CAHAL FECH, CAYO, BELIZE

THE FOR}V{ATIVECERAMIC FIGURINE COLLECTION FROM THE SITE OF
CAHAL FECH,CAYO,BELIZE
by
Chisina L. Zweig
A TlrcsisSubmittedin
Pffiial Fulfillment of the
Requirementsforthe Degreeof
Ma$er of Sciences
in Anthrcpology
at
The University of Wisconsin-Mlwaukee
May 2010
T}IE FORIV{ATIVE
CERAMICFIGETRI}.E
COLLECTIONFROMTI{E SITEOF
CA}IAL PECH, CAYO, BELIZE
by
Cbri$na Zweig
A Thesis$ubrnifiedin
Pqtiat Fuffilhent of &e
Rquireinents for the Degreeof
Ma$*erof Ssiences
In Anthrepotogy
at
Tho Uaiversi*yof Wiscensin-Milwaukee
May 2010
n
ABSTRACT
THE FORMATIVE CERAMIC FIGURINE COLLECTIONFROM THE SITE OF
CAHAL PECH.CAYO. BELTZE
by
ChristinaL.Zweig
20I 0
The Universityof Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
Underthe Supervisionof Dr. R. JasonSherman
This thesispresentsthe resultsof my analysisof 389 Middle and Late Formative
ceramicfigurine fragmentsfrom CahalPech,amedium-sizedlowland Mayacenter
locatedin the Belize River Valley. The figurines from CahalPechare significant
becausethereis no comparablecollectionfrom the Belize Valley. Most importantly,
figurine studiesthroughoutMesoamericahaveshownthat they cangive us insightsinto
variousdimensionsof statusrecognizedin the Formative,suchasgender,age,or socially
recognizedstagesof life,like marriage. This thesishasfour main objectives. The most
fundamentalof theseis to provide generalinformationaboutthe figurine collection from
CahalPech. The secondobjectiveis to examinethe forms and stylistic athibutesof the
CahalPechfigurinesto strowhow they may exhibit indicatorsof genderor otherforms of
socialstafus,suchas,age,or life stages,suchaspuhrty or marriage. The third objective
is to placethis analysisin a broadercontextby discussingstudiesof Formativehandmodeledfrgurinesfrom otherregionsof Mesoamerica.Finally, I considerhow the
111
figurines from CahalPechrelateto the ceremonialand socialchangesthat occurredat the
site during the Formativeperiod.
Of the 389 figurinefragmentsincludedin this analysis,the majorityare
anthropomorphicand solid. Typically hollow fragmentsarepartsof musicalinstruments,
but not always. Appendages
arethe mostcommonanatomicalelements.Headandtorso
fragments,which me highly variable,are importantcarriersof stylistic information.
During the Formativeperiod,hand-modeledfigurinesincreasedin frequencyat
CahalPech,andtheir declinecoincideswith the introductionof monumentalarchitecture
in the Late Fonnative. The ritual function of the CahalPechfigurines is strongly
indicatedby their treatrnentanddisposal. The act of terminationwas significantandis
likely the reasonthat so many figurinesare found in fragmentarystate. They likely
serveda ritual purposethat wasmoreprivate or small-scale.Their presencein
constructionfill suggeststhey were discardedwith rubbishasceremonialtrash.
Towardthe end of the Formativeperiodtherewasa formalizationof
public/ceremonial
spaceandritual at CahalPech. Theremay havebeenlessfocuson
domesticand small groupritual anda new emphasison more public andformalized
ceremonies
andceremonialspaces.Giventhesechanges,figurineslikely becamelessof
a ritual focus,thus accountingfor their disappearance
in the Classicperiod
Kfu=/4**-
sfuf'"
Major Professor
Date
lv
O Copyrightby ChristinaL. Zweig,20l0
All RightsReserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Pageix
Pagexi
Pagexii
CHAPTERONE" INTRODUCTION
I
lntroduction
I
ResearchObjectives
Methodology___________-
2
Outline of Thesis
Summary
4
6
a
J
CHAPTERTWO. MESOAMERICANFIGURINE STUDIES
FormativeOlmec Figurines
SanLorenzo
Tres Zapoteq
SanAndrds
CentralMexico
Vaillant's FigurineTypology
Tlatilco
Chalcatzingo
West Mexico
La Pintada
Ouraca
Chiapas
Chiapa de Corzo
Maya Highlands_
Kaminaljuyu
Mava Lowlands
Uaxactun
Seibal
Altar de Sacrificios
Cuello
Summary
9
9
t4
l6
19
20
20
21
2l
25
25
26
27
27
28
28
3l
31
32
JJ
34
34
CHAPTER THREE.
CAHAL PECH:NATURAL AND CULTURAL SETTINGS
37
37
38
42
Landscape and Natural Setting
The BelizeValley
CahalPech
v1
SocialChangesat FormativeCahalPech
SiteCoreFormativeSequence
PeripheralGroupsFormativeSequence
Bplize Valley FormativeTransformation
44
46
49
55
CHAPTER FOUR. CAHAL PECHFIGURINE COLLECTION
58
Introduction
Methods
GeneralAnalysis
ZoomorphicandMusical InstrumentFragments
AnthropomorphicFragments
Appendages
Torsos
Heads
HeadElements
Hair
58
58
60
62
63
63
68
74
75
75
75
77
79
83
90
92
97
Face
Ears
Provenience
HeadFragmentAnalysiq
AncestralVeneration
Terrrination-Summary
CHAPTERFIVE.
CAHAL PECH FORMATIVE TRANSFORMATION
Rituat Transformation
Ritual Contexts
ResidentiaUDomestic
Contexts
CommunallvBuilt Stuctures
Monument-RelatedOfferinss
OtherRitualAreas_________-_
TerminationandRenewal
DedicatoryOfferingVCaching
TerminationDeposits_
Discussion
Summarv
99
99
100
100
106
r09
111
lt2
113
tt4
115
lt7
1r9
CTIAPTERSIX. CONCLUSIONS
119
tt9
Introduction
GeneralObservations
vll
GenderRepresentation
RegionalCompmison.
Significancein FormativeCahalPech
121
r24
126
REFERENCES
r28
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX B:
APPENDIX C:
APPENDfX D:
140
143
2W
SpecimenFonn
HeadFragmentPhotographsandDescriptions----__-SpecimenInventory: Provenience.-__
SpecimenInventory: CeramicandForm
lnformation
vr,ll
218
l
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure2. I
Figure 2. 2
Figure3. I
Figure 3. 2
Figure3. 3
Figure3. 4
Figure3. 5
Figure3. 6
Figure3. 7
Figure3. 8
Figure 4. 1
Figure 4. 2
Figure4. 3
Figure4. 4
Figure4. 5
Figure4. 6
Figtxe4.7
Figure4. 8
Figure4.9
Figure4. 10
Figure4. l1
Figure4.12
Figure 4. 13
Figure4. 14
Figure4. 15
Figure4. 16
Figure 5. 1
.........10
andFormativeperiodsites..........
Map of Mesoamerica
Map of the Maya areaandFormativeperiod sites(redrawnfrom Awe
...................30
1 9 9 2F: i g u re1) ..............
Map of the BelizeRiver Valley (redrawnfrom ChaseandGarber
.............39
2004:Map 1)......
CahalPechsite map including the site core andperipherygroups
...........41
(redrawnfromPowiset al. 1999:Figure2)..............
CahalPechsitecore(redrawnfrom a plan createdby R. GuerraandC.
Helmke with surveyby D.Cheetham;Awe and Schwanke2006:
............43
Figurel)..............
Planof the Tolok Group(redrawnfrom Awe 1992:Figure52)...............51
Planof the CasPekGroup(redrawnfrom Awe 1992:Figure53)...........52
Planof ZopiloteGroup(redrawnfrom Cheethamet al. 1993:Figure1)..53
Planof TzinicGroup(redrawnfrom Awe 1992:Figure46)....................54
Planof Zubingroup(redrawnfrom Awe 1992:Figure51).....................55
Measuringmethodsfor (a) headfragments"(b) appendagefragments,
by MelissaBranfman)................60
and(c) torsofragments(illustrations
Completefigurine specimensincluding (I-24) an ocarinain bird form
...........62
and(C-l) a seated
dwarffigure...............
.........65
Sampleof theTypeA appendages...............
.........65
Sampleof theTypeB appendages...............
.........66
Sampleof theTypeC appendages...............
.........66
Sampleof theTypeD appendages...............
probable
.......72
femaletorsos.
Sampleof
...........72
Sampleof probablemaletorsos
..............73
Sample
of abdomens.
............
Lower torsoexamplesincludingmale(T-46) andprobablefemale
.......73
examples.
Examplesof (H-17) concaveand(H-81)convexforeheads
(illusfiationsby MelissaBranfrnan)
..................74
with central
Exampleof eyeforms:(H-34) dual-ovateimpressions
.....................77
punctation
and(H-51)tipunctation...............
in
association
fragments
found
Bar chart showingthe frequencyof
with structuresin the site core andperipherygroupsof CahalPech
....................81
andPacbitun
Frequencies
of figrrines with provenienceinformation(n: 389
......82
fragments)
............94
of fragmentT-5...........
Photographs
andillustrations
........95
HeadfragmerftH-24...
StructureB-4 fragmentfrequencieswith chronologicalcontextwith
.................102
formdistinctions............
tx
Figure5.2
Figure5. 3
Figue5.4
from GarberandAwe 2008:
PlatformB rituatdeposits(redra${n
..........105
Figure
3...............
...107
T-68.
Fieurin€fragment
(illushations
Itdelism
L-45
by
T-35and
Modifiedfigurinefragments
....110
Branfman)
LIST OF TABLES
Table3. I
Table4. I
Table4.2
Table4. 3
TabLe
4.4
Table4. 5
Table4. 6
Table4.7
Table4. 8
Table4. 9
Table4. 10
Table4. 11
T a b l e4 .1 2
Table4. 13
Table4. 14
Table4. 15
T a bl e4 .1 6
Table4. 17
Table4. 18
Table5. 1
Figurine frequencieswith chronologicalassociationsfrom Structure
plazaunits.
.........49
B-4 andassociated
Frequenciesof fragmentsidentified as anthropomorphic,zoomorphic,
.........61
andunidentifiable.
instrument,
..........61
Frequencies
of solidandhollowfragments.
...........61
forms.
Frequencies
of differentanatomical
.........64
..............
Appendage
typefrequencies
andpercentages.
Appendagetype and incision frequencies(flexed and crab claw types
....................67
as"ottrer")..............
areconsidered
.............69
Depictionsof breastson torsofragments.
.................69
Waistformfrequencies
andpercentages...............
.................70
Belly formfrequencies
andpercentages................
.................70
Hip form frequencies
andpercentages.
.....76
Eye fonn frequencies
andpercentages.............
............76
Frequencies
for stylisticmouthformations
....................77
Noseformfrequencies
andpercentages.............
.....78
Ear form frequencies
andpercentages..............
............78
EarplWvarietyfrequencies
andpercentages..............
...................78
andpercentages.
Presence
of earincisionswith frequencies
CahalPechand Pacbitunsite coreandpenpherygroupfigurine
.......80
fragmentfrequencies
Frequenciesand percentages
of figurineswith provenience
.....82
information
Frequencyandpercentages
of headandtorso fragmentsthat indicate
......93
a cleanbreakline alongthe figurine'sneck.
StructureB-4 fragmentswith contextualinformation and form
.....102
..............
distinctions.
xl
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This researchwasmadepossibleby the supportof the Belize Valley
Project. I would like to thank Dr. JaimeAwe for
ArchaeologicalReconnaissance
presentingand allowing me the opportunityto work with the figurine collection from
CahalPech. I wish to extendmy gratitudeto Myka Schwankefor her gtacious
hospitality andfor being so accoilrmodating.I would like to thank Julie Hoggarthandthe
BVAR staff for their supportand assistanceduring the 2009 field season,anda special
thanksto field student MelissaBranforanfor producingand contributingher
illusfiations. To the membersof my committee,Dr. JeanHudson,Dr. LauraVillamil,
and chair Dr. R. JasonSherman,Iappreciateall ofyour guidanceand support.
More personallyI would like to recognizemy parents,Dr. JohnE. Zweig and
Mrs. MargaretZweig. They havehelpedsupportme in so many different ways andhave
madeit possiblefor me to continuemy educationandgo abroad. Without them my
passionfor learningandexperiencingculture and life on a global scalewould not have
cometo fruition.
xlt
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The ancientMaya figurine tradition hasa very long history. The thousandsof
figurines that havebeenfound vary widely in subjectmatter,manufacturingtechniques,
and apparentfunction. The manufacturingtechniquesrangedfrom hand-modeling,to a
to massproductionof mold-madefigurines. The
combinationof modeling/mold-use,
hand-modeledfigurines,which are diverseand individualistic, arethe most common
ritual artifactsin Eady andMiddle Formativevillages. In particular,ffiffiy small female
figurines dateto the Middle Formativeperiod. Archaeologicalinvestigationsin
Mesoamerica
haveunearthedfigurinesin burials,caches,householdareas,andmiddens.
This thesispresentsthe resultsof my analysisof 389 Middle and Late Formative
ceramicfigurine fragmentsfrom CahalPech,a medium-sizedlowland Maya centerwith
oneof the earliestlowlandpotterytaditions (Cunil, 1100-800B.C.) identifiedin the
Belize Valley (Awe 1992). The first major archaeologicalinvestigationsat CahalPech
beganin the late 1980s,andresearchat the site hascontinuedto the presentday. These
investigationshaveincludedstratigraphicexcavationsin the site core aswell asin
variousperipheralarchitecfuralgroups. As a result, we havea clearpicture of the
of the site'sdevelopment.
chronologicalsequence
The assemblage
of frgurinesrecoveredat CahalPechhasgrown over the years.
The quantity of hand-modeledFormativeperiod figurine fragmentsfrom the site is now
quite impressive. The collection is curatedunderthe authority of Dr. JaimeAwe,
Directorof Belize'sInstituteof Archaeologyandof the BelizeValley Archaeological
Reconnaissance
Project. While the fragmentshavebeencommentedon in previous
2
reportsand paperssincethe initial investigationsat CahalPechin the late 1980sand
early 1990s,a more comprehensiveanalysisof the growing collection hadnot yet been
undertaken.The figurines from CahalPechare significantbecausethereis no
comparablecollectionfrom the BelizeValley. Most importantly,figurinestudies
throughoutMesoamericahaveshownthat theseartifactscangive us insightsinto various
dimensionsof statusrecognizedin the Formative,suchasgender,age,or socially
recognizedstagesof life, like marriage.
CahalPechandmany otherLowland Maya sitesunderwentsignificant changein
the Formativeperiod,including populationincreaseand intensifiedconstructionand
renovation. Therewere changesin architecturalquahty and styles,including the
developmentof non-domesticarchitecturethat servedceremonialor public functions.
Therewas increasingsocialdifferentiationand inequalityreflectedin subsistenceand
mortuarytreatnent. Craft specializationbecamemore apparent,asdid the presenceof
pan'Mesoamericansymbolismand exotic goodsindicatingtradeand otherforms of
socialinteractionwith otherregions. During the Middle and Late Formativeperiods
hand-modeledfigurines increasedin frequency,at CahalPech,but they are essentially
absentin Classicperiod contexts. In the courseof socialand ceremonialchangesthe
figurines'role in FormativeperiodMaya societywaslikely affected.
RESEARCHOBJECTIVES
This thesishasfour main objectives.Themostfundamentalof theseis to provide
generalinformation aboutthe figurine collectionfrom CahalPech. My studywasthe
first systematicanddetailedanalysisperformedon the collectionsinceCheetham's(1993)
J
preliminary cataloging. The initial collectionreportedby Awe (1992)included 187
fragments;howeverthe collectionhasgrown sincethat time. My analysisincludes389
from the site. The
fragments,which constitutethe majority of the existingassemblage
secondobjectiveis to examinethe forms and stylistic attributesof the CahalPech
figurines to showhow they may exhibit indicatorsof genderor otherforms of social
status,suchas,age,or life stages,suchaspubertyor marriage. The third objectiveis to
placethis analysisin a broadercontextby discussingstudiesof Formativehand-modeled
figurines from otherregionsof Mesoamerica.Finally, I considerhow the figurinesfrom
CahalPechrelateto the ceremonialand socialchangesthat occurredat the site during the
Formativeperiod.
METHODOLOGY
In analynngthe CahalPechfigurinecollection,I collectedprimarily descriptive
datafor eachartifact. The primary dataon figurine manufactureconsistedof ceramic
pasteand slip description,form (solid andhollow), and generalmeasurements
of length,
width, andthickness. The form of eachfragmentwasalso classifiedasanthropomorphic,
zoomorphic,musicalinstrumentsor unidentifiable. The forms were further separated
musicalinstrument
basedon anatomicalcharacteristics:head,torso, appendage,
(e.g.,mouthpiece),andunidentifiable.Furtherdescriptiveandstylistic data
apparatus
were recordedon individual specimenforms (seeAppendix A) aswell asin an extensive
photographicinventory. Picturesweretakenof every fragmentincludedin the analysis,
and severalwere alsodrawn(seeAppendix B for all headfragments).The preservation
informationwasalsoa priority duringthis project. The
of the figurines'provenience
information storedwith the fragmentswas inconsistentthroughoutthe collection.
Thereforean inventorywas generateddocumentingthe provenience,current
identification code,prior cataloguenumber,and basicvisual information (ceramic
description,form, size)of eachfragment(seeAppendicesC andD).
OUTLINE OF THESIS
Chapter2 introducessomeexamplesof Formativefigurines from otherregionsof
Mesoamerica.The figurine studiesthat arereviewedincludethoseconductedin the
Olmec area,Centraland WestMexico, Oaxaca,Chiapas,and examplesfrom the highland
and lowland Maya areas. While somereportsaremore completethan others,the
information they containallows us to comparepatternsat CahalPechwith thosefrom
that ceramicfigurineswere producedin massquantities
otherregionsand demonshates
in a variety of forms acrossMesoamerica.
Chapter3 providesgeneraldescriptionsof the Belize River Valley's environment
andthe site of CahalPech. The site is strategicallylocatedon a hilltop within a diverse
environmentandneara river systemthat provideda naturaltransportationand
communicationroute betweenthe CaribbeanSeaandthe Petdnheartlandof Guatemala.
Many of the strucfuresat the site havealsobeentestedor excavated,making it possible
to reconstructthe 1800-yearoccupationalhistory of CahalPech.
Chapter4 describesthe ceramicfigurine collection in detail andprovidesa more
detailedanalysisof the headfragments.Iconographicelementspresenton the figurine
fragmentsare discussed,and how they may or may not be usedin distinguishing
representations
of socialstatuson the figurines. Oneof the leadingquestionsregarding
5
FormativeMesoamericanfigurines is their function, which hasbeendiffrcult to ascertain
dueto uncertaintiesin what they actuallyrepresent.For instance,genderdistinctionsfor
figurines are often obscure,andmany iconographicelementsdisplayedon figurines are
not fully understood,making it difficult to determinethe identity of the people/entities
being depicted. Chapter4 also includesa discussionof the possiblerole that figurines
playedin ancestorvenerationandthe likelihood that somefigurines wereritually
terminatedby beingdeliberatelybroken.
Chapter5 examinesthe Formativetransformationatthe siteof CahalPech. The
different contextsin which the figurineswere found, andthe disposalor terminationof
theseartifacts,are discussed.The function of the figurinesandwhat they represent
remainselusivedueto the contextsand condition in which they were found. Many
Formativefigurinesarefound in secondaryor tertiary contexts,suchasconstructionfill
or middens,andthey areusually fragmentedin sucha way that reconstructionis not
possible. However,in somecasesfigurines or fragmentsare found in specialcontexts
suchascachesandburials.
Many significantchangesoccurredat sitesin the Belize Valley during the
Formativeperiod: populationincreased,architecturalstylesand functionschanged,
constructionintensified,and socialstratificationincreasedin archaeologically
recognizable
ways. During the lateMiddle Formativethe frequencyof figurines
increasedat CahalPech,but they subsequentlydecreasedwith the introductionof
monumentalarchitecturein the Late Formative. By the Early Classic,figurinesbecame
quite rare, surviving primarily asheirlooms. In chapter5 the Formativetransformation
that occurredat CahalPechis discussedwith attentionto architecturalchangesand
evidencefor a new emphasison more community-focusedand larger-groupritual as
opposedto moreprivatedomesticritual.
The intentionof this analysisis to contributeto a betterunderstandingof the
FormativeMaya in the BelizeValley throughthis uniqueandsizeablecollection.
Chapter6 includesa review of the researchobjectivesand my interpretationsof the
findings.
SUMMARY
The figurine collectionfrom CahalPechprovidesa uniqueopportunityfor
understandingFormativeMaya socialidentities,socialroles,ritual activities,andmeans
of symbolic expression.Other sitesin the Belize Valley havefigurinesthat are similar to
the onesfound at CahalPech,but theseother assemblages
are considerablysmaller. This
analysishighlightsthe definingcharacteristics
of the CahalPechcollection,reveals
interestingpatterns,andprovidesa foundationfor intersitecomparisons.
particulady gender,hasremaineduncertain
Identifuing figurine representations,
andoften figurines are labeledsimply asfemalefertility idols. In the caseof figurines
from CahalPech,anatomicalathibutesare not usedto indicategender. The body forms
are exhemelygenericandoften neuter,and dependingon how genderis interpretedfrom
body types,the identification of femaleand male hguresmay vary. Headfragments-the
most stylistically elaborateandvariablepartsof most figurines-appear to be the foci for
socially encodedinformation andindicatorsof statusrepresentedon the figures. The
producersof the frgurineseither werenot concernedwith displayinggenderthrough
anatomicalmeans,or genderis representedin a form that we areunableto recognize.
7
Thereis socialinformation encodedon thesefrgurinesthat we havenot yet learnedto
interpret.
The majority of the fragmentsfrom CahalPechwere found in secondaryor tertiary
contexts,but therehavealsobeenseveralrecoveredfrom specialcontexts,including an
Early Classicstelacache(ConlonandAwe 1991:11),a child burial (Powis1995:.74),
andan elaborateconfigurationof multipledeposits(GarberandAwe 2008:185-188).
Researchers
havefrequentlyarguedthat the fragmentedcondition of the figurinesis
evidenceof ritual termination,but clear evidencezupportingthis hypothesishasoften
beenlacking. Severalofthe fragmentsfrom the CahatPechcollection do showevidence
of purposefuldestruction-including neatly brokenoff heads,punctationsaroundthe
neckto aid in decapitation,and deformationof the face itself. While this doesnot
indicatethat all figurineswere ritually terminated,it doessuggestthat this activity
occurredwith somefrequency.
Figurinesappearin the earliest(i.e.,Cunil) contextsat CahalPech,andthey
becamemost commonduring the late Middle Formativeand early Late Formative
periods. During the late Middle Formativetherewas a gradualincreaseof construction
within the site's coreandperipherygroups,the first lime-plasterformal patio at the site
was constructed,non-domesticroundplatformswere established,and an increasein
populationoccurredthroughoutthe valley (Awe 1992). The round platformsfunctioned
asburial shrinesand as importantritual loci (Aimers et al. 2000). Burial orientationsalso
becameuniform, beginninga regionalpatternthat persistedin the valley until the endof
the Classicperiod (Healy et aL 2A04:l2l).
The ceramicand faunal evidenceindicates
feastingduring the Middle Formative,and"pan-Mesoamerican"iconogtaphysuggests
that ideology and foreign connectionsmay havebeenusedto initiate a systemof social
ranking(Cheetham1998).
During the Late Formative,constructionat CahalPechcontinuedto increase,and
new building platformswere built alongwith raisedplatforms,moreround structures,
andterracedstructures.The TerminalLate Formativewitnessedan increasein
rectangularplatformsratherthan apsidalones,andthe populationcontinuedto increase.
Overall, thereare indicationsof growing socialandeconomiccomplexity dwing the
Formativeperiod at CahalPech,aswell asa maturingritual complex. I suggestthat the
figurines producedandusedat CalralPechwere part of this ritual complexandthis
dynamictransformation-a propositionthat I considermore fully in later chapters.
9
CHAPTER2
MESOAMERICANFIGURINE STUDIES
Someof the most commonritual artifactsfound in Formativeperiodvillages
oa aresmall,solid ceramicfigurines. This chapterprovidesan
throughoutMesoameri
overview of figurine studiesthat havebeenconductedin the OlmecGulf Coastarea,
CentralMexico, Oaxaca,andthe Mayaregion.
FORMATIVE OLMEC FIGURINES
Follensbee(2000)conducteda systematicstudyof genderin Olmecart, including
ceramicfigurines from the sitesof SanLorenzo,La Venta, andTres Zapotes(Figure 2.1).
The generalchronologyof the figurinesplacedthemin the Early Formative(1500-900
B.C.),Middle Formative(900-300B.C.),andLateFormative(300B.C. - A.D. 300)
periods.Follensbeedefinedthreegeneralcategoriesfor the figurines: relatively
naturalistic,somewhatabstracted,and grotesque.The relatively naturalisticcategory
2A00:35). The
comprises92Yoof the 1,539figurinesincludedin her study(Follensbee
aremore
somewhatabstractedfigurines,which compriselessthan 4Yoof the assemblage,
geometricin termsof their body shape.The grotesquebodiesare highly abstractedand
compactfigures, including chubbydwarvesor babies.
The posturesrecordedfor naturalisticf,rguresinclude standingwith legs apart]'
standing;seatedor lying down with legsapartbut bent inward at the knee;seatedwith
legstogetheror crossedat the ankles;seatedwith legscrossed;or seatedwith legs apart.
The armsor handsoccasionallyare crossedor rest on the lap, knees,or stomach,but are
usuallymissing. The arm andleg combinationsresultin manydifferentposes.It is also
10
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possiblethat somefigurineswereadornedwith perishableclothing(Follensbee2000778 5 ,14 9 -5 1 ).
Depictionsof genitaliawerenot commonon the lower torsos,andthe most
identifiable femalefigurineshaveprominentbreasts.Age is sometimesindicatedon
femalefigurines by the depictionof saggingbreasts(Follensbee2000: 38). Thereare
pregnancy.
alsofigurineswith breastsandlarge,distendedbellies,representing
late-stage
However,most of the figures are slenderand non-pregnant,andprominentbreastsare an
uncommonfeature.Follensbee(2000:35-40)describes
the mostcommonindicatorsfor
femalegenderaspinchedwaists,flaring hips andthighs,taperinglimbs, a pubic-Y or
triangle,andshapelycleavagedbuttocks.
The relatively naturalisticfigurinesare most commonlynudeand someare
depictedwith moldedgarments;the mostrudimentaryof theseis a pubic flap or E)ron, a
simple garmentconsistingof a belt or cord with a flap that hangsdown in the front.
Somegarmentscoverthe front andbackwith a cord at the waist indicatedby incised
lines. Skirts of variouslengthsarealsocommon. Follensbee(2000: 45-46)notesthat the
low slungpositioningof garmentson the torso areassociatedwith femalegender. Other
garmentsdepictedon naturalisticfigurines includesimpleroundpelletsthat may
representpectoralmirrors, short capes,vests/tunics,fillet or beadednecklaces,andround
ear ornaments.
The somewhatabstractfigurines are almostalwaysclothed,andmost havea belt
at or abovethe naturalwaist. A loincloth that wrapsunderneaththe crotchfrequently
accompaniesthe belt. Another garmentassociatedwith the belt is the hip cloth. Because
t2
in Mesoamericathe wrappedloincloth generallyappearsasa male genderedgarment
Follensbee(2000:aQinterpretsthesefiguresasstronglygendered.
The frgurine headsarehighly stylizedandvary considerably,but they
The smoothbaldheadson
nevertheless
showconsistentpatternsaccordingto Follensbee.
the baby-facedfigurinesmay representshavenheads,or they may havebeenadorned
Follensbee(2000:47) notesthat morecompleteexamples
with perishableheaddresses.
of femalefigurines do sometimeshavethesesamebald heads. The majorrty of the heads
the most commonat all three sitesbeing a simple
do display a hairstyleor headdress,
invertedU-shapeelementthat framesthe face. The top ofthis elementmay be either
squaredor rounded,andthe surfacemay be smoothbut is often vertically striated,
suggestingthat it representshair ratherthan a turbanor otherheaddress.The U-shaped
hair form is often adornedwith additionalpiecesthat may alsobe striated,suchasa
centralbun or crest,a singlebun to the side,or a symmefical pair on both sides. Another
style commonin all threesitesandtime periodsconsistsof a centralhairpieceor pair of
pieces,along with sidepiecesthat may extenddown. The hair may be partedor stylized
asa partially shavedhead,ashair bunsalso sometimesoccur singly on an otherwisebald
head. A final commonand variablestyle is a multilayeredcoiffrre that may represent
hair wrappedaroundthe headin a naturalsort of turban.
Follensbee(2009:88) classifiesthe majorityof the bodiesasfemale,andshe
assumesthat the majority of the headswould be femaleaswell. Therewere alsoa small
numberof headsconnectedto the torsos. Follensbee(2009:83, 87-88,Figures4.4a,
4.4b,4.7b)arguesthatthesecommonhairstylesarehighly likely to be femalecoiffires.
A minority of headshaveheaddresses
as opposedto hairstyles. The former are
t3
differentiatedfrom hairstylesby their largerand often projectinggeomehicforms. Some
figurines from La Ventawear a helmet-likeheaddresswith a squaredframe aroundthe
faceand a cenhal creston the top. Someof theseflgureshavefacial hair, andtheseare
undeniablymale.
The male figurine bodiestendto be more geomefiicand ambiguous.Figuresare
that serveto define
most often coveredwith elaborategarmentsand accoutrements
gender. The most commonmale garmentis awide and sometimesmulti-layeredbelt
worn at or abovethe naturalwaist, usually accompaniedby a loincloth that wraps
underneaththe crotch and is sometimescombinedwith a hip cloth or short skirt. Both
malesand femaleswear earplugs,capesor vests,andround pectorals.
To summarize,the femalecharacteristicsfound on Olmec ceramicfigurines
includethe pubic-Y or fiangle, flaring hips andthighs,taperinglimbs,pinchedwaist,
and shapedbuttocks. Therearerare depictionsof pregnancyor old ageandfemalechests
areusually depictedonly minimally, with modestlyroundedforms and a W-shapededge
or line beneaththem.Breastsonly occasionallyappearfull androunded. Female
figurines are most often nudeor wearvery little. Thosefemalegarmentsthat are
recognizableincludethe pubic apron,low-slungbeadedbelt, and low-slung skirt; the
placementof theseelementslow on the hips seemsto be significant. Otherapparelfound
on femalefigurines includesroundpectorals,shortcapesor vests,beadednecklaces,and
breastbands. Femalehairstylescaninclude a completelybald heador singlebunson an
otherwiseshavedhead. The most commonhairstyleis a roundedor squaredcoiffire that
framesthe face in an invertedU-shape. This is often vertically striatedandfrequently
adornedwith crestsor buns. Otherfemalecoiffr.resinclude multiple bunsand crestson
t4
what may be a partially shavenhead,and hair wrappedaroundthe headcreatingan
elaborateturbaneffect.
Follensbee(2000:85) suggests
that figwines wereprimarily usedin household
rituals,probablyfor curingandpreventionof disease.Theposessuggestthat the
figurines were setup, possiblyin rifualistic scenes.Their fragmentarystateindicatesthat
they were brokenduring or after the rituals. Follensbeealso suggeststhat becausethese
werehouseholdrituals, andbecausethe vastmajority of the figwines arefemale,it is
highly likely that womenwere involved in the productionanduseof theseimages,and
that womenwere the main participantsin the ritual activities.
SanLorenzo
SanLorenzowasone of the initial Olmecurbancenters,rising to prominencein
1200B.C. andflourishingfor anotherthreehundredyears. It is alsooneof threeadjacent
Olmec archaeologicalsitesin southernVeracruz(Figure 2.1) known as SanLorenzo
Tenochtitlin. Mathew Stirling ca:riedout initial excavationsat the site from l946to
1970. CoeandDiehl (1980)developedthe first ceramictypologyfor the site,including
the ceramicfigurines. Most of the figurines were found in constructionfill originally
obtainedfrom householddebris,andmost were fragmented.The fragmentsincluded
solid and hollow forms, the latter separableinto small and largecategories.The majority
of the fragmentswere identified asanthropomorphic,and while a.qrmaleffigies were
relativelyrarein the collection,they did occurin everyphase.CoeandDiehl (1980:260)
separatedthe frgwines into four generalcategories:fat frgurines,dwarves,one-eyed
15
gods,and ball players. All four categorieswere describedas"strikingly sexless"
individuals(CoeandDiehl 1980:260).
The fragmentsdatingto the Early FormativeChicharrasphasehavesingleor
doubleslit trough-like eyesthat arenot punched,andthe headfragmentslook "Olmec in
appearance"(Coe and Diehl 1980:263). The dwarf fragmentshavelargeheadswith
single slit eyes,ear ornaments,andforward leaningdeformedtorsos. The most complete
figurine from this phaseis a seatedpregnantwomanwith slightly outspreadlegs,a short
skirt, andhandsandarmscradlingher belly (CoeandDiehl 1980:264,Fig. 308).
Figurine headsfrom the SanLorenzoA phase,alsoin the Early Formative,are
describedasbeingtraditionallyOlmecin style,with a bald headanddouble-sliteyes,
highly archedeyebrows,thick frowning lips, andtiangular flat noses(Coe and Diehl
1980:264). Therearealsoturban-likeand otherheadcoveringsseldomevidentin earlier
phases.Someofthe headsalsoexhibit cranialcinching,which may indicate
deformationsor possiblyseparate
headelements(e.g.,headdresses).
CoeandDiehl
(1980: 264) also demonsfatethe difficulty of identifuing elementsthat occuron the
headsof the figurines;they describethe bun-like elementfound on somefigurinesas a
bun,hair, or a smallhat. MacNeishet al. (1970: 136)calledthis elementa hairlock. The
solid-headfigurines continueto featureelementssuchastight-rolled brim capsand
turbans,andthereareheadsdescribedashaving ornamentson the sidesresembling
mouseears(CoeandDiehl 1980:267). Therearealsoexamplesof trenchandpunctate
eyes,punctatenostils, and shaightmouths.
The solid dwarf figurineshaveheaddresses
that coverthe top and sidesof the
projectionrising from the center. CoeandDiehl
head,with a cylindrical stoveprpe-shape
t6
(1980:267,Fig.331) showa dwarf figurinewith earplugs,a sideflap-coveringhat a
bandwith threenoduleslbunson the centerand sidesof the head.and a helmet-like
headdress.The one-eyedgodsarehumanheadswith one stylized,empty eye socket;the
other eye is coveredwith prominentrectangulareyelashes.The mouthsaredownturned
andthe nosesnondescript.
In general,the Olmecheadscanbe either hollow or solid, with thick downturned
mouths,highly archedeyebrows,largeears,almond-shaped
eyes,thick noses,and often a
baldheador a headdress
suchasa turban. The "non-Olmec"headsaredescribedas
having double-punchedand incisedeyes,single-punchedand incisedeyes,rounded
rectangulareyesmadeby incisionandpunctation,or incisedeyes(CoeandDiehl 1980:
272).
Therearerelatively few Olmec figurinesdatingto the Middle FormativeNacaste
phase. Most of thesehaveirisesformed by largepunctations,solid heads,pointednoses,
roundedcheeks,projectinglips, andheadcoverings,including onewith a smoothcap
with a centralbun (CoeandDiehl 1980:276,Fig. 367). Figurinesfrom the subsequent
Palanganaphase(also Middle Formative)haveroundedfaces,roundedlips, tripunctate
eyes,anda smoothcapor hair with dualbuns(CoeandDiehl 1980:278,Fig.379).
TresZapotes
TresZapotes,locatedin southernVeracruz(Figure2.1),emergedasa regional
centerin the Middle Formative,aroundthe declineof SanLoretuo Tenochtitldn. As one
of the largestOlmec sitesit continuedasa regionalcenterduring the Late Formativeand
further into the Classicperiod. Two studieson figurines from TrcsZapoteswere carried
L7
out by Drucker(1943)andWeiant(1943). The earliestandmostcoilrmonfigurinesfrom
the site were hand-modeled.Most of the figurinesare anthropomorphic,solid, and
decoratedsimply with bits of appliqu6andpunctateor incisedfeatures.Therearea few
hollow figurines;the completeexamplesseemto be whistlesor smalleffigy pots. So few
of the figurines occur intact that it seemsthey werebrokenintentionally. The figurines
areinterpretedto be mostlyfemale(Drucker1943:77).
Drucker classifiedthe headsbasedon executionand style. Thereare punctate
forms, andmodeledand incisedforms. The punctateforms were divided into typesA-F,
and all of thesetypesare fairly similar with only slight variation. The eyeexecution
includestwo semi-lunarimpressionswhoseendspoint downwardwith deepcentral
perforationsasthe pupils. Type D eyesvary somewhat,andmost often they are
indicatedby straightor slightly curvedslits. Type F alsodiffers in that the eyesand
mouth are incisedslits. Otherfacial characteristicsincludeperforatednostrils,protruding
lips partedby a horizontalincision, and sometimespunctationsat the cornersof the
mouth. The earsmay or may not be represented,andearplugsare invariably present.
Few havenoseor cheekplugs,andsomealsoexhibitfacial hair.
The headdresses
arevaried andtwo typespredominate:an elongatedturban,and
ornamenthangingover the forehead. Otherhead
a low headdresswith a crescent-shaped
elementsinclude elaborateturbansandhair that is sometimesshownasbangsacrossthe
foreheadandhangingdown over the ears. Othervariationsincludehoodsand small
conicalhats.
The solid figurine bodiesdo not vary asmuch asthe heads,but thereare several
distinct stylesof representation.The bodiesseemdisproportionatelysmall for the heads,
18
and lesseffort was spentin making themrelative to the facesandheaddresses.While
someof the torsosare flat with a slenderwaist andbreaststhat are not emphasized,others
haveswollenbreastsandaMomenssuggestingpregnancy. Whenapparelis presentit is
appliqu6dandrestrictedto necklacesandpubic covers. Brief skirts areoccasionally
represented.The posturesdocumentedinclude standingand seatedwith the legscrossed
or extended.The feet arenot usuallyindicatedbut sometimesarerepresentedin
simplified form, andthe armsare often stubbyin appearance.
Weiant(1943)typedthe figurinesdifferently,but describedsomeof the same
vary. The eyesare executedwith deepcircular
details. The turban-likeheaddresses
punctationsat the centerwith triangularperforationsat either side,andtypically with a
downwardslant sothat the eyeshavethe shapeof an invertedV. Nostrils are indicated
by circular perforationsandthe lips protrudeslightly and look somewhatpartedwith
circular perforationsat the cornersof the mouth. Thereare a few caseswherethe emsare
not shown,but when they arepresentthey havefrom oneto threefransverseincisions. In
other casesthe earsare only indicatedby small circular earylugs.
The headdresses
Weiant(1943:86,Plate9) showsfor the classof Transitional
Typesare reminiscentof headdresses
seenlater on monuments.The figurine bodieswere
placedinto five generaltypes. The flrst, the bifrncated-legtype,is describedashaving
abnormallyshort legsandfeet indicatedonly by incisions. The simple,unadorned,
standingtype is describedashaving a high and narrowwaist that is sometimes
exaggerated,andthe breastsarerarely accentuated.The seatedfigurineshavevery full
breasts,andthe nudefigures with crossedlegsoften havethe body leaningforward with
the handsplacedon the knees. The fourth kind is uniquein that thereis a tripod support
t9
on the figure to help it standupright. The legsarerough conical stumpsand a third is
bulkier and lessregularin form. It extendsbackwardfrom the baseof the torso to
type.
completethe tripod. The frfth type is calledthe club-leggedsteatopygous
SanAndrds
SanAndr6sis locatedin the modernstateof Tabascoalongthe now extinct Rfo
Bari which flowed northof the ceremonialcenterof La Venta(Figure2.1). SanAndr6s
with La Venta. The
was occupiedduring the Middle Formative,contemporaneous
figurinesfrom this sitewererecoveredarounddomesticareasanddatefrom 1350-350
B.C., with the majorityfoundin levelsdatingfrom 700-500B.C. Derilo Tway (2004)
carriedout an analysison29l figurines,all of which were fragmentarywith the one
exceptionof a completeinfant or dwarf figure. Thereare significantly more solid
figurinesthanhollow, andDerilo Tway (2A04:23)saysthat they resemblefigurinesfrom
the sitesof La Venta and Chiapade Corzo. The figurineswere divided into threestyle
classesderivedfrom Drucker's(1952)studyof figurinesfrom La Venta Style 1 includes
punctationsdelineatingfeatureson the frgurineheads. Style 2 includesa combinationof
incisedgroovesor slit eyeswith appliqu6.Two eyetreatments,simplegrooveor slits
and slits with punctations,were associatedwith this class. Style 3 includeda technique
wherethe clay wasmodeledor sculptedto form a facial feature. The posturesidentified
in Derilo Tway's analysisare extended(standing)and seated.Someof the extended
figurines probablycould not havestoodupright; the small sizeof the feet suggeststhat
the figurines would havebeentoo top-heavyto havestoodon their own. The seated
20
posturesinclude cross-leggedand extendedlegs. The figurinesfrom SanAndrdsand San
Lorenzohavepubiccoverings(a belt with a loincloth)or a pubic-Y is depicted.
CENTRAL MEXICO
Vaillant's FigurineTypolog.v
Vaillant (1930)createda typologyfor figurinesfrom CentralMexico. TypeC,
the most commonfigurine type found in the Valley of Mexico, was subdividedinto eight
groupsbasedon variationsin the presentationof featuresand in the compositionof the
clay. Vaillant describesCl figurinesashavingsmalltrunks,erectposture,headsthat are
relatively large in proportionto the body, andeyes,noses,andmouthsindicatedby fillets
of clay (Vaillant 93A:98-99, Plate10). Plate10in his studyshowsseveraldifferenteye
forms, including dual impressedeyes,coffee-beaneyes,and coffee-beaneyeswith dual
impressions.Thereare also severalhairstylesandheaddresses
shown,including singular
andmultiple buns,turbans,headbands,crests,andpartedhair. Type C2 figurines
likewise haveeyesthat areraisedandformed by impressionsandthey exhibit similar
varietiesof hairstylesandheaddresses.
Vaillant's Plate13 (1930:105)showstypical ClC2 eyetreatments,but the face shapeis more squared.Oneeye form presenton plate 13
is dual impresseddowntumedat the corners,forming an upside-downV shape.Vaillant
focusedprimarily on the headfragmentsto createthesetypes,andnot asmuch
information was providedfor the different body types. The eyeson type C8 figurines,
which are executedwith incisions,arereminiscentof figurinesfrom the Veracruz
lowlands.
21
Tlatilco
Tlatilco is a highlandcentralMexicansitelocatedon the westemshoreof Lake
Texcoco(Figure2.1). It now lies beneaththe moderntown of the samename,inthe
Mexican FederalDistrict. The site flourishedduring the Middle Formativeperiod and is
most famousfor its burials andthe contentsfound in them. In particular,the figurines
from Tlatilco, describedby Porter(1953),areoneof the mostoutstandingcultural
characteristicsof the site. The majonty of the large,hollow figurines consideredtypical
of Tlatilco dateto the Middle Zacatencophase. Another style mentionedis distinctively
o'Olmec,"including both large hollow figrninesof the Gualupita-Olmecstyle and small
solid seatedones(Porter1953:23).
The figurines found at Tlatilco were predominatelymortuaryofferings. Of 160
burials,53 yieldedfigurines. Oneburial (number23) containeda total of 68 figurines.
They exhibit variousforms of apparel,ornamentation,body paint, and hairstyles. The
figurines vary in form, from small and solid to large andhollow, andthe posturesinclude
seated,standing,andreclining. Specialforms includewomencarrying children,animals,
andevenhumorousacrobats.A conceptof duality canbe seenin anttuolzoomorphic
combinations,or figureswithtwo headsortwo faceson onehead(Porter1953:43).
Chalcatzingo
The site of Chalcatzingo, a major center in central Mexico (Figure 2.1) during the
Early to Middle Formative, has yielded a large number of Formative figurines. Grove
and Gillespie (1991: 55) describe the artifacts found at Chalcatzingo as having a mixture
of Gulf Coast and Central Mexican features. The Chalcatzingo figurines form two major
22
groups: stylizedand generallynondescripthumanfigures, andwell madefigurineswith
had
Most of the headsin the largeassemblage
carefullyexecutedfacesandheaddresses.
beenbrokenat the neck area,a patternso regularthat it stronglyindicatespurposeful
breakage(Harlan 1987:252).Early Formativefigurinesfrom Chalcatzingofunctionedas
mortuary offerings,while in the Middle Formativefigurines wereusedin daily activities
in and
andthrown away(Guill6nCyphers1988). Discardedfigurineswereconcentrated
aroundresidentialsfuctures. The figurineswere most frequentlyassociatedwith
structurefloors, burial fill, and ceremonialfeatures,andwere lesscommonin generalfill
(Gillespie 1987:264). lnterms of the numberof figurines (headtype only) per cubic
meterexcavated,the figurineswere not evenly dishibutedtlroughout the site (Gillespie
1987:265'5.
The figwines from Chalcatzingoare eitherrecognizablyfemale(with breastsor
swollenabdomens)or havea sexlessappearance.Male genitaliaare not depicted. Other
but sandalsare sometimesdepicted. The
than turbans,clothing is rare in the assemblage,
figurines may havebeendressedin perishablematerials. Someballgameplayersmay
alsohavebeendepictedwith padson knees,hips,andthighs(Harlan 1987:262).
CyphersGuilldn (1988) classified92Yoof the figurinesfrom Chalcatzingoas
female. A numberof the femalefigurines appearto depictthree stagesof pregnancy,
perhapsan indication of femaletansition rites associatedwith puberty,maniage,and
pregnancy.
Type C8 figurinesfrom Chalcatzingo,similarto thosedescribedby Vaillant
(1930),wereconsideredportraitfigurinesby GroveandGillespie(1991)becauseof their
realistic facial detail andhigh degreeof variation/individuality. Therewere a numberof
23
specificfaceand headdresscombinations,and manydistinct "porhaits" were identified.
Grove and Gillespie interpretedtheseo'portraits"aslineageheadsand suggestedthat they
were probablyusedin ancestorveneration. While the C figurines from Vaillant's
typologygenerallyhaveprotruding"coffeebean"eyesformedby fillets of clay,eyeson
C8 figurines aremadeby incising andgougingdirectly into the face. Pupils are shown
and
with a deepptrnctationin the insidecorner(creatinga cross-eyedappearance),
eyebrowsare indicatedby lightly incisedlines. The well-modeledfigurinesexhibit a
wide rangeof variationin termsof the executionof facialfeatures.Harlan(1987:253\
suggeststhat the variation is patterned"andthat thereis a correlationbetweenthe
individuals porhayedandheaddressshapes.More recently,Harlan (2008)hasindicated
that althoughC8 frgurinesarethe dominanttype at Chalcatzingo(andmorecoillmon
therethan at other settlements),they still representmuch lessthan half of the total
figurine headsfrom the site. He saysthat the porhaitsare more likely to belongto a
unified representationalstyle depictinggroupidentity.
Although many figurinesfrom Chalcatzingofit into Vaillant's typology, some
were dissimilar enoughfrom Valley of Mexico typesthat new type distinctionswere
made. Thesenew distinctionsincludedtypesChl, Chl-l throughChl-s, andCh 2. The
attributeson thesefigurinesincludevariouseye,mouth,nose,andhair forms; turban
types;embellishmentsandbuttons;ear andneckomaments;ann positions;pregnancy
types;andhand,breast,navel,leg, andclothingforms. The apparelincludeswaistbands,
pubic covers,kneepads,sandals,andvariousotherclothing and ornamentelements.
Harlan(1987:261)foundthat somepartsof the figurinesconveyedmoreinformation
than others. Featureson andaroundthe headare highly variable(e.g.,hairstyles,
24
headgear,and stylizationin facial characteristics),yet thereis also a high degreeof
redundancyin the variability.
Turbansmay havebeenimportantin conveyinginformation,consideringthe large
variety of waysthat the turbansare wrappedandthe consistentassociationsbetween
wrapsand ornamentationor embellishment.Ear ornamentsare not asvariable. While
variation in eyeforms may havebeensymbolic,it may alsohavereflectedtraditionsof
manufacture(Harlan 1987:261). The depictionsof nose,moutb andotheranatomical
partsof the headseemleastlikely to conveysocial(or symbolic) information.
It appearsthat over time the athibuteson figurinesfound in the elite andnon-elite
areasof Chalcatzingobeganto vary. Harlan's interpretationis that this reflectsthe
emergenceof elite individualswho attainedcontol of the religious system. Harlan
(1987:263)discusses
arguingthat if aestheticqualitidsare
the role of aesthetics,
o'patterned
with respectto socialgroupsor any otherfeatureof the prehistoric
community,then somepart of the redundancymust be imputedto it." If the figurines
functionedwithin an ideologicalsystem,then constraintsof the ideologywould be a
sourceof variability. Thereis a possibilitythat figurineswereproducedby households
for their own use,but Harlan(1987:262) assumesan ideotechnicfunction for the
Chalcatdngofigurines, and speculatesthat while craft specialistsmay haveformedand
fred the figurines,religious specialistswould havebeenresponsiblefor the symbolic
content.
WEST ME)(ICO
La Pintada
The site of La Pintadais locatedin the TomatlanRiver Basin in the centralcoastal
plain of Jalisco,Mexico (Figure2.1). The Jaliscancoastalculturesmaintaineda
Formativelevel of development
well into the Classicperiod. Mountjoy(1991)
performedaformal analysisof 892 figurine fragmentsfrom La Pintada,all but threeof
which were anthropomorphic.He mentionsthat the figurines had similaritieswith the
Middle PreclassicType C figurines from the centralMexicanhighlands(Mountjoy 1990:
86). Figwineswerefoundin mixeddepositsof domesticrefuse,andnonewere
discoveredin burials(Mountjoy 1991:95). The figurineswerefoundin abundant
quantities(102 figurinesin 36 cubicmeters)andthis may be an indicationthat they had
somecommonusein daily life drning the Formativeperiod. All but oneof the figurines
were broken,and Mountjoy found that it wasnot possibleto discernwhetherthis
occurredprior to or after discar4 althoughthe headswere commonlybrokenfrom the
torso. The posturesthat were documentedincludeextendedand seated.Commonlythe
handsof the figwines arerestingor placedover the chest,stomach,or legs,or hanging
naturally to the sides. Thereis a lack of representationof action in the assemblage.
Mountjoy (1991: 93) believesthat therewas a canonizationof expressionto which the
artisansbelievedthey shouldconform,andwhich may havebeenrelatedto the useor
significanceof the figurines in Formativeculture.
26
OAXACA
Figurinesfrom Oaxacahavebeenfoundin threeprimarycontexts:residences,
burials, and deliberatelyarrangedscenesin households.Most ofthe figurines found with
Formativeburialsin the Valley of Oaxacaoccurredwith women. Householdmidden
debrisis the most commonsecondarycontextfrom which figurineshavebeenrecovered
(Marcus1998:7-9). Infact, small solid figurinesweremoreabundantin ordinaryhouses
andhouseholddebristhan in any other context. Most of the Formativefigurines from
Oaxacaand neighboringareasdepicthumanfemales. Lesscommonarefigurines
depictingmales,humanswearingcostumes,andanimals(Marcus 1998:3).
The Oaxacanfigurines haverelatively standardizedfacial features,while the
hairstylesmay be very ornateand individualized,perhapsreflecting differencesof
status/ranksuchas ageandmarital status. Hairstylesdepictedon figurines may indicate
femalelife stages.Marcus(1998) discussesthe importanceof hairstylesfor womenin
Mesoamerican
societies,andethnohistoricevidencefor the socialinformationencodedin
prehispanichairstyles. Very young girls would wear simplehairstyles,andwhen women
reacheda marriageableagethey would wearmore elaboratestyles. Married women
would then reteat to simplehairstyles.
may relateto
The attentiondevotedto hairstyles,garments,andother accessories
age-grades,
maritalstatuses,
ranh title, andsocialpersonae.Marcus(1998:4G47) found
thatthe mostcomplexexamplesof women'shairstylescamefrom TierrasLargasphase
(1400-1150B.C.) heads.Within a still essentiallyegalitariansociety,the womenused
specifichairstylesto signalmembershipin variouslife categories(e.g.,too youngto
marry, of ageto mar4r,marriedwithout children,marriedwith children,and so forth).
27
Marcussuggeststhat the importanceof displayingthe life stagesof womenmay have
decreasedthroughtime, ashereditaryrank becameincreasinglyimportantand variables
suchas ornamentsand body position cameto play a more prominentrole in signaling
informationaboutthe person.
CHIAPAS
Chiapade Corzo
Chiapade Corzowas a major ceremonialcenterbeginningin the Early Formative.
Locatedin the GrijalvaValley of centralChiapas(Figure2.1 and2.2),it is notablefor
one of the earliestLong Count dates(on Stela2) andits strategicplacementalong
commercialroutesbetweenthe Gulf andPacific. In his report on the ceramicartifacts
from Chiapade Corzo,Lee (1969)classifiedthe figurines into four styles,eachwith
multiple varieties.The reportincludesinformationcollectedon a total of 1,344whole or
fragmentaryspecimens.The datacomprisemainly typesand styles,with little to no
information regardingthe contextsin which thesespecimenswere found. While the
torsoswere only separableinto two categories,the headsexhibitedthe most elaboration
and decoration,andrepresentedfour different styles:(1) facial featuresand heador hair
decorationsindicatedby punctationandappliqud;(2) similar featuresand decoration
createdwith incisionsor broadgroovepunctationsand appliqu6units; (3) features
producedby modeledrelief or sculpting,with punctations(both round and slit)
sometimesusedfor emphasis;and(a) raremold-madefigures.
Figurinesclassifiedasl-Chiapa-A haveeyesformedby opposedtriangular
punctationswith a centralpupil punctation,a stylefrequentlyseenin the CahalPech
28
sample. Large,round,punctateearylugsalmostalwayscoverthe earsin the l-Chiapa-A
figurines. Their mouthsare slightly open,while the lips usuallyproject directly forward
andthe teetharenevershown. In all casesthereis a cowl appliqu6dto the top and sides
arenot elaborateor variedin style.
of the head,framingthe face. Hairdosor headdresses
rangefrom singlepunctatedknobsat the top of
Othertypesof hairstyle/treaddress
the headto threesymmetricallyspacedknobs. Otherhair treatmentsdescribedby Lee
(1969:7-23)includevariousstylesof incisedmmks;tonsuring;hair indicatedon the
centerand sidesof the headwith smoothtonsuredareasin between;a hair cowl, either
plain or with punctateddecorations;symmetricallyspacedappliqudfillet knobscrossing
the head;drag-incisedhair detail; topknot boundwith a band;centally locatedforelock;
and appliqu6fillets. Minor variationsalsooccurwithin thesetypes.
The figurine bodiesgenerallyfeaturegenerictorsos,but somedo depict more
naturalisticanatomicalqualitiessuchasbreastsand genitalia. A few include apparelthat
looks like skirts extendingfrom the waist to somewherebetweenthe kneeandthigh. The
shouldersappearto be broad,andthe waistsvary considerably,from very consficted, to
slightly roundedbellies,to moreprojectedabdomensthat may indicatepregnancy.The
arevery simplistic and
posturesinclude seatedandextended,andmost appendages
generic,althougha few aremuch more elaborate.
MAYA HIGHLANDS
Kaminaljuyu
The site of Kaminaljuyu is locatedin the Guatemalanhighlandson the western
GuatemalaCity (Figure2.1 and2.2). MichaelCoe(2005:52) has
marginsof present-day
29
describedKaminaljuyu asone of the greatestof all archaeologicalsitesin the New
World. With settlementestablished
by 10008.C., it developedinto an extremely
important site dueto its role in tradeandits closeproximity to obsidianandjade sources.
Kidder (1965)studiedthe Formativepotteryfigurinesfrom Kaminaljuyu which
generallywere not buried with the deadnor associatedwith ceremonialdepositsor
caches.In additionto the figurines found in excavation,a fair numberwerebroughtforth
by farmersand otherpeopleinvolved in moderndevelopmentactivities (Kidder 1965:
148). Most areanthropomorphic,
usuallyshownstandingandlesscommonlyseated.
While most of the figurinesfrom Kaminaljuyu arefragmentary,Kidder (1965:
150) saysthat thereis no clear evidencethat the figurineswere deliberatelyb'rokenand
he supportsthis interpretationby sayingmost of the fragmentswere independentfinds
andhadworn edges.Kidder (1965:150)arguesthat the piecesseemto havebeenthrown
on the rubbishthat accumulatedday to day. Nearly all of the Formativefigurines from
Kaminaljuyu representfemales,with depictionsof pregnantabdomens,breasts,and
vulva. Therewereno correspondingmale partsdepicted.
On the headfragmentstherearedepictionsof eyes,nose,mouth,ears,hairstyles,
headdresses,
and ornaments.The threeprincipal body positionsare standing,seatedwith
legsextended,and seatedwith crossedlegs. The armsare held stiffly outward,or bent
down at the elbow and often closeto or touchingthe body. The handsare usually
flattenedwith only incisionsindicating fingers,andthe feet are seldomrepresented.
30
N
0
lookm
Scale1t250,000
ElMirador
,F$I..
Ha
aPacbitun'
fEl Chayal
O Kaminaljuyu
OChalchuapa
Figure 2.2
Map of the Maya area and X'ormative period sites (redrawn from Awe
1992: Figure 1).
31
MAYA LOWLANDS
RandsandRands(1965)indicatethat lowlandMayafigurinesfrom the Preclassicwere
alwayshandmade,usually solid, andmost often female. The noses,lips, earplugs,and
headdresses
of the figuresare often small appliqu6pelletsthat havebeenvariously
modeledor impressed.The eyesareusually circular punches,althoughsometimesthese
arefound within largeralmond-shaped
impressions.
Uar<actun
The siteof Uaxactrin,locatedin the Pet6nBasinof Guatemala(Figwe2.2),
underwenta florescenceduring the later Formativeperiod, along with the neighboring
rival sitesof El Mirador andTikal. Ricketsonsupervisedexcavationsat Uaxactunin the
earlier part of the twentiethcentur5r,contibuting greatlyto developingknowledgeof the
PreclassicandEarly ClassicMaya. Thereare descriptionsof figurine fragmentsincluded
in the report by Ricketsonand Ricketson(1937). Figurine fragmentswere found in
abundancethroughoutthe middenmaterialbelow theplazafloors at Uaxactun. They
were rarely found in surfacedeposits,and nonewere found complete. The smaller
figurinesaresolid,but partsof the largeronesarehollow. Thosebodiesor appendages
that are hollow havea vent to preventcracking. However,few of the figurines are
completelyhollow.
In general,the headsfrom Uaxactunwerenot found attachedto torsos,and some
of the headsare solid while othersarebuilt up arounda core.The headsare
disproportionatelylarge,relativeto the bodies,andareusually setwell down on the
shoulderswithout a neck.The eyes,with only a few exceptions,are formedby the
32
impressionof an ellipical groovewith a round hole punchedin the middle with a sharp
instrument. In most cases,the noseis broadandtriangularwith nostrilsnot generally
indicated. The lips arefull and usually evertedwith the mouth half open. Earplugsare
almostalwayspresent. Headdressforms includea crescentheaddressthat framesthe
face; crescentwith frllet; round cap; capwith crest;and a topknot headdresswith vertical
band.
Both male and femalefigures arepresentand usuallynude,althoughit is
may have
by RicketsonandRicketson(1937:213)thata few specimens
speculated
clothing depictedin the clay. Whenthe figures arenudethe sexorgansarenot depicted.
showthe breasts,abdomen,back,andbuttockswell modeled.
Higherquality specimens
The nipplesand navelsarerepresentedby deeppunctations,andthe shouldersarebroad
andheavyin proportionto the rest of the figure. The figurines arerelatively thick and in
most casesthe back is concaveandthe abdomenconvex. Figurinesare eitherupright or
seated,andthe handsareusually indicatedby slight concavityon the inner sideat the end
of the arm. Therearetwo kinds of legs: staight, boot-shapedlegsandfeet, and legs
with exaggeratedlyplump calves.
Seibal
Seibal is located in the Pet6nalong the Pasi6n River (Figure 2.2). lt was first
settled in the Middle Formative and reached its florescence in the Late Formative period.
The site experienceda decline in the Proto-Classic,and it was not until the Late Classic
that Seibal again became an important ceremonial center. Willey etal. (1975) suggest
that stylistically the Formative figurines from Seibal resembleMiddle Preclassicfigurines
JJ
from boththe Guatemalanhighlandsand lowland Maya sites. The Seibalassemblage
includesboth femaleandmale figures,but it is not clear how this was determined.
Altar de Sacrificios
The site of Altar de Sacrificiosis locatednearthe confluenceof the Pasi6nand
SalinasRivers,which form the UsumacintaRiver (Figure2.2). The sitehasa long
sequenceof occupationwith someof the earliestsettlementin the Maya Lowlands,
until the Late Classic.The
althoughthe sitedid not reachits peakdevelopment
Formativefrgurinesfound at Altar de Sacrificiosdatelargely to the Middle Formative
period. The fragmentswereprimarily found in housesitesor domesticrefusecontexts
(Willey 1972:l3). Most appearto be femaleswith an emphasison sexcharacteristics
andhairstyles. Given this, aswell asthe domesticcontextsin which they were found,
Willey (1972:7) suggeststhat the figurines were fertility fetishes,curing fetishes,
householddeities,or possiblyplaythingsfor children. The torsosare generallynudewith
solid, broad shouldersandflat bodies. Onebody found in a late Middle Formative
contextstill had the headattachedand is consideredfemalebecauseof the presenceof
breasts.The eyesonthis femalefigurine consistof oval impressionsmadeby double
gougingof the wet clay with the semi-ovateend of a small implement. The noseandlips
are appliqu6featuresand arevery pronounced.The foreheadis toppedby a turban-like
appliqu6bandwith a centralknot or ornament.The entirebandandthe topknot have
beenindentedwith small punctations.The earornamentsarenot appliqudbut simply
indicatedwith a circle and dot. The backof the figurine headandbody is quite flat,
althoughnot completelysmooth.
34
Cuello
The site of Cuello is locatedin northernBelize, five km west of the town of
OrangeWalk (Figure 2.2). Excavationsat the site supervisedby NormanHammond
sincethe 1970shaverevealeda cultural sequencespanningfrom the Eady Formativeto
the Late Classicperiods. The researchconductedat Cuello hasgreatly contibuted to our
knowledgeof the foundationsof Mayacivilization.
The modeledclay figurines from the site occurin a variety of forms. However,
they wereusedin a personalor
they areall small,andHammond(1991:177)suggests
private mannerandthat their functionsmay haverangedfrom decorativeto ritual. The
eyesare describedasalmond-shaped
andpunched,with an evendeeperpunched,circular
pupil. The earsareplain projectingflangesand hair is shownon the front, side,andback
of the headby a raisedmarginandsemi-parallelincisions.The posturesvary, with some
figures being seatedwith armssetawayfrom the body.
SUMMARY
Hand-modeledceramicfigurines were someof the most abundantritual objectsin
Formativeperiod Mesoamerica.While they occurredin the Early Formative,they
becameparticularly commonduring the Middle Formativeperiod. The majority of the
figurines arefound in fragmentaryconditionand comefrom mixed depositsassociated
with householdrefuseand constructionfill. Figurinesdo appearin mortuarycontextsat
somesites,suchasEarly FormativeChalcatzingoand FormativeTlatilco. Marcus(2009:
35-39) discussesother Formativefigurines found in mortuarycontextsat sitessuchas
Gualupita(Morelos,Mexico);Nexpa(Morelos,Mexico);andHaciendaBlanca,
35
Tomaltepec,andF6bricaSanJos6(all inthe Valley of Oaxaca).At SanJos6Mogote,
Oaxaca,a group of figurines (Feature63) was found buried asa groupin an arranged
sceneunderneatha housefloor. At La Vent4 stonefigurines were found in a dedicatory
depositlocatedin a public area(Offering 4). Suchexamplesof Formativeperiod
figurines found in specialdepositsareparticularly significantbecausefigurines arerarely
found in primary contexts.
Most of the Formativeceramicfigurineshavebeeninterpretedasrepresenting
differentlife stages(e.g.,at Chalcatzingo
females,in somecasespossiblyrepresenting
and Oaxacansites). The body forms aremostly genericandusually nude,though some
formed in the clay. More attentionwas focusedon the
havegarmentsand accessories
figurines' heads,which generallydemonstratemorevariety in hairstyles,headgarments,
andother ornamentation.Earplugsare depictedacrossMesoamericabut they arenot
consistentlypresentwithin sites,which may indicatedifferencesin stafus,suchasage
(Joyce2000). Various figure posturesoccur at all the sites,with no apparentpreference
for any posturein particular. Overall,with the exceptionof somefigurines from
by the figurines;their posesaregenerally
Tlaltilco, thereis no actionbeingrepresented
quite static.
haveoften relied on anatomicalcluesin determiningthe sexand
Researchers
genderof figurines. However,the figures are often nudeandwithout clay garments;and
the body forms are often ambiguousor neuter. It is possiblethat perishablegarments
't
were usedto adornsomefigurines,makingthe presenceof anatomicalsexualindicators
unnecessary
becausethe socialcodingof genderwould be presentin the apparel.Marcus
(2009: 45) mentionsthe useof textiles (miniatureclothing) with completefigurinesat the
36
siteof CerroAzul, locatedon the desertcoastof Peru(seeMarcus1987:Fig. 2la and
22d). While the bodiesof thesefigurinesare sexless,their apparelindicatestheir gender.
The Peruvianfigurines evenhad necklacesof seedsstrungon cottonthread.
While the torsosof Mesoamericanfigurines often appearquite plain, with limited
accessoriesand apparel,in someregionsthereis muchmore attentionpaid to the
figurines' heads. The greatervariety and detail evidenton the headssuggeststhat they
carry more socially encodedinformation aboutstatusand identity. Thus,analyses
focusedon figurine headscould leadto a betterunderstandingof the function of these
objects.
It seemslikely that the anthropomorphicceramicfigurinesfrom the Formative
period servedmultiple functionsrangingfrom decorativeto ritual/religious. The
diversity of the figurinesfound throughoutMesoamericasuggeststhat their roles and
meaningsmay havevaried betweenculfures,villages,and evenindividual households.
Thesefigurines conveyedvariouskinds of informationat different times and in different
contexts. Nevertheless,a review of figurine studiesfrom acrossMesoamericareveals
severalnotablepatterns,including an associationbetweenfigurines and domestic
contextVactivities,aswell asthe disappearance
of figurines with the emergenceof more
complexsocialorganization.
CHAPTER3
CAHAL PECH:NATURAL AND CULTURAL SETTINGS
LANDSCAPE AND NATURAL SETTING
The countryof Belize,locatedon the Caribbeancoastof the YucatdnPeninsula,
comprisesa portion of the Maya lowlands(Figure2.2). GeologicallyBelize may be
separatedinto northernand southernhalvesapproximatelyat the latitude of the town of
SanIgnacio. The northernportion is composedof Cenozoiclimestoneand marls, and
with the exceptionof hills alongthe westernborder,it is generallylow in relief. The
southernportion of Belize is generallyhilly to mountainous,with the principal feature
being the Maya Mountains. Tropical forestscovermost of the country,exceptfor the
coastalplain and areasin the north that are opensavarmawith occasionalpine barrens.
Openpine forestscoverthe Mountain Pine Ridge,a dissectedgraniteplateauat the
northwestedgeof the Maya Mountainssoutheastof Sanlgnacio. The climate is tropical
with averageannualtemperaturesaround80"F,and rainfall varying from 160inchesin
with May to
the southto 50 inchesin the north. Thereme two distinct seasons,
Decemberbeing rainy andJanuarythroughApril being dry.
The Belize River, one of the more navigablestreamsin the country,crossesthe
direction(Figure3.1). The river hastwo principaltributaries,
countryin an east/northeast
the Macal (the easternbranch)andthe Mopan (the westernbranch). Thesetributaries
convergeabouttwo km north and downstreamof the town of SanIgnacio. The Belize
River flows pastthe archaeologicalsitesof Baking Pot, SpanishLookout, Barton Ramie,
and RoaringCreek. BeyondRoaringCreekandOrangeWalk the river continuesthrough
38
extensiveswampsand sandysavannalandsof the coastalplain, then curveseastwardand
emptiesinto the CaribbeannearBelize City.
THE BELIZE VALLEY
The BelizeValley is locatedin westernBelize.It may be dividedinto two
topographicalsubregions,the ooupper
Belize Valley" and the o'centralBelize Valley." The
upperBelizeValley is an uplandareaof hills andsteepslopesaboveor westof the
convergenceof the Macal and MopanRivers. The centralBelize Valley consists
primarily of broadalluvial flatlandsand borderinghills that occur alongthe western
sectorof the Belize River from thejuncture of the Macal and Mopan Riversto an area
southof the moderncapitalof Belmopan.At this point, theriver descends
into low-lying
marshyswampsand savannathat stretchanother30 hn to the CaribbeanSea Survey
(Willey et at. 1965)hasshownthatthe ancientMayapopulationwasconcentrated
denselyalongthe banksof the Belize River abovethe point whereit entersthe broad
savannaplain. Most of the housemounds
occur on the alluvial soil of the river terraces
abovethe normal flood levels. The Belize River is a naturaltransportationand
communicationroute betweenthe CaribbeanSeaandthe Pet6nheartlandin Guatemala.
The major Maya site of Naranjois only 30 km southwestof Barton Ramie;Holmul is the
samedistanceto the northwest:andTikal andUaxactrinare located70 and75 km to the
west,respectively.
39
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The cultural historical sequencein the valley wasvery long, andthereare
compositionaldifferencesbetweenthe siteson the Belize River in the centralBelize
Valley andthe sitesabovethe confluenceof the Macal andthe MopanRivers in the
upperBelize Valley (Chaseand Garber2004:4-5). The sitesin the cenfralBelize Valley
are clusteredon the sidesof the Belize River and consistof many small moundswidely
distributedover the landscape,while the upperBelize Valley sitesare more concentrated
in their settlementand exhibit larger-scalearchitecture.Thereis evidenceof Archaic
periodoccupationin Belize(Lohseet al.20A6),but the culturalhistoryof the people
known asthe Maya in the Belize Valley beganin the Middle Preclassicor Middle
Formativeperiod. The ceramicsequencedatesbackto approximately1000B.C. Within
the valley thereare severalmedium-sizeand small centerswith continuousrural
settlementbetweenthem. The larger sitesgenerallyconsistof multiplaza groupswith
largenon-domesticstructuresandrange-typebuildings,and severalsiteshavecarvedor
plain monuments.The larger centersinclude BlackmanEddy, Baking Pot Pacbitun,
CahalPech,El Pilar, BuenaVist4 andXunantunich. The minor centersincludeFloral
Park,Barton Ramie,Yaxox, BacabNa, Nohock Ek, andNegroman(Tipu) (Awe 1992:
53). The largestcentersinthe vicinity of CahalPechare BuenaVista and Xunantunich.
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42
CAHAL PECH
CahalPechis a medium-sizedcenterlocatedtwo km southof the confluenceof
the Macal and MopanRivers. Oneof the earliestlowland pottery taditions (Cunil, lD:}A900 B.C.) identified in the Belize River Valley hasbeendocumentedat CahalPech(Awe
1992). Thereis also evidenceof early occupation,with the establishmentof a village by
the early Middle Formativeperiod.
CahalPech(Figure3.2)wasofficially reportedin the 1950s,but researchat the
site core and in the immediateperipherywas minimal until the mid 1980s. In 1988the
first major archaeologicalproject was conductedin responseto extensivelooting andthe
expansionof the moderncity of SanIgnacio, Cayo. The threepriorities of this research
were to (l) mapthe architectureof the site core,(2) explorethe structuresandplazasin
the core, and (3) conductcomprehensivemappingandtestingof the architecturalgroups
and isolatedskucturesin the surroundingarea(Awe 1992;Goldsmith 1993\. The site
core (Figure 3.3), locatedon top of a steephill overlookingthe Belize River Valley and
with a southernview of the Maya Mountains,has34 largemasonrystructureswith an
acropoliscoveringa l.S-hectarearea The architectureincludestemplepyramids,single
andmultistoriedrangestructures,largepublic plazas,small elite courtyardqandtwo
ballcourts,in additionto reservoirs,a sacbe,and onecarvedand sevenplain stelae(Awe
et al. 199a,r99l; Awe andHealy 1994;Ball andTaschekl99l; Healyet aL 2aag. Most
of the 34 structuresin the core areahavebeentested,making it possibleto reconstructthe
1800-yearoccupationalhistoryof CahalPech.
Due to the Mesoamericantradition of constructingnew structureson top of older
ones,it canbe difficult to uncoverearly depositsat Maya sites. At CahalPech
43
shatigraphicexcavationswere carriedout on StructureB-4 (Awe 1992:106-143;
Cheetham1995)in additionto a seriesof large-scale,
horizontalexcavations
andsmaller
testpits in PlazaB (Cheetham1996). Theseinvestigations
uncoveredCunil (ca. I100800B.C.), Kanluk (earlyMiddle Formative;ca. 800-650B.C.),andUmbral(lateMiddle
Formative;ca. 650-300B.C.) ceramics. Thesephasesare equivalentto the emly and late
JenneyCreekCeramicComplexesat Barton Ramie(Gifford 1976).
CahalPech
Cayo,Belize
PlazaC
c1
F
.f
FiHN
.F4ltu{
€==4
C6lb='<-
A
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2
Erar-f
Figure 3.3
0
4
0
Cahal Pechsite core (redrawn from a plan createdby R. Guerra and
C. Helmkewith suwey by D. Cheetham;Awe and Schwanke2006:
Figure l).
SOCIAL CHANGESAT FORMATIVE CAHAL PECH
The inhabitantsof CahalPechmaintaineda mixed subsistence
patternfrom the
Cunil throughthe late Middle Formative. Their diet includedcultivatedplants suchas
maize,beans,and squash;productsof the coyol palm, ramon,and fig trees;terrestrial
game(deerand agouti);marinefish (parrotfishandgrouper);small quantitiesof
freshwaterfish (catfish);and abundantamountsof freshwaterclamsand snails(Healy et
aL.2004:I l9). Isotopic evidenceindicatesthat maizewas a staplecrop by the late
Middle Formative,but the variablenatureof the isotopic dataalso suggestedthat during
the late Middle Formativetherewas an appearance
of distinct socialclasses.The
distributionof C-4 foods(i.e.,maizeandimportedmarinefish), unlikethe wild plant
foods, game,and freshwaterfish, appearsto havebeenlimited (White et al. 1996). Some
of the populationsat CahalPechwere not enjoyingthe full rangeor quantitiesof crops
being consumedby the rising elite (Powis et al. 1999:373). Early Middle Formativeand
late Middle Formativespoutedvesselfragmentsconstituteevidenceof ritual feasting,as
do high frequenciesof faunalremains(Healy etal.2004: l2l).
Although thereis osteologicalevidencefor pathologiesand ill health,during the
Formativeperiod overall skeletalpathologiesanddentaldefectswere quite limited and
rarely severe,suggestingrelatively goodhealthandnutrition when comparedto the
Classicperiod(Healyetal.2004:120;Song1995,1996).
The burials from the Formativeperiod indicaterepetitiveritual activity. The
humanremainsfromthe Cunil and early Middle Formativelevelswere burnedandmay
representsomeform of morhrarytreatment. This changedin the late Middle Formative.
Burials from theselevelswere all extendedin a supineposition with their headto the
45
south. The typesof burials from this phaseincludedsimpleand cist burials. Only cist
burials containedgravegoods,andtheir constructionwould haverequiredmore energy
expenditurethan the simpleburials (Awe 1994). This indicatesdifferentiationin status
throughburial treatment. The setorientationof internmentbecamea patternthat
persistedin the valley until the endof the Classicperiod (Healy et at.2004: l2l).
Someof the Cunil pottery and otherartifacts atCahalPechbearpanMesoamericanmotifs. Oneexample,recoveredfrom alate Cunil phaseoffering on the
floor of structureB-41lOc-sub,wasa smallpolishedjadeite*flameeyebrow"andfang.
Thesepartswould havefit into a largermosaic,suggestingearly Maya connectionsto the
Gulf CoastOlmec(Awe 1992:307-308;Cheetham1998). The creationof suchlongdistanceconnectionsmay havebeenone stategy adoptedby an emergingelite at Cahal
Pech.
Marine shell and obsidianare amongthe exotic materialsfound at CahalPech.
The shell wasprimarily Strombussp. from the Caribbeancoast,andthe obsidianusedat
the site camefrom three sourcesin the GuatemalaHighlands. The obsidianartifacts
found at CahalPechincludedboth flakesand blades,but stratigraphicFormativeperiod
depositsat CahalPechand other lowland Maya sitesrevealeda flake to bladeletsequence
with prismatiobladeslargely replacingflakesby the late Middle Formative(Awe and
Healy 1994: 197-198).Local leadersmay haveenhanced
their prestigeby controlling
andmanipulatingexotic products,knowledge,and symbolsobtainedthroughlongdistanceexchangenetworks(Cheetham1998).
46
SITE COREFORMATIVE SEQUENCE
Approximately 75 percentof all moundstestedat the site of CahalPechyielded
evidenceof late Middle Formativeconstructionor architecturalmodification (Awe 1992:
356). It wasalsoduringthe Formativeperiodthatthe hand-modeled
figurinesincreased
in frequencyat the site. StructureB-4 within the site core (Figure 3.3) yielded the highest
frequencyof figurine fragments,comparedto other structuresatCahalPech,and
providesthe most detailedandlengthy stratigraphicsequenceat the site with tlirteen
buildingplatforms,the first ten of which werebuilt in the Cunil (1200-900B.C.),early
Middle Formative(800-650B.C.), andlateMiddle Formative(650-300B.C.) periods.
Thesesequences
are discussedin severalreportsandpapers(Awe 1992;Cheetham1992,
1995, 1996;'Healy et al. 2004),andthey are still beingrefined throughfirther
investigations.The constructionsequenceprovidedin Healy et al. (2A0$ is usedin this
thesis.
The earliestlevel in StructureB-4 was a living surfacecomposedof a very
compact,dark, and Seasy depositwith abundantchertdebitagebut no ceramicsexcept
for minute trampledsherdson the topmostsurface. This early level hasbeeninterpreted
asa preceftrmicoccupation(Cheetham1995:27).
The first constructionphasedocumentedin the B-4 sequence(13-sub)was
composedof packedmarl andearthintermixedwith ashyloam. A singleposthole
indicateda superstructure,
but its layout is unknor,vn.The configurationof the platform
suggestedthe building wasround or apsidal. The next constructionphase(12-sub)was
alsoformed from packedmarl andcircular in plan with two small steps. The shapeof
this platform likewise suggesteda circular supersfiucture.The third platform (1l-sub)
47
containeda raisedand leveledareathat actedasa riser, differentiatingthe patio from the
building platform. This wasthe earliestarchitectureat the site coatedin lime plaster.The
following structure(10-sub)was comprisedof four late Cunil lime-plasteredbuilding
platforms. The secondplatform(l0b-sub) containeda rectilinearinteriorfloor and l0csubwasthe most elaborateofthe Cunil phaseresidencesin the sequence.It was
constructeddirectly over l0b-sub and its superstructurewas a more carefully finished
rectilinearstructurepaintedwith red stipes (Awe 1992: 120). OtherCunil phase
residences
werediscoveredbelowPlazaB (Cheetham1996). Cheetham(1995:20)
estimateseight residentialunits would haveexistedon the hilltop, forming a small village
of 35-70people,basedon the spatialarrangement
of the Cunil phaseresidentialunitsand
the spaceavailableon the hilltop. Only frve figurine fragmentsinthis analysiswere
foundin Cunil levelsfrom StuctureB-4 (Table3.1). Theresidentialfunctionof
StructureB-4 endedwiththe Cunil phase,and a seriesof five small templeswere
constructedin the early Middle Formativeand late Middle Formative.
During the early Middle Formative,PlazaB was leveledand coatedin plaster.
This becamethe site's first formal ceremonialpIaza. PlazaB wasno longera residential
areaand small templesborderedthe plaz4 alongwith an E-Grouparrangement
(StructuresB-l,B-2, andB-3) that may havebeenconstructedat this time, but was
certainly in placeby the late Middle Formative(Healy et al. 2004: 109).
In the secondhalf ofthe earlyMiddle Formative(Kanlukphase,850-650B.C.)
building platformscontinuedto representthe predominantform of architectureat Cahal
Pech,but therewas an overall increasein the height of structures,improvementsin
building materials,andthe introductionof the first recognizablepublic building
48
(StructureB-4\5ft, a relatively largerectilinearplaform). Therewere 35 figurine
fragmentsfound in eady Middle Formativelevelsfrom StructureB-4 and associated
plazaunits(Table3.I ).
It was during the late Middle Formativethat the constructionand inaugurationof
civic-ceremonialarchitectureincreased.PlazaB wasplasteredand elevated,and its
surroundingbuildings(B-1, B-2, andB-3) werereconstructed,
multipletimes. Structure
B-4 wasreconstructed
on at leastthreeoccasions.The lateMiddle Formativelevelsfrom
StructureB-4 producedat least70 figurine fragments,and 82 more camefrom levels
dating from the late Middle Formativethroughthe early part of the Late Formative
(Table3.1).
During the Late Formative,in the early facetXakal phase(350-100B.C.),
architecturalactivity at the site reachedone of its two apexes(the seconddid not occur
until the Late Classic). Awe (1992)indicatesthat nearly half of the structures
investigatedat CahalPechwere initially constructed,renovated,or modified dwing this
time. Building platforms,raisedplezas,round structures,andterracedplatformswere
popular;therewas a preferencefor rectangularforms with thick plasterfloors and
perishablesuperstructures.The floors in PlazasA and B were all part of the same
courtyarduntil the endof the early facet Xakal phase.At that time, PlazaF was addedto
the site core; StructureA-2lsub 2 markedthe first timePlazasA andB were divided into
two separate
courtyards;andB-4l1Otrand B.-4171tr,
alongwith StructureA-1 (subl),
becamethe first examplesof monumentalarchitectureat the site (Awe 1992:213-216).
During latefacetXakal phase(100B.C.-350A.D.) the populationcontinuedto
increase,asdid the preferencefor rectilinearasopposedto apsidalforms. Communal
49
effort representedby the monumentalarchitecturewas apparentat the site (Awe 1992:
217). Th@-three of the figurine fragmentsI analyzedwere found in Late Formative
levelsof StrucfureB-4 or PlazaB. No fragmentsin the samplefrom the site corewere
associatedwith contextsdatins later than the Late Formative.
Table 3. 1
Figurine frequencies with chronological associations from Structure B-4 and
associated plaza units.
Time Period
StructureB-4
Plaza B
Total
Percentage
Cunil
5
0
5
2.2
EMF
27
I
35
15.6
LMF
50
20
LMF-ELF
79
a
J
LateFormative
25
8
186
39
Total
70
31.1
82
36.4
JJ
t4.7
22s
100.0
(EMF: Early Middle Formative,LMF: LateMiddle Formative,ELF: Early LateFormative)
PERIPHERALGROUPSFORMATIVE SEQUENCE
The peripherygroupsat CahalPechconsistof moundclustersthat vary in size,
configuration,complexity,andpresumablyfunction. The peripherygroupsoccupied
during the Formativeperiod include CasPek (Awe etaI.1992b;'Lee 1996;Lee andAwe
1995),Tolok (Powis 1992,1993,1996;PowisandHohmann1995),Tnnrc(Conlon 1992;
ConlonandAwe l99l), Zubin (Iannone1993,1995),andZopilote(Cheetham2004).
Ceramicdataindicatethat CasPek,Tolok, Zubin,andZopilote were foundedin the
Cunil phase,thoughno architecturedatingto this period hasbeenfound yet (Healy et al.
2044: 110). By the lateMiddle Formativemostof thesesettlementgroupshad smallscaledomesticand civic architectureaswell assmall reservoirsor storagechambers
(chultunob).
50
Therewere four round structuresat the site of CahalPechduring the late Middle
Formativeperiod. Thesestructureswerelocatedin StructureB-4l7hin the sitecore,
Structure212"dintheZotzGroup, and Structures14and l5 inthe Tolok Group.
Structure15wasabandoned
by 500B.C. andreplacedby the largerStructure14. Within
Structure14therewerefour non-dedicatorycaches,four Late Formativeburials,andfive
Late ClassicBurials(Aimerset al. 2000:77). Theroundstructuresat CahalPech
fulfilled a ceremonialratherthan a utilitarian role within the community. Eachof these
open-airplatformscontainednumerousspecialdeposits,andthey seemto havebeenused
for family- or community-orientedritual performances(Aimers et al. 2000: 83). They
also servedaslineageor burial shrinesand asplacesof communicationbetweenthe
Maya andtheir ancestors(Aimers et al. 2000: 8l). This function persistedfrom their
initial constructionin the late Middle Formativeto their abandonmentin the Late Classic.
Middle Formativedepositsat CahalPechcontainedabundantamountsof worked
marineshell. More than 200 small shell disk beadswere recoveredfrom Cunil through
late Middle Formativedepositsin the site coreandthe peripherygroups(Healy et al.
2044: 116). Evidencefor heavyinvestmentin shell ornamentproductionwas found in
the settlementgoup of CasPek. Therewas abundantmarineshellrefuse,numerous
smallchertdrills, andfinishedshelldisk beads(-ee 1996;'LeeandAwe 1995). All of
the figurine fragmentsfrom CasPekwith preservedprovenienceinformation camefrom
late Middle Formativethroughearly Late Formativecontexts.
51
,-*-'--t/
/t\I
I
S|[riS{dlcI :1000
Tolok Group
Cahal Pech
Cayo, Belize
r:.*/
Figure 3.4
Contour Line (meters)
Plan of the TolokGroup (redrawn from Awe l992z Frgure 52).
52
CasPek Group
Cahal Pech
Cayo, Belize
t-.r.rl
l
l
i
Sfiucturell a
l-.r'-a
o
Structure12
l
l
l
a
Strucnrre6
Struch{e 4
Strucilre 3
Structure
Structure 2
@
Strut:tule 5
6
Structure
t
a
I
t
Strucnrre9
Figure 3. 5
s
Structlre
t
l
t
l
Structurel0
Plan of the Cas Pek Group (redrawn from Awe 19922Figure 53).
The Zopilote group,the largestnonresidentialclusterof architectureat Cahal
Pech,is locatedat the terrninusof the Martinez causeway.Therewere four Middle
Formativetemples,and eachwasthe tallest templeat CahalPechduring its time. A final
late Middle Formativebuilding was quite largeandprobablyassociatedwith the only
carvedmonument(Stela9) known at CahalPech. This monumentwasthe "primary
burial" in a Late Classicinterment,Tomb 2, in StructureA-1. The depictionon Stela9 is
a humanfigure insidethe mouth of a highly stylizedfeline chwacterizedby multiple
scrollsand a bifurcatedtongue. The monumentappeils to havebeenritually terminated
by purposefuldefacement,and it is brokeninto two largepieces(Cheetham2004: 135).
53
ZopiloteGroup
CahalPech
Cayo,Belize
Chultun
a
Structffe 2
Oo**n,
g
Struc$re 5
E
a
Strucfirre
Chultun
E FeatureI
Reservoir3
0
2
5
5
Reservoir1
Scale l:500
Figure 3.6
Plan of Zopilote Group (redrawn from Cheethamet aL 1993:
Figure 1).
0
54
Rural Road
I
Figure 3.7
Tzinic Group
CahalPech
Cayo,Belize
Plan of Tzinic Group (redrawn from Awe 19922Figure 46).
55
Dll
--
6-iaacn)
\
Reservoir
DroB
f
Platlirrrn
LECEND
zillilN {;R()Ut,
('AHAl,I'li('tl
('AYO.lltrl-lZH
Figure 3.8
nE-t
0
H
2
0
a,
Sr*reture
('onlour
Plan of Zubin group (redrawn from Awe 19922Figure 51).
BELIZE VALLEY FORMATIVE TRANSFORMATION
Many significantchangesoccurredat sitesin the Belize Valley during the
Formativeperiod. The populationincreased,architecturalstylesand functionschanged,
therewas an overall increasein consffuction,and socialstratificationbecame
increasinglyevident. Thereis evidencefrom other sitesin the valley of similar
Formativesequences
comparativeto CatralPech.
56
The siteof BlackmanEddy (Figure3.1),locatedapproximately20 hn northof
the moderntown of Sanlgnacio,hasa documented
occupationsequence
that beganat the
end of the Early Formativearound1100B.C. andcontinuedthroughthe Late Classic
periodaroundA.D. 900. Unauthorizedbulldozingat the siteexposedStructureB1's
constructionhistory of thirteenMiddle Formativeconstructionphases,five considered
domesticand sevenpublic. Therewas alsoevidencefor extensiveritual deposits(Garber
et aL.2004:26'5.
Therewas an increasein architecturalcomplexityand in associatedlabor
investrnents
following the Kanochaphase(1100'900B.C.) with structurescharacterized
by lime plasterfloors and simple stonemasonry. The emergenceof socialdifferentiation
toward the end of the Kanochaphasewas indicatedby increasedlabor and quality of
architecturealong with the presenceof exotic materialsand iconographyon ceramic
vessels(Garberet al. 2004: 27-36). The exotic materialsincludedgreenstone,obsidian,
andmarineshell. Kanochaphaseceramicsalsoexhibit pan-Mesoamerican
symbols(e.g.,
kan crossand avian serpents).Evidenceof feastingindicatesthat communalrituals may
havefunctionedasintegrativeactivitiesthat formed socialbondsand allowedthe
redisfibution of goodsthroughlocal exchangenetworks(Garberet al.2004a:36).
Architecturalconstructionbecamemorerefined in the early facet JenneyCreekphase
(900-700B.C.). Therewas extensiveuseof lime-plasterandtrimmed block masonryand
public structureswere constructed.Dedicatoryandterminationdepositsbecame
common,and servednew ceramictypesappeared(Garberet aL.2004:37).In the Late
JenneyCreekphase(700-350B.C.) therewasincreased
constructionactivity alongwith
the earliestindication of sculptedarchitecturaldecoration(StructureBl-4d').
57
The sitesof BlackmanEddy and CahalPechhavesimilar Formativesequences
as
demonstratedby lengthy stratigraphicdeposits. Other sitesin the valley may not have
comparabledeposits,but other evidenceindicatessimilar Formativedevelopmental
sequences.The early Middle FormativeCunil potterythat bearspan-Mesoamerican
imageryat CahalPechandBlackmanEddy hasalsobeenidentifredat other sitesin the
valley, including Pacbitun,Xunantunich,Barton Ramie,andFloral Park (Healy et al.
2004: 113). Also presentelsewherein the valley arethe special-functionround structures.
Suchlate Middle Formativestructureshavebeenfound at Barton Ramie(BR-44 cut 4),
SanLorenzo/Xunantunich(Structure7 in SL-3), and El Pilar @P-9) (Aimers et al. 2000).
At the site of BuenaVista del Cayo,the earliestevidenceof occupationdatesto
the early facetKanluk ceramicphase. The site would haveconsistedof singlefarmsteads
or hamletsat that time. Therewereno burials or humanremainsfound. Therewasalso
no evidenceof masonryor plasteredmasonryarchitecture.By the Late Formative,the
site includedplasteredmasonry,formal plazas,aball court, and a substantialand
elaborateresidentialplatform complex(Ball and Taschek2004: 152-156). Although
developmentat BuenaVista wasnot asintenseasat the sitesof CahalPechor Blackman
Eddy, it doesindicatethat similar changeswere occluring acrossthe valley.
Aroundthe terminalEarly Formative (ca. 1200B.C.) muchof the BelizeValley
wasbeing settledby sedentaryagriculturalists,and by 600 B.C. therewas evidenceof
long-distance
exchange(Awe 1992:364-368;Awe andHealy 1994),constructionof
monumentalpublic architecture(Awe 1992:205-213),evidenceof growing social
inequalities(Awe and Cheetharn1993),and increasinglevelsof economicspecialization
(Sunaharaand Awe 1994).
58
CHAPTER4
CAHAL PECHFIGURINECOLLECTION
INTRODUCTION
The assemblage
of Formativefigurinesrecoveredat the site of CahalPechhas
grownoverthe years. The collectionwasinitially reportedto contain187fragments
(Awe 1992),and Cheetham(1993) subsequentlycreateda cataloguethat containedfive
hascontinuedto
additionalspecimens,for a total of 192fragments.The assemblage
grow sincethat time. My analysisdocuments389 fragments,including 381 from the site
core and peripherygroupsof CahalPech,and eight fragmentsfrom the site of Pacbitun.
The latter site is locatedwithin the Belize Valley andthe eight fragmentswere stored
with the CahalPechcollectionfrom a previousBelizeValley Archaeological
(BVAR) project. Thesefragmentsshouldrepresenta regionalvariety,
Reconnaissance
hencethey were includedin this analysis. However,thereare alsofragments
documentedby Awe and Cheethamthat arenot includedin this analysis.BVAR provided
me with this particularsampleof 389 fragments.Additional figurine fragmentsfrom
CahatPechmay be storedelsewhereby other archaeologicalprojects.
METHODS
My analysis of the Cahal Pech figurine assemblageconsisted primarily of
collecting descriptive data for each artifact. The primary data on figurine manufacture
included ceramic paste and slip, form (solid or hollow), and measurementsof length,
width, and thickness(Figure 4.1). Given the fragmentary nature of the figurines, in some
casesit was difficult or impossible to take all of the desired measurements. Each
fragment was classified as anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, musical instrument (when not
59
clearly anthropomorphicor zoomorphic),or unidentifiable. The forms were further
musicalinstrument
head,torso,appendage,
basedon anatomicalcharacteristics:
separated
apparatus(e.g.,mouthpiece),or unidentifiable. Descriptiveand stylistic datawere
collectedon individualspecimenforms(seeAppendixA) andvia photographs.Pictures
weretaken of every fragmentincludedin this analysis,and severalillustrationswere
made(seeAppendix B for headfragments). The preservationof the figurines'
provenienceinformation was a priorrty during the analysis. Thus,an inventorywas
generatedin orderto documentthe provenience,currentidentificationcode,prior
cataloguenumber,andbasicvisual information (e.g.,ceramicdescription,form, and size)
of eachfigurine fragment. Appendix C containsaprovenienceinventory andAppendix
D containsan inventoryof ceramicdescriptions,forms, and measurements.
An identification systemwas developedto label the artifactsbecauseseveral
systemshad beenusedover time for catalogingpurposesand a uniform referencesystem
wasneeded.Eachfragmentwas given an alphanumericcodeconsistingof a letter
followed by a hyphenand a number. The lettersdesignatethe type of fragment(H :
andU:unknown). The
T:torso,I:instrument, C: complete,
head,L: appendago,
numbersare arbitrary andwere assignedin the orderthat the fragmentswere analyzed.
As the systemrelies on interpretationof fragmenttypes,it may changein the future.
Specimenforms were draftedto recordinformationaboutthe fragments.This
pastedescription,
information includedidentificationcodes,provenience,measurements,
form descriptiorl and stylistic information. The completeform is includedin Appendix
A. The forms will be combinedwith the photographsthat weretakento form a catalog
that will be useful for anv future research.
60
Thickness
, , }
.'*-\l
"i
--ar'\
'-t
i;,
\.
-r
:',
1,
.r:;;--"
I
I
Il
Thickness
a)
z
'ot-_-,*
:,4/
Figure 4. I
widrh
*_-'-.-.
*g, sill,''*,"
.
i
r
f --.",q\
c)
b)
width
\
+
E
"f& ;tv4a.a.
r :' -'Jl1 \
3
;
*5r*r-'"fo'"E
Measuring methods for (a) head fragments, (b) appendage fragments,
and (c) torso fragments (illustrations by M. Branfman).
GENERAL ANALYSIS
Of the 389 specimensincludedin this analysis,the majority areanthropomorphic
andsolid (Tables4.1 anda.\. Typicallyhollow flagmentsarepartsof musical
arethe most
instruments,but not always(Table4.1). As might be expected,appendages
cornmonanatomicalelements(Table4.3). Therearealsoquite a few headandtorso
fragments(Table4.3), which are very importantcarriersof stylistic information.
in the collectionwerehandmodeledout of clay. Thepaste
All of the specimens
colors rangefrom dark brown to a very cleanwhite, andthe pastesrangefrom very hard
to very ashyandbrittle. The pastetypesareconsistentwith Awe's (1992)descriptions
and are comparableto ceramicwaresfrom the Cunil, Middle, and Late FormativePeriods.
and headsare
The figurinesare extremelyfragmentary. Most of the appendages
not attrached
to torsos,althoughoccasionallythey are. The only completespecimensin
the sample(Figure4.2) includea smalldepictionof a dwarf (C-1) andan ocarina(I-24).
None of the fragments?ppearto be adornedwith garments,and all seemedto be nude.
6r
Table 4. I
X'requencies
of fraqments identified as anthropomorphic,zoomorphic,
instrument, and unidentifiable.
Frequency
Percentage
Anthropomorphic
295
75.8
Zoomorphic
t0
2.6
ZoomorphicInstrument
6
1.5
Instrument
24
6.2
Unidentifrable
54
13.9
100.0
Total
Table 4.2
Frequencies of solid and hollow fragments.
Frequency
Percentage
Solid
355
91.3
Hollow
34
8.7
100.0
Total
Table 4. 3
Frequenciesof different anatomicalfoms.
Frequency
Percentage
Appendage
137
35.2
Head
108
27.8
Torso
75
19.3
Mouthpiece
7
1.8
Complete
2
0.5
Unidentifiable
60
15.4
Total
100.0
62
Most of the aestheticelements,andthe most stylistic variability, occur on the
headfragments,while thereis only minor variability in anatomicaldetailson torso and
appendagefragments. Becauseof the genericandplain qualitiesof the torsos,such
fragmentsmay be underidentified,thus accountingfor the higher frequencyof head
fragmentsrelativeto torsos(Table4.3).
F'igure4.2
Completefigurine specimensincluding (l-24) an ocarina in bird form
and (C-1) a seateddwarf figure.
ZOOMORPHICAND INSTRUMENT FRAGMENTS
The following is a brief descriptionof the fragmentsfrom the CahalPechsample
that were classifiedaszoomorphicor asmusicalinstruments.Thereis much overlap
betweenthe two categories;this is why they areincludedtogether. All of the fragments
classifiedaszoomorphicareheads,while the instrumentcategorycontainsinstruments
with zoomorphicheadsand instrumentpartssuchasmouthpieces,resonatingchambers,
andtonal holes.
63
Ten fragmentswerecategorizedaszoomorphic(with no evidenceof a musical
function), while 30 were identified asinstrumentfragments. Of the 30 instrument
fragments,6 had zoomorphicqualities(Table4.1). The distinction wasmadeby the
presenceof a hollow chamber,tonalholes,or mouthpiece.Severaldifferentanimal
forms are present,including birds, a feline, a frog, a primate,a dog or coyote,an
armadillo,andsomeunknownforms. The frog's head(Z-$ is very naturalisticin
appearance.The primatedepictionQ-6\ is interpretedasa howler monkey. One of the
questionableforms with largeprojectingearsand nose (Z-7) may be an anteater,bat, or
tapir. One of the completefigurines is a zoomorphicwhistle in the shapeof a bird (l-24)
(Figure 4.2). Fur*er information on ancientMaya instrumentsmay be found in Benton
(2010).
ANTHROPOMORPHIC FRAGMENTS
Appendages
Appendages are the most common form of fragment, and very few have
ornamentation. Of the 137 fragments that were identified as appendages,four different
types were distinguished. The most common types are C and D (Table 4.4). Fragments
in the "Other" category include one fragment that is a severely flexed limb, as well as a
few examplesthat looked like crab claws. Someof theseclaw-looking fragmentsmay
have served as spires on censers.
Type A fragments(Figure 4.3)have an hourglassshape. The foot baseis ovoid
and concave, with the long axis running from the front to the back of the foot. The ankle
64
is constrictedfront-to-back,as indicatedby the positioningof the knee. This form serves
to define the foot, andmay havehelpedthe figurine to standon its own.
Table 4. 4
Appendage type frequencies and percentages.
Appendage Type
Frequency
Percentage
A
7
5.1
B
7
5.1
C
4L
29.9
D
42
30.7
Other
5
3.6
Unidentifiable
35
25.6
137
100
Type B fragments(Figure 4.4) havean S-curveshape,formedby a bendat the
kneeand a curve at the ankle. Somefragmentshavea flattenedsidealongthe lengthof
the appendage-perhapsindicating a seatedposture,with a flattenedbasethe figure
would havesaton-while othersdo not. The latter may haveservedasarmsor legs.
The legs often includethe thigh and areparticularlywide. Many havehighly tapered
ends. Arms alsohavedramaticchangesin thickness.
(Figure4.5) are slightly curvedextensionsand quite generic.
Type C appendages
They vary in sizeand degreeof curvature. Somemay be an extendedlimb with the curve
at the endrepresentinga hand. Othersarevery short and slightly curvedalongtheir
entire length. Theseare difficult to distinguishasarmsor legsbecausethey are so
generic.
(Figure4.6) are extended,andmany appearto be lower limbs.
Type D appendages
Onefragment,identifiedasL-136, is particularlyinterestingbecauseit is hollow andhas
a hole that may havefunctionedasa vent during the firing process.
65
Figure 4.3
Sampleof the Type A appendages(photographby C. Zweig).
Figure 4. 4
Sample of the Type B appendage (photograph by C. Zweig).
66
F'igure4.5
Sampleof the Type C appendages(Photographby C. Zweig).
Figure 4.6
Sampleof the Type D appendages(Photographby C. Zweig).
67
fragments. The incisions
Incisionsare evident on29 (21.2%)of the appendage
primarily indicatefingersor toeson the distalendof the appendage
fragments.On 55
(40.1%)of the appendage
fragmentsthereareno incisions,while in 53 cases(38.7%)the
presenceof incisionscouldnot be determinedwith certainty.The presenceof incisions
within the groupsis detailedin Table 4.5. Type D hasthe highestoccturenceof incisions,
while no type B fragmentsareincised.
Postureswere determinedby observingthe torsosandthe lower appendages.
Two generalpostures,seatedand extended(standing),areevidentin the collection. In
a seatedposture(T-6, T-12, T-31,
Figure4.10thereme examplesof torsosdemonshating
T-35). More specificseatedstyleswerealsoidentified. Severalleg fragmentswith
flattenedbasesindicatea seatedposture,andtheir shapesuggestsa boundanglepose,in
which the legsdo not crossandthe solesof the feet meet. Among Type B fragments,L-6
andL-125 (Figrne4.4) me examplesof this positioning.FragmentC-l (Figure4.2) is a
goodexampleof a folded-legspose,with foldedlegscrossedat the ankles.
Table 4. 5
Appendage type and incision frequencies (flexed and crab claw types
are considered as oother').
Incision
Presenl
Absent
TypcA
TypeB
.,'
a
f
{)
.)
Type C
2
T"r'peD
17
Other
Inlormation
N o tA v a i l a b l e
Tttttl
Indelernrinate
'lbtal
I
2
L)
4l
l5
lo
4?
-t
.1,
o
5
+
0
_il
J5
2q
-s5
5.1
t37
68
Torsos
I beganmy analysiswith the assumptionthat the most straightforwardgender
attributeson the figurineswould be male or femaleanatomicalelements.However,
during the analysisthe task of identifring genderprovedto be extremelydifficult dueto
the ambiguousnatureor absenceof physicalcluesof genderidentity. Initially, my
genderassignments
werevery conservative.Of the 389 fragments,I identifiedonly 15
(3.9%\ asfemaleandone (0.25%\,a fragmentwith phallic representation(T-46, Figure
of genderwasbasedon the presenceof breastsand/or
41A),asmale. This assignment
genitalia. Needlessto say,this procedurewas insufficient. Only 14 (18.9%)of the torso
fragmentshadbreasts,while 18 (24.3yo)hadpectoralsbut no breasts(Tablea.Q. Fortytwo (56.8%)of the torso fragmentswere not completeenoughto categorizein this
manner.
The Mesoamericanfigurine studiesdiscussedin Chapter2 focus on anatomical
(primary and secondarysexual)characteristicsasa basisfor assigninggenderto figurines
(e.g.,Derilo Tway 2004;Drucker |943;Follensbee20A0;Gillespie1987;Harlan 1987;
Kidder 1965;Marcus1998;Ricketson1937:Weiant1943;Willey 1972). Somestudies
(Derilo Tway 2A04;Drucker L943;Follensbee
2A00;Marcus1998)alsomention
genderedappareldepictedin the clay, suchasa loincloth, which lessensthe difficulty in
assigninggenderto figurines. However,in the CahalPechsample,sex-linkedanatomical
characteristics(e.g.,genitals,a pubic-Y, breasts,pregnancy)are rarely depictedin an
obviousmanner. It is alsounfortunatethat in the sampleapparelis not depictedin the
clay. The absenceor subtletiesof thesesexualand genderedcharacteristicsmadeit
necessaryto alter my approachto the identificationof genderin the CahalPechsample.
69
Table 4. 6
Depictionsof breastson torso fragments.
Percent
Form
Frequency
Present
I4
18.9
Not Present
t8
24.3
lnformation Not Available
42
56.8
Total
74
100.0
wereneededto assigngender,so I decidedto
Clearly,additionalcharacteristics
focus on other aspectsof the torso, including the waist, abdomen,andhips. The
categoriesfor waistsincludeconstricted,straight,rounded,andnot available(Tade a.\.
Therewere 34 fragmentswith waiststhat could be classified.The majority of theseare
constricted.Threebelly categoriesweredefined: rounded,flat, andnot available(Table
4.8). Hips were classifiedascurvy, sffaight,or not available(Table4.9). However,vory
few fragmentsincludedhipsthat couldbe classified.Figure4.7 includesexamplesof
probablefemaletorsosandFigure 4.8 includesexamplesof probablemaletorsos. Figure
andFigure4.I0 showsa sampleof lower torsosthat
4.9 showsa sampleof abdomens
may include both male and femaletorsos.
Table 4.7
Waist form frequenciesand percentages.
Form
Frequency
Constricted
24
32.4
Straight
8
10.8
Rounded
2
2.7
Information Not Available
40
54.1
Total
74
100.0
70
Table 4. 8
Belly fom frequenciesand percentages.
Form
Frequency
Percentage
Rounded
15
20.3
Flat
15
20.3
lnformation Not Available
44
59.5
Total
74
100.0
Table4.9
llip form frequencies and percentages.
Form
Frequency
Percentage
Curvy
t9
25.7
Straight
InformationNot Available
Total
J
4.1
52
70.3
74
100.0
If female frgurines are assumedto have constricted waists, rounded bellies, and
curvy hips, while male figurines have straighter waists, flatter bellies, and narow hips,
then there would appearto be a higher frequency of female representationsin the Cahal
Pech sample. However, the figurines are more abstract, and many of them could be
considered ambiguous. Moreover, in the process of conducting the analysis, a number of
questions arose in my mind. Could some figurines represent gender-neutral identities?
Can it be assumedthat becausesexual characteristics are absent from a figurine, it is male?
The figurine studies reviewed in Chapter 2 focus on anatomical indications of
figurines' sex and gender. Howevero figures are often nude and lack clay garments,
anatomical distinctions are rarely made, and the body forms are often ambiguous or
neuter. Blomster (2009: l2l) analyzss identity and gender in Early Formative figwines
from Oaxaca and arguesthat on many of them it was not necessarily critical to show
7l
primary and secondarysexualcharacteristics,'bhich challengesour assumptionsboth
aboutthe links betweensexand genderand aboutthe importanceof male-female
dichotomies." The lack of physicalrepresentationof sexualattributesmay demonstate
that femalegenderwasnot basedsolelyon reproductiveroles. Blomster(2009:129)
addresses
the idea of ambiguoussexualrepresentations
and questionsthe notion that an
ooambiguous
gender"is represented
or that figurinesmustbe forcedinto a maleor female
category. He suggestsinsteadthat sexor genderwasnot importantin socialidentity or
representation,
or that gendermay havebeenindicatedbut in waysnot associated
solely
with biological sex. Missing costumeelementsor implementsmay havesignaledgender
identity.
To a certainextent,the task of assigninggenderis alwayssubjective,and using
anatomicalcharacteristicsas a basisfor identifuing the genderof the CahalPech
figurines wasnot effective. The producersof the CahalPechfigurines did not seemto be
concernedwith representinggenderin an anatomicalway. As the most stylistic detail
wasporhayedon the headfragments,theseseemedto be the main focusof identity
representationon the figurines. Either genderwasnot a primary concern,or it is
portrayedin a form that we cannoteasilydecipher. Indeed,theremay be much social
information encodedin thesefigurinesthat we do not yet understand.
72
Figure 4.7
Figure 4. 8
Sampleof probable femaletorsos.
Sample of probable male torsos.
I3
Figure 4.9
Sampleof abdomens.
Figure 4. 10 Lower torso examples including male (T-46) and probable female
examples.
74
Heads
All ofthe zoomorphicfragmentshaveheads.The collection alsoincludes90
anthropomorphicheadfragments,which I will focuson in this analysis. Appendix B
containsphotographsand short descriptionsof all anthropomorphicheadfragments. As
notedabove,most of the stylistic information wasencodedin the headfragments;far
more detail was presenton headsthan on otherpartsof the body. The degreeof detail
and stylistic variability evidenton the headfragmentssuggeststhat they were the primary
vehiclesvia which identitieswere conveyed.
Therearenoticeabletrendsin the shapesof the headfragments. The most
commonforrn (56.7%)is flattenedfront to back,with the widest point being from earto
ear. Several(l6.7YQof the headfragmentshavea round,moresphericalform. The
remainingfragments(26.7%)could not be classifiedaccordingto headshape.Notably,
many(22.2%)of the flattenedheadshavea concaveforehead;in contrast,12(13.3%)
and48 (53.3%)couldnot be
haveflat foreheads,l0 (11.1%)haveconvexforeheads,
classified(Figure4.11).
H-17
H-81
Figure 4. 11 Examples of (H-17) concave and (H-81) convex foreheads
(illustrations by Melissa Branfman) .
75
Head Elements
There are32 fragments(35.6%)that featuresomekind of elementon the crown
of the head. For the purposeof this analysis,headelementsinclude adornments,
or coiffuresthat arepresentbut may not be specificallyidentified. Nine
accessories,
(10.0%)do not haveanyelements,4l (45.6%)couldnot be classified,and8 (8.9%)have
a smoothhead. It is not clearwhetherthe smoothheadis indicativeof a headelement,
suchas a cap,or possiblya tonsuredor shavedhead. Thus,suchfragmentswere
separatedfrom headsthat definitely lackedelements.
Hair
Thereare24 fragments(26.7%)with hair indicatedby striationsor incisions,23
(25.6%)with no indicationof hair, and43 (47.8%)thatcouldnot be classified.Some
fragmentsalsohavebun or knot elements.Eighteen(20%) of the fragmentshavea single
do not haveany bun elements,and
bun elemenf 5 (5.6%) havemultiple buns,21 (23.3o/o)
46 (51.1%)couldnot be classified.
Face
Nosesareevidenton 46 (51.1%)of the fragmentsthat includea face(Table4.12).
Of those,29 (32.2%)haveno nostrils,while 17 (18.9%)do. Therewere44 (48.9%)
or form. Most commonly,
fragmentsthat could not be codedfor nosepresence/absence
the eyeswere composedof a dual-ovateimpressionwith a singlecentralpunctation
(Figure 4.12). This style is somewhatnaturalisticand givesdimensionto the eyes. The
forms(see
othereyeform stylesincludetipunctate (Figure4.12) andmiscellaneous
AppendixB: H-35,50,60, 61,74,80,83, 86). Table4.10includeseyeform frequencies
andpercentages.
76
Justover halt (54.4%)of the headfragmentshavemouths. Among these,several
different mouth stylesare evident(frequenciesare shownin Table 4.ll). All of the
mouthswith teethare stylistically similar, with the front two incisorsbeingthe only teeth
shown. The teethare sometimesthree-dimensional,with one incision in the middle.
Tripunctate-srylemouthsoccur on the faceswith the tripunctateeyes(e.g.,Figure4.12).
Table 4. 10
Eye form frequenciesand percentages.
EyeForms
Frequency
Percentage
3s.6
Dual-ovateImpressions
with CentralPunctations
Tripunctate
4
4.4
Miscellaneous
8
8.9
lnformation Not Available
46
51.1
Total
90
100.0
Table 4. 11
X'requencies
for stylistic mouth fomations.
Mouth Form
Frequency
Percentage
Open
13
14.4
Open-LipsPresent
9
10.0
Open-Lipsand TeethPresent
20
22.2
Open-TeethOnly
1
1.1
Tripunctations
2
2.2
Not Available
45
50.0
90
100.0
77
Table 4.12
Noseform frequenciesand percentages.
NoseForm
Frequency
Percentage
NosePresent:No Nostrils
28
31.1
NosePresent:Nostrils
t7
18.9
NoseAbsent
I
l.l
InformationNot Available
44
48.9
Total
100.0
Figure 4. 12 Examplc of eyeforms: (H-34) dual-ovateimpressionswith central
punctation and (H-51) fripunctation.
Ears
Representations
of earsalsovary considerably.Somefigurines haveearswith or
without earplugs,while othersonly haveeaxplugsandno ears(Table 4.13). Thereis
somevariety in the earplugswhenthey arepresent. Someareappliqu6drings; othersare
just shownby punctationsin the ears(Table4.14). Someof the earsalsohaveear
78
incisions(e.g.,H-17 in Figure4.1l), which vary in numberanddirection(Table4.15).
Most of the incisionsarehorizontal. Their precisenumberis often uncleardueto the
fragmentarynatureof someofthe ears. H-34 (Figure4.12),H-57 (seeAppendixB), and
H-89 (seeAppendixB) hadverticalincisionspresenton the ears.
Tahle 4. 13
Ear form frequenciesand percentages.
Ear Form
Frequency
Percentage
Present:Ear Plugs
25
27.8
Present: No Ear Plugs
5
5.6
Absent: Ear Plugs
5
5.6
Absent: No Ear Plugs
2.2
InformativeNot Available
2
53
58.9
TotaI
90
100.0
Table 4. 14
Earplug variety frequenciesand percentages.
Ear Plug Variety
Frequency
Percentage
Perforated
5
5.6
Not Perforated
13
Appliqud
11
r4.4
12.2
Nodules
1
1.1
Information Not Available
60
66.7
100.0
Total
Table 4. 15
Presenceof ear incisions with frequencies and percentages.
Frequency
Percentage
Present
18
20.0
Absent
l3
t4.4
InformationNot Available
59
65.6
90
100.0
Ear Incisions
Total
79
PROVENIENCE
It is not only importantto look at the figurine fragmentsthemselves,but alsoto
considerthe contextsin which they were found. The information aboutthe figurine
fragments'proveniencewas inconsistent.The morerecentlyexcavatedfragmentshad
very good anddetailedinformation,while someof the fragmentsthat were excavatedin
the initial investigationsat CahalPechwere missingcontextualinformation. Someof the
fragmentscould only be associatedwith a specificgroup at the site while otherscould be
features.
linkedto specificexcavationlots, levels,andassociated
As notedearlier, eight(2.1%) of the 389 fragmentsI analyzedcamefrom the site
of Pacbitun(Figure3.1). Theseparticularfragmentswereincludedin the analysis
from a previousBVAR project,
becausethey are storedwith the CahalPechassemblage
andthey shouldrepresenta regionalvariety. The site core of CahalPechwas
representedby 238 fragments(63%) excavatedin GroupsA, B, C, and G. The majority
of the fragments(234,or 60.2%)camefrom GroupB; two (0.5%)camefrom GroupC;
andone fragment(0.3%)camefrom eachof GroupsA andG (Table4.16).
Therewerc 142fragments(37%) that camefrom the peripherygroups(Table
Tolok (58 fragments,or l4.9yo),
4.16),includingCasPek(48 fragments,or 12.3Yo),
(8 fragments,or2.lYo),
andZubin(18
Tnnrc (10 fragments,
or 2.6yo),Zopilote
fragments,or 4.6Yo).All of thesegroupshad documentedFormativePeriodoccupation.
Therewas alsoone fragmentwhosecontextwas specifiedonly asthe site of CahalPech,
with no other descriptionfor its provenience.
The contextualinformationprovidedwith the sampleindicatesthat therewere
particular structuresat CahalPechthat containedhigher frequenciesof fragmentsthan
80
others(Table 4.13). Inthe site core StructrneB-4 hadthe highestfrequencyoverall, with
186fragments@7.8%).Additionally40 fragments(10.3%)camefrom PlazaB, which
had associationswith the constructionsequenceof StructureB-4. In the CasPek group
Structure1 yielded48 fragments(12.3a/o),
and Stucture I from the Tolok grouphad22
fragments(5.7%). Sixteenfragments(4.1%) from Tolok had no more specific
provenienceinformation. The rest ofthe structureseachhad only 10 fragments(2.6%) or
less(0.3%). This unevendisfiibution may reflect the greaterintensity of researchin
particularareas,and/orissuesof preservation(e.g.,the effectsof surroundingmodern
developmentson peripheralsettlementgroups). Understandingthe disfibutional
patterningwould requirefurther investigation.
Table 4. 16
Group
Cahal Pechand Pacbitun site core and periphery group figurine
fragment frequencies.
Frequency
Percentoge
A
0.3
B
60.2
C
0.5
CasPek
12.3
G
0.3
Pacbitun-B
1.8
Pacbitun-C
0.3
Tolok
t4.9
Tnntc
2.6
Zopilote
2.1
Zvbin
4.6
Unknown
0.3
Total
100.0
8l
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*l
IL
t
(9
x
€
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C
O
tr
6r
q,
rL
aa
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tr
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6t
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fra
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&
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c
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s
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IP
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eb
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82
Table 4. 17
Frequenciesand percentagesof figurines with provenience
information.
Percentage
Valid Percentage
Time Period
Frequency
Cunil
6
1.5
2.0
EMF
40
10.3
13.6
MF
7
1.8
2.4
LMF
75
19.3
25.4
LMF-ELF
105
27.0
35.6
LF
60
r5.4
20.4
Formative
I
0.3
0.3
Early Classic
1
0.3
0.3
Total
295
75.9
100.0
Missing
94
24.r
Total
389
100.0
Cunil
MF
LMF
LMF.ELF LF
Formative EC
Missing
lnformation
Figure 4. 14 Frequenciesof figurines with provenienceinfomstion (n= 389
fragments).
83
HEAD FRAGMENTANALYSIS
Over the courseof the analysis,it becameapparentthat the most detail and
stylistic variation occurredon the headfragments,while the secondmost occurredon the
torsofragments.As mentionedin Chapter2,Harlan (1987)alsonoticedthis patternin
the collection from Chalcatzingo.He notedthat somepartsof the figurines carriedthe
bulk of the informationalload. andthe main information bearersseemedto be a seriesof
featureson andaroundthe head(Harlan1987:261). Vaillant (1930)recognizedthis as
well when he basedhis main typological distinctionson the figtnines' heads. Harlan
(1987)recognizedthat the depictionsof turbansmight havebeenamongthe most
importantbecauseof the largevariety of ways in which they were wrapped,andthe
consistentassociationbetweenthe wrapsand ornamentationor embellishment.He also
arguedthat earornamentslikewise may havehadhigher symbolic content,thoughthey
were not asvariable. The position of the limbs onthe figurines from Chalcatzingomay
carry meaning,and detailson the torsosmay sometimesdistinguishgender;but much
like the CahalPechcollectiorl depictionsof clothing arerare and many of the torsosare
eitherrecognizablyfemaleor sexless(Harlan 1987:261-62).While otherfigurine
studieshavedifferentiatedtypesbasedon eye andheadforms (Vaillant 1930),little has
beensaidaboutwhat are on top of the heads-namely, hairstylesand headdresses.The
headfragmentsin the CahalPechsamplethat haveheaddresses
and hairstylesseemmost
variable. Thus,variationin theseelementsmay be oneof the mostsignificantwaysin
which information aboutsocialdifferentiationwas conveyed.
Marcus(1998:3l-38) conductedan extensiveanalysisof the hairstylesandhead
garmentspresenton figurinesfrom Oa:raca.Sheexaminedwhat socialinformation was
84
encodedin the hairstylesandwhat that could tell us aboutthe frgurines. Among the
sixteenth-centuryMaya,marital statuscould be communicatedby hairstyle. Unmarried
Yucatecwomenwore their hah in o'horns,"andmarriedwomenwould part their hair in
the middle andbraid it. Yucatecwomenalsowore a cotton cloth abovethe braid to cover
their head,neck,and chest. "They are often depictedon many Forrrative figurines,
wherethey haveoftenbeenmisidentifiedas 'helmets'or'bunnedhelmets"'(Marcus
differencesin hairstylesamongthe Nahua(Aztecs).In
1998:31). Marcusalsodiscusses
contrastto the Yucatec,maried Nahuawomenstyledtheir hair into horns. The
unmarriedgirls would weartheir hair long andunbraided,while at othertimes girls had
croppedhair. Mixtec womencreatedmany distinctivehairstylesby addingribbons,
headbands,and ornaments.Ma:ried Zapotecwomenwore their hair braided,while
unmaried girls had more diverseand elaboratehairstyles.
Dwing the CahalPechanalysis,an issuearosethat was similar to a question
posedby Marcus: How is hair and cloth differentiatedin the Formativefigurines?
Marcusdeterminedthat hair would be representedby the presenceof shiations,and
appliqu6stripsmay signiff cloth. The overall arangementof the hairstylewas another
importantvariable. Marcususedvmious termsto describeand classiff the Formative
hairstyles.A chignonis a largebunchor coil of hair worn at the napeof the neckor at
achignonatthetopof
isawoman'stopknot,
thebackofthehead.A chignonquadrille
the head. A zulu Imot is a sectionof hair that hasbeentwisted or tied into a knot;
multiple of thesemay appearon the head. The last form enumeratedby Marcusis the
presenceof tonsuring(shaving),which canbe eitherpartialor full. Shedescribesone
type seenon malefigurinesasthe'tonsuredcacique"(Marcus1998:50, 61, Figne 8.24).
85
The headfragmentsfrom the CahalPechsampleexhibit elementsthat may be
interpretedin variousways. The fragmentswith smoothheadscould depicttonsuringor
shaving,but they alsocoulddepicta helmetor cap(e.g.,Figure4.12:H-34). Onehat
stylethat is clearly depicted,a conicalhat that restsfurther backon the head,canbe seen
on C-l in Figure4.2. Another style of headelementthat appearsto be a form of hat is
what looks like a fitted capwith a wide brim. It is evidenton two fragments(see
Appendix B: H-29, H-66). Another accessorydepictedon the headfragmentsare
(seeAppendixB, H-5). Theseoccurassingleor doublebandsandareoften
headbands
appliquddaroundthe head.
More commonelementsseenin the CahalPechsampleof headfragmentsare
bunsor knots. Theseoccur as singleor multiple elements,andthey vary in stylistic
presentation.They canbe plain, or they may haveincisions,striations,or punctations.
The most naturalisticexample,seenon H-12 (seeAppendix B), looks like a coil of
twisted hair. However,more often depictionsonly havevertical or horizontalincisions.
The sampleof figurine fragmentsdoesnot includeany porfayal of long or loosehair.
Whenhair is porhayed,it is knottedin bunsor depictedasvery short. For example,short
hair is indicatedon H-21 (seeAppendix B) by punctationsthat cover the entire scalparea
and go no lower thanthe napeof the neck.
Previouslyit wasmentionedthat Marcus(1998)found it diffrcult to distinguish
representations
of cloth andhair on figurines. Shedeterminedthat striationswould
indicatehair, that appliqu6stripsmay indicatecloth, andthat the overall hairstyle
arrangementshouldalsobe considered.The hairstylesdepictedon figurinesfrom
Oaxacaare more elaboratethan the possiblehairstylesdepictedin the CahalPechsample,
86
and while the figurines from both regionssharesimilarities,the designationof hairstyles
is moredifficult to determinefor the CahalPechmaterial. This is dueto
andaccessories
the lack of well-definedtechniques,suchasincision and appliqud,andperhapsalsopoor
preservation.
Severalofthe figrrrine headsfrom CahalPechwere similar to thosefound
elsewherein Mesoamerica.Vaillant's (1930)typologyof figurinesprimarily from
CentralMexico includednumerousheadpiecesandheadstylesthat were alsofound in
the CahalPechcollection. The centeredbunlknotoccurredin Vaillant's typesCl, C3,
C4, C5, Dl, D2, and L aswell asin his groupsfrom Guatemalaand El Salvador(Vaillant
1930:98-150;Plates10,11,13,14,15,19,31,32,35).Vaillant'sfigurinesalsofeature
muttiple knots,off-centeredsingleknots,headbands,smoothheads(capsor tonsured
heads),and broadbandstyle hats. The knots occurredwith or without incisedlines that
were either vertical or horizontal. Similar forms can alsobe seenin the Oaxacafigurines
shownthroughoutMarcus's(1998)study. Formativefigurinesfrom SanAndr6s,a
secondarysite on the peripheryof La Vent4 demonshatesimilar hair andheaddress
styles,including centertopknots,off-centerknots,multiple knots,partedhair, and smooth
headsor helmets(Derilo Tway 2004).
Oneof the most difficult challengesin analyztngtheCahalPechsamplewas
determiningwhethertherewere hairlinesdepicted,as opposedto a uniqueheadshape,
headgear,or hair. Thereoften is a distinctionbetweenthe foreheadandthe crown of the
head,either by incision or in form (with concaveforeheadsthat curve forward). In
Vaillant's typology, someof the typesshowmoredehnedseparationbetweenthe head
andthe headgear.For example,Type C5 includesheadswith a narrow foreheadand a
87
smoothcapclearlydifferentiatedfromthe head(Vaillant 1930:Plate15,Numberl).
This differentiationis subtlein the CahalPechsample. Thereare a few examplesthat
obviouslyhavehair andnot a headpiece(seeAppendixB: H-6, H-10, H-21,andH-84).
They all showhair on the headbut thereis still a defining line betweenthe hair andthe
forehead. This makesinterpretationdifficult when classifyingheadstylesandpieces.
Thereare stunningsimilaritiesbetweenseveralCahalPechspecimensand other
fragmentsin Mesoamerica The headfragmentH-5 (Appendix B) from CahalPechhasa
unique style of centeredbunlknot with a headbandoverlappingit. Thereis a fragment
from Tlapacoya(Vaillant 1930:105,Plate13)that hasthe samehair configuration.A
figurine shownin Marcus(1998:58,Figure8.18)is similarto a fragmentfrom Cahal
Pech(H-12, Appendix B). The topknot onthe Oaxacanfigurine is very much like the
topknot onH-12, with swirling lines indicatingthe hair.
Whereasthe turbanappearedin every Mesoamericanfigurine studymentionedin
Chapter2,there areno turbansdocumented
in the CahalPechsamplethusfar. Also, in
other studiesthe depictionof garmentsand apparelin the clay appearsmore common,
while apparelis absentin the CahalPechsample. The significanceof this absenceis
unknownobut it is possiblethat the figurinesweredressedin perishablegarments.
Onequality presentin the CahalPechsamplebut not notedin other
Mesoamericanfigurine studiesis the depictionof teeth. The depictionof the front two
teethwas not mentionedor presentedin the figurine studiesreviewedin Chapter2 and is
possiblya uniquefeatureof the CahalPechsample.
The classificationof ruler portraitswas consideredwhen interpretingthe figurines
at CahalPech. As notedin Chapter2, GroveandGillespie(1991:55) distinguished
two
88
(1) stylizedandgenerally
major groupsinthe Formativefigurinesfrom Chalcatzingo:
nondescripthumanfigures, and(2) well madefigurineswith carefully executedfacesand
headdresses
which most likely representattemptsat realistic porhaiture. They found that
the portraitfigwines fell into the C8 type from the Vaillant (1930)scheme.The C8
porfiait figurines arecharacterizedby realistic facial detail and a greatdeal ofvariation.
combinations.In total, GroveandGillespie
Many havespecificfaceandheaddress
identified 20 porhaits from the Chalcatzingocollection.
The figurine headfragmentsfrom CahalPechdo havesomewhatrealistic detail
and a good deal of stylistic variation,but they do not frt the C8 type description. Harlan's
(1987)descriptionof the C8 type includeseyesmadeby incisingandgougingdirectly
onto the face. The pupils arealmostalwaysshownby a deeppunctationin the inside
andthe eyebrowsareporfayed by
corner,giving the figurines a cross-eyedappearance,
lightly incisedlines. None of the figurinesfrom the CahalPechsampledemonstate
crossedeyes,nor areeyebrowsa significantfeature.However,Harlan(1987:252,257258) describesa type (Chl) specificto Chalcatzingowith eyesexecutedsimilarly to
CahalPechfigurines. He notesthat "no figurineswith this eyetreatmenthavebeen
publishedfromthe Valley of Mexico collections"(Harlan1987:258). He thoughtit
might havebeena regionalvariationbecauseit wasnot commonto CentralMexico. The
eyetreatrnentwas executedwith two gougesforming the lateraledgesof eacheye,and a
pupil betweenthesewas createdby anothersmallergougeor a punctation(Harlan 1987:
257). This style is the sameasthe dual-ovateand singlepunctationteatrnent usedonthe
majorityof the CahalPechcollection.In Marcus(1998:133,Fig. 11.28,Specimen10)
thereis a headfragmentthat hasthis sameeye style,and shedescribesit as 'lmusual both
89
in the eye form andheadshape." Thus,this eyeform is commonto CahalPechfigurines,
but not thosefrom CentralMexico or the Valley of Oaxaca.
The headfragmentsfromthe CahatPechsamplehavethe most detail and stylistic
in facialdepictions.Faceshaveall basicfacial elements
variability. Thereis consistency
of eyes,nose,andmouth. Thereis consistencywith the style of eyeswith the majorrty
singlecentralpunctationexecution(Table4.10). Thereis
dual-impressed
representing
alsosomevariationwith the mouthandteethdepictions(Table4.11). The ears
variationwith incisionsandearplugdepictions(Tables4.13 and4.14). The
demonstrate
most stylistic variation is presenton top of the figurine heads(hairstyles,headdresses,
and other headelements).Turbanswere depictedmore frequentlyin otherFormative
but were absentin the CahalPechsample. At the sametime, other
figurine assemblages,
stylistic themesin the head/hairtreatmentof figurinesare found acrossMesoamerica
(e.g.,tonsuredheads,U-shapedepictions,single/multiplebuns,andbroadrimmed hats).
Like hairstyles,the variabledepictionsof earsandteethon figurinesmay have
encodedsocialinformation. Joyce(2000)examinesthe productionof adulthoodin
ancientMesoameric4looking specificallyat childhoodandtransitionsin the life course
within Artec society. Shenotesan emphasiswithin Aztec texts on the physicaldiscipline
of the body of the child to producea properly decorousadult, andarguesthat therewas
socialvalue placedon the reproductionof embodiedidentificationwith tadition (Joyce
2AA0:474).Thetansformationof childreninto properlysocializedadultsinvolvedlife
cycle rituals that often includedpreparationfor, or provision of new forms of body
modification(Joyce2000:476). Oneexampleof sucha ritual includedthe piercingof a
child's ears,and eventuallythe insertionof earplugsduring the teenyears(Joyce2000:
90
477). Body ornamentswere symbolically importantasmediathat tansformed and
displayedagestatus(Joyce2000:478). Clothingandhair featmentwerealsopart of
bodily and genderedmateriality in lifecycle transitions. Houston,Stua4 and Taube
(1998:20) arguesthat bodymodification(scarsandtattooing)datesbackto the
Preclassicperiod,thoughthey may havetakendifferent forms in the Classicperiod.
ANCESTRALVENERATION
The function andpurposeof Formativefigurines in Mesoamericahasbeen
speculatedupon, andthey havefrequentlybeenassociatedwith fertility rites. Another
interpretationconsideredby severalscholarsis the role of figurinesin ancestral
veneration.Marcus's(1993)studyfocusedon women'srolesandthe practiceof
ancestal venerationin FormativeOaxaca. Throughveneration,ancestorscontinueto
consultwith them
takepart in village activitiesevenafter death,and living descendents
throughritual. "Much of this ritual takesplacein and aroundthe household,and is
directedby women"(Marcus1998:3). McAnany(1995:33) alsoincludesdomestic
ritual in the practiceof ancestralvenerationand mentionsthat in the Postclassicwomen
playedimportantroles in attendingto and"feeding ancestorsof a household." She
believesthereis a sfong associationbetweenfemalesand anceshalshrines/tombs.
Diegode Landa'saccounts(Tozzerl94l:129-31) indicatethat the YucatecMaya
carvedwoodenimagesof their ancestorsandplacedthem in domesticshrinesand largerscaleritual contexts. This was an importantpart of ancestralvenerationamongthe
YucatecMuya and Landa'sobservationsemphasizedthe heirloom quahty of these
9l
representations
andthe fact that they were inheritedproperty. Speakingof women,
Landacommented:
They were devoutandpious, and alsopracticedmany actsof devotionbefore
their idols, burning incensebeforethem and offering them presentsof cotton
stuffs, of food and drink and it wastheir duty to makethe offeringsof food and
drink which they offeredin the festivalsof the Indians (Tozzr;r l94l: 128).
in
Marcus(1998) addresses
the questionof commonalityand facelessness
ethnographicexamplesfrom ChinaandJapan. Thereare distinctionsmadebetween
individually namedancestorswho are still connectedwith authority or continuity of the
household,and ancestorswho arenot so namedor connected.Suchconceptsare
reminiscentof the teatrnent of the deadin Mesoamerica.More recentlydeceased
personsmay be buried underor nearthe residence,but after sometime, they may be
relocated. To addressthe issueof how figurines canbe of a generictype while still
representing
specificancestors,
Marcus(1998:19)introducedthe ideaof geneonymyor
"calling of an ancestorby name." Although the ancestorneedsa tangiblevenue(a
figurine) to return to, it doesnot needto be a realistic depictionof the specificancestor,
becausein deaththereis a lossof individualrty andthe ancestortakeson a statusdifferent
from that of the living. The useof the ancestor'snameimbuesthe artifact with the spirit
and animatesthe object. Someof the qualitiesof the figurines suggestthat stylistic
atfributesand ornamentationaremore importantthan realistic depictionsof individuals'
faces.
This type of anceshalritual is most appropriatefor ancestorswho havenot moved
on to a position of significancefor the entire communityor region. 'Tn a systemin which
deceasedmen move graduallytoward the position of publicly honored(andremote)
ancestors,the corpusof recentancestorsstill honoredin the householdbecomes
92
increasinglyfemale"(Marcus1998:2l). This may help explainwhy therearesomany
femalefigurines,andwhy small solid figurinesgraduallydisappearedduring the
Terminal Formativeand Classicperiods.
TERMINATION
The frgurinesfrom CahalPechwere mostly found in a fragmentedstatewith the
exceptionof two figurines(Figure4.2: C-l andl-Z4),andmostof the appendages
and
headsdo not occur wittr the torsos. While someresearchers
haveatfibuted the
fragmentarynatureof the figurinesto ritual termination,the act of ritual terminationhas
rarely beenconclusivelydemonstrated.Therearefigurine fragmentsin the CahalPech
samplethat indicateevidenceof intentionaldestruction(Figure4.14). The evidence
includesa numberof fragmentswith cleanbreakagealongthe neckline,punctations
aroundthe neckline.and defacement.
Thereare severalfragmentsin the Headand Torsogroupsthat haveclean(rather
thanjaggedor haphazard)
breakswherethe neckwould be (e.g.,Figures4.7 and4.8).
Two torsofragments(seeFigure4.13,T-5 andFigure4.8, T-61) showclearevidenceof
decapitation.FragmentT-5, a relativelycompletetorso,is a complexspecimen.
It is very simplistic,with rounded,shortappendages
and a flattenedappearance.The
endsof the limbs are weathered,but thereare indicationsof incisedfingers andpossibly
toes. The figure's waist is constricted,andthe hips are somewhatrounded. At the hips
thereappearto be creasesin the groin. Therearebreastsdepictedasvery small raised
areaswith small punctationsfor nipples,andthey are slightly eroded. Thereis alsoa
punctationin the abdomenfor a navel. The otherpunctationson the figure arequite
93
intrigurng. The breakageat the neck showsevidenceof small punctationsthat go entirely
aroundthe neck. Although, they could havebeenusedto decoratethe figurine dwing
production,it seemsmore likely that they servedasan aid in decapitatingthe figurine.
This was also seenin fragmentT-61, a completetorso with a left arm still attached.This
fragmentwas identified asa male becauseof its definedpectoralsand lack of breasts.
The figure is seatedwith the armsattachedto the legs. Around the neck of this fragment
thereare small punctationsthat suggestthe figrnine was intentionally--and carefullydecapitated.
Table 4. 18
tr'requencyand percentagesof head and torso fragmentsthat indicate
a cleanbreak line along the figurine's neclc
CleanBreak at Neck
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
45
27"8
No
r5
Indeterminate
t02
9.2
63.0
162
r00.0
Total
There are other markings on T-5 that seem significant. Belowthe neck and onthe
chest of the fragment is a circle of six punctations,and on the back, also below the neck,
there is a circle of four punctations. These two circles are at even positioning on the front
and back. On the figure's left leg there is a line of four punctations. These punctations
may represent body mutilation or other forms of body decoration, but they may also have
a more significant meaning. They may be related to an incised circle on the back of the
head of fragmentH-27 (see Appendix B) but a precise interpretation is difficult at this
point.
94
Figure 4. 15 Photographsand illustrations of fragment T-5 (illustration by M.
Branfman).
intendedto
On fragmentH-24 (Figure4.14)thercaresignsof defacement
terminatethe identity ofthe figurine. Unfortunately,the qrownof the headis deteriorated
andthe earsaremissing,two areasttrat are signifrcantin displayingstatusidentity. The
faceof the figurine is haphazardlyscratched,reminiscentof defacedmonumentsseenin
(Grove 1981). Significantly,defacernent
of ClassicMayamonuments
Mesoamerica
typically focusedon the eyesand facesof the lords depicted,the apparentloci of their
personalidentity (Houston,Stuart,and Taube2006: 100).
95
Figure 4. 16 Head fragment H-24.
Many FormativeMesoamericanfigurines havebeenfound in fragmentarystates.
Thesehaveoften beeninte,rpretedasritually terminatedwithout muchjustification for
this reasoning. As notedin Chapter2, atKarninaljuyuthe figurinesaremostly
fragmentedwith no clear evidenceof deliberatedestruction,and they were probably
thrown awayinrefusedeposits(Kidder 1965:150). For the majorityof the figurines
from La Pintada(Jalisco,Mexico), it is not possibleto discernwhetherthe fragmentation
96
occurredbeforeor after their discard,but the headswere commonlybrokenfrom the
torso(Mountjoy l99l: 95). The collectionfrom Chalcatnngowasalsovery fragmented.
Harlan (1987:252) commentsthat most of the figurinesare brokenat the neck
area,o'apatternso regularthat it stronglyindicatespurposefulbreakage."Grove(1984:
86) alsomentionsthat thesefigurines were intentionallybroken,andthat the breakage
wasprobablythe actionthatterminateda figure'ssocialfunction. Awe (1994:13)also
concludesthat the CahalPechfigurineswereterminatedby the act of decapitation.He
drawsupon a Lacandoncreationstory that mentionswhen the youngestson(Ah T'up) of
the creator(Hachacyum)made
someclay figurineswhich cameto life. His brotherswereprovokedand shotat
andkilled them,but they camealive again. After this happenedaboutfive times,
the brothersbeheadedthem,whereuponthey stayeddead(Thompson1965:28;
1970:344\.
The act of decapitationappearsto havebeena successfulmethodfor releasingthe spirits
of objectsthe Maya consideredanimate.
In ancientMaya cosmologyand religion much importancewas attributedto ttre
cyclical natureoftermination and renewal. The act oftermination was significantin
many rituals, which may accountfor the fragmentarynatureof many Formativefigurines.
Moreover,the humanbody playeda very significantrole in Mesoamericancosmology,
the humanlife cycle servingas a metaphorfor continuousregeneration(L6pezAustin
1988:8). Dedicationandterminationrituals surroundingthe constructionor changingof
a houseor residencewere analogousto humanrites of passagemarking deathandrebirth
(Van Gennep1972:.23-24).This ideaof architecturalrenewaland destructionis
discussed
in moredetailin Chapter5.
97
The ancientMaya perceivedan animistic world; linked to this is the
anthropomorphization
of otheranimateandinanimateforms(Mock 1998:9). People
could imbueobjectswith a ch'ul, or life-force(Freidel,Schele,andParker1993:182),
andreleasethe "soul" by terminatingthe objectand cutting offthe connectionto the
Other World. The destructionof objectsusedin terminationor dedicationrituals may
relateto the perceivedneedto emptythem of their power oncethe act is over (Mock
1998:l0).
Eventsof chaosor crisis perceivedasdangerousby the Maya occurthroughout
the life cycle: birth, puberly,marriage,and death. The rites of separation,tansition, and
incorporationweremeantto ensurethe well beingof a person,group,and society. Landa
describedthe New Year festival in connectionto the Uayeb,the lost five-day rites of the
Maya of Yucatan,a time of socialdisorderandchaos. On the first day of Pop,
They renewedon this day all the objectswhich they madeuseof, suchasplates,
vessels,stools,mats,andold clothes,andthe sfuffswhich they wrappedup their
idols. They sweptout their houses,andthe sweepingsandthe old utensilsthey
threw out on the wasteheapoutsideof town; andno one,evenhe in needof it,
touchedit(Tozzsr l94l: l5l-52).
SUMMARY
The assemblageof Formative period figurines recovered from Cahal Pech is the
largest in the Belize Valley. This was the first detailed analysisof the collection, and it
has provided a better senseof the figurines' importance at the site and their physical
characteristics. Interpreting the social identities representedby these figurines is an
ongorng challenge. The figurine bodies tend to be anatomically generic, often with
ambiguous clues to gender. The head fragments demonstratethe most variability; all of
the other body parts are much less variable. The head fragments convey the bulk of
98
encodedinformation,the exactmeaningof which remainselusive. As Houstonet al.
(2006:68) havepointedout, "in Maya imagery,nilme glyphsfrequentlyappearin the
phenomenon,
headdresses
of the lords. This hasbeenobservedto be a pan-Mesoamerican
going back to the Olmecperiod." The headseemsto be a containerof identity for the
Muyq including not just the namebut alsothe socialstatusof the individual. Whenthese
socialcodesarebetterunderstood,the identitiesof the CahatPechfigurinesmay be
revealed.
If socialidentity was focusedin the headsof the figurines,their decapitationand
subsequent
terminationbecomesevenmore logical. This would havereleasedthe spirits
of the objectsthe Maya consideredto be animate. Awe (1994: 13-14)supportsthe
figurines' usein ancesfialveneration,arguingthat "after figurineswere usedin
invocationceremonies,the headswere purposefullybrokenoffso that the spirits ofthe
ancestorswho inhabitedthe effigies during ritual eventscould subsequentlybe released
at the terminationof the ceremony." Figurineswere probablyusedfor a variety of
purposes,but the evidenceis strongthat the CatralPechfigurines were usedaseffigies in
practicesassociatedwith ancestralveneration.
99
CIIAPTER 5
CAHAL PECHFORMATIVE TRANSFORMATION
In this chapterI presentthe archaeologicalevidencefor socialandritual
developmentin the Formativeperiod atCahalPech. The Formativefigurineassemblage
from CahalPechwaspart of a developingritual complex. During the Formativeperiod
therewere changesin architecturalstylesand constructionfrequency,an increasein the
qualrty of sfucfures, andformalizationof spaceandritual. Someareasconsidered
domesticwere developedfor a primarily ritual purpose,and changesin religion led to an
emphasison spacesdevotedto performance.The changesin Maya ideology, leadership,
andreligion renderedcertainarenasand objectsobsolete. Theremay havebeenless
focuson domesticand small groupritual as socialdifferentiationincreased.As domestic
spaceandthe rituals conductedin it gaveway to more public andformalizedritual,
figurines likely becamelesssignificant,thus accountingfor their rapid declinein the
Early Classicperiod.
RITUAL TRANSFORMATION
Thereare still many questionsregardingthe complexityand natureof lowland
Maya ritual andreligion during the Formativeperiod. Hand-modeledfrgurineswerethe
most abundantritual objectsin the Formativeperiod. They areprimarily associatedwith
domesticcontexts,andthey appearto signiff activitiesthat occurredat a nonpublicand
householdlevel. Suchrelatedbehaviorsandrituals were graduallyacceptedamong
groupsof householdsor largercorporateentities(Blomster2009: 120). *Ritual servesas
the point of articulationbetweenreligion andtheriseof complexculture,andreligious
100
ideologywas often employedto ensurethe acceptanceof socialconventionsandthe
operationof the socialsystemby emergingFormativeperiodelite" (Awe 1994:2). There
were different kinds of ritual activity that occumedthroughoutthe Formativeperiod in
the Belize Valley, and suchactivity certainly playeda role in fosteringsocialand
political change.
RITUAL CONTEXTS
The figwines from the CahalPechcollection(mostly fragments)were recovered
from constructionfiIl contexts. Their primary functionshaveoften beenidentified as
ceremonialor ritual in nature,andthe majority of the collection likely represents
ceremonialtrash. Thereis a cycle of terminationandrenewalthat seemscoreto ancient
Maya belief and ritual, and if figurines wereprimarily domesticobjects,they may have
when buildings they werekept in
beenremoved,terminated,and disposedof as ootrash"
were terminatedandrenewed. Ritual residues,including figurines,havealsobeen
recoveredfrom threekinds of contextswithin ceremonialdepositsat CahalPech:
residentialstructures,communallybuilt structures,andmonument-related
offerings.
ResidentiallDomesticContexts
During the Formative period, Maya households often served as arenasfor ritually
chargedactivity and a focus for communication of ritual belief (Pendergast1998).
During the Cunil phase, Structure B-4, located in Plaza B of Cahal Pech's site core,
served as a residence or domestic structure. Several cacheswere found in multiple
phasesof Snucture B-4 with the earliest dating to the first half of the Cunil phase. This
101
early cachecontainedthe lower jaw of a crocodile,which may havebeenpart of a mask.
Another cachefrom a late Cunil structure(StructureB-4ll0c-sub, beforeit was
deliberatelybumed)containedover 120objects,including somemadeof exotic materials
(Awe 1992:339-343). Thesemay haveservedasdedicationor terminationofferings.
StructureB-4 containedthe highestfrequencyof figurine fragmentsreportedin
this analysis. Theseincluded 796 fragmentswith enoughprovenienceinformationto be
orderedin a chronologicalsequence.The frequenciesare presentedin Table 5.1 and
Figure5.1. The largestfrequencies
arefrom lateMiddle FormativeandlateMiddle
Formativeto early Late Formativecontexts. Inthe early Middle Formative,PIazaB
becamea formal ceremonialplazaandB-4/5ftwasa rectilinear,nonresidential
platform.
In the Late Middle Formative,PlqzaB wasplasteredand elevated,and StructureB-4 was
reconstructedat leastthreetimes. Therewas a significantdecreasein figurine fragment
frequencyin the Late Formativewhenthe site reachedoneof two constructionapexes
andmonumentalarchitecturewasconstructed(the B-4l10tr and 1ltr platform with plaster
masks). The terminal architecture(B4|^2\was
constructedduring the early part of the
Late Classicperiod(Awe 1992:142-143).
It is unclearat this point whetherthe higher frequencyof figurine fragmentsfrom
late Middle Formativeandlate Middle Formativethroughearly Late Formativecontexts
was a result of increasedfigurine productionor of increasedconstructionactivity. Fill
was generallycomposedof daily rubbish,so an increasein constructionactivity/fill
might naturally increasethe numberof discardedfigurines. The pronounceddeclinein
figurine frequenciesin the Late Formativemay alsoindicatethat the emergenceof
monumentalarchitecture,andthe activitiesassociatedwith thosestructures,was
t02
accompaniedby a decreasein activities involving hand-modeledfigurines. These
patternswould be betterinvestigatedthroughvolumetric study.
Structure B-4 fragmentswith contextualinformation and form
distinctions(LFX=Iate facet Xakal ceramicphase).
Table5. I
Time
Period
Cunil
EMF
LMF
LMF.
ELF
LF
LFX
Heads Torsos Appendages Zoomorphs Instruments Unknown Total
I
10
t6
18
I
4
8
15
5
2
8
0
52
2
8
0
4
8
13
5
29
56
80
0
0
13
2
0
27
24
2
2
10
22
23
0
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
I
I
65
80
I
70
t-l
Unknown
i
i
l- *- r
60
196
Instrument
Zoomorphs
50
4A
Appendages
ffi
30
t
l
20
I
10
EMF
LMF LMF-ELF LF
i
l Torsos
Heads
LFX
Structure B4 fragment frequencies with chronological context with
form distinctions (n=196) (LFX:late facet Xakal ceramic phase).
103
Severaldepositscontainingfigwine fragmentshavealsobeendocumentedin the
Ztl}rin settlementgroup. The constructionphasesfor Stucture C-9 are comparableto the
sequencefound in the site coreat CahalPech. The structurewaspossiblydomesticin
function inCg-7h. This level containedceramicsfrom the Kanluk complexandwas
datedto 750 - 650 B.C. (Iannone1995:44). Atthis stage,it wascomparable
to B-4l5trin
termsof its large size,relative complexity,andthe presenceof figurine fragmentswithin
the fill. Although a domesticfunction for the building cannotbe determinedwith
certainty,oowhat
is clearis that with C9-7ththis locusbeganto take on increasingritual
significance"(Iannone1995:53). Two figwine fragments(seeAppendix B, H-62 and
Figure4.8, T-61) wereo'discovered
in an apparentcache-likearrangement,
havingbeen
placedwithin the C9-6trfill, directly in front of the earlier Cg-7ftbuilding platform
retainerwall" (Iannone1995:46). Iannone(1995:52-53)discussed
in his reportthe
connectionto anceshalvenerationbecauseof the presenceof a burial, andritual deposits
with jade teethandfigurine fragments,in additionto the figurinesfound in the fill of the
structure. Elsewherein the Zubin group,in PlazaA Floor 3, a depositdatingto 35G275
B.C. wasfound. This Late Formativedepositcontainedtwo figurineappendages
(L-77
andL-79, seeFigure4.5), adistal sectionof an obsidianblade,anda snappedobsidian
blade(Awe 1992:28).
More recentinvestigationsconductedin PlazaB ofthe site core at CahalPech
(Garberet al. 2006,2AA7;andGarberandAwe 2008)haverevealeda seriesof Middle
Formativeshuctureswith associatedfeaturesandritual depositsthat lay directly on top
of the initial Early Formativeoccupation.One of thosefeatureswas Platform B. At each
cornerof this platform was a ritual deposit(Figure 5.2). Togetherthesedeposits
104
representa complexritual programthat reflectsvmious aspectsof ancientMaya
ideology, including vertical layering,horizontalpartitioning, death,resurrection,and
cosmicorder(GarberandAwe 2008:186).
A limestoneslab-coveredcrypt with a ceramicbowl containinga fragmentedbut
completehumanskull and six greenstonebeadswas locatedat the southeastcomer of
Platform B. Directly north was a crypt burial that containeda headlessbody lying
directly on bedrock(Garberet al.20A7: fi2). The skull in the ceramicbowl is speculated
to havecomefrom the decapitatedskeleton. The northeastcornercontaineda layered
cosmogramcacheconsistingof a baseof three slatebars,a headlessceramicfigrnine, and
a tightly clusteredarrangementof thirteenpolishedgreenstones.The northwestcorner
alsocontaineda layeredcosmogramdepositwith thirteenobsidianchipsbeneatha
ceramicfigurine head,andabovethem threeelongated,river-rolled pebbles. In the
southwestcornerof Platform B, the uppermostportion of the platform was destoyed due
to Late Classicconstructions.However,in the fill correspondingto the southwestcorner
a large Middle Forrrative ceramicfigurine headwasfound. The investigatorssuggest
that the depositionof the figurine headwaspart ofthe ritual programinvolving the
depositsfound in the otherthreecornersof the platform (GarberandAwe 2008: 188).
The cachesin the north cornersof the platform representtwo phasesof the Maya
creation. Threestones,acommon creationsymbol,centeredthe cosmosand allowedthe
sky to be lifted. Thenthe "First Father,o'theMaize God, enteredthe sky andmadethe
"Houseof the North" with eight partitionsandraised"The World Tree." The Maya
thoughtof the north directionasa houseerectedat creationwith the World Tree
penetating its centralaxis. The eight partitionsof the First Father'scosmichouse
105
correspondto the eight divisionsof the cosmos. On earththey becomethe kan tzuk and
kanxuk (o'fourpartitions"andoofour
corners")(Freidel,Schele,andParker1993:59-107).
3 polishedriver stones
figurine head
13 obsidianchips
13 greenstones
headlessfigurine
3 slatebars
Platform B
figurine headin fill
Figure 5.2
headlessbody in crypt
skull in bowl
Platform B ritual deposits(redrawn from Garber and Awe 2008:
Figure 3).
The depositin the northwestcornerof Platform B representedthe *Three-Stones"
placedat "Lying-Down-Sky,"the placeof creationprior to the raisingof the World Tree
that lifts the sky, separatingit from the earth. The obsidianchips symbolizedthe thirteen
layersof the Otherworld,and the figurine headunderneaththe threeriver pebbles
representedthe first cental place(Garberand Awe 2008: 187).
The northeastcornerrepresentedthe "Raised-Up-Sky-Place"andthe world a.fter
the World Treewaserected.The headlessfigurine was placedabovethe three slatebars
andbeneathan ilrangement of thirteengreenstones,
the thirteenlayersofthe Upper
World. The investigatorsinterpretedthe figrnine asa representationof the resurrected
headless
individualwithin the crypt at the southeast
corner(GarberandAwe 2008:187).
106
In Classicperiod hieroglyphictexts, Maya rulers often associatedthemselveswith
creationin orderto strengthentheir ties of descentandtheir dynasticlines (McAnany
1995:39). GarberandAwe (2008:187-189)suggestthe purposeof the ritual wasto
symbolically resurrectandplacethe individual in the sky, the placeof the revered
ancestors.While the identity of the individual is not establishedthe authorssuspecta
mythical ancestorandthe PlatformB depositsmay havebeenintendedto link the
headlessindividual with ancestors,the divine, andcreation.
CommunallyBuilt Structures
Communallybuilt sfuctwes containingritual residuesin the Belize Valley
include round platforms/structures.Specifically,round structuresin the Belize Valley and
other sitesin Belize may haveservedas strages
for performancesrelatedto anceshal
veneration.
Four round sfuctures datingto the late Middle Formativehavebeenexcavatedat
CahalPech. StructureB-417-sttbwaspartially uncoveredin the site core,while the other
threewere in the peripheryclusters(Zotz group Structure212-sub,and Structures14 and
15 from the Tolok Soup). The latter structureswere centrally locatedwithin household
clusters,and noneofthe four round structureshadany evidenceofa superstructure.The
Zotz structurehad evidenceof copal incenseresidueson its summit. PostdatingStructure
l4's constructionwere four caches,four Late Formativeburials, andfive Late Classic
burials.
The round structuresin the Tolok group(Structures14 and 15) were already
notedfor their ritual sienificance. Burial 9 was one of the intermentsassociatedwith
r07
thesestructures.It was datedto the Emly Late Formative(Barton CreekPhase)andwas
an intrusive featurenPlaza Floor 2. This cist burial containedan individual 2-4 yearsof
agelying proneand extendedin a north-southorientation. The lower portion of the body
wasmissing,andthe cist wasnearly twice as long asthe child's upperbody. The partial
remainsof threeadditionalindividuals,alongwith a clump of faunal material,were
locatedat the baseof the craniumof the child. The faunalremainsincludedthe upper
mandibleof a parrotfrshand bonesfrom two whitetail deer. The other gravegoods
includeda medial fragmentof a highly polishedgreenstonecelt, locatedon the child's
right humerus,an unmodifiedpieceof slatenearthe pelvis, and a torso figurine fragment
(Figure5.3,T-68) besidethe craniumof the child (PowisandHohmann1995:74).
Figure 5.3
Figurine fragment T-68.
Suchstructureshavebeenfound at the sitesof BartonRamie.Xunantunich.and
El Pilar. Other sitesin Belize with similar round sffucturesinclude Altun Ha Cuello,Rio
AnJl, Luisville, and ChanChen. Variousresearchers
havearguedthat thesestructures-
108
which lack superstructures
but are associatedwith many burials andritual depositsserveda ceremonialfunction (Aimers, Powis,andAwe 200A;Awe, Aimers, and
Blanchard1999:Hendon2000).The numberof burials from the Tolok round structures
constituteconvincingevidencethat thesestructuresservedasancestralshrinesfrom their
initial constructionin the Late Middle Formativeto their abandonmentin the Late
Classic. Copalresiduesfound on fire-cloudedsectionsof somefloors indicatethat
incenseand othermaterialswere burnedon top of the structures.The presenceof stairs
also indicatesthat the platformswere being ascended,and their stageJikequalities
suggestthey were ceremonialplatforms. As somehaveargued(Aimers et al. 2000,
Healy et at. 2004,and Hendon2000),the ceremonialrituals enactedon thesestagesmay
havebeencommunity-focused.The round structuresarenot only physically embedded
within residentialcompounds,but alsocritical to group identity (Hendon2000). They
developedaspart of the domesticbuilt environment,providing away for membersof
varioushouseholdsto differentiatethemselves(Hendon2000: 300).
Clark (2004)explainsthat shifts in private andpublic perceptionsof "being" and
"belonging," togetherwith the constructionand useof public spaces formal
and
centers,
distinguishcommunityasa place,from communityas self-perceivedmembershipin a
boundedgroupwith sharedsymbolsand interests. Thus,the constructionof a physical
container(e.g.,strucfure,plaz4settlementgroup,ceremonialcenter)for social
interactionandthe creation/reinforcement
of groupidentity becomesan advertisementof
communityresources,organization,andwell-being.
109
Monument-RelatedOfferings
The Tzinic groupprovidesan exampleof monument-related
offerings.
Specifically,a cachewasfound in associationwith an uncarvedstelathat was suspected
to havebeenerectedin the secondhalf of the Early Classicperiod (Awe 1992: 177). An
excavationunit penetratedthree plazafloors andyielded a figurine fragment(T-35, see
Figure 5.4) directly below the butt of the monument. The figurine was seatedupright,
andthereis an associationwith the individual interredin a largecrypt burial locatedin
Structure2 (ConlonandAwe l99l: 10). The fragmentis a modifiedtorsoin a seated
posture. The upperportion of the existing torsotapersin thicknessfrom front to baclq
apparentlyasa result of modification. On the front is anotherlater modification
consistingof threepunctations.ConlonandAwe (1991:l l) reportthat eyesanda mouth
'ohadbeenincisedon the uppertorsoin orderto rqrresentaface." These
modifications
were executedsometimeafter the figurine had beenmadeandAwe (1992: 176\
commentsthat the artifact,which would havebeenproducedin the Middle or Late
Formative,probablyrepresentsan heirloom predatingthe Early Classicstela. In my
analysisI noteda very similartriadicmodificationon anotherfigurinefragment(L-45,
seeFigure 5.8) recoveredfrom Structure4 of the Tolok group. This fiagmentwas
interpretedasa leg, and on the foot werethreepunctationsaddedlater. Thereare several
possibleways to interpretthis modification. Oneplausiblehypothesisis that the
punctationsservedto reactivatea figurine. If theseobjectswere beingreusedas
heirlooms,reactivatingthem may havebeennecessary.As was mentionedpreviously,
threestoneswerea commonsymbolof creationamongthe ancientMaya. It is possible
that threepunctationswere addedto fragmentsof alreadyterminatedfigurinesto
110
reactivatetheir "souls" so they could be usedin rituals of dedication.suchasthe
depositionof a stelacache.
r-3s
3tr
Figure 5.4
Modilied figurine fraqmentsT-35 and L-45 (iltustrations by Melissa
Branfman).
Contemporaryexamplesof objectsbeing animatedin Maya ritual may
demonstratecontinuity from ancienttimes. In a discussionof contemporaryMaya ritual
practicesinvolving ensoulment,
Stross(1998:3l) statesthat "productsof human
manufacture,suchastemples,houses,altms,and censers,alsorequirenourishment,
protection,andrespectfultreatment--but first they hadto be animatedor
encouragement,
111
imbuedwith life." He identified sevenchief componentsor processesinvolved in
animatingrituals: purifring, cleaningandsweeping,measuring,naming,assigning
guardianship,transferringor transmitting"animateness,"clothing the thing andfeeding
(Stross1998:32-33).He arguesthat for Mesoamericans
the processof creatingand
animatingcultural artifactswas and is analogousto the birth process,while abandoning
or destroyingsuchartifactswasrelatedto death.
McGee(1998) describesa Lacandonritual in which censersknown as god pots
(kikil k'uh) areanimatedduring the incensebumerrenewalceremony. Over the course
of much preparationdescribedby McGee(1998:45) a specialchantis sungto awaken
the god pots. Earlier in the 20ft centurythe Lacandonplacedrubberanthropomorphic
figurinesthat symbolizedhumanflesh and blood,but today they placestonesfrom
Classicruins. "It appearsthatthe Lacandon'splacementof itemsin a godpot aspart of
its animationritual is the contemporaryequivalentof the ancientMaya's placementof
offerings in the foundationsof structuresasa part of the ritual surroundingdedicationand
animationof buildings"(McGee1998:43). McGeearguesthatjust asdedication
ceremonies'oensouled"
ancientMayaritual places,sotoo godpotsareceremonially
"awakened."
OtherRitual Areas
The Zopilote groupat CahalPechis a terminusgoup with no evidencefor
residentialarchitecture(Awe 1992;Cheetham2004). The groupincludesceremonial
architecturespanningfrom the Middle Formativethroughthe Classicperiod (900 B.C.A.D. 900). Although this group servedasan importantceremoniallocusfor centuries
lt2
beforethe consfuction of the causewaylinking it to the CahalPechsite corein the Late
Formative,only eight figurine fragmentshavebeenrecoveredfrom the groupandnoneof
them are documentedascoming from specialcontextsor associations.The fact that a
non-domesticarchitecturalgroup containsan extremelylow frequencyof figurines lends
supportto the hypothesisthat theseartifactswere domesticritual objects.
As was notedpreviously,thereare threemain contextsin which ritual residuesare
generallyfound: residentialstructures,communallybuilt structures,andmonumentrelatedofferings. Ritual residuesincluding depositscontainingfigurineshavebeenfound
in all tlree ofthese contextsat CahalPech. Like residentialstructures,the communally
built round structuresernbeddedwithin householdgroupswere probablydomesticin
nature. The majority of figurineswere found inthese contexts,and only one exampleis
known to be associatedwith a non-domesticcontext(stelacachein the Tzinrc group). In
the caseof the PlatformB depositsin the site core,the areathat containedritual deposits
wasbeing transformedfrom a domesticto a more ceremonialpurpose. It is also
interestingto notethat the Zopilote group,which datesbackto the Middle Formative
period, containedno evidenceof residentialarchitectureandyielded only a handful of
figurine fragments,all of which camefrom mixed depositsor proveniences.These
patternslend additionalsupportto the hypothesisthat Formativefigurineswere used
primarily in domesticactivities.
TERMINATION AND RENEWAL
In Chapter4 I discussedterminationasa possibleexplanationfor the fragmentary
natureof the CahalPechfrgurines. In this sectionI revisit the cyclical natureof Maya
tt3
ritual and the themesof terminationandrenewal. Dedicatoryandterminationritual
remainshavebeenfound within ancientMaya architecture.The Maya analogyof bodies
and housesequatesdeathwith terminationandrebirth with dedicationin a cyclical
pattern. Infantsreceivea souljust asa new building or objectis ensouledto inaugurate
its passageinto a new life. As a humanbody is brokendown asan act of death,sothe
owner'sensouledmaterialpossessions
aremutilatedor ritually killed, ensuringclosure
and a final journey to the land of the dead(Vogt 1998:27-29'1.
Walker (1995)describesdedicatoryofferingsasconsistingof whole and still
functioning objectsthat aretakenout of ordinarycontextandplacedin archaeological
depositsaspart of a ritual. Terminationdepositsresult from the intentionaldestructionor
terminationof powerful ritual objectsandtheir disposalin specializedcontexts. The
discardingof ritual objectsthat havereachedthe endof their useful lives forms
ceremonialtrash. Ritual objectsfrequent$ enterthe archaeologicalrecordasceremonial
trash,but areoften misidentifiedasvotive offerings. The figurinesencounteredin the
constructionfill at CahalPechare likely part of ceremonialtash. The burying, caching,
and disposalof trashcanall serveto establishpathwaysof sacredspacewithin structures.
The materialscreatean associationbetweenthe supernaturalworld andthe location of
the offering, which is therebyrenderedsacredby the deposit(Kunen,Galindo,and Chase
2002:209).
DedicatoryOfferings/Caching
The Mesoamericantradition of cachingprovidesmaterialresiduesof ritual
actionsthat consecrateparticular spaces,imbuing them with cosmologicalmeaning
tt4
(Kunen,Galindo,Chase20A2:197).Oneof the emliestofferingsinthe Belizearea,
datingto 15008.C., wasrecoveredat the siteof Lamanai.It wasinterpretedasan
offering of young corn that may havebeentossedfrom a boat raft, or platform
(Pendergast
1998:56). At the siteof K'axob, alsoin Belize, aLale Formativecache
containedfour vesselsin a quadripartiteanangementbelow an ancesfialshrine(Mathews
and Garber2004:52). I havealsoprovidedseveralexamplesin which figurineswere
includedin cachesat CahalPech(Zubin StnrctureC-9, Zubin PlazaAoPlatform B within
the site core,andthe Tzinic stelacache).
TerminationDeposits
Depositsassociatedwith terminationinvolve the intentionaldestructionor
terminationof powerful ritual objectsandtheir diqposalin specializedcontexts.
Terminationofferingsdesanctiff spacesby destroyingthe materialsthat link the sacred
spacesto the cosmos. Terminationrites evidentat the site of Cerrosin Belize included
smashingceramicvessels,burning ceremonialfires, and depositingmoldedandpainted
plasterin holeson building stiaircases
(Kunen,Galindo,and Chase2002:198). Justas
cachingwhole objectsfocusedsacredpower,the reciprocalact wasto smashandburn
objectsto releasesacredpower prior to scatteringor sprinkling the fragments. This
reemphasizes
the role of terminatingfigurines. If figurineswere animatedfor usein
invocationceremonies.their terminationwould havereleasedtheir "souls."
115
DISCUSSION
The Formativeperiod was characterizedby many interrelatedsocialand
ceremonialchanges.The architecturalrenovationsfrequentlyundertakenin this period
alsohaveceremonialsignificanceto the ancientMaya. Periodichouserenewalandthe
maintenanceof a residencein the exactsamelocationmust havebeensignificant(Grove
andGillespie2002). McAnany(1998:I l3) discusses
the relationshipbetween
architecturalrenovation,death,and ancestors.Architectureexpresses
the conceptof
descentthroughthe continuoususeandmodificationof a structure.McAnany(1995:
115)alsos0ates
that "the progressivesacrilizationof place,i.e.,the hajectoryfrom
domesticspaceto a ritual locale, is an architecturalexpressionof a genealogyof place
that hasbeendocumentedelsewhere"(K'axob, Belize and Copan,Group l0L-29).
Previouslyit wasmentionedthat the discardingof ritual objectsthat havereached
the end of their useful lives generatesceremonialtash. Atthe conclusionofthe Cunil
period StructureB-4 wasno longer a residence.In the Middle Formativetherewere
numerousrenovationsand additionsto the structure,andthe fill usedin theseevents
containedrelatively high frequenciesof figurine fragments. Thesefigurinesmay have
beenremovedand terminatedwith other domesticobjects,during the periodic
renovationsof the structure.
Archaeologicalevidenceof ancientMaya terminationritual includessmashed
artifacts,defacedmonumentsandarchitecture,andceramicvesselswith *kill holes."
This evidencealsoincludesmany of figurine fragments. The majority of frgurines
recoveredfrom sitesof the Early and Middle Formativeperiod in Mesoamericawere
purposefullybroken,usuallyby snappingtheir headsoff in an act of decapitation(Grove
tt6
and Gillespie2002). In Chapter4 the fragmentarynatureof the Formativefigurines was
addressed.Most of the appendages
and headsdo not occur with the torsosandclean
breaksat the necklinearenoticeableon the fragments. The fragmentsT-5 (Figure 4.13)
andT-61 (Figure4.8) from CahalPechwerementionedasevidenceof purposeful
decapitation,and H-24 (Figure4.14) showssignsof defacementasa meansof
terminatingthe identity of the figurine. Terminatinganthropomorphicclay
representations
was replicatedwhen humanimageswere later craftedin stonesculpture
andmonumentdefacementoccurred. For example,the carvedstelafrom CahalPech
interredin a Late Classictomb in the Zopilote group (seeChapter3) was brokeninto two
portionsanddefaced.On severalClassicMayamonuments,
the eyesandfacesofthe
lords depictedwere defacedin orderto desfoy the lords' identities(Houston,Stuart,and
Taube2AAq.
The ritual interpretationof the CahalPechfigurines is strongly supportedby their
treatmentand disposal. Large forms (monuments,architecture,and othermaterialslarger
thanthe humanform) orcheshatemovement andthe diminutive quallty of figwines hasa
reverseeffectin that they canbe manipulatedby people(FaustandHalperin20}9:3).
The figurines from CahalPechmay haveservedaritual purposeon a smallerscale. It
seemsthat the Formativeperiod socialand ceremonialchangesat CahalPechincludedan
increasingfocus on corporategroup identitiesandan emphasison descent.The round
platformsat CahalPechwere communallybuilt structuresthat functionedas stagesfor
performancesrelatedto ancestralveneration.New socioeconomicrelationshipsmay
havedevelopedbetweencorporategroups,andtheserelationshipsmay havebeen
maintainedthroughintra/intergrouprituals. Therewas a shift in ritual focus from private
tr7
venerationto more formalizedcommunityfocusedceremony. Interactionthroughritual
involvedreciprocalor redistributive(e.g.,feasting)exchanges
betweenor amonggroups,
which couldhaveservedto sustainsocialbonds.
SUMMARY
The Formativeperiod was characterizedby socialand ceremonialchanges,and
the Formativefigurine assemblage
at CahalPechwas part of a developingritual complex.
The fragments,mostly recoveredfrom fill contexts,were likely discardedpreviouslyas
ceremonialtash. StructureB-4 yielded the greatestnumberof fragmentsthat could be
orderedin a chronologicalsequence.The majority of fragmentswererecoveredfrom
Late Middle FormativeandLate Middle Formativeto early Late Formativecontexts. It
appearsthat the constructionof monumentalarchitecturein the Late Formativewas
associatedwith a decreasein the frequencyof fragments. Figurinefragmentswere also
found in caches(Zlbin StructureC-9,ZubinPlazaA, Platform B within the site core,and
the Tzinic stelacache),and onewas includedin a child burial (Tololq Burial 9).
The Formativefigurinesfrom CahalPechincreasedin frequencyduring the
Formativeperiod (with an apexinthe late Middle Formative-earlyLate Formative)and
declinedthroughthe courseof the Late Formative. Only one figurine from this analysis
wasfound in a Classicperiod context(a Formativefigurine depositedin an Early Classic
stelacache).It seemsthat by the Classicperiodtheir productionhadceasedall together.
Changesin Maya ideology,leadership,andreligion renderedcertainarenasand objects
obsolete. Theremay havebeenlessfocus on domesticand small-groupritual aslarger
corporategroupsand elite statusdeveloped.As domesticspacesandthe rituals
118
performedinthem gaveway to more communityfocusedand formalired ceremoniesand
ceremonialspaoes,figurines likely becamelessimporhng thus aceountingfortheir
disappearance
in the ClassicFriod-
119
CHAPTER6
CONCLUSIONS
INTRODUCTION
The objectivesof this studywere(1) to collectbasicdescriptivedataon the
Formativefigurine fragmentsfrom CahalPech,(2) to examinethe extentto which the
figurineswere representativeof genderand otherindicatorsof status;(3) to provide some
comparisonto otherregionsin Mesoamerica;and (4) to investigatehow the figurines
relateto the growing socialcomplexityof the Formativeperiod by observingthe
archaeologicalevidenceof socialandritual changesat CahalPech. The primary
intention of this analysisis to contributeto a betterunderstandingof the FormativeMaya
in the Belize Valley throughthis uniqueand sizeablefigurine collection. The following
sectionsdiscussthe overallfindingsof the analysisandprovideinterpretations.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Therewere389figurinefragmentsincludedin this analysis,with 381fragments
from the site of CahalPechand 8 from the site of Pacbitun. The Pacbitunfragmentswere
includedbecausethey were storedwith the CahatPechfragmentsfrom a previous
archaeologicalproject andreflect regionalcharacteristicsof hgurines. All of the
fragmentswere hand-modeledandthe pasteswereconsistentwith ceramicwaresfrom
the Cunil, Middle Formative,and Late Formativeperiods. All buttwo figurines were in a
fragmentedstate.As a result56 fragments(14.4%)in the collectioncouldnot be
classified.Therewasa smallportionof zoomorphic(Z: 1-10)andmusicalinstrument(:
r20
1-30)fragmentsin the collection,but the 295 fragmentsidentified as anthropomorphic
werethe focusof this analysis.
Thereappearedto havebeenfour recognizabletypesof appendages
with the most
frequenttype being a genericroundedand slightly curvedappendage.The postures
includedextended(n: 12)andseated(n:42),and multiple seatedpostureswere
present. However,postureor posecould not be determinedin many casesdueto the
fragmentarystateofthe figurines.
Torsos(T: 17$ took variousformsandnoneof the fragmentshadevidenceof
garmentdepiction. All of the figurineswere interpretedasnudeandtherewere few
occurrencesof sexualanatomicaltraits suchasbreastsor genitalia. Pregnancywasalso a
rare depictionwith only two shongpossibilitiesand maybethreeor four questionable
representations.Bulging bellieswerenot a cornmoncharacteristic,but thereare some
examplesof slightly roundedor slopingbelliesthat were not judged significant enoughto
representpregnancy.
The assemblage
included 108headfragments,ofwhich only 90 (including C-l)
were anthropomorphic.The anthropomorphicheadswere often flattened,but somewere
roundedand spherical. The primary eyetreatrnentwas dual-ovateimpressionswith a
singlecentralpunctation(Table4.10). Therewerefew examplesof tripunctationeye
treatnent and miscellaneouseyetreatments.The mouthswere commonlyopenandthere
patternof depictingthe front two teeth(Table4.ll). The earswere
wasa recognizable
often depictedwith earplugs,but somewere without ornamentation(Table4.13). The
earplugswould be shownaspunctationsin the clay or they were appliqu6drings (Table
4.14). Someearsdid haveincisionsthat variedin numberandorientation(Table4.15).
121
The majorityof the collectioncamefromthe sitecorein GroupB (Table4.16)
andthe highestfrequencyof figurinescamefrom StructureB-4 (Figure4.13). A fair
numberalsocamefrom the peripherysettlementgrcups(Table4.16). Thereare several
possibleimplicationsof the distribution of fragmentsat the site,howeverit is difficult to
interpretthesepatternsdueto the secondary/tertiary
natureof the contextsin which
figurines were found. It is unclearwhetherthe unevendishibution of fragmentsacross
the site is dueto the concentrationof researchfocus in particularareasof the site, or to
issuesof preservationincluding the impact of surroundingmoderndevelopmentson
peripheralsettlementgroups. Volumetic studiesor further examinationof provenience
information could revealadditionaldetailsregardingproductionand/orpatternsof
disposal.
A small numberof fragmentswere found in Cunil contextsandthe largest
frequencyof fragments(with provenienceinformation) camefrom the Middle andLate
Formativecontexts(Figure4.14 andTable4.17). Therewasonly onefragment(Figwe
5.4: T-35) that wasfound in contextslater thanthe Formativeperiod,but it wasproduced
in the Formativeandwasprobablyusedasan heirloom object. The productionof handmodeledfigurines at CahalPechceasedwith the end of the Formativeperiod.
GENDERREPRESENTATION
This analysisof the CahalPechfigurine fragmentsfocusedprimarily onthe
anthropomorphicfragmentsthat constitutethe majority ofthe collection. The second
objectiveof this studywasto investigategenderrepresentationandto identifr other
possibleindicatorsof status. In the CahalPechsampletherewas limited useful
r22
information conveyedonthe torsosand in the positioningof the appendages.Clothing
wasnot includedon the figurines,andwith the exceptionof a few appendages,
ornamentationwas only presenton the headfragments. Therewas alsoa lack of
anatomicalsexualcharacteristicspresentedon the figurines,which madegender
representationevenmore dfficult to ascertain.
As Follensbee(2A09:79)discusses,
in Olmecart the categoriesof sexandgender
haveoften beenbasedon argumentumad ignorantiam,assertinga conclusionbasedon
the absenceoffeaturesratherthanon the presenceoffeatures.
The absenceof largeroundedbreastsand overt femalegenitaliawas assumedto
indicatemale gender,but the absenceof facial hair and any indicationof male
genitaliawasnot assumedto imply femalegender.
While clothing is not presentedin the clay, nudity and particularly visual representations
of genitaliaareuncornmonin Maya art (Houston,Stuart,andTaube20A6:38-a$. My
initial criteria for identiffing genderon the figwines from CahalPechwerefocusedon
the torso fragmentsand on the presenceof breasts,pregnantabdomens,and genitalia
distinctions. The resultsof my initial genderclassification(Table4.6) were insufficient,
so I consideredadditionalcharacteristicsto help definepossiblegenderdistinctionson
the torso fragments. Adding qualitieslike waist, belly, and hip forms increasedthe
numberof specimens
that couldbe categorizedintermsof gender(Tables4.7,4.8, and
4.9). Howeverthis approachwas still very subjectiveand insufficient The bodiesof
most of the figurines arequite abstractand generic. In the caseof the CahalPech
frgurine assemblage,
relying solely on anatomicalfeaturesto identifr gender
representationis not effective. In figurine studiesresearchers
needto be cautiousabout
basinggenderdistinctionson androgynousfeaturessuchasbroadshoulders,rounded
123
bellies,and other ambiguousqualitiesthat canbe found on both male andfemale
representations.
It becameapparentduring the courseof this analysisthat the bulk of the
informationalload was carriedby certainpartsof the figurines,particularly the heads.
The headfragmentsexhibitedthe most stylistic variability, while the otherbody parts
weremuch lessvariable. Likewise,Harlan(1987)recognizedthe concentration
of
stylistic information on figurinesfrom Chalcatzingo,andtypologiesareoften basedon
the stylisticqualitiesof the headsof figurines(e.g.Vaillant 1930).
Houston,Stuart,and Taube(2006)examineidentity amongthe ClassicMaya.
The'oself'or'oentit5r"
wascalledbaah,possiblyderivedform the word "forehead"or
"head" (Houston,Stuart,and Taube2006: 12). The word boahrefersto the heador face,
in addition to the more generalizedbody, of an individual. In Maya imagery,name
glyphsfrequentlyappearin the headdresses
of the lords. This hasbeenobservedto be a
pan-Mesoamerican
phenomenongoing backto the Olmecperiod (Houston,Stuart,and
Taube2006: 68). Throughsuchdevices,the Maya and otherMesoamericanpeoples
displayedin tangible,concreteform an aspectof individuation,an advertisement
personhood,of how this or that imagecorrespondto one being andthat being alone.
Evidencesuggeststhat the Maya understoodrepresentationin termsof an extendible
essencethat was sharedby imagesandthe beingsthat were porhayed(Houston,Stuart,
andTaube2006:74).
Severalelementson the headfragmentsfrom CahalPechwere similar to thoseon
figurines in otherregionsof Mesoamerica"including CentralMexico, the Olmec area,
and Oaxaca. This may suggestthat thesestatussymbolsoccurredthroughout
r24
Mesoamericaduring the Formativeperiod,but may havecarrieddifferent meaningsin
different regions. Much remainsto be understoodconcerningthe qualitiesof statusthat
were recognizedandrepresentedon figurines during the Formativeperiod. The meaning
of apparelwould be a particularlyimportantfocusof future research.
REGIONAL COMPARISON
The figurine fragmentsfrom CahalPechwereprimarily found in constructionfill
contexts. Othercontextsincludedmiddens,a burial, a stelaecache,andother caches
(Chapter5). At Kaminaljuyu figurines werenot found in mortuaryor ritual contexts
(Kidder 1965). At the site of La Pintada Jalisco,figurineswere not found in mortuary
contexts,but the high concentrationrecoveredfrom excavateddepositssuggestedthey
wereprobablyusedin daily life (Mountjoy l99l). At Chalcatzingo,the Early Formative
figurines were found in mortuarycontexts,althoughthis patternchangedin the Middle
Formative(CyphersGuilldn 1988). The figurineswere usedin daily activitiesand
thrown awaywith the other o'trash"concentratedin and aroundresidentialstructures.In
Oaxaca,figurines havebeendocumentedin a variety of contexts(Marcus 1998). The
threeprimary contextsincludedresidences,burials,and deliberatelyarrangedscenes
locatedin households.The most commonsecondarycontextwashouseholdmidden
debris,andtertiary contextsincludedthe surfaceof sites,excavationprofiles, andmound
fill.
The fragmentarynatureof the CahalPechfigurineswas consistentwith findings
in otherregionsof Mesoamerica,andthis hasoften beenattributedto ritual termination
of figurines. Many of the fragmentswere found in fill contexts,wherefragmentation
125
would be expected,butthere was alsoevidenceofpurposeful destructionfound on some
of the CahalPechfragments. This includedcleanbreaksat the neck,punctationsaround
the neck to aid in decapitation,and defacement.As I notedearlier,in ClassicMaya art
information regardingthe o'self' or o'entity"wasfrequentlyassociatedwith the headsof
individuals. This patternmay alsoapply to the frgurineheads,which may convey
information aboutwhat or who the figurinesporfay. Defacement,destruction,or
decapitationof figurineswould thenterminatethek'ul, or the life force. As Freidel,
Schele,and Parker(1993: 177) note,"The contast betweenthe materialobject, andthe
spirit manifestedthroughiq wasand is real to the May4 but so is the union ofthe two."
The display of genderon figurinesvariesbetweensitesandregionsin
Mesoamerica.As was emphasizedpreviously,genderwasnot explicitly representedin
the CahalPechsample. However,other sitesin Mesoamericahaveyielded figurines that
depictedclearmale andfemaleanatomicalfeaturesand genderedapparel,suchas
loincloths. The figurinesfrom the site of Kaminaljuyu exhibitedpregnantabdomens,
breasts,andvulvas. The figurines from Chalcatzingohavealsobeendescribedas
representingstagesof pregnancyor femaletransitionrites associatedwith puberty,
marriage,andpregnancy.In the CahalPechcollection,the portrayalof pregnancyis rare
and depictionsof life stagesseemto be lacking.
Particularelementsevidenton the CahalPechheadfragmentsare similar to head
elementsfound in otherregionsof Mesoamerica.Thereseemsto be consistencyin the
depictionof certainhairteatments the Formativefigurines,including a singularand
centeredbun/ knot, multiple knots,offcentered singleknots,headbands,smoothheadsas
caps,helmets,or tonsuredheads,and broadbandstyle hats. Theseare seenon figurines
126
from Oa:<aca,
Chalcatzingoand other CentralMexican sites,and in the Olmec area.
Although it is unclearwhat the heaffiairstyles may mean,further investigationinto
appareland hairstylespromisesto enhanceour understandingof Formativefigurinesin
Mesoamerica.
SIGNIFICANCEIN FORMATIVE CAHAL PECH
The Formativeperiod was characteizedby socialand ceremonialchanges,and
the Formativefigurine assemblage
waspart of the developingritual complexat Cahal
Pech. The fragmentswere mostly recoveredin frll contextsand likely represenl
ceremonialtash. StructureB-4 containedthe most fragments,andthesecould be
associated
with its constructionhistoryto form a chronologicalsequence
(Table5.1 and
Figure 5.1). The majority of fragmentswere recoveredfrom late Middle Formativeand
late Middle Formativeto early Late Formativelevels. It appearsthat with the
constructionof monumentalarchitecture,figurine fragmentsdecreasedin frequency.
Fragmentswere alsofound in caches(Zvbin SftuctureC-9,ZvbinPlazaA, Platform B
within the site coreoandthe Tzinic stelacache),andone was includedin a child burial
(Tolok,Burial9).
The ritual function of the CahalPechfigurines is shongly indicatedby their
treatmentand disposal. The act of terminationwas significant and is likely the reason
that so many figurinesarefound in a fragmentarystate.They likely servedaritual
purposethat wasmoreprivateor small-scale.Their presencein constructionfill suggests
they were discardedwith rubbishasceremonialtash. It appearsthat the socialand
ceremonialchangesdevelopedat CahalPechincludedan increasingfocuson corporate
t27
goup identitieswith an emphasison descent.The round platlorms at CahalPechwere
communallybuilt structuresthat functionedas stagesfor performancesrelatedto
anceshalveneration. New socioeconomicrelationshipsmay havedevelopedbetween
corporategroups,andtheserelationshipsmay havebeenmaintainedthroughritual
involving the membersof the reslrcctivegroups. Therelikely was a shift in ritual focus
from private venerationto more formalizedcommunity-focusedceremony. Interaction
throughritual involved exchangesbetweenor amonggroupsthat could havebeen
reciprocalor redistributive(e.g.,feasting)in natureandthat servedto sustainsocial
bonds.
Figurinesincreasedin frequencyat CahalPechduring the Middle and early Late
Formativeperiods,butthey are absentfrom Classiccontextswiththe oneexceptionof a
Formativefigurine found in an Early Classicstelacache. Apparentlythe productionof
figurines had ceasedall togetherby the Classicperiod. Changesin Maya ideology,
leadership,andreligion were causefor certainarenasand objectsto becomeobsolete.
Theremay havebeenlessfocus on domesticand small grouprituat and a new emphasis
on more public and formalizedceremoniesand ceremonialspaces.Given thesechanges,
figurines likely becamelessof a ritual focus,thus accountingfor their disappearance
in
the Classicperiod.
128
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r40
APPENDIX A
SPECIMENFORM
t41
C.tnar,Pncn- ClYo, Bnr,rzB
FrcunrNnSpncrwN Fon*r
LD. Code
Catalog#
STR.
Level
Unit
ThisLot is:
Dimensions:
LengthWidth
Thickness
Associated
SpecialFeatures/
Solid/ Hollow
Paste
Slip:
Form: Human/ Animal / O*rer
Male/Female
Infant lchild /Adolescent/Adult iother
Head/ Torso/ Limb: armor leg /
I{eqd
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Hair: Present/ Absent
Description
HeadGarments:Present/ Absent
Description
Face:
Shape
EarsA,lose/IVfouth
Present
Descriotion
Eyes
Punctate/SlitlOther
Ridgearounduppsreyearea: Present/Absent
Brow Ridge: Present/ Absent
Descriotion
Adornments:PresenVAbsent
Descriotion
Clothing: PresenVAbsent
Description
Breasts:PresentlAbsent
Description
.
Waist: Straight/ Consfricted/ Other
AMomen
o Navel:Present/Absent
o Vertical Line: Present/Absent
o Postpartumlines:Present/Absent
o Description
Hips: Straighti Curvy/ Other
Adornments:Present/Absent
Description
-over-
142
Limbs
.
Arm/Leg
Description
HandlFootPresent
Description
Animal
Instrument
Description
Notes:
143
APPENDIX B
HEAD FRAGMENT PHOTOGRAPHSAND
DESCRIPTIONS
t44
I.D. Code
CatalogIdentification/Number
Structure,Uniq Level
Solidl Hollow
Length
Width
Thickness
Paste
Slip
Form
c-1
CI{PO7.B4.U9L7B.FI06
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 7b
Solid
Length: 5.65cm
Width: 3.95cm
Thickness:3.55cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This is a complete figurine and is
interpreted as a dwarf. The legs are
formed with clay coils that originate
from the back, creating the buttocks.
The legs wrap aroundto the front. And
are crossed.The af,msareclay coilsthat
wrap from back-to-front with the left
arm crossedoverthe right. The headsits
on top ofthe appendage
coils. The head
is round like a ball with noduleswhere
the earswould be. Theseareinterpreted
as earplugs. The eyes are dual ovate
impressions with a single central
punctation. The nose is wide and
rounded with no nostrils or any other
detail. The mouth is openwith defined
lips that do not project further than the
nose. Thereis indicationthat the incisor
teethwere presentin the mouth. There
is evena dip in the upperlip, otherwise
known asthe philtrum. Thereis a hat on
top of the headthat is conicalin shape.
145
H-1
CFIPO6-B4.U8L6.F012
StnrctureB-4, Unit 8, Level6
Solid
Length:2.60cm
Width: 2.70 cnt
Thickness:2.00cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is a small head that
depicts a full face and may have a
tonsuredhead. There aren o earplugs
present. Thereare indentationson both
sidesfor the earsand the eyesare dual
ovate impressionswith a s ingle central
punctation. The nose is triangular and
protrudes with dual punctations for
nostrils. The mouth is a horizontalline
andthereare no teethin the mouth. The
face seemsraisedon the left side and is
not symmetrical.
146
H-2
CI{P06-84-U8L7-F037
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6
Solid
Length: 2.40cm
Width: 3.55cm
Thickness:1.90cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentonly hasthe crown of the
headpresentbut it is completelysmooth.
This may be an example of a
head.
tonsured/shaved
t47
H-3
CI{PO6.B4.U8L6B.F026
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6b
Solid
Length: 4.00cm
Width: 3.80cm
Thickness:2.30cm
Paste:CreamlPink
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentform is the lower portion
of a face and includes the nose and
mouth. The noseand lips are projected
with the lips being plump and rounded.
The nosehasno nostrilsdepicted.The
mouth is open and there are incised
upper teeth. There are at least five
incisions depicting upper teeth and no
lower teeth.
H-4
cI{P06-84-U8L6-F013
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6
Solid
Length: 3.40cm
Width: 4.10cm
Thickness.1.60cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment has not preservedwell
and only the eyeshave enoughquality.
The eyeswere executedwith dual ovate
impressions and single central
punctations. There were other facial
elementspresent,but they aretoo eroded
to commenton style.
148
H-5
CHP06-84-U8L6-F015
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6
Solid
Length:5.55cm
Width: 6.10cm
Thickness:2.55cm
Paste.Cream
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentonly hasthe foreheadand
crownof the headstill present.Thereis
a line that defines the foreheadand
crown. This may be indicationfor a
cloth wrapor partialtonsuring. On the
centerof the headthereis a raisedarea
with incisionsthat indicatehair. The
hair continuesonto the back of the head
that
slightly. Thereis also a headband
wraps around the entire head, an
appliqu6piece.
t49
H-6
clIP06-84-U8L8-F042
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 8
Solid
Length: 8.00cm
Width: 6.40 cm
Thickness:4.05 cm
Paste: Cream
Slip. Cream
Anthropomorphic
This partial head fragment includes the
upper portion of the head including one
eye and one earplug. The head is flat
and wide and there are no details on the
back of the head. There is more of a
smooth transition from the forehead to
the crown of the head. There appearsto
be three hair knots or buns. Hair is
indicated by the striations on the buns.
The nose projects with no nostrils and
the eyes are executed with dual
impressions and
single
central
punctations. The earplug and eye
punctations are quite large and deep.
The earplug punctation does not fully
penetratethe clay.
- tf"l'
- ''
150
H-7
CIIP06-B4-U8L8-F041
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 8
Solid
Length: 5.45cm
Width: 5.10cm
Thickness:3.55cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Red-Orange
Anthropomorphic
On this fragmentmost of the featuresare
worn off. Thereis evidenceof a single
punctationin the eye. The noseis
broken,but triangularin shape.The
presenceofteeth is unclear,but the
mouthis openandthe lower lip appears
largerthantheupper. The backof the
headis intact,flat, andsomewhat
smooth.
H-8
CI{PO6-84-U8L6B-FO3I
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6b
Solid
Length: 4.70cm
Width: 6.10cm
Thickness:4.50cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is the upperportion of a head
with a face that is not flat. It has a
roundedprojectionthroughthe noseand
mouth area. Thereis a presencefor an
earbut it is poorly preserved.Thereis a
projected indication differentiatingthe
top of the head and the forehead. The
mouth would have beenopen and teeth
may have been present. The nose is
bulbous and triangular. The eyes are
executedby dual ovateimpressionsand
singlecentralpunctations.Thereare no
detailspresentonthe backof the head.
151
H-9
CIIPO6.B4.U8L7-F039
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 7
Solid
Length: 2.60cm
Width: 3.00cm
Thickness:1.35cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Red-Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form is the maxilla portion of the
face. Only the noseandthe upperlip are
present. The back of the fragment
suggeststhis may have been appliqu6d
or addedon to anotherform. The noseis
pointed and has two impressednostrils
in a curledteardropshape.The upperlip
is alsopresentandthe breakagesuggests
incisorsmay havebeenpresent.
H-10
CI{PO6.B4.U8L6B.FO33
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level6b
Solid
Length:3.15cm
Width: 2.65cm
Thickness:1.75cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a partial facewith only one
eye present that was formed by dual
ovate impressions and a central
punctation. Thereis a shallowline that
seems to f rame the face and
perpendicular incisions that indicate
hair.
t52
H-lt
CI{PO6.B4.U8L6C.FO35
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level6c
Solid
Length: 7.80cm
Width: 6.40cm
Thickness.3.70cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: CreamI LigtrtBrown
Anthropomorphic
The form is a partial head fragment.
Thereis definitionfrom the foreheadand
the hair or headpiece.The figure's left
ear remainsand projectsfrom the head.
There is a punctationon the lower ear
that fully penetratesthe clay. The left
eye was executed by dual ovate
impressions and a single central
punctation. There is a shallow ridge
abovethe eye. The noseprojectsand is
triangularin shape.
H-t2
CI{P06-84-U8L6-F02r
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level6
Solid
Length: 2.80cm
Width: 3.80cm
Thickness:1.25cm
Paste:Orange-Brown
Slip: None
Anthropomorphic
The form is a partial headfragmentwith
the crown of the headremaining. The
crown is smoothand thereis a presence
of a topknot/bun.This depictionis more
naturalisticwith incisions that form a
coiledknot appearance.
153
H-13
CI{PO6.84.U8L68-F027
StnrctureB-4, Unit 8, Level 6b
Solid
Length: 3.20cm
Width: 3.55cm
Thickness:1.85cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: None
Anthropomorphic
The form is the upperportion of a head
fragment. Thereis a concavecurvethat
designatesdifferentiation between the
foreheadandthe crownof the head. It is
not determined if this definition
delineates a tonsured head. ah ead
possible
garment,
other
or
representations.
t54
H-14
C}IPO6-84-U8L6B.FO32
Structure84, Unit 8, Level 6b
Solid
Length:3.55cm
Width: 3.65cm
Thickness.3.05cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: None
Anthropomorphic
This fragment was difficult to fi nd
perspectivefor. One perspectiveand
interpretationI concludedwasthatthis is
a headfragment. Thereare severallines
and punctationson the fragmentand the
orientationis confusing.Thereis an eye
presentandthis may depictan elaborate
headtreatrnentor hairstyle.However,it
is unknownwhat this represents.
155
H-15
2L5-FI 36
CITPOT-B4-PU1
StructureB-4,PlazaUnit 12,Level 5
Solid
Length: 5.70cm
Width: 6.35cm
Thickness:3.55cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
The form is a partial headfragment and
is missingmost of the forehead,partial
left eye,anda partialright ear. The eyes
were formed by dual ovateimpressions
andsinglecentralpunctations.The nose
is broken off but there is a triangular
basepresent. The lips project forward
and two incisions are present in the
mouth. The figure's right ear is broken
but thereare two incisionsvisible and a
breakage point for the now missing
earplug. The left ear also has two
incisionsandan intactearplug.The chin
is definedunderthe mouth andthe back
of the headis slightly concave.
H-16
CI{P07-84-U9L6-F088
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 6
Solid
Length: 3.30cm
Width: 3.65cm
Thickness:2.30cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
The form is of a partial ear fragment.
There are three horizontalincisionsand
there is breakage that suggestsa n
earplugwas appliquddand has broken
off.
156
H-17
CIIPO7.B4.U9L6.FO94
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 6
Solid
Length: 5.80cm
Width: 4.70cm
Thickness:2.70cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This is a completeheadfragmentthat is
wide and flattened with a concave
forehead.Theback of the headis plain.
The eyes are f ormed by dual ovate
impressions and central punctations.
The nose is eroded and the mouth is
openwith full lips. The incisorteethare
depicted and there are two small
incisions. . Both earsaxe presentwith
earplugs and incisions. The figure's
right earh as vertical incisions and the
left ear has horizontal incisions. The
crov/n of the head is defined from the
foreheadby a concaveindentation.The
crolvn is smooth and there is a single
cenfally located bun. There are five
verticalincisionson the bun.
ffi
r57
H-r8
CI{PO7-84-U9L7C-FI12
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level Tc
Solid
Length:4.7Acm
Width: 4.30cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form is the lower and left half of a
face. The face is smooth where
preserved.The noseis partially broken
but the nostrils are present as deep
punctations. The nose would have
projected further than the mouth. The
mouth is open and has full lips with no
indicationthat teethwere present.
H-19
CI{PO7-84-U9L6-F096
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 6
Solid
Length: 2.40cm
Width: 3.45cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste: Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
The form appearsto be the top part of a
head fragment, but it is not preserved
well andis not very diagnostic.
158
H-20
cr{P07-84-U9L9-F131
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level9
Solid
Length: 9.75cm
Width: 8.90cm
Thickness:4.35crn
Paste:Cream
Slip: Cream,red pigment?
Anthropomorphic
The form is a relatively completehead
fragment.All of the stylizationis on the
front with nothing depictedon the back
of the head. The eyes aref ormed by
dual ovate impressions and central
punctations. The noseis erodedbut is
triangular in shapewith no indication for
nostrils. The mouth is openwith a full
boftom lip and there is indication that
teeth were present. There are ears
present with earplugs that were
appliqudd. There are deeppu nctations
in the earplugsthat do not fully penetrate
the clay. Therearealsoincisionspresent
on both ears. On the figure's right ear
thereare threevertical incisionsand the
left ear hasthreediagonalincisions.On
top of the headthereis an asymnretrical
hat with no other stylizationsbesidesits
shape. There is definition betweenthe
hat and the forehead designatedby a
groovein the clay.
159
H-21
CIIP07-84-U9L6-F092
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 6
Solid
Length: 6.30cm
Width: 5.90cm
Thickness:4.85cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmentis a completehead
and depicts an individual with a very
croppedhairstyle. The hair is indicated
by punctuationson the scalpareaaround
the crown and back of the head. The
line at the foreheadis definedbut on the
backthereis no definitionfor a hairline,
thoughthe punctationsindicatethat the
hair stopsat the napeof the neck. One
interestingfeatureon this fragmentis not
only its shapebeing completelyround,
but the ears are created in a very
naturalisticfashion. The inner ear is
depictedaswell asa holefor an earplug,
but no earplugis indicated.The eyesare
formedby dual ovateimpressionsand a
centralpunctation.Thereis a browridge
abovethe eyesand contourlines around
the noseandmouth. The noseis present
with nostrilsand the mouthis openwith
a tongue depicted. The face is more
naturalisticthan what is seenon other
headfragrnents.
160
H-22
CIIPO7.B4-U9L6.F093
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level6
Solid
Length: 5.45cm
Width: 5.95cm
Thickness:3.15cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form is a partialheadfragment.The
eyes are formed with dual ovate
impressionsand a central punctation.
The nose is broken off but had a
triangularbase. The lips are erodedand
were thin. The lips circle aroundwhere
incisor teeth are depictedin the open
mouth. The earsarealso brokenoffbut
there are rounded spots that indicate
penetrating
had
earplugs that
punctations.
H-23
CI{PO7.B4-U9L7B.FIIO
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 7b
Solid
Length:6.10cm
Width: 3.15cm
Thickness:1.50cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is a partial head. Only
part of the crown of the head and one
side is preserved. There are striations
that may be indicating hair, and it
appearsat the top centerof the headand
also on the side in a separatesection.
The center striations are front-to-baclq
while the sideis up anddown. The back
of the headis flat and smoothwith no
stylization.
161
H-24
cr{P07-84-U9L7C-Fll8
StructureB-4,Unit 9,Level7c
Solid
Length: 7.05cm
Width: 5.25cm
Thickness:3.50cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Red-Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form is a m ostly completehead.
The eyes are formed by dual ovate
impressionsand a central punctation.
The noseis triangularin shapeand the
end is broken off, but thereare two deep
punctationscreatingnostrils. The mouth
is open and the lips project from the
face. No teetharepresentin the mouth.
The crown of the head, as well as the
ears are missing.
The face is
intentionally scratched up in a
haphazardly
fashion.
t62
H-25
C}IPO7.B4.U9L8
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 8
Solid
Length: 6.80cm
Width: 6.55cm
Thickness:3.90cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This is a partial headfragmentwith no
detailson the back. The eyes are dual
ovate impressions and
central
punctations.The noseis erodedoffbut
is tiangular in shape. There is no
indication for nostrils. The mouth is
openwith full lips andthereis indication
for incisor teeth. The ears are present
with earplugs and appear to be
There are horizontal
appliqudd.
incisions on the earswith three or four
on the right and 2 on the left. Thereare
remnantsof red pigment on the earsand
mouth.
163
H-26
CIIPO7.B4.U9L8-F124
StructureB-4, Unit 9, Level 8
Solid
Length:3.35cm
Width: 6.20cm
Thickness.2.30cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form of this fragmentis the crown
is
of a headfragmentandthe headdress
difficult to makeout Thereis a bunto
the figure'sright sidewith four incisions
andin the left sidetherearemore
incisionmarks,but this appearsto be a
latermodification.Therearemany
shallowscratches/incisions
on the front
andbackof the fragment.On theback
of the fragmentthereareincisionsthat
makechevronpattemsthat may be a
braidedpattern.Theseshallowscratches
area latermodificationto the fragment.
t64
H-27
175
StnrctureB-4, Level 3
Solid
Length: 4.55cm
Width: 4.60cm
Thickness:2.55cm
Pa$te:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragmentwas executedwith
the tripunctationstyle. The eyesand the
mouth were formed by the tripunctation
techniqueand this gives an appearance
ofincisor teeth. The noseprojectsfrom
the face and is rounded with shallow
nostrils. The earsarepresentwith plugs
andincisions. The earplugsareexecuted
by punctation and fully penetrate the
clay. The foreheadand the crown of the
head are defined by a framing incised
line. Hair is indicatedby incisedlines
end createsa squaredshapeto the head.
There is a central bun with at least six
incisions and the back of the head is
concavein shapewith a bun at the nape
of the neck. This bun has shallow
punctationson it and abovethis thereis
an incisedcircleon the backof the head.
This is interpreted as a later
modification.
165
H-28
195
Tolok Group
Solid
Length: 4.45cm
Width: 4.80cm
Thickness:1.90cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a headfragmentthat is very
erodedand poorly preserved.The form
is smoothandtaperstowardthetop from
front to b ack. There are incisions or
indentationsalong the crown of the head
that is interpreted as hair. All other
featuresaregonefrom the fragment.
166
H-29
159
Tolok, Struchre3, Unit l, Level I
Solid
Length:3.10cm
Width: 4.25cm
Thickness:2.10cm
Paste:Buff-Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragment only has the crown
that
still preserved.Thereis a headpiece
looks like a hat with a wide brim around
it. The hat is smoothand the appearsto
be appliqu6d.
H-30
156
Strucfurez,Urlnt l, Level I
Solid
Length: 3.95cm
Width: 6.75cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste: Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a headfragmentwith only
the upper portion present. There is
definition betweenthe foreheadand the
crown of the head and the foreheadis
concave and sloping. With what
remainsof the fragrnentit is discernable
that the eyes were punctatedand there
were incisionsabovethe eye creatingan
eye ridge. There areno detailson the
back of the fragmentand the head shape
is wide andflat.
167
H-31
169
Toloh Structure1,Unit l, Surface
Solid
Length: 3.40cm
Width: 4.20cm
Thickness:1.25cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
The form for this fragmenlappearsto be
the lower portion of a headfragment. It
is extremely eroded and there is only
shallowand slight evidencefor the nose
and mouth on the face. The nose is
rounded and smooth with no nostrils
evident. The mouth is only a wide and
shallow horizontal incision. There are
no teethor lips depicted. This fragment
may have been appliquedto a head or
may havebeena hollow form. The back
is rounded"concave.andsmooth.
168
H-32
160
Tolok, Structure2, Unit 2, Lavel 2
Solid
Length: 2.25cm
Width: 2.75 crn
Thickness:2.70cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis considereda headform
becausethe curvedgrooveis reminiscent
of the defining featurethat distinguishes
the foreheadfrom the crown of the head.
Thereis alsoindicationfor incisionsand
punctationswhere the headdresswould
have been,but it is erodedenoughthat
this cannot be described more
thoroughly. The shapealso indicates
that the headwould havebeenthicker by
the crown areaand thinned toward the
facial area"w hich is consistent with
otherheadfragmentsin the collection.
t69
H-33
cP-94C-078
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 6.50cm
Width: 6.15cm
Thickness:3.15cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is composedof several
piecesthat have been assembledback
together. Most of the features a^re
present. The mouth was formed using
appliqu6dlips that are full and project.
The teeth are incised and the nose is
bulbous,but eroded. The ears are not
fully formed but there aree arplugsin
appliqud circles. The eyes are dual
impressed with a single cenffal
punctation. The foreheadis concave
with slight definition between the
forehead and crown of the head. The
crown of the head is smooth with the
presenceof a bun elementthat appears
on the figure's left side. Thereareno
incisions or punctationspresenton the
bun or on the crown of the head.
170
H-34
cP-94C-053
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 6.95cm
Width: 6.25cm
Thickness:3.55cm
Paste:Orange-Buff
Slip:none
Anthropomorphic
This is a completeheadfragment. The
mouth is open and the lips encirclethe
mouth. There are two distinctive
incisionsto form the teeth. The noseis
roundedwith no nostrils. The eyeswere
executedby dual impressionsand single
centralpunctations.The earsare defined
and stick out to the sides. The earsare
incised with two vertical parallel
incisions and one horizontal incision
below. The earplugpunctationsdo not
penetratethroughthe clay. The earplugs
are not defined in shapeand are only
indicated by the punctations. The
forehead is concave and there is a
defining groove distinguishingforehead
from the crown of the head.
t7l
H-35
cP,94C-071
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length:5.55cm
Width: 4.55cm
Thickness:2.20cm
Paste:Orange-Red
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmenthasa unique
in the sample.The fragment
appearance
consistsof an eyeframedon two sides
with hair. The eyeis formedwith
curvedincisionlinesthat arewide and
createa largepupil area.The faceis
framedwith an incisedline definingthe
facefrom the hair. Shallowincisedlines
makethe hair andthey appearon one
sideandthe cornerthat is present.They
stopon the othersidewhereit is smooth.
H-36
cP-94C-048
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 4.00cm
Width: 6.45cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form includes the top of the
forehead and the crown of the head.
Thereis a slightconcaveportionleading
up to the crown. The detailsof the face
are not presentand there is possibly a
cenfral bun on the crown. The shape
indicatesthis, but due to the ashtemper
is not there.
the preservation
t72
H-37
73
StructureB-2, Level 6
Solid
Length: 3.60cm
Width: 3.20cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This is a I ower portion of a head
fragmentthat is very eroded. Thereis a
brokentriangularareafor wherethe nose
was. The mouth is openand therewere
five small incisions on the upper
(maxilla) area and thesewere probably
teeth.
H-38
cP-95C-079
CasPek,Structurel, Level llf 2
Solid
Length:3.85cm
Width: 3.25cm
Thickness:1.40cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This head fragmentis unique in shape
and style and may havebeenpart of an
effrgy vessel. The figure's right eye,
nose, mouth, and forehead ares till
present.The mouthis a thick horizontal
incision. The nosewould haveprojected
out but is broken. The eye is formedby
dual impressionsand a single central
punctation.
r73
H-39
cP-94C-00r
Str.B-4lPlaza,PU-94-1,Level 3
Solid
Length:3.85cm
Width: 6.20cm
Thickness:2.00cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a headfragmentwith only
the upper crown of the head being
present.Thereis distinctionbetweenthe
foreheadandthe crowrrof the head. The
hat sitson top of the headandhasa wide
rim andthe centeris roundedandhigher.
The hat does not seem to have been
presentedon the back of the head,just
on the top andthe front.
t74
H-40
cP-9sc-038
Caspek, StructureI, Level lOf
Solid
Length: 4.85cm
Width: 5.75cm
Thickness:3.15cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
The form is a headfragmentwith thetop
portion missing. What remainsare the
figure's right eye, ears, mouth, and
indicationfor a nose. The nose has
brokenofr but therewas one originally.
The eyes were f ormed by dual
impressions and single central
punctations. They look like they may
have been encircledand sunkenin, but
they arevery erodedand this is difficult
to tell. The left earhasincisionspresent
and both earshave earplugs. The hole
fully penetratesthe clay. The lips are
full and project forward, and the teeth
are not present.The back ofthe headis
flat and smoothwith only one feature.
Thereis a wide and shallowpunctation
in the middle and the back of the head.
There is no interpretationconcludedat
this time.
t75
H-41
cP-95C-095
CasPek,Structurel, Level 12d
Solid
Length:3.10cm
Width: 1.45cm
Thickness:1.50cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragrnentis a figure's left ear. It is
elongatedand round with two horizontal
incisions and apu nctation for an
earplug. The punctationdoesnot fully
penetratethe clay andthereis nothingon
the backof the fragment.
H-42
cP-95C-090
CasPek,Structurel, Level l2c
Solid
Length: 3.25crn
Width: 2.00cm
Thickness:1.20cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Red
Anthropomorphic
The form is a fragment from a face and
the only portionremainingis the mouth.
This wasformedby a horizontalincision
andhadthin lips.
176
H-43
cP-95C-004
Caspek, Structure1, Surface
Solid
Length:3.35cm
Width: 4.40cm
Thickness:2.05 crrr
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragment is very crudea nd
eroded.Thereis a narrowingto oneside
with small short incisionsforming hair.
Thebackof the headis flat andsmooth.
H-44
361
StructureC9,Unit C9-5,Level 8
Solid
Lengh: 4.80cm
Width: 3.25cm
Thickness:2.90cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragment form has both eyes
that were formed by small deep
punctationsfor the pupils and shallow
dual impressions.The noseis large and
projectsforward with two nostrils. The
mouth is open and rectangularin shape
with no teeth. The earsare no longer
presentbut partial punctationsindicate
earplugswerepresent.
177
H-45
394
CasPek,Structurel, Level l2c
Solid
Length: 4.30cm
Width: 3.75cm
Thickness:1.40cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment was interpreted as an
effigy vessel form. The projecting
featuremay havebeenpart of a face,but
this is not certain.
H-46
206
Zubin,StructureA-1, Unit A1-3, Level I
Solid
Length: 5.40cm
Width: 4.75cm
Thickness:2.45cm
Paste:Brown
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis crude and eroded,but
features can be distinguished. There
weretripunctatestyleeyes,a nose,anda
mouth. The back of the headis smooth
and from the baseof the headit tapers
towardthetop.
178
H-47
cP-94C-039
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length:290 cm
Width: 3.35cm
2.50cm
Thickness:
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is the lower portion of a head
fragment. The mouth is openin an "O"
shapeand the cheeksare outlined and
emphasized.The droopy cheekand the
partial eye looks saggrngor puffy and
may be an older individual or
representation.
H-48
cP-94C-r00
StructureB-4, Level 8
Solid
Length:3.35cm
Width: 4.90cm
Thickness:3.00cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This is a very erodedheadfragmentwith
the lower right portion of the face still
present. The mouth is openand thereis
indicationthata nosewaspresent.
t79
H-49
cP-94C-051
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 7.90cm
Width: 5.90cm
Thickness:3.25cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmenthas many elements
on it. The mouth is openand encircled
by the lips. There is a single vertical
incision creating the appearanceof
incisors. The nose is generic and
roundedwith no nostrils. The eyesare
dual impressedwith a single central
punctation,andarelargein proportionto
the face. The earhas two incisionsthat
'are
quite wide and take up the ear.
There is an appliquddearplugwith no
penetration through the clay. The
foreheadis concavewith the crown of
the headdefinedfrom the forehead.The
head is smooth with multiple buns.
There is a central bun and one on either
side of the head. All three buns have
vertical striations. There is nothine
depictedon the backofthe head.
180
H-50
cP-94C-069
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 2.30cm
Width: 2.40cm
Thickness:1.05cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a fragmentof an eye. The
eye is punctatedwith dual impressions
on either side defining the centralpupil
punctation.Thereis a grooveabovethe
eyelidandthe brow ridgeis pronounced.
This fragment has very naturalistic
qualities,which is uniqueto the sample.
H-51
355
Level I
Solid
Length: 3.40cm
Width: 3.65cm
Thickness:2.75cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmentis more sphericalin
shapeand demonstrates
the tripunctate
style. The mouth and both eyes are
executedwith the three punctationsand
the noseis genericand roundedwith no
nostrils. There is an incised line that
traces around the bottom of the nose.
Thereis a completeand partial hole for
earplugsand they puncturethrough the
clay.
181
H-52
cP-95C-094
CasPek,Structurel, Level llf 2
Solid
Length: 2.75cm
Width: 5.35cm
Thickness:2.45cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is the lower portion of a head
fragment. The figure's mouth and left
ear arestill present. The earhas three
horizontalincisionswith an earplugnot
penetratingthroughthe clay. The mouth
is open and there also appearsto be
shallowincisionson the iaw.
H-53
cP-95C-l0l
CasPek,Structure1, Level llg2
Solid
Length: 3.80cm
Width: 4.30cm
Thickness:1.75cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis extremelyerodeddueto
the ashtemper.T he form indicatesit as
a headfragment. One side is flattened,
simihrly to the back of other head
fragments. There is a line defining the
forehead form the crown of the head.
There is also a bun like shape with
verticalincisions.
t82
H-54
cP-94C-068
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 3.75cm
Width: 6.55cm
Thickness:l.l0cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none,red pigment?
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis the crown of a headand
is poorly preserved due to the ash
temper. It is in four piecesbut qualities
can be distinguished.Thereis evidence
of a bun elementand incisionsfor hair.
There is af aint line still presentthat
would have framedthe face. Thereare
traces of red pigment in the hair
incisions. Thereis nothing depictedon
the backof the head.
H-55
cP-94C-066
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length: 2.90cm
Width: 1.30cm
Thickness:1.70cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis a single ear and has a
single incision abovethe earplug. The
earplug has a r ing shape with a
punctation that does not penetratethe
clav.
183
H-56
cP-95C-098
PlazaB, Unit PU-l 0, Level 7
Solid
Length:5.50cm
Width: 3.65cm
Thickness:1.75cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This is a poorly preservedheadthat is in
many fragments. One has recognizable
characteristics
of a mouthandnose.
H-57
PAC-95C-002
Pacbitun,PlazaB,Unit l, Level 3
Solid
Length: 8.05cm
Width: 6.95cm
Thickness:4.30cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragmenthas many features.
The mouth is open with projectinglips
but no teeth are present. The nose
projects as far as the upper lip and
shallowimpressions
createnostrils.The
eyesare very shallow dual impressions
with a deepercentralpunctation. There
are no eyebrowsdepicted.The forehead
is not concavebut tapersin profileto the
crown. Thereis definition betweenthe
foreheadand the crown. The top of the
head is smoothwith a centralbun that
has been broken off. The right ear is
larger and longer than the figure's left.
On the left ear there are two vertical
incisions and a pu nctation for the
earplug. The right earhas two or three
vertical incisionsand a definedearplug
with a hole penetratingthe clay.
184
H-58
153
Tolok, Structure1,Unit 2, Level 5
Solid
Length: 4.50cm
Width: 5.40cm
Thickness:2.65cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This is a partial headfragmentwith two
eyesand the indicationfor a nose. The
eyes have dual impressionsand the
singlecentralpunctation.
H-59
cP-94C-180
Tolok,Plaza?,PU-l?, Level4
Solid
Length:3.55cm
Width: 3.65cm
Thickness:1.60cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is poorly preservedand
may depicta mouth.
185
H-60
cP-94C-182
Tolok, Sfructure14,Unit PU-2,Level 4
Solid
Length: 3.65cm
Width: 2.40cm
Thickness:2.20cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is questionablebut there is
one eye formed by a punctationand a
horizontalincisionfor a mouth. Half of
the face was broken off and the
remaining face was reattached to
somethingodd in shape.
H-61
cP-9sc-a22
PlazaB, Unit PU-3,Level 8
Solid
Length: 5.05cm
Width: 6.25cm
Thickness:1.90cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This form is likely a fragmentfrom an
effigy vessel. Thereis a face with one
closed eye formed by an incised line
crossinghorizontally. The noseprojects
and has a triangular shape with no
nostrils. The figure's right cheek is
proncnrncedand high. The Maxilla
portion of the mouthis present,but there
are no lips and three incisionsfor teeth
arepresent.
186
H-62
349
Zlubin,StructureC-9,Unit C9-5,Level 7
Solid
Length: 10.70cm
Width: 8.35cm
Thickness:4.45cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a headwith the uppertorso
still attached. The torso includes the
figure's left nipple that is formed by a
large punctation. Thereis no neck and
the head sits on top of the torso. The
mouth is open with projectinglips and
the incisors are formed. The nose is
projected and rounded with shallow
nostrils underneath. The eyes are
shallow dual impressionswith single
central punctations. The eyes are not
symmetrical. The ears are incised and
the earplugshavepunctationsthat do not
penetratethe clay. The top of the head
hair, or headgear
indicatesa headdress,
of some sort. The breakageprevents
interpretation.
187
H-63
No catalognumber
StructureA-4, Surface
Solid
Length:4.95cm
Width: 4.75cm
Thickness:3.35cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is classified as a head
fragmentbecauseof its roundedshape
and the back is flat and smooth. There
areremainsof the mouthanda chin, and
the break at the neck is clearly defined.
Theremay be an elementon top of the
head.
H-64
CI{PO2.B4.U7L6B.FO78
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level 6b
Solid
Length: 3.60cm
Width: 5.60cm
Thickness:2.80cm
Paste:Orange-Buff
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This is the upper portion of a head
fragmentwith only the foreheadand the
crown remaining. In profile there is a
taperingof the foreheadasit approaches
the crown. The top of the head is
smoothandhasa bun with very shallow
punctations.Thereareno detailson the
backofthe head.
188
H-65
cP-94C-070
StructureB-4, Unit PU-94-1,Level 7
Solid
Length:8.00cm
Width: 8.80cm
Thickness:2.65cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a fragmentedhead. There
is a headpiecethat varies from others
seenin the sample. There were three
bunson top of the headwith a headband.
The eyesaredual ovateimpressions
with
single centralpunctations. The nose is
rounded with nostrils and meets the
upper lip. Thereare tiny incisionsfor
teeth and the rernaining earh as
horizontal incisions on the remaining
ear. The earplughas a circular shape
with a central punctationthat does not
penetratethe clay.
H-66
cP-95C-072
PlazaB, UnitPU-10,Level7
Solid
Length: 3.70cm
Width: 6.15cm
Thickness:1.85cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is the upperportion of a head
with a headbandor hat. The clay is
appliquedaroundthe head.This maybe
another representationof the "Dixie
Cup" style or hat. There is definition
betweenthe foreheadand the crown of
the head.
189
H-67
342
Zopilote,Lower Platform,Unit 8, Level
2
Solid
Length:3.95cm
Width: 5.90cm
Thickness:1.40cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is the upperportion of a head
with the foreheadand the crown of the
head. The foreheadis concaveand the
top may havehad hair defined. Thereis
a centralbun elementindicated.
H-68
cP-95C-Os3
PlazaB,PU-10,Level6
Solid
Length: 1.45cm
Width: 3.50cm
Thickness:1.35cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis the top part of the head.
Thereis a striatedbun that seemsto be
characteristicof other fragments. The
striationsareon the front andbackof the
bun andrun vertically.
&
r90
H-69
cP-95C-069
PlazaB,PU-10,Level 7
Solid
Length:4.10cm
Width: 5.00cm
Thickness:1.60cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is identified as a head
with a uniqueshape.It is triangularand
thereis a roundedframingelementmade
by incisionsand may have framed the
face. The triangular projection may
have been a hat or some sort of head
element.
H-70
cP-95C-044
PlazaB, Unit PU-8,Level 5
Solid
Length: 5.80cm
Width: 2.60cm
Thickness.1.20cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentwas the crown of a head
and appearsto be an appliqu6 piece.
Thereis an incisedcentralbun and the
incisions continue across the entire
fragment.
This is interpreted as
depictinghair.
191
H-71
cP-95C-055
PlazaB, Unit PU-8,Level 5
Solid
Length: 3.95cm
Width: 3.25cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmenthaseyes,a nose,and
a mouth present. The nose is situated
between the eyes with no nostrils
indicated. The eyesare formedby dual
ovate impressionsand a single central
punctation. The mouth is open and is
encircled by full lips. There aren o
featureson the crown of the head.
H-72
cP-94C-0r6
Tololq StructureI (Midden),Bedrock
Solid
Length: 6.35cm
Width: 3.10cm
Thickness:1.40cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis unique to the sample
but hasqualitiesthat are similar to other
head fragments. There is an incised
portion that may representhair and a
possible coil usedto depict a band.
Thereis a groovethat runs horizontally
andthe backof the fragmentis smooth.
192
H-73
CI{P02-B4-U7L6-F054
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level 6
Solid
Length: 5.20cm
Width: 3.40cm
Thickness:3.20cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This partial head fragment depicts the
figure's left cheekand ear. The back of
the headis flat and the face is smooth.
The earhas an appliquddearplugand
there are traces of red pigment on the
ear.
H-74
cP-94C-154
Tolok, Unit PU-2,Level 5
Solid
Length: 3.75cm
Width: 4.25cm
Thickness:1.50cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is classified as a head
fragment and the only element
remaining is an eye. It may be
reminiscentof the coffeebeaneyesseen
in otherregionsof Mesoamerica.
193
H-75
cP-95C-093
CasPek,Structure1,Level l2d
Solid
Length:4.15cm
Width: 3.00cm
Thickness:L50 cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This was classifiedas a head fragment
becauseit is a figure's left ear. There
are horizontal incisions above an
earplug. This ear has a particularslyle
to it that is not seenelsewherein the
sample.
H-76
cP-94C-014
Toloh Sructure l, Unit PV-z, above
midden
Solid
Length: 7.35cm
Width: 6.00cm
Thickness:2.95cm
Paste:Buff
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This fragmentis a headstill connectedto
an uppertorso with one afm. It is very
erodedand there is indicationof a nose
and mouth, but they are no longer
present.The eyesareerodedbut arestill
present and weree xecuted by the
tripunctation technique. The pectoral
area is not defined by any featuresand
the arm is very shortwith a roundedend.
194
H-77
C}IPO2.B4.U7L8B-FO8I
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level 8b
Solid
Length: 2.00cm
Width: 2.70cm
Thickness:2.40cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This very small fragmentwas identified
as a headfragmentbecauseof the form
and an incisedline that curyes. The line
is similar to othersseenasthe definition
betweenthe headandthe forehead.
H-78
cP-94C-011
Tolok, Structure1 (midden,Unit PU-2,
Bedrock
Solid
Length:3.85cm
Width: 4.30cm
Thickness:2.55cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This head fragmentis very erodedbut
the lower part of the face is preserved.
The mouth is there but a think line
remains. Other details are difficult to
distinguishandtheremay be incisionsor
scratcheson the back of the head,but
this mav not havebeenintentional.
195
H-79
CI{PO2-84-U7L8B-FO8O
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level 8b
Solid
Length:2.50cm
Width: 235 cm
Thickness:1.95cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
The form of this fragmentis aleft ear.
Therearetwo horizontalincisionsabove
an earplugthat is roundedwith a central
punctationthat doesnot fully penetrate
the clay,
H-80
StructureC-2,Unit 2,Level?
Solid
Length: 2.65cm
Width: 2.35cm
Thickness:1.30cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment was either pafi of a
hollow form or wasan appliqu6piece. It
is a face of a headfragment. The style
of this face was createdby the use of
incised lines. The nose and the chin
project the most with the mouth open.
There are also vertical incision lines on
the foreheadand there may have been a
possibleheadgarmentbut only a portion
remains.
t96
H-8r
StnrctureC-6,Level4
Solid
Length: 5.45cm
Width: 5.05cm
Thickness:3.70cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This form is a head fragment with a
variety of features. The headis in the
round and not flat like many of the
others. The face appearsf ull with a
partially openmouthwith full lips. The
nose projects with no evidence that
nostrilswerepresent. The eyesarevery
narrow and are executed by dual
impressions.The centerportionis raised
and servesas the pupil. The foreheadis
not concaveand is rounded. Thereis a
definedline that framesthe face with a
single centeredbun on the crown of the
head. The backofthe headhasa curved
in andindentedarea.
r97
H-82
This fragmentwasreclassified.
H-83
CP-B4-U7-L9-417
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level9
Solid
Length: 6.70cm
Width: 4.45cm
Thickness:3.30cm
Paste: Orange-Brown
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is a head with several
features. The crown of the head could
be a singlebun styleor it may be another
head garment. The eyes are dual
impressedwith a slant punctation. The
mouth is open with teeth that are not
well preserved.The noseis erodedoff
andthe earsareno longerpresent.
198
H-84
CP-84-U7-Ll0-415
StructureB-4, Unit 7, Level l0
Solid
Length: 5.80cm
Width: 5.2Acrn
Thickness:2.90cm
Paste:Cream
Slip: Cream
Anthropomorphic
This is a completeheadfragment. The
eyes are f ormed by dual ovate
impressions and
single central
punctations. There are two horizontal
incisions on both ears and there are
appliqu6dearplugswith punctationsthat
do fully penetratethe clay. The noseis
presentbut slightly eroded. The mouth
is open and encircledby the lips with
four incisionsforming the teeth. There
is a defininggrooveframingthefaceand
the crown of the head is incised with
lines indicating hair. There is also a
headbandthat is an appliqu6dcoil that
encirclesthe entire headand appearson
the back,but the hair is not shownon the
back. The headis wide with a flattened
profile.
199
H-85
CP-B4-U7-L6-4r6
StructureB-4, Unit T,Level6
Solid
Length: 7.45cm
Width: 7.15cm
Thickness:3.40cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Red
Anthropomorphic
This is a partialheadthat is still attached
to the upper torso. This specimen
demonstratesthe disproportionof the
headsto the torsos. The head is large
with a smallerbody. The torso is plain
with no pectoraldefinition,but the belly
does stick out slightly. The mouth is
shown open with possibly teeth in the
mouth,but no incisionsarepresent.The
ear that is remainingshowsan earplug.
Thereis a nosepresenton the faceand a
partial eye. The eye was executedby
dual ovate impressionsand a single
centralpunctation.
240
H-86
CI{P06-84-U8L4-F003
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level4
Hollow
Length: 4.50cm
Width: 4.30cm
Thickness:3.80cm
Paste:Orange
Slip: Orange
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmentcould be interpreted
as anthropomorphicor zoomorphic. It
has similaritiesto the primatedepiction
in the zoomorphicspecimens. It was
placedin the anthropomorphicfragments
to includethe stylistic qualitieswith the
other head fragments. The mouth is a
curvedhorizontalincisionwith full lips.
The noseis very naturalisticandthe eyes
are similar to the coffeebeaneyes. The
eyesproject from the face that is more
defined than other head fragments.
Thereis a widows peaktype shapeon
the crown of the headwith a thin incised
line outlining this shapefurther back on
the head.
20r
H-87
CHP06-B4-U8L4-F002
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level4
Solid
Length:4.60cm
Width: 4.55cm
Thickness:2.75cm
Paste:Buff
Slip: Red-Brown
Anthropomorphic
This headfragmentis circularin frontal
view and somewhatflattenedin profile.
The mouth is shownaspartially open.
The nose is roundedwith no nostrils.
The eyes are deep dual ovate
impressions with
single central
punctations. Thereis a shallowgroove
framingthe facealongthe hairline. The
crown of the head has alternating
incisionsand is interpretedas depicting
hair. Theremainingearprojectsslightly
with two horizontal incisions and an
earplug punctation with the plug not
really formed. The back of the headis
flat, smooth,andwithout anydetail.
202
H-88
CIiP06-84-U8L4-F004
StnrctureB-4, Unit 8, Level4
Solid
Length: 8.50cm
Width: 8.35cm
Thickness:3.40cm
Paste:Orange-Brown
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This fragment is flat and thick. The
lower portion of the face has survived.
The eyes have shallow dual ovate
impressions and shallow central
punctations. The noseis roundedwith
the outerportion of the nostrilsdefined.
The lips project as far as the nose and
the mouth is open with definedtongue
and two incisor teeth. Thereis one ear
still present with an earplug and
punctation that does not penetrate
throughthe clay.
203
H-89
CFIPO6-84-U8L4-FOOI
StructureB-4, Unit 8, Level 4
Solid
Length: 7.65cm
Width: 5.80cm
Thickness:3.65cm
Paste: Cream
Slip: none
Anthropomorphic
This head fragment has a crown that is
smoothwith a single centralincisedbun.
There is slight definition that frames the
face. The eyes are projected in outline
and have the style of dual ovate
impressions with
single
central
punctation. The nose projects forward
with no nostrils and an incision was used
to separatethe nose from the upper lip.
The lips encircle the open mouth and
The ears are
teeth are depicted.
complete and no earplugs are present.
Both ears have four incisions. The
figure's left ear has diagonal incisions
that are all in the same degreeof angle.
The right ear differs with the top two
incisions shown in d iagonal and the
bottom two are horizontal.
204
APPENDIX C
SPECIMENINVENTORY:
PROVENIENCE
205
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