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t1 6
PABT
TW O I HEO RI ES
ANDI ECHNI O UES
O FCO U N S E L I N G
FROM
A MULTICULTURAT
PERSPECTIVE
THERAPY
fiV ADLERIAN
to Multicultural
Gontributions
Counseling
Adlerian theory addressed social equality issues and social embeddedness of
humans long before multiculturalism assumed central importance in the profession (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Adler introduced notions with irnplications
torvard multiculturalism that have as much or rnore relevance today as they did
during Adler's time (Pedersen, as cited in Nystul, 1999b). Some of these ideas
include ( 1) the importance of the cultural context, (2) the emphasis on health
as opposed to pathology, (3) a holistic perspective on life, (4) the value of understanding individuals in terms of their core goals and purposes, (5) the ability to
exercise fi-eedom within the context of societal constraints, and (6) the focus on
prevention and the development of a proactive approach in dealing with problems. Adler's holistic perspective is an articulate expression of what Pedersen
calls a "culture-centered" or multicultural approach to counseling.
Although the Adlerian approach is called Individual Psychology, its focus
is on the person in a social context. This approach is well suited to working
with culturally diverse clients. Adlerian therapists encourage clients to define
themsehres within their social environments. Adlerians allorv broad concepts
of age, ethnicity, lifestyle, and gender differences to emerge in therapy. To
their credit, Adlerians practice in flexibie ways from a theory that can be applied to w o rk w i th e th n i c a l l y d i verse cl i ent popul ati ons. Thc therapeuti c
process is grounded withir-r a client's culture and worldvier,r, rather than attempting to fit clients into preconceived models.
I n th e i r a n a l y s i s o f th e v a ri ous theoreti cal approaches to counsel i ng,
Arciniega and Newlon (1999) state that Adlerian theor y holds the most promise
for addressing rnulticultural issues. They note a nurnber of characteristics oI
Adlerian theory that are congrlrent with the values of many rarcial, cr-rltural,
and ethnic grollps, inch-rding the emphasis on nnderstanding the individual in
a farnilial and sociocultural context; the role of social interest and contributing to others; ancl the focus on belonging and the collective spirit. Cr,rltures
that stress the welfar:e of the social grollp zrr-rd
enphasize the r:ole ol'the I'arr-rily will fi n d th e b a s i c a s s u mp ti o n s of A dl eri an psychol ogy to be consi stenl
with their valrres.
Adlerian therapists tend to focus on cooperation ar-rdsocially oriented vzrllres
as opposed to compel.itive and individuaiistic values (Carlson & Carlson, 2000).
Native American clients, for example, tend to value cooperation over competition. One such client told a story about a group oFboys who were in a race. When
one boy got ahead of the others, he would slow down and allow the others to
catch up, and they all made it to the finisl-rline at the same time. Although the
coach tried to explain that the point of the race u'as for an individual to finish
first, these boys were socialized to rvork together cooperatively as a group. Adlerian therapy is easily adaptable to cultural values that enrphasize community.
R
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H E R APY
5 R A D L E R ] ATN
117
Clienls who er-rtertherapy erle often locl<ed into rigicl \vrlys o[ perceiving,
iriterpreting, and behaving. It is lil<ely thal they have not questior-redhow their
things
culture l.rasinfluer-rceclthen-r.Thus, they r-iray['eelresignecl to "the r,r,zry
a re ." Mo z c l zi erz and hi s col l eagues (1984) characteri ze these cl ier - r t sas m yopic zrnd contend that one of the therapist's lirnctions is lo provicle them u,ith
another p:rir of glzrssesthat urill er-rablethem to see things morL' clear-I1'.Thc'
Adler.ian emphasis orr the subjective fashion ir-rr,vhich pcople view zrnd interpret their rvorld leacls to a respect for clients' uniqr-revalues ancl pelceptions.
Adlerian counselors use interpretzrtions as an oppol-turnity {'or clients to rzier.rr
things fi-om zrdiil'erent pc'rspc-ctivc,yet it is Lrp to the clients to decide rvhether
to o p e n l h ei r eyes arrcll i se thesc gl asses.A cl l eri ans cl o not deci de f or client s
r,vhatthcy shor"rldcl'reurgeor r.r,hzrt
their goals shouicl be; r;rtlrer',they rvorl< coll ;i b o ra ti v c ly r.r,i ththci r cl i ents i n r,rrzrys
tharI enzi bl e thenr to reac h t lr eir self d e h n e d g o al s.
N o t. o r-rl yi s A cl l eri arr-i
theory congrLl ent w i tl r the val ues of l nzr ny clr lt ur er l
grolrps, but the approeicl'rolfers llcxibility in applying a rzurgcof cognitivc aincl
z rc ti o n -o rientedtecl rni questo hel pi ng cl i ents expl ore thei r-practi czilplobler ns.
Adlerian pmctitior-rers ale noI u,cclcledto i]l'ry particr-rliir set ol'proccclures. h'rstead, they are conscioLrsof the vzilue of fitting their techniclLlesto etrch client's
situation. Altl-roug}rthey utilize a cliverse lelnge of n-iethocls, most of'then-r clcr
c o n d u c t a l i festyl e el ssessment.Tl -ri s assessl l l ent i s heavi l y focu secl on t he
u,ithir-r the client's l'amily. Beczruse of tlrc'ir-culturzrl
strLrctLlreancl dynzrr.r-rics
b a c k g ro l rn cl ,r11anycl i ents hzi vebeen condi ti oned to rcspect thei r I ': r m ily her i ta g e a n c l to appreci ate the i mpact o1' thei r tarl i l y on thei r ow n per sonal deveiopmenl-.1t is esser.rtjerl
that counselors be scr-rsitiveto tlrc conflicting ieelir-rgs
tlreir
and struggles olt
clients. Il'connselors cler-nonstl'atcalr understandir-rg ol'
vah-res,
it
these cultur-al
is likely that tl-reseclients wili be rcceptive to an explor-atior-rof thcir'lifestyle. Suclr an exploration rvill involvc ii det;rilecl cliscr-rssirirr
o{ their" own place within their l'ar-r-rily.
If "cr-rltr,rre"
is clefined broadly (to ir-ich,rdeage, roles, liiestyle, arnclgencler'
culttrlal
clil'ferencescan be found erien rvithin a single [an'ril1,.lhs
dilTerences),
A d l e ri a n zrpproach empi rasi zes Lhe rrah-reof sr-rbi ecti vcl yunderst anding t hc
unique u,orlcl of an inclividual. Cnlturc is onc significar-rtclir-nension|or grasping the subiective ar-rclexperiential perspectirzeof an inciividual. Culture inf'h-rences each person, br-rt it is expressed r,r,ithir-reacl'r individual ciifferer-rtly,
according to the perception, evaluzrtion,and interpretation of culturre that the
person holds.
A d l e r:i a n counsel ors seel ( Lo be sensi Li ve to cr-rl l ural and gencier issues.
Adler rvas one of the first psycholclgists at the turn of the century to advocerte
equality lor won'ien. He recogniz-ed that nen and \von-len ra,eredifferent in
many ways, but he felt that the two genders u,ere desenring of equal value ancl
respect. Tl-risrespect err-rd
appreciation for difference extcncls to culture as weil
as gender. Adlerians find in difl'erer-rtcultures opportur-rities for viewing the
self, others, and the rvorld ir-rmuitidin-rensional \ /ays. Indeed, the strengths of
in another cultr-rre.
one culture can often hclp correct the n-ristal<es
118
PARTTWO THEORIES
ANDTECHNIOUES
OFCOUNSETING
Limitations
forMulticultural
Counseling
As is true of most Western models, the Adlerian approach tends to focus on
the self as the locus of change and responsibility. Because other cultures have
different conceptions, this primary emphasis on changing the autonomous
self may be problematic for many clients.
Another limitation of Adlerian therapy invoives its detaiied explorations of
one's early childhood, early memories, and dynamics within the family. Many
clients who have pressing problems are likeiy to resent intrusions into areas of
their lives that they may not see as connected to the struggles that bring them
into therapy. In addition, rrrembers of some cultures may believe it is inappropriate to reveal family information. On this point Carlson and Carlson (2000)
suggest that a therapist's sensitivity to and understanding of a ciient's culttrrally
constmcted beliefs about disclosing family infonnation are criticai. If therapists
are able to demonstrate an understanding of a client'.scultural values, it is likely
that this client will be more open to the assessmenl-and treatment process.
Although therapists have expertise ir-rthe problems of living, they are not
experts in solving other people's problerns. Instead, they view it as their ftinction to teach people alternative n-rethodsof coping with life concerns. Howeve4 the culture of some clients may contribute to their viewing the counselor
as the "expert" and expecting that the counselor will provide them with solut ions t o th e i r p ro b l e m s . F o r th e se cl i ents, the rol e of the A dl eri an therapi st
may pose problems.
If the Adlerian approach is practiced appropriately and competently, it is
difficult to identify major lin-ritations fron-r a multicultural perspective. The
phenomenological nature of the Adlerian approach lends itseif to r-rnderstanding the worldview of clients. The emphasis on the subjective fashion in which
people view and interpret their world leads to a respect for clients' unique values and p e r-c e p ti o n s .
it s h o u l d b e n o te d th a t Ad l e rians i nvesti gate cul ture i n much the same
way that they erpproach birth order and lamily atmosphere. Culture is a vant age po i n t fro m u ,l ri c h l i fc i s e x p e ri enced and i nterpreted; i t i s al so a background of values, historyr,corrvictions, beliefs, customs, and expectations that
must be adclresseciby tl-reindiviclual. Acllerians do not decide for clients what
they should change or what their goals should be; rather, they work co<-lpclzrtively to enable clients to reach their self-defined goals.
i.'.llijSUMMARY
ANDEVALUATI0N
Summary
Adler was far ahead of his time, and most contemporary therapies have incorporated at least sone of his ideas. Individual Psychology assllmes that people
are motivated by social factors; are responsible for their own thoughts, feelings,
and actions; are the creators of their own lives, as opposed to being helpless
CHAPTER
5 ADLEBIANTHEEAPY
tt9
victims; and are impelled by pr"rrposesand goals, looking more towal'd the futu re th a n t o the past.
T h e b a si c goal of the A dl eri an approach i s to hel p cl i ents ident if y and
change their mistaken beliefs about, sel{, others, and li{'e and thus participate
more ['r-rllyin a social world. Clients are not viewed as mentally sick br-rtarsdisc o u ra g e d . The therapeuti c process hel ps cl i ents become aw are o f t heir pat te rn s a n d make some basi c changes i n thei r styl e of l i vi ng, w hich lead t o
changes in the way they feel and behave. The role of the f amily in the developm e n t o f the i ndi vi dr" rali s emphasi zed. Therapy i s a cooperati ve vent ur e and
geared torvard challenging clients to trzrnslatetheir insights into action in the
re a l rv o rl d . C ontemporary A dl eri an theory i s an i ntegrati ve approach, com b i n i n g c o g ni ti ve, constructi vi st, psychodynami c, ancl systems p er spect ives.
S o m e o [' th ese common characteri sti cs i ncl ude an emphasi s on est ablishing a
re s p e c tfu l cl i ent-therapi st rel ati onshi p, an emphasi s on cl i ents' st r engt hs and
resorlrces,and an optimistic and future orientation.
The Adlerian approach gives practitioners a great cleal of freeclom in working with clients. Ma.ior Adlerian contribr-rtions hilve been rnade in the l'ollowi n g z rre a s:el ementary educati on, consui tati on groLl ps w i th teaclr er s, par ent
education grollps, marriage and farnily therapy, and gror-rpcounseling.
Contributions
of theAdlerian
Approach
A stlcngth ol'the Adlelian approach is its flexibility zrnd its integrative natlrre.
Adlerian therapists czrnbe both theoretically integrative and technically eclectic (Watts & Shulmzrn,2003). This therapeutic approach allor.r'sfor the use of
a variety of cognitive, behavioral, ancl experientizrl techniques. Acllerian therapists arreresourceful and flexible in drawing on many rnethods, which czrn be
appliecl to a diverse range of clients ir-ra variety ol'settings and formats. Therapists are rnainly concerned about doing what is in the best interests of clients
ra th e r th a n squeezi ng cl i ents i nto one theoreti cal framew ork (Wat t s, 1999,
2 0 0 0 ; Wa tts & P i etrzak, 2000; W atts & S hul man, 2003).
Another contribr-rtion of Adlerian therapy is that the approach lends itself
to shclrt-term tormats. Adler was a proponent of time-lirnited therapy, and the
techniques used by marly contemporeuy brief therapeutic approaches are very
similar to interwentions created by or commonly used by Adlerian practitione rs (W a tts , 1999,2000). A dl eri an therapy has a psychoeducati on al f ocus, a
present- and futr-rre-orientation,is brief and time-limited, and combines cognitive
a n d s y s te mi c perspecti ves (W atts & P i etrzak, 2000). B i tter and N icoll ( 2000)
identify five characteristics that form the basis for an integrative framework in
brief therapy: time limitation, tocus, counselor directiveness, symptoms as solutions, and the assignment of behavioral tasks. An advantage of bringing into
the therapy process a time iimitation consists ol conveying to clients the expectation that change will occur in a short period of time. When the number
of sessionsis specified, both client and therapist are motivated to stay focused
on desired outcomes and to work as efficientlv as nossible. Bitter and Nicoll
120
PART
TW O THEO RIAND
ES TECHNI O UES
O FCOU N S E L I N G
\,vrite that because there is no assurance that a ftiture session rvill occur, brief
therapists tend to ask thernselves this question: "If I had only one session to be
useful in this person's life, what wouid I want to accomplish?" (p. 3B).
The Adlerian concepts I draw on most in rny work rvith clients are (1) the
importance of looking to one's life goals, including assessinghow these goals
influence an individual; (2) the focus on the individual's interpretation of early
experiences in the family, with special emphasis on their current impact; (3)
the clinical use of early recollections; (4) the need to understand and confront
basic mistakes; (5) the cognitive emphasis, which holds that emotions and behaviors are largely inflr-renced by one's beliefs and thinking processes; (6) the
idea of working out an action plan designed to help clients make changes; (7)
the collaborative relationship, rvhereby the client and therapist work toward
m ut ual l y a g re e d -u p o n g o a l s ; a n d (8) the emphasi s gi ven to encouragement
durir-rg the entire counseling process. Serreral Adlerian concepts I'rave implications for personal development. One of these notions that has helped me to
understand the direction of my life is the assumption that feelings of inferiority are linked to a striving lor superiority (Corey, as cited in Nystul, 1999a).
It is difficult to overestimate the contributions of Adler to contemporary
therapeutic practice. Many of his ideas were revolutionary and far ahead of
his tinre. His influence went beyond counseling individuals, extending into the
community mental health movement (Ansbacher, 1974). Abre'rham Maslow,
Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Albert Ellis have all acknorvledged their debt to
Adler: Both Frankl and May see him as a forerunner of the exister-rtialmovem ent b e c a u s e o f h i s p o s i ti o n th a t human bei ngs are free to choose and are
entirely r:esponsible for what they make ol themselves. This view also makes
hinr a forerunner of the subiective approach to psychology, which focuses on
the internal determinants of behavior: r,alues, beliefs, attitr-rdes,goals, interes t s , pe rs o n a l m e a n i n g s , s u b j e c ti ve percepti ons of real i ty, and stri vi ngs tor.r,ardself-realization.
I n m y o p i n i o n , o n e o l A d l e r' s most i mportant contri buti ons i s hi s i nfl uence on other therapy systems. Many of his basic ideas have founcl their ra,ay
into other psychological schools, such as fan-rilysysten-)sappr:oaches,Gestalt
therapy, learning theory, r:eality therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy,
cognitive therapy, person-centered therapy, existential therapy, and the postmodern approaches to therarpy.All of these approaches are based on a similar
concept of the person as purposive, self-deternining, and striving for growth.
In many respects, Adler seems to have paved the way for current developments in both the cognitive and contructivist therapies (Watts, 2003). Adlerians ' ba s i c p re m i s e i s th a t i f c l i e n t s can change thei r thi nki ng then they can
change their feelings and behavior'. A str-rdyof contemporary collnseling theories reveals that many of Adlers notions have reappeared ir-rthese moclern appr oac he s w i th d i ffe re n t n o me n c l ature, and often rvi thout gi vi ng A dl er the
credit that is due to l-rirn(Watts , 1999; Watts & Pietrzak, 2000; Watts & Shulrnan, 2003). It is clear that there are significant linkages of Acllerian theory
rvith most of the preser-rt-daytheories.
CHAPTER
5 ADLEBIANTHERAPY
121
[imitations
of theAdlerian
Approach
andCriticisms
Adler had to choose between devoting his tin-re [o forn-ralizing his theory and
t-eachir-rg
others the basic concepts of Individual Psychology. He placed practicing and teaching before or:ganizing arndpresenting a u,ell-defined and syste ma ti c theory. Thus, hi s rvri tten presentati ons are often di ffi cr "r ltt o f oilow,
r-nanyof them coming fi orn transcripts of lectures he gave. h'ritially, many people considered his icleassomewhat loose and too simplistic.
R c s e a rch supporti ng the effecti veness of A dl eri an theory i s lim it ecl but
l rz rsi n rp ro ved over the l ast 25 years (W atts & S hul r-nan,2003). Howevcr , a
large part of the theory still requrilcs en-rpiricaltesting zrnd comparative ar-ialysis. This is especially true in tl-reconceptual erreasthat Adlerians accept as axiomatic: fol exarnplc, the clevelopment of lif'estyle; the r-rnityof the personality
anci an zicceptanceof' a singular vier,r,of self; the rejection o{ the prominence
ol'her-cclit.yin clctermining behzrvior,especizillypathological bel-r:ivior;ancl the
r-rsefulnessof the multiple intenrentions used by varior-rsAdleri:rns.
A c l l e ri an thcory i s of l i mi ted use for cl i ents seeki ng i mmecl i at e solnt ions
to th e i r p robi ems and f< ,rrcl i ents rvho have l i ttl e i nterest i n explor - ing eeir ly
chilcilroocl expeliences, ezrrly memories, and clrezrms.This approach also has
l i mi te c l e f f ecti venessrvi th cl i ents w ho do not understand the pl lr pose ol'exploring thc cletzrilsoi a li{estyle zrnerlysis
when dealing with life'.scurrent problcrns (Arciniega & Newlon, 1999).
' ii, r lj
WHEFF
TOGOFROM
HERE
If yor-rare trsing the CD-ROM lor Integrative Coun.sellrzg;
Session 6 ("Cognitive
Focus in Counseiing") ilh-rstratesRuth's striving to live Llp to expectations and
mL'asure r-rpto perfectionist starndarcls.ln rhis particr-rlar therapy session rvith
Rr-rth,you r.r,illsee lrou, I drara, upon cognitive concepts ernd apply tl'rem in
p ra c ti c e .
If yor,rfir-rdthat your thinking is allied rvith the Adlerian approach, you n-right
consicler seeking training in h-rdiviciualPsychology or becon-ringa member of
tl-reNorth Americern Society ol Adlerian Psychology (NASAP). To obtain ir-rformation on NASAP and a list of Adlerian organizations and institr"rtes,contact:
North American Society of Adlerian Psychology (NASAP)
50 Northeast Drirze
Hershey, PA 17033
Telephone: (7 17) 579 -8795
F a x : (7 17) 533-8616
Er-nail: nasap@rnsn.com
Web si te : r,r,u'r,v.
ai fredadler. org
The society publishes a ne\ /sletler and a quarterly journal and maintains a list
of institutes, training programs, and workshops in Adlerian psychology. The
JottrncLlof'Individual Psycholog, presents current scholarly and professional
r22
PART
TW O THEO BI AND
ES TECHNI O UES
O FCO U N S E L I N G
research. Columns on counseling,education, and parent and family education are regular features.Information about subscriptions is available by contacting the society.
If you are interested in pursuing training, postgraduatestudy, continuing
education, or a degree,contact NASAP for a list of Adlerian organizations and
institutes. A few training institutes are listed here:
Adler School of Professional Psychology
65 East WackerPlace,Suite 2100
Chicago, IL 60601-7298
Telephone:(312)201-5900
Fax: (312) 201-5917
Email : information@adler.edu
Web site: www.adler.edu
Adlerian Training Institute
Dr. Bill Nicoll. Coordinator
P. O. Box 276358
Boca Raton, FL 33427-6358
Telephone:(954) 757-2845
The Alfred Adler Institutes of San Francisco
and Northwestern Washington
The Alfred Adler Institute of Northwestern Washington
3320 SussexDrive
Bellingham, WA 98226
(360)935-1661
Telephone:
Email: HTStein@att.net
Web site: http://ourworld.compuserv.com/homepages/hstein/
The Alfred Adler Institute of Quebec
4947 GrosvenorAvenue
Montreal, QC H3W 2M2
CANADA
Telephone:(514)73I -5675
Fax; (514)731-9242
Email: aaiq@total.net
Web site: wrvw.total.net/-aaiq/index.html
The International Committee for Adlerian Summer Schools
and Institutes
Betty Haeussler
9212 Morley Road
Lanham, MD 20706
Telephone:(3Ol) 577-8243
Fax: (301)595-0669
Email: PeteHMSU64@aol.com
Web site:www.icassi.ors
C H A P TE 5B
A D LE R IA N
TH E R AP Y
123
InfoTrac
College
Edition
Resources
AdlerianTherapy The following key u,ords are listed in such a \vay as to enable
the InioTrac College Edition search engine to locate a wicler range of articles
in the online library. The key r.l,ordsshould be entered exactly as shorvn, to inc h -rd ea s tcri sks," W 1," and " A N D ."
Al l l -e c l A dl er
AcllerAND supcliority
Ir-rlrcriolity
conrpiex
pet'iority conrplex
Sr-r
Phenonrenol<>gical
AND psychol"
F a r.n i l W
y I constel l ati on
B i rth W l ol cl er
Recommended
Supplementary
Readings
Adlerian, Cogrtitive,autl Conslnrctittist Therapie.s:Au IntegrcLliveDialo5te (Watts, 2003)
acl<ntlrvleciges
tlte irrtportztntcontt'ibr-rtior-rs
ol'Alh-cclAcller ar-rclilluslrates the man-y
r . r ' z t vAc
s l l c r i a n i c l e a s I 'r a v ei n f l t r e n c c c i l h e d e v e l o p n r c n t o l 'l h c c o s n i ti ve a r r cl co r - r s t luc t iv i s t t h e r a p i e s .
Printer ol Atllerirut Psyclnlogl, (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999) offers zrn erccessibleintrrrclr-rctiorr [o the basic tcnets of Indiviclual Psycl-rologyge:rrecltor.r,arclrcaclers r.r,hoa;c
not l'amiliar r.r'i1hAcller's r,r,ork.
Adleriun Counseling:A Practitioner'sAl4tnnch (Sweer-rcy,1998) is thc most comprchclsive sottt'ce on Adlerian cout-rseling.It includes Acller's life iinc[ r.r,orl<,
an cxplanzrtiotr o['n-ran.ykey Acllerian corlcepts, and an over'\,iervof the counseling ploccss :rs
it is zrpplied to irrdivicluals,colrples, Ihnrilies, and groups.
'fechniqtte.sin Aclleriun Psvcholog.v(Callson & Slavik, 1997) is an
cclited rrolun.rc:coLrtainir-rglcchniqtres l'or indiviclual tl'rerapy u'ith zrclr-rlts,
child cor-rnseling,ancl couplcs ar-rdI;rmilies cotrnselir-rg.
Understanding Lifb-Stt,le: The Psycho-Claritt' Procec< (Pou,ers & Grif Iith, 1987) is a trscfr-tlsor-rr-ce
ol inl'on-nation iol doing a lifestyle :issessnlent. Separ-atecl-raptcls cleal
urith interview tecl"rniqttes,lifestyle zrssessment,early recollections, the fan-rily cor-rstellation, and methocls of summarizing ancl ir-rterpretinginlbrmation.
References
andSuggested
Readings
ADLER, A. (1958). I4thatlile sltoultl tnean to yozr. Ner,r,York: Capricorn. (Original r.i,orl<
pLr blis h e d1 9 3 I )
ADLER, A. (1959). UnderstttndinglutntcLnnatltre. New York: Prenrier Books.
ADLER, A. (1964). Social interesr. A clnllenge to ntcutlcind. Ner.v York: Capricorn. (Original rl,ork pubiished 1938)
t2 4
T W O T H E O BAN
IESDT E C H N IOU
OFES
C O U N S E TIN G
P A RT
discipline.Circle Pines,MN: American Gr-riclance
Service.
ALBERT,L. (1996).Cooperative
AMERICAN PSYCHIATRICASSOCIATION.(2000).Diagnosticand statisticalntanual
of'ntental disorders,text revision, (4th ed.), (DSM-IV-TR).Washington,DC: Author.
ANSBACHER, H. L. (1974).Goal-orientedindividual psychology:Aifr"edAdler's theory.
(pO. 99-1,42).Neu' York:
In A. Burton (Ed.), Operationaltheoriesof-personcLlity
Brr:nner/Mazel.
"ANSBACHER,H. L. (1979).The increasingrecognitionof Adler.In. H. L. Ansbacher
& R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Sttperiorityantl social interest.Alfretl Adler,A collection
of lds later t'vritings(3rd rev. ed., pp. 3-20). New York: Nortor-r.
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