The Marine Aquarium Trade - Western Solomons Research Database

Transcription

Kinch, J. 2004. Marine Aquarium Trade, Western Province, Solomon Islands. MAC.
The Marine Aquarium Trade
in the Western Province,
the Solomons Islands
Jeff Kinch1
May 2004
The Vonavona Lagoon (Photos: Kinch, J. 2004)
A Report prepared for the:
Marine Aquarium Council
Suva, Fiji
1
Regional Community Development Officer- Pacific
Sustainable Management of the Aquarium Reef Trade Program
PO Box s23-MH Superfresh
Suva FIJI
Ph: +679 337 1300
Fx: +679 337 1773
Email: jeff.kinch@aquariumcouncil.org
1
Contents
Page
Introduction
Population and Demography
Economic Activities
Seaweed Production
Post-larval Fish
Economics of the Aquarium Fishery
Ecological Conditions
Madou
Rarumana
Local Ecological Knowledge
Tenureship
Church Influences
The Aquarium Fishery at Madou, Vonavona Lagoon
Box 1: Amenonefish Reproduction and Recruitment
The Aquarium Fishery at Rarumana
Box 2: Blue Tang Collection and Alternatives
Management and Potential Stakeholders
Conclusion
3
4
4
4
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
10
10
14
16
20
21
23
References
24
2
Introduction
The marine aquarium industry in the Solomon Islands involves the collection, selling/purchasing,
packing and exporting of commodities for aquaria owned by hobbyist and enthusiasts in the
United States and other well developed nations. There are currently two companies situated in
the Ranadi industrial area of Honiara involved in the export of live aquarium organisms from the
Solomon Islands.
The oldest is Solomon Islands Marine Export (SIME), which was started with the assistance of an
expatriate consultant and investor, David Palmer. David Palmer later left SIME to form
Aquarium Arts Solomon Islands (AASI) in the 1990s. SIME specializes in the coral ornamentals
trade while AASI handles mostly aquarium fish.
AASI currently exports about 250 different ornamental fish from 55 species. According to the
Global Marine Aquarium Database, the Solomon Islands accounted for 12% of all fish entering
the international market for the period 1997-2002 (see Kinch, 2004a).
The aquarium fishery in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands first started in the mid1990s when David Palmer traveled around the area scouting appropriate places where the fishery
might be viable. One group was set up in Vella lavella, 3 in Rarumana, 2 at Gizo, 3 in the
Vonavona and Roviana Lagoons, and 3 in the Marovo Lagoon. In some cases fishers were
supplied with the necessary equipment and given basic training in collection, handling and
packing for shipment to Honiara. Of all these groups mentioned above, only two have survived
to the present, these are at Madou in the Vonavona Lagoon and Rarumana on Parara Island.
Rarumana
Madou
The Vonavona Lagoon, Western Province (drawn by: Kinch, 2004).
3
Population and Demography
The 1999 census records 62,739 people living in the Western Province, with 12,235 inhabitants
occupying the Roviana and Vonavona Lagoons. The population at Rarumana community has an
estimated population of around 1,600 people (Wale, 2003). Population growth for the area is
steady at around 3.5% per annum. In recent times there has been a sharp decrease in mortality
rates, a slower decrease in fertility, and very little out-migration (most migration is circular, with
people moving back and forth from villages to urban centers). Age distribution shows that more
than half the population is under the age of twenty years (Aswani, 2002).
The Roviana vernacular (belongs to the Austronesian language family) is spoken from Koqu
Kalena, at the far eastern end of the Roviana Lagoon, to Rarumana, at the far northwestern end of
Parara Island. Most people in this region also share a common ancestry and culture, social and
political characteristics are also fairly homogeneous (Aswani, 1997a,b, 1999).
The settlement of the Vonavona Lagoon can be divided into two major migratory events. The
first occurring in pre-colonial times when Kazukuru people living in the Kindu area moved north
into Kohinggo Island, and the second occurring in the first half of the twentieth century when
Kekehe and Dunde (Munda area) people progressively moved towards and into Parara Island
(Aswani, 1997a, 1999).
Economic Activities
Royalty payments from logging operations, combined with new employment opportunities in
logging and at the Noro tuna cannery has brought about profound changes in the social economy
of the Western Province (Aswani, 1997a,b, 2002). Secondary small-scale economic
opportunities, include marketing food at local markets (including central markets at Gizo, Noro
and Munda), logging camps and the cannery at Noro, have brought other sources of wealth to
villagers. Cash requirements are necessary for church donations, school fees, transport and
health.
Specific economic activities at Madou and Rarumana include fishing, the collection of marine
resources, mostly beche-de-mer, trochus and edible shells (see Adams et al, 1992), marketing of
fruits, vegetables, shells and other seafoods, and handicrafts, copra production, the development
of teak and vanilla plantations, small-scale logging, operation of village stores and petrol depots,
and remittances from relatives (Kinch, 2004b,c; Wale, 2003). Other minor sources that
supplement income, include the selling of betel nuts, home baked buns and tobacco rolls.
In the Solomon Islands as a whole, what little money is generated in rural areas is commonly used
to purchase imported foods, in preference to local vegetables, fruits and fish (which has the
potential to undermine local food security). This is not a new problem, but it is now leading to
rapidly increasing rates of non-communicable diseases. Rural incomes are also often
disproportionately spent on tobacco and alcohol, and this adds to health and social problems
(Kinch, 2004d). This may become a problem at Rarumana, as more people are participating in
seaweed production and thus less time in the gardens or fishing and are relying more on store
foods (Wale, 2003; pers. obs.)
Seaweed Production
Seaweed trials begun in Rarumana in 1988, but were only marginally successful and the project
was abandoned the next year. In July 2001, seaweed was once again reintroduced as part of the
European Union (EU) funded Rural Fishing Enterprise Project’s (RFEP) diversification initiative.
Currently there are 135 farmers actively involved or intending to begin farming. Ten of these
have more than 20 plots and where production has reached commercial levels (Wale, 2003).
4
The farms at Rarumana are located about 400 to 500 metres outside of the front of the village
shoreline, between Nusa Komba and Geleana Island, a reef area that provides ideal conditions for
seaweed farming, but also aquarium fish collecting and soon-to-be post-larval fish collecting and
grow-out (see below). Production is increasing rapidly and is now becoming a very important
income source for villagers at Rarumana.
Seaweed Production at Rarumana: Nov 2002 – Oct 2003.
Year
Month
Amount (kg)
Amount (SI$)
2002
November
907.0
December
1314.5
2003
January
1520.0
February
1923.0
March
1855.0
April
1624.0
May
3575.0
June
3225.0
July
1963.5
August
3181.5
September
1536.0
October
8243.0
Total
30867.5
1369.83
1971.75
2438.70
3269.10
3153.50
2761.65
6649.00
6453.00
3927.00
6363.00
3112.00
16486.00
57954.53
Source: Wale, 2003.
Seaweed farms at Rarumana (Photos: European Union, 2001)
Seaweed production at Rarumana (Photos: Kinch, J. 2004).
5
Post-larval Fish
From 1999 to 2002, International Centre for Living Aquatic Research and Management/World
Fish Centre investigated the feasibility of a new artisanal fishery based on the capture (using light
traps and crest nets) and rearing of pre-settlement coral reef fish for both the Live Reef Fish Food
Trade (LRFFT) and the marine aquarium trade (adequate numbers of pre-settlers can be taken for
aquaculture without affecting the spawning potential of the natural population). Simple
aquaculture techniques were then used to grow these fish to marketable size for sale to AASI. A
number of fish were caught in this method and made it to the international market. Fish caught
and raised included Pterois spp., Chaetodon spp., Unid chaetodont, Centropyge spp.,
Pomacanthus imperator, Apolem trimac, Platax spp., Oxymonacanthus longirostris, Acanthurus
lineatus, Acanthurus spp., Zebrasoma spp., Sufflamen spp., Cowfish, Ostracion spp.,
Canthigaster spp. and Arothron spp. Shrimp (Stenopus spp.) and lobster (Panulirus spp.) were
also caught in abundance. Most fish are ready for export within two to three months (see Hair
and Doherty, 2004, Hair et al, 2002, 2003). Rarumana is to be the recipient of this new
technology under a program by Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI), which will
also contribute to enhance cash flow for the community if successful.
Crest nets deployed on the reef crest for capture at high tide of post-larval fish (Source: Hair et al, 2003).
Economics of the Aquarium Fishery
Marine aquarium products are one of the highest value-added products possible to collect
sustainably from coral reefs, bringing much higher economic returns than most other reef uses
(Cesar, 1996; Pyle, 1993). For those participating in the aquarium fishery in the Western
Province, economic returns are considerably higher then those participating in seaweed farming
or other economic activities. For example, in Madou, the group of fishers has a whole earn
between SI$ 1,200-2,000/month which is divided amongst themselves (Kinch, 2004b). The
group at Rarumana makes more averaging around SI$ 4,000-6,000/month (Kinch, 2004c).
Sometimes the financial benefits to a community from participation in the aquarium fishery may
not be as great as perceived, particularly if the benefits which are derived from common resources
gives rise to discontent for those that are not involved. This does not appear to be a major
problem in the Western Province. There may also be concerns by some members of the
community that collection may also reduce the quantity or quality of resources available to the
rest of the community (although the view usually adopted by fishers in the Western Province is
that the benefit from the extraction outweighs the potential for negative consequences as they feel
that there are sufficient areas for subsistence fishing requirements elsewhere and that everyone as
a right to utilize resources) (see also Aswani, 1997a,b, 1998, 2002). The collection of blue tangs
does warrant concern because of the collecting technique (see below), but the collection of other
ornamental fish is considered to be of little impact to overall reef health or ecology.
6
Ecological Conditions
The Vonavona Lagoon lies west of the Roviana Lagoon and is encircled by the elevated
limestone islands of New Georgia, Kohinggo and Parara. It extends for over 35 km westward
from Munda to the north of Parara Island. Rain forests pierced by gardens and coconut
plantations cover the littoral fringe of large islands and the raised coral islands forming the
lagoons. The lagoon itself, is characterized by a highly mosaic ecosystem, consisting of small
islets, grass beds, mangroves, freshwater swamps, inter-tidal reef flats, shallow reefs, deep
lagoons, outer reef-drops, and estuaries. Fishing grounds include isolated reefs, channels, bays,
grass beds, inland and coastal pools, mud flats, and outside reefs slopes. In its southeastern and
northwestern sections, the Vonavona Lagoon is protected by long extending peninsulars, which
include a series of off-shore reef islands (see Stoddart, 1969). Unhindered water exchange occurs
in various wide passages allowing for the movement of numerous species into and out of the
lagoon. Tides in the Western Province ebb and flood four times in a 24-h period, and waters
remain relatively high during the night and day.
Madou
Fishers in the Madou area of the Vonavona Lagoon utilize a wide range of habitats. Shallow
coral reefs are characterized by dead and live Porites, Acropora, Millepora, Faviidae,
Agariciidae, and Pocillopora coral colonies as well as scattered Fungia corals. Other areas
include outer coral reef drops, Thalassia sp. and Enhalus sp. sea grassbeds, sand banks, and
inner-lagoon pools. Islands are composed of calcareous bedrock, muddy silt, coral gravel, and
sand, and are dominated by coconut palms, coastal strand vegetation and mangroves.
Rarumana
The marine area utilized by fishers at Rarumana also encompasses a number of habitats,
including grassbeds, shallow reefs, sand banks, mid-depth reefs, reef platforms, a giant lagoon
pool, and outer-reef slopes. There is a series of smaller islets connected by a large and wide
barrier reef, which is composed of sand banks, grassbeds, well-developed reefs, and reef drops.
Inner-lagoon reefs comprise of coral gravel and rocky substrates mottled with sparse Porites,
Acropora, Pachyseris, and Merulina colonies among other hermatypic corals. Outer-lagoon
corals cover almost 100 percent of the limestone substrate and include the common genera
Pocillopora, Montipora, Acropora, Porites, Goniopora, Pavona, Echinophyllia, Lobophyllia, and
Favia. In areas of sizable water exchange, colonies of soft corals such as Sarcophytum,
Sinularia, and gorgonians are common.
Local Ecological Knowledge
Villagers in the Western Province have a built up host of local knowledge and recognize fishing
grounds as productive depending on daily, lunar, and seasonal events (see Aswani, 1997a,b;
Sabetian, 2002; Hviding, 1996; Johannes and Hviding, 2000; Hamilton and Walter, 1999;
Hamilton, 2003; Aswani and Hamilton, 2004a). Fishers involved in the aquarium fishery also
have built up a substantial knowledge of life cycles, recruitment patterns and habitat preferences.
Fishers at both Madou and Rarumana also acknowledge that blue tangs (Paracanthurus hepatus)
are easier to find from new-moon to half-moon in the lunar and tidal cycle. The daily variation in
tidal cycles also determines the times at which fishers go fishing.
7
Tenureship
In the Solomon Islands, the system of ‘traditional’ rights or ‘customary’ law over marine areas or
resources refers to a system that emerges from the social process of interacting activities
concerning control over territory and access to resources. Usually, in the Western Province, chief
and elders of each community exercise control over resource use and access to tribal territories
(see Hviding 1989, 1996; Kile et al, 2000; Aswani, 1997a,b, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002; Aswani and
Hamilton, 2004b; Foale and Manele, 2003; Scheffler, 1962).
Households in the Vonavona Lagoon generally, family units live in extended compounds, which
links all household members to a series of kindred attachments (Aswani, 1997a,b; 1999).
Affinity to a descent group in the Vonavona Lagoon is cognatic or bilateral, meaning membership
in a kinship group can be acquired by either matrilineal and/or patrilineal association (though
matrilineal descent carries more weight). A person can also obtain access to resources by virtue
of his or her spousal affiliation, or location of residence. Whilst the bilateral kinship systems can
give individuals access to various resources and territories, it does not generally bestow an
individual with decision-making powers, which regulate resource use and access (Aswani,
1997a,b, 1999). Fishers can also justify access to other territorial waters by invoking their kin
relations to the area’s dominant lineages or by citing prior customary binding agreements
between their group and that of the visited territory.
Tenureship in the Vonavona Lagoon (Source: Aswani, 2002).
8
The Vuragare tribe dominates the island of Parara with close kinship ties and interacting
affiliations with the smaller chiefly districts of Dunde, Kekehe, Lodu Maho, and Kindu in the east
centred around the villages of Madou, Repi, Barasipo, Buni, and Rarumana, with other smaller
settlements on the Kohinggo side of the lagoon (Aswani, 1999; 2002). These ties have originated
from a long history of tribal inter-marriage between inland and coastal groups. In addition,
kinship relations also extend inter-regionally to include bonds with Rendova, Marovo, Simbo,
Isabel, Ranongga, Choiseul, Vella lavella, and other parts of the Western Solomons, and, in
recent years, increasingly with the Eastern Solomon Islands (Aswani, 1997a,b, 1998). As a result
of this long history of intermarriage among the polities, marine tenure rights that were held by
specific descent groups in the past have been pooled with entitlements now held by all members.
Aswani (1997a,b, 1999) describes the western Vonavona Lagoon as subscribing to a mosaic
model of tenure use, and the eastern Vonavona conforming to a territorial-enclosed model of sea
entitlements. The socio-politico structure of the Vonavona Lagoon is constantly evolving
because jurisdiction and rights of access are continuously being conveyed and renegotiated as
eastern and western tribal polities continue to intermarry, changing the flow of entitlements and
claims. The eastern side of the Vonavona Lagoon, which adjoins Kohinggo Island, is under the
jural control of the Chief of Kindu in a fashion similar to the larger polities of Saikile and
Kalikoqu in the Roviana Lagoon. Kindu's entitlement to eastern Vonavona are not contested and
delegates individual villages in the eastern lagoon to control all Kindu holdings (Aswani, 1999).
A pan-Roviana awareness gives rise to the legitimization of ‘free-riding’ across boundaries.
Permissibility, however, does not entail a total lack of territorial divisions because villages
nominally control access to their adjacent waters. Intrusions are noticed regularly, many young
fishers transit throughout all territories during commercial forays without asking any kind of
permission. People are often reluctant to evict friends or relatives found fishing within their own
jurisdictional areas. Fishers also tend to ignore individual claims to reefs based on the rationale
that marine habitats are a common property asset (Aswani, 1997b, 1999).
Galvanized by dwindling resources, particularly commercial invertebrates such as trochus, green
snail, and beche-de-mer, some people throughout Vonavona have called for access limitations to
fishers from neighboring villages (see below). Elders, particularly those in western Vonavona,
who stress the historical singularity of all Roviana inhabitants, reject this idea and continue to
sanction a de facto open-access regime for all Roviana descendants. This has been observed by
the author for Madou on his recent visit, and this permissiveness most likely reflects the
instability within the area because of the factional contests over the chieftainship and also the
inability of chiefs to control boundary transgression and impose restrictions. At Madou, the chief
died in the late 1980s and was never replaced. Currently, the village is split in several
contentious factions vying for chiefly status. The two main rivals for the position are between
Turiti Boso (who is considered by some as the tribe’s caretaker) and the Gemu clan who claim
the Madou-Parara chieftainship (Aswani, S. 2004. pers. comm.). On the other hand, in the east of
the Vonavona Lagoon, the chiefly centrality and uncontested entitlements in Kindu has allowed,
to some extent, the imposition of use and access restrictions (Aswani, 1999).
Even though villagers in the areas have no major concerns with the aquarium fishery in the area
some problems may occur when dealing with regulatory issues concerning the Collection Area
Management Plan (CAMP) as required by Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) Certification. For
the CAMP involving the fishers at Madou, there will be a need to discuss any CAMP activities
with the neighbouring villages of Buni and Barasipo. Rarumana is much simpler as it essentially
involves only that village.
9
Church Influences
The primary differentiating element for each tribal group in present day Western Province is
church affiliation. The Rarumana area has seven competing religious denominations, ranging
from the United Church (former Methodists) to smaller evangelical groups. In the past this has
created exclusive groups, which would not collaborate cohesively together. However these
barriers have been broken down by the formation of the Rarumana Seaweed Farmers Association
(RSFA) (Wale, 2003). The area was previously controlled by the Council of Elders, which had
12 representatives (one each from the 12 clans/tribes). The Council or Elders no longer functions
and the RSFA have now taken all responsibility for any activities concerning marine resources.
At Madou, the Christian Fellowship Church (CFC) is dominant. The CFC is an indigenous
church, which blends Methodist doctrine with indigenous beliefs, and is a major player in the
cultural, social, political and spiritual life of the lagoon inhabitants. CFC followers see their
church as independent and not bound to the colonial legacy of other Christian denominations and
adherence to the CFC church transcends the traditional spiritual role of other Christian
denominations in the Solomon Islands and translates into political regionalism, with adherents
institutionally and communally unified (see Aswani, 1997a,b, 1999; Harwood, 1978). Because
CFC adherents are institutionally and communally unified, control over its members in matters of
resource management can be accomplished through traditional and church authorities.
The Aquarium Fishery at Madou, Vonavona Lagoon
The aquarium fishery in the Vonavona Lagoon is centred around the family of Wilson Tingarea at
Madou Village on the south-eastern shore of Parara Island. The collection and sending of
ornamental fish is essentially a family operation, but does include other villager fishers who sell
their catch, thus making Wilson a defacto middleman. This group has been in operation for about
a decade now. The purchasing of fish from other fishers has become necessary as Wilson’s
children have grown up and have married or moved away for employment. The supply of fish
from non-family collectors is estimated to be approximately 25% of all fish sent from the
Vonavona Lagoon. Wilson currently purchases large fish for SI$ 1 and pays SI$ 0.50 for smaller
ones.
Family collectors:
• Wilson Tingarea - Tel: 61 032 (village), Fax: 61 008 (SIBC – Noro)
• Azilini Tingarea
• Catherine Que
• Emie Indi
• Kaipeza Elwin
• Jakeli Mamu
• Rose Mamu
Regular suppliers:
• Lemeki Unusu
• Billy Gale
• Pascal Solo
• Naitile Solo
• Dick Nimbule
10
Purchasing invoices from AASI show a considerable number of mostly female collectors, which
are actually Wilson’s grandchildren (this is a common practice in the Solomon Islands and has
been observed by the author in Marau Sound and Rarumana), even though children do not
actively participate in the fishery.
The fishers at Madou use a large area encompassing most of the inner Vonavona Lagoon and the
barrier reef extending off Kundu Point. They also sometimes collect in an area on the northeast
coast of Arundel Island where one of the sons has married and thus has been given access rights
(Kinch, 2004b). This area could also be potentially MAC Certified after the necessary
investigations.
Fishers at Madou specialize in collecting certain species or ornamental fish. The main species of
fish collected in the area are the amenonefishes, clarkii clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii), maroon
clownfish (Premnas biaculeatus), percula clownfish (A. percula), and the blue tang
(Paracanthurus hepatus) (see below for discussion boxes on these species). Very small
quantities of other ornamental fish are also collected from time to time.
Purchases from Vonavona Lagoon of High Volume Species: 2002
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Total
Jan
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
11
20
28
12
6
15
3
2
16
68
26
23
22
1
4
2
4
8
958 1371 680 331 664 700 234 526 151 712 274
13 258
86
33
6
1
998 1717 820 399 676 738 235 533 153 718 282
Total
97
174
6601
397
7269
Purchases from Vonavona Lagoon of High Volume Species: 2003
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Total
Jan
Feb
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
16
1
2
1
1
1
4
26
23
2
32
1
5
4
4
71
279 1424 1050 1032 696 588 347 565
99
49 370 473 6972
98 2884 1196
17
726
208
6 5135
279 1561 3937 2230 746 590 347 1296
99
49 583 487 12204
Purchases from Vonavona Lagoon of High Volume Species: Jan to May 2004
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Total
Jan
Feb
50
50
Mar Apr May Jun
1
1
1
1
4
1
3
6
887 690 947 1166
15
21
892 707 972 1173
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
4
14
3740
36
2621
11
Maroon Clown Purchases from
Madou, Vonavona: Jan 2002 - May 2004
Clarkii Clown Purchases from Madou,
Vonavona: Jan 2002 - May 2004
80
30
70
25
60
20
2002
50
2002
15
2003
40
2003
2004
30
2004
10
20
5
10
0
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Percula Clow n Purchases from
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Blue Tang Purchases from
3000
1600
1400
2500
1200
1000
800
600
400
2002
2000
2002
2003
1500
2003
2004
1000
2004
500
200
0
0
Jan
Feb Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total Purchases from Vonavona Lagoon of High Volume Species: 2002 to May 2004
Species
Clarkii Clown
Maroon Clown
Percula Clown
Tang: Blue
Amount Purchased
127
259
17,313
5,568
Total Purchases from Vonavona Lagoon for all other Species: 2002 to May 2004
Species
Bicolor Angel
Orange Skunk Clown
Pink Skunk Clown
Melanopus Clown
Cap / Bonnet Clown Fish
Goby: Clown, Assorted
Grunt: Oriental Sweetlips
Hawk: Arc Eye
Hawk: Blackstripe
Hawk: Spotted
Pipefish: Banded
Puffer: Blue Dot
Puffer: Dogface
Puffer: Dogface,Yellow Belly
Puffer: Dogface,Fancy
Puffer: Map
Scorpion: Yellow Spot
Trigger: Bursa
Trigger: Picasso,Humu
Trigger: Inkspot,Viridescent
Trigger: Undulate
Amount Purchased
1
18
5
4
1
1
1
2
2
5
1
1
8
1
4
11
31
3
2
1
5
12
During the author’s visit, catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) was recorded on the 17th April to gain an
idea of the scope of the fishery and the ecological conditions it is conducted in. This was done
with the aid of one collector and is detailed below. Fishers use small mesh nets that they
construct from nets discarded at the Solomon Taiyo tuna factory at Noro, approximately 1 hr
dinghy ride away. The mesh size is suitable for their current method of collecting, which is by
scoop net for all species except blue tang. Plastic bottles and containers are used for holding fish.
AASI supplies oxygen bottles (a refill costs SI$ 472.50) and plastic bags for packing for shipment
to Honiara by air (Kinch, 2004b).
As noted above, fishes have a detailed knowledge of suitable habitats for the fish they collect, and
subsequently know where host anemones are to be located and also have an idea of the current
recruitment status. Fishers also do not take very small percula clownfish, this maybe because the
recruits of the percula clownfish are relatively cryptic and are therefore difficult to see in the
anemone tentacles, and therefore hard to collect. AASI does have a purchasing category called
‘very tiny’, but fish in this category are approximately 20 mm in length. There is also a loose and
informal rotational system for collection areas (the resource area is considerably large and the
number of collectors small).
CPUE for Amenonefishes in the Vonavona Lagoon: 17th April 2004
Start
time
10.05
Start
coordinates
08° 17.502
157° 12.652
Finish
time
10.20
Finish
coordinates
08° 17.584
157°12.610
10.21
08° 17.724
157° 12.639
08° 18.568
157° 12.773
10.25
08° 17.724
157° 12.639
08° 17.653
157° 12.769
10.30
10.39
Habitat type
Catch
Shallow (1-2 m) sandy
bottom with scattered dead
and live Porites, Acropora
and Fungia corals, mingled
with the seaplants
Caulerpa sp. and
Turbinaria sp.
As above
•
9 Percula
•
•
1 Percula
1 Maroon (not taken)
As above except for greater
abundance of the seaplant
Thalassia hemprichii.
•
•
4 Percula
1 Lionfish (not taken)
During collecting period recorded, a total of 14 percula clownfish were taken in a space of 28 min
giving a CPUE rate of 2 percula clown caught per minute. It should be noted that percula
clownfish are to be found in high concentrations in good anemone habitats (see below).
Collecting percula clownfish in the Vonavona Lagoon (photos: Kinch, J. 2004)
13
Box 1: Amenonefish Reproduction and Recruitment
Anemonefishes are small territorial damselfishes that inhabit coral reefs and always live on or
around host anemones, with which, they have a symbiotic relationship. Amenones also provide
shelter and spawning sites and therefore influence the pattern of their sexual maturation and
reproductive tactics (Allen 1972; Fricke and Fricke, 1977). Amenonefish are long lived (in excess
of 18 years) and possess the ability to change sex (from male to female). This apparently occurs
by changes in the social structure of the group. Amenonefishes spawn all year around, on average
every 12-18 days (Pomeroy and Balboa, 2002). The male mainly care for eggs, which hatch in 710 days depending upon water temperature (see Thresher et al, 1989). The larvae are 4 mm in
length at hatching and spend the first two to three weeks of their life as pelagic larvae.
Elliot and Mariscal (2001) have studied the patterns of distribution, abundance, and recruitment of
amenonefishes in the Madang region of Papua New Guinea. This area has high species diversity
of both anemonefishes (nine species) and their host anemones (ten species). They conducted
population surveys at three replicate reef sites within four zones situated at varying distances from
the mainland (nearshore, mid-lagoon, outer barrier, and offshore).
There results indicated that each species of host anemone and anemonefish lived within a
particular range of zones with each species of anemonefish living primarily with one species of
host. Percula clownfish (Amphiprion percula) occupied Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla
gigantean in nearshore zones, while the pink clownfish (A. perideraion) occupied H. magnifica in
offshore zones. The anemone Entacmaea quadricolour supports maroon clownfish (Premna
biaculeatus) whilst black-and-white clownfish (A. melanopus) was associated with the clonal form.
Clarkii clownfish (A. clarkii) was usually associated with H. crispa and ornage-fin clownfish (A.
chrysopterus) was associated with S. mertensii (Elliott and Mariscal, 2001; see also Elliott et al,
1995).
During their research, Elliott and Mariscal (2001) found the tendency of anemonefishes to recruit
to anemones without resident fishes (up to 8-75 times higher) than to anemones with resident
fishes. Distribution and abundance of the recruits of each anemonefish species among zones was
positively correlated with the distribution and abundance of resident fishes in that particular
benthic habitat, which suggests that the spatial patterns of recruitment among zones strongly
determines the distribution and abundance patterns of the anemonefish populations.
Amenonefishes also have a high rate of resiliency. This means that when populations are
perturbed at any time of the year (say during a storm, or by continual collecting by fishers in the
Vonavona Lagoon) then they will return quickly to their former pattern of distribution and
abundance (see Elliott and Mariscal, 2001; Fautin, 1992).
Holding percula clownfish in the Vonavona Lagoon (photos: Kinch, J. 2004)
The author later obtained the amount of fish collected during the weekly period of collecting from
purchases recorded at AASI. The fishers at Madou only collect Saturdays, Mondays and
Tuesdays. Fish are packed in oxygenated bags on a Wednesday morning in preparation to be airfreighted to Honiara on the Solomon Airlines domestic service from Munda, the district
administration center approximately 1 hr away by dinghy. This pattern of collecting and sending
is strictly adhered to with the only time shipments are due to illness or bad weather.
14
The fishers currently airfreight around 5-10 boxes of fish a week to Honiara, and could easily
expand, with the only limitation being on available freight space. This is dependent on several
factors, notably the ability or desire by AASI to buy more fish from the area. Holding pens could
be built with some investment (See Kinch, 2004b).
During the period that the author visited and the two collecting days after, a total of 269 percula
clownfish were purchased giving a collection rate of approximately 90 fish collected per day of
collection (n = 3). Three maroon clownfish were also collected. During the whole month of
April, 947 percula clownfish were purchased giving a collection rate of approximately 70 fish
collected per possible day of collection (n = 14). The actual number of fish will be slightly higher
due to mortality. It is necessary to highlight here that the fishers at Madou have the best handling
and packing of all groups participating in the aquarium trade in the Solomon Islands and usually
have no mortalities when shipping fish to Honiara.
Ornamental Fish Purchases Purchased from the Vonavona Lagoon: 17th-20th April 2004
Species
Percula clown
Percula clown (tiny)
Percula clown (pair)
Percula clown (show)
Maroon clown (medium)
Total
Amount sent
162
81
6 (12)
14
3
272
Dead on
Arrival
Damaged
1
1
Amount
Purchased
162
80
6 (12)
14
3
271
Further research could be conducted on distribution and carrying capacity of different habitats
types, similar to that conducted in Papua New Guinea (see above box), as the dispersal ability of
coral reef fishes such as amenonefishes is usually dependent on the larval settlement tactics (Sale,
1991; Williams 1991; Booth and Wellington 1998). The Vonavona Lagoon offers are good test
site for this because of its high productivity of these species and the level of collection over a
decade. It may be also worthwhile to determine if there are any effects on genetics by
continuously selecting certain coloured animal on the species overall.
15
The Aquarium Fishery at Rarumana
The aquarium fishery in Rarumana has not been operating as long as it been in Madou. Ronald
Kere first started it in 1998 when he observed his in-laws at Vella lavella collecting and sending
fish from airport at Nusa Tupe, opposite Gizo. His in-laws at Vella lavella later stopped due to
resource and transport issues. Ronald was one of the first 3 operators to start at Rarumana (the
other two have now dropped off), but he has increasingly become involved in managing the
seaweed production and Jack Pada has now taken over responsibility for coordinating the fishery.
Collectors in this area basically act as a loose ‘association’ of fishers. There are currently about 8
full time collectors and several ‘once-in-a-while’ divers.
Regular collectors:
• Jack Pada - rarumana@pipolfastaem.gov.sb
• Oda Dikona
• Onda Andy
• Ronnie Lee
• Sale Dale
• Benny Dale
• Moffet Sioni
• Bena Pai
Fishers at Rarumana also specialize in collecting certain species. The main species of fish
collected in the area are the amenonefishes, clarkii clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii), maroon
clownfish (Premnas biaculeatus), percula clownfish (A. percula), the blue tang (Paracanthurus
hepatus) and Picasso or humu triggerfish (Hinecanthus aculeatus). Very small quantities of other
ornamental fish are also collected from time to time.
Purchases from Rarumana of High Volume Species: 2002
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Picasso trigger
Total
Jan
Feb
2
68
235
305
Mar Apr May Jun Jul
4
12
23
15
21
39
9
52
35
272
93 1698 638
302 251
79 334 161
30
21
357 595 181 2107 849
Aug Sep
Nov Dec
38
26
78
87
1275 868
1216 323
21
48
2628 1352
Total
122
336
5110
3911
120
9599
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
8
10
2
1
5
1
1
11
14
20
69
2
12
3
43
15
392 864 485
33 187
180 799 717
453 1365 324
16 120
42
67
67
24
70
891 2329 880
52 324
226 910 810
Total
40
210
3657
2549
94
6550
2
15
198
1010
1225
Oct
Purchases from Rarumana of High Volume Species: 2003
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Picasso trigger
Total
Jan
Feb
1
32
95
128
16
Purchases from Rarumana of High Volume Species: Jan to May 2004
Species
Clarkii clown
Maroon clown
Percula clown
Blue tang
Picasso trigger
Total
Jan
Feb
Mar Apr May Jun
13
17
7
15
30
29
507 1511 1555
209 457 571
15
28
759 2015 2190
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
Total
37
74
3573
1237
43
4964
Maroon Clown Purchases from
Rarumana: Jan 2002 - May 2004
Clarkii Clown Purchases from
100
140
120
80
100
2002
80
2002
60
2003
2003
60
40
2004
40
2004
20
20
0
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Jan
Dec
Feb
Percula Clown Purchases from
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Blue Tang Purchases from
1800
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
1200
1000
800
600
2002
1000
2002
2003
800
2003
2004
600
2004
400
400
200
200
0
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Picasso Trigger Purcahses from
80
70
60
50
2002
40
2003
30
2004
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total Purchases from Rarumana of High Volume Species: 2002 to May 2004
Species
Clarkii Clown
Maroon Clown
Percula Clown
Tang: Blue
Trigger: Picasso,Humu
Amount Purchased
199
620
12,340
7,697
257
17
Total Purchases from Rarumana for all other Species: 2002 to May 2004
Species
Orange Skunk Clown
Pink Skunk Clown
Melanopus Clown
Cap / Bonnet Clown Fish
Angler Fish, Assorted
Eel: Assorted Moray
Eel: Yellow Head Moray
Ember Blenny
Emperor Angel
Koran Angel
Goby:Clown, Assorted
Grouper: Assorted
Grunt: Clown Sweetlip
Hawk: Arc Eye
Hawk: Blackstripe
Hawk: Spotted
Lion: Dwarf
Pipefish: Banded
Rock / Algae Blenny
Scorpion: Stone Fish
Scorpion: Yellow Spot
Seahorse: Black
Singapore Angel
Sargassum Angler
Trigger: Bursa
Trigger: Inkspot,Viridescent
Trigger: Undulate
Blue Lobster
Coral-banded Shrimp
Reef Octopus
Amount Purchased
20
11
51
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
1
4
3
28
7
2
3
1
86
2
1
1
11
1
2
2
2
1
Again, during the authors visit, catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) was recorded on the 20th April to
gain an idea of the scope of the fishery and the ecological conditions it is conducted in. This was
done with the aid of one collector and his wife, who controlled the dugout canoe and exchanged
water for fish already caught.
CPUE for Aquarium Fish at Rarumana: 20th April 2004
Start
time
09.27
Start
coordinates
08° 11.899
156° 57.922
Finish
time
09.38
Finish
coordinates
08° 11.940
157° 57.886
09.45
08° 12.940
157° 57.886
10.24
08° 12.021
157° 57.790
10.45
08° 13.012
157° 59.667
11.10
08° 13.034
157° 59.755
Habitat type
Catch
Shallow (1-2 m) solidified
limestone substrate with
scattered dead and live
Porites, and Acropora
corals
As above
•
•
•
28 Blue tang
20 Scorpionfish
(3 coral heads
destroyed)
•
•
•
Shallow (<1-1m) solidified
limestone substrate with
large dead and live
branching Acropora corals
•
24 Blue tang
3 Scorpionfish
(6 coral heads
destroyed)
8 Percula
18
During this morning collecting, a total of 52 blue tangs, 23 scorpionfish and 8 percula clownfish
were taken in a space of 1 hr 25 min giving a CPUE rate of approximately one fish caught per
minute. It should be noted that amenonefishes and blue tangs inhabit different habitats. If we
take the time for blue tangs alone then approximately one blue tang was caught per minute. As
juveniles blue tangs are the main size group targeted, they are relatively easy to collect as they
school on certain Acropora spp (possibly A. acuminata or A. indonesia) for shelter.
Collecting blue tangs at Rarumana (photos: Kinch, J. 2004)
The author was later fortunate to unpack fish sent from Rarumana to AASI for this period and
thus was able to view packing and record mortalities. The fishers at Rarumana collect on most
days except Sundays and air-freight from Nusa Tupe (approximately 1 hr dinghy ride away) to
Honiara usually on a Tuesday or a Wednesday and sometimes on Thursday or a Friday, though
the latter is not preferred by AASI. Rarumana has problems of freight space from Gizo and have
had to drop their volume of shipments to fit available freight space.
During the period that the author visited and the four days after a total of 385 percula clownfish
and 66 blue tangs were later sent . During the whole month of April, 1,511 percula clownfish and
457 blue tangs were purchased. The actual number of fish collected is much higher due to
mortality. Unfortunately the fishers at Rarumana are quite inconsistent in their standards.
19
Ornamental Fish Purchases Purchased from Rarumana: 20th-24th April 2004*
Species
Amount sent
Percula clown
Percula clown (tiny)
Percula clown (pair)
Percula clown (show)
Maroon clown (medium)
Clarkii clown
Blue tang (medium)
Blue tang (medium-small)
Blue tang (small)
Blue tang (tiny)
Blue tang (very tiny)
Yellow-spot scorpionfish
Domino damselfish
4-Stripe damselfish
Assorted gobies
Total
243
75
11 (22)
45
15
2
1
5
25
14
21
18
1
4
2
493
Dead on
Arrival
Damaged
Amount
Purchased
14
5
3
18
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
4
2
34
23
226
52
11 (22)
45
13
1
1
5
24
11
19
17
436
*Note that the figures above do not relate to all fish caught that week as the fishers at Rarumana were not able to send the full
compliment due to freight space.
Box 2: Blue Tang Collection and Alternatives
On the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, Australia, an aquarium company has been operating the
same area of blue tang habitat for over 15 years, thus indicating that with appropriate collection it
can be a sustainably harvested species (Squire, L. 2004. pers. comm.). The harvesting of blue
tangs in the Solomon Islands however calls into the questions of sustainability and the impacts of
blue tang recruitment as juvenile blue tangs will not inhabit dead coral. Also the species of
Acropora that is favoured by blue tangs is very slow-growing and usually sparse. Corals should be
replaced where practical on the remaining stub from where it was taken from or put it back on the
substrate standing the right way up. Even though the coral may reattach to the substrate it is more
probable given the currents in the areas of collection that when it is returned to the bottom it is
subsequently broken up.
A method of collection from the Philippines offers the best practice for the collection of this fish in
the Solomons.
•
Deploy barrier/seine net (it is recommended to put the barrier net at a suitable distance
between the inhabited coral and the closest one which the blue tangs may ‘jump’ to)
•
Slowly drive the blue tang out to the coral by using a tickler rod (do not use the rod if the
corals are fragile)
•
If the blue tang will not move then collect some sand and ‘rain’ on them by slowly
fanning your hand until the blue tang swim out to the other coral, where the barrier/seine
net is deployed in between
•
Once caught, collect with scoop net and transfer to an appropriate holding container
(Renate, R. 2004. pers. comm.).
It is also suggested that fishers could use ‘traditional’ brooms made from the spine of the coconut
leaf/frond and sweep the fish out into waiting barrier/seine nets.
Further research is required both in the life-cycle and recruitment of the blue tang (there is a
paucity of data on this species) but also the coral that acts as its host. It would also be good to get
an idea of distribution across habitats in the Solomon Islands. McClanahan et al (1999) records a
mean density of blue tangs of 0.63 per 500 m2 on the reef systems of Tanzania.
20
Management and Potential Stakeholders
Under Schedule I, Section 11, Category Fishes (pp: 27-28) of the Wildlife Protection and
Management Act 1998 (No. 10 of 1998), all amenonefishes (genus Amphiprion , Pomacentridae)
will now be prohibited exports. Currently this is not being enforced. The reason that
anemonefishes became listed in this Act was because of concerns from the dive owners/operators
at Uepi Dive Resort (Marovo Lagoon) and Adventure Sports/Dive Gizo (MAC, 2001), because
they thought the collection of amenonefishes would infringe on the aesthetic qualities when
marketing the reefs of the Solomon Islands to dive tourists. In fact, the manager of Uepi Resort
was responsible for closing the collection sites in the Marovo Lagoon by writing directly to the
European Union Resident Advisor when he discovered that the REFP based at Seghe was
encouraging the collection of ornamental fish and in particular amenonefishes (Stewart, R. 2004.
pers. comm.; MAC, 2001; Russel and Buga, 2004). The manager of the Lola Resort in the
southern Vonavona Lagoon reports that there is no collection of aquarium fish on their dive sites
(Entriki, J. 2004. pers. comm.).
The collection of aquarium fish in the Rarumana/Gizo area has been noted by the owner/operator
of Adventure Sports/Dive Gizo at dive sites located closer to Rarumana. These include Secret
Spot, Manta Dive and Beach dive, Joes wall, Q Island and the shallows surrounding the Hellcat
fighter (Kennedy, D. 2004. pers. comm.). Collection has also occurred in the past, when there
were still active fishers at Gizo. At this time fishers were collecting at Hotspot and Grand
Central.
Dive sites that have experienced aquarium collection (Map source: WWF).
Dive operators would like to see greater ecological monitoring and catches limited to a
sustainable level with participants trained to look after the fish well. Marine Aquarium Trade
Coral Reef Monitoring Protocol and Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
(GCRMN)/ReefCheck surveys are planned under the MAC Certification scheme and are a pre-
21
requisite to the certification of any CAMPs. Collectors from both Madou and Rarumana have
already expressed a keen interest in obtaining training in using other techniques to broaden their
species catch (Kinch, 2004b,c). Training programs are also currently being planned through a
collaborative effort between the MAC and AASI on better collecting methods, diversification of
collecting and better handling. Better handling practices will also be extolled as a requirement for
the husbanding of post-larval fish for fishers at Rarumana under the Queensland DPI project (see
above).
Any further activities by MAC in the Western Province have the benefit of being able to
collaborate with World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) who is the regional co-ordinator of
GCRMN/ReefCheck and have an active and competent survey team available. The University of
California-Santa Barbara (UCSB) also has had several marine protected area (MPA) projects in
the Roviana and Vonavona Lagoon, under the leadership of Dr Shankar Aswani, a long time
anthropologist and researcher in the area.
In the late 1990s, the WWF commenced an initiative to establish MPAs at a number of sites
around the island of Gizo, which were government or privately owned. These sites were either
chosen for their aesthetic value or for their popularity as tourist dive sites. At least two of them,
Njari and Hotspot, are known to support spawning aggregations of Epinephelus and
Plectropomus species of groupers (see Foale and Manele, 2003). There has been no ecological
work in the Rarumana area, though WWF has a current active ecological monitoring program and
training program for local communities (Hughes, A. 2004. pers. comm.).
Map of intended MPAs in the Gizo area by WWF (source: Foale and Manele, 2003).
UCSB and the Roviana and Vonavona Marine Resource Management and Development Program
(RVRMDP) have been creating and consolidating a network of MPAs in the Roviana and
Vonavona Lagoonal areas for a number of years now (see Aswani and Hamilton, 2004b). So far,
UCSB and the RVRMDP has instituted 12 MPAs and is currently planning another 10 over the
next two years. Most of these have or will be set up as MPAs that are permanently closed to all
resource harvesting activities to protect and manage the marine environment.
22
Map of intended MPAs in the Vonavona Lagoon by UCSB (source: Aswani and Hamilton, 2004b).
Existing MPAs in the Vonavona Lagoon include a set of four along the southern coast of
Kohinggo Island and an extended reef offshore from Buni. Proposed closures that will have a
bearing on the aquarium fishery and CAMP development include the sites as detailed in the
above map. Sites 6 and 7 include the small taboo island of Kundu (also called Skull Island and is
a tourist attraction for the nearby Lola Island Resort), Maburana Island and its associated reef
(these areas are used by Madou and some Munda area communities); sites 8 and 9 include Nusa
Repi Island and its associated reef, Sagauru Voquana reef (used by people of Saika, Kida,
Nazareti, Kinamara, and Madou villages); and finally, site 10, the Rarumana Pool (used by
Rarumana people)
UCSB has also conducted some rapid ecological work in the eastern area of the Vonavona
Lagoon on habitat and reef delineation (using emic categories) with GIS and indigenous
ecological knowledge (spawning aggregations, habitat types, species diversity, etc).
These projects by WWF and UCSB have potential to help MAC and the communities to
successfully implement CAMPs.
Conclusion
The aquarium fishery in the Western Province has now been operating for nearly a decade now.
Out of an original dozen operators only two survive, at Madou and Rarumana. These two
remaining operators have been consistent in production over time, indicating that the level of the
fishery is probably sustainable with no major resource impacts. Further research and stock
abundances however, should be pursued in the future, particularly if MAC wishes to continue
activities in this area. MAC should also consider collaborating with major stakeholders as the
Western Province offers the most detailed area of knowledge for MAC from previous and current
programs. In respect to resource rights it also offers a relatively easy situation to pursue a ‘truly’
community CAMP.
23
References
Adams, T.; Leqata, J.; Ramohia, P.; Amos, M. and Lokani, P. 1992. Pilot Survey on the Status of
Trochus and Beche-de-mer Resources in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands with
Options for Management. A Report prepared for South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New
Caledonia.
Allen, G. 1972. Anemonefishes: Their Classification and Biology. Neptune City: T.F.H.
Publication.
Aswani, S. 1997a. Customary Marine Tenure and Artisanal Fishing in the Roviana and Vona
Vona Lagoons, Solomon Islands: The Evolutionary Ecology of Marine Resource Utilisation.
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Hawaii.
Aswani, S. 1997b. Troubled Waters in Southwestern New Georgia, Solomon Islands. Is
Codification of the Commons a Viable Avenue for Resource Use Regularization? SPC
Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin. 8: 2-16.
Aswani, S. 1998. Patterns of Marine Harvest in SW New Georgia, Solomon Islands: Resource
Management or Optimal Foraging? Ocean and Coastal Management. 40 (2-3): 207-235.
Aswani, S. 1999. Common Property Models of Sea tenure: A case study from Roviana and
Vonavona Lagoons, New Georgia, Solomon Islands. Human Ecology. 27 (3). 417-453.
Aswani, S. 2000. Women, Rural Development and Community-based Resource Management in
the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands: Establishing Marine Invertebrate Refugia. Traditional
Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin. 12: 11-22.
Aswani, S. 2002. Assessing the Effects of Changing Demographic and Consumption Patterns on
Sea Tenure Regimes in the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Ambio. 31 (4): 272-284.
Aswani, S. and Hamilton, R. 2004a. Integrating Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and
Customary Sea Tenure with Marine and Social science for Conservation of Bumphead Parrotfish
(Bolbometopon muricatum) in the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Environmental
Conservation. 31 (1): 69–83.
Aswani, S. and Hamilton, R. 2004b. The Value of Many Small vs. Few Large Marine Protected
Areas in the Western Solomon Islands. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and
Knowledge Information Bulletin. 16: 3-14.
Booth, D. and Wellington, G. 1998. Settlement Preferences in Coral-reef Fishes: Effects on
Patterns of Adult and Juvenile Distributions, Individual Fitness and Population Structure.
Australian Journal of Ecology. 23: 274–279.
Cesar, H. 1996. Economic Analysis of Indonesian Coral Reefs. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Elliott, J. and Mariscal, R. 2001. Coexistence of Nine Anemonefish Species: Differential Host
and Habitat Utilization, Size and Recruitment. Marine Biology. 138: 23–36.
Elliott, J.; Elliott, J. and Mariscal, R. 1995. Host Selection, Location, and Association Behaviors
of Anemonefishes in Field Settlement Experiment. Marine Biology. 122: 377–389.
24
Fautin, D. 1992. Amenonefish Recruitment: The Roles of Order and Chance. Symbiosis. 14: 2229.
Foale, S. and Manele B. 2003. Privatising fish? Barriers to the Use of Marine Protected Areas
for Conservation and Fishery Management in Melanesia. Working Paper, No.: 47. Canberra:
Resource Management in Asia-Pacific Series.
Fricke, H. and Fricke, S. 1977. Monogamy and Sex Change by Aggressive Dominance in Coral
Reef Fish. Nature. 266: 830–832.
Hair, C.; Bell, J. and Doherty, P. 2003. Development of a New Artisanal Fisheries based on the
Capture and Culture of Post-larval Coral Reef Fish, Volume 1: Main Report. Final Report for the
Australian Centre for the International Agricultural Research, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Hair, C.; Bell, J. and Doherty, P. 2002. The Use of Wild-caught Juveniles in Coastal Aquaculture
and its Application to Coral Reef Fishes. In Stickney, R. and McVey, J. (eds). Responsible
Marine Aquaculture. Pp: 327-353. New York: CAB International.
Hair, C. and Doherty, P. 2004. Development of a New Artisanal Fisheries based on the Capture
and Culture of Post-larval Coral Reef Fish: Extension Report. Final Report for the Australian
Centre for the International Agricultural Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Hamilton, R. 2003. The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Depleting a Limited Resource: A Case
Study of the Bumphead Parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) Artisanal Fishery in Roviana
Lagoon, Western Province, Solomon Islands. Putting Fishers' Knowledge to Work Conference
Proceedings, August 27-30, 2001. University of British Colombia Fisheries Centre Research
Reports. 11 (1): 68-77.
Hamilton, R. and Walter, R. 1999. Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and its Role in Fisheries
Research Design: A Case Study from Roviana Lagoon, Western Province, Solomon Islands. SPC
Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin. 11: 13-25.
Harwood, F. 1978. Intercultural Communication in the Western Solomons: The Methodist
Mission and the Emergence of the Christian Fellowship Church. In Boutilier, J.; Hughes, D. and
Tiffany, S. (eds.). Mission, Church, and Sect in Oceania. pp. 231-250. ASAO Monograph, No.;
6. Lanham: University Press of America.
Hattori, A. 2002. Small and Large Anemonefishes can Coexist using the same Patchy Resources
on a Coral Reef, before Habitat Destruction. Journal of Animal Ecology. 71: 824–831.
Hviding, E. 1989. All Things in Our Sea: The Dynamics of Customary Marine Tenure, Marovo
Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Special Publication, No.: 13. Port Moresby: National Research
Institute.
Hviding, E. 1996. Guardians of Morovo Lagoon: Practice, Place, and Politics in Maritime
Melanesia. Pacific Islands Monograph, Series 14. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Johannes, R. and Hviding, E. 2000. Traditional Knowledge Possessed by the Fishers of Marovo
Lagoon, Solomon Islands, Concerning Fish Aggregating Behaviour. SPC Traditional Marine
Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin. 12: 22-29.
25
Kile, N.; Lam, M.; Davis, D. and Donnelly, R. 2000. Managing the Live Reef Food Fish Trade in
Solomon Islands: The Role of Village Decision-making Systems in Ontong Java, Roviana and
Marovo Lagoons. Discussion Paper No.2. Canberra: Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research.
Kinch, J. 2004a. The Marine Aquarium Trade in the Solomon Islands, with Specific Notes on
Marau Sound, Guadalcanal. A Report prepared for the Marine Aquarium Council and the
Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific-International, Suva, Fiji. Pp: 38.
Kinch, J. 2004b. Scoping Report for the Marine Aquarium Trade in the Madou Area, Western
Province, the Solomon Islands. A Report prepared for the Marine Aquarium Council and the
Kinch, J. 2004c. Scoping Report for the Marine Aquarium Trade in the Rarumana Area, Western
Province, the Solomon Islands. A Report prepared for the Marine Aquarium Council and the
Kinch, J. 2004d. The Status of Commercial Invertebrates and other Marine Resources in the
Santa Isabel Province, the Solomon Islands. A Report prepared for the United Nations
Development Program’s Pacific Sustainable Livelihoods Program, Suva, Fiji; and the Isabel
Province Development Program, Buala, Santa Isabel Province, Solomon Islands. Pp: 55.
Marine Aquarium Council. 2001. Marine Ornamentals Trade National Stakeholders Workshop,
19 November 2001, Honiara, Solomon Islands. Report produced for the Marine Aquarium
Council, Honiara, Solomon Islands. Pp: 9.
McClanahan, T.; Muthiga, N.; Kamukuru, A.; Machano, H. and Kiambo, R. 1999. The Effects of
Marine Parks and Fishing on Coral Reefs of Northern Tanzania. Biological Conservation. 89:
161-182.
Pomeroy, R. and Balboa, C. 2003. The Financial Feasibility of Small-Scale Marine Ornamental
Aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific as an Alternative to Wild Stock Harvest for the International
Marine Ornamental Fish Trade. A Technical Report prepared for the World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C., the United States of America. Pp: 39.
Pyle, R. 1993. Marine Aquarium Fish. In Wright, A. and Hill, L. (eds.). Nearshore Marine
Resources of the South Pacific. Pp: 135-176. Honiara: Forum Fisheries Agency.
Russell, D. and Buga, B. 2004. Marketing Unit: Final Report. A Report prepared for the Solomon
Islands Government and the European Union’s Rural Fishing Enterprise Project, Phase 3,
Honiara, the Solomon Islands.
Sale, P. 1991. The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs. San Diego: Academic Press.
Sabetian, A. 2002. The Importance of Ethnographic Knowledge to Fishery Research Design and
Management in the South Pacific: A Case Study from Kolombangara Island, Solomon Islands.
SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin. 14: 22-34.
Scheffler, H. 1962. Kindred and Kin Groups in Simbo Island Social Structure. Ethnology. 1: 135157.
26
Stoddart, D. 1969. Geomorphology of the Solomon Islands Coral Reefs. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 255: 355-402.
Thresher, R.; Colin, L. and Bell, J. 1989. Planktonic Duration, Distribution and Population
Structure of Western and Central Pacific Damselfishes (Pomacentridae). Copeia. 420-434.
Wale, R. 2003. Social and Economic Impact Assessment of the Seaweed Development Project in
the Rarumana Community, Parara Island, Western Province. A Report prepared for the European
Union Rural Fishing Enterprise Project, Phase 3, Honiara, the Solomon Islands.
Williams, D. 1991. Patterns and Processes in the Distribution of Coral Reef Fishes. In. Sale, P.
(ed). The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs. Pp. 437–474. San Diego: Academic Press.
27

The Marine Aquarium Trade - Western Solomons Research Database

Transcription

Similar documents

freaky friday nights!

anthias ventralis

Exhibit Locator 08-19-2016.indd

Saturday, October 17 Port Administration Main Dock, Fagatogo

This Manual is provided FREE OF CHARGE from CBTricks.com

MFCU Scholarship Application - Marine Federal Credit Union

Sea Fare - Aquarium of the Pacific

PDF - Monterey Boats

Lagoon 400 S2 (3 cab)

4959_01_Integrity_Case_Study_Elizabeth Island/Bensonwood.indd