Brief history of air pollution

Escuela Politécnica del Ejército ESPE
Contaminación del aire y su control
René Parra Narváez
rparra@corpaire.org
Quito, mayo de 2009
Introducción
Muchas personas asocian la contaminación del
aire con el advenimiento de la Revolución
Industrial (Peavy et al., 1998)
La contaminación del aire ha estado presente
desde hace siglos
Los primeros eventos de contaminación
probablemente fueron de origen natural (gases
de volcanes, incendios forestales, resuspensión
eólica, aerosoles naturales formados por
terpenos)
Luego, las causas de tipo antrópico aparecen en
2
escena
Introducción
Actualmente, la contaminación del aire se
genera principalmente por las actividades
socioeconómicas (demanda de energía)
•
Industria
•
Transporte
•
Generación eléctrica
•
Agricultura
•
Consumo doméstico de combustibles
En algunas regiones, ciertas fuentes naturales3
pueden ser de importancia
Introducción
Cada día, millones de personas desarrollan
actividades que demandan energía (IEA, 1997)
Hay que trasladarse hasta los sitios de trabajo,
universidades, producir bienes de consumo,
servicios, transportar mercancías, calentar o
enfriar las viviendas y edificios.
La energía es imprescindible para estas actividades
El consumo de energía es la base sobre la que se
desarrollan las sociedades y su economía
El uso de energía implica la emisión de
contaminantes del aire y gases de efecto
invernadero
4
Introducción
Eficiencia energética (The World Bank, 1998):
It is one of the main strategic measures not
only for conservation of energy resources but
also for abatement of air pollution and the
slowing down of anthropogenic climate change.
……… measures to reduce energy demand should
be priorities across all sector of economy
5
Contaminación del aire:
Presencia de material indeseable en el aire, en
cantidades suficientes para producir efectos
dañinos (Nevers, 2000)
Gases, líquidos o sólidos suspendidos en la
atmósfera con suficiente concentración para
afectar la salud de seres humanos, animales,
vegetación, o producir daños en los bienes
(Jacobson, 1999)
La presencia de sustancias contaminantes en el
aire, que interfiere con la salud o el bienestar
humano, o que produce otros efectos negativos
en el ambiente (EPA)(Vallero, 2008)
Debido a actividades naturales o
antropogénicas
6
Calidad del aire en Quito. El Camal
24 – jul - 2006.
08h30
25 – jul - 2006.
08h30
26 – jul - 2006.
08h30
(µg m-3)
(mg m-3)
28 – jul - 2006.
08h30
31 – jul - 2006.
08h30
23-jul
25-jul
27-jul
29-jul
31-jul
Introducción
Contaminación del aire
La sociedad moderna basa su nivel de vida en
actividades que consumen ingentes cantidades
de recursos energéticos
Las eliminación de estas actividades afectaría
de manera drástica el nivel de vida. Esta opción
muy pocas veces es considerada.
En todos los países se prefiere continuar con las
actividades y tratar de controlar la emisión de
contaminantes del aire
8
Brief history of air pollution
The impacts of air pollution on human health and
the environment can be traced back many
centuries
Mishnah Laws in Israel (first and second
centuries AD) required that, because of the
odors emitted, tanneries be located at least 30
m away from the town and only on the east side,
due to prevailing westerly winds (Mamane, 1987)
9
Brief history of air pollution
Another ancient source of pollution was cooper
smelting to produce coins near the
Mediterranean Sea during Roman times and in
China during Song dynasty (960-1279) caused
airborne copper concentrations to increase
(Hong et al., 1996)
10
Brief history of air pollution
Moses Maimonides (Hebrew philosopher, 1135 –
1204), wrote (Goodhill, 1971):
“Comparing the air of cities to the air of deserts and
arid lands is like comparing waters that are befouled
and turbid to waters that are fine and pure. In the city,
because of the height of its buildings, the narrowness
of its streets, and all that pours forth from its
inhabitants and their superfluities … the air becomes
stagnant, turbid, thick, misty, and foggy… . If there is
no choice in this matter, for we have to grown up in the
cities and have become accustomed to them, you should
… select from cities one of open horizons … endeavor at
least to dwell at the outskirt of the city …”
11
Brief history of air pollution
Moses Maimonides (Hebrew philosopher, 1135 –
1204), wrote (Goodhill, 1971):
“If the air is altered ever so slightly, the state of the
Psychic Spirit will be altered perceptibly. Therefore you
will find many men in whom you can notice defects in the
actions of psyche with the spoilage of the air, namely,
that they develop dullness of understanding, failure of
intelligence and defect of memory”
Many of us can relate to his view of the health and
psychology impacts of heavy smog episodes (Finlayson
and Pitss, 2000)
12
Brief history of air pollution
In London, in Middle Ages, a major source of
pollution was the heating of lime stone (CaCO3,
calcium carbonate) in kilns, using oak brushwood
as energy source to produce quicklime (CaO,
calcium oxide)(Jacobson, 2002)
It released organic gases, nitric oxide, carbon
dioxide and organic particulate matter into the
air
Sea coal was introduced in London as early as
1228. It released sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide,
soot and particulate organic matter
13
Brief history of air pollution
The pollution in London due to the burning of
sea coal became so severe that by 1306, King
Edward I banned the use of coal in lime kilns
Between the thirteen and eighteen centuries,
the use of sea coal and charcoal increased in
England
Coal was used not only in lime kilns and forges,
but also in glass furnaces, brick furnaces,
breweries and home heating
14
Brief history of air pollution
“London” smog: sulfur dioxide, Acidic aerosols
and soot. Evelyn (seventeenth century) wrote
(Finlayson and Pitts, 2000) :
“But, without the use of Calculations it is evident to
every one who looks on the yearly Bill of Mortality, that
near half of the children that are born and bred in
London die under two years of age. Some have
attributed this amazing destruction to luxury and the
abuse of Spirituous Liquors: These, no doubt, are
powerful assistants; but the constant and unremitting
Poison is communicated by the foul Air, which, as the
Town still grows larger, has made regular and steady
advances in its fatal influences”
15
Brief history of air pollution
“London” smog: sulfur dioxide, Acidic aerosols
and soot. Evelyn (seventeenth century) wrote
(Finlayson and Pitts, 2000) :
“A child born in a Country Village has an even chance of
living near 40 years”
16
1700 – 1840. The Steam Engine
Air quality in Great Britain worsened in the eighteen
century due to the invention of the steam engine, a
machine that burned coal to produce mechanical energy
Due to its different uses, steam engine were located in
urban areas, increasing air pollution
Because the steam engine was a large, centralized source
of energy, it was responsible for the shift from the
artisan shop to the factory system during the Industrial
Revolution (Roseberg and Birdzell, 1986)
It also was used in other countries, providing a new
source of energy and pollution
17
1700 – 1840. The Steam Engine
Idea by Denis Papin
Water is boiled under a close device. The steam
push up a piston in a cylinder, and the movement
of the cylinder could be used to do work
Thomas Savery patented the first steam engine
(inefficient, capturing only 1 percent of the
maximum possible energy)
James Watt improved its efficiency and made
some modifications
18
Some air pollution episodes in recent times
Some incidents of excess of deaths associated
with smog
Year
Place
Number of excess deaths
1930
Meuse Valley,
Belgium
63
1948
Donora,
Pennsylvania
20
1952
London
4 000
1962
London
700
19
Meuse Valley, Belgium
In December 1930, a 5-day fog event in the
presence of a strong temperature inversion and
heavy emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2) from
coal burning resulted in the death of 63 people
and the illness of 6000 others, mostly during
the last two days of the pollution episodes
(Jacobson, 2002)
The majority who died were elderly and
previously had heart or lung disease
Symptoms included chest pain, cough, shortness
of breath and eye irritation
20
Donora, Pennsylvania, United States
Between October 26 and 31, 1948, heavy
emission of soot and sulfur dioxide from steel
mills and of metal fumes from a zinc smelter,
under a strong temperature inversion resulted
in the death of 20 people
Respiratory illness of 7000 out of the town’s
14000 residents
Most of the illnesses arose by the third day
Symptoms: cough, sore throat, chest
constriction, shortness of breath, eye
irritation, nausea and vomiting
21
Donora, Pennsylvania, United States
Noontime photography of Donora, on October 29, 1948,
during a deadly smog event (Jacobson, 2002). The smog
event darkened the city during peak daylight hours
22
London, United Kingdom
Several London-type smog events were recorded in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries
The worst was in December of 1952 when 4000 excess
deaths occurred
Victims were greater for people older that 45
Specially with heart or respiratory problems
Temperature inversion and heavy emission of pollutants
The particle and fog cover was so heavy that the
streets were dark at noontime (Jacobson, 2002)
23
Photochemical smog
Also, persistent pollution
problems in sunny regions
have gained notoriety in
the twentieth century
Los Angeles (July 23, 2000)
Layer of pollution formed
almost daily in Los
Angeles, California
Other sources than
smokestacks, as
locomotives, diesel trucks,
backyard incinerators an
automobiles
24
Photochemical smog
The chemistry
photochemical smog was
first elucidated by Arie
Haagen-Smit (1900 – 1977)
He found than when
exposed to ozone sealed in a
chamber, plants exhibited
the same type of damage as
did plants exposed to
outdoor smog, suggesting
that ozone was a constituent
of photochemical smog
25
Photochemical smog
Haagen-Smit also found that ozone caused eye
irritation, damage to materials and respiratory
problems
Other researchers found that rubber, exposed to high
ozone levels, cracked within minutes
In 1952, Haagen-Smit discovered the mechanism of
ozone formation in smog. In the laboratory, he
produced ozone from oxides of nitrogen and reactive
organic gases in the presence of sunlight (Jacobson,
2002)
He suggested that ozone and its precursors were the
most important constituents of Los Angeles
photochemical smog
26
Photochemical smog
It has since been observed in most cites of the world.
Notable sites: Mexico City, Santiago, Tokyo, Beijing,
Johannesburg, European Mediterranean zones, specially
Athens
It is now recognized that to be a world-wide problem in
areas where volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions from major mobile
and stationary sources are “trapped” by thermal
inversion and irradiated by sunlight during transport to
downwind regions (Finlayson and Pitts, 2000)
27
Aspectos históricos del smog tipo Lóndres y del
smog fotoquímico
Características
Smog tipo Lóndres
Smog fotoquímico
(Los Angeles)
Conocido
Hace siglos
Desde mediados de los
40s
Contaminantes primarios
SO2, hollín
COV, NOx
Contaminantes
secundarios
H2SO4, sulfatos (SO4--),
aerosoles
Temperatura
Fría
O3, PAN, HNO3,
aldehídos, aerosoles,
sulfatos, nitratos
Calor
Humedad relativa
Alta, usualmente nublado
Baja, usualmente caliente
y seco
Tipo de inversión
Radiativa
Subsidencia
Hora de concentraciones
pico
Primeras horas de la
mañana
Al medio día y primeras
horas de la tarde 28