of cups and saucers that started when her
grandmother tried to assemble a usable set of china in the rubble of Germany after World
War II. "I like things with a tradition, a history" (p. 16). Another respondent listed his
favorite coins that he associated with his mothers' Cherokee ancestry. When asked how
connected to the past the participants felt, visiting a history museum or historic site
ranked second behind gathering with family (Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998). This study
revealed that Americans felt at home with the past and the past was present in their lives.
History is challenging, controversial, and constantly being rewritten. Our
understanding and interpretation of history changes as we delve further into it. Historic
sites, especially in the National Park System, help visitors cross a bridge that adds to our
experience of being alive. Acclaimed historian Eric Foner (2007) wrote:
Many visitors come to the parks looking for truth, but often there isn't one
single truth that is completely uncontroversial. History is not a collection
of facts. It is an ongoing dialogue, involving many different people with
many different points of view. Sometimes we don't give audiences credit
for being able to tackle that. (p. 25)
4
Every historic site contains powerful stories and teachable moments. These stories allow
visitors to form their own connections and find relevance to their own lives. Pulitzerprize-winning author David McCullough (2002) spoke at Adams National Historical Park
saying:
.. .we need the past for our sense of who we are. We need the past for a
sense of civic responsibility... and what it is our duty to protect. It
provides a geological crosscut. You can see the layers of civilization and
personal history, (p. 50)
The United States was founded on high ideals and values. Throughout our
history, we have struggled to live up to those ideals as the United States endured World
War II. In 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt urged Congress and the nation to look
forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms; freedom of speech,
freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear (Potter, 2008). Civic
engagement is one of those ideals that often takes a backseat in society until something
becomes personal. However, it is vital to a society's survival and it is imperative that
people see themselves as active and contributing members of society or else everyone
suffers for the lack of participation (California Survey of Civic Education, 2005).
Congressman John Lewis (1998) sees America as not just the movement for civil rights
but the endless struggle to respond with decency, dignity and a sense of brotherhood to
all the challenges that face us as a nation, (p. 13). The struggle to correct social injustices
in the past has created an upwelling of participation and challenges. "Everyday folks"
5
decide to take a stand and try to make a difference. These stories of individuals making
life-altering decisions in a time of great adversity and often danger usually have the
greatest potential to inspire and provoke others.
CHNHS tells the story of those "everyday folks" in the battle over civil rights and
equal education (Appendix A). Congress passed legislation on November 6, 1998
designating it a unit of the National Park System (NPS), (Pub. L. 105-356). This law
mandated that the site will...
... preserve, protect, and interpret for the benefit, education, and
inspiration of present and future generations, Central High School in Little
Rock, Arkansas, and its role in the integration of public schools and the
development of the Civil Rights movement in the United States.
The site became the first and only National Park Site to include an active high school
within its legislated boundary. It also became imperative for the NPS to develop a
working relationship with the Little Rock School District as the district continues to own
and operate the school.
Central High School was the site of the first important test for the implementation
of the U.S. Supreme Court's historic Oliver L. Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of
Topeka (Kansas) decision of May 17, 1954, declaring that segregation in public
education was an unconstitutional violation of the "equal protection of the laws" clause in
the Fourteenth Amendment. On September 2, 1957, Arkansas governor Orval Faubus
called out the National Guard to block implementation of a desegregation plan at Central
High School. In defying the federal courts, and ultimately the U.S. Supreme Court,
6
Faubus directly challenged the authority of the federal government as no other elected
southern official had since the Civil War (Kirk, 2007). When nine black students tried to
attend classes at the all white high school on September 23, 1957, the white crowds
reacted with such violence that officials removed the black students from the school for
their own safety. Local, national, and international media documented these events for
the world to see. The news showed the world the harsh realities of racism as it entered
their homes on the evening news and in the morning paper. President Eisenhower
ordered soldiers from the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division into Little Rock to
enforce the desegregation of Central High School. He became the first president since
the post-Civil War Reconstruction period to use federal force in support of African
American civil rights (Unrau, 2002).
The story of Central High School and the nine black students did not end with
their successful entry into the school. This was just the beginning of the story. The black
students, collectively known as The Little Rock Nine, were harassed each day despite the
presence of solders. White students who tried to take a stand also were threatened with
harassment (Miller, 2002). Ernest Green, the only senior level student among the Nine,
became the first African American to graduate from Central High at the end of the 195758 school year. The next year, Faubus used a newly-passed state law to close all four
high schools in Little Rock to delay school desegregation. Students of all races had to
find somewhere else to finish their educations, if possible. Many did not have the means
to pay private school tuition or to move elsewhere. After almost a year of various
7
factions battling for control of the school system, the schools finally reopened in August
of 1959 (Kirk, 2007; Miller, 2002; Pattillo Beals, 1994). This historic story continues to
be retold and revisited through school tours, the exhibits, and interpretive programming
available at the visitor center.
With the fiftieth anniversary of the Central High crisis approaching, the NPS
designed, built and opened a new visitor center in 2007 to commemorate this event and to
be able to tell much more of the overall story (Appendix B). The exhibit designers strove
to help each person who visits the site to make connections with the meanings and
significance of the Central High School story. Their goal was that each visitor leave
feeling empowered and with a desire to know more. The park's General Management
Plan (National Park Service, 2002) listed the following visitor experience goals which the
Park Service and its partners used to develop interpretive media and programs. Each
visitor should have the opportunity to:
1. Learn about and feel the emotions of the events surrounding the
integration of Central High and be able to relate those events to the
overall civil rights movement, to current events, and to themselves.
2. Meet the people involved, feel their emotions, and have access to their
stories.
3. Put locations and events in context by walking or viewing the school
grounds, South Park Street, and the streets of the surrounding
neighborhood; and, if they chose, visiting related sites
4. Learn about the Constitution and the legal issues involved in its
interpretation and application, learn about other sites and stories, how
the students and residents feel about past and present events and the
current racial situation, gain an appreciation for its size, history,
ambiance, and architectural significance.
8
5. Better understand race relations of the past and present, and be
encouraged to think about race relations in the future.
Along with these overall interpretive themes, the architects, exhibit designers, and NPS
staff had a visioning meeting with stakeholders to develop guiding principles specifically
for the new exhibit space using the long-range interpretive goals. Participants articulated
the following statements during this 2005 meeting (National Park Service):
•
The exhibits should include opportunities for discussion,
understanding and personal growth.
•
The exhibits should encourage visitors to examine their personal lives
and to think about the future.
•
The exhibits should include positive stories about what is happening
today—within Central High School, in Little Rock and across the
country.
•
The exhibits should offer opportunities for Central High School
students to reflect on their own learning and future goals.
•
The exhibits should reflect the power of the individual to create
change and overcome injustice.
Balancing the park's and stakeholders' goals was necessary for successful exhibit
design and implementation. In 1858, Abraham Lincoln opened his "A House Divided"
speech with the words, "If we could first know where we are and wither we are tending
we could better judge what to do and how to do it" (Basler, 1953). Rosenzweig and
Thelen's (1998) study suggests that historic sites have the opportunity to help their
visitors make valuable connections between the past and their present-day lives. Also, as
visitors see the relevance for their lives, they are able to incorporate the learning into their
9
future decisions. The noted historian John Hope Franklin (2007) ended his keynote
address at the NPS Scholars Forum by saying, "These sites are the places that define who
Americans are, and can be" (p. 18).
10
OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the visitor center
exhibits at CHNHS through visitor comments and perspectives obtained through focus
group interviews. This evaluation was a component of a mixed method summative
evaluation project entitled Civic Memory, Civic Engagement: An Evaluation of Exhibit
Effectiveness at Central High School National Historic Site in Little Rock, Arkansas
(Coble, Smaldone & McCarthy, 2008). The specific objectives for the focus group
interviews were as follows:
1. To discover in what ways, to what extent, and under what circumstances
do visitors to CHNHS form intellectual and emotional connections to the
meanings and significance of site resources.
2. To assess the appropriateness, effectiveness, and accessibility of the
exhibits for persons with differing abilities.
3. To discover if visitors engage exhibit content in ways that promotes civic
engagement.
11
LITERATURE REVIEW
You must be the change you wish to see in the world -Mahatma Gandhi
Sachatello-Sawyer and associates (Sachatello-Sawyer, Fellenz, Burton, GittingsCarlson, Lewis-Mahony & Woolbaugh, 2002) illustrated two basic premises for
designing museum programs:
1. Excellent museum programs deliver experiences, memorable events,
and activities that engage individuals in very personal ways.
2. Transformation or change is a measure of an excellent experience.
Sachatello-Sawyer and colleagues also felt that an excellent program can change people's
lives by opening the door to new ways of thinking, seeing, and ultimately, being.
Anyone who wants to have influence spends quite a bit of time planning before
communicating. Plans are mental images of the steps one will go through to meet a goal
(Littlejohn, 2002).
Cameron and Gatewood (2000) use the term "numen" to describe a transcendental
experience that people have in contact with an historic site or objects in an exhibit. Their
research showed that 27% of the respondents are numen-seekers; that is, they explicitly
desire to experience history in highly personal ways (Cameron & Gatewood, 2000).
Curators and exhibit designers should ensure that a site has a strong component of the
personal or the human side of the time period being represented, so that visitors can have
12
the desired experience (Cameron & Gatewood, 2000). Indeed, meaning making is a basic
human process and museums should look at the full impact this has on the theory,
research, and practice of exhibit design (Silverman, 1999). Visitors arrive with set
frames of reference based on beliefs, values, cultures, experiences, and understandings.
These influence how a visitor will engage in relationship building, identity expression,
reflective thinking and meaning making (Silverman, 1999).
Trying to establish the overall meanings a visitor gains from an interpretive
exhibit and how this may influence personal change is challenging, especially when one
wants to identify the connections that created the responses. There is also the challenge
of gaining input from a variety of visitors, especially those with differing abilities, both
physical and cognitive. Falk and Dierking (2000) concluded that the learning from one
place was so intertwined with learning from another place that to reliably extract what
was attributable to the museum experience was a complex process.
The following literature review provided the basis for this study. It strove to
facilitate the measurement of change from the smallest realization to life-altering
experiences.
Interpretation
Sensitiveness to life is the highest product of education. -Liberty Hyde Bailey
13
When people think about a national park, they usually picture a park ranger
leading a hike through a forest. One of the early "interpreters," Enos Mills, made a
career out of being a nature guide. His philosophy was that the guide was a naturalist
who could lead others to discover the secrets of nature. According to Mills the guide is
an interpreter of geology, botany, zoology, and natural history (Brochu & Merriman,
2002). However, Freeman Tilden is known as the father of interpretation. His book,
Interpreting Our Heritage (1957), is every interpreter's bible. Tilden expounded on
Mills' ideas of the nature guide and took them further. He emphasized that the guide
should do more than give information, he or she should help the visitor move beyond the
tangible to the intangible emotion that comes when one experiences the awe and beauty
of a pristine forest or the humbleness one feels when visiting a historic monument or
landmark. At these moments, humans move beyond awareness to feeling responsible for
preserving these places.
Tilden (1957) defined interpretation as, "an educational activity which aims to
reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand
experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual
information" (p.8). Ham (1992) expanded on this definition, stressing that the goal of
interpretation is to answer the "so what" question. Further, an interpretive approach to
communication should emphasize content that is pleasurable, relevant, organized, and has
a theme (Ham, 1992). The National Association for Interpretation (NAI) defines
interpretation as "a communication process that forges emotional and intellectual
14
connections between the interests of the audience and the inherent meanings in the
resource" (Ward & Wilkinson, 2006). The NPS and NAI have been at the forefront of
the professional development of the field of interpretation. The IDP was developed by
the NPS to set standards of excellence and to provide learning resources for interpreters
(Larsen, 2003). Interpretation is not teaching per se but creating a "want to know more"
attitude within the audience members. Even interpreters need to learn and grow as they
interpret. A current interpreter, Kennedy (2007), wrote that the discovery process
interpreters experience and their impact on their listeners is what makes interpretation
dynamic and exciting.
The IDP helps interpreters to recognize that the tangible resources such as flora,
fauna, furniture, or buildings are not complete without the intangible meanings with
which they are linked (Larsen, 2003). As visitors come to understand the meanings
associated with site resources, they may become more interested in protecting the
resource (Larsen, 2003). This emerging awareness answers the "so what" question, i.e.,
why this resource is important and should be protected. Beck and Cable (2002a)
emphasized "the gift" of interpretation. They state that interpreters interpret because they
love their work and want to share. The gift the authors referred to is the place and/or
story itself and how the interpreter unwraps the gift for the audience. It is a matter of the
heart and soul. Beck and Cable (2002b) suggest that interpreters offer the gift of hope
that is the fulfillment of all other gifts:
15
To some people, interpreters provide the gift of knowledge, to others the
gift of inspirations, to others the gift of community, to others the gift of
epiphany. We offer gifts of compassion and caring and love. (p. 168)
Sachatello-Sawyer, et al (2002) found that change initially occurs from within an
individual and then emerges outwardly to take on a physical form, i.e. participating in
trail clean-up, starting a recycling program, or demonstrating in a civil rights march.
Often change or learning occurs after one has had an emotional or intellectual experience.
Littlejohn (2002) uses the term interpretation for how one understands an experience. The
development of the professional field of interpretation stems from this root definition. It
is the goal of personal and non-personal interpretation to forge connections that create
change and action in a visitor.
Scientific research is necessary to assess the goals of interpretation and to grow
the field professionally. Doug Knapp has been doing research in the field of
interpretation for approximately sixteen years, focusing much of this inquiry on longterm memory. One research example Knapp (2007) discussed involved a fourth grade
class field trip to George Washington Carver National Monument. The students walked
an interpretive trail, attended a classroom session on peanuts, toured the visitor center,
watched the park film, and participated in a hands-on activity in the science center.
Researchers interviewed the students fourteen months after the trip. One experience that
resonated with the children was a five minute visit to Carver's original home. The tiny
space brought home the crowded and extremely poor upbringing Carver experienced.
16
The statements the children made during the interviews spoke volumes about the
connections they made with Carver and of their views of race relations at the time
(Knapp, 2007):
I like his house the most because we got to see where he lived. It was like
I was living with him.
He sat behind a schoolhouse and he watched the other children through the
windows to read.
Yea, I think it's hatred. I don't think they should have done that. (pp. 99100.)
Visitors to historic sites, such as the children above, often have a flash of insight
during an interpretive program or afterward as the connections to the place or story
continue to mull around in their brains. LaPage (2002) called this insight the "Eureka
Moment." The professional interpreter often is the facilitator of Eureka Moments as the
purpose of interpretation is to enable visitors to make connections to our cultural and
environmental heritage. These moments may be fleeting as everything clicks together or
may be a life-changing experience. This may be the most remembered experience of the
day and the motivation students need to continue growing and learning. Educational
statistics back the claim that by the time students reach 12th grade, only about a fourth of
them find their schoolwork interesting and meaningful (Ernst & Monroe, 2004). Tilden
(1957) believed that the chief aim of interpretation is not instruction but provocation.
However, he also understood that the provocation may stimulate a visitor/student to want
17
to discover more on their own. Interpretation can make education interesting and
meaningful again. "He that understands will not willingly deface, for when he truly
understands, he knows that it is in some degree a part of himself (p. 38). Through this
understanding and/or Eureka Moment, a visitor may become a park volunteer, reevaluate
his or her lifestyle, or create an art piece inspiring others. Indeed artists such as Ansel
Adams have inspired people to visit and protect Yosemite National Park.
Tilden (1957) stated that visitors ultimately see things through their own eyes.
Interpretation has the power to offer possible new meanings and authentic experiences.
Recognition that different types of visitors hold varied perceptions and expectations of
authenticity is important for interpreters, managers, and interpretive planners (Hill &
Cable, 2006). Identifying the appropriate mix of authentic approaches is critical in
controversial and sensitive issues. Interpreting war, slavery, genocide, and even animal
welfare requires wisdom and sensitivity to strike the complex balance between being true
to history, telling the whole story, and grabbing people's attention without being
exploitative or offensive (Hill & Cable, 2006). Authentic interpretation may include such
experiences as:
•
A traveling Titanic exhibit for which part of the exhibit was
constructed to give the feel of walking through the ship surrounded by
personal items. Also, upon entering each visitor was given the
boarding pass of a Titanic passenger. When exiting they learned
whether the person named on the boarding pass survived or drowned,
eliciting an emotional response.
18
•
A visit to the USS Arizona memorial in Honolulu, Hawaii, which uses
rusting wreckage and first-hand accounts from elderly docents to
contribute to an emotional authentic experience for visitors.
When providing for authentic experiences, there is a challenge in interpreting
historic events that are unsettling because they are linked to difficult issues such as
slavery and race. Horton (2002) believes that we have only scratched the surface of the
historical awareness necessary to provide a context for the hard thinking we must do and
the complex conversations we must have in order to address contemporary racial issues
in a meaningful way. "It provides our identity, it structures our relationships, and it
defines the terms of our debates. We must learn from it [history], even if doing so is, at
times, annoying and uncomfortable" (p.8). Interpreting African American's struggle
after the Civil War is a complex issue of the battle between two groups, one demanding
representation in the official public memory, and the other intentionally repressing it
(Shackel, 2003). During the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans' stories and
voices became more powerful and began to be a part of the collective memory. "Public
memory does not rely solely on professional historical scholarship, but it takes into
account the various individuals and institutions that affect and influence the versions of
histories that have become a part of the collective memory" (Shackel, 2003, p. 12).
NPS Management Policy 1.7 (2006) states that the NPS will embrace civic
engagement as a fundamental discipline and practice. Civic engagement will take place
on many levels to strengthen understanding of the full meaning and contemporary
19
relevance of park resources and values (p. 14). Schwartz (2006) points out that "learning
to be a virtuous citizen, developing democratic values, and doing the "right thing" have
been important elements of America's democratic institutions since the founding of our
nation" (p.22). Leaders from across the country were able to have an open dialogue
about civic reflection and the future of the NPS at the Scholars Forum in 2006. Cronon
commented that he did not think there was any way to avoid controversy when one is
committed to presenting history honestly (Diamant, Feller & Larsen, 2006). Participants
in the Scholar's Forum highlight the need to honestly address various "unsettling issues"
(Diamant, et al., 2006):
Understanding the relevance of past experiences to present conditions allows
us to confront today's issues with a deeper awareness of the alternatives
before us. Standing in front of Little Rock's Central High School.. .makes the
Civil Rights Era come to life and strengthens our understanding of the use of
the past and of the many voices of which it is made. -John Hope Franklin,
(p. 10)
I tried with no success at all over the years to convince journalists and others
that controversy doesn't necessarily mean something is wrong. It means that
people are passionately engaged. -Edward Linenthal. (p.21)
So here's someone responding as a citizen, as a teacher, as a parent to an
experience that was made more powerful because it acknowledged the
controversy, because it engaged with issues that had been subordinated for a
long time and have only recently come very powerfully back to life.
-Charlene Mires, (p.30)
Interpretation can be a powerful form of communication, but research is necessary
to better understand how to effectively engage visitors in controversial topics. Effective
interpretation nourishes the soul, heals the heart, inspires the mind, and moves the body
20
to action. These are the goals of the field of interpretation. Cynthia Kryston powerfully
illustrated the impact of interpretation in an essay included in the edited volume,
Meaningful Interpretation:
It's history, portraying both the famous and commonplace human drama,
chronicling not just dates and numbers but emotions, ideas and universal
concepts. It's art, rooted in passions and love for places, species and
artifacts, ever moving the visitor's journey through memorable and
meaningful experiences. Interpretation challenges the mind and engages
the heart and the emotions. (Larsen, 2003)
Accessibility
We 're the only minority group that anyone can join at any time. -Michelle Steger
What does it mean for something'to be accessible? Looking up the definition of
accessible and its various derivatives, it is interesting to note that the word easy was used
in quite a few of the definitions, i.e. easily reached, ease of approach, easy to talk to,
easily obtained. However, the world often is not easy for a person with disabilities.
There are many barriers at every turn in education, careers, family, and recreation that
many people without disabilities take for granted.
In 2000, the US Census Bureau (2002) counted 49.7 million people ages five and
above that self-identified as disabled. This is a ratio of nearly one in five U.S. residents,
or 19% of the population. Among those who identified as disabled:
21
•
5.2 million were between the ages of five and 20. This was 8% of
people in this age group.
•
30.6 million were between the ages of 21 and 64. Fifty-seven percent
of them were employed.
•
Arkansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, and West Virginia had disability
rates of 24%, among the highest rates in the nation.
•
About 14.3 million had a mental disability, including 1.9 million with
Alzheimer's disease, senility or dementia.
•
About 3.5 million were listed as having a learning disability.
•
About 7.7 million had difficulty seeing the words and letters in
ordinary newspaper print (even with glasses). (U.S. Census Bureau)
Many experts suspect that these numbers may be lower than the actual number of
persons with disabilities, as the stigma of being labeled with a disability is still prevalent
in our society and the techniques for conducting the census still need to be refined (The
Center for Accessibly Society, 2002). Many individuals may also have multiple
disabilities that create more challenging situations. The types of disabilities are also as
varied as the level of independence a person with a disability experiences.
The United Nations (2006) in their publication entitled Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities recognizes that the concept of disability is ever evolving
based on the interactions between persons with disabilities and their environment,
especially as it relates to equal participation in society. As the introductory quote by
Michelle Steger so clearly points out, disability and how society views people with
disabilities can, and probably will, affect most people at some point in time, either
personally or through family and friends.
22
Congress passed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990. This law
(Pub. L. 101-336) defines disability as "a physical or mental impairment that
substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual" (1990).
This federal mandate set clear, enforceable standards, giving the Judicial System the
power to enforce those standards in an effort to end discrimination against persons with
disabilities. The ADA outlined specific guidelines from public transportation to housing
to public services.
Several important laws preceded the historic passage of the ADA. The
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, (Pub. L. 93-112), addressed accessibility issues, mainly with
those entities that receive Federal financial assistance or are Federal agencies. This
Rehabilitation Act—and especially Section 504—have guided the NPS in matters related
to access to programs, activities, and facilities, even though today Section 504 is mainly
used with reference to public education (Richards, 1999). The following excerpt is
quoted in a policy manual entitled Programmatic Accessibility Guidelines for NPS
Interpretive Media (National Park Service, 2007):
No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States...
shall, solely by reason of his handicap, be excluded from participation in,
be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any
program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance or under any
program or activity conducted by any Executive agency or by the United
States Postal Service.
Another important section of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is Section 508. It
requires that all Federal agencies incorporate accessibility when designing web-based
23
media, audio tours, audiovisual programs, and other media incorporating electronic
elements. The Programmatic Accessibility Guideline lists quite a few specific standards
with reference to electronic and information technology, including, for example:
•
A text equivalent for every non-text element shall be provided in web
design.
•
All training and information video and multimedia productions which
support the agency's mission, regardless of format, that contain speech
or other audio information necessary for the comprehension of the
content, shall be open or closed captioned.
•
When a timed response is required in a self contained closed product,
the user shall be alerted and given sufficient time to indicate more time
if required. (National Park Service, 2007)
Accessibility means more than just accommodating people in terms of mobility; it
means also accessibility to information and to guided tours regarding exhibits (Grinder &
McCoy, 1985). Ham (1992) suggests that there are two challenges set forth for
interpreters and the field of interpretation in general. First, there is an intellectual
challenge that requires one to replace the old idea that somehow accommodation must be
targeted toward the "average human being," since average varies considerably from one
individual to the next. Thus, programs and facilities must be designed to be approached,
entered and used by persons with disabilities (Ham, 1992). The second challenge is in
defining and providing the accessible interpretive experience. Interpreters need to be
creative, experimental, and willing to take risks in order to meet this challenge. When
these goals are met, all audiences will benefit, not just those with disabilities. After a
large reinstallation project at the Boston Museum of Science, exhibit developers
24
concluded that everyone benefited from the changes that made the exhibition elements
more accessible to those with disabilities (Serrell, 1996).
Accessible design typically adheres to established Principles of Universal Design.
These principles guide a wide range of design considerations including environments,
products, and communications (National Park Service, 2007). The seven principles were
developed through a collaboration of authors, architects, designers, engineers, and
environmental design researchers. They include:
•
Equitable Use
•
Flexibility in Use
•
Simple and Intuitive Use
•
Perceptible Information
•
Tolerance for Error
•
Low Physical Effort
•
Size and Space for Approach and Use
In designing environments and exhibits, it is less expensive and easier to evaluate
and incorporate accessibility needs in the original design than to have to make changes
later to an established exhibit or to rehabilitate an existing space. The NPS Harpers Ferry
Center (HFC) was asked to enhance the accessibility in installed exhibits at two visitor
centers, Great Falls Tavern and Georgetown Visitor Center, and to serve as a resource for
parks wanting to enhance accessibility in existing exhibits (National Park Service, 2007).
For this project, they looked at accommodations just for visitors with hearing, visual, and
mobility impairments, not cognitive impairments. A group of accessibility specialists
25
participated in a focus group and made recommendations for the projects. They
concluded that the principles of universal design are important for achieving
programmatic accessibility and should be included at the front end of planning and
integrated into the building site, lighting, and signage of the site (Appendix C). Also,
exhibits should be multi-sensory, appeal to numerous learning styles, abilities and
interests and incorporate repetition to convey the main ideas throughout the exhibit
(National Park Service, 2007):
In the project above and in many of the essays about successful development of
interpretive history exhibits (Ames, Franco & Frye, 1997), a common thread emerged—
there is a direct correlation between the quality of the front-end thinking put into an
exhibition and the quality of the result. There are many resources available to aid the
design and implementation of accessible interpretation from the internet, publications,
government agencies, accessibility specialists, and persons with disabilities. Just like in
good interpretation, bringing the "easy" into accessible ensures that diverse audiences
have equal opportunities to connect to resource meanings.
26
METHODS
The true measure of a society is not what it knows but what it does with what it knows.
-Warren Bennis
This evaluation explored visitor meanings, visitor connections, interpretive
outcomes, and content accessibility through a series of eleven focus group interviews,
with three to twelve people in each group, and a target goal of 65 visitors. The focus
groups were conducted onsite at the CHNHS Visitor Center. The visitor center is located
across the street from the still functioning Central High School. The visitor center serves
as a portal, an orientation, and an invitation to the "living museum" just beyond it, which
is the visitor's principle destination (Knudson, Cable & Beck, 2003). The visitor center
was designed and built in time for the 50l anniversary commemoration of the 1957 Little
Rock Crisis. The exhibits were designed to interpret the desegregation crisis and the
resulting impact on individuals, the community, and the educational system. It is a portal
to the story of this historic time, but it also invites the visitor to see beyond that time
period, examine how the event affects his or her own life today.
A mixed method summative evaluation project will examine the effectiveness of
the exhibits in the visitor center. This will include a limited grounded theory approach,
collecting data through unobtrusive observation, conversation analysis, longitudinal
phone interviews, and focus group interviews. The focus group interview portion of the
27
evaluation project was the focus of this thesis research effort. Evaluators assessed
interpretive outcomes with reference to key concepts related to meaning making,
cognitive processes, the affective domain, interpretive connections, civic memory, civic
engagement, and exhibit accessibility for persons with differing abilities and disabilities.
Exhibits are designed to provide experiences, influence people's behavior, affect people's
emotions, and add to people's knowledge and interest (Knudson, et al., 2003). The only
way to determine whether interpretive labels in an exhibit are truly effective is through
objective evaluation (Bitgood, 2000).
Qualitative data is textual data. It is organized into incidents or stories. It has a
concrete, vivid, meaningful flavor that often proves far more convincing to a reader than
pages of numeric summarizes (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Qualitative data comes from
observations, interviews, and documents that require analysis and processing by the
researcher. The research process is quite complex, requiring plenty of care and selfawareness on the part of the researcher (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Qualitative data
emphasizes the meanings people place on the events, processes, and structures of their
lives, and the way in which they connect these meanings to the social world around them
(Miles & Huberman, 1994). Creswell (2003) recommends that qualitative inquiry exhibit
the following characteristics:
•
The research takes place in the natural setting.
•
The research uses multiple methods that are interactive and
humanistic.
•
The research is emergent rather than tightly prefigured.
28
•
The research is fundamentally interpretive.
•
The researcher views social phenomena holistically.
•
The researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in the
inquiry and is sensitive to his or her personal biography and how it
shapes the study.
•
The researcher uses complex reasoning that is multi-faceted.
•
The researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of inquiry as a
guide for the procedures in the qualitative study, (pp. 8-9, 198-199)
Qualitative research was appropriate for this study as it allowed the inquirer to make
knowledgeable claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives, collecting openended, emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data
(Creswell, 2003).
The researcher was aware of the possibility of bias entering into the collecting and
analyzing of data. Thus, it was essential to establish a high quality methodology.
Validity is seen as strength of qualitative research, but reliability and generalizability play
a minor role in qualitative inquiry (Creswell, 2003). Yin (2003) recommends following
four logical tests along with the case study tactics shown in Table 1.
29
Table 1
Case Study Tactics for Four Design Tests
Tests
Case Study Tactic
Phase of research in
which tactic occurs
Construct
Use multiple sources of evidence
Data collection
Validity
Establish chain of evidence
Data collection
Have key informants review draft
Composition
case study report
Internal
Do pattern-matching
Data analysis
Validity
Do explanation building
Data analysis
/address rival explanations
Use logic models
Data analysis
External
Use theory in single-case studies
Research design
Validity
Use replication logic in multiple-
Research design
case studies
Reliability
Use case study protocol
Data collection
Develop case study database
Data collection
Source: COSMOS Corporation
30
Evaluating museum experiences
Learning is described as a dialogue between the individual and his or her
environment through time (Falk & Dierking, 2000). Falk and Dierking are both veteran
museum researchers and outlined the Contextual Model of Learning, which is a model of
learning that allows for systemic understanding and complexity. Falk and Dierking
outlined eight key factors that influence learning:
Personal Context
1. Motivation and expectation
2. Prior knowledge, interests, and beliefs
3. Choice and control
Sociocultural Context
4. Within-group sociocultural mediation
5. Facilitated mediation by others
Physical Content
6. Advance organizers and orientation
7. Design
8. Reinforcing events and experiences outside the museum
This contextual model contains essential elements for healthy museum learning but
cannot predict exact outcomes of learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000). When expectations
are fulfilled, learning takes place. Deciding on which parts of an exhibit to visit or
programs to experience are highly personal choices dependent on prior knowledge,
interests and beliefs of the visitor. Free-choice learning settings hold the possibility for
high levels of learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000). Collaborative and socially mediated
31
learning takes place within museums as visitors arrive in groups or participate in
programs with others. The organization and design highly influence learning as
surroundings and available experiences can help or hinder visitors to construct meanings
(Falk & Dierking, 2000). Learning in a museum does not stop when a person leaves the
facility. One takes the knowledge and tries to assimilate or incorporate it into the real
world, sometimes finding the pieces of the puzzle may not fit properly and more
information is needed to complete the bigger picture (Falk & Dierking, 2000).
These eight factors are guidelines for a researcher to evaluate the quality of a
museum experience (Falk & Dierking, 2000). One is able to focus questions on the
usefulness and significance of each element as it relates to the overall museum
experience. Also, it helps in eliciting visitors' overall thoughts, opinions and
expectations, as well as what they consider to be exhibit highlights and/or its main
message. Long-term research seems to be a recommendation of this model as the last
factor explains how learning continues over weeks, month, and often years later (Falk &
Dierking, 2000).
Since this research study sought to identify a range of ideas or feelings on the
meanings visitors derived from the CHNHS exhibit content as well as gauge exhibit
accessibility, and assess civic engagement outcomes, focus groups were a likely fit.
Focus groups help researchers understand differences in perspectives among groups or
categories of people, and uncover factors that influence opinions, behavior, or motivation
(Krueger & Casey, 2000). A multiple-case sampling approach (Miles & Huberman,
32
1994) or a multiple category design (Kreuger & Casey, 2000) was used to ensure that
several broad categories of participants were included in the focus group interviews.
Park staff and stakeholders were great resources in recruiting focus group participants.
The target audiences included persons aged eighteen or older with varying abilities and
disabilities, community leaders, educators, advisory groups, historians, and first time and
repeat visitors. Participants were recruited according to five categories with a total of 65.
However, seven participants could be placed into more than one category such as,
educator and disability so the following numbers total 72.
1 Education (16 participants)
2
Students (21 participants)
3
Community Leaders (14 participants)
4
Disability advocates or person with a disability (12 participants)
5
General Public (9 participants)
Participants were invited to participate in the focus groups through an email
invitation and list serves available through the University of Arkansas at Little Rock,
Clinton School of Public Service, Department of Arkansas Heritage, Arkansas State
Parks System, Little Rock School District, Pulaski County Special School District,
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, League of United Latin
American Citizens, civic organizations such as Kiwanis and Rotary Club, social justice
organizations such as The Women's Project, and disability groups such as Disability
Rights of Arkansas. Also, invitations were verbally given at the Visitors Center.
33
The focus groups took place from the middle of January to the first of March
2009. The participants met in the conference room at CHNHS and were welcomed to the
site by the researcher. They were invited to tour the exhibits on their own for forty-five
minutes and then reconvened in the conference room. At the start of the focus group
interviews each person was given a pencil and paper and was asked to record three
reflections, feelings, thoughts, or favorite parts of the exhibit to stimulate the
conversations. These written notes became part of the research. All participants agreed to
be photographed and to have the focus group conversations recorded. Babbie (2001)
suggests that interviewers record respondents' words verbatim; for this reason, with
respondent permission, the researcher facilitated the focus group sessions and used a
digital recorder (and a backup recorder) to record each focus group and also took written
notes with the help of an assistant. Light refreshments were served and each participant
received an incentive gift upon finishing the group process.
Following the focus groups, the researcher transferred the recordings to computer
files and transcribed each session. Each participant was assigned a code to distinguish
his or her comments from those of other participants. The first number in the code
corresponded to the focus group number. The second number was assigned to each by
the researcher according to seating arrangements in the room. The first letter signified
race or ethnicity, the second letter signified gender, and the third letter(s) indicated one or
more of the recruitment categories, i.e. educator. As one reads the transcriptions the code
34
is listed before each participant's comment, i.e. 7.3.C.M.CL = 7 focus group, third seat,
Caucasian, male, community leader.
The focus group is a social experience, and conversational questions help create
and maintain an informal environment (Krueger & Casey, 2000). As participants answer
questions, their responses spark ideas or trigger memories from other participants.
Krueger and Casey (2000) suggest the use of open-ended questions, as they are a
hallmark of focus group interviewing. Open-ended questions beg to be explained,
described, and expounded upon. Probing questions are also important as people have a
tendency to be vague. Examples of probing questions would be: tell us more, please
describe what you mean, or would you give an example of what you mean? The
questions moved from broad categories to more specific questions. The questions were
grouped into categories that elicited responses about meaning making, cognitive
processes, the affective domain, interpretive connections, civic memory, civic
engagement, and exhibit accessibility. A set of museum photographs and copies of the
exhibit map were provided to help respondents locate where various interpretive
outcomes occurred, to indicate where accessibility issues were encountered, and to
retrace their museum visit visually during the focus group interview.
The focus group conversations were transcribed verbatim following the flow of
questions asked by the researcher during the focus group. The questions were designed
to measure the effectiveness of the exhibits as related to the park's goals: Are the
exhibits accessible to visitors? Do they allow visitors opportunities to make intellectual
35
and emotional connections? Do they create changed attitudes within visitors? The initial
group of questions presented in the thesis proposal were narrowed down and clarified to
allow for a full discussion within the allotted timeframe for each focus group. The
following questions were used with each group to maintain validity, but the order in
which they were asked changed according to the conversation flow. Every focus group
was given a mini scenario about accessibility and at least asked the first accessibility
question. Depending on answers and the knowledge base within the group, such as those
who work for a disability rights organization, the accessibility questions may have either
stopped there or continued through the more specific accessibility questions that
followed. All groups were asked the concluding question before the group ended. The
focus group sessions lasted approximately two hours. Focus group questions:
General Questions
1. Is this your first visit to the Visitors Center?
Probe: How many times have you visited the site?
Probe: What drew you to the site?
3. What was your favorite part of the exhibit?
Probe: Why was that part your favorite?
Affect and Emotional Connections
1. Were there any parts of the exhibit that triggered an emotional
response or feelings about the events or people of the time period?
Probe: Were the feelings positive or negative?
36
Probe: Can you describe the strongest feeling(s) you had while going
through the exhibit or about a specific part of the exhibit?
Probe: What exhibit element triggered this feeling? (Text, a visual or
video, audio, interactive?)
2. Which stories or images presented in the exhibits were most
compelling or moved you most?
Probe: What made those stories or images so powerful?
3. Was anything in the exhibit personally relevant to you?
Probe: While you viewed the exhibits, did any personal experiences
come to mind?
Intellectual Connections (Cognition)
1. While exploring the exhibits, did you learn something new, understand
something better, or think about something differently?
Probe: What did you learn, etc...., which elements caused this
response?
2. Did the exhibits cause you to change your point of view in any way?
Probe: Did they challenge any existing points of view?
Probe: Did they confirm/reinforce any existing points of view?
3. Were there any particular exhibit elements that you wanted more time
with or that you revisited?
Probe: What parts of the exhibit made you feel this way?
Civic Engagement
1. What values do Central High School and the Little Rock Nine
represent?
Probe: Are the values you mentioned realized in today's society?
Probe: Why do you feel this way?
2. Did any exhibit elements remind you or current events?
Probe: What exhibit elements seemed to relate most to current events?
Probe: Were there any parallels to today's society?
37
3. Will you behave differently as a citizen as a result of seeing these
exhibits?
Probe: Do you think anything you experienced in the exhibit would
influence your future decision making?
Probe: Do you intend to behave differently with regards to your civic
and community responsibilities?
Probe: Can you explain why these exhibits did or did not influence
your thoughts about civic behavior?
Accessibility
Lead in with a mini-scenario, something like "A museum contains images, text,
objects, audio and video recordings—it's jammed full of things to look at, listen
to, read and think about. Sometimes, however, visitors struggle with various
aspects of a museum. Maybe they can't get up the inclines, or in and out of the
tight spaces. Maybe they can't see the small print or hear the recording. Maybe
the exhibits are full of complicated terms or aren't well organized. Maybe the
choice of colors makes reading or appreciating the exhibit elements difficult..."
1. Did you encounter any barriers or problems to your enjoyment of the
exhibit?
Probe: What exhibit elements triggered these issues?
Probe: What changes could be made to make your visit more
enjoyable?
2. Did you use any of the touch screen/computer elements in the exhibit?
Probe: Which ones were the easiest to use and why?
Probe: Were any of them difficult to use and how could they be
improved?
3. Were you able to see and/or read the text in the exhibit panels and the
audiovisual components?
Probe: Were there any issues with the size of the text, colors, or
contrasting backgrounds?
4. Were you able to clearly hear everything?
Probe: Were there any problems with volume controls or background
noises of exhibits or visitors?
5. How accessible were the exhibits to you physically?
38
Probe: Were there any concerns about being able to smoothly move
through the exhibit due to design, traffic flow, or visitors?
6. Do you have any suggestions for making the exhibit more accessible
to all audiences?
Probe: Were any parts of the exhibits unclear or confusing?
Probe: Do you have any ideas for improving these sections?
Concluding question
1. If a child in your family were to ask you why this place is important, what
would you tell the child?
It was evident after going through the first focus group that there was a duplicate
question. Number two in the intellectual connections was basically repeated in the civic
engagement section and was therefore eliminated from that category for the rest of the
focus groups. Also, the probe under question number one in the civic engagement
category began to feel like a viable and necessary question as it bridged question one to
question three. They all flowed smoothly together as we questioned the representative
values of Central High School and the Nine in the past and present and how these values
and events are reflected in current events and society.
Before the focus group completed, a few minutes at the end was reserved for
reviewing the handwritten notes. The researcher summarized the main findings and
elicited feedback for accuracy from the focus group. After the focus group interviews,
the process of focusing and abstracting meanings, organizing the information, drawing
conclusions, and verifying the analysis of visitor meanings and experiences began.
39
Krueger and Casey (2000) offered a four point system to organize and examine
participant comments:
1. Did the participant answer the question that was asked?
2. Does the comment answer a different question in the focus group?
3. Does the comment say something of importance about the topic?
4. Is it like something that has been said earlier?
After this organizational process, categorizing and data coding took place.
According to Miles and Huberman (1994) during data coding, sorting, and analysis the
researcher will:
1. Assign codes to the data notes from the participants
2. Note reflections and observations in the margins
3. Sort through these materials to identify similar phrases, relationships
between variable, patterns, themes, and differences between the categories
4. Isolate patterns, commonalities and differences
5. Elaborate a small set of generalizations about consistencies in the data
6. Confront these generalizations with a formalized body of knowledge in the
form of conceptual framework in relations to the constructs applied to this
study.
Focus group analysis is a deliberate, purposeful process. It is systematic, uses
verifiable procedures, is done in a sequential manner, and is a continuing process
(Krueger & Casey, 2000). The analysis went back to the intent of the study. In what
ways, to what extent and under what circumstances do visitors to CHNHS form
intellectual and emotional connections to the meanings and significance of site resources
while onsite? Do visitors engage exhibit content in ways that promote civic engagement?
40
Are the interpretive opportunities provided by the exhibits appropriate, accessible, and
effective for persons with differing abilities?
41
RESULTS
It's the center of history, the center of truth, the center of struggle—real struggle—
against oppression -Focus group participant
The purpose of this project was to examine the effectiveness of the visitor center
exhibits at Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site (CHNHS) through
visitor comments and perspectives obtained as part of focus group interviews. The
researcher developed specific questions to elicit comments in the areas of emotional
connections, intellectual connections, meaning making, civic engagement, and
accessibility. The focus group interviews were the first component completed within the
larger summative evaluation project ongoing at the site: Civic Memory, Civic
Engagement: An Evaluation of Exhibit Effectiveness at Central High School National
Historic Site in Little Rock, Arkansas.
Participant Overview
The focus group interviews took place from mid-January through the first week in
March. Eleven focus groups were completed with each person committing two hours of
his or her time at the visitor center. Participants visited the exhibit space for forty-five
minutes at the start of each focus group session. The second half of the time frame
42
included an informal discussion to gather and record their feelings and concerns about,
and reactions to, the exhibit. Input was gathered from sixty-five participants. Table 2
explains the make-up of the participants according to gender and race.
Table 2. Focus Group Participants
Participant
Hispanic
composition
African-
Caucasian
Other
Total
American
Male
0
~~12
17
I
~3o
Female
1
14
19
1
35
Total
1
26
36
2
65
Participants were recruited through a variety of sources such as email lists, staff
recommendations, word of mouth, and visitors to the historic site. Local universities,
community organizations, and community leaders also served as sources for participants.
The researcher recruited for a diverse pool of candidates, in terms of gender and
ethnicity. Table 2 shows the diversity and balance reached in the study.
As the researcher began to examine the comments during the coding process, the
individual comments from the focus groups began to be aligned into themes or patterns.
They were grouped initially into nine categories:
1. Power of one
2. Values
43
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Legal foundation
We have a long way to go
Personal relevance
Media
Why is the visitor center important?
Audiovisual comments
9. Accessibility comments
These categories were then recoded and the objectives of the research project were
revisited and the transcriptions reorganized. From this process, a model began to emerge
that flowed from emotional and intellectual connections into civic engagement through a
hierarchy of sorts. A conceptual model of the pathway toward civic engagement
developed and is shown in Figure 1. A hierarchy builds upward as the lower levels are
completed. In this way the Conceptual Model for Civic Engagement builds from the
bottom up. Since the focus group proposal does not have a long-term follow-up
component, this model highlights comments that showed an intended civic action. A
participant has motivation to be a part of social change or to take action in some fashion,
such as registering to vote.
44
Increasing "Freedom for All"
Securing "equalrights'
Taking pai I in social change
\ i: I • • I!>
Application
Civic
Action
I S J H i">>>:iigii|iiiii<>ii
Having motivation to take a stand
Asking oneself "tough questions" and
reflecting on privileges and symbols
Personal
Relevance
Intellectual &
Emotional
Connections
I i h i . i l i g ) ill I !'!>! I ' W I I I N M) I I M I > ! >
M l . l ! i h g j;i'l >n|!.ll r \ | ) i - | It-Ill (">
Civic
Reflection
Realizing: "lhaU.uiild have been uic""
Showing courage, pei sevei ence and power of action
Examining theuse of power and legal authority
HistiDrical
Con tent
Intelle ctual &
Emot onal
Conne :tions
Denvingrights and challenging lin- »r.ii;iN quit
Understanding constituti"ii ii!
Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Civic Engagement
45
idaic»:i
Civic
Memorv
Civic Memory
The Civic Memory is the content of our collective history as a society. Many
people commented that they were pleasantly surprised that the visitor center included
other topics besides the time period of 1957-1959. There were discussions in nine out of
eleven focus groups on how the exhibit offered visitors the legal background of our
country as it relates to civil rights and the battles that ensued to get to the point of the
Little Rock Crisis and the continuing timeline of the battle for all human rights.
Participants made connections intellectually and emotionally with the historical content
of the exhibits and the personal stories that make up our collective civic memory. The
United States was founded on the Constitution and this has been challenged throughout
our history as a country as the idea of "We the People" has expanded.
Understanding constitutional foundation
One of the most talked about sections was the We the People exhibit which took a
visitor back to the foundation of our country and set the stage for the rest of the exhibits.
Many participants remarked that this was a good starting point for the exhibits and a
reminder for all visitors of the importance of language:
I liked the context that the exhibit put Central High into starting from We
the People. Just who are we the people? Did the founders really mean
WE? Of course the founders were all white men; white land owning men
46
and when they said WE it didn't mean exactly the same. There was a
promise expressed in that they might not have even known but they were
smart enough to say it in such a way that it could become truer over the
years. (Caucasian male community leader)
We the People and how that worked its way into the reality of where we
are today, we are attempting to embrace that concept. (African American
male community leader)
That is why I love this We the People exhibit as it shows how few people
were able to vote in the beginning of our country-only white male property
owners and yea, I'm one of these people who vote in everything, school
board elections and such-that was the way I was raised. Part of that was
because this country has had a continual struggle to increase the voting in
this country. (Caucasian male community leader)
Participants were also struck by the juxtaposition of the Constitution with the
background of an enslaved person. They were disturbed to see the written standards for
counting an enslaved person as only 3/5 of a person:
I think it really showed overall the mindset of the country, like what he
was saying 3/5 of a person, it always comes back to economics,
capitalism, that's the foundation of what this country was built on. With
the 3/5 it was taxation and the voting but I think psychologically if you
treat people a certain way, 3/5 was a way to psychologically think I'm not
really doing this to a person, I'm doing this to a piece of property. (African
American female student)
In terms of insight, the words were written into law that you were 3/5 of a
person. Just to see that written and to think that was an accepted standard
and to think that people could write that and go home and everything was
alright with the world and that's the way they understood that. That you
are actually fundamentally relegated to an inferior position as a human
being on this planet-that is really evident there. (African American male
community leader)
Before even entering the visitor center, there is a bit of foreshadowing about what
is in store for the visitor as they enter the center with the posting of part of the 14th
47
Amendment to the Constitution on the side of the building. Participants noted that this
constitutional theme flowed through the exhibits:
We were laughing, or making a bit of a joke I guess, as we were walking
into the building and talking about the 14c amendment printed there on
the bricks and we just said, "We aren't there yet, are we?" There is a lot of
struggling to do. (Caucasian female visitor)
I'm going with the bookend concept, on one side you have the 13th, 14th,
and 15th and you have the civil rights and the voting rights and so it made
me feel like I had made the journey, not the end but the end of that
chapter. (Caucasian female educator)
I was struck by a great teaching process for our country, the composition
of our country, the organization of our government and the role of the
people in the operation of that government as we try to evolve a country
that accommodates the founding principles. That is very well
demonstrated in terms of our history, our founding history, and how that
history produces the kind of confrontations that became Central High
School. And the response of our government to the crisis is very clearly
woven into the presentation. There were a lot of things that I could see
clarified and a lot of issues that we discuss in the community about the
nature of our country and the intent of the founders and the real construct
of how we live in this country. I can see the roots of those arguments
played out in different venues. (African American male community
leader)
Denying rights and challenging the status quo
Many of the focus group discussions centered on the denying of basic rights,
especially to minorities. One of the participants was from Uganda and a student at
Clinton School of Public Service. She worked for human rights in her own country and
offered a unique perspective to the discussion. She spoke of how organizations work in
48
Africa for human rights but how people do not have the same perspective or see the same
needs in the United States:
But I think, what human abuse is in this country when you oppressively
deny someone quality education to me that is human rights abuse. When
someone can't get employment, that is human rights abuse, when someone
can't get good health care, people just die and your health care in this
country is just too much, so people just die and that is human rights abuse.
(African female student)
Voting rights was a discussion in many focus groups as this was a basic tenet in our
country that was denied to minorities. Jim Crow laws in the south required literacy tests
in order to vote. One female participant talked about learning where the term
"grandfathered" came from. "The literacy test-if your grandfather had been allowed to
vote then you didn't have to take the literacy test-you were grandfathered in." (Caucasian
female community leader)
Other basic rights were discussed in the context of the section of the exhibit about
the struggles beyond Central High such as the Freedom Riders, sit-in's, woman suffrage,
the United Farm Workers union, disability rights, Japanese American Internment Camps,
and Native Peoples in Alaska. All of these struggles were about oppression and the
challenges that ensued to end it. Two people who both professed to enjoy history were
surprised that they learned something new about a civil rights struggle:
I remember about the farm workers because I remember us not buying
lettuce for a while. But I didn't know about the Indians in Alaska. It was
something totally new to me. Since I like history, it was something that I
had missed somehow. (Caucasian male general visitor)
49
I didn't know that either. I didn't know that they had specifically faced
discrimination. I should have known better. That's their land and of
course the American Indians had the same problem. I didn't know about
the Alaska issue. (Caucasian female community leader)
Examining the use of power and legal authority
Within each struggle for basic human rights and the Civil Rights Movement there
were people in power who used this authority to either the betterment or detriment of
individuals they were charged with serving. Some individuals stood out as heroes, even
though they may have represented opposite sides of an issue. Many people commented
about Governor Faubus and President Eisenhower in the battle for states' rights versus
federal rights. Faubus's name was not said with affection even though some people tried
to give him the benefit due to being a politician and wanting to be elected in the future:
I have to say that I lived through this era, even though I was separated
from it because I lived in South Arkansas. Many of the people in
Arkansas were absolutely embarrassed, especially about Faubus and also
because life in rural Arkansas was not like life in the city because
everyone was raised together, in the rural areas. (Caucasian female visitor)
I think what really got to me were negative things, when you have a head
of state, like the governor of Arkansas who called in the National Guard to
keep the kids out of the school, instead of insisting that they go to school.
The white house had to send federal troops to protect these kids. Faubus
thought like a lot of people at that time, this prejudice against blacks. He
did not like them going to all white schools. It kind of touched me.
(African American female with a disability)
I had to smile when I saw Faubus' picture. You know back then you hated
him so to speak. I went to grad school in Colorado and they teased me
because I had Arkansas license plates. They called me from Faubusville.
I kind of laughed but it was all in joking but that was what I was calling
50
him when I saw his picture as that came to my mind that was what I was
called when I went to graduate school. (African American disability
advocate/community leader)
Participants talked about the ethics of being an authority figure and the
opportunity for abuse of power, including current leadership. They also talked about
leaders that were highly respected such as Thurgood Marshall:
That is where I learned that Governor Faubus, people in authority, could
abuse it so publicly. How he first ordered the troops here and on the first
attempt they didn't get in and the Little Rock Nine weren't fearful because
they thought troops were here to protect them. It made me think about the
people in authority, even today with Obama, how people in authority
could abuse it, if they want. (African American male visitor)
I guess I was upset with those battles, seeing the National Guard and even
after he talked to the president, he still didn't want to change. There was a
lot of politics involved. (African American male with a disability)
For a Caucasian attorney to help Thurgood Marshall and African
Americans with this fight made me appreciate what was going on. That
made me understand that it's not all people back then that was racist, they
were working together. (African American male with a
disability/disability advocate)
Showing courage, perseverance, and power of action
The focus groups were questioned about the values of key players in the Civil
Rights Movement, especially during 1957, and whether or not these values are
represented in present times. Courage was the word used most often to describe the Little
Rock Nine, followed by determination and commitment. Universal concepts representing
the human spirit were quoted in every focus group, i.e., persistence, bravery, character,
51
resistance, desire, ambition, faith, celebration, anger, fear, change, equality, fairness,
forgiveness, and strength. Participants discussed the foundation for these values and how
and if they are reflected in society today:
I can't imagine in today's society a 16 year old doing what they did. Like
you were saying, our culture doesn't support that. (Caucasian female
educator)
I think that those values, the commitment, the faith, are still there. The
law is being enforced, government is committed to the law, and teachers
are committed to their jobs of teaching. It's not quite as obvious, if there is
any racism, it's indirect. I think that the law is better about racial equality.
I can't say it's all gone but not full force directed. I really think it is a lot
better than what it was. (African American male visitor)
No their fear is more so than the oppressor because the oppressor has a
fear that they have to keep this going or I am going to have a loss—loss of
things, loss of perceived entitlements. We are talking about a loss of spirit
which is more powerful. (African American female student)
Again thinking of the photograph with the military going all the way down
that street and I'm thinking as a person that would have been really scary
walking in through those guys not knowing what people were planning to
do, all of those guns, the defenses. (African American male educator with
a disability)
One educator was very excited to be able to be involved in the focus group and do
some research of her own for future field trips. She taught middle school history to a
predominately white population of students. As she went through the exhibit she thought
of field trip activities to do with her students so that it would become personally relevant
to them. She definitely connected with the exhibits and experienced a range of emotions:
It was very emotional for me. I was literally fighting back tears in some of
those photographs because it is right in front of you and you know as a
52
human how can you not have emotion for what happened? I thought
about reading the stories about what happened in the cafeteria and getting
spit on. When she [Elizabeth] looked to a woman and thought she had a
kind face and she looked to her for help and she [the woman] spit in her
face. I was just fighting back tears the whole time, thinking how in the
world can you treat another human like that? So it is very emotional and I
think it would be emotional for kids to read all of that. It made me angry
too that someone would do that to someone who was what-15 or 16. How
could you do that? She was looking for her for help. A lot of
emotions... anger, sadness, happiness for some of the victories. (Caucasian
female educator)
Civic Reflection
As one moves up the hierarchy from the historical content into Civic Reflection,
the collective civic memory becomes personally relevant to the individual. History
teaches us and is measured against current events and ongoing problems in society.
Many people talked about the election of President Obama, immigration and commerce,
and either the drive toward education or the lackadaisical attitude toward education. The
events of 1957, Central High, the Little Rock Nine, and the Civil Rights Movement
became symbols of both positive and negative aspects of our world.
Realizing: "That could have been me"
During the focus group interviews many people made personal connections with
key players in the crisis. They questioned how they would have reacted or what role they
would have played if they had been a part of the events during this time period. They
53
looked to see what was relevant to their lives today and in the past. The common thought
was that the Nine were amazingly brave, especially since they were so young. Many
people questioned whether they would have reacted nonviolently if put into similar
situations as the active participants of the Civil Rights Movement who integrated schools,
marched in protest, and participated in sit-ins:
I'm thinking could I put myself in their shoes back then? (African
American male student)
I'm 22 and I don't think that I would be able to do what they did. (African
American female student)
I understand more as I have a full time job and what it takes to believe in
something to lay that on the line. (African American male
student/educator/community leader)
Are we prepared to do those kinds of things to make change happen? I
believe Emmett Till's mother was like it wasn't my problem but then it
became her problem when her son was killed. (Caucasian female
community leader)
I can tell you that I hope and pray that I would have been one of the
people who stood up and fought against it. I know for certain that I would
not have participated in the mobs. I wouldn't have been one of those
people. I am fearful that I might have been silent. (Caucasian female
community leader)
I thought these kids were gutsy. They had lots of stamina to really go
through what they went through. I don't know if I could have, back then I
would have been a coward. (African American female with a disability)
Sharing personal experiences
54
Raw emotions bubbled to the surface during several of the focus groups,
especially for people who had lived during or closer to the time period of the events of
1957. One elderly gentleman began to weep as he told how his mother lost her secretary
job at the school solely based on the fact that they came from Chicago and it was
assumed that she would be for integration.
I remember at Robinson Auditorium when the STOP campaign kind of
reached its peak, I say reached its peak; it was kind of at the beginning.
They had those 44 teachers and administrators on the stage at Robinson
Auditorium. The auditorium was mostly full of white people but they
were Chamber of Commerce and business people and so forth. I can still
see them parting that curtain with my own mother on that stage. Powerful
kind of a message to the leadership of Little Rock that was assembled.in
that auditorium—that's what I revisited in there. (Caucasian male
community leader/educator)
As he tried to apologize to the group for his tears, another gentleman reassured him that it
was very important. He stated, "Here we are 50, 52 years later and it still makes a
tremendous impact on the way you feel". (Caucasian male educator who has a disability)
Two individuals who are hearing-impaired participated in one focus group. One
of them shared the story of how he was called up for jury duty but was denied this civic
duty because the court would not provide an interpreter. He fought the court system with
legal action and won. Now he and others like him are able to serve. He was wonderfully
animated as he signed his story to his interpreter:
In my mind, it brought that back when I thought these are the struggles we
went through before, even sitting on the back of the bus-now we don't
have to sit on the back of the bus because someone made that difference.
55
It shouldn't have been a problem anyway but as you look back on it and
you look so sad and the same troubles are still going on and we are still
fighting for them. (Caucasian male community leader who has a
disability)
The second individual with a hearing impairment also is African American. He related a
story about stopping to eat with a friend while traveling. As soon as they entered the
building, he realized that there were no black people but decided to eat anyway.
Everyone seemed to be staring at them and his first thought was that it was because they
were signing. He said, "This one guy looks at us for a long time, and then he notices that
we are walking by, so he goes over to his wife and moves her to the side." (African
American male educator with a disability) As a teacher, he uses stories like this in his
classroom to help bring awareness to his students.
One focus group participant was part of "The Lost Year" in which the high
schools were closed in Little Rock for the 1958-1959 school year. She talked of being
able to finish her education and go to college through a program with Philander Smith
College in Little Rock in which she could earn credits for both a high school diploma and
start her degree. She also talked about the other changes that took place in Little Rock
during this time period:
There is no such thing as separate but equal schools. They tried to tell us
that. They would hand down used books to the black schools and we had
one library on 16th and High Street. We had one public library and all
blacks used that library. When they integrated the libraries it was a whole
new world for us—all of this material that we had been missing out on.
(African American female community leader)
56
An uncle brought five of his young nieces and nephews to CHNHS to go through
the exhibits. He stated that he brought them because his niece was the first African
American elected as homecoming queen in over ten years at her school. The young
people talked about their experiences in their small hometown, school, and travels. One
young man talked about living in Arizona when a boy hollered "white power" as he and
his sister were getting off the school bus. The oldest of the group was the
aforementioned niece who talked about how during basketball games the bleachers are
segregated. She also shared a story about interracial dating:
I have a friend named Terra and she's seeing a guy name Gerard and if her
parents found out about it she would get into a lot of trouble. She's white
and he's black. At the basketball games, the blacks still sit on this side
and the whites still sit on the other side. (African American female
student)
Linking current events to history
The personal experiences shared by the participants about the past and present
often parallel current events. One person talked about visiting the exhibits several times
and noticing something every time that relates to what he saw on the news. There were
issues brought up about local, state, national, and global problems from education to
immigration and back to the continual battle over religion.
What he said to me was a parallel. Those people [recent immigrants]
came over here to basically get the same opportunities that we did and
Wal-Mart turned around and are not paying them the same wage and
basically treating them like second class citizens. (African American male
57
student)
The Separate but Equal thing -whew.. .look at Central and the Episcopal
[Collegiate School], the whole private and public thing. There are still
different things that go on with the lack of resources and how the state
distributes money and funding. They just made a monumental step in
history but it didn't stop with history because there is still a right now
issue that we have. It's the fact that if you go and look at it
demographically, African Americans are still at the bottom of the
education pool and that's what these people fought for. (African American
male student)
It is interesting though that we refer to Obama as an African American
president and we go back to Plessy [Plessy versus Ferguson] and he was
one-eighth black and he was still considered black. Obama is half
white/half black and in most people's eyes, he is black. I take great pride
in the fact that we elected a mixed race president. I think it reinforces that
as with Plessy, if a certain segment of your race or of your heritage is a
certain race, persons fixate on that. (Caucasian male community leader)
The conversations about race relations went beyond the black versus white
viewpoints and moved into the views of other cultures and countries. They discussed
clashes over religious views, women's rights, and struggles in the Middle East:
In New York, they wanted to start a school for kids that were of Arab
descent. The people were against that because they thought they were
going to teach Muslim and blow up the USA and all this stuff. The lady
that started the school said that she only wanted to have kids of Arabic
descent. I guess because the kids have trouble and there was a lot of
dissension. They had a hard time. It may not be quite similar but it puts
me to mind of it because these kids were of another race. They were not
the white race and from another country, another culture, just like the
Nine. (African American female with a disability)
What it kind of reminds me of, not in this country but in Afghanistan, I
heard a couple of months ago on the radio about some young ladies who
want to go to school and they were going for a while. Some of the men
were throwing acid on them to stop them from going to school. We had
58
the Nine who wanted to go to school and about the people who wanted to
stop them from going to Central. (African American male with a
disability)
I think you are right as it needs to be something that you experience, think
about, and then come back and experience again because you need to, it's
one of those things that every time I come through here I see something or
I think about something that was on the news last week then it means even
more to me because of something that I see through here. (Caucasian male
community leader)
Asking oneself "tough questions" and reflecting on privileges and symbols
As people talked about current events they began to ask themselves and each
other what all of this means. Who exactly has the power and privilege in our society and
what does all of this history symbolize to present and future generations? They
questioned the roles and stakeholders in current situations including their own voices.
I feel like we have to start with us first, like not as a black race but as us as
a people, we have to do better. Just the simple fact of how can we let all of
this go to waste? How dare we? How dare we? It's an abomination to
future generations; to unborn generations.. .we have to do better. (African
American male educator)
I thought it was very thought provoking in the display that asked "what
would you have done?" as a parent, as a white student, all those kind of
things because I never really thought about that. And to think who knows
how you would have reacted back then as compared to now as an adult,
you know how you would react now in 2008. (Caucasian male disability
advocate)
When you look at your history, it forces you to look at what is going on
today and ask yourself is it any different than what was going on back
then. I think history does repeat itself in that way. The issues that are
going on today might not, in our eyes, be as big but maybe in fifty years
from now it may be or maybe will have been as big to that generation. I
59
think it makes you look at everything and ask yourself what still needs to
happen, how are gay rights any different than being able to vote?
(Caucasian male student)
A current student from Central was involved in the focus groups. Surprisingly
this was his first visit through the exhibits but the overall story has been a part of the
school's curriculum. He talked about feeling weird seeing historic pictures of Central in
contrast to the view of the school as well as pictures of a fairly current yearbook. It was
as if it were two different schools-the one he goes to everyday and the historic school:
I think that it put a negative image on Central with the crisis and it made it
look like a hostile environment for other races, African Americans. Now
it definitely represents the opposite of that now. In fifty years, it has shed
that image, and it is seen as a symbol of diversity and a symbol of change
and going there every day and seeing it being a successful school with a
huge mix of races is like a living and breathing proof that diversity works.
(Non-white male student)
Another participant was appreciative of the balance of perspective within the oral
history listening stations. She talked about visitors missing this section of the exhibit if
they do not take the time to listen or due to the stations not being accessible, as is what
happened to two other persons in her focus group that were hearing impaired.
As he's saying, you see a picture and you project onto that, all your
thoughts and all you feelings, and it's interesting to hear what an actual
person that went through that is saying and it softened it a bit. It doesn't
take away from the actual horror, all of the things they endured, because
that's presented well throughout, but they said a few things when they
were making those comments like "not everyone treated us horribly." In
fact one of the female members of the nine said "that if everyone had
acted this way, I would not have lived through it." So she, they, make
some statements that soften the experience a bit and give a more holistic
60
view of what they really went through. (Caucasian female visitor)
Having motivation to take a stand
Participants also recognized that there had to be a challenge to prejudice and
discrimination in order for change to occur and for laws to be interpreted for the benefit
of minorities. It took an individual or group of individuals willing to step up and lead a
movement of change. There had to be the courage and perseverance to see it through.
This is reflected by Margaret Mead's quote in the exhibit as one participant pointed out,
"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world,
indeed it is the only thing that ever has."
I think that quote [Margaret Mead] is the reason I joined
AmeriCorps.. .like Martin Luther King was just one person but you see
how he rallied a group of people to help another group of people, that
helped another group of people that helped another group of people to
change the world. I think that quote was powerful. (African American
female student)
I am a person who struggles with passivity. I don't know who said that
but this is kind of the thought that evolves in our discussion—that if a 15
year old kid can walk through that kind of hell than I can certainly stand
up and be a little more brave about what I believe in or being a less
passive person. (Caucasian female student)
And you have to be impressed at times that it was the women that come
forward and reopened the schools, and said enough is enough, and said we
will have school, and they will be integrated, and you will get along.
(Caucasian female visitor)
While discussing creating change, participants commented that society needs to
61
learn from the civil rights battles throughout history and especially from the individuals
involved. They felt that society is not heading the lessons and mistakes from the past and
are bound to replay these lessons over and over without resolution:
Learn from our mistakes. It's here so that, of course, we rememberplease learn from our mistakes. Don't do this again. Treat everyone as
human beings. (Caucasian female community leader)
They say if you don't learn from history, you'll repeat it. Apparently, in
most of the world, we're repeating it. We didn't learn. (Caucasian male
visitor)
Civic Action
These discussions were the recognition of the group's collective history.
Individuals began to take this background knowledge and explore the personal side of the
stories and how it impacts their lives. They went beyond the question of "what would I
have done?" to "what could I possibly do now?" As one participant pointed out, there
will always be a power struggle and always an "us v. them" conflict:
I liked the exhibit of Know Your Rights and you go through like the
American with Disabilities Act because it's important to know your rights
and to remember. I think this does a good job of the Little Rock Nine and
school integration in the context of the bigger issue in why this is
important. It's not just that Little Rock schools were integrated and
schools were integrated but that you see the Native Americans and
Internment Camps and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Because
there is always some group of people that we are excluding and we need to
always remember that there is an us and them and we need to be reaching
out to those them and bringing them into the us, whatever that may be.
(Caucasian male community leader)
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Another participant with a visual impairment pointed out that one should be aware of the
time and place to create change. She recited John Lewis' quote that was a part of the
exhibit. It was read to her as she entered the exhibit. "I am just paraphrasing, If not us
then who, if not now then when? That was the idea. That was the time, in 1957, that was
the time for the integration of the high schools. I kind of like that". (African American
female with a disability)
During the focus group discussions, participants began to move toward the upper
part of the model, toward Civic Action. They talked about how to take part in social
change. Many of the participants felt that they were already fairly civic minded but that
the exhibits reinforced this desire. It also reminded them that they are a part of the global
community and the decisions made by people in authority ripple outward toward all
citizens. The exhibits promoted a concern for social justice and that each person could be
an advocate of social change. Participants left with a challenge of civic action for
themselves and for their families:
I think in my opinion, it will make me more determined to help others
break down racial barriers and make them understand. Since this is my
first time coming, I will tell others to come, and to see what happens.
Maybe that will give them a sense to not to want to discriminate or to
behave differently against someone who has a different skin color. To
learn that we are all equal, we are all Americans. (African American male
with a disability/disability advocate)
As an old guy, it reminded me and it was just an affirmation of the
possibilities should I participate [in]. In that sense, I'm not going to go out
and get on the picket line tomorrow but it's a reminder that the people who
are on the picket line have helped and if there is an occasion, I should
probably do that if that opportunity, and the cause, and my energies and
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sensibilities all line up. (Caucasian male community leader)
Several people were reenergized to create change. They saw through the eyes of
the Nine and other civil rights players a drive to never give up. They remarked that if
someone so young can endure the daily hate and hostility in the fight for a better
education, then there is nothing holding them back from fighting their own battle:
I think it inspires you. I think I'm always cognizant of that change needs
to occur and I think I do some things. Certainly when you come here it's
kind of like a pep rally. You are fired up. You want to go out and do
something. Am I fired up? YEA! (Caucasian female community leader)
I think it would maybe influence me to not give up in something I really
wanted to achieve. (African American student)
I think that picture that [another focus group participant] was referring to,
how [one of the Nine] held her head high, walked in the crowd, knew what
she was aiming for -her goal. I know I want to take that and remember
that, Go for it and don't let anything block your way. (African American
female student)
Several comments were about visibility and awareness. They related this to how
the majority of the students at Central did nothing. They were not a part of the
harassment of the Nine but they did not stop it either. They were just silent. The
participants commented that they can no longer sit back and be silent about issues they
feel strongly about. They felt willing to push themselves out there at whatever cost:
I think I come away from it with a sense of urgency that if I am in a
situation and I don't like what's being done or don't agree with it, I won't
sit back and not cause a problem, like some of the students who did not
want to mistreat and just sat there and this is the result of it. My sense of
urgency is to no longer sit back and be quiet about something that I
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disagree with. I need to be out and be activated and motivated to express
my opinion. (Caucasian male community leader)
Because there is sqmething on my plate that is a lot worth fighting for and
it still continues to this day and some people brush it aside but it's
important to me. I don't know, seeing these exhibits, reinforces that
maybe I'll take a more active voice in it—trying to be more civic minded.
(African American male student)
Contemporary civil rights issues surfaced during the conversations. Several
participants talked about the strong emotions on all sides of these multi-faceted issues but
that they could not let these be a stumbling block to visibility and change:
It did bring that awareness to me as well, not that I'm one to sit back and
keep my mouth shut because I certainly haven't been, to try and encourage
people from my perspective. I work in one of our programs that work with
people with mental illness and it is one of the disabilities with the highest
rate of stigma attached to it. This fueled some motivation for me to try
and get people to make that stand. It's got to start somewhere. Yes there
would be consequences but if it could make the substantial change that
this did, someone has got to be willing to take the hit and go through it. It
takes an act of bravery to make change happen because you just want to
fall under the woodworks and let it happen. But those folks had to be
brave. (Caucasian female disability advocate)
I feel that as a gay person, our visibility, unless you just stand up and say
"I'm gay" that people don't experience you as that, they don't know that
you are that. So that, I think I'm very sensitive to the awareness part and
how powerful it is. I guess what I take away from this is the power that I
have to change my experience, where we are not at the Fourteenth
Amendment yet, that I have to continue to be open about who I am and be
willing to share that. (Caucasian female visitor)
As the conceptual model shows the hierarchy of civic engagement, one particular
participant went through the model verbally during the focus group while talking about
her children. She was reading a book to her two young sons about Dr. King's childhood.
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Her son wondered aloud why people were like that and she reassured him that it was in
the past. She told him that as long as you get your education, you are going to be alright.
She then turned on the television and saw the tragic story of two young African
Americans being shot due to mistaken identity. She was shocked and began to worry
about her own sons and their future. She had always emphasized education but realized
that she had to do more—she had to bring history into the present and help her sons to see
the relevance and to teach them to be civically engaged, to be a part of change.
It's big and the only way, to piggy back off of what you said, is to get
things out in the open is to talk about it. To not point fingers, placing
blame.. .you step up to-the plate, be responsible and if everybody's
responsible in a perfect world, hopefully things will flow the way we
would like them to. (African American female educator)
Accessibility
In order for everyone to be civically engaged and active citizens in our
democracy, the places, stories, information, and dialogue have to be accessible. In order
to move up the conceptual model, one must have access to the civic memory. As this
study shows, CHNHS visitor center is a center of civic memory. This study also looked
at the accessibility of its exhibits to all possible visitors. Quite a few of the participants
were invited to be a part of the focus groups due to their expertise, either being a person
with a disability or being in the professional field of disability rights. The center used a
variety of audiovisual tools that were appreciated by one particular individual who wrote,
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"I liked how the exhibit used vision, hearing, and touch. The pictures allowed me to see
their struggles, to see their hurt or pain. By allowing me to hear people explain their
struggles I felt like I was talking to them face to face." (Group 1 written comment)
Upon entering the physical space of the exhibit, several people commented about
not knowing the flow of the exhibit. "My instinct is to go to the right and I did all that
and a little ways in I realized that I was going against the sequence but you could look at
it as going back in time too." (Caucasian male educator with a disability)
When you walk down to the left and go to the South resisting [section],
you are not sure where to go after that. You turn and there is that blank
wall and the picture window, which has a nice view and I wouldn't want
to clutter anything up there, but you don't know where to go. I kept going
around to the right and kept coming back to 58 and 59 and then it took me
a couple of minutes to realize that I had gone the wrong way to keep the
sequence. That is something that is totally missing in the entire museum.
When you walk in you don't know where to go to start with and then you
follow the sequence, you lose the sequence. (Caucasian male educator
with a disability)
When asked about physically moving from one place to another within the exhibit, the
consensus seemed to be that there was adequate space for wheelchair accessibility and for
those with mobility impairments. However, someone did comment that if there were
several people in a wheelchair at the center at the same time, there was only one listening
station that was specifically wheelchair designed.
I didn't notice any other accessibility issues. I tried to get someone in a
wheelchair to come but couldn't work it out. It didn't seem to be an issue
but I can't support that 100% without someone being here and being able
to pull up to each of those exhibits. Just from observing what I observed, I
didn't see any barriers. (Caucasian female disability advocate)
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As far as space, I think there is enough space for a person with no sight to
be able to move through there. (African American female with a
disability)
Many of the comments were about how the sounds make it difficult to become
visually or mentally engaged. The video on the "Media's Impact" narrated by Mike
Wallace and the entry video on the three towers were parts of the exhibit elements that
received the most comments for being the strongest pieces in the exhibit. They also
received the most comments for being the most distracting while trying to read or
concentrate on other parts of the exhibits.
I thought that Mike Wallace was disturbing. When you walk away and
don't want to listen to Mike anymore, I was like lalalalalalala as I am
trying to read, I didn't want to hear Mike anymore. I might have a bit of
ADD going on but I can't read and listen at the same time. I can't multitask. (Caucasian female educator)
If you are trying to read the part Taking it to the Courts and there is that
video there and it's kind of loud and makes it hard to focus on the text
here because it was legal text and you have this other thing going on that
does not mesh with it. So I truly found myself skimming through the text.
(Caucasian male community leader)
When you come out of one section with quite a bit of audio and then you
move and it is totally quiet, if there was someone who could not see what
was going on, they could not tell what was going on, did they drop out of
the exhibit completely? (African American female community
leader/disability advocate)
It is noisy, almost distractingly noisy. You have the front three screens
going on and you have the one audio going on here and if you are sitting
with that thing up to your ear, you have to do like this (puts finger/hand
over opposite ear) to hear anything. It's like there is this constant
bombardment of noise and you don't have time to reflect or enjoy the
other audio. (Caucasian male community leader)
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The phones were appreciated for the historic look of them and the comments were
mixed on usage. Some felt that they made it more difficult to hear as both ears were not
covered. There were some accessibility issues with the listening stations in both the front
of the exhibits and the back. The listening stations on the back of the front towers gave
oral histories and gave a variety of perspectives on the events from key players. One
participant with a hearing impairment required an interpreter and talked about not being
able to experience these listening stations. He related this inaccessibility to the exhibit
story of inequality. It was noticed by the researcher and other visitors that the interpreter
could not hold the telephone to listen to in one hand and sign at the same time.
On the display that has the pictures of the Little Rock Nine, on the phones
where you push the buttons to hear them tell their stories -there was no
closed captioning for anything like that. I felt like I wanted to be involved
and have the same experience but there was no closed captioning.
(Caucasian male community leader with a disability)
I can't be aware of something if I'm not immediately experiencing it. I
can tell you that I would have not thought about how a deaf person would
have experienced this exhibit unless I was experiencing it with deaf people
today. When I went out there and I was sitting at the phone and listening
to the comments, I thought to myself "how are they doing this" because I
don't see an alternative way. (Caucasian white female visitor)
The listening stations facing the picture window were another area that was discussed.
One of the disability rights advocates appreciated that the stations were captioned and
had a listening track that was audio described. That was the one item that she felt could
be enjoyed by both a person who was deaf and a person who was blind. However, the
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experts wondered about how someone who was visually impaired would enjoy the other
exhibits.
I did like how for the visually impaired it described the emotions like
before someone would talk, i.e. Minnie Jean was using her arms
dramatically and then it would go into what they were saying. (Caucasian
female visitor)
The visitor center has been set up to have an audio described tour for visually
impaired visitors in the future. At present, they have a system in which visitors wear
headphones that are cued to audio described tracks at three stops within the exhibits, the
entrance towers, the media video, and the "Jim Crow" video. A couple in one focus
group went through the exhibits wearing this system. Even though they appreciated these
options, they were disappointed in not being able to enjoy the Constitution area. When
asked if they would revisit any areas he stated that he would revisit if it was more
accessible for those with visual impairments (African American male with a disability).
This couple was able to enjoy the listening stations facing the picture window but only
one of the phones at each station are audio described (each station has two handsets—one
of which has an audio description track that plays through it.) They sat together so one of
them did not have the audio described version. They did have the help of a park ranger at
times but would have preferred to be able to navigate on their own. They suggested
adding Braille even though with Braille it takes more time to navigate through the videos.
The screen is just flat. If it had some indentions in it, it would be better
for a person with no sight. Since the screens are already the way they are,
Braille would probably be the best. You could just go straight down the
row or whatever. It wouldn't take a whole lot of time. You wouldn't have
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to put like September, you could just put like SI for September Is and S2
for September 2nd. It wouldn't take much space. (African American
female with a disability)
The most powerful for me was listening to the Nine actually describe what
was going on. I didn't know who was talking at the time, but it was very
significant and powerful and what they think of it now. (African
American male with a disability)
Several people commented about the difficulty in reading or following the text in
the exhibits due to the lighting overall and the font size on the exhibit panels. The
lighting seemed to create glares on pictures and text depending on the height of a person.
Some people leaned forward to put a shadow over it and others leaned back.
I noticed for me when I walk up to the panels the light reflected back on
me. Maybe because I'm taller, but I found myself having to move back
and forth. (Caucasian male educator with a disability)
There is some glare. I had to lean in to create a shadow because the lights
were causing a glare so I could not read the exhibit. So I had to create my
own shadow. It's not a huge deal. (Caucasian female community leader)
Taking that into consideration I thought some of the lighting could have
been better. It was kind of dark in places and hard to read. When they
were talking about the Nine and their hopes and dreams and why they
wanted to go to Central I was doing that battering back and forth because
of the glare, it's not well lit over there. (Caucasian female educator)
There were some concerns expressed about the lighting combined with other accessibility
issues that would create extra problems especially for those that have multiple
disabilities:
The lighting was very dim, I don't know if it needs to be brightened or
with the text perhaps some of it needs to be brailed or provide accessibility
in some way like that. I didn't notice anything like that. If you have a
person who is deaf and limited vision like someone who has Usher's
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Syndrome, they wouldn't be able to see that. (Caucasian male community
leader with a disability)
There were also criticisms about the size of the text, especially in the interactive exhibits:
Also with the oral histories, the very last one, when you walk in with the
TV monitor, it has captioning there but it was very tiny, as far as the text
size, it was very hard to read. Some people may not be able to see that. I
didn't know if that was an older TV or newer TV or what. I wasn't quite
sure what the deal with that was. (Caucasian male community leader with
a disability)
The only thing I could think of was the kiosk. Some of them the print is
very small and I have good eyesight. Again people that are reading those
are the ones that are more determined to catch everything of the exhibit.
That would be something that I would think would be a problem for some
people. (Caucasian female visitor)
In the corner of the screen it says main or next and it's pretty small and I
wish it would be a little bit larger so that it would be easier for people to
find. Also some of the ones that had subtitles at the bottom, there is
enough room to make the subtitles larger and that would be beneficial,
especially those that were out looking over the school. (Caucasian female
visitor)
Not all was perfect within the visitor center but the consensus was that the
majority of the exhibits were fairly accessible to all who come in the door. The majority
of the participants answered that they did not encounter any barriers or problems to their
enjoyment of the exhibits. However, they were asked to think about family members and
friends when they considered accessibility. Currently, people who are visually impaired
would need to be accompanied by a companion or a park ranger in order to more fully
enjoy the exhibits. Except for the initial entrance video on the three towers, and two oral
history stations, the audiovisual elements are captioned so visitors who are deaf are able
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'to read the captioning unless they have difficulty reading, seeing, or are not fluid in
English. The disability rights advocates and those with a disability themselves
appreciated the opportunity to be involved in the focus groups and to share their insights
and expertise. They were impressed with all the efforts made thus far and welcomed the
chance to assist in the future.
It was awesome. I could look at a photograph for a couple of minutes, it's
like the photograph itself is speaking to me so I'm going ahhhhhhh, and I
got it, I don't need the (captioning) to get it. (African American male
educator with a disability)
Having been an advocate for people with disabilities, I liked seeing the
one up there about the ADAPT [American Disabled for Attendant
Programs Today] march. (Caucasian male disability advocate)
I guess it goes back to (his) point about the ADA and all the struggles we
both do every day to make things accessible for people with disabilities.
That makes you more appreciative of what you are doing and it's not in
vain. We are really making some steps to make things better. (African
American male with a disability/disability advocate)
Participant Concluding Comments
At the end of each focus group, the participants were asked whether the visitor
center was important and why. Comments flowed freely about its value to present and
future generations.
Walking through I was thinking to myself that I'm going to have to bring
so and so here and so and so, just the information is so interesting that you
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are not going to just walk by it and say that's not a valued thing. (African
American female educator)
Let's now apply the same thing to other ethnicities, or sexual orientations,
or language based or any diversity that there is. (Caucasian male
community leader)
One participant talked about bringing her young son to the site in the past and about his
reaction:
He was like, "Wow mom, they actually made a museum for this." I said,
"Yeah, because it's important that people know this." (African American
female visitor)
I guess if you don't know your history you won't be able to appreciate
your future, your present. It also goes back to the struggle, the love, the
integrity, it was the movement point in history. (African American female
student)
It isn't just history, it's stories, it's existence. It's you in a hundred years.
(Caucasian female student)
I would say it was important because it marked a pivotal time in the
involving of relations between diverse groups of people. While it only
addresses a specific time and a specific event, things that you learn about
there have meaning in today's world. Go and look at that and ask yourself
the questions, what would you have done? Was it right or wrong?
(Caucasian male community leader)
Several people talked about the experience of visiting the site beyond just it being a great
history lesson. It has to be experienced for understanding to take place. They felt that
CHNHS is a symbol of change for present and future generations. They talked about
leaving the site, returning for themselves and bringing others. They want to share what
they have gained with friends and family:
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It has an atmosphere of humanitarian. It gives you a feeling of equality
and importance for everyone. (African American female community
leader)
It still stands as a symbol of integration and change and progress and for
that reason, since it got so much attention, as it helped push forward this
change, is the reason it is really important as a history lesson. (Non-white
male student)
I don't think there is any way to understand how terrifying it was to be in
the situation until you see how big Central is. It's intimidating and to
know that so many people don't want you there and there is a mob of
people outside. I think you really get more and it's more meaningful if
you experience it. (Caucasian female educator)
I think for this kind of presentation, you need to reserve two or more days.
You can look one day, go home, think about what you have seen, come
back to go over the rest of it and it will start to come together better the
next time. (African American female educator)
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DISCUSSION
Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be changed until it is faced.
-James Baldwin
The NPS (2008) mission statement specifies that the purpose of the agency is to
preserve unimpaired the natural and cultural resources and values of the national park
system for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations. The
Park Service cooperates with partners to extend the benefits of natural and cultural
resource conservation and outdoor recreation throughout this country and the world. To
achieve this mission, the NPS adheres to the following guiding principles:
•
Excellent Service: Providing the best possible service to park visitors
and partners.
•
Productive Partnerships: Collaborating with federal, state, tribal, and
local governments, private organizations, and businesses to work
toward common goals.
•
Citizen Involvement: Providing opportunities for citizens to
participate in the decisions and actions of the NPS.
•
Heritage Education: Educating park visitors and the general public
about their history and common heritage.
•
Outstanding Employees: Empowering a diverse workforce
committed to excellence, integrity, and quality work.
•
Employee Development: Providing developmental opportunities and
training so employees have the "tools to do the job" safely and
efficiently.
•
Wise Decisions: Integrating social, economic, environmental, and
ethical considerations into the decision -making process;
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•
Effective Management: Instilling a performance management
philosophy that fosters creativity, focuses on results, and requires
accountability at all levels.
•
Research and Technology: Incorporating research findings and new
technologies to improve work practices, products, and services.
•
Shared Capabilities: Sharing technical information and expertise
with public and private land managers. (National Park Service, 2008)
This research project addressed several of these guiding principles, especially as
related to citizen involvement, heritage education, research and technology. The field of
interpretation is the backbone of the NPS as this is the method used to connect people to
the parks (NPS Management Policies, 2006). Interpretation helps audiences think and
feel differently. It does not provide answers; it poses questions (Larsen, 2002). The IDP
was developed by the NPS in 1995. It established professional standards for
interpretation, especially in terms of interpretive design elements (Larsen, 2003). The
IDP outlines three tenets of interpretation:
1. Resources possess meanings and have relevance.
2. Audiences seek something of value for themselves.
3. Interpretation facilitates a connection between the meanings of the
resource and the interests of the visitor. (Larsen)
As the field of interpretation expanded, desired outcomes were defined for various
interpretive services. The Interpretive Analysis Model was developed to help identify the
most critical interpretive elements of an interpretive product or service (Larsen, 2003).
However, there are several questions and concerns that are not fully addressed in the
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Analysis Model and the IDP. Do the interpretive tenets translate into interpretive exhibit
context? Are the IDP standards the most effective guiding principles for interpretative
development? And lastly, how does one effectively measure visitor connections?
As the IDP guides the development of interpretation, the goals of interpretation
within the NPS are to help visitors make connections that empower them to want to
protect and preserve the resource. The NPS Management Policy 7.3.3 (2006) states that
media and technology play a vital role in helping the NPS fulfill its mission. As visitors
bring their own knowledge and preconceived notions to a park site, so do they leave with
their own meanings and learning from an interpretive experience. Silverman (1999)
states "that the contexts which visitors bring to bear can yield relationship building,
identity expression, reflections, and much more" (p. 12). Park officials were interested in
knowing the interpretive outcomes related to exhibits. CHNHS personnel outlined
several areas of great importance to measure the effectiveness of their new exhibits as it
related to the interpretive planning goals and if the interpretive elements within the
exhibit meet the NPS goals. Do they indeed make connections and create change within
the visitors?
The purpose of this research study was to examine the effectiveness of the visitor
center's exhibits at CHNHS through visitor comments and perspectives obtained through
focus group interviews. Eleven focus groups were completed, transcribed, coded, and
evaluated. The participant comments were used to discover if visitors engage in ways
that promote civic engagement and form intellectual and emotional connections with the
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resource. Also, the comments gave feedback on the accessibility of the interpretative
media.
This study concluded that the CHNHS visitor center exhibits not only provided
multiple opportunities for intellectual and emotional connections, visitors are indeed
making connections with the resource. They are seeing the power of the collective civic
memory and seeing the personal relevance to their own lives. Visitors are leaving with a
new or reinforced desire to be involved in creating social change in their communities
and the global community.
Connections were made both while the participants explored the exhibits and
during the focus group conversations. Emotional connections were experienced by 61
out of the 65 participants. The exhibit is full of information, concepts, and stories that
allowed visitors the opportunity to make intellectual connections. Of the focus group
participants, 50 out of 65 recalled learning something new, understanding something
better, or thinking about something differently. Also the exhibits either challenged or
confirmed existing points of view.
Through analysis of the participants' connections and comments a conceptual
model of civic engagement was developed (see conceptual model on page 45). This
model demonstrated a hierarchy of civic memory and civic reflection, leading to civic
action. Within civic memory and civic reflection, visitors made intellectual as well as
emotional connections. Although the exhibits contain facts about the founding of our
nation, participants quickly grasped the significance of the Founding Fathers'
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compromise in denying the basic rights of citizenship to enslaved people and allowing
the practice of slavery to continue in the new nation. This compromise denied rights to
Africans and African Americans to benefit wealthy slave owners and merchants.
Participants clearly understood the far reaching consequences of this action. Even a Civil
War, Constitutional amendments, and court challenges did not extend full civil rights to
all citizens. It took the courage of individuals to stand up and push for the enforcement of
laws. This understanding was a clear reflection of Cameron and Gatewood's (2000)
belief "that the most effective approach to site design will be one that arouses affect
while providing a cognitive framework for continued learning" (p. 127).
One of the things that surprised participants the most in the exhibit was that it was
not just about the actual events of the desegregation of Central High School. It also
included the legal foundations of the United States, the struggles with racial inequality up
until 1957, and other civil rights battles that were inspired by the Little Rock Nine. The
park's General Management Plan (NPS, 2002) was used to guide the planners in
designing the exhibits. The plan stated that each visitor should have the opportunity to
learn about the Constitution and legal issues involved in its interpretation and application
as well as to learn about the events of 1957. Visitors also should have the opportunity to
be able to relate those events to the overall civil rights movement, to current events, and
to themselves (NPS, 2002). Participants expressed understanding and connections
throughout the exhibit with the desegregation crisis and the other key concepts within the
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exhibits. One participant commented as to why the visitor center was important, "as a
people, we have to understand our history in order to understand our present."
The challenge in designing definitely was not in finding content but in defining
context through stories. The personal stories included in the exhibits were the key for a
visitor to find personal relevance and civic reflection. Machnik, Wright & Hammit
(2006) found that while visitors appreciate specific information, sharing stories of
individuals that visitors can relate to across a variety of contexts is an effective technique
for eliciting responses. Many of the personal stories were delivered in the form of
audiovisual elements such as videos and oral listening stations. The oral histories put a
voice to the stories. They created a personal connection between the voice and the
listener as the concepts were first person. It made the experience more real or more
meaningful—especially since visitors could sit and look at the actual school as they
listened to stories. Goldman, Chen, and Larsen (2001) found that place exerts a powerful
influence on human consciousness and when an authentic place experience happens it
instills a sense of interconnectedness.
Within the oral history listening stations was also where the balancing of
perspectives came about for those visitors trying to understand the Crisis. One visitor
commented that it made the experience more holistic. Another visitor commented that he
appreciate the raw honesty from the oral histories. It also showed the flaws of
individuals, as students from the time period talked about forgiving themselves for not
standing up for the Nine. This feedback was exactly what Serrell (1996) noted can be
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gained from summative evaluations. She pointed out that due to the informal nature of
museum learning, evaluations should challenge evaluators and educators to define
learning broadly and to ask visitors more holistic, contextual, and open-ended questions.
The exhibits seem to present the idea that "this is our country-flaws and all."
Visitors appreciated this view because as humans we are all flawed. Heroes have flaws
too. The actions and courage of key players within the civil rights movement made
heroes out of them but the exhibits showed them to be everyday folk taking a stand for
their beliefs. Westheimer and Kahne (2004) noted this idea as well, "The choices we
make have consequences for the kind of society we ultimately help to create" (p. 22).
The exhibits showed how there was a ripple effect of inspiration as individuals stepped
forward. The Nine were inspired by those that came before them and other civil rights
movements were inspired by the Nine. The next step was in the visitor being inspired to
create change in their own life and community. They left motivated to act as the
Conceptual Model of Civic Engagement showed. This is the ultimate goal of
interpretation-to inspire.
In order for visitors to be inspired they have to be challenged or as Tilden's fourth
principle of interpretation states, "The chief aim of Interpretation is not instruction but
provocation" (p. 9). The CHNHS visitor center exhibits provoke visitors. They are
challenged to think about what they would have done as a student, parent, teacher, or
leader during the Crisis. Would they have been a part of the silent majority? Would they
have signed up to go to Central? Would they have let their child go to Central? Would
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they have risked losing their job to take a stand? These are the types of questions the
exhibits challenged visitors to contemplate and relate their answers to their own lives and
the struggles of the world. Participants in the focus groups left motivated to act, to take a
stand, to not sit by silently, and to see themselves as heroes.
The exhibits did not shy away from uncomfortable topics such as race relations
and slavery. Horton (2000) proposed, "If we are to have meaningful conversations about
race in contemporary society, we must do so within the context of history" (p. 38). NPS
Management Policy 7.5.6 states that the NPS will present factual and balanced
presentations of the many American cultures, heritages, and histories (2006). Concepts
in the exhibits were presented in a way that participants wanted to discuss these topics
within the focus groups and even as they left many stopped outside the center to
converse. They related the past to current situations and disturbing events happening
across the globe. Beck and Cable (2002) wrote:
Interpreters have, at different levels of commitment and approach, a
responsibility to broaden horizons and provoke a more sensitive, a more
caring attitude toward our cultural and natural resources. To do anything
else would be an act of professional irresponsibility, (p. 46)
Many participants talked about this exhibit being the beginning of the story, not the end.
They talked about how much work is left to be done to reach the goal of equality for all.
The top of the hierarchy is the increase of freedom for all and there was not one person in
the focus groups who felt that this goal had been attained in our society. However, as an
83
unexpected outcome of the evaluation, participants felt that conversations such as the
focus groups were a start to individuals working together to reach this goal.
Several participants commented that this exhibit was the type in which one needs
to visit more than once. A second visit was needed after the first visit had been
contemplated and left to marinate in their brain. They wanted to bring friends and family
back with them and encourage others to visit. They recognized the importance of the site
and attached meaning to it. Ham (2004) states that meaningful places matter to us.
Interpretation creatively conceived and powerfully delivered lies at the heart of this
process. Interpretation makes meaning, and in turn, these meanings define the experience
that every visitor anywhere will ever have (Ham). Indeed, meaning making is a basic
human process, and museums should look at the full impact this has on the theory,
research, and practice of exhibit designs (Silverman, 1999). Csikszentmihalyi (1981)
said that:
The battle for the value of life is fought in the arena of meaning. Humans
need to know that their actions matter, that their existence forms a pattern
with that of others, that they are remembered and loved, and that their
individual self is part of some greater design beyond the fleeting span of
mortal years, (p. 145)
Ham challenged those listening to his keynote address that interpretation was not just
about being entertaining and giving facts: "The best and most powerful interpretation of
your site will be designed and purposefully orchestrated to satisfy the numinous needs of
a society in search of its identity..." (2004).
Implications for Managers
The CHNHS should be very proud of their exhibits as they have provided a high
quality visitor experience. This study showed that the public can engage in serious
content if connections are made. Visitors are not always looking for blips of information
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within thirty second sound bites. They can and will engage for a significant length of
time if the exhibits are wisely planned. The focus group participants were given fortyfive minutes to go through the exhibits. Almost everyone took the entire time frame and
wanted more, even those that had visited before. As there was a time constraint,
participants expressed that they wanted to experience as much as possible within the
exhibit in order to fully be a part of the conversations. The listening stations, facing the
large picture window, were the part of the exhibits that most wanted to revisit.
Participants sat there listening to oral histories and looking at the school and surrounding
grounds through the window, feeling closer to the events by having this experience.
Some planners may feel that this space could have been used differently and this was a
discussion within one focus group. At first they saw all of this space as wasted—more
panels could have been installed. But as they experienced the reflective space, they
decided that they would not change a thing.
Also, the CHNHS staff should be commended for pushing for and following
through on having a summative evaluation done of the exhibits. Serrell (1996) explained
that summative evaluation of exhibitions tells you what actually did work as expected,
what unexpected but appropriate outcomes are occurring, what did not work, and maybe
what to do about it. With budget concerns and funding limitations, evaluation often does
not happen for parks even though NPS Policy 7.5.5 explains that evaluation is critical to
keeping interpretation current and cost-effective (NPS, 2006). The start to completion
dates were such for the building of the CHNHS visitor center that formative evaluations
85
could not have taken place in the allowable time frame and there was not enough monies
budgeted for such. However, there was money available to do a summative evaluation of
the exhibits by an external committee. The researcher, being a graduate student, was able
to provide the park and other evaluators with initial research on the exhibits with the
focus group study. This will give the park the first evaluation of the exhibits and as
Serrell pointed out, although it may not be possible to fix everything that needs it,
whatever is made better will benefit everyone (Serrell).
The research results will be beneficial to not just CHNHS but to other interpretive
sites as well. The results outline how exhibits should be designed to provide for the
strongest connections and to make them accessible to all visitors. This study shows how
interpretive media including audiovisual elements should be incorporated into exhibit
space. Sharing between parks is crucial to providing the best possible service to park
visitors. By listening, researching, and not reinventing the wheel, wise decisions are
made. This meets several of the NPS (2008) guiding principles: productive partnerships,
wise decisions, and shared capabilities.
This study also showed that visitors were willing to share their expertise. There
were quite a few suggestions and changes that emerged from the focus group comments,
many relating to the accessibility of the exhibit space. As Kovach-Hindsley (2009) wrote
in the current Harpers Ferry Center on Media publication, "good exhibits feature
redundant, multisensory experiences" (p. 6). The publication also pointed out that the
HFC has become an advocate for accessibility in media but within the construction of the
86
CHNHS exhibits, especially the audiovisual elements, there are a number issues with
accessibility for all.
One issue that came up with many participants was the feeling of not knowing
which direction to go through the exhibit, or feeling as if they missed part of the story due
to the arrangement of exhibit panels. The exhibit starts to the left if one wants to go
chronologically and the middle section contains the bulk of the exhibits dedicated to just
the Crisis. The far right side talks about the events after 1957. This was confusing to
many. Perhaps a map or flowchart would make this less confusing. Visitors want to
know where they are (Falk & Dierking, 2000; Moscardo, 1999). Problems with
orientation and traffic flow can be rectified by a variety of means, such as the addition of
banners, introductory labels, arrows, maps and floor plans, baffles, lighting, or directional
signage (Serrell, 1996).
One of the accessibility concerns was that a visitor that was visually impaired
would not be able to enjoy all of the parts of an exhibit. Currently there is an audio
described system in place, the Sennheiser guidePORT system, within the exhibits that
cues and connects only to three exhibit areas. This system was easy to use for the
visually impaired participants but they were very disappointed in the limited access.
There are audio described versions on the listening stations in the back of the exhibit but
not all of the handsets have this choice. At Kings Mountain National Military Park there
are several tactile tree models that are not only touchable but have an audio program:
87
Inside the touchable tree model at Kings Mountain, an audio program
plays in three distinct parts: an interpretive message, an overview of the
exhibit theme, and verbatim audio description of the exhibit's wall text.
Visitors hear all three parts of the audio—there are no selection buttons
that differentiate sighted visitors from those who are blind or have low
vision. The park made this choice because they didn't want to differentiate
visitors based on any type of disability—they wanted every visitor to have
access to the same audio experience (HFC, 2009, p. 10)
As the guidePORT system is in place, it is recommended that a complete audio tour be
designed that is audio described for those that are visually impaired. Perhaps some of the
carpet tiles could be replaced with visual markers such as numbers for tour stops. This
would also have the benefit of helping other visitors who are in need of a route through
the exhibits. They too could follow the markers.
The listening stations are not accessible for someone who is visually impaired to
navigate through the content on his or her own. Participants suggested for this and other
audiovisual stations to texture the screens or add Braille with navigation symbols.
Kovach-Hindsley (2009) advocated simply touch-screen navigation, limited choices such
as four large touch targets in the corners, and consistent navigation. Another problem
with the screens is that the text seems to be too small to read, especially for those that
have visual problems or just forgot reading glasses that day. Enlarging the basic controls
such as main and next on the screens was a suggestion as well as enlarging the text,
especially the open captioned text. Several people had also remarked that the captioning
was too small.
88
A third problem with the listening stations is that there is not an option besides
audio on the voices of the crisis section so a person with a hearing impairment would not
be able to experience these exhibit sections thus denying them other perspectives. The
NPS Accessibility Guidelines (2007) state that all audiovisual programs with spoken
dialogue should be captioned. Caption boards are recommended by HFC (2007, p. 12)
and may be an option for this section. Within the exhibit guidelines for hearing section, it
is stated that audio components should accommodate by providing either captions or
some form of printed material (p. 40). Providing written text to these panels may be a
viable option based on the installation space.
There were comments both positive and negative with the phones as the main
hearing source with each audiovisual element. Visitors wanted longer phone cords so
they could stand if they were tall. Other visitors wanted headphones that covered both
ears to drown out the noise. Deaf interpreters could not use the phones at all to listen and
sign at the same time. Some people liked the phones as it seemed to fit the historic
content. Volume controls on the phones were greatly appreciated as the volume in the
room overall was also a complaint. The main videos played constantly and the volume
was such that it was a distraction when one is trying to read other exhibit content,
especially parts that required more focus such as the court cases. The rest of the exhibits
were overpowered by the videos playing in the background, except for the reflection area.
Participants also noticed that there is a lack of tactile options in the exhibit space.
HFC exhibit producer Anita Smith advocates using principles of Universal Design (see
89
Appendix C): "Provide interpretive experiences in multisensory ways," she says,
"including tactile, visual, and auditory experiences" (2009). This is a challenging design
concept for cultural sites as the exhibit concepts are not easily reflected in items that can
be touched. However, there are several items on display that are under glass that could
be recreated for a tactile option. Also, a rendering of Central High School or a map of the
area would be two possible tactile options. How to represent civil rights, legal battles, the
constitution, and equality are difficult concepts to visualize physically. Further research
is needed to answer this question.
The last accessibility themed comment was about lighting. There were many
comments about glare and shadows on the exhibit panels and media screens from all
ages, sizes, and visual needs. People had to put a shadow on or take a shadow off certain
exhibit panels, depending on their heights. The NPS Accessibility Guidelines on exhibit
lighting states that sufficient, even light for exhibit text be used as well as avoiding harsh
reflections, glare, and shadows (2007, p. 37). An adjustment made in lighting, such as
filters or focus, would be beneficial to all visitors not just those with visual impairments.
As formative evaluation rarely happens, it would be highly recommended
for exhibit designers, fabricators, interpretive staff, and exhibit writers to consult
with a panel of disability advocates and experts while designing interpretative
media. Paskowsky at HFC stressed, "The guiding principle is thought, not
afterthought" (p. 12, 2009). HFC found that retrofitting an exhibit for
accessibility after planning is costly and can add 15-20 percent to the budget of a
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project. As CHNHS works through the accessibility issues stated above, it is also
recommended that experts and visitors with a disability be a part of the process.
This researcher found that people with disabilities are more than willing to share
their life experiences as they have to live in an inaccessible world.
The results of this research suggest additional questions. First, how much time
would each focus group participant have spent in the exhibits without a time frame?
Secondly, what components within the exhibit would the participants have spent the most
time experiencing if they did not feel the need to experience all parts of the exhibits?
Lastly, as researchers Machnik et al., (2006) and Sachatello-Sawyer, et al. (2002)
suggest, visitors need time to assess their experiences in order to understand and apply
this understanding to their lives. What would a long term follow-up component of this
research study have shown about the connections visitors made with the resource and
actions made within the civic arena?
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the exhibits at
CHNHS. Does interpretive media help visitors form connections to the resource? Are
visitors engaged with the resource in ways that promote civic engagement? The answer
91
to both of these questions was a resounding yes, as exhibited by this research project.
Several best practices emerged from the study:
1. Visitors should have a voice in the planning, implementation, and
evaluation components of the exhibit design.
2. Exhibits should challenge and provoke visitors.
3. The personal stories are paramount. Visitors want to find
relevance, see themselves in the story, put themselves into
scenarios, and answer the "what would you do" question.
4. The past is the present. Visitors want to be able to see
relationships between the exhibits and current events.
5. Exhibits should provide opportunities for multiple engagement
through a multi-sensory environment.
It was evident that something amazing was going on within the exhibit space from
the first focus group discussion. The comments and emotions expressed during the focus
groups showed how participants were conflicted within themselves as they assimilated
the information into their knowledge base and personal experiences. It was a mirror of
opposites: clear and confusing; reassuring and disturbing; peaceful and turbulent. One
focus group participant's writing explained this complexity:
I was most impressed with the collection of photos from the past... seeing
the youth as they actually were long ago.. .seeing the terror in their eyes
yet also the strength of not wanting to give up. These "memories" seem to
hold "power" within the story. I could feel the rage and hostility yet also
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the triumph as LRCH celebrates success today. (Group 5 written
comment)
Visitors are the best voices and advocates for a resource. It is their
heritage and their gift to future generations. Participants expressed that the
CHNHS visitor center exhibits are a wonderful gift and resource to the world. A
focus group participant so eloquently described the exhibits:
Again, it is the journey we are on as a nation. The exhibit lays bare the
truth, founding intent, and foundation of our democracy.. .the strange tale
of its evolution as an instrument of power and control. (Group 11 written
comment)
As the NPS are the stewards of the resources, it is valuable to listen to visitors
because they have expertise and insight to offer, as this study shows. A question
emerges from this research: is the conceptual model complete? This research
study was only able to evaluate intent or motivation toward action. The current
summative evaluation will add to this research as it includes a long-term
component that may change or complete the conceptual model expressed in this
research.
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APPENDIX A
Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site Crisis Timeline
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APPENDIX A
Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site Crisis Timeline
September 1927
Little Rock Senior (renamed Central in 1953) High School opens its doors for the first
time. The school cost more than $1.5 million to construct.
September 1929
Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, the high school for African American students,
opens. The school cost $400, 000 of which the Rosenwald Foundation donated $67,500
and $30,000 came from the Rockefeller General Education Fund.
May 17, 1954
The United States Supreme Court rules racial segregation in public schools is
unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka. Five days later, the Little
Rock School Board issues a policy statement saying it will comply with the Supreme
Court's decision. In May 1955, The Supreme Court further defines the standard of
implementation for integration as being "with all deliberate speed," in Brown II and
charges the federal courts with establishing guidelines for compliance.
August 23, 1954
Under the direction of Pine Bluff attorney Wiley Branton, chairman of the state's
NAACP Legal Redress Committee, the NAACP petitions the Little Rock School Board
for immediate integration.
May 24, 1955
The Little Rock School Board adopts the Blossom Plan of gradual integration beginning
with the high school level (starting in September 1957) and the lower grades during the
next six years.
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February 8, 1956
Federal Judge John E. Miller dismisses the NAACP suit (Aaron v. Cooper), declaring
that the Little Rock School Board has acted in "utmost good faith" in setting up its plan
of gradual integration. In April, the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals upholds Judge
Miller's dismissal. The federal district court retained jurisdiction over the case, however,
making the School Board's implementation of the Blossom Plan a court mandate.
August 27, 1957
The segregationist Mother's League of Central High School holds its first public meeting.
They file a motion seeking a temporary injunction against school integration. Two days'
later, Pulaski Chancellor Murray Reed grants the injunction on the grounds that
integration could lead to violence. Federal Judge Ronald Davis nullifies the injunction
and orders the School Board to proceed with its desegregation plan.
September 2, 1957 (Labor Day)
Governor Orval Faubus orders the Arkansas National Guard to prohibit African
American students from entering Central High School and announces his plans in a
televised speech.
September 3, 1957
The Mother's League holds a "sunrise service" at Central High attended by members of
the Citizen's Council, parents and students. On September 20, Federal Judge Ronald
Davies rules that Faubus has not used the troops to preserve law and order and orders
them removed. Faubus removes the Guardsmen and the Little Rock Police Department
moves in.
September 23, 1957
An angry mob of over 1,000 whites gathers in front of Central High School, while nine
African American students are escorted inside. The Little Rock police remove the nine
children for their safety. President Eisenhower calls the rioting "disgraceful" and ordered
federal troops into Little Rock.
September 24, 1957
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1200 members of the 101s Airborne Division, the "Screaming Eagles" of Fort Campbell,
Kentucky, roll into Little Rock. The Arkansas National Guard is placed under federal
orders.
September 25, 1957
Under troop escort, the "Little Rock Nine" are escorted back into Central High School for
their first full day of classes.
May 25, 1958
Senior Ernest Green becomes the first African American student to graduate from Central
High School.
June 3, 1958
Highlighting numerous discipline problems during the school year, the school board asks
the court for permission to delay the desegregation plan in Cooper v. Aaron.
June 21, 1958
Judge Harry Lemley grants the delay of integration until January 1967, stating that while
the African American students have a constitutional right to attend white schools, the
time has not come for them to enjoy [that right.]"
September 12, 1958
Under appeal, the United States Supreme Court rules that Little Rock must continue with
its desegregation plan. The School Board orders the high schools to open September 15.
Governor Faubus orders four Little Rock high schools closed as of 8:00 a.m., September
15, 1958, pending the outcome of a public vote.
September 16, 1958
The Women's Emergency Committee to Open Our Schools (WEC) forms and begins to
solicit support for reopening the schools.
September 27, 1958
106
Citizens vote 19,470 to 7, 561 against integration and the schools remain closed.
May 5, 1959
Segregationist members of the school board vote not to renew the contracts of 44 teachers
and administrators they say supported integration.
May 8, 1959
The WEC and local businessmen form Stop This Outrageous Purge (STOP) and solicit
voter signatures to recall the three segregationist board members. Segregationists form
the Committee to Retain Our Segregation Schools (CROSS).
May 25, 1959
STOP wins the recall election in close victory. Three segregationists are voted off the
school board and three moderate members are retained.
August 12, 1959
Little Rock public high schools reopen, nearly a month early. Segregationist rally at the
State Capitol where Faubus advices them that it was a "dark" day, but they should not
give up the struggle. They then march to Central High School where the police and fire
departments break up the mob. Twenty-one people are arrested.
107
APPENDIX B
Exhibit Schematic
108
APPENDIX B
Exhibit Schematic
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APPENDIX C
The Principles of Universal Design
110
APPENDIX C
The Principles of Universal Design
Version 2.0 - 4/1/97
Compiled by advocates of universal design, listed in alphabetical order:
Bettye Rose Connell, Mike Jones, Ron Mace, Jim Mueller, Abir Mullick, Elaine Ostroff,
Jon Sanford, Ed Steinfeld, Molly Story, and Gregg Vanderheiden
Major funding provided by: The National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation
Research, U.S. Department of Education
Copyright 1997 NC State University, The Center for Universal Design
Universal Design:
The design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest
extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.
The authors, a working group of architects, product designers, engineers and
environmental design researchers, collaborated to establish the following Principles of
Universal Design to guide a wide range of design disciplines including environments,
products, and communications. These seven principles may be applied to evaluate
existing designs, guide the design process and educate both designers and consumers
about the characteristics of more usable products and environments.
The Principles of Universal Design are presented here, in the following format: name of
the principle, intended to be a concise and easily remembered statement of the key
concept embodied in the principle; definition of the principle, a brief description of the
principle's primary directive for design; and guidelines, a list of the key elements that
should be present in a design which adheres to the principle. (Note: all guidelines may
not be relevant to all designs.)
Ill
Principle One: Equitable Use
The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.
Guidelines:
la. Provide the same means of use for all users: identical whenever possible;
equivalent when not.
lb. Avoid segregating or stigmatizing any users.
lc. Provisions for privacy, security, and safety should be equally available to all
users.
Id. Make the design appealing to all users.
Principle Two: Flexibility in Use
The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities.
Guidelines:
2a. Provide choice in methods of use.
2b. Accommodate right- or left-handed access and use.
2c. Facilitate the user's accuracy and precision.
2d. Provide adaptability to the user's pace.
Principle Three: Simple and Intuitive Use
Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user's experience, knowledge,
language skills, or current concentration level.
Guidelines:
3a. Eliminate unnecessary complexity.
3b. Be consistent with user expectations and intuition.
3c. Accommodate a wide range of literacy and language skills.
3d. Arrange information consistent with its importance.
3e. Provide effective prompting and feedback during and after task completion.
Principle Four: Perceptible Information
The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of
ambient conditions or the user's sensory abilities.
Guidelines:
112
4a. Use different modes (pictorial, verbal, tactile) for redundant presentation of
essential information.
4b. Provide adequate contrast between essential information and its surroundings.
4c. Maximize "legibility" of essential information.
4d. Differentiate elements in ways that can be described (i.e., make it easy to give
instructions or directions).
4e. Provide compatibility with a variety of techniques or devices used by people
with sensory limitations.
Principle Five: Tolerance for Error
The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended
actions.
Guidelines:
5a. Arrange elements to minimize hazards and errors: most used elements, most
accessible; hazardous elements eliminated, isolated, or shielded.
5b. Provide warnings of hazards and errors.
5c. Provide fail safe features.
5d. Discourage unconscious action in tasks that require vigilance.
Principle Six: Low Physical Effort
The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue.
Guidelines:
6a. Allow user to maintain a neutral body position.
6b. Use reasonable operating forces.
6c. Minimize repetitive actions.
6d. Minimize sustained physical effort.
Principle Seven: Size and Space for Approach and Use
Appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use
regardless of user's body size, posture, or mobility.
Guidelines:
7a. Provide a clear line of sight to important elements for any seated or standing
user.
7b. Make reach to all components comfortable for any seated or standing user.
7c. Accommodate variations in hand and grip size.
7d. Provide adequate space for the use of assistive devices or personal assistance.
113
Please note that the Principles of Universal Design address only universally usable
design, while the practice of design involves more than consideration for usability.
Designers must also incorporate other considerations such as economic, engineering,
cultural, gender, and environmental concerns in their design processes. These Principles
offer designers guidance to better integrate features that meet the needs of as many users
as possible.
Copyright 1997 NC State University, The Center for Universal Design
114
APPENDIX D
Exhibit Text
115
APPENDIX D
Little Rock Central High School NHS Visitor Center
Exhibit Text
Introduction
When nine Little Rock students headed to high school in 1957, they left behind more than
half a century of segregated education and entered a new era of equality. They paid a
personal price for their belief in the U.S. Constitution, but their courageous demand for
equal rights moved the nation further along its path of democracy for all. This exhibit
explores the pivotal role that the events at Little Rock Central High School played in
American history.
If not us, then who? If not now, then when?
John Lewis, former Freedom Rider
We the People
"We the people" did not include everyone
Photo - Thurgood Marshall, Daisy Bates, and members of the Little Rock Nine on the
Supreme Court steps in 1958.
c Bettmann/CORBIS
Shaping the nation
The Constitution of the United States clearly expresses the importance of justice and
liberty. In the early days of the nation, it did not protect everyone's rights. Many ordinary
people courageously challenged the way the nation is governed to obtain recognition as
citizens.
The Constitution established a government that has proven to be both stable and flexible,
and responsive when tested. Like the nine students who desegregated Little Rock Central
116
High School in 1957, all citizens share the responsibility to shape this nation.
The compact which exists between the North and the South is a covenant with death and
an agreement with hell.
Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society resolution referring to the Constitution, 1843
A compromise protects slave owners
As originally written, the Constitution treated enslaved people as their owner's property.
Although some founders thought slavery was wrong, they feared southern states would
not join the Union if the Constitution outlawed it.
Photo - Courtesy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History
Great as the evil [of slavery] is, a dismemberment of the union would be worse.
James Madison, June 15, 1788, Virginia Ratifying Convention
Photo - United States slave trade, 1830.
Courtesy Library of Congress
"We the people" did not include everyone
When written in 1787, the first three words of the Constitution only included white male
landowners. Through the Bill of Rights and later amendments—as well as individuals
fighting for their rights—did the legal definition of "We the People" expand.
Photo - Scene at signing of the Constitution of the United States
Painting by Howard Chandler Christy
Courtesy Library of Congress
Find the language of slavery-in so many words
Although the Constitution allowed slavery, the word "slave" does not appear in the text.
Article 1, Section 2
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which
may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be
determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to
Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other
Persons.
The three-fifths compromise
The "other Persons" mentioned above are slaves. While denying them citizenship rights,
117
southern states wanted to count slaves as persons to increase their political power. The
compromise counted three out of every five enslaved persons for representation and
taxation.
Article 1, Section 9
The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall
think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation,
not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
The foreign slave trade
This section allowed the states to continue importing slaves from outside the United
States until 1808. While this benefited slave owners, the federal government also gained
revenue from taxing the importation of slaves.
Article 4, Section 2
No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into
another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from
such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such
Service or Labour may be due.
The fugitive slave clause
Because of this passage, even enslaved people who escaped to freedom remained in
danger of being returned to their owners.
Were you included in "We the People"?
(Interactive)
White Man
White Woman
Free African American Man
Free African American Woman
Enslaved Person
American Indian
Other Ethnic Groups
When the founding fathers used this phrase in 1787, they did not have in mind the
majority of America's citizens.
Justice Thurgood Marshall, 1987
118
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the
States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
10th Amendment
Seeking a balance between state and federal power
State governments existed long before the federal government's creation. The failure of
the Articles of Confederation demonstrated the need for states to give up some power to
form a stronger union. The Constitution assigned specific powers to the new federal
government but allowed the states to retain all others.
In years since, this balance of power has been tested and clarified many times. In 1957,
Little Rock became the site of one of those tests.
Rights Granted and Denied
Thirteenth Amendment, 1865
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude...shall exist within the United States.
Fourteenth Amendment, 1868
All persons born or naturalized in the United States...are citizens of the United States
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State
deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to
any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Fifteenth Amendment, 1870
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of
servitude.
Photo - Black Civil War soldiers return home, Little Rock, Arkansas.
Drawing by Alfred R. Waud/Courtesy Library of Congress
Amendments for a newly reunited nation
Nearly 100 years after the Constitution's signing, the Civil War tested the growing
nation's resolve to live up to Thomas Jefferson's words that "all men are created equal."
Congress passed three amendments to the Constitution extending basic rights of
119
citizenship to formerly enslaved persons. However, another hundred years would pass
before the federal government fully enforced these amendments.
Photo - Colored School at Anthoston, Kentucky.
Courtesy Library of Congress
The majority of my pupils come from plantations, three, four and even eight miles distant.
So anxious are they to learn that they walk these distances so early in the morning as
never to be tardy. Every scholar buys his own book and slate.
Edmonia G. Highgate, Teacher, 1864
The daughter of freed slaves, she grew up and was educated in New York.
Rights granted...and denied
After the Civil War, federal troops occupied the South during a period called
Reconstruction. Readmission to the Union required southern states to enact new state
constitutions granting the right to vote to all men. For several years, African American
men voted, held elected office, and acquired land.
Prevented from learning to read and write under slavery, African Americans attended
newly-formed schools, eager for the tools that would help them become equal members
of society.
Many southern whites reacted negatively—and often violently—to these developments.
As soon as federal troops left the South, southern states began passing laws restricting the
rights of African Americans.
Photo caption - "In order to win the presidency, in 1877 congressional leaders agreed to
end federal control of the South, effectively abandoning their role in protecting African
American civil rights. The Ku Klux Klan threatened African Americans with violence to
prevent them from asserting their rights."
Photo - The first vote
Illustration by Alfred R. Waud Courtesy Library of Congress
Interactive - Can you pass the test?
Are you able to answer all the questions on this literacy test?
Push buttons to reveal the answers.
Local laws keep African Africans from the polls
After Reconstruction, southern states created obstacles such as poll taxes and literacy
120
tests to keep African Americans from voting. According to "grandfather clauses," men
could be excused from these requirements if their grandfathers voted. This allowed
illiterate whites to vote but excluded all formerly enslaved males.
In what year was the Constitution written?
1787
Who can pass laws concerning crimes committed on ships at sea?
Congress
What is the minimum number of representatives to which a state is entitled in the United
States House of Representatives?
1
Name two offenses for which a person may be removed from any Federal office,
treason and bribery
If one race be inferior to the other socially, the Constitution cannot put them on the same
plane.
Justice Billings Brown, majority opinion
Photo - The 1896-97 Supreme Court
Courtesy Supreme Court of the United States
Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.
In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.
Justice John Marshall Harlan, dissenting opinion
The court affirms "separate but equal"
An 1890 Louisiana statute required separate railway cars for the races. Homer Plessy,
who was one-eighth African American, sat in a whites-only section to challenge this law.
He was arrested, and the case made its way to the Supreme Court.
Plessy claimed that the Louisiana law violated the 13th and 14th amendments. The court
upheld the Louisiana statute, ruling that segregated facilities were legal as long as they
were equal in quality. This decision was a huge defeat for African Americans working to
achieve equality. In response, southern states began to pass additional segregation laws,
cementing the "separate but equal" doctrine.
121
Photo - At the bus station in Durham, North Carolina.
Jack Delano, photographer
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - At the bus station in Memphis, Tennessee.
Esther Bubley, photographer
Courtesy Library of Congress
Amendments take a small step toward equality
Jim Crow divides the races
Under [the statute] requiring that separate schools be maintained for white and colored
children, colored children are not entitled to attend a school for white children, though it
is the only school maintained in the district. Decision in Black v. Lendermari, Supreme
Court of Arkansas, January 15, 1923.
In their efforts to ensure white supremacy, state and local governments passed "Jim
Crow" laws. These laws severely restricted the rights of African Americans to enjoy
public facilities. By forcing them to accept substandard services, Jim Crow laws
reinforced the idea that African Americans were inferior to whites.
The laws separated the races in schools, parks, stores, restaurants, hotels, and other
accommodations. In the North as well as the South, signs appeared designating waiting
rooms, water fountains, and all kinds of other public facilities as "whites only" and
"colored only."
At the same time, white lynch mobs terrorized African Americans to keep them "in their
place." Because whites controlled the legal and economic systems, African Americans
feared retaliation if they protested.
Taking it to the courts
Photo - NAACP attorneys Thurgood Marshall (left) and Charles Houston (right) with
client Donald Gaines Murray, who was denied entry into the University of Maryland Law
School.
Courtesy Library of Congress
122
African Americans fight back
Separate facilities for African Americans rarely equaled those enjoyed by whites.
Segregation prevented whites and African Americans from living together as equals.
In the 1930s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
challenged segregation in court. Because African Americans viewed education as the key
to racial progress and achieving equality, the NAACP lawyers brought a series of test
cases to the Supreme Court. They started by demanding admission to graduate schools
and equal pay for African American teachers, believing these changes would be less
threatening to whites.
For the next 20 years, NAACP lawyers won many Supreme Court cases. Several states
were forced to admit African Americans into all-white graduate schools. In Little Rock,
African American teachers won their suit for equal pay in 1949. Such rulings laid the
groundwork for similar challenges to inequality.
Photo - In 1935, Charles Houston launched the NAACP's legal fight against the separatebut-equal doctrine. He worked 7 days a week-sometimes 18 hours a day-for 5 years.
Courtesy Smithsonian Institution
If we boldly challenge the constitutional validity of segregation ...we can strike directly
at the most prolific sources of discrimination.
Nathan Ross Margold, NAACP legal director, 1931
Photo - White graduate students in classroom at the University of Oklahoma, and G.W.
McLaurin, an African American student, seated in hallway.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - Portrait of the African American (delete hyphen) plaintiffs in the Brown v. Board
of Education of Topeka case: (front row L-R) Vicki Henderson, Donald Henderson,
Linda Brown, James Emanuel, Nancy Todd, and Katherine Carper; (back row L-R)
Zelma Henderson, Oliver Brown, Sadie Emanuel, Lucinda Todd, & Lena Carper,
Topeka, Kansas, 1953.
Carl Iwasaki, photographer
Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
Separate can never be equal
In the 1950s, the NAACP legal team confronted segregation in grade schools. The team's
work culminated in the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision, Oliver L. Brown et. al. v.
Board of Education of Topeka. In Brown, the Supreme Court ruled on five separate cases
123
from around the nation. All of the cases concerned vast inequalities between schools for
African Americans and for whites.
In 1954, the Supreme Court announced its unanimous decision outlawing segregation in
public education. The court ruled that separate schools violated the Equal Protection
Clause of the 14th Amendment.
Photo - NAACP legal team celebrates the Brown decision. They are (1 to r) George E.C.
Hayes, Thurgood Marshall, and James Nabrit.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - Mother and daughter on the steps of Supreme Court on the day the Brown
decision is announced.
Courtesy United Press International/Library of Congress
We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has
no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
The opinion of the court delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren
World War II exposes U.S. racism
African Americans and Japanese Americans fought in separate units for their country in
WWII. They exposed racial segregation at home to an international audience. These
soldiers experienced equal treatment for the first time in Europe. In spite of the
outstanding service of units such as the Tuskegee Airmen and the 442n Regimental
Combat Team of Japanese Americans, the veterans returned home to be denied the rights
of citizenship.
In part to improve the country's image to both allies and enemies, President Harry S.
Truman desegregated the U.S. military in 1948.
Photo - Tuskegee Airmen Woodrow "Woody" Crockett (left, facing camera) and Edward
Creston Gleed (right) review maps in Italy during World War II.
Creating a new legal strategy
Instead of just showing that facilities were unequal, NAACP attorney Robert Carter
devised an unusual legal strategy for one of the Brown cases. Psychologist Kenneth Clark
testified that segregation itself damaged schoolchildren.
Research by Clark and his wife, Dr. Mamie Clark, demonstrated that African American
children developed lower self esteem than white children. In their study, an
124
overwhelming majority of both white and African American children consistently chose a
black doll as the "bad" doll and a white doll the "nice" or "pretty" one.
To separate [children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of
their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may
affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.
The opinion of the Supreme Court delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren
Photo - Dr. Kenneth B. Clark conducting the "doll test" with a child, 1947.
Photograph by Gordon Parks
Courtesy Library of Congress
The South Resists Integration
Photo - Senator Strom Thurmond working on the first draft of the Southern Manifesto
with Jean Crouch Thurmond.
Courtesy Strom Thurmond Collection, Clemson University
We regard the decision of the Supreme Court in the school cases as a clear abuse of
judicial power. It climaxes a trend in the federal judiciary undertaking to legislate, in
derogation of the authority of Congress, and to encroach upon the reserved rights of the
states and the people.
The "Southern Manifesto," Congressional Record, 1956
Photo - People all over the country, like these from Poolesville, Maryland, in 1956,
protested integration.
Courtesy Washington Star Collection, Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library
With all deliberate speed
The Brown decision outlawed school segregation, but it did not specify how or when
states would have to integrate their schools. The Supreme Court heard arguments from
the NAACP as well as southern states and issued its "Brown II" ruling in 1955.
The ruling directed federal district courts to be flexible enforcing the Brown decision and
encouraged states move ahead "with all deliberate speed." The phrase was vague enough
that segregationists used it to delay integration.
Photo - May 17, 1954
Cartoon by Jon Kennedy Courtesy Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
125
The South Resists Integration
Opposition to the Brown ruling was fierce. One hundred and one members of Congressincluding all those from Arkansas-signed the "Southern Manifesto." They felt that the
court overstepped its bounds in trying to regulate public education—one of the powers
reserved to the states.
Several Arkansas school districts dutifully made plans for integration. Charleston and
Fayetteville succeeded in integrating schools even before the Court issued Brown II.
Bentonville began integration in the 1955 school year. Closer to eastern Arkansas, with
its higher African American population, the Sheridan school board reversed its decision
to desegregate following vocal protests from white residents. Little Rock began to plan
for gradual desegregation. The small Delta community of Hoxie became a focal point for
segregationists attempting to stop integration, forcing the local school board to obtain the
first federal court injunction in favor of desegregation.
Two weeks after school started, an article in LIFE Magazine showed the successful
desegregation of Hoxie's schools. The article attracted the attention of both state and
national segregationists and increased local opposition to desegregation.
Photo - As a candidate for governor in 1954, Orval Faubus pledged not to interfere in
local school decisions. By the 1956 race, he could no longer avoid the issue and
promised voters, "no school district will be forced to mix the races as long as I am
governor of Arkansas."
Courtesy AP
Photo - Little Rock School Superintendent Virgil Blossom came up with a gradual plan
for desegregation beginning in the elementary grades. Because parents of young children
protested strongly, the final plan called for starting at the high school level in 1957 and
moving to lower grades in later years.
Courtesy Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
Photo - In communities throughout the South, white "Citizen's Councils" formed to fight
integration. In this Cold War era, many whites feared desegregation was a Communist
plot to destroy traditional values.
Courtesy David Appleby
Arkansas is not ready for a complete and sudden mixing of the races in the public schools
and... any attempt to solve this problem by pressure or mandatory methods will
jeopardize ... the good relations which exist between whites and Negroes.
Orval Faubus, during campaign for Governor of Arkansas in 1954
126
It seems the stage is set for the Communist Party's finest hour in trying to incite trouble,
but if violence comes, the blame will be on a small clique of white revolutionaries.
Amis Guthridge, attorney for the Capital Citizens' Council
Our purpose was to comply with the law in a manner that would be accepted locally.
Virgil Blossom, Superintendent, Little Rock Schools
Portico
These nine students volunteered to transfer to the formerly all-white Little Rock Central
High School in 1957. They were good students who wanted equal educational
opportunities. They were willing to face severe hardships in order to help bring about
change. Although more African American students signed up to attend Central, many
changed their minds when they learned they would not be able to participate fully in
school activities, such as student government, band, choir, or athletics.
The more I thought about it, Ifelt that if you didn't step forward, nothing was going to
change.
Ernest Green
Can separate be equal?
In 1954, Little Rock had segregated schools: Paul Laurence Dunbar High School for
African American students and Little Rock Central High School for white students.
In 1955, the Little Rock School Board decided to open two new high schools. Hall, a
second white high school, opened in 1957. Horace Mann became the high school for
African American students in 1955, while Dunbar became a junior high school.
Many of the Little Rock Nine, as they became known, thought twice about transferring.
At Dunbar and Mann they received a good education and enjoyed close relationships
among teachers, students, and parents. The nine students also knew that Central High had
a broader curriculum and superior resources and could better prepare them for college.
Photo - Courtesy Central High Historical Collection/UALR Archives & Special
Collections
Photo - Courtesy National Dunbar History Project/UALR Archives & Special Collections
127
When I was at Mann, every year we'd get this stuff shipped in from Central High and
other white high schools. There would be three-legged tables, typewriters with keys
missing, and smeary books. And we're supposed to be grateful for this stuff?
Melba Pattillo Beals
The Event
Crisis at Central High
What is happening at Little Rock transcends segregation and integration—this is a
question of right against wrong. Daisy Bates, Arkansas Gazette, 9/30/1957
As one person put it, it's hard to put these Negro children - the best-reared of their group
- up against our near-delinquents. They couldn 't retaliate even if they knew how, of
course, being such a tiny minority.
Elizabeth Huckaby, Central High vice principal, in a letter to her brother Bill Paisley,
February 2, 1958.
So long as the Negroes fight an uncompromising fight for total integration, we of the
white race must fight a like fight for total segregation. We cannot compromise.
Margaret Jackson, President of the Mothers' League of Central High School, April 12,
1958.
I tried to see a friendly face somewhere in the mob-someone who maybe would help. I
looked into the face of an old woman and it seemed a kind face, but when I looked at her
again, she spat on me.
Elizabeth Eckford
Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decision of our courts.
President Eisenhower on national television, September 24, 1957
Let them try to get in. . . We '11 lynch them all.
Crowd in front of Central High School, New York Times, September 23, 1957.
/ got up every morning, polished my saddle shoes, and went off to war.
Melba Pattillo Beals
I just can't take everything they throw at me without fighting back.
Minnijean Brown
128
The harder they fought to keep me out, the more determined I was to finish and get my
diploma.
Jefferson Thomas
Photo - Elizabeth Eckford taunted by the mob outside of Central High School on
September 4, 1957.
1957-1958: Central High becomes a battleground
The Little Rock School District plan for gradual desegregation was set to begin in the fall
of 1957, when a limited number of African Americans would enroll at Central High.
Segregationists opposed the plan. Even gradual integration offended those who believed
in strict separation of the races. Some felt the federal courts had no right to order a state
to act against the wishes of its citizens. "Moderate" whites, or those who believed in
obeying the law despite their personal opinions on segregation, remained largely silent as
the level of opposition escalated.
Photo - National Guardsmen stand watch at Central High School,
c Bettmann/CORBIS
September 2
Faubus sets the tone
When segregationists failed to obtain an injunction preventing integration at Central, they
appealed to Governor Orval Faubus to take further action. On the evening before the first
day of school, Faubus made a surprise appearance on television and told viewers that he
had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to Central High School because of "threats of
disorder." If African American students tried to enter the school, Faubus claimed, "blood
[would] run in the streets."
September 3
The first day of school
On the first day of school, members of the segregationist Mothers' League of Central
High School gathered with students for a sunrise service outside the school. Two hundred
and fifty members of the Arkansas National Guard lined the sidewalks. The school board
urged the African American students to stay away until they resolved the "dilemma."
September 4
The National Guard bars the door
On the second day of school, the African American students arrived at Central High, only
129
to be turned away by the National Guard. One student returned to Horace Mann the next
day. The remaining students became known as the Little Rock Nine for continuing the
fight despite the challenges they faced. Appearing under newspaper headlines around the
world, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford became the face of quiet dignity in the midst of an
angry mob outside the school.
September 5
Little Rock Nine stay home
Because of the ongoing threat of violence and the presence of the Arkansas National
Guard, none of the Little Rock Nine attempted to enter Central High for the next two
weeks.
September 14
Eisenhower confronts Faubus
On September 9 Federal District Judge Ronald Davies ordered integration at Central
High to proceed. Faubus refused to remove the National Guard from the school.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower met with Faubus in Newport, Rhode Island, to try and
resolve the crisis. After the meeting, Eisenhower believed Faubus would "observe the
supreme law of the land" and obey the court order. However, Faubus returned to
Arkansas and left the Guard in place.
Graphic Panel - Carlotta Walls, Little Rock Nine
Being out of school for two weeks was very hard for me. I knew that going to Central I
would have to continue to do well, because in a sense I was representing a lot of other
colored kids. I could learn as well as the next kid. I knew that. So every day that went by,
I was getting further and further behind. I didn't like that. I figured whenever we got back
in school, I was going to have to not only be twice as good as that white kid, I was going
to have to be the Super Negro.
Photo - US Army paratroopers escort nine black students into Central High School.
September 24,1957: the President takes action
President Eisenhower hoped that states would proceed with integration without his office
having to intervene. When violence broke out in Little Rock, the mob forced the
president's hand.
Aware of negative reactions around the world to the events in Arkansas, Eisenhower took
decisive action. The former WWII Supreme Allied Commander and 5-star general
federalized the Arkansas National Guard and deployed 1,200 U.S. Army paratroopers
from the elite 101st Airborne Division to restore order.
130
September 20
The Guard goes home
"It is very clear to this court...that the plan for integration...has been thwarted by the
governor of Arkansas by the use of National Guard troops."
Federal District Court Judge Ronald Davies ordered Faubus to stop interfering with the
court order by using the National Guard troops to keep the nine from entering Central
High. After calling off the troops, Faubus left town to attend a governors' conference,
while the Little Rock Police Department prepared to control the crowds at the school.
September 23
The mob grows violent
An angry mob gathered in front of the school. When they received word that the Little
Rock Nine had entered Central High under police escort members of the mob chased and
beat several reporters. The police struggled to control the crowd as it swelled to more
than 1,000. Midway through the day, the police smuggled the nine students out through a
basement door for their own safety.
September 24
"Occupied Little Rock"
"It will be a sad day for this country-both at home and abroad-if school children can
safely attend their classes only under the protection of armed guards."
President Dwight D. Eisenhower in nationally-televised address to the nation, September
23, 1957.
Calling the rioting "disgraceful," Eisenhower ordered units of the 101st Airborne
Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky into Little Rock. By 3 o'clock in the morning,
soldiers surrounded the school with bayonets fixed.
September 25
The first full day of integration
Escorted by federal troops, the Little Rock Nine entered Central High School. To protest
their entrance, a few white students left the school—some even by jumping out of the
windows.
Graphic - Lee Johnson, white student
/ remember getting to school and seeing all these paratroopers. They were pretty serious
looking guys. Nobody in their right mind was going to mess with those guys.
We had a big assembly, all the students and Major General Edwin Walker, who was in
charge of the troops. He got up in front of the student body and he pretty well laid the law
down. He let it be known that they weren't going to tolerate any kind of trouble. He made
a believer out of me.
131
Graphic - Jefferson Thomas, Little Rock Nine
There were news reporters trying to stick cameras and microphones in our faces. I could
hear the noise, the name calling, but I didn 't know that people were getting knocked down
with bats and bricks. I didn't know that until I got home. My mother was on the front
porch crying when we pulled up and I couldn 't understand why she was so upset. Then
we went into the house and turned the television on. It turned out that there was a barrier
of newspeople between us black students and the mob. And the mob was beating up these
newspeople, trying to get to us. And that was what protected us, the news personnel
trying to get a story.
Photo - A Central High classroom during the first year of integration in Little Rock.
/ saw a couple of us [the Nine] at lunch and the rest of the time you were all by yourself,
going to different classes. I didn't share one class with another black person.
Gloria Ray
Tension and harassment continue
By October the 101st Airborne troops returned home, leaving the federalized Arkansas
National Guard to protect the Nine. Segregationist students became more vocal and more
violent.
For the remainder of the year, military reports documented that the nine African
American students endured almost constant name-calling, kicking, tripping, and other
violent insults. Troublemakers also threatened white students who talked to the Nine.
Bomb threats and fire drills became routine events. As the school year came to a close,
tensions remained high.
December 17
"One down, eight to go"
Frustrated by continual harassment in the cafeteria, Minnijean Brown dropped her tray,
spilling chili on two boys. Principal Jess Matthews suspended her, and she was later
expelled after another altercation. Encouraged by their perceived victory, segregationist
students stepped up their efforts to get the others kicked out of school.
Graphic - Ernest Green, Little Rock Nine
The biggest harassment was in the hallways. But in the classroom, generally people left
you alone, and there were a few teachers who really worked hard to make sure that you
had a quiet environment. PhysEd, that was the place where you braced yourself for a
whole series of things from broken glass to verbal abuse.
132
Graphic - Melba Pattillo, Little Rock Nine
There were white students who were very much ordinary people, frightened to death,
caught up in the same trap that we were, trying to extend a hand. Several of them were
beat up because they showed some grace to us.
Photo - Segregationists blamed the federal government for closing Little Rock's high
schools in 1958.
/ will not force my people to integrate against their will. I will fight to preserve the rights
guaranteed to the people, and that includes control of the school.
Governor Faubus
May 25 Ernest Green graduates
Ernest Green, the only senior among the Little Rock Nine, became the first African
American graduate of Central High School. Police and National Guard troops stood
watch during the ceremony. The young Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., in Arkansas to
give a commencement address in Pine Bluff, attended the ceremony virtually unnoticed.
The harassment, the threats, all that began to increase but I could see the home stretch
and I saw the importance of that diploma. There's no way I wasn't going to show up for
that ceremony.
Ernest Green
1958-1959
The Lost Year
In the summer of 1958, the Little Rock School Board asked the court to delay further
integration. The federal appeals court directed the board to continue with its
desegregation plan. In response, Governor Faubus used a newly-enacted state law
authorizing him to close any school "being integrated by force," and shut down all four of
Little Rock's public high schools.
In a referendum, Little Rock residents voted nearly 3-1 to support Faubus' decision to
avoid integration by closing the schools. For another year, the city was torn by racial
conflict and political maneuvering, while students scrambled to continue their educations
elsewhere.
The city's high schools remained closed. In May 1959, segregationist school board
members attempted to fire teachers and administrators suspected of supporting
desegregation. In a special election, Little Rock voters removed the segregationist board
members, paving the way for the board to reopen the schools and continue with
desegregation.
133
Photo - An almost empty high school in September, 1958.
Photo by Thomas J. O'Halloran
Courtesy Library of Congress
Graphic - Sybil Jordan, black student
Four other black students started with me that year. But I felt very alone because I was
the only 10th grader and that meant that I probably was not going to have any classes
with any of the other four students. And people shunned me.
I remember going home one day and telling my mother and starting to cry and my mother
said, now we 're having none of this. My parents were really adamant; there will be no
public displays in that school and we're not having you fall apart at home because it's not
personal. It is happening to you because you're black; they don't know you and if they
knew you, they would love you.
1959-1960
Is the crisis over?
Little Rock's public high schools reopened in the fall of 1959. Two of the Little Rock
Nine, Carlotta Walls and Jefferson Thomas, returned to Central for their senior year.
Sophomore Sybil Jordan also began that year and became the first three-year black
graduate of Central High. Spared the severe physical harassment suffered by the Little
Rock Nine, she was quietly shunned by the other students and excluded from after-school
activities.
The Little Rock School District completed its desegregation plan in 1972. However, like
schools across the country, demographic changes such as "white flight" into the suburbs
and the growth of private schools have made it increasingly difficult to maintain
integration. Even within integrated schools, there is often a perception of internal
segregation.
Photo - Segregationists held a rally at the State Capitol and marched to Central High on
the first day of school in 1959.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - Daisy and L.C. Bates with Law Enforcement Officials
As president of the Arkansas State Conference of the NAACP, Daisy Bates became a
target for harassment. She and her husband, L.C, published the Arkansas State Press, the
largest statewide African American newspaper. Their home became a gathering place for
the Little Rock Nine, national NAACP officials, and out-of-state journalists covering the
events at Central High. Here, she and her husband talk to police detectives about a cross
134
burning incident at the Bates' home.
Arkansas Democrat-Gazette
Artifact - The Little Rock Nine started receiving angry, threatening phone calls from
segregationists before the first week of school. Their families endured the calls for the
rest of the year.
Some boys called my house at night and told my family, "If that nigger comes back to
school again, we'll blow your house up." So, the last person to go to bed just took the
phone off the hook.
Thelma Mothershed Wair
Photo - Spurred on by the Governor's speech, an angry crowd of about 200 people
assembled outside Central High on the first day of school. The size of the crowd doubled
the next day.
c Bettmann/CORBIS
Graphic - Examining points of view
What do you notice about the point of view expressed by each article or editorial in this
flipbook? Look for differences between coverage in a black-owned newspaper and its
white counterpart or a Northern paper and a Southern one. Little Rock's Arkansas Gazette
stood out for its objective reporting and editorials, which earned the paper two Pulitzer
Prizes in 1958.
Photo - The Supreme Court rules on desegregation
Pointing to the violence that marred the 1957-58 school year, the Little Rock School
District asked the federal district court to delay desegregation for two-and-a-half years.
The Supreme Court responded decisively. On September 12, 1958, the Court issued its
unanimous opinion. Desegregation could not be postponed. "All deliberate speed" meant
moving forward, not retreating in the face of popular opposition.
Courtesy National Archives
Photo - Women's Emergency Committee
Alarmed by the closing of Little Rock's high schools, a group of prominent white women
formed the Women's Emergency Committee to Open Our Schools (WEC). The WEC
redefined the school-closing issue as one of preserving public education, rather than
supporting integration.
Courtesy Arkansas History Commission
135
Photo - The NAACP attorneys who argued the case were Pine Bluff attorney Wiley
Branton (left) and Thurgood Marshall (right).
Courtesy Wisconsin Historical Society
Photo - WEC Officers Pat House, Irene Samuel, Kathleen Woods and Ada May Smith,
1961
Courtesy Arkansas History Commission
Beyond Central High
Photo - Pontiac, Michigan, students protest court-ordered busing in 1971.
Courtesy Oakland Press
The crisis at Central High did not keep other school districts from resisting desegregation.
New integration plans tended to be limited and gradual, or token efforts that allowed
segregation to continue. By 1966, only 16% of African American students in the South
attended classes with white students.
In 1968, the Supreme Court ruled in Green v. County Board of Regents of New Kent
County (Virginia), that school districts had to meet enforceable standards of racial
balance. That ruling, combined with the 1964 Civil Rights Act that allowed the federal
government to withhold funds from school districts that failed to desegregate, produced
startling results. Within two years, 79% of African American students in the South
attended integrated schools.
Photo - Alabama Governor George C. Wallace stood in the doorway at the University of
Alabama in a symbolic attempt to block integration in 1963. His stance was, "Segregation
now-segregation tomorrow-segregation forever."
Courtesy Library of Congress
It's not just a Southern problem
As integration efforts proceeded, it became clear that residential segregation affected
school desegregation in major cities throughout the country. In large cities African
Americans, whites, Latinos, and other groups lived in separate neighborhoods.
Neighborhood schools usually served one racial or ethnic group.
In 1971, the Supreme Court approved busing as a way to achieve integration. In Swann v.
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (North Carolina), the court ordered that
students should be bused across city-county lines to achieve racial balance. Thanks to
strong civic, community, and business leadership, the plan worked.
136
In other areas, organizational problems associated with busing caused growing numbers
of parents to oppose it. Busing failed in many cities as white residents fled to separate
school districts in the suburbs. Today, many school districts continue to struggle to
achieve racial balance, while other issues such as equitable funding and achievement
gaps among different racial and ethnic groups compete for attention.
Photo - In 1974, violence erupted in Boston when court-ordered busing began. Here, the
police escort buses of black students to school on the third day of "forced busing."
c Bettmann/GORBIS
In 1990, the black populations in the 18 largest metro areas in the North were so
concentrated that 78% would have had to move in order to achieve residential racial
balance.
Eric Liu, Washington Post, 1996
Photo - Students in Charlotte, North Carolina are escorted to their buses in 1970.
Courtesy Charlotte Observer
Quest for Rights
Photo - Civil Rights March on Washington, 1963.
Courtesy National Archives
Individuals make a difference
Throughout the history of the United States, ordinary people have brought about change.
Individuals like the Little Rock Nine relied on the promises of the 14th amendment to the
Constitution in seeking an equal education. They and others have taken action to force
the country to live up to its founding principle that "all men are created equal."
The best of American history is made up of people...who experience a moment of
revelation that inspires them to fight against injustice.
Juan Williams, author, My Soul Looks Back in Wonder
Photo - Selma to Montgomery Voting Rights March, 1965
Photo by James Karales
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - Emmett Till and his mother, Mamie Bradley
Courtesy Library of Congress
137
Getting the attention of the nation
The courageous actions of one distraught mother helped spur the modern civil rights
movement. Mamie Bradley's son, Emmett Till, left their home in Chicago to visit family
in Mississippi in August 1955. While there, Till allegedly made the fatal mistake of
speaking inappropriately to a married white woman in a store.
The 14-year-old boy was brutally beaten and murdered. When found days later in a river,
his body was so badly mutilated that he was unrecognizable. An all-white jury found the
murderers not guilty.
Violence against African Americans escalated after the Brown v. Board decision. Bradley
insisted that the world see what happened to her son and understand the threats that
African Americans faced in the South. She arranged for four days of open-casket
viewing. When the popular black weekly magazine, Jet, printed a photo of Till's
disfigured face, both African Americans and whites across the nation confronted racism
at its worst.
Photo - Bradley breaks down as her son's coffin arrives in Chicago.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Two months ago, when something happened to the Negroes in the South I said, "That's
their business, not mine." Now I know how wrong I was.
Mamie Bradley, mother of Emmett Till
His death was so powerful. It was shocking. This was the level of danger we were in.
Minnijean Brown Trickey, one of the Little Rock Nine
Challenging Relocation
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt
ordered the incarceration of Japanese Americans into War Relocation Centers. Most of
those targeted were American-born citizens, who proved their loyalty to the United States
with their cooperation. They lost their homes, businesses, and freedom, because they
looked like the enemy. Some, like 23-year-old Fred Korematsu, resisted.
In 1942 Korematsu filed a lawsuit protesting his relocation. In 1944 the case made it to
the Supreme Court, which found for the government. Forty years later, an investigation
determined that the government incarceration of Japanese Americans was based on
discrimination, not military need. The Korematsu case was reopened, and the court
reversed its decision.
138
Soon after, Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which awarded a formal
apology and $20,000 in redress to each survivor of the centers.
Photo - Korematsu received a Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998.
Photo by Denis Cook/Courtesy AP
In the long history of our country's constant search for justice, some names of ordinary
citizens stand for millions of souls.
President Bill Clinton, upon awarding a medal to Korematsu
If you have the feeling that something is wrong, don't be afraid to speak up.
Fred Korematsu
Photo - The caption is Haruye Yada with her son, Robert, and infant son, Richard, in
front of their barracks at Rohwer War Relocation Center in Arkansas, circa 1943. Photo
courtesy of the Yada family.
Photo - More than 100,000 Japanese Americans were transported to remote camps
surrounded by barbed wire and machine gun towers, like this one in Jerome, Arkansas.
Courtesy National Archives
Fighting discrimination against Native Peoples
Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich moved to Juneau, Alaska in 1941, in search of a "home in
a nice neighborhood where [their] children could play happily with [their] neighbors'
children." Blatant discrimination against Native Peoples in the territorial capital shocked
the Tlingit couple. They found they could not rent the house they wanted because of
their race, nor could they enter most stores, movie theaters, or restaurants, which posted
signs reading "No Dogs or Indians Allowed."
The Peratrovichs wrote to the governor of Alaska and the territorial legislature, which
drafted—and defeated—an anti-discrimination bill in 1943. When the bill came before
the territorial senate again in 1945, the couple spoke out in favor of its passage.
One senator after another argued against "the mixing of the races." But Elizabeth
Peratrovich's eloquent and loudly cheered testimony in favor of the bill helped secure its
passage. Called the Alaska Civil Rights Act, the legislation preceded the US Civil Rights
Act by 19 years.
L-17-523
Tlingit village in the 1930s.
National Museum of the American Indian
139
Who are these people, barely out of savagery, who want to associate with us whites with
5,000 years of recorded civilization behind us?
Testimony of an Alaska State Senator, 1945
/ would not have expected that I, who am barely out of savagery, would have to remind
the gentlemen with five thousand years of recorded civilization behind them of our Bill of
Rights.
Elizabeth Peratrovich to the Alaska State Senate, 1945
Photo - Governor Gruening (seated) signs the anti-discrimination act of 1945. Elizabeth
Peratrovich is standing second from left.
Courtesy Alaska State Library - Historical Collections
Photo - Car pool during the Montgomery bus boycott, Montgomery, Alabama, February
1956.
Photo by Don Cravens/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
A community unites in protest
Local NAACP secretary Rosa Parks was arrested on December 1, 1955, for refusing to
give up her seat on a bus to a white person. While she did not know her act would trigger
a citywide protest, years of abuse of African American passengers by white bus drivers,
meant that Montgomery's African American leaders were ready for a bus boycott.
News of the boycott spread at the grassroots level, and three days later, Montgomery's
42,000 African American residents began taking taxis, carpooling, and walking to work
and school. Meanwhile, African American leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement
Association, which took the issue to federal court.
Despite daily personal sacrifices and reprisals from some of the city's whites, the boycott
continued for an entire year. Finally, the effort paid off. In November 1956, the Supreme
Court ruled that segregation on buses was unconstitutional. The successful boycott nearly
bankrupted the city's bus service and demonstrated the power of individual action in
forcing change.
Everybody that had a car, if you saw somebody walking, you stopped and put them in
your car.
Idessa Redden, Montgomery resident
Photo - Rosa Parks being fingerprinted.
Courtesy Library of Congress
140
Photo - After Rosa Parks' arrest, Jo Ann Robinson of Montgomery's Women's Political
Council coordinated the effort to make and distribute flyers announcing the boycott.
Courtesy JoAnn Robinson Foundation
If you were black, you had to give the driver your money, then get back off the bus, walk
around it to the back. You couldn't just get on through the front and walk through to the
back. That route was for whites only.
Johnnie Carr, Montgomery resident
Photo - Martin Luther King, Jr., the vibrant young minister of Dexter Avenue Baptist
Church, accepted nomination as president of the Montgomery Improvement Association.
The 26-year-old King inspired African American residents to continue with the boycott
and acted as the movement's spokesman. His role in the boycott propelled King into the
national spotlight.
Courtesy AP
The earth is the mother of all people, and all people should have equal rights upon it.
Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce, 1879
Individuals Make a Difference
Photo - Freedom Riders gather outside a burning bus in Anniston, Alabama in 1961.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Photo - Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C., August 28, 1963.
Courtesy National Archives
Photo - State troopers use tear gas to break up a demonstration in Selma, Alabama in
1965.
AP/World Wide Photos
Photo - Sit-in by Joseph McNeil, Franklin McCain, Billy Smith, and Clarence Henderson
in Greensboro, North Carolina,
c Bettmann/CORBIS
Sitting down for justice
On Feb 1, 1960 four black freshmen from North Carolina A&T College sat down at a
Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro. They waited until closing time for service
141
that never came. They returned the next day with 23 more students, well-dressed, polite,
and committed to nonviolence.
As word of the sit-ins spread, students in other areas who were practicing nonviolent
tactics sprang into action. Within two weeks, students staged "sit-ins" in 15 other
southern cities. When attacked the students did not fight back. If arrested, other students
took their places.
Nonviolent protest proved popular with college students. By the end of the year, 70,000
students—both black and white—held sit-ins in 100 southern cities.
Injustice anywhere is everybody's concern.
Martin Smolin, white student picketing Woolworth's in New York, 1960
The Negro and white students, North and South, are seeking to rid America of the
scourge of racial segregation and discrimination-not only at the lunch counters but in
every aspect of life.
Ella Baker, Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Photo - John Salter, Joan Trumpauer, and Anne Moody sit-in at Woolworth's lunch
counter in Jackson, Mississippi, May 1963. Segregationists pour sugar, ketchup, and
mustard on them in an attempt to provoke them.
Demanding rights for farm workers
Inspired by the appalling poverty of her former students in rural California, Dolores
Huerta co-founded the United Farm Workers Union with Cesar Chavez in 1965. She
fought for the rights of the community's farm worker parents, many of whom were
immigrants who would not speak out or stand up for their own rights.
One of the organization's first efforts was to organize a grape growers' strike, with
support from a consumer boycott. The strike became a movement for social justice,
focusing the nation's attention on the plight of the mostly Latino and Filipino migrant
workers.
Huerta built national support for the cause through marches and boycotts. In 1966, she
negotiated the nation's first collective bargaining agreement between farm workers and an
agricultural corporation, securing better wages and working conditions for 10,000
workers.
/ couldn't stand seeing kids come to class hungry and needing shoes. I thought I could do
more by organizing farm workers than by trying to teach their hungry children.
Dolores Huerta
142
Photo - Cesar Chavez at United Farm Workers Convention.
Courtesy Take Stock
Photo - Due to apathy and racism, farm workers labored under horrible conditions for the
country's lowest wages. Courtesy Take Stock
The long struggle for women's rights
At the first women's rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, one woman
made a decision that would change the world. Elizabeth Cady Stanton drafted a
"Declaration of Sentiments"
proclaiming women's equality with men and demanding that women no longer be
deprived of their rights as citizens.
The document began a national debate. The movement for women's equality narrowed
its focus on winning the right to vote. More than 70 years later, they won the fight with
the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the Constitution.
Winning the vote, however, did not bring full equality for women. As women debated
such issues as low pay, sexual harassment, and reproductive rights, some advocated a
new Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution as the solution. Although approved by
Congress in 1972, the ratification process stalled after passage in only 28 states.
Photo - Three suffragists casting votes in New York City.
Courtesy Library of Congress
Men and women are CREATED EQUAL! They are both moral and accountable beings
and whatever is right for a man to do is right for a woman.
Sarah Grimke
Photo - An estimated 4,000 women march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington,
D.C. on August 26, 1977 in memory of Alice Paul, suffrage leader and author of the
original Equal Rights Amendment. Photo courtesy of Jo Freeman.
Artifacts - Inspired by the success of the African American Civil Rights Movement, and
in response to women's changing roles in the workplace and at home, feminist leaders
launched a new push for women's equality—that they called "women's liberation"—in
the 1970s.
143
Fighting physical barriers
When she became permanently paralyzed by a disease called lupus in 1991, Michelle
Steger knew physically disabled people who led full, active lives, so she expected to keep
doing everything for herself. She soon discovered that physical barriers were everywhere.
With help from national disability rights organization, American Disabled for Attendant
Programs Today (ADAPT), Steger formed a local group to make her hometown of St.
Louis more accessible for disabled people. She soon decided to take her activism to a
national level.
Steger worked to ensure enforcement of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of
1990. She has brought lawsuits, staged demonstrations, and publicized the plight of
disabled people unable to access their full rights as citizens.
Photo - President Bush signs into law the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
We're the only minority group that anyone can join at any time.
Michelle Steger, disability rights activist
Graphic - 1964 Civil Rights Act Outlaws discrimination or segregation in restaurants,
hotels, movie theaters, or any other public facilities.
1965 Voting Rights Act Prohibits state and local governments from erecting barriers to
voting such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and other requirements.
1968 Fair Housing Act
Prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, color,
national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability (the latter three came from
later amendments).
Photo - President Lyndon Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
Courtesy Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum
Worth the sacrifice
Just after the Civil War, the states ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to protect
the rights of newly freed enslaved people. However, without enforcement by the federal
government, states found ways to deny African Americans almost every right of
citizenship.
Nearly a century later, Congress passed three Civil Rights Acts to enforce the original
intent of those important amendments. This change came about because of the
determination and personal sacrifice of many ordinary people who were willing to stand
up for their rights.
144
Exit Experience
Had it not been for the Negro school and college, the Negro would. . . have been driven
back to slavery.
W.E.B. DuBois
We've come too far from where we started to get tired now.
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world.
Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has.
Margaret Mead
The heart of the question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and
equal opportunities, whether we are going to treat our fellow Americans as we want to be
treated.
President John F. Kennedy, 1963
What is the future of civil rights?
In the two centuries since the Founding Fathers wrote the US Constitution, Americans'
understanding of civil rights has changed dramatically. Once limited to white, male
property owners, citizenship and its accompanying rights now include women and people
of other races and ethnic origins.
Still, citizens continue to debate the meaning of equal rights and their enforcement under
the Constitution.
If not us, then who? If not now, then when?
John Lewis, former Freedom Rider
America Cares
In this painting, artist George Hunt depicts the Little Rock Nine flanked by a soldier on
the left, who symbolizes the defense of every citizen's rights, and an adult supporter on
the right, representing leadership. Commissioned to commemorate the 40th anniversary
of the events at Central High, the painting hung in the Clinton White House for several
years and was featured on a U.S. postage stamp in 2005.
145
APPENDIX E
Pictures of exhibit components
146
APPENDIX E
Pictures of exhibit components
^aagjWBE ~ y —
1,*:
I P MM. J
Photo 1: Entrance of exhibit space
Photo 2: We the People exhibit
147
Photo 3: Rights granted and denied
Photo 4: Taking it to the courts
148
Photo 5: The South resists integration
Photo 6: Crisis at Central High
149
Photo 7: Faces of the Crisis
Photo 8: Listening station and reflection area-looking toward school
150
Photo 9: Beyond Central
Photo 10: Individuals make a difference section 1
151
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come too far from where we started to g |
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Photo 11: Individuals make a difference section 2
Photo 12: Listening station
152
VITA
Tamara Annette Roberson holds a Bachelors of Science Degree in Education
from Arkansas Tech University in Russellville, Arkansas. She is certified to teach
elementary education and middle school science. For the past sixteen years Ms.
Roberson has been employed as the Head Teacher for the Alternative Classroom
Experience at Joseph Pfeifer Kiwanis Camp in Little Rock, Arkansas. This program is a
short-term residential prevention program for third-fifth grade youth-at-risk in the Little
Rock and Pulaski County Special School Districts. Pfeifer Camp was the AEE 1998
Organization of the Year, AmeriCorps 2002 Organization of the Year, and 2004
Exemplary Substance Abuse Prevention Award Winner for Innovative Programs through
the National Association of State Alcohol and Drug Abuse Directors. Ms. Roberson
graduated with a Master of Science in Resource Interpretation from Arthur Temple
College of Forestry at Stephen F. Austin State University in August 2009.
Permanent address:
140 Booker Street
Little Rock, AR 72205
APA Style
This thesis was typed by Tamara Annette Roberson
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