nectaries

1.6. Pollination
ecology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination_syndrome
http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/pollination.htm
Fenster, C.B., Armbruster, W.S., Wilson, P., Dudash, M.R., & Thomson, J.D. (2004)
Pollination syndromes and floral specialization.
Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 35, pp 375-403
http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Pollination/Fenster-Pollination-Syndromes-2004.pdf
1.6.1. incentive:
Sources
of nectar and
pollen
INCENTIVES FOR VISITING FLOWERS
Plants can not move from one location to another, thus many flowers have
evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed
populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous;
literally "insect-loving" in Latin. They can be highly modified along with the
pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called
nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar.
Birds and bees have color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers.
Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where
to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which is
visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by
scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all
flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by
insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead
animals, often called Carrion flowers including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and
the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night
visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract
pollinators and most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids,
for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and
scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower#Attraction_methods
Hedera helis, Ivy
Nectar presented in open disk
* Allgemeines
Hedera helix, Efeu, Araliaceae
Nektarsuche Hedera
Parnassia palustris, Saxifragaceae
attractive pseudo-glands offered, no nectar
Nektarsuche Hedera
Parnassia palustris
Studentenröschen
Saxifragaceae
Parnassia palustris, Pseudonektarien, schlussendlich Selbstbestäubung
Ranunculus
bulbosus
Ranunculaceae
yellow Corolla actually
flower-shaped nectaries
green perianth, the
actual flower
* Ranunculus bulbosus
Ranunculus bulbosus, nektaries flower shaped, Ranunculaceae
* Ranunculus bulbosus, Nektarien
Ranunculus repens
normal spectrum seen by humans
ultraviolett spectrum
seen by insects
Ranunculus repens, Nektarmal in UV
various shapes of nectaries with Ranunculaceae
Nektarien Ranunculaceae
Aquilegia vulgaris, Akelei, Ranunculaceae corolla and nectaries
Aquilegia vulgaris
Aquilegia vulgaris
nectaries only
Ranunculaceae
Aquilegia vulgaris
Aconitum
napellus
Ranunculacaee
Aconitum napellus
Aconitum paniculatum, Ranunculaceae, view from the side
Aconitum paniculatum
Aconitum
paniculatum
frontal view
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum paniculatum
Aconitum
paniculatum
Ranunculaceae
Nectaries
prepared
Aconitum paniculatum Nektarien
Aconitum
septentrionale
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum septentrionale
Aconitum vulparia
gelber Eisenhut
Ranunculaceae
Bumblebees
digging holes in
helmet of flowers
in order to steal
the pollen from
the anthers
Aconitum vulparia, Hummelbesuch
Examples of the amazing breadth of pollination ecology: The dove tree (Davidia involucrata ) has
“naked” flowers that lack a perianth but are surrounded by two large bracts. These turn from
green (a) to white (b) when flowers open which increases pollinator attraction
Sun, J.F., Gong, Y.B., Renner, Susanne S., & Huang, S.Q. (2008)
Multifunctional Bracts in the Dove Tree Davidia involucrata (Nyssaceae: Cornales): Rain Protection and
Pollinator Attraction, Vol. 171, pp. 119-124. The University of Chicago Press for The American Society of
Naturalists, http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Sun-Davidia-Multifunctional-Bracts-2008.pdf
Examples of the amazing breadth of
pollination ecology:
Calypso bulbosa (c), a rewardless
orchid, has evolved to deceive naïve
bumblebees in the early spring to
effect pollination without
payment in nectar
Dafni, A. (1983)
Pollination of Orchis Caspia--A
Nectarless Plant which Deceives the
Pollinators of Nectariferous Species
from other Plant Families. Journal of
Ecology, 71, 2, pp 467-474
http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/DafniPollination-Orchis-Deceives-1983.pdf
Ackermann, J.D. (1981)
Pollination Biology of Calypso bulbosa var. occidentalis
(Orchidaceae), a Food Deception System. Madrono, 28, 3,
pp 101-110
http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/AckermannCalypso-bulbosa-Food-Deception-1981.pdf
The perennial vine, Gelsemium
sempervirens (d), contains alkaloids in
all plant parts including corollas and
nectar which deter floral herbivores
and nectar robbers but - in high
concentrations - also pollinators
Adler, L.S. & Irwin, R.E. (2005)
Ecological costs and benefits of
defenses in nectar. Ecology, 86, 11, pp
2968-2978
http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/AdlerEcological-Costs-Benefits-2005.pdf
http://alabamaplants.com/Yellowopp/Gelsemi
um_sempervirens_page.html
Adler, L.S. & Irwin, R.E. (2005)
Ecological costs and benefits of defenses in nectar. Ecology, 86, 11, pp 2968-2978
http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Adler-Ecological-Costs-Benefits-2005.pdf
Hoverflies (e) visit
flowers in a large range of
habitats, they even pollinate
cultivated plants. Though they
are numerous, species-rich
and wide-spread, their role as
pollinators is often still
neglected.
Mayer, C.A., Lynn; Armbruster, W.
Scott; Dafni, Amots; Eardley,
Connal; Huang, Shuang-Quan;
Kevan, Peter G.; Ollerton, Jeff;
Packer, Laurence; Ssymank, Axel;
Stout, Jane C.; Potts, Simon G.
(2011)
Pollination ecology in the 21st Century:
Key questions for future research.
Journal of Pollination Ecology, 3, pp
8-23
http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/MayerPollination-Ecology-21fst-CenturyFuture-2011.pdf
Rhododendron ponticum (h) is
a highly invasive plant in
Ireland. Though it provides
food resources for generalist
bumblebees,
effects on native plant
pollinator interactions vary with
intensity of invasion.
Mayer, C.A., Lynn; Armbruster, W.
Scott; Dafni, Amots; Eardley,
Connal; Huang, Shuang-Quan;
Kevan, Peter G.; Ollerton, Jeff;
Packer, Laurence; Ssymank, Axel;
Stout, Jane C.; Potts, Simon G.
(2011)
Pollination ecology in the 21st
Century: Key questions for future
research. Journal of Pollination
Ecology, 3, pp 8-23
http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/MayerPollination-Ecology-21fst-CenturyFuture-2011.pdf
Heterochelus chiriagricus (Striped monkey beetle), 10mm.
[image by M. Picker & C. Griffiths ©, from Field Guide to
Insects of South Africa, used with permission].
http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/beetles/scarabaeidae/r
utelinae/hopliini.htm
In the Succulent Karoo of South
Africa, monkey beetles (Hopliini)
are important pollinators of many
plant species
Mayer, C., Soka, G., & Picker, M. (2006)
The importance of monkey beetle (Scarabaeidae : Hopliini)
pollination for Aizoaceae and Asteraceae in grazed and
ungrazed areas at Paulshoek, Succulent Karoo, South Africa.
Journal of Insect Conservation, 10, 4, pp 323-333
http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Mayer-ImportanceMonkey-Beetle-2006.pdf
1.6.2. Flowers for
Pollen Eaters
* Pollensammeln, Futterhaare
SYNDROME OF FLOWERS VISITED BY POLLEN EATERS
considerable amounts of pollen easily accessed as sources,
usually offered by flowers without nectar.
Typical Flowers: Poppy Papaver, Cistus, Commelina, Rosa,
Thalictrum aquilegiifolium
sometimes also with intricate deception strategies such as
pseudopollinia, see the case of Comelina below.
sometimes also fodder hairs and attractive oil sources offered
Verbascum nigrum, Lysimachia vulgaris
Papaver rhaeticum, yellow alpine poppy, Papaveraceae
Papaver rhaeticum
Cistus albiflorus, visited by pollen eaters
Cistus albiflorus
Cistus ladaniferus, nectar and pollen collectors
Cistus ladaniferus
Commelina coelestis, yellow and conspicous pseudo-anthers
Commelina coelestis
Commelina coelestis, yellow and conspicous pseudo-anthers
Commelina erecta, Staminodien
Thalictrum aquilegiifolium
coloured anther filaments as
attraction for flower visitors
Thalictrum aquilegiifolium
Verbascum nigrum
attracts flower visitors
with colourful hairs
of anther filaments
Verbascum nigrum Futterhaare
1.5.3. sexual
attraction
pseudo-copulation
Pseudocopulation describes behaviors similar to copulation that serve
a reproductive function for one or both participants but do not involve
actual sexual union between the individuals. It is most generally applied
to a pollinator attempting to copulate with a flower. Some flowers mimic
a potential female mate visually, but the key stimuli are often chemical
and tactile.[1] This form of mimicry in plants has been titled Pouyannian
mimicry.[2] Orchids commonly achieve reproduction in this manner,
secreting chemicals from glands called osmophores located in the
sepals, petals, or labellum, that are indistinguishable from the insect's
natural pheromones. The pollinator then has a pollinia attached to its
body, which it transfers to the stigma of another flower when if it
attempts another 'copulation'. Pollinators are often bees and wasps of
the order Hymenoptera, and flies.
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocopulation
Ophrys insectifera, pseudo copulation as incentive
* Ophrys insectifera: Pseudocopulation
Ophrys fuciflora
Orchidaceae
Mimikri for attracting
male solitary bees
for pseudo copulation
Ophrys fuciflora
Ophrys scolopax
Orchidaceae
Mimikri for attracting
male solitary bees
for pseudo copulation
Ophrys scolopax
Ophrys scolopax
Orchidaceae
Mimikri
Bienen
Ophrys scolopax
Ophrys lutea
Orchidaceae
Mimikri for attracting
male solitary bees
for pseudo copulation
Ophrys lutea
Ophrys lutea
Orchidaceae
Mimikri for attracting
male solitary bees
for pseudo copulation
Ophrys lutea
Andrena nigroaenea male
pseudocopulating with
a flower of the
Early Spider Orchid,
Ophrys sphegodes
www.unet.univie.ac.at/ ~a8917722/
Andrena nigroaenea
www.anu.edu.au/BoZo/ orchid_pollination/
The sexually attracted male
pollinator Neozeleboria
cryptoides on the stem of
the orchid Chiloglottis
trapeziformis
Australisches Beispiel Pseudokopulation 1
The male pollinator Neozeleboria cryptoides on the labellum of the orchid Chiloglottis
trapeziformis carrying pollen (pollinia) that was removed during attempted copulation
(pseudocopulation) with a previous flower
The male pollinator Neozeleboria cryptoides on the labellum of the orchid Chiloglottis trapeziformis p
attempted mating with the flower (pseudocopulation). During this process pollen removal will take pla
www.anu.edu.au/BoZo/ orchid_pollination/
Australische Beispiele Pseudokopulation 2
Duftstoffe Gaschromatographie
Duftstoffe Gaschromatographie
Ophrys apifera
Orchidaceae
auto-pollination
despite of perfect
mimikri for
pseudo copulation
Ophrys apifera autogam
Ophrys apifera, auto-pollination despite of perfect mimikri for pseudo copulation
Ophrys apifera autogam
Nelson. Autopoiesis proof: compact speculum as evolutionary derived character
Nelson abgeleitetes Lippenmal
Nelson. Autopoiesis proof: H-shaped speculum as ancestral character
Nelson: ursprüngliches Lippenmal
1.6.4. collecting
nesting materials
Megachile, solitary leaf cutter bees, building nests from cut leaves
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megachile
* Nestbau Mohnbiene
Megachile
centuncularis
Dalechampia
Harzquelle
Nestbaustoffe Megachile
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catasetum
Parfum-Sammler:
Prachtbienen der Tropen
Parfum-Sammler
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryanthes
Darwins print, copied
from Lindley
German translation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryanthes
www.weloennig.de/CorCat.html
1.6.5. summary
of pollinator
syndromes
bee pollination
Bee pollination (melittophily)
Bee-pollinated flowers tend to fall into two classes:
Showy, open, bowl-shaped flowers that are relatively unspecialized (e.g.
wild roses, sunflowers)
Showy, complicated, non-radially symmetric flowers that are more
specialized (e.g. peas, foxgloves)
Some bee flowers tend to be yellow or blue, often with ultraviolet nectar
guides and scent. Nectar, pollen, or both are offered as rewards in
varying amounts. The sugar in the nectar tends to be sucrose-dominated.
There are diverse types of bees, however. Honeybees, bumblebees,
orchid bees, etc are large groups that are quite distinctive in size, tongue
length and behaviour (some solitary, some colonial). Thus generalization
about bees is difficult (Fenster at al. 2004.) Some plants can only be
pollinated by bees because their anthers release pollen internally, and it
must be shaken out by buzz pollination. Bees are the only animals that
perform this behaviour
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination_syndrome#Bee_pollination_.28melittophily.29
Darwin, C. (1862)
On the
various contrivances by
which orchids are fertilized
by insects and on the
good effects of
intercrossing, The
Complete Work of Charles
Darwin online, Scanned,
OCRed and corrected by
John van Wyhe 2003;
further corrections 8.2006.
RN4 edn. Murray, London,
pp 366
http://darwinonline.org.uk/content/fram
eset?viewtype=side&itemI
D=F800&pageseq=1
3: central stamen,
Anther, carries
2 pollinia
2: gynostemium or
column
4: two other stamen reduced to
staminodes
9: stigmacave
5: Rostellum
covers
sticky
disks
6: Labellum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid
1: 3 sepals (outer) and 3 pepals (inner whirl
7: ovary, inferior
8: spur, in
Orchis
and
Dactylorhiza
without
nectar
http://www.denniskunk
el.com/DK/Plants/893
1B.html
http://www.orchids.co.in/plant-facts/orchid-pollination.shtm
Dactylorrhiza
maculata
In the tribe Orchideae , the pollinia are included in special bags called
bursicles ,which slit open upon maturation . As soon as the insect
enters the flower, the two viscidia attach themselves to the two sides of
the insect’s head. When the insect leaves the flower , the two pollinia
are drawn from the bursicles and carried away on the insect’s head. By
a special hygrophilous quality of the caudicle ,the pollinia which are at
first held upright on the insect’s head slowly bend forward , till it comes
to occupy a position at right angles to the insect’s head . In this
position ,when the insect visits the next flower , the pollinia
immediately come in contact with the stigma . This hygrophilous nature
of the caudicle is characteristic of some of the advanced Sarcanthine
orchids such as Vanda teres , Luisia sp.etc. Here the caudicle is
transparent and ribbon-shaped . Immediately after removal from the
anther it appears straight . But while it is being carried on the insect’s
head, it absorbs it appears straight . But while it is being carried on the
insect’s head , it absorbs water and curves in an S-shaped manner
bringing the pollinia forward , so that they are deposited on the stigma
of the flower which the insect visits next
Orchis purpureus, Purpur-Knabenkraut, Orchidaceae, Pollinien-Versuch
Orchis purpureus, Purpur-Knabenkraut, Orchidaceae, Pollinien-Versuch
Orchis purpureus, Purpur-Knabenkraut, Orchidaceae, Pollinien-Versuch
Himantoglossum
hircinum
Bocks-Riemenzunge
Bienen
Himantoglossum hircinum
Bocksriemenzunge
Orchidaceae
Bienen
Adenostyles leucophylla, filziger Alpendost, Asteraceae, Bienen usw.
Cephalanthera rubra, rotes Waldvögelein, Orchidaceae, Bienen,
Hummeln, Glockenblumen-Mimikri
Orchis morio, kleine Orchis, Orchidaceae, Bienen
Orchis coryophora
Wanzen-Knabenkraut
Orchidaceae
Bienen
Orchis papilionaceae
SchmetterlingsKnabenkraut
Orchidaceae
Bienen
Asclepias curassavica, Milkweed, Pollinien-Bestäubung
Asclepias curassavica
Asclepias curassavica
Milkweed
Pollinienbestäubung
Asclepias curassavica. One flower with the gynostegium in
longitudinal section. Note the gland (corpusculum) and
pollinia in the upper left. The corolla tube has been dissected
to show the 2 free, superior ovaries, while the top of the
gynoecium is connate and then adnate to the androecium to
Asclepias
form part of the gynostegium.
curassavica
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias
description of pollination see slide 82
http://delta-intkey.com/angio/images/ascle551.gif
http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/~kenr/prairieplants.A.html
Pollination is very unusual in
Milkweed, because the pollen is
grouped into structures called
pollinia rather than being
individual grains..
The flowers of the milkweed are
very smooth and quite rigid,
usually pink or white pink in color,
while the leaves are a rounded,
oval and waxy to the touch and to
view. The insects will slip into
notches in the flowers, where the
bases of the pollinia which are very
sticky, will then attach to their feet,
so that they will pull the pollen
sacs free when they fly away.
Some bees, including some honey
bees, only gather nectar from
milkweed and since they visit no
where else, are not really effective
as pollinators for the plants.
Asclepias variegata, White Milkweed, pollinia pollination as Orchids
www.sbs.utexas.edu/.../asclepias_asperula.htm
Asclepias
asperula
bee
pollination
Lamium orvala, Karawanken, pollination with bumble bees
Lamium maculatum
gefleckte Taubnessel
Lamiaceae
Bumble bees and bees
Salvia pratensis, Wiesensalbei left
Lamium maculatum, gefleckte
Taubnessel right,
typical pollination through honey bees
Salvia pratensis
Wiesensalbei,
Lamiaceae
classic mechanism
how bees press
anthers on their back
Salvia pratensis
Wiesensalbei,
Lamiaceae
Hebelmechanismus
Bienen
Rosmarinus officinalis
Rosmarin
Lamiaceae
Mechanism female stage
Dolchfliege
Galeopsis speciosa
prächtiger Hohlzahn
Scrophulariaceae
above: no parking
guard rails sidewards
yellow and purple
nectar traffic
sign
Parkverbot oben,
Leitplanken seitlich,
Saftmal als Verkehrszeichen
classic honey bee
pollination
Pedicularis tuberosa
knolliges Läusekraut
Scrophulariaceae
asymmetric flowers
only specialists can enter
the flowers with a special
trick
Final remarks about bee pollination
Example from the PRRI ASK-FORCE
Are GM crops killing honey bees ?
http://pubresreg.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=63
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,473166,00.html
Walter Haefeker, the German beekeeping official,
speculates that "besides a number of other factors,"
the fact that genetically modified, insect-resistant plants
are now used in 40 percent of cornfields in the United
States could be playing a role. The figure is much
lower in Germany -- only 0.06 percent -- and most of
that occurs in the eastern states of MecklenburgWestern Pomerania and Brandenburg. Haefeker
recently sent a researcher at the CCD Working Group
some data from a bee study that he has long felt shows
a possible connection between genetic engineering
and diseases in bees.
http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,473166,00.html
Researchers have found an imported virus that may be associated with
the sudden disappearance of honey bees in the United States, known
as colony collapse disorder (CCD). This baffling syndrome, which earlier
this year made headlines around the world, may have afflicted as many
as 23% of beekeepers in the United States and caused losses of up to
90% of hives in some apiaries. The identification of a suspect is an
important step, says Nicholas Calderone of Cornell University. “Before,
we didn’t even have circumstantial evidence.”
Stokstad, E. (2007)
GENOMICS: Puzzling Decline of U.S. Bees Linked to Virus From Australia. Science %R 10.1126/science.317.5843.1304,
317, 5843, pp 1304-1305
http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Bees/Stockstad-IAPV-Culprit-2007.pdf
Stokstad, E. (2007)
ENTOMOLOGY: The Case of the Empty Hives. Science %R 10.1126/science.316.5827.970, 316, 5827, pp 970-972
http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Bees/Stockstad-Empty-2007.pdf
much more information, and stating that the CCD case is still open:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_Collapse_Disorder
butterfly
pollination
Butterfly pollination (psychophily)
Butterfly-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, pink or
lavender in colour, frequently have a landing area, and are usually
scented, but many examples in Central Europe lack sents. Since
butterflies do not digest pollen (with one exception), more nectar is
offered than pollen. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the
nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs, reached by the
long tongue of the butterflies.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination_syndrome#Bee_pollination_.28melittophily.29
Dianthus glacialis, butterfly pollination, long proboscis
Silene
(Melandrium)
rubrum
narrow entrance
long proposcis
Butterfly pollination
Gymnadenia conopea, Orchidaceae, butterfly pollination: long spur
Dianthus armeria
Rauhe Nelke
Caryophyllaceae
Tagfalter
Dianthus armeria, rauhe Nelke, Caryophyllaceae, Tagfalter,
Cirsium oleraceum
Kohldistel
Asteraceae
viele Bestäuber
Lilium bulbiferum
Feuerlilie
Liliaceae
Tagfalter
weiss: Nektar-Röhren
Gentiana bavarica, butterfly pollination
www.pbase.com/efratnakash/image/80997440
Parnassius apollo
on Centaurea
spinosa
Kure Mountains, Turkey
mothpollination
Moth pollination (phalaenophily)
Day-flying sphinx moth nectaring on Brazilian verain
Among the more important moth pollinators are the hawk moths (Sphingidae). Their
behaviour is similar to hummingbirds: they hover in front of flowers with rapid
wingbeats. Most are nocturnal or crepuscular. So moth-pollinated flowers tend to be
white, night-opening, large and showy with tubular corollas and a strong, sweet scent
produced in the evening, night or early morning. A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the
high metabolic rates needed to power their flight.
Other moths (Noctuids, Geometrids, Pyralids, for example) fly slowly and settle on the
flower. They do not require as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the
flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads) (Oliveira et al.
2004).
day-flying sphynx moth nectaring on
Brazil vervain
Platanthera chlorantha
print from Darwin
Viscidium in distant
position for big moths
Platanthera chlorantha, viscidium distant, for big insect heads (moths)
Platanthera chlorantha, experiment with reverse pen, viscidia distant
Platanthera chlorantha, experiment with reverse pen, after a few seconds
Some moth
species, however,
are exceptional
pollinators.
Especially well
known are the
"hummingbird
moths" of the
Family Sphingidae.
www.kidsbutterfly.org/faq/general/14
Angraecum
sesquipedale
Angraecum
sesquipedale
Orchidaceae
moth pollination
predicted by
Charles Darwin
Pollinator found later:
Xanthopan
morgani
praedictus
http://www.criptozoo.com/absolutenm/templates/skin.asp?articleid=217&zoneid=1
http://darwin.gruts.com/weblog/archive/2008/02/
Charles Darwin famously predicted the existence of a species of Madagascan moth (since aptly named Xanthopan morgani
praedicta), based on the shape of the nectaries of a species of orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale). Might it not be possible to take
a leaf out of Darwin's book and make similar deductions retrospectively? Could parasitologists not study tetrabothiids and other
modern parasites, and make deductions about their extinct ancestral hosts' lifestyles?
invitation to browse in the website of the Friends of Charles Darwin
http://darwin.gruts.com/weblog/archive/2008/02/
marsupianpollination
Banksia attenuata
Proteaceae
grobe Bürsten-Blütenstände, robuste
Staubblätter und Narben
mit Beutelmäusen
Banksia integrifolia, Proteaceae, West-Australien
Banksia attenuata, Proteaceae, Beutler und Vögel
Banksia attenuata
Proteaceae
Beutler und Vögel
Callistemon speciosum
Myrtaceae
Bottle Brush Tree
Beutler und Vögel
Melaleuca
quinquenervia
Myrtaceae
Säuger und Vögel
batpollination
Saguaro
Cereus
giganteus
Fledermäuse
Saguaro
Cereus
giganteus
Fledermäuse
Agave
sp.
Agavaceae
Fledermäuse
Solanaceae
Cobaea sp.
Underwoods
longtongued
Bat
Hylonycteris
underwoodii
Opuntia humifusa, niederliegende Opuntie, Fledermäuse
Carpobrothus edulis, Mesembryanthemaceae, Fledermäuse
Solandra nitida, Solanaceae, Fledermäuse
Dombeya wallichii
Sterculiaceae,
Madagaskar
Fledermäuse
Dombeya wallichii, Sterculiaceae, Madagaskar, Fledermäuse
Thunbergia japonica
Acanthaceae
Grosse Hautflügler
Fledermäuse, Vögel
robuste Trompetenform
birdpollination
Aechmea sp.
Bromeliaceae
Hochblätter rot
Kolibri
Cata, Venezuela
Aechmea, Bromeliaceae, rote Hochblätter
Nektar weisslich eintrocknend, Kolibri, Cata, Venezuela
Strelitzia reginae, Musaceae, Südafrika, Vögel stehen auf Antheren
Columnea fawcettii, Gesneriaceae, epiphytisch, Jamaica, Vögel
Columnea fawcettii, Gesneriaceae, epiphytisch, Jamaica, Vögel
botit.botany.wisc.edu/.../ Gesneriaceae/Columnea/
Cattleya aurantiaca, Orchidaceae, Vögel
Amherstia nobilis, Caesalpiniaceae, ursprünglich Ostasien, Vögel
Cestrum hirtum, Solanaceae, Kolibris
Anderson, S.H., Kelly, D., Ladley, J.J., Molloy, S., & Terry, J. (2011)
Cascading Effects of Bird Functional Extinction Reduce Pollination and Plant Density Science, Science 1199092 Published online
3 February 2011 pp
http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Anderson-Cascading-Effects-Birds-Extinction-2011.pdf AND
http://www.sciencemag.org/search?site_area=sci&fulltext=%22dave%20kelly%22&submit=yes Supporting Material
http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Anderson-Cascading-Effects-Birds-Extinction-Supporting-2011.pdf
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2011/02/02/science.1199092/suppl/DC1 AND blog material
http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/birds-plants-pollination-biodiversity-loss-1058/
A male stitchbird (or hihi) on Tiritiri Matangi Island. This important pollinator vanished off the North Island with
the arrival of mammalian predators 140 years ago, but persists on nearby islands. Where stitchbirds and
bellbirds survive, the pollination mutualism still works well. Credit: Dave Kelly, University of Canterbury
http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/birds-plants-pollination-biodiversity-loss-1058/
Anderson et al. 2011
A flower of Rhabdothamnus solandri viewed from
underneath, showing the narrow 10 mm long corolla tube,
and the ridged fused pollen disc which is marked if the flower
has been visited by a bird. The stigma elongates after pollen
presentation is finished, so the flowers require bird visitors
for successful fruit set. [Photo: M Walters]
Evidence for strong pollen limitation for the birdpollinated
shrub Rhabdothamnus solandri on the New
Zealand mainland, where its bird pollinators are functionally
extinct, but not on adjacent offshore islands where bird
densities remain high. (A) Pollination success (mean % fruit
set ± SEM). (B) Seeds per fruit (mean and SEM, estimated
from fruit size). In both cases, natural (unmanipulated)
flowers did significantly worse than hand-pollinated flowers
on the mainland, but not on islands (post hoc tests, see text).
Evidence for regeneration failure of Rhabdothamnus
solandri on the mainland: densities of adult (≥30 cm tall) and
juvenile (<30 cm) R. solandri plants (mean ± SEM) in plots
centered on R. solandri adults, on islands (high bird densities)
and the mainland (low bird densities). Island and mainland
sites had similar adult densities (P = 0.56), but there were
significantly fewer seedlings on the mainland (P = 0.020).
Anderson et al. 2011
Evidence for seed limitation of Rhabdothamnus
solandri: densities of seedlings in October 2008 (mean ±
SEM) from three species sown into 10 x 20 cm seed
augmentation plots on the mainland in April 2003, compared
to adjacent unsown plots. Seedling density after 5 years was
significantly higher in sown plots for R. solandri, but not for
Melicytus ramiflorus or Geniostoma ligustrifolium (see text).
beetlepollination
Viburnum opulus, gemeiner Schneeball, Käfer usw.
Nymphaea alba, weisse Seerose, Nymphaeaceae, Käfer
Nymphaea alba, weisse Seerose, Nymphaeaceae, Käfer
Viburnum lantana
wolliger Schneeball
Käfer usw.
Thalictrum flavum gelbe Wiesenraute Ranunculaceae Canthariden,
Weichkäfer
Thalictrum flavum
gelbe Wiesenraute
Ranunculaceae
Canthariden,
Weichkäfer
Asarum europaeum, europäische Haselwurz, Aristolochiaceae
beetle and
flypollination
Peucedanum
austriacum
österreichischer
Haarstrang
Käfer, Fliegen usw.
Heracleum sphondylium, Bärenklau, Käfer, Fliegen
Heracleum sphondylium, Bärenklau, Randblüten mit Schaufunktion
Anthriscus silvestris, Wiesenkerbel, Früchte mit Nektar-Scheiben
Peucedanum ostruthium, Meisterwurz, Blitz in Dämmerung
Veronica filiformis, Faden-Ehrenpreis, Scrophulariaceae, Fliegen
Veronica cymbalaria, Fliegenbestäubung
Euphrasia minima, kleiner Augentrost, Fliegen
Tozzia alpina, Tozzie, Scrophulariaceae, Fliegen
Sarracenia flava, karnivor, Insektenfallen, fliegenbestäubt
Sarracenia flava
karnivor
North Carolina
fliegenbestäubt
Sarracenia flava
karnivor
North Carolina
fliegenbestäubt
Arum maculatum
Spatha, Kolben und
Reusenfalle
Fliegen
Arum maculatum
Spatha, Kolben und
Reusenfalle
Fliegen
Arum maculatum
Aronstab
Flug- und Gleitbahnen
der Fliegen
Arum maculatum, Aronstab
links: junge Reusen, Anth. geschlossen, Nektartropfen
rechts: Reusenhaare verdorrt, Antheren offe
The titan arum or Amorphophallus titanum is
a flowering plant with the largest unbranched
inflorescence in the world. The largest single
flower is borne by the Rafflesia arnoldii; the
largest branched inflorescence in the plant
kingdom belongs to the Talipot palm (Corypha
umbraculifera). The titan arum was originally
discovered by an Italian botanist, Odoardo
Beccari, in Sumatra in 1878. It thrives at the
edges of rainforests near open grasslands.
Though found in many botanic gardens
around the world it is still indigenous only to
the tropical forests of Sumatra. Due to its
fragrance, which is reminiscent of the smell of
a decomposing mammal,[1] the titan arum is
also known as a carrion flower, the "Corpse
flower", or "Corpse plant" (in Indonesian,
"bunga bangkai" – bunga means flower, while
bangkai means corpse or cadaver; for the
same reason, the same title is also attributed
to Rafflesia which, like the titan arum, also
grows in the rainforests of Sumatra).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_arum
Ollerton, J. & Raguso, R.A. (2006)
The sweet stench of decay. New Phytologist, 172, 3, pp 382-385
http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Pollination/Ollerton-Sweet-Stench-2006.pdf
Fig. 1 The scent space of sapromyiophilous stapeliads and aroids.
Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis of the major scent
compounds present in the odour profiles of 15 species of stapeliads
(Apocynaceae subfamily Asclepiadoideae, tribe Ceropegieae, subtribe
Stapeliinae; data from Jürgens et al., 2006), plus 11 species of Arum, 20
species of Amorphophallus and two species of Pseudodracontium
(Araceae; data from Kite et al., 1998). NMDS was performed using a binary
(presence-absence) matrix of the 48 plant species and the 54
most abundant (≥ 10% volume) compounds from their scent profiles, resulting
in a two-dimensional plot using Euclidean distances between
species. Unidentified compounds were omitted from the analysis. Several
Amorphophallus species have identical oligosulphide odours and
thus occupy the same loci in scent space. Chemical structures indicate scent
components that contributed most to the separation of clusters
in scent space (Jürgens et al., 2006), and are (clockwise from top): hexanoic
acid, p-cresol, octanal, dimethyl disulphide and 2-heptanol
(centre). Trimethyl amine (upper left) confers a dead-fish odour to
Amorphophallus brachyphyllus (Kite & Hetterscheid, 1997), and is
predicted to be present in stapeliads such as Huernia thuretii (not yet studied),
which would expand the stapeliad domain in scent space.
Ollerton, J. & Raguso, R.A. (2006)
The sweet stench of decay. New Phytologist, 172, 3, pp 382-385
http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Pollination/Ollerton-Sweet-Stench-2006.pdf
http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WOR
LDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Arum/Arum_palaestinum/Ar
um_palaestinum.html
Arum palaestinum
http://picsicio.us/keyword/arum%20palaestinum/
These are vinegar flies trapped
in the calyx of the lily Arum
palaestinum.
Credit: Johannes Stökl, Curr.
Biol., Oct. 7, 2010
Deceitful lily fools flies
Solomon's lily imitates a
yeasty odor to lure vinegar
flies into a trap
Stökl, J., Strutz, A., Dafni, A., Svatos, A., Doubsky,
J., Knaden, M., Sachse, S., Hansson, B.S., &
Stensmyr, M.C. (2010)
A Deceptive Pollination System Targeting Drosophilids
through Olfactory Mimicry of Yeast. Current Biology, In
Press, Corrected Proof, pp
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VRT51618H5-5/2/4786042e3ee7f68188f5197d1a0d7016
AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/StoeklDeceptive-Pollination-2010.pdf
Stökl, J., Strutz, A., Dafni, A., Svatos, A., Doubsky, J., Knaden, M.,
Sachse, S., Hansson, B.S., & Stensmyr, M.C. (2010)
A Deceptive Pollination System Targeting Drosophilids through Olfactory
Mimicry of Yeast. Current Biology, In Press, Corrected Proof, pp
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VRT-51618H55/2/4786042e3ee7f68188f5197d1a0d7016 AND http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/Stoekl-Deceptive-Pollination-2010.pdf
(C) Headspace odor of A. palaestinum (orange trace) and electro-antennograms (EADs) from females of D. melanogaster and D. simulans.
The EAD traces shown are the averages of five runs, respectively. Numbers in the EAD trace refer to peaks that elicited antennal reactions in
either of the species; blue numbers denote peaks yielding fully reproducible response: (1) acetoin; (2) 1-hexanol; (3) acetoin acetate; (4) 2,3butanediolacetate (4i, threo; 4ii, erythro); (5) unknown; (6) 1-propionylethyl acetate; (7) ethyl hexanoate; (8) hexyl acetate; (9) 2,3butanedioldiacetate; (10) 2-phenethyl alcohol; (11) 2-phenethyl acetate; and (12) geranylacetone.
Flowers of Ceropegia arabica
(Apocynaceae) are pollinated
by small Diptera in common
with all other members of the
genus studied to date (Ollerton
et al. 2009). Photograph
by Sage Reynolds
Ollerton, J., Masinde, S., Meve,
U., Picker, M., & Whittington, A.
(2009)
Fly pollination in Ceropegia
(Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae):
biogeographic and phylogenetic
perspectives. Annals of Botany,
103, 9, pp 1501-1514
http://www.askforce.org/web/Pollination/OllertonFly-Pollination-Ceropegia-2009.pdf
Stapelia, Aasfliegen
Stapelia, Aasfliegen
Stapelia, Aasfliegen
Rafflesia pricei, Sabah, Borneo
Tambunan Rafflesia Centre in the Crocker Range National Park, Sabah, Malaysia
http://lemberk.vcm.cz/cestopisy/rafflesia2.htm provincie Benkulu ve střední Sumatře a
Západní Kalimantan (Indonésie), západní Sarawak (Malajsie)
Rafflesia arnoldii Rafflesia arnoldii is a member of the genus Rafflesia. It is noted for producing the largest individual
flower on earth. There are some plants with larger flowering organs, the Titan Arum and Talipot palm, but these are
technically clusters of many flowers. It occurs only in the rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo in the Indonesia
Archipelago.Molecular studies in 2007 have resulted in the final taxonomy of Rafflesia arnoldii which has been assigned
to the family of Euphorbiaceae (Davis et al. 2007).DescriptionSeveral species of Rafflesia grow in the jungles of
southeast Asia, many of them threatened or endangered. Rafflesia arnoldii is the largest; its flower attains a diameter of
nearly a meter (3 ft) and can weigh up to 11 kilograms (24 lb).It lives as a parasite on the Tetrastigma vine, as its host,
which grows only in primary (undisturbed) rainforests. While many parasites appear like normal plants, Rafflesia lacks
any observable leaves, roots, or even stems. Likened to fungi, Rafflesia individuals grow as thread-like strands of tissue
completely embedded within and in intimate contact with surrounding host cells from which nutrients and water are
obtained. Perhaps the only part of Rafflesia that is identifiable as distinctly plant-like are the flowers; although, even
these are bizarre because they attain massive proportions and are usually reddish-brown and stink of rotting flesh. The
flower is pollinated by flies attracted by its scent.Specimen of Rafflesia arnoldii at the Kyoto Botanical
Garden.EnlargeSpecimen of Rafflesia arnoldii at the Kyoto Botanical Garden.Rafflesia arnoldii is rare and fairly hard to
locate.
It is especially difficult to see in flower; the buds take many months to develop and the flower lasts for just a few days.
How many of these strange plants still survive is unknown, but as the remaining primary forests of Borneo and Sumatra
disappear, it can only be assumed that their numbers are dwindling. Many are known to be nearing extinction. Some
environmentalists are thinking of a way to recreate the species’ environment, in an effort to stimulate a recovery in the
population of this endangered species. This has proved unsuccessful so far, but the efforts have continued. However,
steps are being taken to conserve the forests of Sumatra and Borneo.Pollination is a rare event due to several factors.
The flowers are unisexual and single sites usually produce either male or female flowers. Therefore, in order to have
effective pollination, male flowers must be near to, and open at the same time as, the female flowers so that flies can
transfer the pollen.While male and female individuals could be closely spaced, flower bud mortality is 80-90% per site
thereby reducing the chance of co-flowering two individuals. Furthermore, the flower lifespan is only 5-7 days. Also, the
current population distributions are fragmented due to habitat destruction. So, successful reproduction relies on the
unlikely event that a male and female would bloom during the same 5-7 days and that a fly could carry pollen between
the often widely separated populations.
See also http://www.parasiticplants.siu.edu/Rafflesiaceae/Raff.arn.page.html
Video from BBC Archive: Flies pollinating Rafflesia
http://www.arkive.org/rafflesia/rafflesia-spp/video-09.html
Rafflesia: Big Daddy of the
Spurge Family
Unassuming cousin, Euphorbia baylissii
Photo: Frank Vincentz, via Wiki
Davis, C.C., Latvis, M.,
Nickrent, D.L., Wurdack, K.J.,
& Baum, D.A. (2007)
Floral Gigantism in
Rafflesiaceae. Science, pp
1135260
http://www.botanischergarten.c
h/Pollination/Davis-RafflesiaGigantism-Evolution-2007.pdf
Bulbophyllum
careyanum
Orchidaceae
Aasfliegen
Bulbophyllum
careyanum
Orchidaceae
Aasfliegen
Bulbophyllum
dayanum
Mimikry:
decaying animals
attracting flyes
feeding on cadavres
Bulbophyllum sp. Aasfliegen
Bulbophyllum sp. Aasfliegen
Altensteinia (Aa), within Sphagnum in Andes of Venezuela
tiny 4mm-flowers on, ca. 4000m altitude, pollinator unknown
Antelope Orchid
Dendrobium minax
Orchidaceae
Botanic Garden in
Bern
pollinator ?