changes and emerging trends in Australian school

Transcription

The School Library Rocks:
Living it, Learning it, Loving it
June 28 – July 2, 2015, Maastricht, Netherlands
Accepted papers
44th International Association of School Librarianship International
Conference, Incorporating the 19th International Forum on Research in
School Librarianship
Maastricht 2015.
IASL. Heerlen, Open Universiteit.
Volume II: Research Papers
2nd updated edition
Editors:
Lourense Das, Saskia Brand-Gruwel, Kees Kok, Jaap Walhout
International Association of School Librarianship, 2015.
Colofon
© Copyright 2015, International Association of School Librarianship
Citation:
Das, L.H., Brand-Gruwel, S., Walhout, J. & Kok, K. (Eds) (2015). The School Library Rocks:
Proceedings of the 44th International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) conference
2015 , Volume II: Research Papers (2nd ed.). Heerlen, Open Universiteit.
2
Disclaimer Notice – IASL 2015 Conference Proceedings
Where the papers in these proceedings have been authored by presenters of the IASL 2015
Annual Conference, neither the International Association of School Librarianship nor the
IASL 2015 Conference Committee Members, nor the Open University Netherlands
employees, make any warranty, expressed or implied, or assume any legal liability or
responsibility for any third party's use, or the results of such use, of any information,
apparatus, product, or process disclosed in these proceedings, or represent that its use by
such third party would not infringe privately owned rights. The views expressed in these
proceedings are not necessarily those of the International Association of School
Librarianship nor the IASL 2015 Conference Committee Members, nor the Open University
Netherlands employees.
3
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... 4
Preface ....................................................................................................................... 6
Indexes ....................................................................................................................... 7
Research Papers Review Committee ........................................................................10
School Library Research Rocks: an examination of five years of school library
research.....................................................................................................................22
New Teacher-Librarians Rock: Checking in and Looking back on the first years of
being a Teacher-Librarian..........................................................................................42
Representations of Reading in Brazilian Contemporary Children’s Literature ...........57
Improving English Comprehension in Primary School by Picture-books Story-telling
and Reading ..............................................................................................................68
Teenagers in school libraries! What about the imaginaries and expectations of digital
natives? ...................................................................................................................103
Ethical dilemmas for researchers working in international contexts.........................112
Inquiry learning: educating librarians for their educational role ................................123
School Librarians’ Roles: preliminary results of a national survey of priorities,
performance, and evaluation in the context of professional guidelines ....................136
Award-Winning Literacy Awards: Lessons Learned ................................................162
Information Architecture and the Comic Arts: ..........................................................172
Knowledge Structure and Access ............................................................................172
Does Guided Inquiry enhance learning and metacognition? ...................................194
Self-Regulated Learning in Practice: a comparison of national board certified teacher
librarians and non-national board certified teacher librarians in the United States ..216
Awards with rewards: implications and perceptions for collection development for
youth ........................................................................................................................232
A study of the Bookery’s Library Assistants programme in Cape Town: a way forward
for the staffing of school libraries in South Africa and other developing countries? .244
Enabling Teacher Librarian Leadership for Technology Integration ........................258
Growing from Nothing: the performance of teacher librarians in Taiwan .................277
Mind the gap: school librarians’ anticipated and preferred professional development
methods for integration of digital textbooks .............................................................292
4
Information literacy: Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the role of the
teacher librarian .......................................................................................................299
Transfer, transformation, transition: what the school librarian can do in transliteracy,
the French context ...................................................................................................312
Educational activities of the School Library of the School Teaching Centre of Basic
Education of UFMG .................................................................................................324
A Glimpse into the Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library’s Virtual Learning
Environment: how can this help school libraries? ....................................................335
Literature in digital environments: changes and emerging trends in Australian school
libraries ....................................................................................................................356
How the image drawing method can act as an alternative barometer of librarian
instruction ................................................................................................................370
Understanding teacher-librarian collaboration: the contribution of Patricia MontielOverall’s studies and of TLC model .........................................................................378
The School Library as a Bridge to Literacy: A Garden of Words .............................394
The School Library as a Sexual Health Learning Environment................................409
Using Your Outside Voice: action research speaks for the school librarian .............420
School Librarian Leadership: Research and Practice ..............................................434
Towards Consensus on the School Library Learning Environment: A Systematic
Search and Review .................................................................................................454
Motivation to transfer learning to multiple contexts ..................................................473
Free Voluntary Surfing: An Extensive Reading Curriculum Supported by Technology
................................................................................................................................488
Accepting the 'Other': immigrants in Israeli children's literature - a case study .......504
List of Exhibitors and Sponsors ...............................................................................511
5
Preface
The 44th Annual International Conference of the International Association of School
Librarianship and the 19th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship was held
on 28 June – 2 July 2015 in Maastricht, The Netherlands.
The Proceedings of IASL 2015 reflect the input of the conference’ speakers to the
conference theme and subthemes: The school library rocks: living it, learning it, loving it!
 The school library as a space and place: meeting, sharing, discussing. Collaborative
learning and growing.
 The school library as learning environment: 24/7 access to materials, resources,
teachers, electronic learning environment and more.
 The school library as laboratory: experience and discovery in science, arts and
media‐ education
 The school library as a window to the world: reading, writing and communication
At IASL 2015, 275 registered participants from 41 countries attended the conference. 5
Keynotes, 96 oral talks, 9 workshops and 12 posters were presented.
In this volume of the Proceedings you will find the submitted Research Papers of the
conference. Research in school librarianship is a vital element in the development of school
libraries and its implementation in education. The proceedings reflect the many appearances
of ‘the school library’. The main goal, however is always that the library in the educational
environment meets the requirements of the school community, the curriculum, stakeholders
and society and supports learning. Research shows that professionals who develop,
maintain and manage such a library, play a significant role in student achievement. These
proceedings will therefore contribute to further development of the profession and lay the
foundation for new research.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to the conference research paper review
committee for their valuable work and contribution to the IASL 2015 conference. I would also
like to express my deep appreciation to the conference committee, the staff of the Open
University of The Netherlands and our volunteers. The IASL 2015 conference could not have
been possible without the ongoing dedication, tremendous efforts, hard work and
professional input.
At the end of this preface, I would like to look ahead to the IASL conference. IASL 2016 will
be held August 22 – 26, 2016, at the Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan. We look forward to
another professional and exiting conference on School Librarianship.
IASL 2015 Conference Committee Director,
Lourense H. Das
6
Indexes
Keyword Index
Acceptance ........................................................................................................................504
Action research ..................................................................................................................420
Adolescent sexual health....................................................................................................409
Awards ...............................................................................................................................162
Bookery, The ......................................................................................................................244
Boys ...................................................................................................................................394
Brazil ............................................................................................................ 57, 123, 324, 378
Brazilian children’s literature .................................................................................................57
Case study .........................................................................................................................244
Children’s literature ...................................................................................................... 57, 504
Children’s literature awards ................................................................................................232
Collection development .............................................................................................. 232, 357
Comic arts ..........................................................................................................................172
Constructivism ....................................................................................................................454
Curriculum ..........................................................................................................................488
Digital library ......................................................................................................................335
Digital textbooks .................................................................................................................292
Documentary space ...........................................................................................................103
eBooks ...............................................................................................................................357
Education ...........................................................................................................................172
EFL (English as a foreign language)...................................................................................488
eLearning ...........................................................................................................................335
English comprehension ........................................................................................................68
eReading ............................................................................................................................357
Ethics .................................................................................................................................112
Ethnicity .............................................................................................................................232
Evaluation ..........................................................................................................................454
Flexible library timetable .....................................................................................................299
Free voluntary reading........................................................................................................488
Guided inquiry ....................................................................................................................194
Guided inquiry design process ...........................................................................................194
Health information literacy ..................................................................................................409
Higher education ................................................................................................................488
Hong Kong .........................................................................................................................299
Image drawing method .......................................................................................................370
Immigrants .........................................................................................................................504
Information architecture ......................................................................................................172
Information literacy ..................................................................................................... 299, 473
Information practices ..........................................................................................................103
Information search process ................................................................................................194
Information skills.................................................................................................................299
Information technology .......................................................................................................299
Inquiry learning ...................................................................................................................123
International .......................................................................................................................162
International contexts .........................................................................................................112
Israel ..................................................................................................................................504
Knowledge format ..............................................................................................................312
7
Leadership ................................................................................................................. 259, 434
Learning commons .............................................................................................................454
Learning ecology ................................................................................................................357
Learning environment .........................................................................................................454
Librarian training.................................................................................................................370
Librarian’s education ..........................................................................................................123
Librarians' activities ............................................................................................................324
Libraries .............................................................................................................................162
Library management ..........................................................................................................335
Library of Congress ............................................................................................................162
Library staffing ....................................................................................................................244
Literacy ...................................................................................................................... 162, 394
Mediation.................................................................................................................... 103, 312
Metacognition ............................................................................................................. 194, 217
Motivation to transfer ..........................................................................................................473
Multicultural children’s literature .........................................................................................232
National Board certification .................................................................................................217
National Board certified teachers........................................................................................217
Parents’ involvement ..........................................................................................................394
Perception .................................................................................................................. 299, 370
Picture books .......................................................................................................................68
Primary school .....................................................................................................................68
Primary school teachers .....................................................................................................299
Profession ............................................................................................................................42
Professional development .................................................................................. 277, 292, 299
Professional efficacy ..........................................................................................................420
Professional guidelines.......................................................................................................137
Reading ................................................................................................................ 68, 394, 488
Research ..............................................................................................................................22
Researchers .......................................................................................................................112
Roles .......................................................................................................................... 137, 299
School librarians ................................................................................................. 137, 292, 324
School librarianship ...................................................................................................... 22, 378
School libraries .............................................................. 57, 312, 324, 357, 370, 394, 409, 454
School library programs......................................................................................................420
School library research .......................................................................................................378
Self-regulated learning .......................................................................................................217
Sexual health information ...................................................................................................409
Social representations ..........................................................................................................57
South Africa........................................................................................................................244
Story-telling ..........................................................................................................................68
Taiwan ....................................................................................................................... 277, 488
Teacher librarian preparation programs ..............................................................................434
Teacher librarians......................................................................... 42, 172, 217, 277, 299, 312
Teacher librarianship ............................................................................................ 42, 259, 434
Teacher training .................................................................................................................370
Teacher-librarian collaboration ...........................................................................................378
Technology integration ............................................................................................... 259, 434
Teenagers ..........................................................................................................................103
Transfer of learning ............................................................................................................473
Transfer of training .............................................................................................................473
Transliteracy.......................................................................................................................312
Virtual learning environment ...............................................................................................335
Visual literacy .....................................................................................................................172
8
Authors index
Asselin, Marlene .................................................................................................................112
Bales, Jenni........................................................................................................................356
Beesoon, Gooneshwaree .....................................................................................................22
Bogliolo Sirihal Duarte, Adriana ..........................................................................................123
Branch-Mueller, Jennifer L. ............................................................................................ 22, 42
Brand-Gruwel, Saskia ........................................................................................................473
Campello, Bernadete .................................................................................................. 123, 378
Chen, Chao-chen Joyce .....................................................................................................277
Cordier, Anne .....................................................................................................................103
Da Conceição Carvalho, Maria .............................................................................................57
De Groot, Joanne .................................................................................................................42
Doiron, Ray ........................................................................................................................112
Elkins, Aaron J. ..................................................................................................................136
Everhart, Nancy..................................................................................................................434
Farabough, Michelle ...........................................................................................................454
Farmer, Lesley S.J. .................................................................................................... 162, 172
FitzGerald, Lee ...................................................................................................................194
Garrison, Kasey L....................................................................................................... 216, 232
Gegenfurtner, Andreas .......................................................................................................473
Hart, Genevieve .................................................................................................................244
Hoyt, Rachel.......................................................................................................................454
Johnston, Melissa P. .................................................................................................. 259, 434
Kang, Ji Hei ........................................................................................................................292
Lee, Sy-ying .......................................................................................................................488
Lehmans, Anne ..................................................................................................................312
Leung Yuet Ha, Angel ........................................................................................................299
Luetkemeyer Wood, Jennifer ..............................................................................................136
Mardis, Marcia A. ...............................................................................................................136
Mazurier, Valentine ............................................................................................................312
Medina, Virgilio G. ..............................................................................................................335
Meire Campos, Tatiane ........................................................................................................57
Mitchel, Pru ........................................................................................................................356
O’Connell, Judy ..................................................................................................................356
Okada, Daisuke ..................................................................................................................370
Pereira, Gleice ...................................................................................................................378
Perriel, Yvonne ...................................................................................................................394
Richey, Jennifer..................................................................................................................409
Robins, Jennifer .................................................................................................................420
Rodrigues da Mata, Flávia Filomena ..................................................................................324
Rongyi, Chen .......................................................................................................................68
Santana da Silva, Alessandra...............................................................................................57
Schultz-Jones, Barbara ......................................................................................................454
Spruce, Robin S. ................................................................................................................216
Testers, Laurent .................................................................................................................473
Tseng, Li-jen ......................................................................................................................277
Vilela Paiva, Raquel Miranda..............................................................................................324
Wang, Fei-yu ......................................................................................................................488
Yitzhaki, Moshe ..................................................................................................................504
9
Research Papers Review Committee
Saskia Brand-Gruwel, Chair
Albert Boekhorst
Amber Walraven
Dianne Oberg
Eric Sieverts
Frank Huysmans
Jeroen Clemens
Jos van Helvoort
Judy O'Connell
Laurent Testers
Melissa Johnston
Nathalie Mertes
Vincent Liquête
Open University Netherlands
University of Amsterdam, University Pretoria
University of Nijmegen
Alberta University - Canada
Hogeschool van Amsterdam / University of
Amsterdam / University of Utrecht
SIOB / University of Amsterdam
Helen Parkhurst College
Hogeschool Den Haag
Courses Director, School of Information Studies,
Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University, Wagga
Wagga, Australia
NHTV, Breda, Netherlands
University of Alabama
Humboldt Universität, Berlin
Université Bordeaux - France
10
11
Celebrating 10 years organising overseas author visits
700 + International Schools and 65 + countries visited so far!
T: +44 (0) 1535 656015
M: + 44 (0) 7885 279519
www.authorsabroad.com
12
13
14
15
16
Meles Meles School Library Service
http://onderwijsbibliotheek.nl
17
18
19
20
De VOGIN cursus “Professioneel Informatie Zoeken”
Wordt twee keer per jaar gegeven in mei en november.
Deze vijfdaagse cursus richt zich op professionals:
 voor wie het zoeken van informatie een belangrijk deel van
het werk vormt
 die zicht willen krijgen op ons steeds complexere
informatielandschap
 die grondig én snel willen leren zoeken
 die anderen bij het zoeken (willen) instrueren, adviseren en
begeleiden
 die hun kennis over zoeken up-to-date willen houden
Zie: http://knvi.net/vogin-cursussen/
Plaats:
Prijs:
Aanmelden:
Bibliotheek Wageningen UR
KNVI-leden: € 1100; Overigen: € 1300
Dat kan bij Jos Smelik (jos.smelik@wur.nl)
21
School Library Research Rocks: an
examination of five years of school
library research
Gooneshwaree Beesoon
School of Library and Information Studies
University of Alberta
Edmonton,
Canada
gooneshw@ualberta.ca
Jennifer L. Branch-Mueller
Edmonton,
Canada
jbranch@ualberta.ca
Abstract
This research examined the state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship. Similar
trends from previous research were confirmed: research in school librarianship is
published in two major journals -- School Library (Media) Research and School
Libraries Worldwide. Almost 80% of the research was carried out in the United States.
There is a small core group of researchers working in the area of school librarianship.
About half of all research is by a single author. The main themes from the research
included collaboration between teachers and school librarian, technology integration,
the instructional role of school librarians, professional development, analysis of
materials, information literacy instruction, practices and assessment, hiring,
professional development and retention of school librarians, use of multimedia
resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health information, motivation of
students, and research in other parts of the world.
Frameworks (Aharony, 2011; Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley, 2005; Mardis, 2011)
were incomplete and the authors present a new framework for categorizing school
library research, in particular, but also LIS research, in general.
Keywords: School librarianship, Research
Introduction
The last update on the state–of–art research in school librarianship was carried out as a
project for the International Association for School Librarianship (IASL) conference in 2005,
and included a review of the literature in this area from the period extending from 2000-2005.
22
Review and analysis of research in school librarianship was close to the heart of the late L.
Anne Clyde, who played a pioneering role in providing regular updates on this topic. Her
program of research included examining the experiences of researchers in school
librarianship as well as the trends in school library research. After her untimely passing in the
Fall of 2005, no complete review of school library research published in scholarly journals in
English has been carried out (although Mardis (2011) did examine the research presented at
IASL conferences between 1998-2009 and Asselin (2011) examined IASL research
publications between 2002-2008). This paper continues the work of Clyde in order to identify
patterns and trends as well as quantity and quality of recent research in the area of school
librarianship.
According to Haycock (1995), “research in school librarianship provides the foundation and
direction for effective school library practice, and there is ample evidence of the impact of
school library media specialists and school library media centers on students’ learning, given
certain conditions and criteria” (para. 1).
Research Questions
This research is guided by one large research question: What is the current state-of-the-art
of research in school librarianship?
The specific questions investigated in this study are:
● How many research journal articles in school librarianship were published between
2009-2013?
● What was the percentage of research articles published in the two key journals School Libraries Worldwide and School Library Research?
● What were the most frequent methods of data gathering used for these research
papers?
● What geographical locations were most frequently used as settings for these
research papers/articles?
● Who were the key researchers in the area of school librarianship?
● What were the authorship patterns in these research papers/articles?
● What themes were explored in these research papers/articles?
Review of the Literature
As a profession interested in information and research, it is not surprising that there has been
a long tradition of examining research in the field of library and information studies (LIS).
Early work in this area included a study by Stroud (1982) who examined higher degree
theses in LIS, Järvelin and Vakkari (1993) who examined articles in LIS research journals
and Snelson and Talar (1991) who examined papers presented at LIS research-oriented
conferences (Clyde, 2001, p. 70).
Studies have also been carried out to examine what makes a quality journal article, what
journals produce the highest percentage of research articles, what is the content of articles
based on key-word content analysis, what methods are used in current LIS research, and the
percentage of research articles found in all LIS-related publications. Researchers interested
in quality research journal articles tend to look to the quality of the journal itself. Clyde (2004)
lists the following strategies for assessing the quality of the journal:
● citation analysis
● journal impact factor
23
●
●
●
●
●
number and percentage of collaborative articles
peer-review status
manuscript acceptance rate
indexing of the journal
number of external links to the journal website. (p. 1120)
Manzari (2013) examined LIS journal prestige by surveying full-time faculty in American
Library Association (ALA)- accredited programs. Clyde’s (2006, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001,
1996a, 1996b) previous work clearly demonstrates that most of the research in school
librarianship has been published in two major publications (1) School Libraries Worldwide
and (2) School Library Media Research now School Library Research. Clyde and Oberg
(2004) in their study of research in School Libraries Worldwide between 1995-2003 found
that about 30% of research articles were from the USA. Canada, Australia and the UK made
up another 18%. There were 12 other countries represented as well as 10 articles that were
international in scope. Clyde (2005) stated that “the field of school librarianship internationally
has only a small core group of active researchers” (p. 6). Clyde (2005) found that there were
a total 297 articles published between 1999-2003 and 43 authors published 3 or more
articles.
Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) presented six domains of librarianship to help
classify areas of research. These include:
Domain
Definition
Collections
Building a high-quality collection of print and electronic materials that
is useful, cost-effective and meets users’ needs
Education
- LIS Education
as a subset
Incorporating teaching methods and strategies to educate users about
library resources and how to improve research skills
- Specifically pertaining to the professional education of librarians
Information
Access and
Retrieval
Creating better systems and methods for information retrieval and
access.
Management
Managing people and resources within an organization. This includes
marketing and promotion as well as human resources.
Professional
Issues
Explore issues that affect librarianship as a profession
Reference/
Enquiries
Providing service and information access that meets the needs of
library users
Table 1: Librarianship domains from Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley (2004)
Aharony (2011) builds on the work of Zins (2007) to present ten categories with examples of
keywords to help classify research articles using content analysis.
Category
Examples
24
Category
Examples
Foundations
Historical note
Methodology
Chi square method, bibliometric analysis, qualitative study,
scientometric analysis, webometrics
Information/Learning
Society
The virtual scholar, web usage studies, information literacy,
information theory, scientific community
Information
Technology
Meta search engines, search logs,
information retrieval systems, intelligent ranking algorithm, mobile
information system
Data Organization
and Retrieval
Information seeking, searching, browsing, search strategies,
search terms
Information Industry
Economics and
Management
Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge,
explicit knowledge, digital libraries
Information Ethics
and Law
Ethics, legal information, open access publications, open source,
copyright
User Studies
Information needs, information need analysis, user behavior,
information behavior, user studies
Diffusion Studies
Information resources, public libraries, library users, information
dissemination, print publications
Social Information
Studies
Disabled people, adolescent well-being, cultural aspects, health
information ties, cancer information overload
Table 2: Keywords used to help classify research analysis using content analysis from Aharony (2011), p. 31.
Mardis (2011), in her examination of Research Forum Papers at International Association of
School Librarianship (see Table 3) conferences between 1998-2009, found that information
skills and literacy, information technology, reading and reading promotion, and education in
LIS made up over 50% of the research topics.
Paper Topic
Frequency
Percent
Information skills and literacy
56
28.1
Information technology
21
10.6
Reading and reading promotion
19
9.0
Education in LIS
16
8.0
The profession
14
7.0
Analysis of LIS
12
6.0
25
Paper Topic
Frequency
Percent
Other aspects of LIS
11
5.5
Information seeking
10
5.0
LIS activities
9
4.5
Methodology
9
4.5
Publishing
7
3.5
National survey
6
3.0
Censorship
4
2.0
Library history
2
1.0
Principal support
2
1.0
Total
199
100.0
Table 3: Research Forum Paper Topics, 1998-2009 (N=199) from Mardis (2011).
Asselin (2011) examined the extent and nature of internationalism in IASL publications from
2002-2008 that were published in School Libraries Worldwide and in the Research Forum of
IASL Conference Proceedings. She found that the United States contributed about 33% of
the research. Also “all studies of the international co-authored articles were conducted in
developed countries” (Asselin, 2011, Quantitative Results, para. 4). The research methods
included interviews, questionnaires, surveys, case studies and observations.
Research by Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) examined journal articles published
in 2001 and found that “of the 2664 articles reviewed, 30.3% were identified as research
articles” (p. 236). Turcios, Agarwal and Watkins (2014) examined Simmons College Library
journal collection and found that 57% (101 titles) are journals with academic/scholarly
content but only 16% of articles were identified as research (p. 475). Examining the 307
research articles, Turcios et al. found that the most frequent research methods were survey
(21%), other (20%), case study (13%), content analysis (13%), interviews (9%), experimental
research (8%), and bibliometrics (5%) (p. 477). Other methods included action research,
classroom research, observation, focus groups, and usability (Turcios et al., 2014, p. 477).
Using the framework initially proposed by Clyde (2001), this study gathered and examined
research journal articles in school librarianship published in English and within the time frame
of 2009-2013. This paper intends to provide an overview of the current research in school
librarianship and will also identify key researchers in the area of school librarianship between
2009-2013.
26
Method
Along with research articles published in School Libraries Worldwide and School Library
Research, the authors completed a detailed search of all databases that index school library
research. Clyde’s checklist (2001) was used to identify articles that are included in this study.
Articles were published in English, were more than two pages long and included of some
kind of statement that the work is based on research with the problem or phenomenon to be
investigated well defined. Moreover, these articles have a clear statement of purpose,
hypotheses to be tested or a well-defined focus of inquiry, with research methods thoroughly
described. A literature review or a background to the research, as well as a reference list or
bibliography accompanied the publications. Finally, we examined results and conclusions
that are drawn from these publications.
Each identified article was printed out and key information was gathered including author(s),
date of publication, journal, participants, method(s), location of the study (if available),
themes, and findings. A breakdown of the number of articles from each publication was
carried out, as well as a search to identify active researchers. We also examined patterns of
authorship, and research methods used. The papers were read and themes and findings
summarized. Using content analysis, the authors also categorized the themes found in the
research articles.
Findings
This research seeks to understand the current state-of-the-art of research in school
librarianship by examining research journal articles in school librarianship published in
English and within the time frame of 2009-2013. The findings are organized by specific
questions investigated in this study.
How many research journal articles in school librarianship were published between
2009-2013?
In all, 98 papers that had a clear literature review, a research methodology, clear research
questions as well as findings and a discussion section were examined from the two major
journals and a number of other publications. A total of 45 articles were identified in School
Libraries Worldwide, 48 were found in School Library (Media) Research and five articles
were obtained from other journals published over the same time period.
What was the percentage of research articles published in the two key journals School Libraries Worldwide and School Library Research?
School Libraries Worldwide
Issue
Themes Covered by the specific issue
# of
Research
Articles
# of
other
Article
s
Total
Jan
2009
15(1)
Research into Practice
3
1
4
July
2009
Relationships
5
1
6
27
Issue
Themes Covered by the specific issue
# of
Research
Articles
# of
other
Article
s
Total
Jan
2010
16(1)
Inquiry based learning for 21st century
2
4
6
July
2010
16(2)
Issues for the next Decade
5
1
6
Jan
2011
17(1)
School library as Space
School library as Place
3
1
4
July
2011
17(2)
School librarian Leadership Around the
world
5
6
11
Jan
2012
18(1)
Connections: school librarians linking
learning, leadership, technology and
society
5
5
10
July
2012
18(2)
International perspectives on school
library education: From face to face to
distance
5
6
11
Jan
2013
19(1)
Outliers : School Librarianship Enables
Success in All Environments
8
2
10
July
2012
19(2)
Story: International common ground in
school librarianship (Story as
Methodology)
4
6
10
45
(57.7%)
33
(42.3%)
78
(100%)
15(2)
Total
Table 4: Breakdown and percentage of research articles published in School Libraries Worldwide
School Library (Media) Research
Volume
Year
# of Research Articles
# of Other Articles
Total
12
2009
8
0
8
13
2010
7
0
7
14
2011
11
1
12
15
2012
13
0
13
28
16
2013
Total
8
0
8
48 (97.9%)
1 (2.1%)
49(100%)
Table 5: Breakdown and percentage of research articles published in School Library (Media) Research
As it can be seen in tables 4 and 5, the percentage of research articles was very high (97.9
%) in School Library (Media) Research journal. On the other hand, research papers
represented only 57.7 % of all the papers published in School Libraries Worldwide.
What are the most frequent methods of data gathering used for research?
The most popular choice for data gathering in the research articles was the
questionnaire/survey method. A number of researchers used survey monkey and other
online methods while many created their own instruments. Interviews and content analysis
were very popular choices as well, followed by participant observation and focus groups.
The following table provides a breakdown of the diverse methods used for doing research. It
should be noted that in many cases researchers adopted more than one method to gather
data, thus combining several methods to triangulate their data.
Type of Data Gathering Method
Frequency
Questionnaire/survey
41
Interviews
35
Content Analysis
22
Participant Observation
17
Focus Group
12
Case study
9
Statistical analysis
6
Ethnographic study
4
Special instruments (metrics to measure)
3
Study of Artefacts
2
Social network Analysis
1
Discourse Analysis
1
Action Research
1
Table 5: Most frequent methods of data gathering for research
What geographical locations were most frequently used as settings for these research
papers/articles?
29
Country
Frequency
USA
77
Canada
5
Australia
4
UK
2
Hong Kong
2
Brazil
2
Nepal, Honduras, Ireland, Israel,
Jamaica, Kuwait, Philippines, Nigeria,
Slovenia, Lebanon (one each)
8
Table 6: Geographical locations of research ( Note that the USA was also involved in a paper with several other countries)
Research in school librarianship during the period of 2009-2013 was predominantly carried
out in the United States of America (77.8%). Canada and Australia were also represented.
Who are the key researchers in the area of school librarianship?
This review identified only 8 authors who had 3 or more articles published between 20092013. The most prolific researchers as revealed by this review were Sue Kimmel, Ruth
Small, Renée Hill, Marilyn Arnone, Rebecca Reynolds, Jami Jones, Melissa Johnston and
Ann Ewbank-Dutton.
Number of published Articles/Papers
Frequency
4 articles/ papers
2
3 articles/ papers
6
2 articles/papers
15
Table 7: Patterns of Authorship, 2009-2013
30
What were the authorship patterns in these research papers/articles?
# of authors per article /Paper
Frequency
Percentage
Articles/papers with one author
45
45.9
Articles/papers with two authors
30
30.6
Articles/papers with three authors
21
21.4
Articles/papers with more than three authors
2
2.1
Total
98
100%
Table 8: Authorship patterns, 2009-2013
Almost 46% of the research papers published had a single author while 54% indicated some
amount of collaboration with two or more authors working on a particular research project
What were the main themes in the research papers/articles?
Collaboration
The most recurring theme in the reviewed papers was collaboration between teachers and
school librarians. There was one case study documenting the collaboration process in the
design of professional workshops for a group of elementary school teachers and librarians,
authors also examined perceived barriers to collaboration as well as the promotion of
collaboration at an international level. Leadership skills in librarians were found to be
predictors of advanced teacher and school librarian collaboration. Papers revealed that
teachers (mostly science teachers) often had no clear understanding of the instructional role
of the school librarian. Some positive aspects of collaboration occurred serendipitously, for
example while helping students understand the importance of avoiding plagiarism.
Technology integration
The technological aspect of school librarianship was approached from two perspectives. First
of all, papers covered librarian’s perception of their own competence at technology
integration and leadership especially with regards to emerging technologies. Concerns were
expressed about the inclusion of classes in technology for preservice school librarians in
MLIS or MEd coursework. There was a general perception that school librarians were not
keeping up with advances being made in technology. Issues in the integration of Web 2.0
technologies were addressed, as well as disparities in the availability of advanced
technological tools and services in schools. The second perspective was to examine how
librarians were able to help students to use information technologies (for example,
databases) that were available in school libraries. One paper also covered the use of
assistive technologies to help children with autism.
Instructional role of librarians
Five papers focused on the importance of, as well as the influence of, a school librarian's
work on student achievement. Six more papers examined aspects of the instructional role of
the school librarian. School librarians seemed to be involved in teaching not only information
and digital literacy, but also scientific literature review. Some were involved in teaching
concept mapping skills along with evaluation of online materials. The assessment of school
31
children’s level of information literacy seems to be one of the responsibilities of school
librarians. Moreover, they are also involved in developing instruments to measure perceived
competence of students. One study examined the role of the school librarian in influencing
students’ use of technology while another surveyed school librarians’ impact on achievement
and motivation of their students.
Professional development
Papers explored the professional dispositions of school librarians along with the impact of
web 2.0 technologies on the professional lives of teachers. Findings also indicated that
professional development opportunities did not match with needs in the area and that there
was a need for advocacy for the profession. The role of professional libraries in providing
culturally relevant professional development to school librarians was also discussed.
Analysis of materials
One of the surveyed research articles examined the portrayal of people of color and people
with disabilities in books and graphic novels. Another article explored the issues LGBTthemed books in school libraries. One paper carried out an analysis of eBooks being offered
by the library to check if these held sufficient numbers of e-books in Spanish, to cater for the
increasing number of learners in the United States of America who speak this language.
Finally, an analysis of the poetry collection in the school library was carried out by another of
the research papers.
Information literacy of students
Research papers focused on students’ perception of their own literacy skills and how often
they were ethical users of information. One paper examined the ethical use of information.
Findings revealed that high school students were more ethical users of information than
elementary school students.
Librarian’s perception of best practices to improve and assess learning and information
literacy
Five research papers focused on the influence of librarians on student learning and
achievement. There were a number of papers documenting the kind of support that school
librarians provided to children with disabilities as well as the guided enquiry activities
designed for gifted students or for children with disabilities. Librarians were also involved in a
number of activities that would raise the test scores of students through reading exposure.
They developed instruments to measure perceived competence of students, documented the
availability and use of databases by students and carried out a comparison of school
achievement between libraries with similar funding. The school culture and its effect on the
establishment of an effective school library program was also examined by researchers.
Hiring and Retention of School Librarians
A number of research papers raised concerns about sensitive issues such as the retention of
librarians, staffing levels and the effect of library staff reduction on student achievement.
Other papers focused on the criteria used for the selection of school librarians and
competencies that principals looked for when hiring. One paper specifically dealt with the
ways in which school superintendents use the research and information experience of school
librarians to solve problems while another one documented problem of schools without
32
libraries and librarians in rural areas of the United States of America. Lastly, researchers
examined the school culture’s effect on the establishment of the school library program.
LIS programs and factors that influence educators to become librarians
Papers documented how taking Web 2.0 influenced LIS students in becoming technology
leaders as they reported that it changed them personally and professionally. One paper
specifically examined the extent to which LIS course prepared students to become culturally
competent to serve the needs of culturally diverse youth in library settings while an
investigation into the use of ePortfolios indicated that they demonstrated high quality
presentations from students and confidence in the ability to master new tools. Pre-service
librarians also demonstrated eagerness to implement American Association of School
Libraries (AASL) standards for the 21st century learner as well as using Evidence Based
Library and Information Practice (EBLIP) to improve their practice.
Use of multimedia resources
A number of research papers focused on the use of audio-visual materials in teachingas well
as using video games as learning resources. Research even involved digital image tagging
by students and one paper examined a school librarian’s perception of limits imposed on
social media in school context.
Role of librarians in the provision of health information
There was a focus on the important role that librarians can play in disseminating health
information, however research indication that school librarians did not want to become
gatekeepers of health information. On another note, school librarians had issues with
providing sexual health information and research indicated that Principals and district
superintendents had conflicting expectations about the role of the school librarian in this
area.
Motivation of students
Research papers delved into the intrinsic motivation for information seeking and learning in
students and factors that foster it. It was found that students’ Intrinsic motivation was
influenced by their perceived competence of their school librarian’s abilities in technology.
One study revealed that libraries’ impact on student achievement and motivation is high
while staff regard the school library to have a positive impact on students’ motivation
Research in other parts of the world
A few papers addressed issues related to school librarianship in geographical areas that
were not typically North American. One paper documented problems in the delivery of LIS
program in Jamaica and recommended an overhaul to allow flexibility to take it over summer
and/or online and include more of the teaching aspect in the course. Other studies focused
on the evaluation of information literacy programs in Lebanon, the use of the library for
reading purposes in Nigeria,. and an appraisal of community-based learning in the
Philippines. One paper highlighted enrichment programs for gifted students in Slovenia,
another examined the cultivation of leadership skills in school librarians in Israel and a third
was a comparison of school library services in private and public schools in Kuwait. The
researchers also located and examined a case study exploring the impact of the school
library on pupils’ personal development in Ireland. Finally, one paper highlighted case studies
33
from Honduras, Brazil and Nepal along with the USA to document the roles of professional
organizations in school library education.
Discussion
This research examined the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship by
examining research journal articles in school librarianship published in English and within the
time frame of 2009-2013. In all, 98 papers were examined -- 45 articles from School
Libraries Worldwide, 48 articles from School Library (Media) Research and five articles were
obtained from other journals. 97.9 % of the articles in School Library (Media) Research and
57.7 % of the articles in School Libraries Worldwide.
The most popular choice for data gathering in the research articles was the
questionnaire/survey method. Interviews and content analysis were very popular choices as
well, followed by participant observation and focus groups. Asselin (2011) found only two of
153 research articles using focus groups as a method but in our work the method seems
more popular with 12 out of 98. Almost 46% of the research papers published had a single
author while 54% indicated some amount of collaboration with two or more authors working
on a particular research project. Research in school librarianship during the period of 20092013 was predominantly carried out in the United States of America (77.8%). Asselin (2011)
found that about 33% of research was carried out in the US while Clyde and Oberg (2004)
noted 30%.
This may be the result of the fact that many of the articles in School Library (Media)
Research are by US researchers. There is a more diverse population attending and
presenting at the IASL conferences and publishing in IASL publications like School Libraries
Worldwide. The most prolific researchers as revealed by this review were Sue Kimmel, Ruth
Small, Renée Hill, Marilyn Arnone, Rebecca Reynolds, Jami Jones, Melissa Johnston and
Ann Ewbank-Dutton. This review identified only 8 authors who had 3 or more articles
published -- a far cry from the 57 documented for the 1995-1999 review (Clyde, 2001, p. 71)
and 43 authors for the 1999-2003 (Clyde, 2005, p. 6). The trend may indicate that
researchers are publishing fewer research papers in the area of school librarianship or that
they are also presenting their research at conferences and publishing in peer-reviewed
conference proceedings. This may also be an indication that there are fewer school library
researchers working now as compared to 20 years ago. Further research will be required to
examine researchers in school librarianship and to compare findings to the work of Clyde
(2005). Further research to examine articles/papers in published conference proceeding will
also be required.
The main themes from the research included collaboration between teachers and school
librarian, technology integration, the instructional role of school librarians, professional
development, analysis of materials, information literacy instruction, practices and
assessment, hiring, professional development and retention of school librarians, use of
multimedia resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health information,
motivation of students and research in other parts of the world.
While Mardis (2011) found that information skills and literacy, information technology,
reading and reading promotion, and education in LIS made up over 50% of the research
34
topics between 1998-2009, in the present review, these combined categories made up only
36.7% of the total number of research papers published.
Paper Topic
Frequency
Percent
Information skills and literacy
17
17.3
Information technology
4
4.08
Reading and reading promotion
1
1.02
Education in LIS
14
14.3
The profession
39
39.7
Analysis of LIS
-
-
Other aspects of LIS
-
-
Information seeking
4
4.08
LIS activities
3
3.06
Methodology
8
8.16
Publishing
2
2.04
National survey
2
2.04
Censorship
2
2.04
Library history
1
1.02
Principal support
1
1.02
Total
98
100%
Table 9: Breakdown of themes based on Mardis’ (2011) Framework
There was a large group of articles focused on the role of the school librarian, issues related
to school library programs and issues related to standards and student achievement. The
researchers believe that Mardis’ (2011) framework provided a useful starting point but needs
to be further refined to include these categories.
Category
Examples
Foundations
Historical note
-
Methodology
Chi square method, bibliometric analysis,
qualitative study, scientometric analysis,
webometrics
5
5.1
Information/Learning
Society
The virtual scholar, web usage studies,
information literacy, information theory,
17
17.34
35
Category
Examples
scientific community
Information
Technology
Meta search engines, search logs,
information retrieval systems, intelligent
ranking algorithm, mobile information
system
1
1.02
Data Organization
and Retrieval
Information seeking, searching, browsing,
search strategies, search terms
2
2.04
Information Industry
Economics and
Management
Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, digital
libraries
-
Information Ethics
and Law
Ethics, legal information, open access
publications, open source, copyright
-
-
User Studies
Information needs, information need
analysis, user behaviour, information
behaviour, user studies
10
10.2
Diffusion Studies
Information resources, public libraries,
library users, information dissemination,
print publications
11
11.2
Social Information
Studies
Disabled people, adolescent well-being,
cultural aspects, health information ties,
cancer information overload
2
2.04
Role of the School Librarian, Advocacy,
Hiring, Retention and Professional
Development, Dispositions, Principal
Support, Leadership
50
51.02
Suggested New
Category
Professional Issues
Table 10: Breakdown of themes based on Aharony’s ’ framework
When comparing the findings from this study with Aharony’s (2011) (see Table 10), we
noticed a complete lack of research articles in the areas of Information Industry, Economics
and Management, Foundations, and Information Ethics and Law. This is, perhaps, not
surprising given the work of school librarians in K-12 settings. What was missing for the
authors was a category for professional issues. This seems not to just be a need for school
library research but for all LIS research. This category is very useful in the Koufogiannakis,
Slater and Crumley (2004) framework (see Table 11). What is missing for the authors in
Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) are categories for methodology and user studies
found in Aharony (2011).
36
Domain
Definition
Collections
Building a high-quality collection of print and
12
electronic materials that is useful, cost-effective
and meets users’ needs
12.24
Education
- LIS Education
as a subset
Incorporating teaching methods and strategies
to educate users about library resources and
how to improve research skills
- Specifically pertaining to the professional
education of librarians
31
31.63
Information
Access and
Retrieval
Creating better systems and methods for
information retrieval and access.
2
2.04
Management
Managing people and resources within an
organization. This includes marketing and
promotion as well as human resources.
-
-
Professional
Issues
Explore issues that affect librarianship as a
profession
39
39.8
Reference/
Enquiries
Providing service and information access that
meets the needs of library users
4
4.1
User studies
See Table 10
5
5.1
Methodology
See Table 10
5
5.1
Suggested new
categories
Table 11: Breakdown of themes based on Koufogiannakis,Slater & Crumley’s’ framework
The frameworks by Aharony (2011), Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley (2005) and Mardis
(2011) were insufficient to organize the research into clear categories. The researchers
present a modified framework to be tested with future research reviews.
Implications and Conclusions
This research examined the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship.
Similar trends from previous research were confirmed: research in school librarianship is
published in two major journals -- School Library (Media) Research and School Libraries
Worldwide. Almost 80% of the research was carried out in the United States. There are a
small core group of researchers working in the area of school librarianship. About half of all
research is by a single author. The main themes from the research included collaboration
between teachers and school librarian, technology integration, the instructional role of school
librarians, professional development, analysis of materials, information literacy instruction,
practices and assessment, hiring, professional development and retention of school
librarians, use of multimedia resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health
information, motivation of students, and research in other parts of the world.
37
Using frameworks (Aharony, 2011; Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley, 2005; Mardis, 2011)
identified in the literature to categorize the themes of the research articles examined was
problematic for the researchers. Each of the frameworks was incomplete and so the authors
present the following framework as a tool for categorizing school library research, in
particular, but also LIS research, in general.
Framework for LIS Research Classification
(based on the work of Mardis (2011), Aharony (2011), and Koufogiannakis, Slater and
Crumley (2004)
Category
Examples
Foundations
Historical issues in librarianship, core values
Methodology
Surveys, questionnaires, Focus groups, Participant Observation,
Case Studies, Ethnographic Studies, Social network Analysis,
Discourse Analysis, Action research, Chi square method,
bibliometric analysis, scientometric analysis, webometrics
Information
Information Skills, Information Literacy, best practices in IL,
Literacy Instruction assessment of IL instruction
and Assessment
Information
Technology
Applications and
Issues
Gaming, Technology Integration, Social Media, Database Use,
Assistive Technologies, Meta search engines, search logs,
information retrieval systems, Mobile Devices, BYOD (Bring Your
Own Device) Issues
Data Organization
and Retrieval
Information seeking, searching, browsing, search strategies,
search terms, systems, better methods for information retrieval.
Collection
Management and
Publishing Issues
Collection evaluation, Selection of resources, evaluation of
resources, inclusive collections (for example, LGBTQ), address
diversity of community (multicultural, representations of families,
people with disabilities), ebooks, weeding, cataloguing, social
tagging, censorship and Internet filtering
Reading and
Reading
Promotion
Summer reading programs, book talks, books clubs, reading
programs, assessing reading abilities, librarian or library’s role in
developing love of reading
Information Policy,
Ethics and Law
Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge,
explicit knowledge, digital libraries, ethics, legal information, open
access publications, open source, copyright
Management
Issues
Leadership, management, budgeting, advocating for the library,
staff development and training, issues with administrators, library
boards, principals
User Studies
Information needs, information need analysis, user behaviour,
information behaviour, user studies
Scientific and
Dissemination of research, impact of research, librarian publishing
38
Category
Examples
Professional
Communication
patterns, LIS research trends
Social Information
Studies
Services to: People with disabilities, adolescents, children,
researchers, scholars, parents,cultural aspects, health
information, information overload
Programs and Services for specialized groups
Professional
Issues
Role of the Librarian, Advocacy, Hiring, Retention and Professional
Development, Dispositions, Support, Leadership
Education in LIS
MLIS Education, Professional Development, educational program
evaluation, delivery models (online/blended, full/part-time),
competencies, practicum experiences, accreditation,
Table 12: Beesoon and Branch-Mueller Framework for LIS Research Classification
With the untimely passing of L. Anne Clyde in 2005, the database of research and
researchers that she so carefully maintained was lost. The authors strongly believe that this
work should continue and are committed to building a new database with this information.
Mardis (2011) has already pledged her support and provided the authors with data from her
study. This database will be available for other researchers and will be passed on to future
school library researchers. A copy will be maintained with the IASL Executive Director.
Further research is needed to understand the experiences of school library researchers from
2005 and the second author plans to carry out that work next year.
References
Aharony, N. (2011). Library and information science research areas: A content analysis of
articles from the top 10 journals 2007-8. Journal of Librarianship and Information,
44(1), 27-35.
Asselin, M. (2011). Internationalism as leadership in IASL research: Accomplishments and
directions.School libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 13-24.
Clyde, L. A. (2006). The basis for evidence-based practice: Evaluating the research
evidence. New Library World, 107(5/6), 180-192. doi:
10.1108/03074800610665194
Clyde, L. A. (2005). Supporting information leadership in a culture of change: Researchers in
school librarianship. In S. Lee, P. Warning, D. Singh, E. Howe, L. Farmer & S.
Hughes (Eds.). Information Leadership in a Culture of Change: Selected papers
from the 34th Annual Conference of the International Association of School
Librarianship and the 9th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship.
July 8-12, Hong Kong, China. Erie, PA: IASL.
39
Clyde, L. A. (2004). Evaluating the quality of research publications: A pilot study of school
librarianship. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 55(13), 1119-1130. doi: 10.1002/asi.20066
Clyde, L. A. (2003). Research in school librarianship 1991-2000: Australia in an international
setting. The Australian Library Journal, 53(2). Retrieved from
http://alia.org.au/publishing/alj/53.2/full.text/clyde.html
Clyde, L. A. (2002). Developing the knowledge base of the profession: Research in school
librarianship. In D. Singh, A. Abdullah, S. Fonseka & B. de Rozarion (Eds.), School
libraries for a knowledge society: Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of
the International Association of School Librarianship and the Sixth International
Forum on Research in School Librarianship, Petaling, Jaya, Malaysia, 5-9 August
(pp. 59-75). Seattle, WA: International Association of School Librarianship.
Clyde, L.A. (2001). Behind the inspiring connections: Research and researchers in school
librarianship. A progress report. In Hughes, P. and Selby, L. (Eds). Inspiring
Connections: Learning, libraries and literacy, Proceedings of the fifth International
Forum on Research in School Librarianship... Auckland, New Zealand, 9-12 July
2001 (pp.65-77). Seattle, WA: International Association of School Librarianship.
Clyde, L.A. (1996a). Research articles related to school librarianship, 1990-1995.
http://www.iasl-slo.org/resbook.html
Clyde, L.A. (Ed.) (1996b). Sustaining the vision: A collection of articles and papers on
research in school librarianship. Castle Rock, CO: Hi Willow for the International
Association of School Librarianship.
Clyde, L. A., & Oberg, D. (2004). LIS journals as a source of evidence for evidence-based
practice: The case of School Libraries Worldwide. Paper presented at the World
Library and Information Congress: 70th IFLA General Conference and Council, 2227 August, Buenos Aires, Argentina. http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/papers/051eClyde_Oberg.pdf
Haycock, K. (1995). Research in teacher-librarianship and the institutionalization of change.
School Library Media Quarterly, 23(4), 1-14.
Koufogiannakis, D., Slater, L., & Crumley, E. (2004). A content analysis of librarianship
research. Journal of Information Science, 30(3), 227-239.
Manzari, L. (2013). Library and information science journal prestige as assessed by library
and information science faculty. Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy,
83(1), 42-60.
Mardis, M. A. (2011). Evidence or evidence based practice? An analysis of IASL Research
Forum papers 1998-2009. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 6(1),
1-23.
40
Turcios, M. E., Agarwal, N. K., & Watkins, L. (2014). How much of library and information
science literature qualifies as research? The Journal of Academic Librarianship,
40, 473-479.
Zins, C. (2007). Conceptions of information science. Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology, 58(3), 335-350.
41
New Teacher-Librarians Rock:
Checking in and Looking back on the
first years of being a Teacher-Librarian
Jennifer L. Branch-Mueller
Edmonton,
Canada
jbranch@ualberta.ca
Joanne de Groot, PhD
Department of Elementary Education
551 Education Centre South
Faculty of Education
11210 - 87 Ave
Edmonton, AB T6G 2G5
degroot@ualberta.ca
Abstract
This study contributes to our understanding of the early experiences of teacherlibrarians and brings in the framework of possible and provisional selves as a lens to
examine teacher-librarian identity. Several themes emerged to help us better
understand how new teacher-librarians experience the first three years as teacherlibrarians. Participants told us their strongest memories included professional
development, advocacy, professional change, making the library a safe space focused
on learning, supporting staff and students in taking risks, and collection development.
Barriers and challenges included technology, library time and budget cuts, making
changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. We saw these
teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating safe learning
spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and meeting
the needs of their school community. They consider the importance of balance, letting
things go, focusing on those teachers who want to learn with them, and working with
administrators to make things happen. Valuable previous experiences included
classroom teaching experience, dispositions, understanding the school context and
connecting with administrators. Participants offered several key pieces of advice:
promote, advocate, connect, organize, read, build relationships, and know your
administration.
Keywords: Teacher-librarians, Teacher-librarianship, Profession
42
Introduction
What do we know about how teachers move from feeling like a novice to acting like an
expert? When do teachers begin to say “ I am ready to quiet the inner dialogue that
convinces me others are the professionals who know more than I do in order to embrace the
professional I have become” (Toppel, 2010, p. 65)? What are the dispositions that define an
exemplary teacher-librarian (Jones & Bush, 2009; Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012)? What is
the professional life cycle of a teacher who becomes a teacher-librarian (Al-Ahdal, 2014)?
While this paper does not attempt to answer all of these questions, these questions do guide
and challenge the researchers in their thinking about pre-service and in-service teacherlibrarianship education.
In hopes of better understanding the transition from teacher to teacher-librarian, from novice
to expert, this study presents findings from the final year of a three-year study following five
teachers as they transition to the role of teacher-librarian. As instructors in the TeacherLibrarianship by Distance Learning program at the University of Alberta in Edmonton,
Canada, we are interested in how current students and recent graduates experience the
early years of becoming a teacher-librarian. We also believe that other new teacherlibrarians, teacher-librarianship educational programs and researchers will be interested in
this study.
Research Questions
There are four overarching research questions for this longitudinal study are:
1. How do classroom teachers experience the transition into the role of a teacherlibrarian?
2. What are the experiences, successes, opportunities, barriers and challenges in the
first years of becoming a teacher-librarian?
3. What training or other preparatory experiences do new teacher-librarians need as
they transition in their new roles? Which previous experiences (formal and informal)
were the most important, least important, missing altogether?
4. What role, if any, does their personal learning network (PLN) play in new teacherlibrarians’ professional experiences?
More specifically, the following questions inform this paper:
1. What are the strongest memories from your three years as a teacher-librarian? What
have been your greatest successes, opportunities, challenges and barriers?
2. What previous experiences (formal and informal) have been most valuable in your
first three years as a teacher-librarian?
3. What advice would you give new teacher-librarians based on your experiences as
new TLs?
4. If you could wave a magic wand, what would you change about your first year as a
teacher-librarian?
5. What do you know now about being a teacher-librarian?
6. Where do you go from here in your work as a teacher-librarian?
43
Conceptual Framework
This paper explores the concept of possible selves in the transition from teacher to teacherlibrarian (Markus & Nurius, 1986). “Possible selves derive from representations of the self in
the past and they include representations of the self in the future” (Markus & Nurius, p. 954).
These selves are individual and personal while also being social. This concept is interesting
as we look at the crafting of the professional identity of teacher-librarians. Ibarra (1999)
introduced the idea of “provisional selves” and suggested that a person transitioning into a
new role follows an iterative process of observing role models, experimenting with provisional
selves and evaluating provisional selves (p. 787). Ibarra’s research examined a business
culture, the transition of people within the organization to a new role within that same
organization, in much the same way that teachers transition to the role of a teacher-librarian.
Literature Review
When examining the first year of becoming a teacher-librarian in the Canadian context,
Branch-Mueller and de Groot (2014) found that new teacher-librarians attempted to make
themselves indispensable by building on their own personal strengths. These strengths
includes technology, curriculum, inquiry and literacy leadership. The participants became
champions of their collections - fiction, popular non-fiction, online databases and web
resources. It was clear that for these new teacher-librarians developing relationships with
school administration, teachers and teacher-librarian colleagues was essential.
To prepare teachers to become teacher-librarians we have Canadian -- Leading Learning
(Canadian Library Association (CLA), 2014) and Achieving Information Literacy (Asselin,
Branch & Oberg, 2003) -- and American -- Standards for Initial Preparation of School
Librarians (American Association of School Librarians (AASL), 2010) standards, as well as
the work of other library organizations around the world. In Canada as a whole, a very small
number of teacher--librarians will have an MLIS degree or a Master of Education degree in
Teacher--Librarianship. In a recent survey of teacher--librarians in Canada (Branch & de
Groot, 2011), only 10 of 178 respondents had an MLIS degree and only 10 more had a
Master of Education degree. In western Canada, many more teacher--librarians have a postgraduate diploma. We also have “teachers in the library” - those who are assigned to the
school library for a part of the school day but with little or no further education in teacherlibrarianship. As a result, in Canada, we have a very diverse group of teachers in the role of
teacher-librarian.
AASL’s (n.d.) Standards for the 21st Century Learner includes dispositions as learning
outcomes along with skills, responsibilities and self-assessment strategies for students in
Kindergarten through Grade 12. The work of Jones & Bush (2009) begins a discussion of
the most necessary professional dispositions of school librarians (teacher-librarians) and
uses the definition of Katz (1993) to define a disposition as “a tendency to exhibit frequently,
consciously, and voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is directed to a broad goal” (para. 3).
Jones and Bush (2009) suggest that the foundational dispositions for teachers-librarians
would include “caring equally about each student, believing that each student can learn, and
understanding the equitable access to resources that translates to fairness for all students (p.
12). Kimmel, Dickinson and Doll (2012) continued this examination of dispositions by
conducting research with three focus groups of seventy-one practicing school librarians.
They found through their analysis a Dispositional Continua as seen below:
44
From Expertise to Advocacy
From Library-based to Community-based
From Affable to Open
From Cooperative to Collaborative
From Ethical to Modeling Ethics
From Love of Learning to Professional Growth
From Facilitative to Flexible. (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Findings, para. 1)
The authors believe, “in the context of school library education, we see the need for faculty to
model dispositions and also for faculty to create experiences that challenge and scaffold
students as they practice behaviors that are evidence of dispositions and to reflect on those
behaviors” (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 2). As teachers are
becoming teacher-librarians, they in the process of moving along each of the continuum.
“This offers a way for students [and for new teacher-librarians] to think about themselves in a
process of change and these professional dispositions as emerging and incomplete”
(Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 2). These continua provide for a
professional growth framework where it is “not a matter of having or not having a particular
disposition but of degree and process” (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para.
4). Lynn (2002) presents the notion of a career cycle for teachers. This career cycle moves
from Preservice, Induction, Competency Building, Enthusiasm and Growth, Career
Frustration, Career Stability, Career Wind-down and Career Exit (Lynn, 2002, p. 180). Lynn
(2002) describes the Enthusiasm and Growth phase when “teachers have reached a high
level of competence in their jobs but continue to progress as professionals” (p. 181). Lynn
(2002) describes a teacher in this phase:
Hollie, a secondary physical education teacher, can be identifies as being in an
enthusiastic and growing phase of her career cycle. She is a master teacher who is
competent and self-confident; she is also active in her state physical education
organization, attends the yearly conference, and serves on numerous committees.
Her students describe her as enthusiastic and as someone who appears to love her
job. Within the school district Hollie lends a helping hand to other teachers and
organizes workshops for the districts’ secondary physical education teachers.
Enthusiastic and growing teachers like Hollie not only experience high levels of job
satisfaction, but also tend to have a positive impact on the climate of the school
community. (p. 181)
For her, the variables that “affect the career cycle are family support structures, positive
critical incidents, life crises, individual dispositions, and avocational outlets” (Lynn, 2002, p.
179).
There is much research about teacher identity and pre-service preparation to help inform the
experiences of new teacher-librarians (for example, Battey & Franke, 2008; Florio-Ruane &
Williams, 2008; Horn, Nolan, Ward & Campbell; Olsen, 2008; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2007).
Thomas and Beauchamp highlight that the success and well-being in a new profession is
dependent on a strong sense of professional identity. Horn et al. tell us that “teaching
identities are an ongoing project and this identity construction is a productive place to
connect to novice teachers’ own learning goals” (p. 70). Battey and Frank remind us that “we
do not develop our identities in isolation” (p. 128) and that “local communities limit the variety
45
of practices that teachers have access to” (p. 129). Forio-Ruane and Williams (2008)
encourage us to examine “the stories of our own paths and the stories of the paths taken by
others...as a significant part of the development of one’s identity not only as a teacher - but
as a member of the larger teaching profession” (p. 8). Enyedy, Goldberg and Welsh (2005)
remind us that teachers may struggle with “multiple conflicting beliefs, goals and knowledge”
(p. 91). Olsen encourages the inclusion of learning and teaching autobiographies,
conversations about contradictions and paying formal attention to personal and emotional
effects of identity transitions (p. 38).
Dotson and Jones (2011) reported three major trends about leadership development in their
survey research of 149 recent school librarian graduates (“graduates of a southeastern US
university over a five year period)” (Method, para. 2). The first trend reported by the
researchers was that although school librarians reported a wide variety of activities in their
school community, the school librarians continued “to be very traditional in their approach to
teaching and learning” (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Findings, para. 1). A second trend found that
“less than 30% of participants indicated that they served on Media and Technology Advisory
Boards or committees” and findings showed school librarians “to be somewhat static in their
approach to the role of technology leader, a role for which ideally they should be prepared to
fill” (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Findings, para. 2-3). The third trend reported by Dotson and
Jones indicated:
Approximately 70% reported serving on a Leadership Team or School Improvement
Team. These encouraging figures, looking specifically at librarians serving on teams
or in groups, purposely directing the programs and administration of their schools,
highlight the presence of the librarian in leadership of the school community and
further indicate the significance of preparation of school librarians for leadership upon
graduation and entrance into the field. (Findings, para. 5)
Research on the unique professional learning needs of teacher-librarians indicates that
“interaction with other school library professionals is not a regular occurrence” (Mardis &
Hoffman, 2007, Online focus groups as a motivator for decreasing educator isolation section,
para. 2). Providing opportunities for teacher-librarians to reflect and connect resulted in both
“a sense of shared circumstances (I am not the only one like this) and the opportunity to
learn of successful strategies for school librar[ies] that had immediate relevance (I want to try
that out here)” (Mardis & Hoffman, 2007, Online focus groups as a motivator for decreasing
educator isolation section, para. 2). This study allows new teacher-librarians to reflect on
their experiences, make connections between previous formal and information learning and
their new role, and think about their new identities.
Methodology
This research project followed five new teacher-librarians for three years. The five teacherlibrarians included in this research are working in a variety of school settings, including
elementary, junior high school, and high school libraries. They have all been classroom
teachers in the past and at the time that this research project began, were all currently
enrolled in, or recently graduated from, a graduate level teacher-librarianship education
program. This research paper presents the findings from year one of the study. An online
focus group was held in March 2015 with three of the five teacher-librarians while the other
two teacher-librarians contributed individual responses to the questions. The focus group
46
meeting was transcribed with the additional individual responses added at the end of the
transcript. The transcript was then analyzed, by looking for common themes and trends that
emerged across questions and throughout the comments (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Miles &
Huberman, 1998).
Findings
This study followed five new teacher-librarians through the first three years of their transition
from classroom teachers to teacher-librarians. The purpose of the study was to better
understand how new teacher-librarians experience the transition from the role of classroom
teacher into the role of teacher-librarian. This paper focuses on year three with the teacherlibrarians reflecting on their early years as teacher-librarians and also looking forward to new
challenges and opportunities. This section presents findings using six overarching interview
questions to organize the findings and uses representative quotes to support the key ideas
and themes from each question.
The first series of questions asked the participants to tell us about the strongest memories
from three years as a teacher-librarian? The teacher-librarians were also asked about the
greatest successes, opportunities, challenges and barriers. Two participants who work in the
same school division agreed that one of their strongest memories was doing Professional
Development sessions together for teachers. These two participants also spoke of the
memory of their presentation to the Board of Trustees “to advocate for the use of the
teacher-librarian in the division.” This presentation took the form of a Prezi (www.prezi.com)
and four teacher-librarians spoke to a different role of the teacher-librarian. These two
participants did not know of “any other group that has made a presentation to the board.”
One participant noted that, “what science teachers do is well understood and their courses
are required. What teacher-librarians do is seen as optional and it more incumbent on us to
prove our worth, especially when it is not understood.” One participant noted that it has been
great “connecting with other TLs in the district and learning how the “seasoned” ones run
their libraries.”
One participant noted that her strongest memories was of the “incredible professional
change - a new way of interacting with people.” She stated she has “made the library her
own and is seen as the information leader in the school.” Another participant explained, “ I
feel like I am still ‘making my path.’ The first year I came in and changed a lot of how the
library was perceived - this year has been a time of ensuring that the library can be a casual
place that is still focused on learning. Watching students take ownership over the space has
been a true success and joy.” A third participant also commented that a strong memory was
“continued connections with a significant number of students who see their space as a ‘safe’
area.”
One high school teacher-librarian looked back on the importance of “helping staff learn to
take risks in trying new technologies and working with me.” She realized, in retrospect, “how
much guidance we have to do a teacher-librarians, how we have to help students and
teachers know that it is okay to make mistakes, play with new technologies, and play with
ideas.” Another TL participant stated “I am more confident in my abilities as a research
coordinator… I actually did not realize that many educators do not encourage proper
research techniques, documentation of sources, etc.”
47
Several participants spoke about their collections when reminiscing about their first years as
teacher-librarians. One participant is “super excited about our move to using LibGuides for
the virtual learning commons - we are supporting a full course (Planning 10) as well as
numerous lessons across the curricular areas. I am excited about our new games (we have
class sets of Settlers of Catan and Carcassone) and we have hosted a variety of MakerEd
activities. I’m excited that students choose to be in the library!” Another participant
remembered when she started in the library and found out that only 16 books were
circulating per month. “I spent my first six months on collection development. I knew I could
make a difference.” Another participant is excited about lunch clubs - specifically
“Minecraft/gaming club and girls gaming club.” She has also created a “professional
resources collection, after consultation with teachers.”
In terms of challenges and barriers, many participants spoke about technology, library time
and budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another
teacher. One participant stated that the “technology department” was a big challenge. The
teacher-librarian has to “work around them because they make everything complicated.”
Another teacher-librarian shared these concerns and noted that “poor Wifi” and the current
set-up of chrome books means she rarely has “the tools that I want where I want them.” A
third teacher-librarian felt that her school had “19th century technology for 21st century
learning.” Another teacher-librarian commented that her library assistant “struggles with
using any technology.” Four of the teacher-librarians only work part-time in the school library
and have teaching responsibilities for the other part of their time. One participant spoke of
trying to do “1.0 on a 0.5 position.” Similarly, another participant noted in her school library
there is “less funding and more teaching time each year (almost 50% decrease in budget in
the past three years and 40% teaching time increase (three classes added).” One participant
wanted new shelving in her library and the “woodwork teacher and his classes created
fabulous shelves, but this being grieved by the union. If the union was to have created the
shelves it would have cost $10,000 and/or would have never happened.” One participant
shares responsibility for the library with another teacher who is “not trained as a TL.” The
“teacher in the library” takes a clerical approach, is “not collaborative” and makes the space
“uncomfortable for students.”
The second set of research questions asked participants what previous experiences (formal
and informal) have been most valuable in your first three years as a teacher-librarian? One
participant clearly indicated that her “twenty years of teaching experience with people from
five years to sixty-five years in a variety of settings and countries” has been most valuable.
She also added that she “has strong speaking and classroom management skills and has
worked with a variety of people.” She is able “to get the bigger picture of the needs of her
school community.” Another participant indicated that “being able to connect with
administration is so important - they have to see you as someone who understands what is
going on in the building.”
In the focus group, the participants had quite a long conversation about the number of years
of classroom teaching experience that would be best before becoming a teacher-librarian.
One participant felt that TLs needed a minimum of ten years of classroom teaching
experience. Another felt that five years was a minimum. She stated that, “without that time, I
wouldn’t have had the sense of who I was as a person.” One participant felt that experience
along with “a willingness to try new things and your mindset was also important.” Another
48
participant spoke about the importance of “soft skills and dispositions” for being an effective
teacher-librarian.
Question three asked participants what advice would you give new teacher-librarians based
on your experiences as new TLs? One participant listed five key pieces of advice: promote,
advocate, connect, organize and read. She told us that she it was essential to “promote my
own skills and resources in my library to students and parents in any which I possibly can.”
Several other participants spoke about promoting the role of the teacher-librarian and
“fighting for more TL time.” In terms of advocating, one participant noted it was essential for
new teacher-librarians to “publish their credentials and dispel the myth.” Another piece of
advice was to connect with “colleagues who have completed this program. We have quite a
‘sisterhood and brotherhood’.” Another suggestion for new teacher-librarian is to “meet
regularly and ask questions.” One participant states that, “in my first year I was growing my
PLN - adding Twitter contacts, seeking out mentors and basically trying to expand my circle.
While I am, of course, open to new contacts, I basically know who my PLN is and how to
access help and support when I need it. I find I am more able to offer support than in my first
year and that people are ‘adding me to their circles’.” Another participant also highlighted the
importance of connecting with other TLs “in your district and on Twitter.” One participant has
been assigned more classroom teaching time and, as a result, she states “I am not relying on
other TLs as much this year. I feel really overwhelmed this year with the amount of teaching
(and the needs of the group I have), that I honestly felt like stepping out of the library
position. It is difficult to be a part-time teacher and a full-time TL so I have really focused on
the teaching aspect.
Staying organized was another suggestion to help new teacher-librarians. One participant
remarked that “you can’t do everything” and “you invariably have to cut back on your list.”
She cautioned new TLs to “not get frustrated and find balance.” Another participant noted
that, “due to increased teaching load, I really have to manage my time and several of the
clubs/events I sponsored in the past, I have had to let go of.” Another participant
recommended setting up a good “filing system and creating a clear budget.” She also
suggested that TLs “be prepared to report out to your administration at the end of the year
because you have to justify your job.” The final piece of advice from one participant was to
read. Several participants indicate that “knowing your collection” is key to being a successful
TL. One participant stated that, “the best thing I do in the library is that if a student comes in
looking for a book, I can find one for them pretty quickly that will suit them or peak their
interest.” Another participant suggested that it is essential to “keep reading - students and
staff should know what you are reading - advertise it, put up a sign.” One participant is
celebrating that she “finally has an administrator who reads - a new vice-principal who was a
high school English teacher and who supports the need for a TL.”
In addition to promote, advocate, connect, organize and read, other study participants added
essential pieces of advice. One participant highlighted the importance of building
relationships. She suggested that it is critical to “identify the people on staff who are going to
be receptive to you and then you have to hone in on those who will bear a lot of fruit.”
Another suggestion is to “get to know your administration so you know what you can do for
them and what they can do for you.”
The researchers asked participants, if you could wave a magic wand, what would you
49
change about your first year as a teacher-librarian? One theme that emerged from this
question was about library circulation. One participant wished she knew more about
“everything clerical - that was the biggest hurdle in the first year learning curve. I appreciated
all of the TLDL courses on research and online presentation tools, but I feel that the
cataloguing course was outdated to how we actually catalogue new materials. Plus, even
something as simple as ‘put all the labels in the same spot on each book’ would have been a
good thing to know. In our district, if a library has a TL, there is usually no clerical staff, so
we have to do that all ourselves.” Another participant felt she was “well prepared for the big
picture but I could have used a crash course in Follett Destiny.” This same participant would
have liked to know more about using a spreadsheet program like Excel for budget
management. Another participant stated, “I had no idea how to use the library circulation
program. I needed a great deal of learning and felt like the library clerk had power over me.”
Another participant noted that because she had a reliable and competent library technician,
she didn’t “know nearly as much as she should.”
Another theme that emerged from this question was interactions with teachers. One
participant stated, “I was so gung ho that first year that I scared away teachers.” She
elaborated, “I tried really hard to connect with people and I learned over time that I needed to
find a few people and start with those.” Another participant realized she would, “pay less
attention to the crabs in the bucket and focus on those who are willing to collaborate and the
people who are enjoying their job and pay less attention to those who are unhappy in their
job, pessimistic and not willing to move forward, and cynical.” She continued that, “it is easy
to feel discouraged so find five or six who are willing to try new things and focus on those
people.”
To continue this same line of questioning, we asked participants to tell us what do you know
now about being a teacher-librarian? One participant stated, “You are the program - forget
the computers, collection, the furniture - the library is you. You have the ability to make,or
not, a vibrant library program.” Another participant concurred stating, “the Program is the TL
- the TL is the program.” One participant indicated that she is “more confident and willing to
say no if I feel that something is not pedagogically sound. I will challenge less than stellar
practice when necessary. I know my collection and my staff much better, so I feel I am better
able to meet students’ and teachers’ needs.” Another participant stated, “no matter how hard
you work, there are people who think that the teacher-librarian has the cushiest job in the
school. I thought I had to prove my worth by long days - I realized that there will always be
those who think that TLs are kindly ladies who do nothing more than sign out books to
keener readers. Letting go of trying to make everyone respect the work we do has freed me
up to focus on my work on what matters and makes the most sense for my students and
space.”
The final question for the participants was where do you go from here in your work as a
teacher-librarian? Participants had many plans for the future including: continuing to build
relationships, collection development and programming, continuing advocating for more
library time, more technology leadership, and supporting the social/emotional health of
students. One participants highlighted that in their work in the school library in the future
they will “keep building relationships and focus on those that want to learn, take risks and
bring their kids to the library.” Another participant highlights the importance of “working with
teachers” and being a part of the leadership team while a third will continue to focus on
50
“whole staff learning that is thoughtful and well-planned.” One teacher-librarian has been
involved in a collaborative time initiative for her school and she is looking forward to
continuing to “tweaking, determining what is working and what isn’t, determining what needs
more or less structure - especially because ⅓ of the teachers are hesitant.”
Several teacher-librarians plan to continue to work on collection development - even if this is
a “summer project.” One participant uses the summer “to learn more about my collection
and where I want to take my collection in the future.” Another teacher-librarian is looking
forward to “weeding the non-fiction section...starting in June. I hope to finish it before we
return in September. Yes, I may put in some time over the summer.” That same teacherlibrarian is planning to “get rid of one entire shelving unit in the non-fiction area, continue
updating the library’s web page, and plan another author visit.” Because of declining
enrolment in several of the school districts where these teacher-librarians work, one
participant must “continue advocating for more library time and continue to justify what I do in
the library and why it is worthwhile.”
Several participants are looking forward to Google Apps being implemented in their school
districts. One participant is going to get Google Certified Educator training this summer. She
is “kind of fatigued about the next tech tool”, but sees the introduction of Google Apps to be a
great leadership opportunity for her. Another teacher-librarian “will be creating more online
courses. I am working to create full courses on LibGuides that will be supported by our
Learning Center teachers. These courses will keep funding in our schools. I am wrapping
up Planning 10, and will do Family Studies 12, Earth Science 11, Science and Technology
11 and AW Math 10 next year.” One participant expressed concerns about how to support
the social/emotional health of students in her school. She is seeing “abuse, anxiety,
depression, parental alcohol abuse” and want to offer a social/emotional support program
such as Mental Health First Aid for teachers and staff.
Discussion
This study endeavours to document the experiences of five new teacher-librarians as they
transition into their new roles and to understand their experiences as new teacher-librarians.
The first research question asked about teacher-librarians strongest memories from their first
three years as teacher-librarians. Participants indicated that professional development,
advocacy, professional change, making the library a safe space focused on learning,
supporting staff and students in taking risks, and collection development were strong
memories and successes. The researchers also asked teacher-librarians about barriers and
challenges to the work they do. These included technology, library time and budget cuts,
making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. The findings
from question one mirror the work of Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll (2012) where we see teacherlibrarians’ strongest memories and successes in the areas of advocacy and professional
growth. We see these teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating
safe learning spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and
meeting the needs of their school community.
In the first year of this study, “teacher-librarians had a clear sense of the work they should be
doing in their school libraries and struggled when they were unable to do that work” (BranchMueller & de Groot, 2014, Discussion, para. 2). Now when these same teacher-librarians
speak of challenges and barriers, they see and imagine “working around them.” They
51
consider the importance of balance, letting things go, focusing on those teachers who want
to learn with them, and working with administrators to make things happen. These teacherlibrarians appear to be in the enthusiastic and growing phase of their career life cycle (Lynn,
2002). The second research questions asked participants what previous experiences (formal
and informal) have been most valuable in your first three years as a teacher-librarian? The
responses to this question included classroom teaching experience, dispositions,
understanding the school context and connecting with administrators. As Olsen (2008) noted,
it is essential to pay formal attention to personal and emotional effects of identity transitions.
Celebrating successes and understanding barriers and challenges were a part of the ongoing
identity construction for these new teacher-librarians (Horn et al., 2008).
When participants were asked what advice they would give new teacher-librarians based on
your experiences, one participant listed five key pieces of advice: promote, advocate,
connect, organize and read. The other participants in the focus group heartily agreed with
this list and added build relationships and know your administration. These pieces of advice
are really suggestions for dispositions which Katz (1993) defines as “a tendency to exhibit
frequently, consciously, and voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is directed to a broad goal”
(para. 3). The broad goal in this case is to build a strong library program that is properly
staffed, well-funded and allows for the teacher-librarian to collaborate with teachers and
provide professional development for teachers.
When asked to wave a magic wand and change things in the first year as a teacherlibrarians, participants indicated they wish they knew more about the clerical responsibilities
including budgeting software and library management systems. Participants also wished
they could have had different interactions with teachers. Several mentioned the importance
of focusing on those teachers who were willing to collaborate rather than trying to entice all
teachers to work with them. To continue this same line of questioning, we asked participants
to tell us what do you know now about being a teacher-librarian? Participants in the focus
group were clear that the work teacher-librarians do is the school library program.
Participants responses indicated a new level of confidence and comfort in the role and
understanding that they each have to focus on things that can make a difference in terms of
teaching and learning in the school. These responses demonstrate a movement along the
continua presented by Kimmel, Dickinson and Doll (2012).
Participants had many plans for the future including: continuing to build relationships,
collection development and programming, continuing advocating for more library time, more
technology leadership, and supporting the social/emotional health of students. what I do in
the library and why it is worthwhile.” Participants had clear goals for the future and had plans
in place to reach those goals. The plans for the future built on the findings from year one
interviews (Branch-Mueller & de Groot, 2014). The researchers found that:
New teacher-librarian built on their own personal strengths - whether it was inquiry,
literacy or relationships with teachers. They were trying to make themselves
indispensable. The participants all mentioned that they were becoming curriculum experts
and were demonstrating that they could be technology leaders in their schools. The
participants were championing their collections - whether it was readers’ advisory for
fiction and popular non-fiction or sharing resources from databases and the web. In the
interviews, the new teacher-librarians highlighted the importance of developing
52
relationships and building a support system (mentors). It was also noted that these new
teacher-librarians were taking advantage of opportunities and championing the role of the
teacher-librarian in their schools and school districts. (Branch-Mueller & de Groot, 2014,
Discussion, para. 2).
The teacher-librarians in year three of this study were moving from “provisional selves”
(Ibarra, 1999) into their “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986). They were confident,
competent advocates for themselves and their programs. They were trying to balance the
realities of the school context and their desire for positive change and growth in terms of
teaching and learning possibilities. These teacher-librarians “are the program” in their school
libraries. While this is a very small group of teacher-librarians, it is a hopeful sign that
graduates of the Teacher-Librarianship by Distance Learning program at the University of
Alberta seem to be bucking some of the trends identified by Dotson and Jones (2011). They
are involved in technology and other professional development, school-wide collaborative
learning time, and technology leadership. They are also clearly focused on the leadership
role in the school and recognize that relationships with administrators are key. Perhaps it is
because in TLDL “coursework in all areas should incorporate components of leadership
development and use of emerging technologies (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Discussion: Charting
the Change, para. 7).
Implications and Conclusions
As instructors in a program that educates teacher-librarians, we feel it is essential for us to
understand the early years experiences of teacher-librarians as they transition from being
classroom teachers. We also believe that new teacher-librarians, other teacher-librarianship
educators, and researchers in the area of school libraries will also be interested in the findings of
this study. This paper contributes to our understanding of new teacher-librarians and builds on
the work of Branch-Mueller & de Groot (2014) by providing an understanding of teacherlibrarians in their third year in the role. There is very little research about the first few years of
becoming a teacher-librarian and nothing looking at teacher-librarians in the Canadian context.
This study contributes to our understanding of the early experiences of teacher-librarians and
brings in the framework of possible and provisional selves as a lens to examine teacher-librarian
identity.
Several themes emerged to help us better understand how new teacher-librarians
experience the first three years as teacher-librarians. Participants told us their strongest
memories included professional development, advocacy, professional change, making the
library a safe space focused on learning, supporting staff and students in taking risks, and
collection development. Barriers and challenges included technology, library time and
budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher.
We saw these teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating safe
learning spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and
meeting the needs of their school community.
They consider the importance of balance, letting things go, focusing on those teachers who
want to learn with them, and working with administrators to make things happen. Valuable
previous experiences included classroom teaching experience, dispositions, understanding
the school context and connecting with administrators.
Participants offered several key pieces of advice: promote, advocate, connect, organize,
53
read, build relationships, and know your administration. These suggestions provide more
evidence to “meet the challenge for the school library profession to identify experiences that
will foster dispositions, to encourage school librarians to exhibit and reflect on these
behaviours, and to create assessment measures that will form a basis for conversation and
professional growth” (Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 5). As teacherlibrarian educators, it is helpful to know that some of the participants needed to know more
about clerical responsibilities including budgeting software and library management systems.
This will allow us to put into our Master of Education program experiences (Follet Destiny
training, support groups, transition policies, job-shadowing opportunities) that will better
prepare teacher-librarians for the early weeks and months as a new teacher-librarian.
In researching with the participants, the researchers were heartened by the confidence of the
new teacher-librarians. Providing opportunities for mentorship between more experienced
graduates of our program and new teacher-librarians can support new teacher-librarians “to
become a professional committed to both personal growth and contributing to the growth of
the profession” (Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 4). Participants had
many plans for the future including: continuing to build relationships, collection development
and programming, continuing advocating for more library time, more technology leadership,
and supporting the social/emotional health of students. Understanding the progress of the
next steps in their development of “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986) tells the
researchers that we must come back together with these teacher-librarians after five years
and ten years in the profession.
This study will inform classroom experiences, assignments and projects in pre-service
teacher-librarian courses, the professional development experiences required for new
teacher-librarians, and the way we model the role of the teacher-librarian in pre-service
teacher-librarianship programs. More broadly, this research may also help school districts
and professional associations develop formal and informal learning experiences and
mentorship opportunities for new teacher-librarians. Most importantly, this study will help new
teacher-librarians understand the experiences of those that went before them as they
navigate the shift from teacher to teacher-librarian. As noted by Dotson & Jones (2011),
The change we seek is to create [teacher-]librarians who are educational leaders,
change agents in the curriculum and instructional process, and partners at both the
local school and wider global communities. Library schools have begun a new era
charged to inaugurate a new generation of school librarian ready to serve as leaders
in their schools. (Discussion, para. 8).
References
American Library Association & American Association for School Librarians. (2010).
Standards for initial preparation for school librarians. Chicago, IL: Authors.
Asselin, M., Branch, J., & Oberg, D. (Eds.) (2003). Achieving information literacy: Standards
for school library programs in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian School Library
Association and the Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada.
Battey, D., & Franke, M. L. (2008, Summer). Transforming identities: Understanding teachers
across professional development and classroom practice. Teacher Education
Quarterly, 127
54
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and methods (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Branch, J. L. & de Groot, J. (2011). Personal learning networks and participatory culture:
Getting teacher-librarians connected in the 21st century. In L. Marquardt & D.
Oberg (Eds.), Global Perspectives on School Libraries (pp. 44-56). Berlin: De
Gruyter Saur.
Cuban, L. (1984). How teachers taught. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Schlan, E. (1996). Who teaches and why: Dilemmas of building a
profession for twenty-first century schools. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of
research on teacher education, 2nd ed. (pp. 67-101). New York: Macmillan.
Dotson, K. B., & Jones, J. L. (2011). Librarians and leadership: The change we seek. School
Libraries Worldwide, 17(2). Retrieved from http://www.iaslonline.org/publications/slw/index.html
Ellis, J. (2006). Researching children's experience hermeneutically and holistically. Alberta
Journal of Educational Research, 52(3), 111-127.
Florio-Ruane, S., & Williams, L. G. (2008, Summer). Uncovering paths to teaching: Teacher
identity and the cultural arts of memory. Teacher Education Quarterly, 7-22.
Horn, I. S., Nolen, S. B., Ward, C., & Campbell, S. S. (2008, summer). Developing practices
in multiple worlds: The role of identity in learning to teach. Teacher Education
Quarterly, 61-72.
Jones, J., & Bush, G. (2009). What defines an exemplary school librarian: An exploration of
professional dispositions. Library Media Connection, 27(6), 28-30. Retrieved from
http://www.librarymediaconnection.com/lmc/
Kimmel, S. C., Dickinson, G. K., & Doll, C. A. (2012). Dispositions in the twenty-first century
school library profession. School Libraries Worldwide, 18(2). Retrieved from
http://www.iasl-online.org/publications/slw/index.html
Katz, L. G. (1993). Dispositions as educational goals. Retrieved from:
http://www.ericdigests.org/1994/goals.htm
Lynn, S. K. (2002). The winding path: Understanding the career cycle of teachers. The
Clearing House, 75(4), 179-182. Retrieved from
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vtch20#.VT_uPWakVhA
Mardis, M. A., & Hoffman, E. S. (2007). Getting past “shhh:” Online focus groups as
empowering professional development for teacher librarians. In Proceedings of the
International Association for School Librarians Annual Conference. 16-20 July,
2007. National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
55
Markus, H. R., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1998). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Olsen, B. (2008, Summer). How reasons for entry into the profession illuminate teacher
identity development. Teacher Education Quarterly, 23-40.
Ronfeldt, M., & Grossman, P. (2008, Summer). Becoming a professional: Experimenting with
possible selves in professional preparation. Teacher Education Quarterly, 41-60.
Rust, F. O. (1994) The first year of teaching: It’s not what they expected. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 10(2), 205-217.
Thomas, L., & Beauchamp, C. (2007). Learning to live well as teachers in a changing world:
Insights into developing a professional identity in teacher education. Journal of
Educational Thought, 41, 3, 229-243.
Wilson, S. M., Floden, R. E., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001). Teacher preparation research:
Current knowledge, gaps, and recommendations. A research report prepared for
the U. S. Department of Education and the Office for Educational Research and
Improvement.
56
Representations of Reading in
Brazilian Contemporary Children’s
Literature
Maria da Conceição Carvalho
Alessandra Santana da Silva
Tatiane Meire Campos
School of Information Science /UFMG
Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627 – CEP:31270 -901 Belo Horizonte - MG
Brazil
Phone: +55 31 34096124
+55 31 25313324
daccar@gmail.com
Abstract
This article is part of a broader study that aims at comparing the role assigned to
reading in terms of fictional creation for children and youngsters in Brazil and Argentina
from 1991 to 2012. The results here presented are exclusively referring to Brazil. A
sample of 10 books taken from publishers catalogues who print child/youth literature
was analyzed. Based on Serge Moscovici’s concept of social representation it was
possible to demonstrate that less than half of the narratives represent the daily reading
still linked to a pedagogizing concept of the child genre, with openly utilitarian
purposes. However, a significant number of narratives show good aesthetic level,
presenting reading and the formation of readers in a thought-provoking and
problematizing way.
Keywords: Children’s literature; Social representations; School libraries; Brazilian
Children’s literature, Brasil
Background and objectives
UNESCO proposes three factors that are necessary for readers to exist in a country:
1. The book should be in a privileged place in the national imagination
2. There must be for readers families
3. Schools must know how to form readers
We thought of developing research to verify to what extent the first-mentioned factor is true in
Brazilian culture since the two other have been much explored by studies related to the
History and Sociology of education in Brazil, not always with positive results.
57
Then, we decided that this research aims at identifying the fictional narratives addressed to
contemporary Brazilian children and how reading, the book, the library and the librarian as
mediator of reading are represented. In the second stage the same analysis with a similar
sample of books written, edited and published in Argentina will be developed. The purpose is
to have a comparative study because Brazil and Argentina, which are neighboring countries
in South America, have different historic background since the 19th century, concerning the
formulation of public policies of education, reading practices and formation of reader.
Firstly, it is necessary to draw a brief picture of the social and cultural environment in Brazil
to understand the specific object of our interest. Despite Brazil being a country of continental
dimensions and it being among the ten largest economies in the world it shows huge social
inequality. On the other hand, Brazilian publishing market moves U$ 2.2 billion yearly, with
35% of this total representing purchases by the federal government, for the provision of
public and school libraries.
In addition to that, in general, Brazilian bookstores are concentrated in the most developed
regions of the country and recent data report that Brazilians remain reading little, on average
less than two titles per year.
In big cities, there are good elementary schools whose libraries are well planned and develop
cultural activities in accordance with the guidelines of IFLA / UNESCO School Library
Association. However, 9% of the population of the country remain illiterate and never went to
school. Besides, it is important to consider that children entering school regularly, at the age
of six, still find it difficult to fit within the literate world and to become readers in adulthood
because they come from low-income families with low level of schooling. These families are
considered as non-reader families.
Given this paradoxical portrait of Brazil in the beginning of the 21th century, our assumption
when the research was started was that the representation of books and reading in children's
literature would have a utilitarian function, supplementing an instructional role that the
Brazilian families and schools fail to offer satisfactorily. That result, as will be shown in the
end of this study, was only partially proved.
The criterion for sample selection was intentional or by judgment sampling, that is when the
researcher assesses which Individuals (in this case, books) have more information about the
topic being studied and chooses the elements the researcher thinks are the most relevant of
the whole set to be investigated. The selected corpus built from queries to catalogs of
publishers was composed of 10 Brazilian children's literature titles published from 1990 to
2013.
A content analysis of the texts and images of the selected corpus was carried out based on
the concept of social representations argued by Serge Moscovici and from the way Brazilian
researchers Regina Zilberman and Marisa Lajolo analyze the historical dimension of
children's literature and of reading as a cultural and social practice. To analyze the
representation of school library as it appears in some of the samples, we rely on the
theoretical foundations of American researcher Carol Kuhlthau.
58
Analysis and results
Numerous research papers in the field of social representation have shown that
representation is never objectively neutral. In fact, in the set of 10 books reviewed the
representation of reading is presented as a desirable social practice and is politically desired
in all of them. The intention, explicit or not, of the writer and publisher of these books and
government programs, which include them in its programs to promote reading, and of the
school that has the students is none other than to influence in the formation processes of
behavior of Brazilian children and youth, guiding their perceptions and expectations and
causing them to build expected attitudes in relation to books and reading.
However, it cannot be said that this wave of books that show reading as a central or adjuvant
theme constitute a homogeneous production. Indeed, the way of representing reading and
the process of acquisition of reading habits varies to some extent. We found works that could
be classified as legitimately literary, and that add maybe a little more than half of the sample
reviewed; and we also found texts - 40% of the sample - which are to be literary but cannot
disguise their pedagogical goals to lead children and adolescents to the practice of reading.
As an example of these two trends, there is this beautiful book of images and short text
entitled Asas de Papel (Paper wings) which wanders about the limitless universe that reading
opens up. On the other end the book Quem não lê não vê (Whoever does not read does not
see) uses the theme of reading in a teenagers story, with the stated purpose of postulating
rules - eleven steps, writes the author - for children and young people to learn how to enjoy
reading .
In this second group of books, this pedagogy tradition of children's and youth literature genre
continues rooted and, as it is known, since the 18th century it cultivates close ties of
dependence between literature and school. In fact, the school and the school library
recurrently appear in these books as the place of first contact with reading.
Contrarily, in the texts we with some risk call legitimately literary, reading happens in the
private space, sometimes solitarily, sometimes shared with family members who are also
readers. Anyhow, a central question underlies all the 10 works that choose reading as
fictional theme and that represent reading positively.
This issue can be summarized in the sentence: how to make a reader? We identified at least
three situations, which are sometimes more, sometimes less explicit, and that structure the
narrative of the texts studied. They are:
Transformation
A person who does not like to read, or that reads uncritically, usually represented as an adult
or teenager, becomes an aficionado reader after a privileged encounter with a stranger,
especially a teacher, a librarian (Fome de ler, Quem não lê não vê). What is clear from these
narratives and how reading is presented is the value of redemptive reading or reading as
salvation.
Inheritance
The French side of sociology of reading, with Pierre Bourdieu, François de Singly and JeanClaude Pompugnac, among others, has made a substantial contribution to what they called
59
cultural heritage. According to the authors, cultural heirs are those who receive in a literate
family environment, an established cultural heritage, as well as the practices associated with
it, and internalize them naturally reproducing the model of reader these heirs know since they
were kids.
A book that fits in this group is Chorar é preciso? (Is it necessary to cry?)_by Tatiana Belinky,
a Russian immigrant who came to Brazil at the age of eleven. Autobiographical type of work,
the protagonist narrator is a girl who very early became a reader of fairy tales. She tells
Brazilian children what it is like to "talk " with the books she have been told by her father, an
inveterate reader, that every night used to tell her the most beautiful tales of Andersen.
Two other books discuss the inherited habit of reading by bringing situations that represent
the nuance of Brazilian socio-cultural inequality. Morreu Tio Eurico, Rubião ficou rico (Uncle
Eurico died, Rubião got rich) the protagonist, a simple worker in a small town receives as
inheritance from a rich uncle - "hundreds, thousands of books." At first disappointed because
he expected to receive a big sum of money, Rubião recovers and meets a new passion: the
passion of reading. Another book entitled Lá no alto (Up there) takes the inheritance of a
symbolic estate, the reading practice transmitted by the school, not explicitly but only
poetically suggested: it is the story of a poor little girl who becomes fascinated with books
that are up there on the bookcase in her rich teacher’s home. Those books will never be hers
but they roused her desire to read. The text ends just saying that the books would never
leave that child's mind, just suggesting in one last illustration that she will become a reader.
In the three stories in which the main theme of the narrative is love for reading that passes
from one generation to another, what leads the representation can be defined as reading as
inherited and / or shared value.
The institutional mediation
The school librarian appears in three different stories as an important character in the
fictional plot. In all of them, the librarian is seen by children and adolescents, at first, with
strangeness and curiosity. In the book entitled Quem era ela? (Who was she?) three
students try to understand what makes this strange person at school and then they struggle
to pronounce that hard word: li·brar·i·an.
Along with this path of lack of knowledge of the function of the school and public library by
some students, there is also Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure) and
Guerra na Biblioteca (War in the library). In these two books, librarians are compared to
witches because of the strange things they apparently do with the books in that environment
which is so different from the classroom.
However, predictably, in the end of the story the librarians always reveal themselves as
surprising people whose most extraordinary magic will be to turn people who do not like
books into passionate readers.
In this group of stories, the clear intention is to introduce cultural institutions such as the
School Library and Public Library and their educational functions to a large number of
Brazilian children and adolescents. The Librarian appears as the main mediator of a student /
60
library desired relationship. In this representation, the idea of reading as enabler for
academic success and social prestige is implicit.
A finding that seems undeniable after analysis of this sample of books is that the apology to
reading and the act of reading are present in all narratives cited, with arguments of
philosophical-educational basis or only as a utilitarian issue.
On the one hand, we know that is not the function of literature as an art, to convince the
reader of something, even if it is towards the consumption of literature for literary sake, as in
these books addressed to children and adolescents. Thus, narratives that are led by a more
aesthetic aspect than by a pedagogical one makes an apology of reading. This argument is
not free but instead it gives "a legitimate need for the fictional universe", paraphrasing
another Brazilian researcher (Ceccantini, 2004), who reviewed a sample of Brazilian literary
books for adolescents awarded by different institutions.
On the other hand, if the main function of social representation is to influence the processes
of social communications and formation of new practices (Moscovici, 2003), it is no wonder
that the child /youth literature genre, which has historically been linked to the function of
education and socialization, takes advantage of its easy integration into school to represent
an idealized image of reading and of the library role in the life of Brazilian children and
teenagers.
Brazilian child /youth literature, as shown in this study, is seen as a privileged vehicle to take
part of the great Brazilian challenge of changing a rarefied setting of readers and library
regulars. For that reason, children books invest to impact in the representation transformative
reading can cause in the neo-readers. In other words, these child /youth books purport to
build their own readers by presenting them to literary reading and suggesting possibilities of
reading in school life and in the life in general. In that sense, it is worth recalling that
according to Moscovici representative activity is a mental process that takes an object or an
idea that was far distant or absent and makes it familiar and present in the inner universe of
the subject, or their social group.
Fair it is to say that in the last decades the Brazilian government has been facing the
challenge of increasing the access to education and reading. A major step was the creation
of a new public policy of reading, that is the National Plan of Books and Reading (PNLL),
which is seeking to involve public institutions and civil society to achieve that big goal.
However, this is not a simple task considering Brazilian historical paradoxes.
The Minister of Culture in the government of former President Lula, in 2006, to announce the
National Plan of Books and Reading (PNLL) said:
"Needless to say that only 1.8 books read per capita / year is too little, nor that
number come from a recent and problematic relationship with the book, as shown by
several researchers, due to a number of important historical factors, such as the
reality of many social inequalities."
61
We proceed, then, exposing how the texts reviewed represent two aspects of the relationship
of children and young people with reading. Those aspects are spaces for reading and
subjects of reading.
The first important finding regarding places for reading is that reading rarely appears being
performed in the institutional place of the school library or public library but almost always in
the private place of home. It is also significant to highlight how school library appears in two
of the books studied. In addition to that, in a third book Quem não vê não Lê (Whoever does
not read does not see), it is significant that this library is not mentioned in a story that is
especially focused on the reading of books requested by teacher to teen students.
A similar narrative device in the four texts is that the story begins by showing a negative
image of reading or of the school library through the speech of young students. In Quem era
ela?” (Who was she?) in the first scene there are three students trying to guess who that kind
of weird woman is, wearing round glasses, who looks like an owl, headed to the “room with
bookshelves"!
After all, a boy says, "that room had been closed so long. What was inside it was a mystery.
We only know that it was used to store books." In the book titled Guerra na biblioteca (War in
the library) the complaint of adolescent students is that the school library looks like a
playroom or children's party place and only appeals to small children at very young age. It is
for that reason that the history teacher takes them to search on the public library.
In the previously mentioned book Quem não lê não vê ( Whoever does not read does not
see) the first page starts with adolescent anguish because the teacher had asked students to
read a 120 pages novel in the summer holidays.
Only in a book, Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure) the school library works
from the beginning of the story as it should, following the standards suggested by
contemporary studies that suggest that space as a place of research, interaction, reflection
and encouragement for reading, integrated to the political-pedagogical project of the school.
In this book, a boy who is fascinated by the mysterious figure of the librarian lives an
adventure between the digital information technology and his fascination for books. However,
it subtlety depicts the little familiarity that school students have with the school library.
Similarly to novels or soap operas that begin with the girl and the boy hating each other up to
the end when they fall in love, in the vast majority of these stories, the initial ignorance of
what a library is for is developed with scenes of adventure and at the end the discovery of a
place that has thousands of possibilities of information, fun and the possibility of social
mobility.
In other words, the most common representation of the school library in Brazilian youth
literature is of an area that has to be discovered by the students so that it meets their cultural
formation, as promised by librarianship academics.
Apparently, this representation of the school library in the literature is intended to be a
supposed reflection of the reality of a country that is modernizing and that created a federal
law a few years ago to enable all Brazilian schools with a school library. Yet, the nationwide
62
study Portraits of Reading in Brazil, 2012, which aims at evaluating the behavior of the
Brazilian reader, reveals that the library, both the school and the public is still little sought by
Brazilians as a way to access the book.
Other important evidence found in this study is that the library, any library, is just a place to
compulsory study and compulsory research for 71% of Brazilians who responded to the
survey in all Brazilian regions. Other possibilities of access to literary and informational
reading or other cultural activities are not mentioned while the public library is mentioned in
only one book, Guerra na biblioteca (Albergaria, 1993, p.24).
Based on what the librarian said, the specificity of the place is known: "Here is a public place.
Everyone has the right to attend a library. Most like to read. But there are lonely people [...]
who simply adopted the place." Maybe she wanted to remember the UNESCO proposition to
the universality of public that the public library should meet, but with a bit of humor, the
author includes among goers of a public library in a large Brazilian city, Belo Horizonte, an
old woman who is just knitting, a lunatic, an old and eccentric researcher. We are already
referring to the subjects of reading. In this sense it should be noted, in most of the books
reviewed, a dialectical movement between the non-reader, which is the one who opens more
than half of the stories and the reader idealized by public policies of reading, composing the
happy ending of all those fictional stories and reading readers.
Contemporary studies on sociology and history of reading present a typology of readers
ranging from weak reader to strong reader, from disoriented reader to the competent reader,
or even the ideal reader or model to the real reader of every culture and historical context.
As shown in this study, child /youth literature uses this taxonomy to represent an evolution
that is urgent and necessary for the Brazilian citizen in the 21st century. Thus, the competent
reader who appears in the stories reviewed is usually the teacher, the librarian, the father,
the grandfather or other family member. Rare are the cases in which children and
adolescents are depicted as already being readers and book lovers but, as was presented
earlier, they will undergo a transformation throughout story.
The figure of the school librarian, who is always female, is important character in three of the
stories although in one of these plots the librarian of the public library is highlighted by her
professional competence, beauty and charisma in opposition to the impaired performance of
the librarian school.
A curiosity is that these three stories the school librarian is compared to a witch, either by
their physical appearance, reinforcing an already outdated stereotype about the profession,
either by its mysterious activities which are unknown to children and young people who know
little about the institution. See some examples:
Quem era ela? (Who was she?)
[...] Since day one at school, the door [in that room] was closed. Just now, the young
woman wearing glasses came out. [...] For a moment, I imagined [...] that woman
hiding deep down into the room, stirring a black cauldron, eager to get a child to her
charm or even to throw into the cauldron. (Albergaria, 1993, p.6)
63
And in Guerra na biblioteca (War in the library)
Etelvina was the school librarian. She was loved by kids and hated by adolescents.
[...] Small children loved the stories she used to tell. She had delusions of horror
stories and used to wear costumes for presentations. She would put black clothes on,
a pointy hat and was the witch itself. (Albergaria, 1995, p.2)
And also, in Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure):
Juninho, a student from the school, believes Magali, the librarian, is a witch because
besides having a strange and mysterious magical look and gestures she was
unbelievably able to persuade people. Magali wanted to be a modern version of Don
Quixote’s Dulcinea, riding a motorcycle, with helmet and armor, flying at traffic lights.
(Rios, 1993, p. 8)
It is interesting to note the recurrence use of an intertextuality form, which is, when a book
refers to other literary texts on the figure of the competent reader and of the reader mediator
of reading that appear in different situations in the books studied.
Those readers, who love reading literature and want to transfer that value to others, try by
heart, to remember the most significant titles explicitly citing them in contact with the
intended readers, or by using metaphors that signal to the classic works of world literature.
In the books reviewed in which the aesthetic intention is predominant, the quotation of the
classics is justified because it suggests a link between the beginner reader and the great
community of readers of the cultural tradition. In other books, in which we note the pedagogy
representation of reading, a tendency to make the canonical literature sacred is observed
and it consisted of literature that is often cited but little read, in fact, even by teachers and
librarians.
It is not by chance, then, that Cervantes’ Don Quixote, a work that has appeared in the top
rankings of the most important literary works of world literature, is mentioned with reverence
by librarians of two different stories.
Regarding the representation of social classes, only two books appear in secondary level as
lower classes representatives. They are described as individuals who have some relationship
with books but not exactly through reading. In all the books studied readers are middle class
elements with sparse references to wealthy individuals who had collections of books who let
them as inheritance or as a gift to family. Such representation dialogues with other data of
the above-mentioned study Portraits of Reading in Brazil. In fact, 56% of respondents of the
survey, equivalent to 99.3 million Brazilians never bought books in life, either because books
are expensive, or due to a lack of interest in the practice of reading.
Conclusion
To conclude let us take UNESCO propositions on the fundamental conditions for a country to
be considered a reader society: the book should be in a privileged place in the national
imagination; there should be reader families; school should know how to form readers.
Well, it can be said that being in the second decade of this century we are halfway towards
the society of information and reading. Yes, we have a good quality education system, with
64
good schools and well equipped libraries, where high-level professionals working. We also
have an editorial production of children's literature books of excellent quality and huge
bookstores that satisfy the most discerning readers.
Nevertheless, we are still a paradoxical country, rich and poor at the same time, modern and
archaic, urban and rural. Paralleling to a developed Brazil there is a deep and obscure Brazil
as a great national writer once wrote, with high illiteracy rate and lack of libraries. In this
scenario, even children who start school regularly at the age of six find it difficult to fit within
the literate world and to become readers in adulthood because they come from low-income
families with no or low level of education (or cultural capital). In that underdeveloped social
environment there is a clear contradiction between considering reading as a condition of
social and cultural rise, and at the same time do not having minimum requirements - both
family and school - to promote independent reading which gives the reader-subject
conditions to critically interact with the world.
In the context of this unequal map of the country, it is easier to understand the results of this
research. In fact, 40% of the books reviewed are still tied to a utilitarian speech to serve the
creation of a national imaginary about the individual and social value of reading and the
development of a professional almost unknown by many – the librarian who is the mediator
of reading. But even among those texts that carry a strong educational bias, it is possible to
find - in the positive representation they make of reading - support for a formative itinerary
that so many Brazilian children perform with effort. The good news is that the other 60%
seem to be very good works at an aesthetic level, as for the text and or for the illustration the
point of view.
In general, these books successfully escape from the trap of didacticism and present to
Brazilian children and youngsters the world of books and reading in a thought-provoking and
problematizing way.
We end with a quote from a Brazilian writer Ana Maria Machado who in 2000 was given the
IBBY Hans Christian Andersen Award as the best author of children and youth literature: "I
do not think anyone can teach someone else to read literature. Rather, I am convinced that
what a person transmits the other is the revelation of a secret: the love for literature. It's more
a contagion than teaching." (Machado, 2003 p.14).
References
Assunção, J. (2003). Retrieved April 4 , 2014, from
http://www.revista.agulha.nom.br/ag34assuncao.htm
CBL/BRACELPA/ABRELIVROS. ( 2012). Retratos da leitura no Brasil. São Paulo.
Ceccantini, João Luís C. T. (2004). In Paulino, G. (Org.) Democratizando a leitura:
pesquisas e práticas. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, p. 81-96.
Fraisse, E.; Pompugnac, J.-C.; Poulain, M. (1997). Representações e imagens da leitura.
São Paulo: Ática, p.57-96.
65
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1999). O papel da biblioteca escolar no processo de aprendizagem. In
Vianna, M.; Campello, B.; Moura, V. H. V. Biblioteca escolar: espaço de ação
pedagógica. Belo Horizonte: EB/UFMG, p. 9-14.
Lajolo, M. & Zilberman, R. (1996). A formação da leitura no Brasil. São Paulo, Ática.
Machado, A. M.& Montes, G. (2003). Literatura infantil; creación, censura y resistência.
Buenos Aires: Sudamericana.
Moscovici, Serge. (2003). Representações sociais: investigações em psicologia social. 4. ed.
Petrópolis, RJ: Ed. Vozes.
Valente, P. Gurgel. (2013). Os dois Brasis. Retrieved April 10, from
http://opiniaoenoticia.com.br
Sample Reviewed
Albergaria, Lino de. (1991) Quem era ela? Il. Rosa Schettino. Belo Horizonte: Ed. Lê.
Albergaria, Lino de. (1993). Il. Fábio Moraes. Guerra na biblioteca. São Paulo: Atual.
Belinky, Tatiana. (2001) Il. Graça Lima. Chorar é preciso. São Paulo: Paulus.
Betancur, P. (2006). Il. Mário T. G. Amaral. 2. ed. Quem não lê não vê. São Paulo: DCL.
Bocheco, E. (2012) Il. Walther M. Santos. Casa de consertos. São Paulo: Melhoramentos.
Castanha, Marilda. (1999). 2 ed. O rei da fome. Rio de Janeiro: Ediouro.
Parreiras, N. ( 2011). Il. Luiz Maia. Lá no alto. Curitiba: Positivo.
Sypriano, Lilian. (1993). Il. Claudio Martins. Morreu Tio Eurico, Rubião ficou rico. Belo
Horizonte: Formato Editorial.
Rios, Maria da Graça. (1993). Il. Ângela Leite de Souza. Uma aventura biblioteconômica
Belo Horizonte: Ed. Lê.
Xavier, Marcelo.(1993). Asa de papel. Belo Horizonte: Formato.
Biographical notes
Maria da Conceição CARVALHO holds a degree in Library Science as well as a Masters on
Information Science and a PhD in Literary Studies from the Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais . She is a professor at the School of Information Science, UFMG. Her current
interests as a researcher are focused on Reading and training of the reader, School Library
and Publishing of Youth and Children's books .
66
Alexandra Santana DA SILVA is a librarian since january 2014 and has worked at Santo
Antônio School as school librarian from jan. 2013 to jan. 2014. Her interest as a researcher
is focused on School Library studies.
Tatiane Meire CAMPOS is a School Librarian at a Municipal Public School (Elementary
Education) in Belo Horizonte, MG.
67
Improving English Comprehension in
Primary School by Picture-books
Story-telling and Reading
Chen Rongyi
Hefei Qingnian Road Primary School
488 Huizhou Boulevard, Hefei, Anhui,
China.
44086917@qq.com
Abstract
So many Chinese students graduated from university after having learned English for
12 years, but they can’t use English well, especially in English listening and speaking.
However, all these college students passed Band 4 test of CET (College English Test).
There are many reasons for this strange phenomenon but the most important one is
Chinese teaching system which is badly influenced by testing system. This year (2013),
Chinese education department are under discuss whether the English test will be taken
out of National Examinations of College Entrance or the total score should cut down
from 150 to 100. It has reflected that our country is in a dilemma whether we should
take English into NCEE (National College Entrance Examinations) or not. However, the
problem is not exams but how to test and how to teach English in schools.
As a primary school teacher for 16 years, the writer has found out that all teachers
have to use a textbook to teach and have to finish the textbook and take exams
according to the book. If students do better in exams, teachers’ value will improve.
Otherwise, they will not be welcomed by school headmaster. These really hold back
our English teaching. All our teachers are thinking about how to help students achieve
high score not language function, that, understanding and communication.
After many years teaching, the writer has found out that English learning goes well with
exams. In order to prove this, the writer began an experiment which lasted for 10
weeks during which the writer read picture-books to students at every class for ten
minutes. The students really enjoyed the stories. This method really enhances
students’ interests and abilities in listening, speaking and understanding. This article
focuses on the picture-books reading to improve the comprehension of English reading
in primary school.
Reading picture-books improve students’ comprehension and teachers’ teaching
approaches. It will benefit all the students if this teaching method applies to all students
who are learning English. As no one in China has done this research before, the writer
thinks this article can apply to many primary schools in China.
Keywords: English comprehension, primary school, picture books, story-telling,
reading
68
Introduction
So many university students graduated from university after having learned English for 12
years, but they can’t use English well. The problem is caused by our testing system.
Students learn English only for tests not for real use. If they pass a test, they will not touch
English any longer. Our language learning is targeted for exams not for the real use of
English. Students are only interested in tests and teachers are only interested in how to help
students get high scores. This leads to a strange phenomenon that students get high marks
in tests but can’t understand people who speak English and foreigners can’t understand our
students’ English either.
This article focuses on the picture-books reading to improve the comprehension of English
listening，speaking and reading in primary school. As no one in Hefei has done this research
before, the writer thinks this article can apply to many primary schools in Hefei.
Problem Identification and Analysis
Problem Identification
The writer found many students even college students, after 14 years of learning (from
Grade 3 to university), still can’t understand English well. There are many reasons for this
weird phenomenon. One of them is that our teachers teach English only for tests or high
scores not the use of English. That is also because of teaching system which is making all
our teachers teach English in that way.
Having taught English for more than 16 years, the researcher found that the problem starts
from primary schools to university. Different learning stages have different problems. This
essay pays attention to the problem in primary schools or elementary schools, for the author
have been teaching English in primary schools for more than 16 years.
The writer found out that most our teachers in primary schools have been using the bottomup methods. The "bottom up" approach stipulates that the meaning of any text must be
"decoded" by the reader and that students are "reading" when they can "sound out" words on
a page. (Phonics). It emphasizes the ability to de-code or put into sound what is seen in a
text. It ignores helping emerging readers to recognize what they, as readers, bring to the
information on the page. This model starts with the printed stimuli and works its way up to the
higher level stages. The sequence of processing proceeds from the incoming data to higher
level encodings( http://www.nadasisland.com/reading/)
Teachers teach students words first, then phrases, sentences, and last passages. According
to their understanding, they think that if students can’t understand the words, how come they
can understand the phrases not mentioning the passages? Thus, our students begin learning
English from the alphabets which they have to remember how to sound and how to write.
Then they have to remember every single word including meaning, spelling and
pronunciation. And then they have to remember the phrases, like “let sb. do sth, make sb do
sth, to see sb. do/doing sth.” etc. Students lose their interests in English gradually until they
reach junior high school, they only learn English for tests not for fun and for real use.
69
Analyze the project problem
In order to find out the problem in primary school, the writer used different methods. Two
methods of problem analysis are exactly used to analyze the problem. They are Socratic
Dialogue and Cause Analysis.
Socratic Dialogue
At this stage, the researcher asked a series of questions and then answered them.
Questions
a)
What do students like to do in an
English reading class in a primary
school?
b)
What are students expected to
do with the books?
c)
What can students do with the
books?
d)
How did the teacher deal with the
books?
e)
What did the teacher do to
develop the students’ ability of reading
comprehension?
Answers
They like to read interesting picture-books,
eg, Chika chika boom boom, There is a bird
on my head, the foot book,etc.
They should understand what they read
with or without English words.
They can tell the story with the help of
books. They should tell stories to students
or parents with the books as a good model
for students and as a good teaching
material
Just asked to buy or borrow the books and
then asked students to read silently by
themselves.
Nothing.
Table 1: Socratic Dialogue for Problem Analysis
Cause analysis
This analysis starts with some factors that may contribute to the cause: the teacher’s side,
the students’ side as well as the techniques for picture-books reading.
a) Teacher’s side
In primary schools, teachers focus on text books. They wonder when they will finish the
books-teaching so teachers usually give some picture books and ask students to read them.
They don’t have too much to spare for students to read picture-books not mentioning the
teachers reading picture-books. What’s worse, some teachers even just give the names of
picture books and ask them to get the books and then read them. Teachers (both Chinese
teachers and English teachers) in primary school always think reading books are kind of
after-class activities, and there is nothing related to the class activities. Both Chinese and
English teachers just think reading books are for fun and widening students’ view of the
world. They’ve just missed the most important part of the reading books—learning and
supplying for what students can’t get in class or in text books.
70
b) Students’ side
Students like English picture books but only pictures, not the words because our students are
Chinese. They couldn’t understand all the words, phrases or sentences in the books. They
just want to find the easiest way to read the books. If they couldn’t, they will give up reading
picture books. As a result, though there are a lot of English picture books in the library, few of
them are borrowed to read by students. They need the help of teachers who can give
students advice, suggestions and methods of reading English picture books or in the future
English fictions or nonfictions.
Techniques for teaching vocabulary
Our teachers in primary schools teach students words in a bottom up method. They show
students word cards, relics or PPTs for students, and then ask students to remember them,
that is the object , the spelling and the sound. Teachers use just one word for one picture.
There are no connections between words. For example, they teach apple just apple, red just
red. They never think of a red apple or a juicy apple etc. because they think red is not in the
page of text book.
In middle school, teachers only care about exams, not the skill of listening, speaking, reading
and writing. Of course, this is what we talk about in our essay today.
Results of Problem Analysis
According to the above problem analysis, we can see that student’s comprehension has not
been improved since primary schools. We must improve students English comprehension
skill from primary school.
Project Objective and Hypothesis
Project Objective
The project objective is to develop the students’ English listening, speaking and reading
comprehension so that they can get more information from English picture-books.
Project Hypothesis
It is hypothesized that students’ ability to get the information when reading picture-books can
be improved more effectively using story-telling by teachers and then reading by students
themselves. This hypothesis can be proved by their figuring out more of the main ideas in the
story on their own.
Project Rationale
Research about Top-down processing
The current view of English reading distinguishes between two key processes. One way is
known as the “bottom up processing” as we discussed above in 2.1 Problem Identification
and Analysis. The other process is known as the “top down processing”
The "top down" approach emphasizes readers bringing meaning to text based on their
experiential background and interpreting text based on their prior knowledge (whole
language)（www.nadasisland.com/reading).
Reading is essentially a process of predicting and confirming language. This idea can be
easily understood if we consider our experience of reading in our first language. Clearly
71
when we read in our mother tongue, we do not read to every word, but we can guess a lot of
what is going to be read since language is full of patterns and certain situations, which will be
very familiar to us. We can often predict what is going to be read next.
Even we can ignore some mistakes in reading and correct them automatically, for example, “
研表究明，汉字序顺并不定一影阅响读。”, well, the correct order is “研究明表，汉字顺序并不
一定影响阅读”
Our brain and eyes rearrange the words automatically. And this is the same in English
language, for example: According to a research project at Cambridge University, it doesn’t
mttaer waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltt
eer be in the rghit pclae.
The correct order should be according to a research project at Cambridge University, it
doesn’t matter what order the letters in a word are, the only important thing is that the first
and last letter be in the right place. This is because the human mind does not read every
letter.
“The top-down reading model theory encourages students to focus more on understanding
the main ideas of a passage than understanding every word. Even if students do not
understand each word, they are likely to grasp the meaning of a text as a whole. Babies
learn to speak much the same way. Instead of teaching words one at a time, parents use
conversation to teach language to their children.” (Amy Pearson,
http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/topdown-reading-model-Theory13028.html)This is because the human mind does not read every letter.
Research about comprehensible input
Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. It is functional when people
read road signs, maps, recipes, labels, fill forms, or apply for jobs that are unique to our daily
lives. It is fundamental to school achievement, and hence, learning to read at the appropriate
time is crucial to one’s academic success. All school subjects require reading various written
materials like graphs, charts, maps and tables. In Kaplan’s(1986) opinion, failure to learn to
read by the end of Primary one (i.e., first grade) is associated with later academic failure.
Samuel Kewaza,2013）Kavcar, Oğuzkan, and Sever (1997, p. 41) evaluates reading as “the
process of seeing, perceiving and comprehending the words, sentences, punctuation marks
and the other elements of a writing”. Sever (1997) defines reading as regards to mental processes. In other words, reading is not only voicing the letters. It is very important to explain
the meanings and interpret the voiced letters (Gürses, 1996). A connection is established
between the writer and the reader through reading and the reader is expected to understand
the message that the writer aimed to convey. As it can be understood from this, reading has
three dimensions (Demirel, 2000, p. 77). There are many sources to contribute to language
input in the classroom, such as the teacher, the students themselves and of course, the
stories, which are in the broadest sense (Ur, 2000a). Nevertheless, in the reading process,
“…the learner is an active participant. In order to comprehend, readers need to reconstruct
the original intention of the writers by making use of both bottom-up and top-down
processing strategies, and by drawing on what they already know to make use of new
knowledge” (Nunan, 2001: 211).
72
Research about interactive approach
For those reading theorists who recognized the importance of both the text and the reader in
the reading process, an amalgamation of the two emerged the interactive approach. Reading
here is the process of combining textual information with the information the reader brings to
a text. (http://www.nadasisland.com/reading)
The interactive model (Rumelhart 1977; Stanovich 1980) stresses both what is on the written
page and what a reader brings to it using both top-down and bottom-up skills. It views
reading is the interaction between reader and text.
The overreliance on either mode of processing to the neglect of the other mode has been
found to cause reading difficulties for SL learners (Carrell 1988, p. 239)
The interactive models of reading assume that skills at all levels are interactively available to
process and interpret the text (Grabe 1988).
In this model, good readers are both good decoders and good interpreters of text, their
decoding skills becoming more automatic but no less important as their reading skill
develops (Eskey 1988).
Advantages of picture-books storytelling and reading
All children love stories. Reading stories to children can be a central part of classroom life
which is very unusual in China. There are many advantages of picture books storytelling and
reading, such as:
1) Pictures tell stories. The writer or the illustrator of a picture book draws very unusual
pictures. Teachers can find many things we want according to their teaching objects.
2) Stories are motivating so that students will always be willing to listen or read by
themselves.
3) Stories are rich in language experience. Students want to find meaning in stories, so
they listen or read with a purpose.
4) Stories can enhance students’ listening, speaking and reading skills. When they listen
and read the stories, there is a positive attitude to not understanding everything. So
their skills of searching for meaning, predicting and guessing are trained as well.
5) Stories help students become aware of the general ‘feel’ and form of the foreign
language. The language point, which including vocabulary and the sentence structures,
are introduced and made familiar through stories.
6) Picture-books in preschool level or level one reading standard are full of language
patterns which is easy to listen and follow and easy to remember as well so student can
read by themselves after teachers stories telling.
7) Picture-books storytelling need students’ involvement. Students look at the pictures and
listen to teachers telling and then answer the questions about the pictures or what heard
and saw a while ago.
Drawing on the above theories, we decide that story-reading can be a good top-down device
to solve the problem identified in this project, as stories are interesting and can actively
involve the students as more “motivated participants”; and in most cases, the stories are
slightly more advanced than the students’ current language level, but given the context of the
story, those otherwise incomprehensible contents may turn out to be “comprehensible input”
(Harmer, 2000).
73
Project Design
Drawing on the discovery of the problem analysis and rationale quoted above, a project is
designed to improve the students’ reading ability by integrating storyreading in their
classroom learning.
Research tools
Five data collection instruments will be used in the research: pre-test (see Appendix IV),
post-test (see Appendix V), reflection notes (see Appendix III), pre-questionnaire (see
Appendix VI), and interview notes (see Appendix VII)
Target group and Control group
Two groups of students will be needed for comparison, the Target group, who will use the
innovative picture-books story-telling and reading method, and the Control group, who will be
taught in the same traditional way. The sample groups consisted of two classes of Grade 3
students, who were about the same English level at the beginning of the project. They were
taught by the same teacher, but in different ways. Students of Class 4, Grade 3 comprised
the Target class and used for picture-books story-telling and reading practice. There are 3
English teaching periods in a week. Every period has 40 minutes. They were asked to spend
10 minutes to listen to a picture-book story in each 40-minute period. Then they borrow the
same book from school library and take it home to read or read in library. Students of Class
5, Grade 3 served as the Control Group and continued to use traditional method, namely, the
bottom-up method, to practice English reading.
Teaching materials
5 picture books will be needed in the project. They should be suitable for the students’
present English level and the content should be related to the students’ curriculum so as not
to interrupt their normal learning plan. 5 picture books (See Appendix I) were selected by the
researcher and the teacher (here it is the same person) from the school library. The content
of the 5 picture books were relevant to students’ normal English lesson topics, such as
colors, fruit, animals, body parts and school rules.
Story-telling and reading design
A ten-week story-telling and reading lesson plan was designed by the researcher, based on
the project objective, and especially pertinent to the students’ problems as analyzed in 2.2
Problem Analysis.
The project will last for ten weeks and have 5 periods, which include 5 picture books and 13
tasks. The table below is an overview of the project design:
74
Period
Week
Date
Story
Sept.
16
1
I&II
Lemons
are not
red?
Sep.29
2
III&IV
V&VI
Colors
3
VII&VIII
Oct..21
4
Foot book
IX&X
Tasks
-To make
students enjoy
the story.
-To become
aware of the
general “feel” of
the foreign
language.
-To guide
students read for
response by
showing the
pictures.
-To help students
read for the
purpose and get
the main ideas
1. Brainstorm what
they have seen and
heard
2. Listen and guess the
colors
3. Question and
10*6
answer
4. Prepare a short
play.
Oct.14
Go away,
big green
monster
Nov. 4
5
No, David
Time
(Min)
Objectives
-To guide
students to read
the
-use TPR to help
students
understand the
language
-To help the
students
understand some
of the vocabulary
and the grammar,
and then try to
tell stories to the
others.
5. use TPR to
understand the
language.
6. Have a competition
with students to see
who understand first
7. Answer the
questions step by step.
8. Complete the table
to focus on some
specific information.
10. Predict what will
happen next.
11. Try to tell the story
to the class.
12. Talk about the
rules at school so they
can build up the
background
knowledge.
13. make some rules
for class.
10*6
10*6
10*6
10*6
Table 2: Timetable of Project
Project Implementation
Here is the lesson plan for the first two weeks for illustration, and all the lesson plans can be
found in Appendix II.
Week I & II-- book 1: Lemons are not red.
75
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: fruit and colors
Materials: a picture book, Lemons are not red.
Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become
aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what fruit
they can see.
2. Read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words
they see.
3. look and guess. Lemons are not red. They are.....(yellow). ........(apples) are red..
4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer
the questions:
a) What color are lemons?
b) What are red?
c) What color are flamingos?
d) What are gray?
5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to borrow the book from the library and
read the picture book to their parents at home.
All the picture books are chosen for students to enjoy English and different thinking form
Chinese people. They are all connected with students life. For example, colors, fruits,
animals, body parts and school rules. The picture books are all drawn in colors and few
words, so they are easy for students to understand.
The activities for each story are relevant to students’ reading enhancement, such as
brainstorming what they have heard, predicting and guessing the next picture of the story,
answering the questions to get the general idea, filling charts to know the specific information
about the story, doing True or False exercises to obtain the detailed knowledge. In addition,
these activities will allow students to focus on the top-down method to practice listening.
Data collection
Pre and Post-test
Both classes will be pre-tested and post-tested at the beginning and end of the project. The
post-test should be similar to the pre-test so that the results of the two tests will be
comparable.
Reflection Notes
The teacher is supposed to keep teaching diaries after each lesson to help record the
students’ response and the teacher’s own observation. The researcher himself takes the
reflection notes after each lesson.
Questionnaire
After the post-test, the Target Group will be asked to fill out the post-questionnaire (See
Appendix VI) to investigate their attitudes and opinions about the storyreading, and showing
the result of the project as well.
Interview
76
During the process of the project, the researcher interviewed all students from the Target
Group to find out their perceptions of this new way of teaching. The interview questions are
included in the Appendix (The researcher has designed a flow chart (See Appendix VIII) to
monitor the progression of the project)
Students’ perception of the new method
Students’ opinion of the new teaching method is obtained through the post-questionnaire and
the post-interview. Their answers are presented and analyzed to reflect how well the picturebook story-telling method has been accepted by the students.
Students’ answers to the post-questionnaire
To Question 1 of the questionnaire (see Appendix VI) after the whole teaching, “Which one
do you prefer, the storytelling or the normal way of teaching”, 37 out of 48 students chose the
storytelling method, which means that 77% of them feel positively towards picture-books
storytelling and reading.
To Question 2, “How much do you think your listening, speaking and reading interest
increased through listening stories”, more than half of the students (29) think their listening,
speaking and reading interest has been increased significantly (see Graph 1) and 17 other
students admit that they have been slightly more interested. Only 2 students feel that there is
no change.
To sum up, the results for the two questions proved that the picture books storytelling in this
project met the needs and interests of the majority of the students.
number of Students: 48
2
increased a lot
17
29
increased a
little
not increased
Graph 1: Students’ evaluation on listening, speaking and reading interest
77
Students’ answers in the interview
In the interview, all of the students said they have become more interested in listening to and
reading the English picture books and the main reason is that stories have beautiful pictures
and plots and are not boring and mechanical as the drills they had before. This revealed, in
general, storytelling is well accepted by the students and helped enhance their motivation in
English listening.
Students’ self-evaluation in the questionnaire
Only the post-questionnaire answers will be considered to determine the students’ selfevaluation of their performance in the new pedagogical arrangement.
To Question 3 in the questionnaire, “How much do you feel you can understand the stories
told in your English lessons”, no students reply that he/she cannot understand the story while
more than 2/3 (38 students) feel they can understand most of the story. Graph 2 shows the
students’ evaluation on listening comprehension.
Number of students: 48
nothing, 0
whole
story, 14
small part,
10
nothing
small part
most part
whole story
most part,
24
Graph 2: Students’ evaluation on listening comprehension
To Question 5, “How much do you feel your listening ability has improved during the ten
weeks?”, although two students felt no changes during the project implementation, all the
other 46 students felt that they made more or less improvement (see Graph 3).
78
Number of students: 48
great
improvement,
10
no change, 2
no change
little improvement
great improvement
little
improvement,
26
Graph 3: Students’ evaluation on listening, speaking and reading ability
From the above analysis implies that picture-books storytelling is a natural and effective way
of fostering children’s comprehension through listening, answering and reading.
Comparison of the pre-test and post-test
Table 3 presents the results of the pre-test of the Target Group and the Control Group. As
can be seen from Table 3, the students in the two groups were about the same level before
the project, with the mean score of the Target Group (93.7) slightly higher than the Control
Group (90.8).
Group
Target Group
Control Group
No. of students
48
38
Total score
100
Mean
93.7
91.8
Table 3: Pre-test Scores
Table 4 presents the results of the post-test of the two groups. It shows that students of the
Target Group perform better than the Control Group after the project, although the difference
is still not significant (only 2.7 as compared with the 1.9 disparity in the pre-test).
Group
Target Group
Control Group
No. of students
48
38
Total score
100
Table 4: Post-test Scores
79
Mean
93.1
89.4
Comparing the means of the Target Group and the Control Group (see Graph 4), we can
conclude that the students from the Target Group were making steady progress in the posttest, though the progress was not obvious.
However, we should also note that the mean score of the post-test were lower than that of
the pre-test (see Graph 4). The strange phenomenon might be due to various reasons, such
as not appropriate difficulty level designed for the post-test paper, lacking of the time, and so
on, but it can still contribute to the conclusion that the picture-books story-telling method is
superior to the traditional one.
95
94
93
92
系列1
91
系列2
90
89
88
87
pre-test
post-test
Graph 4: Comparison of the Control Group and the Target Groups
Findings from the interview
In the interview, all the students gave positive comments such as “it improves my listening,
speaking and reading ability” “helps me to memorize more words” “helps me to pronounce
the word correctly” and moreover, “It has broaden my horizons.” (Translated by the author,
see Appendix VII).
Findings from Teaching Notes
Author’s reflection notes (see Appendix III) show the students are becoming more active than
before; they showed great interest in picture-books and the new reading, listening and
answering methods, and they are willing to read the story after class. The students made
much more progress in reading and listening ability, for instance, they can understand the
meaning of the story, they can predict the plot of the story though they can tell in English,
and they know how to build up background knowledge, etc.
From the above data, it obviously indicates that the students benefit from the storytelling and
reading after class and the methods used is helpful for the listening, speaking and reading
ability enhancement.
80
Unsolved problems
Despite the prevailing positive statistics result, there exist a number of unsolved problems.
The following is a brief description of them.
Firstly, the research also reveals that 11 students preferred the normal teaching way, as
shown to Question 1 in the questionnaire. It might be because of the reasons as follows:
1) These students relied too much on the bottom-up method for listening, speaking and
reading. They were not used to the top-down method of listening, speaking and
reading..
2) The picture-books provided didn’t motivate them.
3) The activities the teacher did in class couldn’t arouse their interests.
Therefore, for the next research, the teacher should balance the use of different methods, or
in another word, make use of both bottom-up and top-down processing strategies, especially
at the beginning of the change.
Secondly, according to the answers to Question 2 and 5 in the questionnaire, there were still
a couple of students who did not think their listening, speaking and reading interest have
been increased. And there were two students who did not think their English listening,
speaking and reading ability has been improved. That might be because of the picture-books
the research chose were not of the right level of these students’. Besides, the lack of time
might be the other reason. Because the project took place was almost at the beginning of the
semester and the beginning of English learning. We should not expect a ten-week project to
reduce every problem.
Thirdly, as can be seen in Graph 4 (in 7.3), the post-test means were lower than the pre-test
one. The following reasons might influence the test score:
1) The difficulty level designed for the post-test paper was much higher than the
students’ level.
2) The ten-week project was not long enough to make the significant achievements.
3) Some of the students might not be used to the new way of teaching.
4) Students just began to learn English, so they are not so good at English and some of
them even don’t know how to the test.
Therefore, the more thorough long-term plan by using picture-books storytelling and reading
should be designed in the future study.
Conclusion
It has been widely recognized that listening, speaking and reading skill is among the most
important skills in the language learning of primary school students, so teachers have
become more concerned with developing students’ listening, speaking and reading ability.
However, how to better improve the students’ listening, speaking and reading ability is a
question unanswered. Will larger amount of bottom-up listening drills do the magic? Will
some more interesting and practical listening tasks do a better job? A project was designed
to help students to listen and read with a clear purpose so as to get the main ideas and
specific information more effectively though enjoying carefully adapted stories.
The project was based on the rationale of top-down processing, comprehensible input, the
role of the learner in the listening and participating process and the many advantages of
storytelling. The project hypothesis is that using picture-books storytelling and reading will
81
enhance students’ listening, speaking and reading comprehension. During the
implementation, the five-period picture-books storytelling and reading plan was used to meet
the needs and to improve the interest of the young learners.
The project lasted ten weeks and four types of data were collected: the pre-test and post-test
for both the Control Group and the Target Group, the teaching diaries by the teacher, the
questionnaire for all the Target Group students and the interview of five students from the
Target Group. The analysis of pre-test and post-test scores demonstrates that the mean
scores of the Target Group is higher than the Control Group after the ten-week experiment,
although the difference is not significant. However, all the other types of data clearly show
that the Target Group perform much better than the Control Group. The teacher’s reflection
notes record that the Target Group become more active in class; the answers to the
questionnaire reveal that the Target Group students are more interested in English listening,
and the interview notes uncover that the reason of the increased interest is mainly the new
element of story-telling in class. In summary, it can be concluded that the students’ listening
ability and interest have been enhanced by storytelling. Therefore the original project
hypothesis has been proved to be correct. In a word, this project was generally successful.
Therefore, for primary teachers who want to enhance students listening and reading
effectively, and then develop a good habit of listening and reading, picture-books storytelling
is a better choice than the normal way of teaching listening and reading which is known as
bottom-up method.
Despite the positive findings and implications gained from this study, there exist a number of
limitations. Firstly, more flexible method should have been used and more specific listening
and reading skills should have been trained in the project so that students of different levels
and learning styles can be accommodated. Secondly, due to time constraints, the ten-week
project might be too short for the students to make measurable achievements in listening and
reading practice, which is explains why the difference of the mean test scores between the
two groups is not significant enough. Finally, the experimental lesson plan should allow some
unexpected interruptions, such as the public holiday or the examination time. Therefore,
continual studies should be done in the future, where a more flexible lesson plan should be
adopted and a longer experiment time can be sustained. The researcher is confident that a
more scientific and significant experiment result can be expected then.
References
Kewaza, Samuel; Welch, Myrtle I. Big Class Size Challenges: Teaching Reading in Primary
Classes in Kampala, Uganda's Central Municipality. Online Submission, US-China
Education Review A v3 n5 p283-296 May 2013
Kusdemir Kayiran, Bilge; Karabay, Aysegul. A Study on Reading Comprehension Skills of
Primary School 5th Grade Students--Learning Basic Reading and Writing Skills
through Phonics-Based Sentence Method or Decoding Method. Educational
Sciences: Theory and Practice, v12 n4 p2854-2860 Aut 2012
N'Namdi, Kemba A. Guide to Teaching Reading at the Primary School Level. United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Duke, Nell K.; Block, Meghan K。 Improving Reading in the Primary Grades. Future of
Children, v22 n2 p55-72 Fall 2012
82
Ciampa, Katia。 Reading in the Digital Age: Using Electronic Books as a Teaching Tool for
Beginning Readers. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, v38 n2 Sum
2012
Sidek, Harison Mohd. EFL Reading Instruction: Communicative Task-Based Approach
Online Submission, International Journal of Instruction v5 n2 p109-128 Jul 2012
Loh, Jason Kok Khiang. Reflecting, Shaking and Being Shook: Resistance in a Primary
Classroom. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, v9 n3 p160-168 Dec 2010
Appendix I.
All the picture books, one sentence , one picture. And also some picture books have some
moving parts.
Lemons are not red. Laura Vaccaro Seeger Roaring Brook Press (Aug. 22nd , 2006)
Lemons are not red. Lemons are yellow. Apples are red.
Carrots are not purple. Carrots are orange. Eggplants are purple.
flamingos are not gray. Flamingos are pink. Elephants are gray.
Reindeer are not white. Reindeer are brown. Snowmen are white.
Grass is not blue. Grass is green. The sky is blue.
The moon is not black. The moon is silver. The night is black.
Good night!
Colors Eric Carlel Puffin books (April 20th, 2009)
Green caterpillar, leaf.
Red apple, strawberry.
Orange orange, yellow cheese.
Blue plum, brown cocoon.
Many colors butterfly.
Go away, big green monster Ed Emberley LB Kids (April 1st, 1993)
Big green monster has two big yellow eyes,
A long bluish-greenish nose,
A big red mouth with sharp white teeth,
Two little squiggly ears,
Scraggly purple hair,
And a big scary green face!
But...
...YOU DON’T SCARE ME! SO GO AWAY, scraggly purple hair!
Go away, two little squiggly ears!
Go away, long bluish-greenish nose!
Go away, big green face!
Go away, sharp white teeth!
Go away, two big yellow eyes!
Go away, big Green Monster!
And DON’T COME BACK Until I say so.
83
The Foot Book. Dr. Seuss Random House Books for Young Readers (Oct. 12th,1968)
Left foot, left foot, right foot, right.
Feet in the morning, feet at night.
Left foot, left foot, left foot, right
Wet foot, Dry, high, low foot.
Front feet, back feet, red feet, black feet.
Left foot, right foot, feet, feet, feet.
How many, many feet you meet.
Slow feet, quick feet, trick feet, sick feet.
Up feet, down feet, here come clown feet.
Small feet, big feet, here come pig feet.
His feet, her feet, fuzzy fur feet.
In the house and on the street, how many, many feet you meet.
Up in the air feet, over a chair feet.
More and more feet, twenty-four feet.
Here come more and more..... and more feet
Left foot. Right foot. Feet. Feet. Feet. Oh, how many feet you meet!
No, David. David Shannon Blue Sky Press (Sept. 1st, 1998)
David’s mon always said...
No, David!
No, David!
No! No! No!
Come back here, David!
David! Be quiet!
Don’t play with your food!
That’s enough, David!
Go to your room!
Settle down!
Stop that this instant!
Put your toys away!
Not in the house, David!
I said no, david!
Davey, come here.
Yes, david...I love you!
Appendix II.
Week I&II -- book 1: Lemons are not red.
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: fruit and colors
Materials: a picture book
Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become
aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what fruit
they can see.
2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words
they see.
84
3. look and guess. Lemons are not red. They are.....(yellow). ........(apples) are red....
the questions:
Q1: What color are lemons?
Q2: What are red?
Q3: What color are flamingos?
Q4: What are gray?
5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or
borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home.
Week III&IV -- book 2: colors.
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: colors
Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware
of the general “feel” of the foreign language
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what
colors they can see.
they see.
3. look and guess.
T: What color is the caterpillar?
Ss: Green.
T: what color is the leaf?
Ss: Green.
T: yes, it’s green too. Where is the green caterpillar?
Ss: on the leaf.( some of them could answer
4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students read the story again, then answer the
questions:
Q1: What color is the caterpillar?
Q2: What color is the leaf?
Q3: What color is the apple?
Q4: What color is the strawberry?
Week V&VI – book 3: Go away, big green monster
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: body parts
85
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what
body parts they can see.
they see.
3. look and guess.
What color are the eyes?. They are.....(yellow). .what is greenish and bluish? (nose)....
4. listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer
the questions:
Q1: What color are monster’s eyes?
Q2: What is greenish-bluish ?
Q3: What color is mouth?
Q4: What is white and sharp?
....
Week VII&VIII -- book 4: the foot book
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: all kinds of feet and rhyme
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what body
parts they can see.
they see.
3. look and guess. This is the left foot. This is the....(right) foot. This is morning. This is
night....
4. Listen to story read by the teacher and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the
story again, then answer the questions:
Q1: which foot? Left or right? Good , right.
Q2: what feett? Good, right. Feet in the morning. Feet at night.
Q3: what foot? Wet foot, right. Dry foot, right.
Q4: What foot? Front foot, right. Back foot, right. .......
Week IX&X -- book 5: No, David.
Time: 6*10 minutes
Content: rules in school and home
86
Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what they
can see.
they see.
3. look and guess.
This is a boy. His name is David.
He likes to play. See...
His mother said, No, David.
He wants to play food. His mother said,
No, david.(help ss say it)
...
the questions:
Q1: who is this boy??
Q2: what’s he doing now??
Q3: What is his mother saying?
Q4: What does he want to do now?
Appendix III Reflection notes
Reflection I
When I was reading lemons are not red to students, it was the first time for them to look at
English picture books. All students opened their eyes wider to find out what was in the book
because it was different from their text books. When I showed the cover to them, some
students shouted out “lemon” at once. Then I asked students to look at the cover again and
asked “what color is the lemon?” “Red.” When I asked Are lemons red? Some of them
answered?” No”, others looked confused. I continued asking the students who answered
“No.” “What color are lemons? They said “yellow.”
I confirmed them,” Yes, you are right. Lemons are not red. Lemons are yellow.” Then I turned
over the page showing the real color of the lemon. Because this book is carved in shape of
fruit and animals, one side of page is real color and the other is the color of another object.
This attracted all the students because they were curious to find out what came next. This
motivated them a lot and they also wanted to see whether their predictions were right or
wrong.
87
I finished reading lemons are not red in 6 teaching periods and all the students were anxious
to know what was in the book, but left several pages for students to find out in the school
library. This book was a successful beginning of my picture-books storytelling method which I
believe will lead to fruitful ending.
Reflection II
My second picture book is colors by Eric Carle from his book my very first library.
There are 4 books in this serial and chose the colors because it is connected with the book I
read the first time and it is connected with our teaching topic colors as well. First, as usual, I
read the first several pages to them and showed the pictures, and then I stopped because I
was going to ask questions about what I read and what they saw. While I asked students to
guess the color of a leaf, most of students shouted green, and this impressed me a lot
because I never taught them the word “leaf” but I just read it once for them just now.
Students’ learning abilities are really good enough to read or listen something higher than
their present learning materials. What moved me more was the word caterpillar which has 4
syllables, but my students just started learning English for not more than 2 months. Also,
students themselves got excited because they could get the correct answers about what I
asked them. Most of students got involved in my class and in my picture book. Of course,
when they got the right answer, they would get a star for their team. The funniest thing was
that when I asked to guess what color was the last picture, they gave me different colors but I
said they were all right and they were very confused and wondered why. Before I showed
them the last picture, I asked to think it over and tell me why. One of them raised her hand
and said” the caterpillar became a butterfly now.” It really impressed me.
88
Reflection III
When I showed the book ”Go away, big green monster!” , all my students were letting out a
cry. They were all attracted by the cover because its there was a monster on the cover. I
asked them colors and body parts then moved to describe the color of the body parts and
they all did very well because they learned the colors in unit 2 of their text books and body
parts in Unit 3. When I stopped at the one sixth of the book, they all felt a little disappointed.
They seemed interested in this book but I had to pause there because picture-books are only
part of my lessons and I do not use pictures books to teach them but to improve their
interests, listening, speaking and reading skills. And also this is a little trick for teachers to
teach students. We don’t finish good things at one time. We let students expect you to come
to classroom with a good story book. When I finished five sixth of this book, I asked them to
borrow this book from school library and read it to dad and mum. Luckily, after class, my
students all rushed to library to borrow this book and this made me feel very successful and
proud.
Reflection IV the foot book
(Body part and numbers)
When I showed the book to the students, they were all attracted by the cover. They all
thought it to be a monster book. The funniest thing was that when I asked “how many feet do
I have?” all the students answered “two”, but I said I had “”four”, they were all surprised. They
soon said “arms are not feet”. When I said” I have 2 arms and 4 feet”, they were completely
89
lost. Then I asked:” Do you know why?” but they all shook their heads. I asked a boy stand
behind me and hold me tight and said “I have 4 feet, see?”. All the students laughed happily.
When I said,” I have 6 feet”, another boy ran fast to me voluntarily and stood behind the boy
who was behind me. Then the “snake” became longer and longer.
When I finished the whole book, I found there were too many adjectives for them to
remember, but some of the students could the most of the adjectives. Of course, my object
was that they could say left and right, foot and feet, how many feet and numbers 1-48. Their
abilities to learn really impressed me a lot.
Reflection V No, David
(Rules)
When I showed this book, all the students laughed. When I asked them why they were
laughing, they said this boy was funny and this boy was ugly. When I asked them what the
boy was doing, one of them said he was to eat the fish and another one said he was to catch
the fish.
Every time I explained a picture and my students could understand and then they would say,”
No, David.” They are quick learners and they can do say something above their English
level.
Since then, my students can say” no …”, while I am pointing to someone who is not listening
to my class. It impresses me a lot. Students learning abilities are really impressive and more
than you can think of. While I finished this five books, I thought I should read more English
picture books to them and they should read more at home and at library.
Appendix IV pre-test
I. Listen and circle the words you hear
1. A. pen
B. pencil
2. A. ruler B. Crayon
3. A. eraser B. Pencil box
4. A. pencil B. Ruler
5. A. book B. Bag
6. A. hello B. Hi
7. A. welcome B. OK
8. goodbye B. Bye
90
II.Llisten and number
91
III．Listen and“√”.
92
IV. listen and choose what you hear
1. A. Hello! I’m Wu Yifan. B. Hi! I’m Sarah.
2. A. Show me your eraser. B. Show me your crayon.
3. A. Open your pencil box. B. Close your pencil box.
4. A. I have a book. B. I have a ruler.
5. A. Close your book. B. Carry your bag.
V. Read and circle
1.
A. bag
B. book
2.
A. pencil
B. pencil box
3.
A. pen
B. ruler
4.
A. school
B. book
5.
A. crayon
B. eraser
VI. look and choose
1.
A. Show me your eraser.
B. Close your book.
2.
A. Open your pencil box.
B. Close your book.
3.
A. Show me your crayon.
B. how me your pen.
4.
A. I have a pencil.
B. I have a ruler.
93
VII. read and put“√” or “×” in the circles
VIII. match
A.
q
D.
n
E.
d
N.
a
Q.
e
F.
f
94
IX. match
( ) 1. Hi!
A. Me, too.
( ) 2. Goodbye!
B. I’m Sarah.
( ) 3. What’s your name?
C. Yes, i am.
( ) 4. Are you John?
D. Hello!
( ) 5. I have a bag.
E. Bye!
Appendix V Post-test
I. listen, draw and color
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
95
II．Listen and “√”
III．Listen and choose what you hear
(
(
(
(
(
) 1. A. red
) 2. A. ruler
) 3. A. purple
) 4. A. Sarah
) 5. A. white
B. pen
B. blue
B. orange
B.Mike
B. Miss White
C. bag
C. green
C. Ruler
C. Mom
C. Mr White
IV. listen and choose the response sentence
(
(
(
(
(
). 1. A. good morning!
) 2. A. OK!
) 3. A. Oh, no!
) 4. A. Goodbye!
) 5. A. Bye!
B. Good afternoon!
B. Bye!
B. Nice to meet you, too!
B. Fine, thank you.
B. Ok!
96
V. listen and choose the correct sentence on the blanks
A:
, Mike.
B: Good morning, Sarah.
A:
?
B: I’m fine, thanks.
A: This is my friend, John.
B:
.
C: Nice to meet you, too.
A:
!
B,C: Great!
Nice to meet you
B. Good morning.
C. Let’s paint
D. How are you
VI．Read and put the words below in category
Red pencil book white blue ruler
Crayon orange brown pencil-box
Colors:………………………………..
Stationary:……………………………
VII．Read and fill the letters
97
VIII. Read and choose
( ) 1. You want to invite friends to paint, you say?
A. Let’s play.
B. Let’s paint!
( ) 2. You introduce mike to others, you say?
A. I’m Mike.
B. This is Mike.
( ) 3. Which one can’t answer how are you?
A. Fine, thank you.
B. Thank you.
( ) 4. How do you say goodbye to mum?
A. Bye, mom!
B. Hello, mom!
( ) 5. You want your desk mate to color the bear nose brown you say?
A. Color it red.
B. Color it brown.
( ) 6. When you see blue, you say?
A. I see blue.
B. I see yellow.
IX. Read and match。
98
A. Show me your pen.
B. Sit down.
C. Stand up.
D. Turn around.
E. Touch the ground.
X. rearrange the sentences in correct order
(
(
(
(
(
) Hi, Mike. How are you?
) I’m fine. Thank you.
) Let’s paint.
) Hello, John.
) Ok.
Appendix VI. Questionnaire
(Picture books teaching questionnaire)
age：
gender：
Dear students,
We hope that we can get some ideas about picture books teaching through
this questionnaire. There is no right or wrong about your answer and your
answer will not affect your test scores. Just tell us what you think. Thank
99
you!
Choose what you think and tick (just one answer).
1. Which one do you prefer, the original class or picture books?
a. The original class
b. Picture books
2. Has your interest been improved in English listening, speaking and reading?
a. nothing improved
b. Improved a little
c. Improved a lot
3. How much do you understand of the picture book teacher told?
a. Nothing
b. A little
c. Most of them
d. All of them
4. Do you predict what will happen in the story?
a. Never
b. Sometimes
c. Usually
5.
Do you think you English listening, speaking and reading has been improved
during the past 2 and a half months?
a. Nothing improved
b. Improved a little
c. Improved a lot
Appendix VII. Students Interview Notes
Number of students: 48 ，here appeared 5.
1. do you like listening to and reading picture books？
Jasmine: yes.
Daphne：Yes
Lily：Yes
Felix：Yes
Qin：Yes
2. what progress have you made through listening to and reading picture books?
Jasmine: English reading and listening.
Daphne: I can read picture books myself.
Lily：My English score is higher.
Felix：My vocabulary is bigger.
Qin：English speaking is improved.
3. what you think of picture books?
Jasmine: I enjoyed Mr. EZ telling stories.(the teacher’s name is EZ)
Daphne：I found picture books interesting.
Lily：I feel that school should buy more picture books.
100
Felix：I enjoyed Mr. EZ reading picture books and I enjoyed reading them too.
Qin：I enjoyed Mr. EZ reading picture books.
4. can you give any suggestions about picture books reading class?
Jasmine: I hope Mr. EZ can read a book every class.
Daphne：I hope Mr. EZ can read an interesting book every class.
Lily：I hope my teacher can tell us a story each class.
Felix：I hope my teacher can read us a story book every day.
Qin: I hope my teacher can read more books to us.
101
Appendix VII
The project flow chart
102
Teenagers in school libraries! What
about the imaginaries and
expectations of digital natives?
Anne Cordier
Rouen University
France,
anne.cordier@univ-rouen.fr
Abstract
On an international scale, a new form of documentary mediation has merged,
which is embodied in the structural and physical evolution of documentary
spaces. In France, the school library (le "Centre de Documentation et
d'Information": CDI) is under the responsibility of a teacher-librarian. He is in
charge of teaching students information literacy along with managing the library.
Students are welcome to the CDI when they do not attend classes and want to
read or need to search information, but also in educational sessions led by the
teacher-librarian. At a time when teenagers are referred to as "digital natives",
what are their expectations in the school library? How to conceive school libraries
so that to help youngsters achieve autonomy in the Information and
Communication society?
Keywords: Young people,information practices, documentary space, mediation
Introduction
On an international scale, a new form of document mediation has merged, which is
embodied in the structural and physical evolution of document spaces. The quest for
autonomy of users-learners appears as a goal for the educational / epistemic institutions that
school and the libraries are. Autonomy when searching for information seems to have
become a kind of proof of personal accomplishment in our societies. In France, the school
library (le "Centre de Documentation et d'Information": CDI) is under the responsibility of a
teacher-librarian (professeur documentaliste) who is in charge of teaching students
information literacy on the one hand and managing the library on the other hand. Students
are welcome to the CDI when they do not attend classes and want to read or need to search
information, but also in educational sessions led by the teacher-librarian.
At a time when teenagers are referred to as "digital natives"(Barlow, 1996 ; Prensky, 2001),
what are their expectations in the school library? How to conceive school libraries so that to
help youngsters achieve autonomy in the Information and Communication society ?
103
This questioning will get some answers through the results of the ground research we have
been carrying out for years on teenagers and school librarians. Our research method mixes
practice and imaginary and is based on a contextual approach of the informational activity
that considers the practices observed as socially situated and determined by the symbolic
dimension of the location as well as of the people using the considered location.
We adopt a qualitative approach of data collection in order to seize in a better way the
imaginaries of young people and the “social thickness of the practice in construction”.
(Jeanneret, Souchier, Le Marec, 2003). We combine three survey methods : observations,
semi-directive interviews, and clarification interviews ; either individual or group interviews.
We have observed the behavior in the CDI of French students in high schools (“collèges”, 11 to
14 years old) and colleges (“lycées”, 15 to 18). Our intention was to question their relationships
with such a specific location within the educational institution and to check the validity of this
widespread claim : “digital natives” have a deeply different relationship with “places of
knowledge” (Jacob, 2007), and they reject traditional institutions such as libraries.
Our presentation is intended to pull apart such a scientifically flawed assertion and to give
voice to teenagers1. It is divided into three parts. In the first part, we will show how the school
library can be a real “laboratory for information practices” (Cordier, 2009), which combines
formal and non-formal practices. In the second part, we will analyze the students' imaginaries
and expectations in the school library and question their relationships with paper or online
search tools in the CDI. In the third part, we will show how the school library can be a lever to
train school students. Information professionals are indeed truly expected by “digital natives”
to provide to them a backup to autonomy in the information society.
The school library, a location questioned by the practices of the “digital
natives”
It is a fact that since the Internet has become important in public or private premises such as
public libraries, leisure centers, cafés and of course homes, it has fostered the development
of non-formal practices. As they are developed outside the school world, these practices
nourish and spoil at the same time the practices prescribed by the school institution (Cordier,
2011). Moreover, these non-formal practices which are very often unseen by school are
utterly rightful to the individuals for whom they are efficient and appropriate to their needs
and everyday activities.
A crossroad for formal and non-formal practices
That is why we argue in favor of the vision of the CDI as a crossroad designed to stimulate
both formal and non-formal practices.
Indeed, during educational sessions, the “Centre de Documentation et d'Information”
becomes a place for institutional training where the formality of learning is undeniable. It is
different when the place welcomes students with various purposes : searching information,
reading, relaxing... In this case, the CDI appears to be a place designed to welcome a
diversity of individual and/or group activities. The “professeurs documentalistes” refer to
these moments as “document coaching” instead of “document training”.
In a teaching-learning situation, a student's documentation practice is necessarily supervised
1
In order to make them understandable, we have translated into English the words of the
teenagers we have interviewed. It is obvious however that a translation will not report the nuances and
subtleties of the French language. We apologize for any inconvenience
104
and compelled. Contrariwise, everything gets possible for the student when in a situation of
informal research in the CDI. As no objective or pedagogical method are prescribed by a
teacher, the student can manage his “ways and means” (Certeau, 2004) ie he/she is allowed
wide latitude to manage his/her activity as he/she wishes. Therefore, each student in a
situation of informal research customizes his/her path and activity according to his/her
experience and representations, but also according to the uncertainties of the situation and
according to his/her mood.
Much can be learnt by academic researchers but also and above all by teachers themselves
from observing teenagers' unprompted information practices.
An ecological approach of the learner
This is indeed our proposal : what if the teacher-librarian takes the chance of the CDI being
an observatory of informal practices to develop training practices which would be much fitted
to the needs and usual practices of the students ?
As a matter of fact, when working, the students do not appear to us as abstract epistemic
subjects with disembodied cleverness ; they are social beings with secret behaviors, as they
are confronted with the torments they are trying to understand, to explain and to elucidate,
looking for a meaning to their endeavors.
It is indeed inconceivable to set aside informal information practices as they shape the
expectations and the behaviors as far as teaching information is concerned. Moreover, as
pointed out by Annette Béguin, a French researcher in Information and Communication
Sciences, these practices may be “resources” as well as “epistemological and/or didactic
obstacles for teachers” (Béguin, 2006). Eventually, taking into account the students' informal
research practices and using them as a support to develop our own professional practices,
either teaching or management ones, is a way for us to give social sense to the teaching of
information literacy.
That is why we take into account in our research the dimensions of imaginary and emotion
as they play an important part in the relationship people have with information and in the way
they develop information practices.
“Digital natives” and school libraries : a couple with a promising future
Joëlle Le Marec defines libraries as “cultural and training places” and says : “They are much
more symbolical and social places than mere technical objects ; they give an explicit
structure to practices” (Le Marec, 2006, p. 16). Inspired by this conviction, we focus on the
imaginary developed about libraries by the users and the connection between this imaginary
-which is partly influenced by the practices of the professionals- and the practices the users
develop.
A place rooted in the teenager's emotional and school backgrounds
The documentation space is what Michel de Certeau refers to as a “deposit of sense”, in
other words, the user reads it and interpret it, giving it a meaning and a function in his
informational and more widely biographical itinerary.
The school library plays an important part in the life of these school students ; they realized it
when they once visited a nearby university library, as shown by this conversion with Caroline
and Coraline, 16 :
AC : What do you think of this university library ?
105
Caroline : It is quiet, too quiet. I don't like it at all
Coraline : I don't like it either. There's no life here.
Caroline : Yes, that's it, no life ! We can't talk aloud, we are almost afraid to breathe. No
comparison with the CDI
AC : Why ?
Coraline : Well, in the CDI, we are free to do as we want, we feel there is life there, we can
talk, we feel at ease ! The CDI is full of life !
This says it all “we feel at ease! The CDI is fool of life”. The teenagers we met have often told
us of their feeling free to talk and at ease in the school library.
Aurore, 16, draws a comparison between the school library and the public library and once
more, it sounds the death knell : “I feel much at ease in the CDI, honestly, because we can
talk as we want, work the way we like, the way we're used to. The CDI is a place much suited
to us, to our way of working, while at the public library, it looks like we have to be different
from what we are in real life”.
The teenagers we have interviewed need the CDI to study, but it is also seen as a living
place where they can “mix study and pleasure” as said by Sabrina, 12. Flavien, 17, will not
compare the CDI to what he refers to as a “traditional library” : For me, the CDI is not a
traditional library because of course we can work in there, but it is also a place where we can
gather and where the teacher-librarian can give us pieces of advice and even discuss with
us, sometimes about non-school topics. The CDI is more lively. The library is only to work, it
is more serious”.
The way these teenagers read the spatial organization and the signage nourishes this vision
of the CDI. Coline, 11, pointed out that the school library is decorated with posters of movies
youngsters are interested in. Baptiste, 14, enjoys being allowed to move the tables inside the
CDI for a group work ; this is often not allowed in public libraries.
Eventually, if teenagers willingly plebiscite the school library, it I because there is there an
information professional responsive to their needs. In the imaginary of the students we have
met, there is no CDI without a teacher-librarian and vice versa.
Attending the CDI is the best way for a student to be helped by a teacher qualified in the field
of information. “If I have a problem, I know that [the teacher-librarian] is there to help me”,
Marion, 11, who often goes to the CDI for her researches, explained. College students
enjoys the school library when granted a margin of liberty by the teacher-librarian : “He
trusts us”, Justine, 15, pointed out, referring to the way the teacher-librarian manages the
place. Flavien, 17, agreed : “it's like home : if you're sensible, then you can do as you please.
I do like that, it is the best way of improving”.
Eventually, Kelly, 16, summed it up : “We're really at ease in our CDI, for sure ! With
[teacher-librarian] who is there just in case we need help, and we have our working habits
here !”
A documentation space with its own informational singularity
The school library is thus meaningful to teenagers as a living and studying place. But how
important is it to them when searching information is concerned ?
The question is worth being asked at a time when public discourses refer to “mutant
teenagers” who need no help from anyone to live in the information world.
106
Mark Prensky, an American consultant is indeed unequivocal : ” It is now clear that as a
result of this ubiquitous environment and the sheer volume of their interaction with it, today’s
students think and process information fundamentally differently from their predecessors”
(Prensky, 2001). Prensky's thesis is however denounced with no hesitation by quite a lot of
academic researchers, such as Sue Bennet who does not beat about the bush : “ He relies
on anecdotes, conjecture and speculation. Nonetheless his ideas have often been uncritically
repeated and cited as if fact” (Bennet, 2012).
We back such a disagreement. Considering “youngsters” as “digital natives” is a mere
smoke-screen that leads to cast an homogeneous glance to teenagers when they use the
Internet or digital technologies in general ; it also leads to hastily conclude that the digital
environment is a mere substitution of the printed information world. Many students we have
met, either in high schools or colleges, declare themselves non expert as far as searching
information on the Internet is concerned and even confess being apprehensive when a
project they are working on must end up with a digital production. We met for instance
Armelle, 17, who claims a need for training to the Internet : “I've got an I-Phone but I'm not an
expert though !”
But we have also been able to see that these students, even though exposed to a digital
atmosphere, have an almost traditional imaginary when libraries are concerned.
As part of a college university project, some college students had the opportunity of a
working session in a university library ; they beat the odds as they were very disappointed by
the place being modern. An informal conversation we had outside the university library with
Anaïs and Aurore, 16, deserves our attention :
Julie : I was disappointed actually ! I expected a dark place, you see, with large wooden
tables, dim lights, and actually, it was different !
Anaïs : Not at all, there were computers, modern furniture like in the CDI; it was very modern
all in all […]
AC : Do you consider working in a library with no computer ?
Anaïs : To be honest, yes... For me, computers don't make a library interesting to me.
Julie : [she interrupts Anaïs] We have computers at home, we don't need to find computers
everywhere.
The younger teenagers that we have met reveal the same imaginary through their practices
of the “Centre de Documentation et d'Information”. Once they are in the place, they are
“diverted” from digital tools. Many of them point out what makes it deeply different between
the CDI and other living places : a printed collection they don't have elsewhere.
Melissa, 11, for instance, has an Internet connection at home and is used to resorting
outside school to digital tools to search information. It is all different when she is in the CDI :
“When at school, I seize the opportunity to benefit from all these books ; they are beautiful,
you can't imagine how I like them. There are no books at home, they're so expensive”. Even
for Émilie, 11, from an upper-class family, the interest for the printed collection is much
higher than it is for digital tools ; this has an influence on her information search methodology
when she is in the CDI :
AC : My, is it a documentary book you are using ?
Émilie : yes, it is the CDI here, so I seize the opportunity
AC : What opportunity ?
Émilie : Books. Seeing all these books, I feel like touching them, looking at them !
AC : So are you doing your information search in books at the moment ?
107
Émilie : yes, I often do that when I'm in the CDI. There are loads of books waiting for me
[laughters] so, I use them !
AC : You told me however that you'd rather use the Internet usually.
Émilie : Yes, that's right ! When at home or at one of my friend's, I use the Internet, that's my
trick. But it's different here, even if I have books at home, not that much and not about so
many topics. So when I'm in the CDI, it's books first !
However, even in the school library, the information activity is undoubtedly influenced by
digital and mobile tools. In the CDI, there is no information search activity without resorting to
communication tools, whatever their kinds.
That is what happened in this college where the teacher-librarian lets the students use their
mobile phones when working in groups, particularly when students belonging to the same
group are located in different rooms : some in the CDI, some in the computer room and some
others in the classroom). We have been able to observe that self-regulation, especially
validating resources, was performed through text messages.
Another mobile tool take an important part, when it is allowed, in teenagers' information
activities : the MP3 player. Many teenagers, especially boys, turn it on when they need
isolation within their own groups. They enjoy being able to transpose their usual working
habits from their bedrooms to the school library, as Mathieu, 17, pointed out : “At home, I
always works like that, so when in the CDI, I'm glad I can do it too. It helps me concentrate
on my work. I feel like home !”
The school library is thus a place where information and communication practices are utterly
multimedia.
The school library provides assistance to the « digital natives »
Is it time then, as Vincent Liquète, Cécile Gardiès and Isabelle Fabre said, to “reconsider
document mediation” (Liquète et al., 2010) ?
This implies for us another questioning, and a fertile one : how can the teacher-librarian back
on the information space to teach information and documentation in a contextualized and
efficient way ?
Mediation through the space : a lever to teach information literacy
Isabelle Fabre, a researcher in Information and Communication Sciences asserted that “a
documentation system contains the ability of providing support” (Fabre, 2009). The space is
an integral part of a documentation system. Hence the special attention to be paid to the CDI
as a documentation space, as a place for information but also for developing information
practices.
To our mind, it is a mediation of sense that can be fostered in the CDI by the teacherlibrarian. The aim is to enable students to realize the various potentialities of action which
are offered by the space, in other words the information context they are evolving in. This
construction of affordances (we mean being aware of the action potentialities a context
offers) relies on the way a professional will educate a student's capacity of paying attention.
Such a capacity can only develop if a student is encouraged to investigate tools and
methods, to be thoughtful of his/her procedures and productions, in other words, to be
undertaking.
Implementing adapted learning methods
108
A documentation space is considered as a tool for the professionals as it helps them foster
their students' autonomy (Fabre, 2009).
Autonomy is the ability of learning by oneself from the context (Liquète, Maury, 2007).
Thanks to his/her expertise, the teacher-librarian can take advantage of a context he/she
contributes to create to develop information teaching situations that aim the quest for
autonomy. Then, planning the space and utilizing it pedagogically and didactically, the
teacher-librarian can convert it into an “area of encouraged actions”. This area includes “all
the activities, objects and places gathered in a space of action with the aim of helping a
student enhance his/her potentiality of action, and therefore his/her capacity of action' (Bril,
2002, p. 258).
When evaluating the information potentiality of the context he/she is evolving in, the student
is really able to formalize the documentation methodology he/she is setting up. Indeed, the
context where practices are developing can be considered as the cognitive extension of the
human beings who are part of it. This context is then equivalent to a set of cognitive
resources an actor can draw on to perform an action (Proulx, 2000). The collaborative
activities allowed in the school library, as they commit students into a collective issue
resolution process, encourage them to think upon their own cognitive processes and help
them to acquire culture of participation, an necessary skill in the information world. However,
it seems essential to us to also think of the space in a virtual dimension (Lamizet, 1998). We
do not regard the virtual space as complementary to the real space, but we consider both as
a continuum, a complex and boundless information world.
That is why information professionals bear a great responsibility nowadays, as they they are
provided with a particularly mighty mediation tool, the school library, to foster their users'
emancipation. It is up to them, it is up to all of us collectively to work upon the development
of information potential for everyone, that is to say the ability for an individual to enhance his
skills, either quantity wise or quality wise (Yoon, 2008). Such a skill is all the more essential
for constructing information culture that it stands in a proactive vision of learning and is a key
factor in the ability of the individual to adapt to future environments.
Conclusion
As attested by our research, the future looks bright for the school library, and the teenagers
we have met agree on that ! The school library is a living place and a meeting place but also
an outstanding educational tool to develop a multifaceted, collaborative and emancipatory
information culture.
We must not however be mistaken : it is not only a matter of space ! Care must be taken not
to restrict mediation to the student's information context. Thinking on spaces to develop
information autonomy does not restrict to interior layout, equipment nor usage. Some
complex issues are at stake, such as the question of taking into account usual information
practices and of course, last but not least, the professional's position in a space where
mediation is important.
We are persuaded that the school library -CDI- is a significant factor of “being-in-theinformation-world”, which is for us a set of attitudes, values, imaginaries and practices
associated with attendance to information environments.
References
Barlow, John (1996). Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace. July 30, 2011.
Retrieved form : https://projects.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html
109
Béguin-Verbrugge, Annette (2006). Pourquoi faut-il étudier les pratiques informelles des
apprenants en matière d’information et de documentation ?. Communication au
colloque CIVIIC « Histoire et savoirs », Rouen, mai 2006.
Bennett, Sue (2012). Digital natives. In YAN, Z. (Eds). Encyclopedia of Cyber Behavior.
United States : IGI Global, vol.1, 212-219. Retrieved from :
http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2364&context=edupapers
Bril, Blandine (2002). Apprentissage et contexte. Intellectica, 35, 251-268.
Certeau, Michel de (2004). L’invention du quotidien. 1 : Arts de faire. Paris :
Gallimard.
Cordier, Anne (2009). Le CDI : un laboratoire à la croisée des mondes. Médiadoc, 3, 6-10.
Cordier, Anne (2011). Imaginaires, représentations, pratiques formelles et non formelles de
la recherche d’information sur Internet : Le cas d’élèves de 6ème et de professeurs
documentalistes. Thèse de Doctorat en Sciences de l’Information et de la
Communication, sous la direction de Éric Delamotte et Vincent Liquète, Lille 3.
Retrieved from : http://tel.archivesouvertes.fr/docs/00/73/76/37/PDF/THESE_Volume_1.pdf
Fabre, Isabelle (2009). Capacité du dispositif documentaire à révéler son rôle
d’accompagnement. Esquisse, 52, 127-139. Retrieved from : http://oatao.univtoulouse.fr/1941/
Jacob, Christian (dir.) (2007). Lieux de savoir : espaces et communautés. Paris : Albin
Michel.
Jeanneret, Yves, Souchier, Emmanuel, Le Marec, Joëlle (2003). Lire, écrire, récrire : objets,
signes et pratiques des médias informatisés. Paris : BPI.
Le Marec, Joëlle (2006). Les musées et bibliothèques comme espaces culturels de
formation. Savoirs, 2006/2, 11, 09-38.
Liquete, Vincent, Fabre, Isabelle, Gardies, Cécile. Faut-il repenser la médiation
documentaire ?. Les Enjeux de l’Information et de la Communication, 43-57.
Liquete, Vincent, Maury, Yolande (2007). Le travail autonome : comment aider les élèves à
l’acquisition de l’autonomie. Paris : Armand Colin.
Prensky, Marc (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon, 9 (5), 01-06.
Proulx, Serge (2000). La construction sociale des objets informationnels : matériaux pour
une ethnographie des usages. Réseaux, Savoirs et Territoires. Retrieved from:
http://barthes.ens.fr/atelier/articles/proulx2000.html
110
Yoon, C.G. (2008). A structural model of end-user computing competency and user
performance. Knowledge-Based Systems, 21.
Biographical note
Anne Cordier is a former teacher-librarian. She has a PhD in Information and Communication
Science. She is now an Associate professor (maître de conférences) at Rouen University.
She is very involved in the training of teacher-librarians. She is also involved into several
research projects among which is “Translit”. Her personal research focuses on imaginaries of
information and informational practices, and a reflection about places of information.
Her most recent contributions was in the European Conference on Information Literacy 2014
in Dubrovnik (Croatia) with Anne Lehmans about “Transliteracy and knowledge formats”.
She’s one of the authors of Culture of Information a book recently published by Vincent
Liquète (CNRS, Essentiels Hermès, 2014).
111
Ethical dilemmas for researchers
working in international contexts
Ray Doiron, PhD
University of Prince Edward Island, Canada
Marlene Asselin, PhD
University of British Columbia, Canada
Keywords: Ethics, Researchers, International contexts
Introduction
The International Association for School Librarianship (IASL) has a reputation for supporting
and disseminating research informing school librarianship around the world. Since the
organization serves a multi-national and multi-cultural library community, it has the
responsibility to promote sound ethical procedures for all research. This can raise serious
dilemmas for researchers planning to work in Global South countries with few or different
ethical standards for conducting research when, as members of the Global North academic
community, we are bound by strict guidelines covering ethical procedures. These dilemmas
can include: 1) differing views on what counts as research: 2) differing values and policies on
gender, religion, inclusive practices and other social and cultural areas; 3) the
insider/outsider phenomenon (white privileged researchers working in non-white
communities; and 4) developing research instruments that are culturally sensitive. These
dilemmas present serious challenges as we set out to conduct research in school and
community libraries in remote/rural areas and large urban centers where frontline staff have
little or no experience with, nor knowledge of, educational research. Researchers are
charged then to pay serious attention to issues of positionality, paradigms of what is “truth”,
iterative methods and analyses, as well as an overarching awareness of their reflexivity
throughout the research process. Research in this context becomes a continuous process of
examining our relationship with fellow researchers and research participants, the dynamics of
that relationship, and its relationship to the research that is undertaken. Without a self-critical
lens through which we engage in the research process we run the risk of placing ourselves in
the position where “ethical research guidelines {as imposed by Universities} could be yet
another western construct that create a global discourse of ‘our way’ is the ‘right way’ to do
things” (Skelton, 2008, p. 29).
Over the past two decades, the ethics of research involving children and youth has become a
prominent topic in the literature (Powell, Fitzgerald, Taylor, & Graham, 2012), sparking a
proliferation of resources for researchers (Alderson & Morrow, 2011; Childwatch International
Research Network, n.d.; Graham, Powell, Taylor, Anderson & Fitzgerald, 2013; Young Lives,
n.d.; UNICEF Office of Research, n.d). Spurred by the UN Convention on the Rights of the
Child (1989) and the emergence of the sociology of childhood (Mayall, 2002), accordant
rights-protecting procedures were instituted and methods of research designed to enable
112
voices of children and youth to be heard to various degrees throughout the research process.
However, from an international perspective, this paradigm of research with children and the
knowledge generated by it are unbalanced since . . . ‘only a little more than 10% of the
world’s children live in the developed countries of Europe, North America and other
European outposts... yet the research is heavily concentrated on children from these places”
(Pence & Nsamenang, 2008, p.14).
How then should researchers working with children in school and community libraries
develop research that assures fair and respectful ethical procedures? What role do children
play in the research process – subject, informant or participant? How can Western
researchers approach research in developing countries where expectations for ethical
research may or may not exist? This paper takes a critical perspective on these issues by: 1)
reflecting on the various stances that researchers take in approaching new research; 2)
comparing expectations for ethics in developed and developing countries; and 3) identifying
the position children are placed in before, during and after research projects. We begin our
discussion by examining some of the current political, economic and ethical challenges
facing researchers wishing to work in international contexts.
Research Challenges
All research is influenced by the political climate in which it is generated and then conducted.
In Canada, we see several examples of what could be called ‘political interference’ when we
see major research organizations issue calls for proposals usually framed within specified
themes, such as gender issues, aboriginal culture or adult/workplace literacy. Often these
themes come with expectations that partnerships and collaborations will be developed;
outcomes and deliverables will be achieved; and some economic impact will accrue from the
research. This becomes a pressure for ‘real’ results and ‘real world’ applications that can
stifle some forms of research and leave researchers chasing projects that meet the criteria of
the themes outlined by the governing research bodies. Similarly university research offices
frame their research directions within the same thematic frameworks and review proposals
with key national criteria in place.
In international contexts, political and economic pressures are also exerted on researchers,
non-governmental agencies, as well as government departments of education and health.
Many African countries for example are currently being supported by large international aid
organizations e.g., (US AID, British Council, Australia AID) who bring new energy, reform
and money to help emerging economy countries meet Millennial Development Goals (MDG)
and achieve “literacy for all’. These initiatives are also closely monitored through large-scale
assessments and mostly quantitative program evaluations. Since with in-country researchers
have limited research experiences, these major ‘outside’ initiatives dominate the research
landscape. In similar ways, local governments set their educational priorities with many
countries emphasizing secondary and post-secondary initiatives that see new universities
and colleagues being established and priority being given to science and technology
programs.
113
Funding Challenges
Tied closely to the political agendas of governments, foundations, donor and international aid
agencies are issues related to research funding. It takes financial resources to be able to
develop research projects and in the Canadian context, funding sources are closely tied to
the political and long-range goals outlined by these organizations. A ‘corporate’ model has
emerged with funders expecting results that will further their agendas. Most universities and
colleges in Canada have clear statements outlining the research foci that will be supported –
collaborative, interdisciplinary, marginalized groups with increasing expectations for
researchers to be finding international partners for their projects. It would be fair to say that
without attention to these criteria, a researcher would likely not get funded.
Most universities in Canada have also developed large research offices with a growing staff
for managing and leading research in each faculty, searching for new funding sources,
supporting grant writing, and leading efforts at research dissemination. Strategic vision
statements have been written in most institutions and these documents guide the types of
funding grants that will be supported.
In the international context, the links between political agendas and research funding are just
as obvious. With most of the funding for major literacy initiatives coming from outside the
country (such as from international aid, donor and faith-based organizations), researchers in
many African countries are attracted to these funding sources. With little or no internal
research funding and many university-based researchers largely self-funded, their research
remains isolated from their continental and global colleagues and lacking in a cohesive
strategy over the long term. Adding to the difficulties facing these researchers, there are
even less funds available for research dissemination or travel for conferences in most
developing countries. The rise of open access journals has started to have some impact on
getting the research in these countries more accessible to the world.
Ethical Challenges
Most universities in the Global North are advocating for researchers to develop international
research projects by forming university-to-university academic agreements that include
program sharing, faculty and student exchanges and research collaborations which also
increases the challenges for matching ethical standards between the two (or more)
institutions. In Canada the United Nations Charter of Rights for the Child and the Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedom dominate the contexts in which all research must be done.
The Canadian government through its Tri-Council agencies sets policies, guidelines and
procedures for conducting research internally within the country (with additional guidelines
for marginalized individuals and communities) and gives special attention to international
research (See Tri-Council Policy Statement of Research with Humans). Local universities
and colleges take the Tri-Council directives and guide their implementation through their own
in-house research policies/procedures led by Research Ethics Boards (REBs) established at
each post-secondary institution. All of these regulations affect the research context in
Canada and must be addressed faithfully in order to receive and maintain research funding.
These regulations cover such issues as the privacy and safety of research participants,
gaining access to populations, the use of tape recorders, cameras and video, Internet
access, and informed consent/assent to name a few. Researchers are advised to follow
regulations for involving community members in the research, make plans for on-going
communication with participants, as well as plans for reporting back to participants as part of
114
their dissemination plans. All of these regulations are even more stringent when researchers
are working with vulnerable populations in the country.
In the international context, few countries of the Global South have instituted comprehensive
processes for conducting educational research. In many cases with educational research, no
formal ethical approval is needed. Researchers (often a male authority figure) enter a school
assuming children and teachers will participate in whatever projects they are undertaking.
Parents are rarely asked for permission to involve their children and children are not asked to
give assent to take part. In addition, there is little reporting back to participants once results
have been analyzed.
Dilemmas Arising
With this brief look at the political, economic and ethical challenges facing researchers in
Canada and some developing countries, we turn now to examine some of the dilemmas
arising out of these challenges. The dilemmas can be briefly stated in this way:
● Differing views of what counts as research. Within our country and beyond its
borders, researchers are faced with meeting the needs of those who expect research
to be quantitative in design yielding results that “prove” what works and those who
expect research to be more qualitative giving a richer and more robust sense of a
phenomenon and those affected by it.
● The qualitative/quantitative dilemma is particularly prevalent as the Global North view
of research meets the emerging research culture in countries like Ethiopia, Kenya,
Uganda and other developing countries in Africa. In these countries the quantitative
research culture is deeply entrenched while increasing numbers of ‘outside’
researchers view research from a socio-cultural, more qualitative perspective thus
immediately running into competing ‘worldviews”.
● Role of the child in the research. As we work internationally we also see variance in
the position of the child in the research process. There is a range of views of the child
from simply being a passive subject acted upon through to being a competent
participant in the research with important perceptions on matters that affect their lives
(Asselin & Doiron, submitted). Do we provide children with the opportunity to give
informed consent or at least assent?
● Insiders and outsiders. The majority of Western researchers are white, privileged
academics who are attempting to move into very different cultural situations than their
own. These are not only cultural differences such as food, dress, religion and
language but differences in previous research experiences, access to a wealth of
resources unknown to many emerging researchers in developing countries, and often
with expectations that English will be the dominant language used for any partnership
and collaborations.
● Differing inclusive policies and practices. In Canada we are governed by strict policies
and common beliefs/values about diversity, equity and inclusion. These values
extend into all vulnerable communities, differences in gender roles, religions, sexual
orientation, and the myriad of developmental and physical limitations common in any
society. However, such policies and practices around inclusion are just emerging in
many developing countries and there are underlying differences in how people
perceive gender roles, diverse religions and equal rights for all.
● Western requirements for ethical procedures. How do we proceed and what are we to
do with data collected outside of the standards established by our national agencies
115
●
and our local university REBs? Can we analyze and then disseminate findings if the
data was not collected following our national procedures? Are participants in research
truly giving informed consent or merely going along with authority figures? The data
collection process may seem appropriate and ‘legal’ in the local context but would
likely be disqualified without following the ethical standards established by our parent
institutions.
Developing/adapting culturally sensitive instruments culturally sensitive. Coupled with
issues of the ethical collection of data are ones related to the construction of data
tools that are culturally sensitive, reflective of how ‘locals’ would address the issues
and written in a language that is accessible to all participants. We are often in the
situation where we are developing instruments in our first language (usually English)
when this may be the second or even third language of local users of such an
instrument. How we say things in English may not be easily translated into Amharic,
Tswahili or Luganda for example.
Research ‘Headwork’
Faced with these challenges and ethical dilemmas, researchers wishing to work with
colleagues in developing countries need to approach their research with a new set of lenses
through which they initiate, conduct, analyze and report research in these international
contexts. Sultana (2006) emphasizes that “fieldwork is always contextual, relational,
embodied, and political (p.374)”. What emerges then is a complex iterative research process
that folds back into itself repeatedly relying on deep listening, ongoing communication,
reflection, re-visioning and attention to ethics in both the originating context and the local
situation where the work will be done. Thus, library researchers need to become less reliant
on traditional data collection and analysis methods to develop a more generative, iterative,
conceptual process more focused on building research capacity and new understandings of
educational research. All of this should be developing with the ever-present trepidation about
imposing values and shades of post-colonialism on the people and contexts in which we
hope to work.
On the other hand, if we stop and think about it, these dilemmas could provide us with a rich
space in which to build our collaborations around exploring mutual issues, finding common
ground and focusing on what Chiseri-Strater and Sunstein (2006) call the “headwork” in
doing research. This headwork involves critical “habits of mind”, such as: a) The ‘nature of
truth’; b) reflexivity; c) positionality; 4) emergent methods, analysis and findings; and 5)
dissemination. We will take a brief look at each one.
The ‘nature of truth’
Competing paradigms for research as exemplified by the qualitative/quantitative debate
really represent differing epistemologies and a concern with the nature and scope of
knowledge. One spectrum of research approach is based on the notion that ‘truth’ is simply
‘out there’ and we just have to discover it, while the other assumes that all meanings are
interactively and socially constructed. Most researchers see benefits in both approaches but
tend philosophically to lean to one or the other. How we see the world and how we
understand the purposes and processes for doing research, and how we understand how we
form new knowledge are all factors in determining what we see as the ‘truth’. When
attempting to develop research with new colleagues, researchers need to be cognizant that
116
they may be coming from a different paradigm and that a negotiation needs to take place to
ensure each worldview is recognized, respected and employed to achieve a balance in the
relationship.
In our past experiences with school library research, we have learned that non-pragmatic
research (such as ethnography, hermeneutics, narrative and other socio-cultural
approaches) holds little resonance with politicians and decision-makers. This has forced us
to more clearly articulate the goals, the value and the impact of our research. This is
understandable given the need for impact in countries faced with extreme challenges in
health and education brought on by poverty and slow economic growth.
Reflexivity
Reflexivity involves making the research process itself a focus of inquiry where researchers
lay open pre-conceptions to become aware of situational dynamics and to recognize that all
participants are jointly involved in knowledge production. Research then becomes a
continuous process of examining our “personal baggage” (Kirby & McKenna, 1989) and
personal assumptions, our preconceptions and how they affect all research decisions. When
we work with other colleagues we enter into a continuous process examining our
relationship, the dynamics of that relationship and its impact on the research.
As we move into research in school and community libraries in global communities, we must
be very aware that our vision for how a school library operates may be vastly different than
our colleagues in small, under-developed libraries. Our experiences working in such libraries
has taught us that while the quantity and quality of resources is wanting, and the training and
sophistication of library program is still emerging, the very essence of what a library is and
how it contributes to learning and the culture for reading in a community is very strong in all
of these libraries.
Positionality
All researchers are positioned by factors of age, gender, race, class, nationality, religion,
institutional affiliation, historical and personal circumstances and intellectual disposition. The
extent to which such influences are revealed or concealed is circumscribed by the paradigms
and disciplines under which we train, work, and publish.
Recognizing our position and using it as a lens through which we do our research will shed
light on: 1) the power relations that would affect the kinds of relations we have with the
people we work with, and therefore the kinds of information we observe; and 2) the effect of
our own subjectivity might have on how we interpret "results” (Chiseri-Strater, n.d.; Kapoor,
2004; Ganga & Scott, 2006).
As we began our work with libraries in Ethiopia we felt very much like O’Leary (n.d.) who
expresses her reflections about the position she experienced.
At the outset of a research or consulting project, my social identification by others as
an outsider and an ‘expert’ has generally meant that I have been invested with power
by others in the group. Yet the philosophy that underpins my worldview and the ways
in which I engage in research is a collaborative and participative one which is based
on sharing power (p.2).
117
This means that as researchers we need to take the time to listen, to engage respectfully
with our counterparts and take small steps towards a mutual position regarding what
questions we will explore, how we will explore them and what we ultimately will do with any
results we may attain.
Emergent methods, analyses and findings
Jones (2006) warns researchers that “the processes of coding, analysis, interpretation and
reporting of data can be colored by the researcher’s conceptual framework to the exclusion
of the informants, placing the researcher in a supreme position of control over the research
process (p.171)”. This forces us to re-examine the traditional research model where
questions are generated, data is collected, analysis is completed away from the informants
and findings are reported in isolation. The entire process must become an iterative one
where the research team develops the research focus that becomes a starting point for the
study. Research tools are adapted, revised, and responsive to the context and the feedback
from participants. Findings emerge throughout the process and not simply at the end.
Participants verify and add input to the analysis helping to keep the richness of the situation.
In other words, context and socio-cultural factors influence the development of research
methods and analysis.
Our experiences with a family literacy program led by community library staff brought home
many of these issues as we set out to adapt a literacy assessment instrument to the
languages, cultural contexts and informed consent procedures most of which were nonexistent. Our partners in the work were unfamiliar with such instruments and worked along
with us to translate the questions not only into local languages but also in recognizable
situations familiar to those who would do the assessment.
Dissemination
In a traditional research model, researchers wait until their data has been collected, analyzed
and a set of findings is developed. Too often, Western researchers share their work in
journals and conference venues where global perspectives and participants may be limited.
In a reflexive model, dissemination is seen as part of the on-going collaborative, participatory
process where one cycle of collaborative work leads into the next, where established
relationships can grow and deepen as respect is building and collaborators trust each other
more easily. It is not seen as a ‘take the data and run’ process. This has led to Western
researchers looking for ‘new venues’ to share research results, ones that are closer to the
global community where the work took place. In addition, it has led to opportunities to
facilitate local researchers getting their work shared at in-country and international
conferences (See CIES at http://www.cies.us for example) and having articles published in
peer-reviewed journals (See the IFLA Journal and School Libraries Worldwide for examples).
Research ‘Alerts’
We are familiar with the concept of ‘alerts’, those messages (sometimes annoying) we
receive alerting us to some new ideas, resources or innovations. An alert is also seen as a
warning, a ‘heads-up’ about potential problems or issues you need to be aware of before
venturing out on a new project in the hopes of avoiding them or preventing them from
happening. We need to be on the alert for situations, ideologies and new understandings that
will challenge what we have been doing traditionally in our research while leading us to new
research landscapes where true collaboration and meaningful new insights into school and
118
community library effectiveness can be identified and disseminated in a global and
democratic exchange of ideas. Taking a more critical approach to research will be
challenging and will increase the time it takes to get a research agenda established, one
based on mutual respect, true collaboration and mutual benefit. With this vision in place, we
offer several research ‘alerts’ that colleagues need to be aware of and prepared to accept.
1) As more Western academics move into research partnerships with nongovernmental organizations, university collaborators and frontline library leaders,
they need to embrace a more critical research paradigm where research is
understood as “the co-production of new understandings and solutions that tap the
expertise of non-academic partners.” (Sharrock, 2007, p. 10).
2) Skelton (2008) warns us that “ethical research guidelines {as imposed by
Universities} could be yet another Western construct that creates a global discourse
of ‘our way’ is the ‘right way’ to do things” (p. 29).
3) The lack of regulatory mechanisms in some Majority world contexts, places the onus
on researchers and the institutions to which they belong (Leach, 2006). Part of our
role is to help local researchers develop the ethical principles that will enhance their
research and ensure participants of fair and respectful treatment.
4) Ethical codes that are restrictive and binding need to become more iterative and
responsive, which does not fit the standard format of knowing in advance what will
happen and how it will be managed, as is generally required by ethics boards in
Western universities and colleges.
5) Be knowledgeable of local policies concerning education and research. For
example, although the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child may be supposed
universal, Africa has its own Charter of the Rights and Welfare of the Child
(http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/Charter_En_African_Charter_on_the_Rights_
and_Wlefare_of_the_Child_AddisAbaba_July1990.pdf).
A Challenge for IASL in Moving Forward
Many professional associations including the International Association of School
Librarianship (IASL) originated in Western countries. The IASL has worked diligently to build
international membership and encourage school library development globally. This has
included disseminating current research at its annual conference, research grants and
publications in School Libraries Worldwide. However, as research and collaborations are
encouraged by government, funders and the Academy to become more global, the persistent
dominance of Western perspectives is uncomfortable for present and future members. In
IASL, by far the majority of research remains carried out and published by colleagues in
Western countries (Asselin, 2011). Are we doing enough to support and disseminate school
library research being conducted by the global school library community? Is some of that
research being done but not reaching an international audience? How can IASL show
leadership in gathering and disseminating that research? As we move into more global
partnerships around research, could IASL offer guidelines for conducting that research in
ethical and respectful ways?
In Canada as in all Western countries, institutions and organizations are composing visions,
guidelines and principles for the current reality of being a researcher in an international arena
(Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014; Canadian Bureau for International
Education; 2013; Ethics of International Engagement and Service-Learning Project, 2011).
The potential of principled, collaborative, international research includes “increased
119
intercultural understanding and dialogue through a realization of interdependence” . . . and
“building partnerships based on reciprocity, social accountability, and sustainability”
(Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014, p. 5). From such potential, enormous
opportunities for supporting economic and social justice are afforded.
Internationalization offers an opportunity to establish collaborative, ethical
partnerships that foster the ideals of economic and social justice and that
take us beyond the ethnocentric, hegemonic, depoliticized, and paternalistic
historical patterns of engagement. In turn, increased understanding may
result in a reciprocal improvement of educational research and practices.
(Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014, p. 5).
As an international association representing libraries supporting teaching and learning for
children and youth throughout the world, IASL needs to seriously take renewed responsibility
to ensure ethical research for their global membership and for the larger library community.
In this paper, we have identified key issues and challenges, have provided concepts that can
undergird formation of ethical international research, and pointed to exemplary documents by
relevant institutions and associations. It is time for IASL to step forward for the global school
library community.
References
Alderson P., & Morrow V. (2011). The ethics of research with children and young people: A
practical handbook. London: Sage Publications.
Asselin, M. (2011). Internationalism as leadership in IASL research: Accomplishments
and directions. School Libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 13 – 24.
Asselin, M., & Doiron, R. (submitted). Toward an ethical research praxis in literacy
research with young children in the Majority World. Canadian and International Education
Journal.
Association of Canadian Deans of Education (2014). Accord on the Internationalization
of Education. Available at:
http://www.csse-scee.ca/docs/acde/Accord_Internationalization_EN.pdf
Canadian Bureau for International Education. (2013). Code of Ethical Practice of the
Canadian Bureau for International Education (CIBE). Available at:
http://www.cbie.ca/members/code-of-ethical-practice/
Childwatch Research Network. (n.d.). Available at:
http://www.childwatch.uio.no/
Chiseri-Strater, E., & Sunstein, B. S. (2006). What works?: A practical guide for teacher
research. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann.
Chsieri-Strater, E. (n.d.). Turning in upon ourselves: Positionality, subjectivity and
120
reflexivity in case studies and ethnographic research. Available at:
http://joemoxley.org/sites/Joe_Moxley/research/AssignedReadings/Jennie%20Dau
terman,%20Social%20and%20Institutional%20Power%20Relationships.pdf
Ethics of International Engagement and Service-Learning Project. (2011).Global praxis:
Exploring the ethics of engagement abroad. Vancouver, BC. Available at:
http://ethicsofisl.ubc.ca
Ganga, D., & Scott, S. (2006). Cultural "Insiders" and the issue of positionality in
qualitative migration research: Moving “across" and moving “along” researcherparticipant divides. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social
Research, 7(3), Art. 7. Available at:
http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs060379
Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., & Fitzgerald, R. (2013). Ethical
research involving children. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti.
Available at: http://childethics.com/
Jones, M. (2006). The guest from England: Exploring issues of positionality in a
foreign and yet familiar setting. European Societies, 8(1), 169-187.
Kapooor, I. (2004). Hyper-self-reflexive development: Spivak on representing the
Third World ‘other’. Third World Quarterly, 25(4), 627-647.
Kirby, S., & McKenna, K. (1989). Methods from the margins: Experience,
Research, Social Change. Toronto, ON: Garamond Press.
Leach, F. (2006). Researching gender violence in schools: Methodological and
ethical considerations. World Development, 34, 1129-1147.
Mayall, B. (2002). Towards a Sociology for Childhood: Thinking from Children's
Lives. London: Open University Press.
O’Leary, D. (n.d.). Outsider positioning in action research: Struggling with being on
the outside looking in. Available at:
http://www.arcolloquium.weebly.com/uploads/6/9/2/5/.../doleary_abstract.pdf
Pence, A., & Nsamenang, B. (2008) A case for early childhood development in
sub-Saharan Africa. Working Paper No. 51. The Hague, The Netherlands: Bernard
van Leer Foundation. Available at:
http://www.web.uvic.ca/~eyrd/pubs/Pence_Nsamenang_BvL_WP_51_2008.pdf
Powell, M.A., Fitzgerald, R.M., Taylor, N., & Graham, A (2012). International literature
review: Ethical issues in undertaking research with children and young people, for
the Childwatch International Research Network, Southern Cross University, Centre
for Children and Young People, Lismore NSW and University of Otago, Centre for
Research on Children and Families, Dunedin, NZ.
121
Sharrock, G. (2007) After Copernicus: Beyond the crisis in Australian universities.
Australian Universities Review, 49 (1&2), 2-4. Available at:
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ802269.pdf
Skelton, T. (2008). Research with children and young people: Exploring the tensions
between ethics, competence and participation. Children’s Geographies, 6 (1), 21–
36.
Sultana, F. (2006). Reflexivity, positionality and participatory ethics: Negotiating
fieldwork dilemmas in international research. ACME: An International E-Journal for
Critical Geographies, 6(3) 374-378).
Tri-Council document: Tri-Council Policy Statement of Research with Humans –
Chapter 9 on aboriginal and international ethical guidelines, p. 105-135.
http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/pdf/eng/tcps2/TCPS_2_FINAL_Web.pdf
UNICEF Office of Research. (n.d.). Available at:
http://www.unicef-irc.org/office/
Young Lives Project (n.d.) Available at:
http://www.younglives.org.uk/
122
Inquiry learning: educating librarians
for their educational role
Adriana Bogliolo Sirihal Duarte
School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais
UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627
31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Brazil
adrianabsd@gmail.com
Bernadete Campello
School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais
UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Brazil
bscampello@gmail.com
Abstract
Inquiry learning is a concept familiar to Brazilian librarians, who have been expressing
concern about their contribution in innovating the learning process. It is therefore
necessary that future librarians experience this learning strategy during their education.
This study aimed to investigate: 1) how library students exposed repeatedly to
strategies of inquiry learning react; 2) the difficulties they encounter in the process; 3)
and what types of learning they acquire. Data were collected through in depth
interviews with undergraduate library students taking an Information Literacy Course.
Data analysis was based on Kuhlthau’s ISP model (2004) and in the five types of
learning (Kuhlthau; Maniotes & Caspari, 2012) Results, that cannot be generalized,
show that students reacted positively to the strategy, although they reported several
difficulties. In conclusion the repetition of the inquiry learning process became
important for students to feel more secure and confident and for their difficulties to be
minimized. On the whole the acquisition of the five types of learning was observed.
Keywords: Inquiry learning, Librarian’s education, Brazil
Introduction
The concept of inquiry learning originates from the movement of educational renewal that
advocates the use of active learning methods and considers the student responsible for the
construction of his/her knowledge (Detlor, B. et al., 2012; McKinney, 2013). It is based on
ideas of educators and researchers such as John Dewey, George Kelly, Jerome Bruner,
123
David Ausubel, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Howard Gardner (Kuhlthau, Maniotes &
Caspari, 2007).
In Brazil, inquiry learning roots are found in the movement called New School or Active
School, that occurred in the 1930s and whose guiding belief is the student as a free, active
and socially motivated person, demonstrating curiosity to learn. The focus of instruction is in
the learning process, so students are at the center of the pedagogical action (Vidal & Faria
Filho, 2003).
The concept of inquiry learning is familiar to librarians, since the library is allegedly the place
to search for information, an activity that supports – or should support – such a process
(Campello, 2009). Inquiry learning gives librarians opportunity to exercise more clearly their
pedagogical action, guiding students in acquiring information literacy skills while working with
teachers in the teaching of curricular content (Maniotes & Kuhlthau, 2014; Oberg, 2004).
Problem statement
In Brazil, since the 1960s, school librarians have been expressing concern about their role in
the research process (Campello, 2003), feeling responsible for the development of a range of
cognitive skills, showing wish to contribute in innovating the learning process (Carvalho,
1967). Currently, this function is clearly integrated in librarians’ desired profile and therefore it
is understood they should be prepared to perform it.
The perception that librarians in Brazil are not properly prepared to carry out this function
(Campello and Abreu, 2005) has led some library schools to include in their curricula
information literacy courses (Mata, 2014). In the School of Information Science of Federal
University of Minas Gerais, an Information Literacy Course (OTI088) is offered since 2009 to
undergraduate library students as a compulsory subject. OTI088 aims to raise awareness of
future librarians to their responsibility in developing users’ information literacy skills using
inquiry learning as main instructional strategy, in order to make them repeatedly experience
the research process. Over the time the course is being offered, some questions emerge,
relating to how students react to this strategy.
Thus, the present study sought to investigate: 1) how students repeatedly exposed to
strategies of inquiry learning react; 2) the difficulties they encounter during the process; 3)
and what types of learning they acquire.
Literature review
Inquiry learning is a teaching strategy that seeks to stimulate students to be fully involved in
the learning process. It is an instructional approach where students are encouraged to use
higher-order thinking skills – for instance, analysis, synthesis, reflection, evaluation – in a
critical way, and reflect on their learning (Detlor et al., 2012). The process starts with issues
or problems – not just themes or topics – proposed by the teacher who motivates students to
seek answers, raise other issues and create knowledge.
An enormous amount of research has been conducted on the subject of inquiry learning
(Hmelo-Silver, Duncan & Chinn, 2007). In this context the contribution of library science is
significant, being Carol Kuhlthau’s work worth mentioning. Kuhlthau’s model Information
Search Process (ISP) incorporates three realms: affective (feelings), cognitive (thoughts) and
124
physical (actions) and is composed of six stages. In the initiation stage the common feelings
are uncertainty and apprehension; optimism and readiness to seek are characteristic in the
selection stage; confusion, doubt and frustration are common in the exploration stage,
feelings that are replaced by a sense of clarity in the formulation stage; the collection stage is
marked by the sense of direction and confidence and the final stage of presentation is
marked by relief that can come either accompanied by the feeling of satisfaction or
disappointment (Kuhlthau, 2004).
Kuhlthau’s theoretical work served as foundation for the development of the idea of guided
inquiry (Kuhlthau, 2007) that seems to reinforce the notion of mediation – or guidance –
significantly present in the studies that support ISP model (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 69). According
to Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari (2012, p. 8) “an important advantage of Guided Inquiry is
the variety of different competences and knowledge that students develop while engaged in
the inquiry process”. Curriculum content, information literacy, learning how to learn, literacy
competence and social skills are the five kinds of learning that can be accomplished by
means of guided inquiry (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2012).
Recent research shows that active learning strategies yield more positive effects than
passive instruction. Results in the study of Detlor et al. (2012), who investigated the use of
active methods in teaching information literacy skills, suggest that active strategies have a
direct effect on producing positive student learning outcomes, while passive strategies do
not. The kinds of outcomes observed were: psychological (decreased anxiety/increased selfefficacy using online library resources, improved perceptions of online library resources, and
improved perceptions of librarians in terms of helpfulness and value), behavioral (improved
use of librarians) and the benefit outcomes of time savings and effort reduction in finding
information (Detlor et al., 2012, p. 156).
Methodology
Data collection consisted firstly of an interview (conducted by the first author) with the
instructor responsible for the course (the second author). Next, in-depth interviews with four
students who volunteered were performed. These interviews (also carried out by the first
author) were performed from one to 10 days after the end of the information literacy course
and after the grades were assigned (December 2014). They lasted 25 minutes to one hour
and were recorded and transcribed in their entirety.
The Information Literacy Course (OTI088) is a required subject, with a workload of 30 hours,
offered on the 5th period of the Undergraduate Library Program. This means that when
attending it the students are about halfway through the course, which has eight periods to be
completed in four years. Most courses in the Undergraduate Library Program run 60 hours,
so this is one of the few that have half the workload of the standard courses. It is offered in
eight weekly meetings, each with four hours over two months (October and November/2014
in the case of the investigated class). The purpose of this course is to provide students with
an understanding of the concept of information literacy as a basis for the librarian educational
action. At the same time it gives them opportunity to exercise informational skills and reflect
on them.
The interview with the instructor sought to clarify the teaching strategy used. As she said,
inquiry learning is used over the 30 hours so that students go through four tasks on the
125
course topics. They are encouraged to search for information, reading, analyzing, evaluating
and developing critical outcomes, whether in the form of written assignments, discussions
and oral presentations which allowed the construction and sharing of new knowledge.
Research question
1st assignment
How the notion of
information literacy
presented by Brazilian
authors converge?
2nd assignment
Are there Brazilian
librarians who are
playing an educational
role in school?
3th assignment
What factors can
facilitate the
development of
programs in school? Are
these factors present in
the Brazilian educational
context?
4th assignment
Who contributed to the
development of
librarianship in Brazil?
What contributions were
the most important?
Task
Individual assignment
(homework), carried out in the
first week of the course, with
individual assistance during
the following week to students
who needed support.
20 points.
Individual assignment
(homework), carried out in the
second week of the course,
with individual assistance
during the following week to
students who needed support.
25 points.
Outcome
Written text and classroom
discussion
Collective task, carried out in
the 5th week during class,
based in texts provided by the
instructor.
15 points.
Classroom discussion
Group project (homework),
which began in the 2nd week
and held for six weeks, with
oral presentation in the last
class.
The purpose was to provide
students an opportunity to
perform a longer assignment,
which would allow the
mobilization of a number of
diverse skills.
35 points.
Oral presentation using
Power Point
Written text and classroom
discussion
Table 1. The four assignments of the Information Literacy Course (OTI088)
The interview with the students started with questions about their expectations for the
discipline, that is, if they knew something about the course or the instructor in advance. Then
questions were asked about each of the four assignments carried out. For each one the
126
feelings of the respondent at the beginning (when the assignment was proposed), during its
implementation and after its completion were investigated. The next question sought to know
if the student used the second chance to improve his/her grade, since there were times when
the instructor allowed the assignment to be redone or that the student took a test to replace a
bad grade. Following, questions about the students’ perception on what they had learned in
each assignment, the difficulties faced and the strategies used to develop it were made. In
the last part of the interview questions were raised concerning the participants’ impressions
about inquiry learning strategy and suggestions for the course improvement.
Data analysis was based on the ISP model (Kuhlthau, 2004) and in the five types of learning
suggested by Kuhlthau; Maniotes & Caspari (2012, p. 8), that are: curriculum content,
information literacy, learning how to learn, literacy competence and social skills.
Data analysis
Expectations for the course
Data indicated that the previous reference that students possessed of the course was related
more to the teacher – mainly because of her publications (articles and books on school
library) and her visibility not only at the University but in the Brazilian context – than actually
to the course subject (information literacy). None of them had attended another course with
that Professor, and if some participants knew her was only in sporadic contacts.
Most respondents had a first contact with the subject – information literacy – one or two
months before the beginning of the course, because in other compulsory course they have
attended they had the opportunity to study various types of literacy, including information
literacy. Some showed curiosity about what would be covered in the course, but only one of
the interviewees had a specific strategy to prepare to take the course. She said she
searched – on her own initiative – for texts written by the course instructor that focused on
information literacy. She located and read two of them a week before the course started. She
explained: "Since everyone else said the course was very difficult, and we had a week off
between courses, so what did I? I found two texts by her (the course instructor) on
Information Literacy, and gave it a quick skim". As the interviewee indicated, it is a common
students’ strategy to ask colleagues who already took a course on its difficulty. For this the
main informants were former students, colleagues of later periods.
Kinds of learning
According to Khulthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2007, p. 8) “an important advantage of Guided
Inquiry is the variety of different competencies and knowledge that students develop while
engaged in the inquiry process. When inquiry is guided in this way, students accomplish five
interwoven, integrated kinds of learning”. During the interviews it was possible to detect
indications that the students developed all these types of learning to a greater or lesser
degree. Table 2 summarizes how respondents described what they learned from the course:
Kinds of Learning
Competencies developed
127
What the respondents learned
Kinds of Learning
Information Literacy
Competencies developed
Concepts for locating,
evaluating, and using
information
Learning how to learn
Self-directed learning and
personal interaction within the
inquiry process
Literacy Competence
Reading, writing, speaking,
listening, viewing, and
presenting
Social skills
Interacting, cooperating,
collaborating, habits of mind,
dispositions in action
Curriculum content
Constructing new knowledge,
interpreting, synthesizing, and
applying facts and ideas
What the respondents learned
"... Select information, collect, develop
[use]. Unfortunately our high school is
deficient in this matter; at least in
government schools. In private
schools I do not know how it is" (E1).
"... you have to really understand and
know how to use the databases, to
know what the sources are and what
you cannot use, what is reliable and
what is not. Then I realized that it is
not easy, is not simple, but I liked the
research process" (E3).
"I learned to build, to make the search
path, what we need to do in a
research task, so you find a subject
that you want to search, that you want
to talk about. This was the best
learning I had in the entire course,
not only in this assignment, but in the
whole course" (E3).
"I learned to better organize the
information in a text, to write and
present my work. The text should
include a purpose statement, the
methodology; yah ... I think the
analysis methodology and the
conclusion" (E2).
"And then each one searched a topic
and shared it. Then later we met in the
library and assembled the text (...) we
were all enthusiastic. We even
discussed about the author, right? We
talked about him; so there was a lot of
material" (E2).
"I learned that Librarianship has a
history here in Brazil. Where did these
persons live? Are they still alive? ...
And that these persons had a very
strong role in Library Science and
even [contributed] to the recognition of
the profession" (E2).
Table 2. Five kinds of learning through Guided Inquiry – Adapted from Kuhlthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2012, p. 9) with data
collected during interviews (December, 2014).
Information Literacy
Participants mentioned that the experience of learning through research, rather than lectures,
to which they are more accustomed, enabled them to exercise and enhance skills to locate,
evaluate and use information.
128
Some respondents mentioned their inability to use specialized electronic databases to locate
information sources and provided positive feedback on the practical lessons in the course,
when they were guided by the instructor in this process.
Although Kuhlthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2012, p. 10) mention that finding information is an
easier task than to evaluate it, there were few comments from the respondents on the issue
of text interpretation. This probably was due to the fact that they were unaware of the degree
of difficulty with this task. Among the respondents, there were those who did well in the
whole process, but most showed a high level of difficulty, especially in the first assignment,
which explains the repeatedly use of the inquiry learning strategy by the instructor in order to
enable students to mobilize new information skills. The performance of students in the first
assignment showed that many do not even come to understand what was required of them.
The instructor gave to those who had not fared well in the first task the opportunity to redo it
after it was discussed in class, when they shared their results to build a body of common
knowledge. Only one respondent said she did not have to go through this process because
she had achieved a good result at the first attempt. When asked about the discussion in
class, where each student had the chance to evaluate her/his own work, this respondent
described her colleagues as naive, because they had not completed the task as required: "I
do not know if I can talk about the class as a whole, but I found that the folks were a little
naive. They did something that was not what the instructor was expecting. They were naive,
both in the text construction, in the search and in the text production. So what the instructor
was expecting was not what the class presented. Most of the class did not share what they
had done." On one hand, this can be regarded as a difficulty in evaluating and interpreting
the text and, therefore, in the use of the information. On the other hand there is a perceived
lack of involvement of a large part of the students in the learning process. This is reinforced
when, given the opportunity to redo the work, many of them had not yet improved their
performance.
Learning how to learn
Students compared the proposed assignments in the Information Literacy Course with those
they were doing in other courses, and emphasized the autonomy that is distinctive in the
former. According to them, previous assignments they did were so " stiff”, meaning that they
were already defined a priori: the title, content, structure, etc. Now they had the freedom to
create, to give the title, select sources and trace the paths. For many of them this was the
first opportunity to do that, as rarely in the basic education level or even at the undergraduate
level they were given the opportunity of learning through guided inquiry.
When asked about the feelings experienced when the first assignment was proposed,
respondents who mentioned tranquility were the ones who said they had already studied the
subject (information literacy) in an earlier course. Kuhlthau (2004) considers that one of the
first actions in the initial stage of the search process is to try to relate the problem with past
experiences. The author also emphasizes, as a corollary of the uncertainty principle, the fact
that feelings and emotions experienced vary between positive and negative throughout the
process.
In this study, the feeling of apprehension was mentioned when the respondent referred to the
fact of not knowing what to write. The answer of one respondent illustrates the variation of
emotions peculiar to the research process (Kuhlthau, 2004), showing how she learned how
129
to learn and to deal with her emotions: "I was apprehensive because I did not know what I
would write. But after I read the text, I made my notes, and then I went to prepare the text to
be delivered, and then I was already relieved."
Literacy Competency
The best way to learn every aspect of literacy competency – namely reading, writing,
speaking, listening, viewing, and presenting – is to practice. Therefore in the Information
Literacy Course the development of several assignments using the strategy of inquiry
learning were repeatedly proposed. It was clear to the respondents that the course should be
longer. All said they would like to have had the opportunity to do an intermediary assignment
between the first and the second one – even though they had a chance to remake the first.
One student said: "My suggestion is that the course should be 60 hours long for us to have a
little more time to develop the tasks. Maybe between the two first assignments we could
have a third, so students do not feel that leap, perhaps more assignments with opportunity to
write because I miss writing, I feel a lot of difficulty." About the second assignment it was
evidenced also a sense of security gained from the first: "I did it [the second assignment] with
more will. I read more, the ideas, the proposals, right? I had more courage".
One of the stages that deserve to be detailed is presentation. Different strategies of
presentation were adopted for the proposed assignments. In the first, students should submit
a written report which, after examination by the teacher, would be led to discussion with the
class. Each student should present to the colleagues the concept of information literacy of
one particular author, and in the debate points of convergence and divergence would be
raised. In the second assignment the presentation of a written text also was expected of
each student, followed by a debate in the class. In this case the text was based on the
question "are there in Brazil librarians who play an educational role?” A third assignment was
conducted collectively with the whole class and not individually by each student. In relation to
this case, it was perceived in the interviews that none of the respondents referred to it as part
of the inquiry learning process. One cannot say that it was because an information search or
a written assignment were not required – the task was done in one class period, after they
read a text chosen by the instructor, or whether the subject did not interest the students. The
fact is that none of the respondents referred to the third assignment as a process of inquiry
learning. In every interview, when asked about this class or this assignment, students
showed up scattered or confused. Finally, there was a fourth assignment providing
opportunity for a formal oral presentation of a group project, which was developed during six
weeks.
It was perceived that in the presentation stage of the tasks the participants reacted in
different ways to different forms of task presentation. One said: "I'd rather write than present
verbally. Everyone knows that I'm not very good at presenting, but anyway ...". On the other
hand, a student who did poorly in written assignments described his oral presentation as
follows: "I said to the instructor, 'if I could stay here two hours talking about the topic I
searched, I could go without repeating anything', because I was prepared, I was excited
about this thing".
For many respondents the individual and written presentations were more profitable than the
discussions in class. Individual talking with the instructor about the tasks seems to have been
an important factor in learning because some respondents (regardless if their performance
130
was good or not) cited this strategy as positive for their learning. One respondent said: "... I
felt safer after her evaluation ... not because of the grade, but because of the comments she
made”. Other stated: "Well, I felt I needed to improve. She said 'this is wrong, you have to
clarify this part [in the text] ... Then the next text was better”.
The success of an oral presentation depends not only on the student's commitment to
learning, but also of the participation of the classmates, which does not always occur. In the
case of this class in particular, the presentation of some groups coincided with a national
university library conference that occurred in the city. For this reason, many classmates were
absent attending the conference.
The presentation also generates emotions and feelings in the presenter, because it is the
stage of completion of the research process. There is an anticipated tension to present to an
audience of people interested in the subject. One of the respondents reveled his
disappointment: "... I was very upset when I was to present my work; there were only about
eight persons in the room. The people came late. I was really upset about it". At this point all
the commitment and dedication of the instructor is useless. For the student this is not an
individual commitment as the presentation of a written text. It is a stage that requires
interaction. If this does not occur, a part of the process is not complete. When a person
prepares a presentation, he/she presupposes an audience. Here the focus is speaking and
listening skills. While a group of students is mobilizing speaking skills, it is expected that the
audience exercises listening skills, which seems not to have occurred.
Social Skills
Social skills were encouraged and necessary in practically every step of the process. Even
when the assignment required a written text, there was a further step in that the knowledge
produced was shared with classmates. In addition, each student should individually engage
in interaction with the instructor, the librarian, with colleagues, that required mutual
cooperation and collaboration.
Participants mentioned visits to the library and interaction with the librarian, which was
named by her first name, in a friendly way, as someone who helped and shared the
difficulties of the research. One respondent said: "... and then I realized that the research
process, when you have to use information sources, it is really more complex; you have to
know how to search, you must know where to search, what to do, seek help from the library
people, to [the librarian]; I asked for help".
Ask for help to colleagues who previously took the same course was also a common
strategy, which revealed the existence of an informal learning community. There were many
references to this kind of advice, especially in the beginning of the course, when the "rules of
the game" were still unclear: "So I also asked some folks for help, who had already took the
course, so I asked for any tips, like what were the methods of the instructor; if she liked long
texts, only one sheet, or if she wanted two, what she liked in a text, the structure of the text ...
".
Finally, cooperation between classmates was evidenced by the aid they offered each other in
clarifying and implementing individual projects, but especially when the final assignment was
proposed, which was a group project. One respondent mentioned that “Together it’s easier
131
because everyone is already used to do group projects, then we take advantage of more
information from each one in the group, each one can contribute better."
Curriculum Content
When asked about what they learned from each assignment, most respondents answered
about having learned to write, to structure a text, to make a presentation, to develop the
steps of a thorough research, to investigate. In addition, they learned curriculum contents.
One participant said: "I realized that Brazilian librarians are already using the concept of
information literacy" (2nd assignment) and "I learned that the library has a history in Brazil"
(4th assignment).
It could be observed that when there was little learning in other categories, this also reflected
in the learning of curriculum content. It seems the topics could have been better assimilated
if, for example, the social skills of collaboration and cooperation were better used, if the
listening skills were more practiced, if the commitment of students with learning was greater.
Probably by the suggestion of respondents, for the Information Literacy Course to be longer
than 30 hours, it could be possible to get greater involvement of students, thereby improving
social skills and competences thereof.
Matching methodology and curriculum content
The study investigated what understanding the students had at the end of the course about
information literacy, after having experienced the strategy of inquiry learning and after having
worked with the concept. In the interview the question was asked as follows: At the end of
our conversation, briefly define what you mean by information literacy. Definitions presented
by the respondents were:
E1: Teaching and learning.
E2: To know how to use information well.
E3: To know what you are doing and what skills you have.
E4: To search information anywhere and to be able to use the information to turn it into
knowledge.
Then they were asked: How do you relate the strategy that was used throughout this course
with the concept of information literacy? The relationship was readily established. The
strategy of the course was inquiry. Inquiry is to find and use information to learn. It was clear
that the essence of the process was seized. It was noticed, throughout the investigation,
much immaturity and a lack of student's commitment to the learning process, but it can be
assured that the strategy should continue to be applied, and should be improved, as the
students are having a positive result from the experience. Those most affected are getting –
and this is quite clear by analyzing their interviews – plentiful experience in all the five kinds
of learning. Some are still having incipient experiences, but even those are at least
assimilating the major point: the essence of the concept of information literacy and of inquiry
learning strategy, and they are also establishing the relationship between theory and
practice.
Limitations
It is recognized that the study’s results are constrained by certain limitations and that they
cannot be generalized. First, results must be viewed in the light of a small sample (although
seven students have accepted to participate and have scheduled the interview, only four
132
attended) and as a means of providing the basis for further investigation. Participation of the
course instructor may have influenced the students’ statements. Although her participation
was minimal, the students interviewed were aware that she would know the results. On the
other hand, this fact did not appear to inhibit participants.
Conclusions
In response to the objectives proposed by the survey, it’s noticed that the library students,
when first exposed to learning inquiry strategies, reacted with bewilderment and
apprehension, using different strategies such as seeking help from colleagues who have
already taken the course. As the process was being repeated, however, they felt more
comfortable and safer. Repetition is seen as important for getting confidence and learning to
learn. The main difficulties encountered in the process relates to the understanding of what
was required, with finding information in electronic databases and with the lack of autonomy
that students felt to develop alone all the steps of a search. Finally, it was evident that they
had all five types of learning provided in guided inquiry (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari,
2012).
Future research should investigate the subject using an expanded sample that enables
comparison between students in relation to different variables as their seniority level, age,
engagement or level of interest.
Since the present study relied mostly on subjective perceptions, further studies could use
more objective measures of learning comprising a bigger sample.
References
Campello, B. & Abreu, V. L. (2005). Information Literacy and the Education of School
Librarians. School Libraries Worldwide, v. 11, n. 1, p. 37-52. Retrieved November
20, 2014 from http://www.iasl-online.org/files/jan05-campello.pdf
Campello, B. (2009). Developing Students’ Information Skills in Brazilian School Libraries:
The Librarian’s Role. School Libraries Worldwide, v. 15, n. 1, p. 14-27.
Campello, B. (2003). A função educativa da biblioteca escolar no Brasil: perspectivas para o
seu aperfeiçoamento. In: Anais do 5º Encontro Nacional de Pesquisa em Ciência
da Informação. Belo Horizonte: ANCIB. Retrieved November 20, 2014 from
http://gebe.eci.ufmg.br/downloads/ENAN054.pdf
Carvalho, F. L. M. (1967). Panorama das bibliotecas escolares brasileiras nos vários níveis.
In: Trabalhos apresentados no 5º Congresso Brasileiro de Biblioteconomia e
Documentação. São Paulo: INL.
Detlor, B. et al. (2012). Student perceptions of information literacy instruction:The importance
of active learning. Education for Information, v. 29, p. 147–161.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G. & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in
problem-based and inquiry learning: a response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark.
Educational Psychologist, v. 42, p. 99−107.
133
Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information
Services. 2nd ed. Westport, Conn./London: Libraries Unlimited.
Kuhlthau, C. C.; Maniotes, L. K. & Caspari, A. (2007). Guided Inquiry: Learning in the 21st
Century. Westport, Conn./London: Libraries Unlimited.
Kuhlthau, C. C.; Maniotes, L. K. & Caspari, A. (2012). Guided Inquiry Design: A Framework
for Inquiry in Your School. Santa Barbara, Cal.: Libraries Unlimited.
Maniotes, L. K. & Kuhlthau, C. C. (2014). Making the shift. Knowledge Quest, v. 43, n. 2, p.
8-17.
Mata, M. L. (2014). A inserção da Competência Informacional nos currículos dos cursos de
Biblioteconomia no Brasil e nos cursos de Informação e Documentação na
Espanha. Marília, SP: UNESP. Unpublished dissertation. Retrieved November 20,
2014 from http://www.marilia.unesp.br/Home/PosGraduacao/CienciadaInformacao/Dissertacoes/mata_ml_do_mar.pdf
McKinney, P. (2014). Information literacy and inquiry-based learning: Evaluation of a fiveyear programme of curriculum development. Journal of Librarianship and
Information Science, v. 46, n. 2, p. 148 -166.
Oberg, D. (2004). Promoting Information Literacies: A Focus on Inquiry. In: Proceedings of
the 70th IFLA General Conference and Council. Buenos Aires: IFLA. Retrieved
November 29, 2014 from http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/papers/088e-Oberg.pdf
Vidal, D. G. & Faria Filho, L. M. (2003). História da Educação no Brasil: a constituição
histórica do campo (1880-1970). Rev. Bras. Hist., v. 23, n. 45. Retrieved
November 20, 2014 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-01882003000100003
Title in Portuguese: Aprendizagem pela pesquisa: educando os bibliotecários para sua
função educativa
Abstract in Portuguese
A aprendizagem pela pesquisa é um conceito familiar para bibliotecários brasileiros, que têm
manifestado preocupação sobre sua contribuição em inovar o processo de aprendizagem. A
percepção de que os bibliotecários no Brasil não estão devidamente preparados para
desempenhar essa função tem levado alguns cursos de Biblioteconomia a incluir em seus
currículos disciplinas de competência informacional. Na Escola de Ciência da Informação da
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, desde 2009, essa disciplina é oferecida aos alunos
do Curso de Graduação em Biblioteconomia, com o objetivo de conscientizar os futuros
bibliotecários sobre sua responsabilidade no desenvolvimento das habilidades
informacionais dos usuários. Neste curso, a principal estratégia didática é a aprendizagem
pela pesquisa. O presente estudo tem como objetivos investigar: 1) as reações de alunos
expostos repetidamente a estratégias de aprendizagem pela pesquisa; 2) as dificuldades
com que se deparam durante a disciplina; 3) e quais os tipos de aprendizagem adquirem.
Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas em profundidade com alunos que
134
cursavam a disciplina Competência Informacional no primeiro semestre de 2014 e que se
voluntariaram. A análise foi baseada no modelo Information Search Process de SP
(Kuhlthau, 2004) e nos cinco tipos de aprendizagem sugerido por Kuhlthau; Maniotes &
Caspari (2012, p. 8): conteúdos curriculares, competência informacional, aprender a
aprender, habilidades de leitura e escrita e habilidades sociais. Os resultados, que não
podem ser generalizados, revelaram que os estudantes reagiram de maneira positiva à
estratégia, embora tenham relatado diversas dificuldades. Concluiu-se que a repetição do
processo de pesquisa fez-se importante para que os alunos se sentissem mais seguros e
confiantes e que suas dificuldades fossem minimizadas. No conjunto dos entrevistados foi
observada a aquisição dos cinco tipos de aprendizagem.
Biographical notes
Adriana Bogliolo SIRIHAL DUARTE has worked since 2006 as an associate professor at the
School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo
Horizonte, Brazil. She is a member of the Research Group on School Libraries and her main
research topic is school library/information literacy.
Bernadete Santos CAMPELLO is a full professor at the School of Information Science at
Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, where she coordinates
the Research Group on School Libraries since 1998. Her main research topic is school library
and learning. She coordinated the Portuguese translation and adaptation of Carol Kuhlthau’s
books School Librarian’s Grade by Grade Activities Program: A Complete Sequential Skills Plan
for Grades K-8 and Teaching the Library Research Process.
Acknowledgment
The presentation of this work in the IASL 44th Annual Conference & 19th
International Forum on Research in School Librarianship (2015) was made possible by a
grant from FAPEMIG-Foundation for Research Support of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
135
School Librarians’ Roles: preliminary
results of a national survey of
priorities, performance, and evaluation
in the context of professional
guidelines
Aaron J. Elkins, Ph.D.
Texas Woman’s University
PO BOX 425438
Denton, TX 76204
940-898-2181
aelkins3@twu.edu
Jennifer Luetkemeyer Wood
School of Information
Florida State University
142 Collegiate Loop
Tallahassee, FL 32306
850-644-5775
jrw09m@my.fsu.edu
Marcia A. Mardis
School of Information
142 Collegiate Loop
Tallahassee, FL 32306
(850) 644-3392
marcia.mardis@cci.fsu.edu
IMLS grant number RE-04-09-0055-09
Abstract
School librarians’ role definition has become increasingly important in light of national
trends regarding performance evaluation. This exploratory research included a national
survey of school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, influences on their role
performance, and the perceived fairness of their performance evaluations. Preliminary
survey results suggested that school librarians were performing different types of extra136
role behaviors, many of them more than once a month. Of the roles described in the
professional standards, the school librarians surveyed indicated that they felt the
information specialist role was the most important, and was the role they most
frequently engaged in, which is in contrast to the instructional partnering role
emphasized by national professional guidelines. The majority of survey participants felt
that their performance evaluations were either to a small extent or not at all accurate
assessments of their performance. The results suggest that a closer coordination
between role performance and evaluation is warranted, as well as further examination
of the survey data.
Keywords: School librarians, Roles, Professional guidelines
School librarians’ roles constantly change to keep pace with the evolving ways in which
society interacts with, and education is affected by, information (Neuman 2003). These
changes are clearly reflected in the professional standards that guide school librarians, the
most recent of which are the American Association of School Librarians’ (AASL) Empowering
Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs (AASL 2009). Empowering Learners
represents the Association’s most current vision of school librarians’ roles. According to their
vision, school librarians are expected to be teachers, instructional partners, information
specialists, and program administrators. The new professional standards reflect a shift in the
relative importance of these roles from the previous set, where the importance of the
instructional partner role has risen in the new standards. School librarians are also charged
with the additional role of leader; although previous sets of AASL’s standards discussed
school librarians’ leadership, this is the first time it has been presented as a discrete role to
be enacted. While these new standards may represent AASL’s vision of school librarians’
roles, little is known about their relevance to school librarians’ own visions of their roles, or
even how school librarians craft those visions.
The purpose of this study is to explore school librarians’ roles relative to their professional
standards, school librarians’ self-perceptions of the work they value, and the ways in which
school librarians are professionally evaluated. While there is recent research about how preservice school librarians form their perceptions of school librarians’ roles in the context of
AASL’s current professional vision (Mardis, 2007, 2013; Mardis & Dickinson, 2009), less
appears to be known about what influences current practitioners’ role perceptions. Because
a lack of understanding regarding professional identity has serious implications for the
continued survival of AASL and the practice of school librarianship, research to discover
whether and to what extent current school library practitioners are using the professional
standards to inform their role perceptions is warranted.
Although the most recent professional standards (AASL 2009) indicate that school librarians
anticipated their instructional partner role would rise to prominence over their other roles, five
years of changes in education policy, information, and technology justify a fresh inquiry into
whether this is the case, and whether instructional partnering is still most effectively enacted
as AASL defined it in 2009. Even if school librarians have thought that the instructional
partner role was the most important, it is also important to explore the barriers and enablers
to school librarians’ enactment of their roles due to the growing national movement toward
high stakes teacher evaluation (Ravitch 2010; Matula 2011). Teacher performance
137
evaluation is a contentious topic around the nation, and it is not clear whether school
librarians feel that their performance is being fairly and accurately evaluated.
The role of the school librarian is becoming increasingly important as technology and
educational standards continue to evolve, forcing schools to look beyond the classroom for
resources and support. It is important to assess the efficacy of the school librarian as she or
he takes on each aspect of the role as envisioned by the AASL. The purpose of this study is
to explore how school librarians view that role, and the evaluation of their performance in that
role. This study is guided by the following research questions:
1. What influences school librarians’ perceptions of their roles?
2. Who influences the types of work that school librarians engage in most frequently?
3. What do school librarians consider to be their most important role?
4. Do school librarians feel that they are able to frequently engage in work related to the
role they perceive to be the most important?
5. Do school librarians feel that their performance evaluation is an accurate assessment
of the typical work of school librarians?
Literature Review
In this section, we present the foundational research that defines school librarians’
conceptions of their professional roles, the ambiguity of these roles, and school librarians’
autonomy to enact these roles as organizational citizens, especially in the context of
performance evaluation.
Role Perceptions
A role can be defined as the set of behaviors expected of employees in a specific job position
within an organization. Job descriptions encompass the work performance expectations of
both the employee and the organization (Dierdorff and Rubin 2007; Graen 1976; Schuler,
Aldag, and Brief 1977). While employees may base their role perceptions on formal written
documents like job descriptions, performance expectations, and assigned responsibilities,
role definitions also reflect elements of organizational culture which require employees to
reconcile their beliefs about how to fulfill their roles with how their employing organizations
believe they should be performed (Graen 1976). Roles also may evolve over time, based on
employees’ interactions with other employees and supervisors (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu
2007).
School Librarians’ Roles
For almost a century (National Education Association et al. 1920), school librarians have had
a succession of sets of professional standards to guide their role performance. Each
iteration of the professional standards contained unique opportunities and challenges for
school librarians to address in their work (O’Neal 2004), but it is not apparent whether and to
what extent school librarians have used these professional standards to craft their visions of
their roles. O’Neal (2004) noted that some school library practitioners may attempt to follow
new standards, only to return to how they have always done things once they experience a
challenge or setback. McCarthy (1997) found that nine years after the publication of
Information Power: Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL & Association for
Educational Communications and Technology, 1988), only 42% of the school librarians
surveyed believed they could achieve those standards at their schools, which raises the
138
question of how much influence those standards had on the school librarians who thought
they were not achievable.
Employees who are fulfilling the same job function will perform their roles differently
(Dierdorff and Rubin 2007; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, and Hemingway 2005) because
employees are individuals with their own sociocultural norms and beliefs, backgrounds, and
values (Graen 1976); accordingly, school librarians may perceive and fulfill their roles in their
own way, based on their own interpretations of what those roles should be. McCracken
(2001) found that some school librarians preferred the information specialist role, and were
not expanding into the teaching and collaboration roles called for in Information Power:
Building Partnerships for Learning (AASL & Association for Educational Communications and
Technology, 1998). This stasis may, in part, be related to school librarians’ desire to engage
in work in which they have a high sense of self-efficacy (McAllister et al. 2007; Sandberg
2000).
According to a recent AASL-sponsored survey, school librarians thought that the role of
instructional partner was the most important to the future success of school library programs
(AASL 2009). Yet, without administrative support, school librarians have been limited in what
they are able to achieve with their programs in the schools (Oberg 2009), and there has been
some disagreement about what school librarians’ role in the educational program of the
school should be (O’Neal 2004).
Some school administrators think that engaging in activities more closely associated with the
information specialist role, i.e., providing instructional materials, learning resources, and
reference assistance, were more important for their school librarians than collaborating with
teachers and developing curriculum (Shannon 2009). Other research has shown that some
school administrators facilitated school librarians’ instructional partnering by encouraging
school librarian/teacher collaboration, supporting school librarians in leadership roles, and
encouraging school librarians to serve on important committees in the school (Church 2010).
While it is encouraging to see some research has found that some administrators support the
roles as described in previous sets of professional standards, little recent research has
indicated that school administrators are supporting the newest set of professional standards
(AASL 2009) or even universally supporting school librarians’ fulfilling the roles from the
previous set of standards (Shannon 2009). School librarians and administrators lack a
unified vision about the roles of school librarians in schools (Shannon 2009; O’Neal 2004;
Hartzell 2002; Dorrell and Lawson 1995), which could be contributing to role ambiguity for
school librarians.
Role Ambiguity
Role ambiguity is defined as employees’ uncertainty or lack of clarity about their roles in their
organizations and how their roles should be enacted (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and
Goulimaris 2004; Schuler, Aldag, and Brief 1977). Role ambiguity influences employees’
role performance and organizational outcomes (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and Goulimaris
2004). Some employees may capitalize on role ambiguity to focus on their own goals and
fulfill their roles their roles as they see fit (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007). While this
autonomy may lead to higher levels of job satisfaction (Dierdorff, Rubin, and Bachrach 2012),
role ambiguity may also cause some employees to feel a lack of direction, lose a sense of
identity, or be unsure of the importance of their work (Schuler, Aldag, and Brief 1977). Role
139
ambiguity can also cause stress, as an employee tries to mediate between conflicting
demands and multiple outcomes (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and Goulimaris 2004). Some
employees may use role ambiguity as an excuse not to set goals for themselves, and deliver
only modest task performance (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007). Schuler et al (1977) also
noted that job performance and reward probabilities were lower when role ambiguity was
higher.
Role ambiguity has the potential to influence school librarians’ role performance by offering
them the discretion to fulfill their roles as they see fit, especially if their school administrators
have only vague expectations of what school librarians could and should be contributing to
the educational program of the school. While the professional standards can provide a
framework in which school librarians can develop and set role performance goals, it is
unknown whether and to what extent school librarians base their conceptions of their roles
on the professional standards.
Role Performance
However they form their role perceptions, employees typically engage in in-role behaviors, or
behaviors that are part of their stated role expectations. Employees may also engage in
extra-role behaviors; these behaviors are still organizationally beneficial, but are not part of
stated role performance expectations (Van Dyne, Cummings, and Parks 1995). Extra-role
behaviors are considered to be discretionary; since these behaviors are not typically part of
an employee’s role performance expectation and are ostensibly unrewarded or punished,
they can be performed or not, depending on an employee’s desire to engage in them. Some
employees may view their role more broadly, and consider some extra-role behaviors to be
in-role behaviors (McAllister et al. 2007; Van Dyne, Graham, and Dienesch 1994; CoyleShapiro, Kessler, and Purcell 2004). Similarly, some employees may feel obligated to
perform extra-role behaviors (McAllister et al. 2007). Whether behaviors are considered inrole or extra-role can also be affected by the work context (Flynn 2006; Konovsky and Organ
1996; LePine, Erez, and Johnson 2002; Somech and Ron 2007; Werner 1994); stakeholders
within the organization may have different performance expectations of a particular role
(Belogolovsky and Somech 2010), so that what is considered in-role behavior at one
organization may be extra-role at another, and vice versa.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
The theory of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) (Organ, 1988, 1997; Organ,
Podsakoff, & Mackenzie, 2006; Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) describes
different types of extra-role behaviors and how employee’s willingness to engage in these
behaviors is influenced by antecedents like job satisfaction. Employees’ sense of job
satisfaction is affected by their sense of autonomy and organizational justice: when
employees perceive they have a high level of autonomy (or discretion about how they
perform their roles), and feel a high level of organizational justice (perception of fair treatment
by the organization), they are more likely to engage in extra-role behaviors (Coyle-Shapiro,
Kessler, and Purcell 2004; Dierdorff, Rubin, and Bachrach 2012; Jiang, Sun, and Law 2011;
Johnson, Holladay, and Quinones 2009; Konovsky and Pugh 1994; McAllister et al. 2007;
Moorman, Niehoff, and Organ 1993; Peng, Hwang, and Wong 2010; Tepper, Lockhart, and
Hoobler 2001). OCB theory has been applied to school work contexts, and the research
shows that schools are dependent on teachers to engage in extra-role behaviors for the
overall success of their organization (Somech and Ron 2007; Belogolovsky and Somech
140
2010; Somech and Drach-Zahavy 2000; Somech and Bogler 2002; DiPaolo and TschannenMoran 2001).
As mentioned previously, role ambiguity can influence employees’ sense of autonomy or
discretion, either positively or negatively, which affects their role performance. Employee’s
role performance is also influenced by organizational justice, or employees’ perception of fair
treatment by their organization (Coyle-Shapiro, Kessler, and Purcell 2004; Johnson,
Holladay, and Quinones 2009; Folger 1993). Johnson et al. (2009), described the
dimensions of organizational justice as “employees’ reactions to outcomes (distributive
justice), the process that led to those outcomes (procedural justice), and their treatment
during the process (interactional and informational justice)” (p. 410). Employees’ sense of
organizational justice may be strongly influenced by how their role performance is evaluated.
Performance Evaluation
The definition of role behaviors is especially important for performance evaluation. For school
librarians, professional performance evaluation has long been a contentious issue. Taylor
and Bryant (1996) found that some of the school librarians they surveyed reported not being
evaluated at all. When school librarians are evaluated, it may be done using the same
instrument that is used to evaluate teachers (Vincelette and Pfister 1984; Pfister and Towle
1983; Bryant 2002; Young, Green, and Gross 1995). Taylor and Bryant (1996) found that
almost half of the school librarians they surveyed were evaluated using the same instrument
that was developed for teachers. School librarians should be considered as part of the
instructional staff (Stronge and Helm 1992), because teaching is an important focus of their
roles (AASL, 2009), but this does not mean they should be evaluated using the same
instrument as teachers: while a teacher evaluation may be able to assess the instructional
role of school librarianship, it will ignore many other tasks critical to fulfilling the other roles of
the school librarian (Taylor and Bryant 1996). Even if they have an evaluation instrument
specific to school librarians, school administrators may not have the training necessary to
use it properly (Wilson and Wood 1996). The job demands placed on school administrators
make it difficult for them to spend time observing teachers properly to provide accurate
assessment of teacher performance (Blake et al. 1995; Bryant 2002; Matula 2011).
Unfortunately, observation, which is all too often brief and unrepresentative, is a favored
method of gathering information for most principals (Everhart 2006; Jacob and Lefgren
2008).
Method
To begin to explore the links between role perception, role performance, and performance
evaluation in the context of our research questions, we developed a survey to gather school
librarians’ views.
Description of the Sample
Upon receiving Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for the research, we developed and
distributed the survey via the Qualtrics web-based survey tool. The survey was publicized
using major school librarian professional email lists: OZTL_Net, LM_NET, AASL Forum, and
IASL Forum. It is unknown how many school librarians subscribe to these email lists. The
survey was open for four weeks, and reminders were sent every seven days. The survey
was completed by 692 respondents, 546 of whom were from the United States; as the focus
of this study is school librarian practice in the U.S., only those 546 survey responses are
included in this analysis.
141
The first section of the survey, Section I: About You, captured demographic information (see
survey questions in Appendix), including state of residence, school type, school grade level,
and level of professional preparation. As Table 1 indicates, the respondents represented 41
states.
A quarter of the respondents were from Pennsylvania (n=138). The next approximate quarter
comprised respondents from Kentucky (n=57), Florida (n=41), and New York (n=38). The
third approximate quarter of respondents represented Ohio (n=35), Indiana (n=34),
Connecticut (n=32), Texas (n=17), and New Jersey (n=13). The remaining respondents
represented every state except Alaska, Idaho, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota,
Oregon, Nebraska, Nevada, and West Virginia.
Of the 544 respondents who shared their school type on the survey, the majority (490 or
90%) reported working in public schools and, as Table 2 depicts, of the 542 participants who
provided their school level, most worked in high schools (n=197), elementary schools
(n=160), and middle schools (n=95). The least number of participants (n=90) worked in
combined level schools.
The participants were then asked to indicate their level of professional preparation for the
role of school librarian. Respondents were permitted to choose more than one response from
a list that included Degree in Library and Information Science; Degree in Library and
Information Science and State Certification; State Certification Only; Other State-Recognized
Certification (e.g., National Board Certification); On-the-Job Experience in a School Library;
One-the-Job Experience in Another Type of Library; New to the Library; and Other.
Respondents were able to choose more than one response for this question as the number
Figure 1 illustrates their responses. Nine hundred seven total responses were recorded from
545 respondents.
As Table 3 illustrates, the largest number of respondents (351 or 64%) held both state
certification and a degree in LIS. Almost 25% (n=134) reported only holding state certification
in school librarianship, and 128 (24%) reported on-the-job training in the school library as an
aspect of their preparation. One hundred three (19%) respondents held a degree in Library
and Information Studies (without state certification) and 18% (n=97) held another type of
state recognized certification. The fewest number of respondents selected on-the-job training
in another type of library (n=46 or 8%) or some other type of preparation (n=36 or 4%).
Twelve respondents reported being new to the library.
Data Collection
To enhance validity and reliability of the survey instrument, it was tested at a professional
development workshop for librarians (N=43) approximately two months prior to official
distribution. Questions were revised based on participants' feedback. Two sections of that
survey are reported here. Section I: About You asked respondents to complete four
demographic questions that were used to describe the sample. Section III: Your Professional
Practice contained nine questions regarding professional role perceptions, role performance,
and performance evaluation. The Appendix details the questions reported in the Sample and
Results sections of this study.
142
Data Analysis
Survey data were analyzed to determine school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, as well
as who and what influences those roles. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) was used to establish frequency and descriptive statistics for the responses to each
of the survey questions reported in this study.
Limitations
The method of distribution in this study constitutes a convenience sample, composed of 546
volunteer respondents from the United States. According to the United States Department of
Education and National Center for Education Statistics, there were over 48,000 school
librarians in the U.S in 2013 (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). However, no detailed
public data about school librarians’ qualifications and experience is available, thus the extent
to which the survey participants represent school librarians in the United States is unclear.
Therefore, conclusions drawn for this sample are not sufficient generalize the results to the
population of school librarians. However, Creswell describes a convenience sample as
being able to “provide useful information for answering questions” (2008, p. 155), which is
our goal in this exploratory research.
Results
In this section, we report the results of responses to questions in Section III: Your
Professional Practice. These questions were designed to determine the influences on school
librarians’ perceptions of their roles, as well as to gather information about how school
librarians perform their roles. The intent of this section was to have participants indicate who
and what influences their perceptions of their roles, and whether or not they feel that they are
able to carry out their roles as envisioned.
Questions 1 and 2: What Influences School Librarians’ Role Perceptions
The first question in this section asked respondents to think about what influences how they
perceive their roles as school librarians. Respondents were asked to indicate whether
professional standards, job descriptions, professional preparation, professional reading,
professional development, collegial relationships, and/or other influences affected their role
perceptions, and they were able to choose more than one influence.
Of the 541 participants who responded to the question, 441 (82%) noted “Professional
standards” were influential and 435 (80%) noted that “Professional articles” influenced their
role perceptions. Fewer, but still many, respondents selected “Other librarians” (n=430 or
79%) and “Sessions at professional conferences” (n=427 or 79%). Still fewer respondents
chose “Professional development sessions” (n=332, or 61%), “MLIS Instruction” (n=302 or
56%), and/or “Job description” (n=286 or 53%). Finally, 64 respondents chose “Other” and
were given the option to explain. Sixty of those who chose “Other” provided an explanation,
and some entered more than one item in the text box, while others echoed the available
choices. The remainder can be categorized as follows: 18 cited collaboration with, and
feedback from, stakeholders such as parents, teachers, and students; 15 cited professional
networks such as job related email lists, Twitter, professional learning communities, and
colleagues; 8 cited their own personal experience; 6 cited guidelines from state or national
agencies; the Common Core State Standards and school administration garnered 4
mentions each; 3 people cited instruction received while completing a professional degree
other than their Master’s; and one person cited the book Morals and Dogma, by Albert Pike.
143
The second question in this section asked respondents to reflect on their stated influences
and indicate which among them was the most influential to their visions of their roles;
respondents were allowed only one choice for this question. Five hundred forty one
respondents chose to answer this question. Figure 1 shows the comparison between the
answers to the two questions.
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
Influences
100
Most Influential
50
0
Figure 1. Perceptions of What Influences School Librarians’ Roles (N=541)
Over one quarter of respondents (n=142 or 26%) chose “Professional standards” as the most
influential to their perceptions of their roles. Ninety one (17%) respondents chose “Other
librarians.” Fewer respondents chose “Sessions at professional conferences” (n=69 or 13%)
and “Job descriptions” (n=68 or 13%). Still fewer chose “MLIS instruction” (n=59 or 11%),
“Professional articles” (n=45 or 8%), and “Professional development sessions” (n=27 or 5%).
Finally, 37 respondents chose “Other” and were given the option to explain: all 37 did so.
Their answers can be categorized as follows: 14 cited collaboration with, and feedback from,
stakeholders such as parents, teachers, and students; 6 cited professional networks such as
job related email lists, Twitter, professional learning communities, and colleagues; 4 cited
their own personal experience, and the same number for school administration; guidelines
from state or national agencies and “all of the above” garnered 2 mentions each; and those
items mentioned only once included the Common Core State Standards, instruction received
while completing a professional degree other than their Master’s, professional development
outside the school district, the Danielson model, and a district pacing guide.
Questions 3 and 4: Who Influences School Librarians’ Role Perceptions
144
The next two questions required respondents to report who most influenced their role
perceptions. Respondents were asked to indicate one or more of the following: “Students,”
“Teachers,” “Administrators,” “School District,” “Other librarians,” “Community,” and “Other.”
The first question in this section allowed respondents to select more than one person as a
role influence and 542 participants answered this question. The second question asked for
the most influential person or people, and was answered by 543 participants. The second
question included one additional response option that was not available on the first question:
“Myself.” Figure 2 illustrates the responses to both questions.
600
500
400
300
Influences
200
Most Influential
100
0
Figure 2. People Who Influence (N=542) and Are Most Influential (N=543) on Role Perceptions
To both the questions that asked respondents to select multiple role influences and the
question that asked respondents to select the strongest influence on their roles, “Students”
(n=519 and n=273, respectively) and “Teachers” (n=503 and n=102, respectively) were the
most frequently reported responses. Fewer respondents chose “Administrators” (n=390 and
n=57, respectively) and “Other librarians” (n=359 and n=33, respectively). Still fewer chose
“School district” (n=218 and n=20, respectively) and “Community” (n=128 and n=0,
respectively). With the option of “Myself” added to the question about strongest role
influence, 51 people made that choice. Finally, very few respondents (n=22 and n=7,
respectively) chose “Other.”
For the question about influences, 21 of the 22 who responded “Other” chose to provide an
explanation. Of those, 13 responded with a “what” instead of a “who,” leaving 8 valid
responses. The breakdown of those responses is as follows: myself and parents received
two mentions each; the other four respondents listed the curriculum committee, the IB
coordinator, the technology coach, and “leaders in my field and other fields.” For the question
about what was most influential, 6 of the 7 who responded “other” chose to provide an
explanation. Of those, 4 responded with a “what” instead of a “who,” leaving 2 valid
responses: students and teachers; and “this changes on a day to day basis-again, it’s hard to
quantify.”
145
Questions 5 and 6: Extra-Role Behaviors
The majority of the 542 respondents who answered the first question in this section (n=295
or 54%) chose “I engage in these activities once per month or more.” Fewer people (n=125
or 23%) responded “I engage in these types of activities a few times per semester.” Still
fewer (n=51 or 9%) indicated “I engage in these activities once or twice during the school
year,” and 25 (5%) said “I never engage in these activities.” Forty-seven people (9%)
responded “I don’t know, ” as shown in Figure 3.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
I never engage I engage in
I engage in
I engage in I don't know.
in these
these
these
these
activities. activities once activities a activities once
or twice
few times per per month or
during the
semester.
more.
school year.
Figure 3. Out of Role Behaviors
The second question in this section was open-ended. Respondents who chose to answer
typed duties they consider to be out of role in a text box; 368 respondents chose to do so,
and listed a combined total of 837 duties. Figure 4 shows a word cloud created from the
duties respondents entered for this question.
Figure 4. Extra-Role Duties Performed by School Librarians
The word “duty” itself is prominently featured in the word cloud; this refers to a variety of
student supervision responsibilities that happen outside of the school library and are
146
unrelated to instructional contact time, such as cafeteria/lunch duty, duties related to
supervision of students arriving to or departing from school, supervision of students during
transitions between classes, and supervision of students in detention. School librarians also
reported having to provide coverage for classes or serving as a substitute teacher. The
maintenance or repair of technology was mentioned by many respondents, as was having to
serve as a proctor for testing. Fewer respondents mentioned teaching responsibilities that
fell outside of the purview of information literacy skills; examples included reading and math
remediation, as well as arts and humanities, music, and science. Some respondents also
indicated that they were responsible for supervising study halls (sometimes hosted in the
school library), clubs, or athletic activities.
Questions 7 and 8: School Librarian Role Prioritization and Enactment
The next question asked school librarians to reflect on which one of the Empowering
Learners’ professional roles (i.e., teacher, instructional partner, information specialist,
program administrator, and leader) they deemed most important. Five hundred forty two
respondents answered this question. Respondents were also asked to indicate which of the
five roles they engaged in most frequently. Figure 5 shows the comparison between what
school librarians feel is their most important role, and in which of those they engaged most
frequently in practice.
250
200
150
Most Important
100
Most Frequent
50
0
Leader
Instructional Information
Partner
Specialist
Teacher
Program
Administrator
Figure 5. Role Most Important Role and Role Most Frequently Performed (N=542)
As Figure 4 illustrates, 195 (36%) of respondents chose “Information Specialist.”
Respondents also frequently reported “Instructional Partner” (n=140 or 26%) and “Teacher”
(n=138 or 25%). The fewest number of respondents chose “Leader” (n=58 or 11%) or
“Program Administrator” (n=11 or 2%).
When asked to indicate the type of role in which they most frequently engaged, the number
of participants who answered the question was again 542. Of those responses, most
respondents reported “Information Specialist” (n=221 or 41%), with “Teacher” at 155 (29%)
147
responses, and “Instructional Partner” with 62 (11%) responses. A smaller number of
respondents chose “Program Administrator” (n=48 or 9%), and the fewest chose “Leader”
(n=30 or 6%).
Questions 9: School Librarian Performance Evaluation
In the final question, respondents were asked how they felt about the evaluation processes
used to assess their performance as a school librarian. Five hundred and forty four
respondents completed this question. The majority (n=265 or 49%) felt that the evaluation
instrument used to assess their performance was accurate “To a small extent.” In contrast,
116 (21%) felt that their performance evaluation was accurate “To a great extent.” More
respondents thought their performance evaluation was accurate “Not to any extent” (n=72 or
13%) than thought it was “Completely” accurate (n=23 or 4%). A few respondents chose
“No opinion” (n=39 or 7%) or “I don’t know” (n=29 or 5%). Figure 6 shows all of the
responses to this question.
300
250
200
150
100
Evaluation Accuracy
50
0
Figure 6. Perceived Accuracy of Performance Assessment (N=544)
Discussion
This research was conducted to explore what influences school librarians’ perceptions of
their roles, and what those perceptions are. The findings will be discussed in light of the
research questions.
Research Question 1. What influences school librarians’ perceptions of their roles?
and Research Question 2. Who influences the types of work that school librarians
engage in most frequently?
The first two research questions pertain to school librarians’ role perceptions and role
performance. Professional standards, articles from professional or research journals, other
librarians (as peers or mentors), and sessions at professional conferences were the most
frequently cited by the school librarians surveyed as influencing their perceptions of their
roles. This finding reflects the research indicating that employees may base their role
perceptions on formal written documents (such as professional standards) and socialization
by their organization (Graen 1976). However, while school librarians may be receiving
148
context-specific acculturation from their school organization, they may also feel the need for
socialization in the wider culture of school librarians. Since many school librarians may be
working as the only school librarian at their school, reading articles written by other school
librarians, attending sessions at professional conferences presented by other school
librarians, and having mentor or collaborative peer relationships with other school librarians
may represent the best way for school librarians to experience enculturation and socialization
specific to school librarians.
When the school librarians surveyed were asked what most influenced their perceptions of
their roles, professional standards received the highest number of responses, but only 26%
of respondents chose this answer, which is in contrast to research on pre-service school
librarians’ valuation of the importance of the professional standards (Mardis and Dickinson
2009). This divergence may be a result of the difference between the ideal of school
librarianship as envisioned by pre-service school librarians and the reality in which current
school librarians find themselves. McCarthy (1997) found that the majority of school
librarians she surveyed did not think the professional standards from Information Power:
Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL and Association for Educational
Communications and Technology 1988) could be achieved at their schools nine years after
they had been published. It is possible that some current school librarians don’t feel as
though the current professional standards are achievable in their schools, either, and
therefore don’t see them as the most influential to their perceptions of their roles.
The school librarians surveyed overwhelmingly responded that students were the people
who most influenced their role perceptions; this is likely a reflection of a learner-centered
philosophy. While it is good to know that school librarians consider students to be extremely
important to their role perceptions, this answer does not address school librarians’ sense of
autonomy, as students are unlikely to wield influence over the types of work in which school
librarians are able to engage.
Research Question 3. What do school librarians consider to be their most important
role? and Research Question 4. Do school librarians feel that they are able to
frequently engage in work related to the role they perceive to be the most important?
A majority (54%) of school librarians in this study felt that they are engaged in work that lies
outside of their perceptions of their roles at least once a month, and they described a myriad
of different extra-role behaviors. Many of the extra-role behaviors the school librarians cited
seemed to be related to fulfilling duties that could have been filled by other personnel if there
was a position for them at that school. Since this question only asked for a description of the
types of behaviors school librarians performed that they thought were beyond their roles, it
was unclear to what extent school librarians voluntarily engaged in these behaviors or
whether they were mandatory for the school librarian to perform in their school context.
Work context influences the perception of certain behaviors as either in-role or extra role
(Konovsky and Organ 1996; Werner 1994; LePine, Erez, and Johnson 2002; Flynn 2006;
Somech and Ron 2007), and school librarians’ performance of behaviors they consider to be
extra-role may be a result of performance expectations from other stakeholders
(Belogolovsky and Somech 2010).
Of the five roles (Leader, Instructional Partner, Information Specialist, Teacher, and Program
Administrator) described in Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs
(AASL, 2009), 36% of school librarians thought that the Information Specialist role was the
149
most important, but 41% of school librarians indicated that this was the role they most often
performed; there were similar differences in the number of school librarians who thought a
particular role was the most important as compared to the number of school librarians who
most frequently engaged in that role, with the greatest difference being between the number
of school librarians who thought of the Instructional Partner role as the most important (26%)
and the number of school librarians who were able to most frequently engage in that role
(11%). According to Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs (AASL
2009), the role of Teacher was the most important at the time, and the role of Instructional
Partner was supposed to rise to prominence. This is in stark contrast to the findings, where
more of the school librarians surveyed thought the Information Specialist role was the most
important.
These findings about the role school librarians perceive to be the most important compared
to the role in which they are most frequently engaged have implications for school librarians’
sense of autonomy, i.e. some school librarians are most frequently engaged in the work that
they do not consider to be the most important. If autonomy is defined as discretion about
role performance, these school librarians likely have a lower sense of autonomy, since they
are not spending most of their time engaged in the work they consider to be most important;
if these school librarians had a higher level of autonomy, they would perhaps be spending
more time performing the roles they perceived to be the most important.
Depending on the conditions that have led to this discrepancy, school librarians’ sense of
organizational justice may also have been negatively affected. For example, imagine a
scenario in which a school librarian’s administrator decided, without consulting the school
librarian, to assign the school librarian to a fixed schedule in order to provide planning time
for teachers, and that this administrator ignored the school librarian’s protests about this
decision. This administrator’s decision effectively forces the school librarian to engage most
frequently in the Teacher role, which will heavily interfere with performance of other roles the
school librarian may consider to be more important, such as the Instructional Partner role,
which would require access to teachers during their planning times. The school librarian in
this scenario would likely disagree with the outcome of the administrator’s decision (a fixed
schedule), the process that was used (not consulting the school librarian), and her or his
treatment during the process (being ignored), meaning that the school librarian would feel
unfairly treated, negatively affecting his or her sense of organizational justice.
Research Question 5. Do school librarians feel that their performance evaluation is an
accurate assessment of the typical work of school librarians?
The majority (62%) of school librarians surveyed felt that their performance evaluations were
either not at all or only to a small extent an accurate assessment of their work as school
librarians, which may have effect on their sense of organizational justice. These school
librarians may feel less inclined to engage in extra-role behaviors, which can be critical to the
success of a school (Belogolovsky and Somech 2010; DiPaolo and Tschannen-Moran 2001;
Bogler and Somech 2005; Somech and Drach-Zahavy 2000; Somech and Ron 2007). This
situation could create a negative feedback loop, as a reluctance to engage in extra-role
behaviors may be reflected in lower ratings on school librarians’ performance evaluations
(Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007; McAllister et al. 2007), leading to an even lower sense of
organizational justice, further discouraging extra-role behavior.
150
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research
In this study, we presented the initial results of a national survey that aimed to capture school
librarians’ perceptions of their roles, their abilities to enact those roles, and their feelings
about their professional evaluation. Prior research has suggested that myriad factors
influence each of these aspects of school librarianship, and that determining the interplay
between perception, performance, and evaluation is vital to defining a profession that is
threatened by competing financial and policy pressures facing K-12 education.
While many respondents cited the professional standards as an influence on their
perceptions of their roles, considerably fewer of the school librarians surveyed said that the
professional standards were the most influential to their perceptions of their roles. This
difference should concern professional associations such as AASL, especially as it stands in
contrast to research on pre-service school librarians’ perceptions (Mardis 2007, 2013; Mardis
and Dickinson 2009). If currently practicing school librarians do not regard their professional
standards as being the most influential to their role perceptions, their professional
organizations should consider re-evaluating their articulated visions of school librarianship.
Further research is needed to determine why more current school librarians do not consider
the professional standards to be the most influential factor in their perceptions of their roles,
and what school librarians’ perceptions of AASL are.
Although students are unlikely to have the power to influence school librarians’ role
performance, most study participants considered students to be the people most influential to
their perceptions of their roles; this student-centered commitment was not also reflected in
school librarians’ perceptions of role importance or role performance. This conflict calls for
further research into school librarians’ sense of autonomy, their abilities to perform their roles
as they perceive they should be performed, and how other stakeholders influence school
librarians’ sense of autonomy and role performance.
A majority of school librarians surveyed indicated that they were engaged in extra-role
behaviors at least once a month; many of these behaviors were related to non-instructional
student supervision outside the library or to fulfilling duties that could be performed by other
personnel. It was not clear to what extent these extra-role behaviors are voluntary or
mandatory. Further research is needed to develop a more precise idea of what types of
extra-role behaviors school librarians engage in, and whether or not they voluntarily do so, as
this will give further insights into school librarians’ perceptions of autonomy and
organizational justice.
The majority of the school librarians surveyed feel that their evaluations do not accurately
assessing their role performance. A decreased sense of autonomy accompanied by a
decreased sense of organizational justice should negatively affect school librarians’
willingness to engage in the extra-role behaviors that have been deemed necessary for a
school to be successful, but many of the respondents indicated that they were engaged in
such behaviors. Further research is needed to fully explore what issues are affecting school
librarians’ sense of autonomy and how. More research that examines school librarians’
perceptions of the facets of organizational justice may provide insights into whether and to
what extent school librarians are willing to engage in extra-role behavior and why.
151
This exploratory research has shown that there are possibly some deeper currents affecting
school librarians’ role perceptions, role performance, and performance evaluation, and that
further research is needed to better understand their implications.
References
American Association of School Librarians. 2009. Empowering Learners: Guidelines for
School Library Programs. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
American Association of School Librarians, and Association for Educational Communications
and Technology. 1988. Information Power: Guidelines for School Library Media
Programs. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
———. 1998. Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning. Chicago, IL: American
Library Association. http://www.worldcat.org/title/information-power-buildingpartnerships-for-learning/oclc/39042940&referer=brief_results
.
Belogolovsky, Elena, and Anit Somech. 2010. “Teachers’ Organizational Citizenship
Behavior: Examining the Boundary between in-Role Behavior and Extra-Role
Behavior from the Perspective of Teachers, Principals and Parents.” Teaching and
Teacher Education 26 (4) (May): 914–923. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.032.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0742051X09002303
Blake, Jane, Jerry Bachman, Mary Kay Frys, Patricia Holbert, Tamara Ivan, and Pamela
Sellitto. 1995. “A Portfolio-Based Assessment Model for Teachers: Encouraging
Professional Growth.” NASSP Bulletin 79 (573) (October 1): 37–46.
doi:10.1177/019263659507957307.
http://bul.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/019263659507957307
Bogler, Ronit, and Anit Somech. 2005. “Organizational Citizenship Behavior in School: How
Does It Relate to Participation in Decision Making?” Journal of Educational
Administration 43 (5): 420–438.
Bryant, Miles. 2002. “The Role of the Principal in the Evaluation of the School’s Library
Media Specialist.” School Libraries Worldwide 8 (1): 85–91.
Church, Audrey P. 2010. “Secondary School Principals’ Perceptions of the School Librarian's
Instructional Role.” School Library Research 13.
Coyle-Shapiro, Jacqueline A-M, Ian Kessler, and John Purcell. 2004. “Exploring
Organizationally Directed Citizenship Behaviour: Reciprocity or ‘It’s My Job’?”
Journal of Management Studies 41 (1): 85–106.
Creswell, John W. 2008. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Dierdorff, Erich C., and Robert S. Rubin. 2007. “Carelessness and Discriminability in Work
Role Requirement Judgments: Influences of Role Ambiguity and Cognitive
Complexity.” Personnel Psychology 60 (3) (September): 597–625.
152
doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00085.x. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.17446570.2007.00085.x
Dierdorff, Erich C., Robert S. Rubin, and Daniel G. Bachrach. 2012. “Role Expectations as
Antecedents of Citizenship and the Moderating Effects of Work Context.” Journal
of Management 38 (2) (February 16): 573–598. doi:10.1177/0149206309359199.
http://jom.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0149206309359199
DiPaolo, Michael, and Megan Tschannen-Moran. 2001. “Organizational Citizenship Behavior
in Schools and Its Relationship to School Climate.” Journal of School Leadership
11 (5): 424–447.
Dorrell, Larry D., and V. Lonnie Lawson. 1995. “What Are Principals’ Perceptions of the
School Library Media Specialist?” NASSP Bulletin 79 (573): 72–80.
doi:10.1177/019263659507957312
Everhart, Nancy. 2006. “Principals’ Evaluation of School Librarians: A Study of Strategic and
Nonstrategic Evidence-Based Approaches.” School Libraries Worldwide 12 (2):
38–51.
Flynn, Francis J. 2006. “‘How Much Is It Worth to You•? Subjective Evaluations of Help in
Organizations.’” In Research in Organizational Behavior, edited by Barry M. Staw,
27:133–174. San Diego, CA: JAI Press.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0191308506270047
Folger, Robert. 1993. “Justice, Motivation, and Performance beyond Role Requirements.”
Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 6 (3) (September): 239–248.
doi:10.1007/BF01419447. http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/BF01419447
Graen, George. 1976. “Role-Making Processes within Complex Organizations.” In Handbook
of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by Marvin Dunnette, 12011245.
Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Hartzell, Gary. 2002. “The Principal’s Perceptions of School Libraries and TeacherLibrarians.” School Libraries Worldwide 8 (1): 92–110.
Jacob, Brian A, and Lars Lefgren. 2008. “Can Principals Identify Effective Teachers?
Evidence on Subjective Performance Evaluation in Education.” Journal of Labor
Economics 26 (1). doi:10.1086/522974.
Jiang, Jane Y, Li-Yun Sun, and Kenneth S Law. 2011. “Job Satisfaction and Organization
Structure as Moderators of the Effects of Empowerment on Organizational
Citizenship Behavior: A Self-Consistency and Social Exchange Perspective.”
International Journal of Management 28 (3): 675–694.
Johnson, Stefanie K., Courtney L. Holladay, and Miguel A. Quinones. 2009. “Organizational
Citizenship Behavior in Performance Evaluations: Distributive Justice or Injustice?”
Journal of Business and Psychology 24 (4) (June 5): 409–418.
153
doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9118-0.
http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/s10869-009-9118-0
Konovsky, Mary A, and S. Douglas Pugh. 1994. “Citizenship Behavior and Social Exchange.”
Academy of Management Journal 37 (3) (June): 656–69. doi:10.2307/256704.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10134637
Konovsky, Mary A., and Dennis W. Organ. 1996. “Dispositional and Contextual Determinants
of Organizational Citizenship Behavior.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 17 (3):
253–266. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199605)17:3<253::AID-JOB747>3.0.CO;2Q.
Koustelios, Athanasios, Nicholas Theodorakis, and Dimitris Goulimaris. 2004. “Role
Ambiguity, Role Conflict and Job Satisfaction among Physical Education Teachers
in Greece.” International Journal of Educational Management 18 (2): 87–92.
doi:10.1108/09513540410522216.
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/09513540410522216
LePine, Jeffrey A., Amir Erez, and Diane E. Johnson. 2002. “The Nature and Dimensionality
of Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis.”
Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (1): 52–65. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.87.1.52.
http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.52
Mardis, Marcia A. 2007. “From One-to-One to One-to-Many : A Study of the Practicum ¡n the
Transition from Teacher to School Library Media Specialist.” Journal of Education
for Library and Information Science 48 (3): 218–235.
———. 2013. “Transfer, Lead, Look Inward: Further Study of Preservice School Librarians’
Development.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 54 (1):
37–54.
Mardis, Marcia A., and Gail Dickinson. 2009. “Far Away, so Close: Preservices School
Library Media Specialists’ Perceptions of AASL’s Standards for the 21st-Century
Learner.” School Library Media Research 12.
Matula, Joseph J. 2011. “Embedding Due Process Measures throughout the Evaluation of
Teachers.” NASSP Bulletin 95 (2) (May 30): 99–121.
doi:10.1177/0192636511409925.
McAllister, Daniel J, Dishan Kamdar, Elizabeth Wolfe Morrison, and Daniel B Turban. 2007.
“Disentangling Role Perceptions: How Perceived Role Breadth, Discretion,
Instrumentality, and Efficacy Relate to Helping and Taking Charge.” The Journal of
Applied Psychology 92 (5) (September): 1200–1211. doi:10.1037/00219010.92.5.1200. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17845080
McCarthy, Cheryl A. 1997. “A Reality Check: The Challenges of Implementing Information
Power in School Library Media Programs.” In Information Rich but Knowledge
154
Poor? Emerging Issues for Schools and Libraries Worldwide. Research and
Professional Papers Presented at the Annual Conference of the International
Association of School Librarianship, 19. Vancouver, British Columbia.
McCracken, Anne. 2001. “School Library Media Specialists’ Perceptions of Practice and
Importance of Roles Described in Information Power.” School Library Media
Research 4.
Moorman, Robert H., Brian P. Niehoff, and Dennis W. Organ. 1993. “Treating Employees
Fairly and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Sorting the Effects of Job
Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Procedural Justice.” Employee
Responsibilities and Rights Journal 6 (3): 209–225.
Morgeson, Frederick P, Kelly Delaney-Klinger, and Monica a Hemingway. 2005. “The
Importance of Job Autonomy, Cognitive Ability, and Job-Related Skill for Predicting
Role Breadth and Job Performance.” The Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2)
(March): 399–406. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.399.
National Education Association, Carl C. Certain, North Central Association of Colleges and
Secondary Schools, and American Library Association. 1920. Standard Library
Organization and Equipment for Secondary Schools of Different Sizes. 1920:
American Library Association.
Neuman, Delia. 2003. “Research in School Library Media for the next Decade: Polishing the
Diamond.” Library Trends 51 (4): 503–524.
O’Neal, Anita J. 2004. “Administrators’, Teachers', and Media Specialists' Perceptions of the
Roles of Media Specialists in the Schools' Instructional Programs: Implications for
Instructional Administration.” Journal of Education for Library and Information
Science 45 (4): 286–306. doi:10.2307/40323875.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/40323875?origin=crossref
Oberg, Dianne. 2009. “Libraries in Schools: Essential Contexts for Studying Organizational
Change and Culture.” Library Trends 58 (1): 9–25. doi:10.1353/lib.0.0072.
http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/library_trends/v058/58.1.oberg.html
Organ, Dennis W. 1988. Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
———. 1997. “Organizational Citizenship Behavior: It’s Construct Clean-up Time.” Human
Performance 10 (2): 85–97.
Organ, Dennis W., Philip M. Podsakoff, and Scott B. Mackenzie. 2006. Organizational
Citizenship Behavior: Its Nature, Antecedents, and Consequences. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
.
155
Peng, Yu-Ping, Shiuh-Nan Hwang, and Jehn-Yih Wong. 2010. “How to Inspire University
Librarians to Become ‘good Soldiers’? The Role of Job Autonomy.” The Journal of
Academic Librarianship 36 (4) (July): 287–295. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2010.05.002.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0099133310000972
Pfister, Fred C., and Nelson Towle. 1983. “A Practical Model for a Developmental Appraisal
Program for School Library Media Specialists.” School Library Media Quarterly 11
(2): 111–121.
Podsakoff, Philip M., Scott B. Mackenzie, Julie B. Paine, and Daniel G. Bachrach. 2000.
“Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and
Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research.” Journal of
Management 26 (3) (June 1): 513–563. doi:10.1177/014920630002600307
http://jom.sagepub.com/content/26/3/513.short
Ravitch, Diane. 2010. The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How
Testing and Choice Are Undermining Education. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Sandberg, Jorgen. 2000. “Understanding Human Competence at Work: An Interpretive
Approach.” Academy of Management Journal 43 (1): 9–25.
Schuler, Randall S., Ramon J. Aldag, and Arthur P. Brief. 1977. “Role Conflict and
Ambiguity: A Scale Analysis.” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
20 (1): 111–128.
Shannon, Donna M. 2009. “Principal’s Perspectives of School Librarians.” School Libraries
Worldwide 15 (2): 1–22.
Somech, Anit, and Ronit Bogler. 2002. “Antecedents and Consequences of Teacher
Organizational and Professional Commitment.” Educational Administration
Quarterly 38 (4) (October 1): 555–577. doi:10.1177/001316102237672.
http://eaq.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/001316102237672
Somech, Anit, and Anat Drach-Zahavy. 2000. “Understanding Extra-Role Behavior in
Schools: The Relationships between Job Satisfaction, Sense of Efficacy, and
Teachers’ Extra-Role Behavior.” Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (5-6): 649–
659. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(00)00012-3
Somech, Anit, and Ifat Ron. 2007. “Promoting Organizational Citizenship Behavior in
Schools: The Impact of Individual and Organizational Characteristics.” Educational
Administration Quarterly 43 (1) (February 1): 38–66.
doi:10.1177/0013161X06291254.
http://eaq.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0013161X06291254
Stronge, James H., and Virginia M. Helm. 1992. “A Performance Evaluation System for
Professional Support Personnel.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 14
(2) (January 1): 175–180. doi:10.3102/01623737014002175.
http://epa.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.3102/01623737014002175
156
Taylor, Joie, and Miles Bryant. 1996. “Performance-Based Evaluation and the School Library
Media Specialist.” NASSP Bulletin 80 (581) (September 1): 71–78.
doi:10.1177/019263659608058119.
Tepper, Bennett J., Daniel Lockhart, and Jenny Hoobler. 2001. “Justice, Citizenship, and
Role Definition Effects.” The Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (4) (August): 789–
796. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.789.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of
Data (CCD), "Local Education Agency (School District) Universe Survey", 2009-10
v.2a, 2010-11 v.2a, 2011-12 v.1a; "State Nonfiscal Public Elementary/Secondary
Education Survey", 2009-10 v.1b, 2010-11 v.1a, 2011-12 v.1a.
Van Dyne, Linn, L. L. Cummings, and Judi M. Parks. 1995. “Extra-Role Behaviors: In Pursuit
of Construct and Definitional Clarity (a Bridge over Muddied Waters).” In Research
in Organizational Behavior, edited by L. L. Cummings and Barry M. Staw, 17:215–
285.
Van Dyne, Linn, Jill W. Graham, and Richard M. Dienesch. 1994. “Organizational Citizenship
Behavior: Construct Redefinition, Measurement, and Validation.” Academy of
Management Journal 37 (4) (August 1): 765–802. doi:10.2307/256600.
http://connection.ebscohost.com/an/9412190170
Vincelette, Joyce P., and Fred C. Pfister. 1984. “Improving Performance Appraisal in
Libraries.” Library & Information Science Research 6 (2): 191–203.
Werner, Jon M. 1994. “Dimensions That Make a Difference: Examining the Impact of in-Role
and Extrarole Behaviors on Supervisory Ratings.” Journal of Applied Psychology
79 (1): 98–107. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.79.1.98.
http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0021-9010.79.1.98
Wilson, Ben, and James A. Wood. 1996. “Teacher Evaluation: A National Dilemma.” Journal
of Personnel Evaluation in Education 10 (1): 75–82. doi:10.1007/BF00139470.
Young, E. Mae, Jeanne B. Green, and Mary Gross. 1995. “Evaluating School Library and
Media Specialists: From Performance Expectations to Appraisal Conference.”
Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 9 (2): 171–189.
doi:10.1007/BF00972658.
Yun, Seokhwa, Riki Takeuchi, and Wei Liu. 2007. “Employee Self-Enhancement Motives and
Job Performance Behaviors: Investigating the Moderating Effects of Employee
Role Ambiguity and Managerial Perceptions of Employee Commitment.” The
Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (3) (May): 745–756. doi:10.1037/00219010.92.3.745. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17484554
157
Appendix
State
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Iowa
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusett
s
Michigan
Minnesota
Total
Respondent
s
7
3
4
11
5
32
1
41
11
2
7
4
34
6
57
4
3
4
11
State
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming
5
3
Respondents
1
4
1
6
13
3
38
8
35
2
138
1
3
17
1
1
9
3
5
2
546
Table 1. Respondents by Location (N=546)
Grade Level
Elementary
Middle
High School
PreK-8
Other:
Total
Respondents
160
95
197
20
70
542
Table 2. Respondents by Grade Level (N=542)
Professional Prep for Role
Degree in LIS
Degree in LIS/state
certification
State certification only
Other state-recognized
preparation
Response
s
103
351
134
97
158
% Cases
% Responses
11.4%
38.7%
18.9%
64.4%
14.8%
10.7%
24.6%
17.8%
On-the-job experience in
school library
On-the-job experience in
another type of library
I'm new to the library.
Other
Total
128
14.1%
23.5%
46
5.1%
8.4%
12
36
907
1.3%
4.0%
100.0%
2.2%
6.6%
166.4%
Table 3. Respondents' Professional Preparation (N=545)
Appendix: Digital Resources Survey Questions
Section I: About You
1. In which state do you work? (Please enter your two letter state abbreviation) If you work
outside the United States, please indicate your country of residence.
2. Please indicate your level of professional preparation for your role as school librarian.
(Please check all that apply.)
 Degree in LIS
 Degree in LIS and state certification
 State certification
 Other state-recognized preparation (for example, teacher certification in non-LIS area or
National Board certification in school media)
 On-the-job experience in the school library
 On-the-job experience in another type of library
 I'm new to the library.
 Other: ____________________
3. At which level do you work?
 Elementary
 Middle/Junior High
 High School
 (P)K-8
 Other: ____________________
4. My school is:
 Public
 Private
 Charter
 Other: ____________________
159
Section III: Your Professional Practice
1. Think about how you perceive your role as a school librarian. Which of the following would
you say influences your vision of that role? (Please check all that apply.)
 Professional standards, such as AASL's Empowering Learners or Information Power
 The job description provided by your school or district
 The instruction you received while earning your master's degree in Library Science
 Articles you read in professional or research journals
 Sessions you attend at professional conferences
 Professional development sessions
 Other librarians (as peers or mentors)
 Other: ____________________
2. Please indicate which one of these is most influential to your vision of your role as a
school librarian.
 Professional standards, such as AASL's Empowering Learners or Information Power
 The job description provided by your school or district
 The instruction you received while earning your master's degree in Library Science
 Articles you read in professional or research journals
 Sessions you attend at professional conferences
 Professional development sessions
 Other librarians (as peers or mentors)
 Other: ____________________
3. Now think about the work you do as a school librarian. Who influences the types of work
you engage in? (Please check all that apply.)
 Students
 Teachers
 Administrators
 School District Officials
 Other librarians (as peers or mentors)
 Community
 Other: ____________________
4. Please indicate which person or group most influences the types of work you engage in.
 Students
 Teachers
 Administrators
 School District Officials
 Other librarians (as peers or mentors)
 Community
 Myself
 Other: ____________________
5. How frequently are you engaged in activities that you feel are outside the role of school
librarians as you perceive it?
 I never engage in these activities.
 I engage in these activities once or twice during the school year.
 I engage in these activities a few times per semester.
 I engage in these activities once per month or more.
 I don't know.
160
6. Please list examples of duties you perform that fall outside the role of the school librarian
as you perceive it.
7. I think the most important role that school librarians do is as a(n):
 Leader (working to improve conditions in the learning community)
 Instructional Partner (collaborating with other teachers)
 Information Specialist (facilitating access to resources)
 Teacher (providing instruction in multiple literacies, critical thinking, and ethics)
 Program Administrator (management of resources and advocacy)
8. The work in which I am able to most frequently engage is related to the role of:
 Leader (working to improve conditions in the learning community)
 Instructional Partner (collaborating with other teachers)
 Information Specialist (facilitating access to resources)
 Teacher (providing instruction in multiple literacies, critical thinking, and ethics)
 Program Administrator (management of resources and advocacy)
 The type of work in which I most frequently engage is not reflective of my perception of
the role of school librarian. (Please explain.) ____________________
9. The job performance evaluation used by my school district is an accurate assessment of
the typical work of a school librarian.
 Not to any extent
 To a small extent
 To a great extent
 Completely
 I don't know.
 No opinion.
161
Award-Winning Literacy Awards:
Lessons Learned
Dr. Lesley S. J. Farmer
California State University Long Beach
1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA USA
Lesley.Farmer@csulb.edu
Abstract
The Library of Congress honors top literacy efforts accomplished by organizations in
the U.S. and abroad. Data about the applications and selection process underwent
coding and content analysis to provide specific tips and research-based best practices
that can improve existing literacy efforts and jumpstart new initiatives. Winners
demonstrated sound planning with a clear focus and sustainable support undergirded
by volunteer engagement. Winners were resourceful and creative. The most important
research-based factors appear to be: home-based early literacy and rich print
environment, physical access to a wide variety of reading materials from which the
reader can choose, explicit instruction, authentic shared reading experiences.
Keywords: Library of Congress, literacy, international, libraries, awards
Introduction
Thanks to The Carlyle Group co-founder David M. Rubenstein, his generous five-year
donation for a total of five billion dollars has enabled the Library of Congress to have the
opportunity to honor top literacy efforts accomplished by organizations. The awards also
encourage innovative ways to address literacy issues, and disseminate best practices.
According to David Rubenstein, who is also a major donor to the Library of Congress,
“Literacy spurs innovation and creativity. Literacy is one of the basic tools for making
progress in life and can open doors to many joys and wonders. I am pleased to support the
work of groups that help people become literate and successfully convince those who can
read to read more.“
The $150,000 Rubenstein Award recognizes groundbreaking sustained record to advancing
literacy. The $50,000 American Award recognizes a U. S. project developed and
implemented within the last ten years that combats illiteracy or aliteracy. The $50,000
International Award recognizes literacy work done outside out the U.S. The first awards were
selected and given in 2013, and the second year of literacy awards were chosen and
honored in 2014.
To optimize the impact of these literacy awards, data about the applications and selection
process were analyzed.
162
Administration
John Cole, Director for the Library of Congress Center for the Book, chairs the Literacy
Awards. Librarian of Congress James H. Billington named a distinguished advisory board,
representing several aspects of literacy: government leaders, bestselling authors, non-profit
leaders, and professors.
David Rubenstein and John Cole Award developed the following selection criteria:
innovation, research/best practice basis, replicability, measurable impact, sustainability.
Applicants submitted a 750 word project summary and three letters of support; applicants
could also list their website to provide more details.
Three members of the board served as chairs to select each award, who selected the semifinalists for each award collaboratively. The rest of the board split into the three award groups
to recommend the finalists. Dr. Billington made the final choices. At the first two levels of
screening, each reviewer completed a score sheet, and noted significant factors. In addition,
a one-page summary of each semi-finalist, written by the Library of Congress staff, facilitated
scoring.
Applications
In 2013 100 nominations were received and considered: 36 American Prize applications, 50
International Prize applications, and 67 Rubenstein Prize applications. Applicants reflected
programs in 28 U.S. states and 21 countries. Because the directions did not specify that only
one award could be pursued, 16 applied for both the Rubenstein and American Prizes, 23
applied for both the Rubenstein and International Prizes, and three applied for all three
prizes. In that first year the competition also allowed individuals as well as organizations to
be nominated, so sixteen individuals were nominated (one was nominated four times).
However, only organizations won the prizes.
In reviewing the 2013 selection process, the advisory board limited the 2014 nominations to
organizations, and to just one prize per application. The total number of 2014 nominations
was 89, with 77 of them being eligible for further review: 34 American, 24 International, and
18 Rubenstein. Applications were received from organizations in 23 states and 30 countries.
Several of the 2013 nominations reapplied in 2014: four American, five International, and
seven Rubenstein applications.
2013 Winners
In 2013 826 National won the American Prize. Headquartered in Washington, DC, this
organization helps young people read and write through its community-based in-school and
after-school programs. 826 National is the address of its first storefront operation. The front
of the store sells items, which helps pay for the rent and other program expenses. In the
back, volunteers tutor K-12 students. 826 National also produces and sells anthologies of
their young people’s writing.
The 2013 semi-finalists in American category included: The Association for Library Services
to Children: El Dia de Los Ninos/Libros, Colorado Humanities, Queens Library literacy Zone
Welcome Center, ReadAloud.org, Reader to Reader Inc., and Reading is Fundamental.
163
Planet Read won the 2013 International Prize. This innovative Indian program teaches
literacy through close-captioned Bollywood songs broadcast on television and on the
Internet. Each year over 200 million people access Planet Read to follow these programs,
which show content in eight languages.
The 2013 semi-finalists in International category included: the Adult Literacy Tutors
Association (Trinidad and Tobago), Associacion Civil Banco del Library (Venezuela), Chen
Yet-Sen Family Foundation (China), Friends in Village Development Bangladesh, FunDza
Literacy Trust (South Africa), Libros Para Pueblos (Mexico), National Literacy Trust Premier
League Reading Stars (United Kingdom), Australia National Year of Reading, OSU
Children’s Library Fund (Canada), and State Library of Western Australia Better Beginnings.
Reach Out and Read, an early literacy program run by the medical community, won the 2013
Rubenstein Prize. During their well-child checkups, physicians talk with parents about the
importance of reading, and give the child a book. This service is available free for families
with children up to the age of five. The program started in Boston, and has spread to 1500
sites in all 50 states, thanks to the support of the U.S. Department of Education and other
government and corporate partnerships.
The 2013 semi-finalists in Rubenstein category included three organizations (First Book,
Reading Rockets, Room to Read) and four individuals (Ruth Johnson Colvin of ProLiteracy,
Sharon Darling of the National Coalition for Family Literacy, Rana Dajani of We Love
Reading, and Marty Finsterbusch of VALUEUSA.
2014 Winners
In 2014 The American Prize winner was the Oregon Children’s Foundation SMART (Start
Making A Reader Today) program. Using public and private funding, the foundation has
served over 170,000 students since its start in 1992, and has donated over two million
books. Adult volunteers read individually with a child twice a week for seven months.
The 2014 semi-finalists in American category included: The Association for Library Services
to Children, California Library Literacy Services, Johnson County Library, Literacy Assistance
Center, National Center for Family Learning, Power Poetry, and Reading Partners.
The Mother Child Education Foundation, which is the largest literacy organization in Turkey,
won the International Prize. Projects include literacy training for women, a program to
prepare young children for school while teaching mothers skills to support literacy
development, and a web-based literacy program that includes a full range of learning
materials and a literacy hotline. 800,000 individuals have been served directly.
The 2014 semi-finalists in international category included: the Adult Literacy Tutors
Association (Trinidad and Tobago), Booktrust (United Kingdom), Dr. A. V. Balinga Memorial
Trust (India), FunDza Literacy Trust (South Africa), Libros Para Pueblos (Mexico), Lost Boys
Rebuilding South Sudan, and READ Nepal.
Room to Read, which won the 2014 Rubenstein Prize, promotes literacy and gender equity
in education. Room to Read establishes libraries, publishes and distributes books, and works
164
with local school systems to implement classroom literacy instruction. So far 16,000 libraries
have been established, and nine million children have been served.
The 2014 semi-finalists in the Rubenstein category included: Dollywood Foundation, First
Book, Parent Child Home Program, ProLiteracy, Reading and Writing Foundation
(Netherlands), and WETA Reading Rockets.
Of the twenty-five 2013 semi-finalists, nine reapplied in 2014. Of those repeaters, six were
2014 semi-finalists, and one won the Rubenstein Prize.
Thematic Analysis
In 2013 the Library of Congress published a booklet on best practices, culled from the semifinalist and finalist application information. The advisory board provided input, along with the
one-page summaries, and Maralita Freeny, an experienced public librarian in the
Washington, DC area, drafted the publication. The publication was also a way to publicly
recognize the efforts of the semi-finalists. The best practices were clustered to the following
themes, with discussion about the projects’ success under each theme.
 Facilitating access to print. Donating books for children, on the basis that selfchosen book ownership fosters reading; establishing community libraries (including
alternative delivery modes such as boats and mules) improves physical access to
books centrally to under-served communities.
 Cultivating diverse partnerships. Government, foundations, corporations, the
medical community, other organizations exemplify strategic collaborations that lead to
a diverse committed funding base, which provides a sustainable model of service.
 Leveraging community resources. Examples of community involvement include
social workers stationed in libraries, as well as neighborhood volunteer readers,
tutors, and trainers. Co-investment in literacy gives local communities a greater stake
in literacy project’s success and sustainability.
 Assuring cultural relevance. Providing culturally relevant resources and services
optimizes literacy services as user appreciate the respect and care that enables them
to feel connected to the program. While literacy events for one day, or even one
year, help draw attention to literacy and celebrate successes, ongoing efforts such as
publishing and providing access to culturally relevant resources in home languages
reinforce and sustain literacy celebrations.
 Using technology. One way that literacy programs can be perceived as relevant is
to incorporate technology, in terms of both physical and intellectual access.
Computers and mobile devices expand access to reading materials, provide
opportunities for programs to teach digital literacy, and motivate and facilitate original
community writing and its dissemination. Literacy programs have leveraged public
television to broadcast reading (such as subtitled songs, read-alouds, and
storytelling), interviews with authors and reading experts, and literacy tips. Literacy
programs also disseminate reading materials and support documents via the Internet
in order to reach the widest audience. Increasingly, these websites include widgets
and social media interactivity to foster active literacy-based participation.
 Developing writing skills. Writing may be considered the other side of the literacy
coin, complementing reading. Writing for an authentic audience is a powerful
motivator for the emerging literate person; programs have showcased written work in
165








anthologies and mobi networks. Another significant factor is one-to-one mentoring, be
it resident authors face-to-face or online college mentors.
Reading aloud and storytelling. The core of literacy efforts is reading aloud to
children, with storytelling as a corollary activity. One important element in that reading
aloud is the “fun factor.” Sharing books aloud can occur anywhere: at home, in
schools, in libraries, in religious centers, in community centers, and within other public
spaces.
Fostering early intervention and family engagement. Literacy readiness starts
early, and families are the first chief teachers. Several research-based approaches on
family literacy were reflected in applications: medical training of parents in
developmentally appropriate literacy strategies, intergenerational joint learning
activities, and preschool readiness that motivates struggling adult readers to improve
their own skills.
In 2014 the Library of Congress staff analyzed the selection committee review notes
of best practices, and identified the following themes.
Increasing awareness of the problem of illiteracy. To make broad-based inroads
in illiteracy first requires awareness. Such awareness is maximized when several
literacy organizations coalesce to complement each other’s efforts including
leveraging funding, jointly building capacity, and producing and disseminating
information and guides. All kinds of people can raise awareness: trained volunteers,
language ambassadors, and celebrities. Increasingly, awareness is expanded
through the use of the Internet, including social media.
Addressing social barriers to literacy. Poverty limits book ownership, which
negatively impacts reading in terms of access and motivation; Dollywood Foundation
enables communities to buy books at deep discounts so they can donate books to all
registered families – without their having to disclose their financial situation (which
can be embarrassing). Literacy efforts also need to be culturally relevant and
accessible, from providing materials in home languages to teaching English learners
by incorporating cultural sensitivity and facilitating access to social services.
Increasing motivation to read and write. When learners are engaged, they are
more likely to read. Matched one-to-one tutors provide individualized strategies.
Likewise, when community needs are acknowledged, literacy efforts better address
authentic needs, such as building community libraries with local business support.
Engagement can lead to empowerment, such as helping learners to write and share
poetry online.
Promoting gender equity and maternal literacy. One of the most significant factors
in gaining the reading habit is the involvement of mothers, and that is optimized when
girls are given the same opportunities to learn how to read as boys. Bringing reading
materials and literacy training to social spaces where women congregate is a natural
fit. Boys may be reluctant readers or drop out of school to go to work, so teaching
literacy skills combined with life skills makes reading more motivating and relevant.
Ensuring quality of instruction. Social learning theory undergirds home visits,
training, and book donations by literacy coaches. Structured volunteer programs
optimize training quality control. Even teacher practitioners can benefit from literacycentric professional development.
166
Detailed Data Analysis and Discussion
To optimize the impact of literacy efforts, deeper data analysis was needed. To this end, the
researcher reviewed all of the 2013 and 2014 nomination applications for the Library of
Congress literacy awards, and coded them for demographic information the selection criteria,
mission, literacy need, project target audience, type of effort, community role, funding,
assessment, publicity and awards. Data seldom totaled 100 percent since applicants might
not mention a specific factor or might list several items related to one factor. While some
factors, such as a concern about illiteracy, might seem obvious for most nominees, several
applicants’ narratives did not mention that fact, perhaps because it was assumed.
Nevertheless, only explicit statements were coded.
The programs ranged in length of years established from one to over a hundred years. In
some cases, the umbrella entity was long-standing, but the specific program was relatively
new, especially if it involved technology. The average age of the programs was slightly
higher the second year. The 2013 semi-finalists averaged 20 years old for the American
Prize, and 17 years old for the other two prizes. The average age of all 2014 applicants for
the American Prize was 13 years, and the semi-finalists averaged 20 years (the same as in
2013). Applicants for the 2014 International Prize averaged 20 years, and 29 years for the
semi-finalist. Applicants for the 2014 Rubenstein Prize average 24 years, and 25 years for
the semi-finalists.
Not-for-profit non-governmental organizations submitted the majority of applications. About
one-eighth of the applications were submitted by foundations each year. Between 2013 and
2014 fewer libraries and more government entities were nominated; furthermore, more
umbrella organizations, rather than branches or subsets of those organizations, were
nominated.
Most programs existed for about a generation: long enough to establish a solid record of
achievement and stability, but young enough to incorporate recent literacy research and
tools. In several cases, long-standing groups submitted applications that featured a specific
initiative, such as a Year of Reading or a program that targeted recent immigrants.
Almost all applicants mentioned partnerships, which broadened their audience and support
base. The number of partners ranged from one to hundreds. No pattern emerged relative to
the type of applicant. In general, the larger the applicant, the more partners were involved
and the larger those entities. Between 2013 and 2014 the number of governmental, school
and library partners grew, and the number of large organizational partners and foundations
decreased. Not surprisingly, donations constituted the most common funding source. More
government and organizational funders were mentioned in 2014 than in 2013.
The nominees’ audiences became more targeted between 2013 and 2014. However, for both
years literacy efforts were aimed primarily at children. Teens were the second-most popular
audience, and adults were the third most commonly mentioned audience.
The majority of applicants mentioned the literacy-related need that drove their efforts. Not
surprisingly, illiteracy was the main need identified, although in the second year, reading
attitudes were noted more often, with access to books are close second. As mentioned
above, applicants may be assumed that illiteracy was an underlying need so focused on
167
more specific issues or reasons for illiteracy, such as physical access, or results such as
academic failure.
Teaching and training constituted the main effort over the two years, highlighting the need for
intellectual access to reading materials. Programs provided both direct instruction to the
target audience and train-the-trainer models (for teachers, librarians and parents). Physical
access by itself is not sufficient, although publishing and book donations were the second
most popular efforts (though less so in 2014); in several instances, publications were
comprised of supporting materials to help trainers. Third in overall popularity was access to
books, including the building of libraries and other literacy centers as well as providing
innovative book delivery modes such as book backpacks delivery by bicycle and book boxes
delivery by pack animal.
Programs incorporated technology in several ways: mobile-based reading, web-based
reading and supporting materials, publicity via blogs, video and virtual training, broadcast
reading materials (i.e., sub-titled songs) and instruction, as well as physical and intellectual
access to computers. In a few case, online surveys were used to assess the effectiveness of
the programs.
The vast majority of programs pointed out the rise in reading skills and positive reading
habits. Several programs also asserted that their participants improved academically. A few
programs mentioned the affective domain in terms of impact: improved attitudes towards
reading and greater self-confidence and self-esteem. In terms of literacy skills, the second
most mentioned skill (much less frequency than reading) was writing. One of the benefits of
writing is that the target audience became producers of ideas, not just consumers of ideas.
Indeed, most programs’ intended audiences tended to be recipients of the resources and
service rather than co-participants. In that respect, when communities contributed to the
program’s efforts, there seemed to be more of a sense of ownership and a better chance for
sustained programs. The main community activity was instruction: explicit teaching, specific
training, one-to-one tutoring and mentoring. Communities also planned and implemented
activities and events such as storytelling, reading aloud, book clubs, book fairs, awards,
advocacy campaigns and reading celebrations. Other community members wrote and
published reading materials (both print and digital). Communities helped build and staff
reading centers. People also donated books, or ordered and processed, or distributed
reading materials. Still others did fund-raising or donated money themselves.
Impact assertions were usually based on surveys. Self-reporting was also done through
interviews and focus groups. Observations, tests, and sample products were more objective
methods of measuring impact, though done less frequently than self-reporting. In a few
cases, outside evaluators were used to verify impact, although the assessment methods
were seldom detailed. Assessment remains relatively unsophisticated in most cases, and
training in assessment methods would be a worthy initiative.
168
Differences Between Semi-Finalists and Other Nominees
The researcher also compared those nominees who were selected as semi-finalists and
those who were not so chosen. As a result, the following trends emerged in terms of the
application itself and the selection criteria.
General writing qualities:
 Follow directions.
 Observe the word count limit. Take advantage of website links.
 Remember that the letters of recommendation do not have a strict word count limit.
 Keep on target and provide specifics to support your case.
 Overarching organizations are more compelling than one subset.
 Literacy-centric organizations are more compelling than general welfare
organizations.
 Focus on the impact – improving people’s lives. You might distribute a million books,
but if people don’t read those books, then the initiative is not very significant.
 Demonstrate broad and deep impact over time.
 Demonstrate growth and improvement over time.
 Demonstrate how the initiative sustains itself through stable funding, staffing, and
other support.
Best Practice Products:
 Best Practices booklet
 Best URLS (for online resources) or more
 Strategies for winning applications
 “How to build an effective literacy program”
 Research/resources list
 Podcasts
 Vidcasts
 Testimonials/soundbytes/quotes (including social media such as Twitter)
 Substantial website
Reliance on Research and Practice:
 Cite research and how it is specifically integrated (not pro forma)
 Show how project models theory and research
 Measure impact using research evaluation tools
 Use literacy researchers as consultants and external evaluators
 The most important research-based factors appear to be: home-based early literacy
(including a rich print environment, shared reading, and literacy-based interaction
between parents and children);l physical access to a wide variety of reading materials
from which the reader can choose; explicit instruction; authentic shared reading
experiences.
Innovation:
 What is unique, original, creative, forward-thinking?
 Does it leverage emerging technology?
 Is it a fresh approach to community building or partnerships?
169

Good examples: closed captioned songs, health care literacy advice to parents,
storefront literacy centers for teens, teaching literacy to newlyweds, teaching literacy
at community gathering places (e.g., wells)
Sustainability:
 Show how initiative is self-sustaining: track record of stable budget and capacity to
have a solid base of operations.
 Show that initiative is institutionalized (not dependent on 1 person).
 Have several funding sources can be useful. 1) a baseline fund (such as a national
public library) with partner funds for enhancements; 2) several stable funding
sources (e.g., foundation, profits from products/services, sponsoring partners)
 Typically, a one-time campaign is not considered sustainable.
 An initiative based on “soft” money is usually not sustainable; soft money is fine for
starting an initiative, but not for sustaining it.
 Generally, sustainable initiatives include local “buy-in” and participation because the
project meets community needs.
Measurable Impact:
 Anecdotes can be compelling, but impact must be measurable.
 Literacy outcomes: improved reading (and writing) competence, leading to jobs,
academic success, better health, better decisions, improved community status.
 Sample measures of individual improved literacy: reading and writing scores,
increased vocabulary, writing sample work, participation and success in reading and
writing competitions, fluency of reading aloud, minutes read, academic courses and
grades, less recidivism, reading self-confidence, becoming literacy trainers
 Sample measures of community improved literacy: literacy-related legislation,
improved literacy curriculum, school reform, publications by target audience, new
libraries to support increased literacy demands, more literate employees, improved
reading culture, book clubs
 Provide baseline data and data collected after the initiative has been implemented to
demonstrate impact.
In general, semi-finalists and winners demonstrated sound planning and implementation with
a clear focus and sustainable support. The majority of programs had a solid foundation and
long-term reputation, which enabled them to garner stable partners and funding. Most had
strong local support and volunteer engagement, even for national initiatives. Most of these
programs demonstrated creativity or resourcefulness, such as teaching reading in public
spaces where women congregated or using social media to motivate young people to write
and share poetry. Most of the semi-finalists and winners provided support materials,
frequently online, to enable target audiences and other groups to implement the programs
independently; this practice also fostered adaptation by other entities, which further
broadened the programs’ impact.
Conclusions
David M. Rubenstein’s donation has served as a powerful catalyst to bring attention to the
issues of illiteracy and aliteracy, recognize significant literacy programs, and provide
suggestions for other groups to address these literacy needs.
170
A wide range of literacy programs were nominated, in no small thanks to the publicity of the
Library of Congress and its advisory panel. While the number of applications was about one
hundred, which reflects a small percentage of the thousands of literacy efforts occurring
worldwide, the resultant pool showcased a good variety of substantive programs so that the
ultimate prizes would honor worthy recipients whose work could be adapted by myriad
literacy groups. First years’ nominations reflected a wide range of scope, time frame,
maturity, and impact. The first year’s semi-finalist and winner list provided a concrete
standards “bar” that helped the second year’s applicants to determine their worthiness and
guide their documentation for the prizes.
As a result of the data analysis, the Literacy Awards program can provide specific tips and
research-based best practices that can improve existing literacy efforts and jumpstart new
initiatives. Just as literacy programs need to be strategic, so too does this Literacy Awards
program need to be strategic in order to optimize its own worth and impact. They have three
more years in this five-year donation plan, and all parties hope that the results will merit
future support.
Biography
Dr. Lesley Farmer, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the
Librarianship program. She earned her M.S. in Library Science at the University of North
Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University.
Dr. Farmer has worked as a teacher-librarian in K-12 school settings, public, special and
academic libraries. She edits the International Federation of Library Associations’ School
Libraries and Literacy/Reading Sections blogs. A frequent presenter and writer for the
profession, she won IASL’s Research Award, American Library Association’s Phi Beta Mu
Award for library education, and Library Instruction Round Table’s Librarian Recognition
Award. She is also a Fulbright scholar. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include digital
citizenship, information literacy, collaboration, assessment and data analysis. Her recent
books are Introduction to Reference and Information Services in Today’s School Libraries
(Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) and Library Services for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ALA, 2013).
171
Information Architecture and the
Comic Arts:
Knowledge Structure and Access
Dr. Lesley S. J. Farmer
California State University Long Beach
1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA USA
Lesley.Farmer@csulb.edu
Abstract
Comic arts provide a compelling media for communicating concepts in an accessible
and engaging manner, and its conventions leverage the interdependence of text and
image, thus modelling effective information architecture. To that end, education
needs to explicitly teach the medium’s communication conventions to help learners
comprehend, critique, and generate content using comic arts. In addition, comic arts
conventions can be used in several research methods to capture knowledge and its
communication, specifically the significance of format in its impact on message. This
paper explains information architecture, focusing on comic arts’ features for
representing and structuring knowledge, also noting visual literacy. Next, applications
of comic arts in education are listed. Content analysis of students’ graphic novels
determined how well pre-service teacher librarians demonstrate competency in
information architecture.
Keywords: Comic arts, visual literacy, information architecture, education, teacher
librarians
Introduction
Information architecture in its broadest sense is defined as “the structual design of shared
information environments”(Information Architecture Institute, 2013, p. 1). To that end, it tries
to optimize how content information is represented, users’ interaction with that content, and
their context . Comic arts may be considered in light of information architecture in that it uses
sequential frames, text and their “containers,” and design conventions as information
architectural “tools” to represent information and engage the user in interacting with it.
This chapter explains information architecture, focusing on comic arts’ features for
representing and structuring knowledge. Then it details information behaviors relative to this
format, providing a concrete research example. Finally, it recommends strategies for
addressing information architecture explicitly for knowledge acquisition and communication.
Definitions and Concepts
Knowledge Representation
172
While textual information usually comprises a significant aspect of comic arts, in terms of
knowledge representation, the main element is visual. Not only are active and inanimate
figures represented visually, but their movements over time, and in relationship to each
other, are also captured via the series of panels. These additional aspects of concepts
enrich understanding.
In examining the symbolism of visual messages, Peirce (1883) categorized them into icons
that resemble the actual thing (such as a realitic picture of a cat), indexesthat point to
another object’s meaning (such as a frown to indicate displeasure), and a conventional
symbol that has no visual counterpart, such as the word “cat” to mean that animal. Peirce
also differentiated between unsystematic (i.e., novel and unique)and systematic
(conventionalized) references; comic arts usually employ systematic references.
A representation can be a “close” representation in terms of verisimilitude or indexicality, or
very abstract. For instance, a photo might be considered a relatively “close” representation
because of its technical capturing of reflected light bouncing off the surface of the original
item, but it might be considered a “poor” or inaccurate presentation because it is just a
projection of a three-dimensional item and does not represent internal physical aspects, let
alone psychological or cognitive aspects (say, the photo of a person). In contrast, a Dali
painting represents a notion of time psychologically, or a Kathe Kollwitz charcoal drawing
might be a more “accurate” representation of war-based suffering than a photo. Thus,
physically itself does not equate with the quality of representation; the audience’s
participation (McLuhan’s “hot” medium), be it emotional or psychological, constitutes an
essential element in determining/deeming the quality of the representation. In that respect,
the medium is NOT equal to the message.
Information Architecture
The term “information architecture” has a fairly recent history, emerging in the last half of the
twentieth century, largely out of the computer industy. Engineers were trying to organize data
flow, control, and physical implementation (Amhahl et al., 1964). The Xerox Palo Alto
Research Center (PARC) was also known for its innovation, and was given a charge to
develop technology that would support the architecture of information, emphasizing humancomputer interface (Pake, 1985). However, it was Richard Wurman, an architect turned
designer, who popularized ther term “information architecture” in 1976 as he saw a need for
systematic design to structure the vast amount of data that was being generated.
In its simplest form, information architecture (IA) reflects the intersection of content, people,
and context. “IA is the term used to describe the process of designing, implementing and
evaluating information spaces that are humanly and socially acceptable to their intended
stakeholders” (Dillon, 2002, p. 821). To facilitate access and comprehension, content needs
to be represented effectively; the choice and use of format needs to the consciously
determined to best represent the information. Marshall McLuhan asserted that “the medium
is the message,” in that the “container” for the information shapes the message itself. For
instance, movies are an effective medium to record communicate processes that involve
motion over time. In contrast, radio captures sound, and its single sense communication
channel focuses attention on listening skills. Some classic examples of information
173
architecture include the London Underground map, IKEA stores, Macintosh’s interface, and
CNN’s website.
Farnum (2002) and Rosenfeld and Morville (2002) identified the following components of IA:
• Visual design
• Interaction design
• User experience design
• Usability
• Organization, labeling and navigation schemes
• Structural design to facilitate access to content
• Structural design to facilitate task completion and intuitive access to content
• Structuring and classifying documents to help people find and manage information
• Knowledge Management (KM)
• Planning, capturing, organizing, interconnecting and providing access to
organizational knowledge through both intellectual and information technologies
Information architecture has to take into consideration unintended audiences and unintended
goals if it intends to serve several purposes. Therefore, the resource itself has to be easy to
locate as well as information within, although the nature of comic arts is that the entire source
is usually experienced as whole rather than accessed at some random (Morville, 2007).
Ideally, content should be retrievable and engaging through browsing and other
serendipitous activity; the element of play can be compelling, which can play well with comic
arts (Weinberger, 2007).
The related term “infography” refers to the actual, practical formation and execution of
structured combinations of text, pictures, and graphic design (Pettersson, 1993). That is, text
must be comprehensible and consistent, images need to be clear, typography and layout
need to be clear and aid understanding (Pettersson, 1997). Note that art is valued for is
originality, expressiveness, and esthetics, while design is valued for its ability to fit a task and
targeted user (Mullet & Sano, 1995).
People have information needs, so they seek ways to satisfy those needs. People vary
significantly in terms of age, sex, cultures, background, experience, personality, and special
needs. Content providers need to think of these factors as they represent and disseminate
content, particularly if those content providers want to influence their targeted audience. For
example, advertisements during children’s shows differ significantly from ads run during
murder mysteries.
In order to satisfy the information needs of the intended receivers information design
comprises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a message – its
content, language and form. Regardless of the selected medium, a well designed
information material will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic, as well as subject
matter requirements ( Petterson, 2002, p. 26).
Often people try to get “good enough” results with the least time and effort. To that end, they
may “berry-pick” information, starting with the most convenient relevant source, which then
drives the direction for further searching. More generally, context can impact that
information seeking behavior in that the motivation can drive the direction: gathering data for
174
a high stakes report for a boss differs significantly from an oral presentation on bees for third
graders – or from looking for a job or searching for a poison antidote.
Comic Arts
In its simplest form, the term “comic arts” may be considered a subset of “sequential art”: a
meaningful series of images. Comic art includes the following elements: images in panels,
text in boxes or “bubbles,” and “gutters” between panels. Occasionally, a comic might not
include words, discernable charactors, or a narrative, but these exceptions prove the rule.
Will Eisner (1996) coined the term “graphic novel” to differentiate his work from the graphic
pulp comics of the 1950s; he also wanted to emphasize his storytelling characteristic.
Generally, graphic novels usually refer to book length story in comic strip format.
Nevertheless, graphic novels still fall under the umbrella of comic arts.
McLuhan (1994) studied the comic form, its melding of words and pictures, divorced from its
content, and asserted that it was a medium of its own. McLuhan (1994) saw comics as
extensions of the woodcut and photographic media, “a world of inclusive gesture and
dramatic posture.” “[T]he modern comics strip and comic book,” he wrote, “provide very little
data about any particular moment in time, or aspect in space, of an object. The viewer, or
reader, is compelled to participate in completing and interpreting the few hints provided bythe
bounding lines ” (p. 161). These are qualities of what McLuhan termed“cool” media: lowresolution creations that force the reader to fill in the blanks. They contrast with “hot” media
like film, which leaves little to the imagination or a necessity to resolve the media gaps.
Comic arts employ a kind of “grammar” or conventions, as detailed by McCloud (1993) and
Cohn (2013):
 Abstracted images, although contemporary comics possess a wide range of pictorial
styles
 Predictable sequencing of panels (left to right and top to down, with Japanese manga
in the opposite direction)
 Panels as attention units: macro (multiple active entities), mono (one actice entity),
micro (part of one active entity), amorphic inactive entity, as well as filmic shot types
(from long establishing shot to extreme close up)
 Transitions between panels: of time, space, subject, point of view, action sequence
 Textual “carriers”: speech and thought balloons, narrative captions, sound effects
 Indexical lines: path lines that show motion or direction, and deictix lines that draw
attention to something.
This grammar exemplifies the idea of IA in that the comic artist uses these elements to
convey mearning effectively and efficiently.
Visual Information Behaviors
Information Design Theory
Creators of comic arts begin with an idea, determine the form to express the idea such as a
comic, employ the idioms and signs of comic arts, structure the ideas and story into panels,
and craft the comic into its final product (McCloud, 1994). Information architecture is part of
that process as the creator tries to optimize the reader’s interaction with the comic to deliver
the message effectively.
175
Especially if the comic is created with a specific intent or agenda in mind, the creator will
want to employ information design theory, which “encompasses studies of the way a
representation should be designed in order to achieve optimum commuiation between the
sender and the receiver” (Pettersson, 2006, p. 83). This theory draws from concepts of
instruction, graphic design, and and production. The creators analyze the target audience’s
information behavior in order to optimize engagement and understanding, though not
necessarily learning. The execution perspective deals with the following design elements:
test, image, shape, sound, light, space, and time. To that end, comic creators need to follow
user-centered interface design: intuitiveness, logical organization and structure, consistency,
simplicity, esthetics (Batley, 2007).
Toms (2002, p. 859) parsed information interaction design into several supporting theories:
 Schema theory and memory models reflect how comics are used.
 Information retrieval models impact the comic system.
 Information searching models impacts content representation.
More generally, Garrett (2010) developed a concept of five elements that constitute the user
experience on the web, which aligns with McCloud’s 1994 elements of comic arts
development. In both constructs, the creator goes from abstract conception to concrete
completion. Garrett starts with strategy, matching the task objective and user needs: the
comic’s intent. Next he addresses the scope and functionality of the product: the comic’s
form and idiom. Information architecture is the third step, which translates into structuring the
comic. The fourth step is information design to facilitate understanding. The last step is visual
design, crafting the textual and graphic page elements.
Information Behaviors
Not only does the comic creator use information architecture to convey meaning, but the
reader also has to understand comic arts grammar and architecture in order to derive the
meaning. For instance the author who writes in Thai requires a reader who can decode Thai.
The reader may engage with comics or graphic novels for variety of reasons; to learn
something, to be entertained, to connect with others (e.g., co-viewing, reinforce social
inclusion), to reinforce personal identity (e.g., affirm personal values, gain insights about
oneself), or even to stave off boredom (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009). These motivations
constitute part of the context that impacts information architecture.
Continued engagement requires decoding the comic through interpreting its “grammar”
conventions, and comprehending the underlying message. At that point, the reader makes
sense of the panel sequencing, and links the visual images to one another and to other
comics or information meaningfully (Batley, 2007). This processing of information is also
contextualized, depending on the reader’s physical and virtual environment, as well his
personal situation.
As an example, Yahoo wanted to share their company’s vision with their stakeholders, and
had to determine which medium would provide the level of detail and context needed to
convey theiri message. They developed a series of use cases, represented by comics to tell
their story. Comics world because they were accessible and easy to comprehend. Comics
176
conveyed time and motion. They engaged people because their abstraction called for the
viewer to “fill in the blanks,” while providing context from the combination of text and image.
They were also relatively easy to develop iteratively (Cheng & Jao, 2006).
Visual Literacy
While comic arts combines image and text, visual elements comprise the central factor. Even
before the creation of written language, information was represented and conveyed visually.
With technology advances and heightened globalization, visual representations of
kinowledge have gained credence. The methods to produced such visualizations has
increased – as has the need to understand how those images are made and how to interpret
them. While pre-literate society could understand some visual messages, the range of
techniques and the cultural connotations of many symbols requires explicit instruction to
have an informed background.
At the most basic level, visual literacy may be defined as the ability to understand, create,
and use visual messages. The International Visual Literacy Association developed the
following visual literacy indicators in 1996:
• Interpret, understand, appreciate meaning of visual messages
• Communicate more effectively by applying visual design principles
• Produce visual messages using technology
• Use visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems.
With the impact of mass media, visual literacy has sometimes been confused with mass
literacy, the latter focusing on the purposeful means and ends of mass media such as
television, film, and commercial electronic “broadcasts.”
More recently, the 2003 enGauge report on 21st century skills included visual literacy as a
necessary skill, and listed several indicators:
 Understanding of visual design and technique elements
 Awareness of cognitive and affective influences in perceiving visuals
 Comprehension of representations, explanatory, abstract, and symbolic images
 Critical thinking and consumption of visual information
 Design, production, and communication of visual information.
Processing visual messages differs significantly from processing textual information. The unit
of comprehension is an image (often framed) rather than a word, so usually the message unit
is more complex. Another basis for complexity is due to the associated meanings of signs
and symbols (Clarke, 1991). A sign is an object that presents something else in a
straightforward way, such as a road sign; it serves as a one-to-one correlation. Symbols are
signs that have an additional, more profound meaning, such as a skull signifying death.
Signs and symbols try to capture critical features of the idea so that it can be understood
quickly by many people across disciplines or languages. In comic arts, representative
symbols include “sound effects” icons, thought bubbles, light bulbs, among others. Maps are
a good example of the use of symbols in that they serve as shorthand representations of
specific ideas.
Even though signs and symbols are often culturally defined, the underlying visual elements
are universal (Dondis, 1973).
177











Dot establishes a central focus or location; constitutes the basis for digital images
(most commonly associated with a pixel).
Line establishes boundaries and movement, and can be used to define shapes or
textures.
Space is usually discerned in terms of geometry; squares usually connote stability
while triangles connote action and circles connote cycles and organisms.
Direction shows movement from one element to another (i.e., pointed shapes);
diagonal movement is usually associated with energy.
Texture is the “feel” of a surface; this element links visual and tactile sensations.
Hue is usually associated with the sense of color, which conveys information and
values (e.g., royalty, purity, gender).
Saturation is the amount of grey in a color; the more saturation the more brilliant the
color.
Value is the lightness of darkness of an image; usually light value is associated with
good and airiness.
Scale shows the relative size of objects; when two objects are shown together, the
larger one is considered more powerful or important.
Dimension is the sense of three dimensions and perspective.
Motion links time and space, so in 2D art this element is illusionary although
significant.
Likewise, the elements are used according to universal visual principles to produce a specific
impact.
 Balance: equal “weight” on both sides of an image, either through formal symmetry,
informal symmetry (different but equal), or radial symmetry (as in a sunburst).
 Proportion: the relative size or shape of an element relative to another; a three-fifths
proportion (the Golden Mean) is considered the most pleasing proportion.
 Contrast: two elements that differ greatly, e.g., thick and thin lines, small and large
shapes dark and light colors.
 Emphasis: a focus point of center of interest.
 Unity: a sense that every element fits together, typically through comparable
elements or subject matter.
 Variety: different elements or subject matter that provides a variety of interest points.
 Pattern: a repeated element, such as polka dots, stripes, or plaid.
 Rhythm: related to pattern, in that it often uses repeated elements; waves and forests
are often used to convey rhythm.
By explaining these visual elements and principles, learners can consciously realize how this
visual “language” impacts their responses to a graphic novel, and determine the creator’s
intent. Learners can also knowledgeably use these principles when creating their own
graphic novels in order to elicit a desired response.
Comic Arts in Education
Curricular Applications
Comics in the U.S. have a checkered past relative to education. The book format of comics
hit its stride in the late thirties and early forties, but was stifled in the McCarthy Era as some
pundits were afraid of comics’ corrupting influence. The format phoenixed in the 1970s with
178
the books of Eisner and Lee, among others; the term “graphic novel” was used to distinguish
their work by their length, sophisticated storyline, and high-concept art (which actually
harkened back to the serious work of Lynn Ward and other visual artists of the 1930s). The
acclaimed books A Contract with God Maus, and Watchman, along with appreciation of this
format by the French and Japanese, further enhanced the reputation of graphic novels. For
years school and public libraries were reluctant to collect “trashy” comics, but the advent of
more prestigious graphic novels, along with huge popular demand by youth, turned around
librarians’ attitudes.
Formal education has tended to undervalue comic arts for several reasons: textual literacy is
the default literacy, comic books have been traditionally associated with entertainment rather
than learning, and some teachers are not knowledgeable about visual literacy and the comic
arts genre of literacy. However, the tide is slowly turning, largely due to high-quality graphic
novels such as Persepolis and Barefoot Gen, as well as effective comic arts adaptations of
literacy texts such as the Workman series of Shakespeare’s plays.
Chanlin (1999) noted that incorporating visual design in learning depends on the students’
prior knowledge, with still images being less distracting than moving images. Mayer et al.
(1996) found that visual explanation are more impactful for inexperienced students, and
combining image and text facilitates mental links. Likewise, Tarquin and Walker (1997) found
that story maps and other visual frameworks helped learers visualize and relate ideas. These
studies, although not specifically focused on comic arts, do provide research-based
rationales for the incorporation of comic arts in education.
The following aspects of graphic novels, as well as other comic arts, demonstrate their
benefits as they are incorporated in curricula.
 Graphic novels address people’s differing learning styles. Students can start with the
visual aspect or textual aspect, and then link from their learning strength to
incorporate other learning strategies. Comic arts also resonate for field dependent
learners, who need to contextual ideas.
 Graphic novels model good “dual coding” practice where image and text complement
each other, and facilitate comprehension and meaning making. Readers can erase or
white out the text, and determine how much of the content can still be understood.
Alternatively, they can write their own text, and try to alter the image’s meaning.
 Graphic novels offer a motivating way for English language learners to read. Many
images cross cultural lines, and the short captions help to focus on specific
vocabulary.
 Drawn graphic novels can be compared to fotonovelas to examine the impact of
realistic and more abstract representations of knowledge.
 Graphic novels are an effective way to explain information architecture: how different
formats have unique “grammars” and shape the expression of ideas. Students can
compare graphic novels to picture books or magazines or movies. For instance, some
camera or film shots are used in graphic novel images for similar effect.
 Graphic novels underscore the importance of visual representations of knowledge:
visual literacy. Readers can analyze a graphic novel in terms of the art elements and
principles used to convey meaning.
179









Social studies curriculum may be mandated to incorporate literature. Graphic novels
sometimes address historical events, such as Persepolis. The 9/11 graphic novel
anthology is especially rich because it enables readers to compare points of view. It
could be interesting to debate which is more true-to-life: a historical fiction story or a
graphic novel version.
Students can compare graphic novel interpretations of stories with other formats,
such as Twilight in text and movie formats. How does the artist interpret an author’s
intent visually?
Students can study archetypes using graphic novels, such as explorers, villains,
rebels, saviors, etc.
Students can discern mythologies in graphic novels, such as creation myths, nature,
tricksters, heroes, etc.
Students can identify tropes and genres in graphic novels such as fantasy, science
fiction, horror, detective, romance, etc.
Students can study human relationship using graphic novels, such as familial,
romantic, workplace, political, societal, public versus private, hierarchical versus
lateral.
Students can study art techniques using graphic novels. They can determine how the
art medium and its use impact the story’s meaning and tonality.
Students can copy artistic techniques to create their own stories, or use a different art
technique to tell the same story in a different way.
Students can explore careers in the comic arts industry. They can trace the
production of a graphic novel form idea to the reader. They can also find out the
preparation, demand for, and salaries of professionals in the comic arts industry.
As noted above, knowing how to fully read and interpret comic art, taking into account its
grammar and conventions, requires explicit training. Even though most young people have
read comic strips and comic books, they might not have focused consciously on the
information architecture. Educators are likely to share reference sheets on ways to read a
comic, and may conduct think-alouds while reading a comic that is projected for the class to
see. Educators might have students reread a comic section several times, each time
focusing on one aspect such as the story line, the visual elements, or the interplay between
text and image. Scott McCloud’s 1993 Understanding Comics remains the standard textbook
for learning these conventions.
Practitioners in the comic arts industry need to understand the various components of
creation and production, but most specialize in one aspect, such as scripting or inking.
Gosselin (2002) developed a graphic novel curriculum to help students understand this form
of knowledge representation as an intellectual and collective endeavor. He proposed
teaching the following elements of design: shapes, composition, negative space, visual
energy, direction, pattern, rhythm, and hierarchy. In contrast, Mortimore (2009) focused on
the elements of culturally-contextualized story to guide students to understanding comic arts.
Physician and Professor Michael Green (2013) taught pre-med students how to read and
create graphic novels as a way to realize the visual narratives of patients; students
experience the iconic representations of feelings and how the sequence of events impacts
patients. Even students who did not think they were artistic were able to convey meaning
using comic arts conventions effectively.
180
Information Design and Research Methods
Information design lends itself to research methods from three major perspectives: existing
examples of information design can be used as data for analysis, the prototype of designing
information can be analyzed, especially in terms of user experience, which can then be
incorporated into the iterative designprocess; and research participants can produce
examples of information design, which can then be used as data for analysis and theorizing.
Technically, information design can also clarify the resource process and communication. A
unique aspect of information design is the intentional representation of ideas using the tools
of the available medium in specific situations; effective communication (that is, the intended
audience can access and comprehend the message) is an explicit goal (Kress, 2010).
Design Probes
The research method of design probes seeks to explore user needs, gather data, and test
design solutions in situ (Mattelmaki, 2008). This research method is frequently applied in
prototyping an information product such as an interactive website, chiefly to ascertain users’
needs. Inspiration probes can provide supplementary data to inform creator’s idea
development. Information probes identify user needs and context of user. Participation
probes incorporate users’ ideas in the conceptual design process. Testing problems analyze
target audience’s experiences in using a product’s prototype within the product’s
requirements and contexts of use. Design probes are particularly useful for assing the
usability of digital information designs.
Data may be gathered in several ways. Self-documentation kits, which enable research
participants to record their own experiences (e.g., diaries, online screen capture, cameras).
Talk-alouds capture how the research participant experiences the information design; the
data may be captured via taping or observation. The researcher might also ask the
participant to do several discrete tasks, and provide feedback about alternative design
solutions. Internet search histories provide a way for inobtrusive data collection.
In the comic arts, this kind of design probe most likely occurs among a company’s design
team as part of their creation process. The target audience seldom participates in design
probes. However, public agencies sometimes test a social comic to see if the target audience
will accept the product, such as a social skills training comic for teens developed by the
Federal Austrian Ministry of Science (Lehenbauer et al., 2013). Taking a unique approach of
involving teens in developing a graphic novel about AIDS for teens, Gavigan (2011) utilized
design probes to test the information design effectiveness as they were creating their comic.
Evaluation Research
Another common research methodology is evaluation research: assessing the effects and
effectiveness of something (Ross, 2004). Success can be measured along a couple of
dimensions:
 The process: how well the comic itself was planned and implemented
 The effort’s product: what impact the comic has on its participants, both the creator
and other stakeholders; what is the outcome.
In information design, evaluation research may be approached as follows (Batley, 2007):
 Goal orientation: did thecomic meet the creator’s goal (e.g., collect taxes)?
181



User orientation: how does the comic attract, engage, and act on the product?
Experimental: testing the comic in a controlled environment
Responsive: observing the comic’s use in real settings.
Once the objectives and indicators for evaluation are determined, the instruments for
gathering evaluation data need to be identified. Here is a sampling:
 Document analysis: to ascertain main ideas and processes unobtrusively
 Observations: to identify behaviors
 Surveys: to gather facts and opinions
 Interviews: to capture perspectives, the reason for behaviours and attitudes
 Focus groups: to uncover issues, trends, and group dynamics
 Tests: to measure and compare knowledge, skills and attitudes
The choice of instrument also depends on availability, cost, and difficulty of administering
and analysis. Ideally, the choice of instrument should occur early on in the planning process,
and assessment should occur throughout the effort.
Assessment is only as good as the actions resulting from its thoughtful analysis. Findings
should be contextualized in terms of the setting or situation. Analysis should then lead to
interpretation, conclusions, and recommendations. Furthermore, those recommendations
should be shared with stakeholders to optimize their engagement. The groundwork is laid for
action that can result in improved comic arts experiences. Evaluation research is most likely
to be done as part of a marketing plan or an agency’s campaign such as McPherson College
Library’s graphic novel orientation (CILIP, 2011).
Ethnographic Analysis
Ethnographic research studies how people act in natural settings (Frey et al, 1992).
Specificially, ethnographers gather data in the field by observation and interaction to discover
patterns that explain the behavior. Theory is built inductively. This research method has an
underlying assumption that people act according to their interpretation of their surroundings.
Likely places to conduct ethnographic analysis about comic arts would be in bookstores,
libraries, recreation centers, and other places where comics are available to brought to the
setting. Some of the research questions involving information design and comic arts are
include:
 What patterns exist in the choice of comics (e.g., genre, publisher, currency, etc.)?
 How do individuals choose a comic? (e.g., visual elements, placement in the setting,
display options, other people’s comments, etc.)
 What patterns of use exist? (e.g., length of engagement, sharing, number of comics
examined, etc.)
 What information design elements seem to be noted?
Content Analysis
The research method of content analysis consists of systematically categorizing and
describing aspects of content (Berger, 2011). The process involves discovering patterns,
coding them, and then quantifying them. In terms of information design and comic arts, it
analyzes the existence and use of visual and textual elements. For example, Cohn (2013)
182
conducted a content analysis of panels in American comics and Japanese manga to
determine what cultural differences existed.
Semiotic analysis may be considered a subset of content analysis; it studies how signs and
symbols generate meaning (Rose, 2001). Since comic arts signs and symbols are designed
within a contextual, researchers can examine both the imageitself (such as a sword or a
pose) or the compositional modality (both within a panel and in comparison with other
panels). Specific character elements that convey meaning include: age, gender, race, body
shape, size, clothing as well as expression, pose, props, and setting. The composition lends
meaning in that, for example, a sword on the ground has a different connotation than one in
a hero’s hand poised in a thrusting angle; likewise, a person in a far corner has a different
meaning than one who covers the entire panel and is shown at a camera-up angle. The
relative size and sequence of panels also provides semiotic clues, such as plot development
and climax. Part of semiotics involves “coding”: conventionalized sign, which make up much
of comic arts information design. The difficult part of semiotics is the interpretation of the
comic arts signs and symbols. Researchers realize that they bring their own semiotic schema
as they make interpretations. Semiotic analysis of comic arts is more informative if it captures
the interpretations of different populations to determine if the semiotics are universal or
culturally defined (where culture refers to any stable group of people with congruence norms
and practices, such as Goths or biologists as well as Armenians).
Another subset of content analysis is rhetorical analysis, which examines how content, such
as comic arts, are used to persuade: their effect and impact on society. Berger (2011)
suggested five elements of rhetorical analysis:
 Ethos: the character of the person or narrator who is trying to convince the reader
 Pathos: emotional appeal
 Logos: rational, logical appeal
 Aim: purpose of the discourse or message
 Mode: comic arts medium’s elements
Some of the devices used in rhetoric, which can be analyzed in comic arts, include among
others: allegory (e.g., Captain America), comparisons (e.g., Justice League), irony (e.g.,
Dilbert examples), metaphor (political cartoons).
Comic Arts Study
In teaching both information literacy and youth literature courses, this author explored how to
teach pre-service librarians and education technologists the concepts of information
architecture through the use of comic arts. Using constructivist strategies, these graduate
students identified the information architectural features of graphic novels, and then
interpreted and critiqued a variety of graphic novels. To support their knowledge, courses
had readings in visual literacy and comic arts.
Therefore, to apply their knowledge, the students then were asked to create a short graphic
novel. In the information literacy course, students were also supposed to learn how to use
technology applications, so they had to use iComic, ComicLife or other graphic novel
generating tool. In the literature course, their graphic novel was supposed to focus on one
incident in the life of a young adult author: an exercise in digital storytelling. In the information
183
literacy course, they had to use the comic arts format to visually the library program’s role
relative to Common Core State Standards.
Students created their graphic novel, and posted it only the courses online discussion board.
They were graded according to the following graphic novel rubric.
Graphic Novel Rubric
Category
4
Story
The story is The story is
clear, well
clear and well
organized and organized, but
easy to read. there are one
Important
or two points
narrative
of confusion.
aspects such Important
as the climax narrative
and resolution aspects such
are very clear. as the climax
The reader
and resolution
finishes the
are clear. The
story feeling it reader
is complete
finishes the
and no major story feeling it
details are
is complete
missing.
and no major
details are
missing.
3
2
1
Strategies
The story is
sometimes
clear, but
disorganized.
Important
narrative
aspects such as
the climax and
resolution are
not completely
clear. The
reader finishes
the story feeling
it is complete
but that major
details are
missing.
The story is
confused and
unclear.
Important
narrative
aspects such
as the climax
and resolution
are missing.
The graphic
novel is very
hard to read
because it is
so disjointed.
The reader
finishes the
story feeling it
is incomplete.
-List the main
points of the
story. Do they
connect
clearly to each
other? Do you
find yourself
having to fill in
blanks often?
If so, your
story may not
be selfcontained and
readers may
be confused.
Word Choice Strong,
descriptive
language is
used and all
captions are
concise.
Most
language is
clear and
concise and
for the most
part strong
and
descriptive.
The language is
strong at times,
but often the
language is
weak.
The language
is overly
simple and not
at all
descriptive.
-Circle boring
adjectives and
replace them
with more
creative ones.
-Use powerful
adverb/verb
combinations
(e.g. the
garbage was
thrown (verb)
carelessly
(adverb) onto
the floor).
Theme
The reader
could state
the theme of
your story. It
The reader can
make an
educated guess
at the theme of
The reader is
not able to
state the
theme of the
Re-visit your
theme
statement and
find instances
The reader
could easily
state the
theme of your
184
Category
4
3
story because is clear in the
it is explicit in text but
both the
visuals and
text.
2
1
Strategies
the story but it
is not clear in
the visuals
and/or the text.
story because
it is not clear
in visuals or
text.
throughout
your graphic
novel that
demonstrate
the theme.
Visual-Layout Frames are
designed in a
way that
greatly
enhances the
overall visual
effect. The
design and
layout clearly
enhances the
artwork and
text.
Frames are
designed in a
way that for
the most part
enhance the
overall visual
effect. The
design and
layout
enhances the
artwork and
text, but there
are one or two
instances
where the
layout
detracts from
the story.
Frames are
designed in a
way that add to
the overall
visual effect for
about ½ of the
graphic novel.
The design and
layout often
enhances the
artwork and
text, but there
are multiple
instances where
the layout
detracts from
the story.
Frames lack
design and do
not enhance
the overall
visual effect.
The design
and layout do
not enhance
the artwork
and text.
VisualImages
Most images
are striking
and powerful
and add to the
meaning of
the text. Most
images are
high quality,
clear, and are
not pixelated.
Most of the
images are
original and of
your own
creation or remixing.
There are some
striking and
powerful
images but
some are
boring. Some
images
enhance the
story, but some
images detract
from the story
because they
are confusing,
of low quality,
unclear and/or
pixelated. Some
of the images
are original and
of your own
creation or remixing, but
there are many
Very few
images are
striking or
powerful, and
many seem
boring and
unrelated.
Images rarely
enhance the
story, and
most images
detract from
the story
because they
are confusing,
of low quality,
unclear and/or
pixelated.
Most of the
images seem
to be lifted or
are
All Images
are striking
and powerful.
All images
enhance the
story and
work with the
text to tell the
story. All
images are
high quality,
clear, and are
not pixelated.
All of the
images are
original and of
your own
creation or remixing
185
-Have you
thought
carefully about
the layout of
each page?
Can you
clearly answer
why you did
what you did
with the
frames on
each page?
-Do your
images
enhance the
story you are
trying to tell or
are they just
basic
reiterations of
your text?
-Can your
images stand
alone without
the text and
tell a basic
version of the
story?
-Look carefully
at each image
and ensure it
is clear and
related.
Category
4
3
2
1
Strategies
instances where reminiscent of
the images
something
seem to be
else.
completely lifted
or are
reminiscent of
something else.
Attention to There are no
Detail
distracting
(Conventions errors,
& Production corrections or
Quality)
erasures and
is the novel is
easily read.
There are no
errors in
grammar,
spelling or
punctuation.
There are
only one or
two distracting
errors,
corrections or
erasures and
your novel is
easily read.
There are 1-3
errors in
grammar,
spelling or
punctuation.
Fairly readable
but the quality is
not very good
on some parts.
It looks like the
student ran out
of time. There
are 3-5 errors in
grammar,
spelling or
punctuation.
Very messy
and hard to
read. It looks
like the
student threw
it together at
the last minute
without much
care. There
are 6 or more
errors in
spelling,
grammar or
punctuation.
-Take the time
to read over
your work in
hard copy.
-Read out loud
and out of
sequence
(from the
beginning to
the end, etc.)
to catch
awkward
phrases and
grammar
issues.
-Have you
asked others
to read over
your work?
Figure 1: Graphic Novel Rubric
A separate content analysis focused on identifying the graphic novel elements:
 Panels: shapes, sizes, layout, sequence, use of negative space between panels
 Visuals: image genre (e.g., diagram, photo, chart), attention unit, perspective, speech
balloons, caption box, other shapes, use of color
 Text: content, percentage of page, font, use of sound effects words/images, narrative
arc
Findings in Common Core Visualization
In the information literacy course, students also had an option to use a poster generating
tool, so only seven students used a comic arts format: one male and six females. It should
be noted that the course readings explained visual literacy and infographics, and the rubric
detailed criteria, but there was no explicit document on comic arts “grammar.”
Only one student took full advantage of the format; his four-page product used traditional
panel shapes and size, sequenced in a clear problem-resolution arc. The characters were
superheroes extracted from existing graphic novels; they were Standards constituted the
186
only caption-type text. The student commented, “This is a wierdest assignment I’ve ever
done,” but he clearly understood and applied comic arts elements.
Another student created a three-page product with traditional panels that varied slightly in
size, also sequenced in a clear problem-resolution arc. This student designed a librarian
superhero ina simple body, overlaid on a photographic and stylized background. Most
images showed the librarian in a straightforward position within a setting. The color scheme
was largely naturalistic. Speech balloons were usually oval, with variations to emphasize
specific text messages; font was Comic Sans. While the overall result was more amateur in
look and plot, the student did understand the basic comic arts principles, and created an
original look.
A third student used a more documentary style with photos, diagrams, and explanatory text.
Panel sizes ranged from 1/8 page to a half page. The half page image, which was the first
page, featured a photo of the librarian helping a class in the library); the bottom half of the
page was an introductory text. Panel sequence was topical: different librarian roles. The
other pages had either library photos or charts. Speech balloons were used as headings and
captions; Comic Sans was used in balloons, and charts used Ariel.
The other four students created one-page products. However, use of comic arts elements
varied significantly. Panels were traditional and tilted rectangles filling about 70% of the
page space; one layout was traditional style, one overlapped panels, and another placed
panels angled on a swirl green background. Sequence varied: in 1-2-3 step, episodic,
narrative, and a series of lists. Three students used library photos, and one used a realistic
female librarian avatar; one include a frog narrator and images of Socrates, Confucius, and
Obama. One person added burst shapes and a Wordle for emphasis. Two used speech
balloons and caption blocks, and the other two used separated text boxes; all fonts were
Comic Sans. The product that had a plot with frog sidebar thoughts showed humor in its
writing and imagery, including the incorporation of sound effects representation of a key
word; the other products had a serious tone. These four efforts did not communicate in a
comic arts manner, although they used some comic arts elements (sometimes unusually).
Findings in Digital Storytelling
The youth literature course addressed graphic novels in more depth. A PowerPoint
discussed comic arts in general, its format, and its application. Students also read and
critiqued graphic novels. Their assignment was then to create their own graphic novel about
an incident in the life of a young adult (YA) author. The assignment also encouraged the
students to provide basic information about the author.
Two classes of students, taught be two different instructors, completed this assignment.
Class one (N=8) was comprised of one male and seven females; two students were Asian
(Vietnamese and Korean), and three were Latina. Class two ( N=11 wa comprised of four
males and seven females; one male was Vietnamese, and one female was Latina. In both
courses, there was no significant difference in product by demographics.
Class one had much shorter graphic novels. The one well-done product was 10 pages long,
but the rest were 1-2 pages long. In contrast, class two’s novels ranged from 4 to 14 pages;
the average length was 8 pages long. The difference was accounted by two reasons: class 1
187
was completely online while class 2 was hybrid; only in class two was the instructor adament
about the graphic novel including basic information about the author, and about having a
narrative arc (largely because class one’s instructor shared her comments about her class’s
work, and suggested requiring the added content for class two). On the other hand, in class
one, all the novels featured YA novels, but in class two four of the novels dealt with children’s
authors, and one covered Charlotte Bronte.
In terms of the student products’ use of the comic arts elements, no significant difference
existed between classes, but wide variations existed within each class, as detailed below
(both classes combined). No student work integrated all the essential comic arts elements
such that it would be considered a generic graphic novel. Instead, the works displayed
varying degrees of successful element integration.
Panels:
 Shapes: 3 with traditional panels (just class one), 4 with jagged blocks, 3 with varied
number of rectangles on white, 8 with varied rectangles on colored or textured
background, 1 with varied shapes on blue, 1 with curved rectangles
 Sizes: 4 with similar size panels, 3 with 1-5 panels/page, 1 with 1-6 panels/page, 5
with 3-6 panels/page, 1 with 2-3 panels/page, 1 with 2-4 panels/page, 1 with 3
panels/page, 2 with 4-6 panels/page, 1 with 4-10 panels/page; panel size
differentiation usually reflected relative importance of image
 Layout: 1 overlapped panels; 1 had left/right/left panel placement on page
 Front page: 1 had panels on scroll image, 2 had large author photos In oval or circle,
1 had full page author photo, 2 had author photo and summary
 Sequence: 15 chronological sequence, 2 summary then chronological sequence, 1
episodic, 1 had author as character and then real author chronologically
 Use of negative space between panels: range of 5-50% negative space (outside
panels on a page), average of 30%
Visuals:
 Image genre (e.g., diagram, photo, chart): 17 had photos (all of author, 2 family, 3
scenes), 2 had cartoons, 10 had book art, 54 had clip art. 2 photoshopped photos
 Attention unit: 17 had head shots, 5 had macros
 Perspective: 18 had straight on perspectives
 Speech balloons: 10 had speech balloons, 1 had thought balloon, 2 had author
starburst balloons, 2 used wavy balloon as thought, 2 had varied balloon shapes that
were not correlated with their use (i.e., thought, speech, caption), 1 had blue
balloons, 1 had pink and purple balloons with white text
 Caption boxes: 15 had rectangles, 1 had curved box, 1 had rhombus, 2 separated
box from panel, 1 had blue boxes, 1 had peach boxes
 Motion lines: 2 had arrows – to text or to show sequence, 1 had motion lines, 1 had
horizontal and rays but weren’t always symbolic
 Other shapes: 1 had stars on page 1
 Use of color: 4 used black/white, 1 used yellow/purple scheme, 1 used
chartreuse/purple scheme), 1 used pastel palette, 11 used naturalistic colors
Text:
188





Content: all used factual narrative, 5 used author quotes, 10 mentioned author’s
books
Point of view: 17 used 3rd person, 3 used author voice (1st person), 1 addressed novel
as the question – is the author a character or a person?
Percentage of page: range of 10-20% of page, average 15%
Font: 17 used Comic Sans, 1 used Times italic, 1 used “Kid” font, 2 used Berlin for
headings, 1 used Ariel for headings
Sound effects/strong words: 2 used sound effects, 4 used strong words as sound
effect appearance (1 curved, 1 with back starburst)
Discussion
Several reasons lie behind the visualizations of the students. In class one, the Common Core
topic itself did not lend itself to a narrative approach; students had to transform the librarians’
role relative to Common Core into a story, which is a specific information literacy skill. This
storytelling task were not helped by the fact that no specific readings detailed comic arts
“language.” In that respect, telling one event in an author’s life was easier to translate into
visual form, and the literature course included a PowerPoint on comics. Nevertheless, Some
students did not read graphic novels regularly (it should be noted that the two youngest
students used the graphic elements more effectively than the others in the literacy course).
In addition, students’ experiences with the online graphic novel software program impacted
their products. The software’s features were sometimes hard to master, and the program
itself veered from traditional comic arts layout, varying the panel shape and its placement on
the page. As a result, students’ content sometimes had to adjust to the program rather than
the program supporting their efforts.
In tying the students’ graphic novels to information design theory, the researcher can trace
the steps of information design theory. Theinstructor stipulated the comic’s intent as well as
the scope and functionality of the product: the comic’s form and idiom. Students’ knowledge
of comic arts conventions led to structuring the comic’s information architecture to facilitate
understanding. The last step is visual design, crafting the textual and graphic page elements,
which then reflects students’ knowledge again.
In sum, the graphic novel elements’ content analysis of the class work found that students
had mixed understanding of the information architecture of comic arts, both in terms of
translating story into comic arts as well as understanding the technical aspects of comic arts.
However, the assignment provided useful data to then provide additional instruction to clarify
and deepen their understanding. Furthermore, students had a greater appreciation for the
complexity of creating a message using the elements of comic arts. As such, the study
demonstrated that these students needed explicit training about comic arts; intuitive grasp is
insufficient to guarantee success. A PowerPoint on information architecture has been added
to the literacy course, and the literature course is considering adding Scott McCloud’s book
Understanding Comics, or at least a full class session discussion on comic arts elements.
Conclusions
Comic arts have gained popularity and credibility in recent years because of its increasing
quality and variety. Concurrently, visual messages and the need for visual literacy have
189
increased, particularly in a global society. Comic arts provide a compelling media for
communicating concepts in an accessible and engaging manner, and its conventions
leverage the interdependence of text and image, thus modelling effective information
architecture.
Even though comic arts are accessible on a basic level, they scale up in terms of
sophisticated messaging. To that end, education needs to explicitly teach the medium’s
communication conventions to help learners comprehend and generate content using comic
arts. Educators need to explain the conventions, which can be addressed as the medium’s
language and grammar. Learners also need to have opportunities to critique comic arts to
ascertain how well those conventions are used, and they need to experience representing
narrative knowledge using those conventions. These learning activities provide an engaging
and concrete way to explain and optimize information architecture.
In addition, comic arts conventions can be used in several research methods to capture
knowledge and its communication. Comic arts make explicit the significance of format in its
impact on message. Educators and researchers can assess each element individually as
well as combined gestalt in terms of making meaning. Through content analysis, researchers
can determine how well learner demonstrate competency in information architecture.
References
Amdahl, G. M., Blaauw, G. A., & Brooks, F. P. (1964). Architecture of the IBM System/360.
IBM Journal for Research and Development, 8(2), 87-101.
Batley, S. (2007). Information architecture for information professionals. Oxford, England:
Chandos.
Berger, A. (2011). Media and communication research methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Dillon, A. (2002). Information architecture inm JASIST: Just where did we come from?
Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(10),
821–823.
Chanlin, L. (1997). The effects of verbal elaboration and visual elaboration on student
learning. International Journal of Instructional Media, 24(4), 333-339.
Cheng, K., & Jao, J. (2006). Communicating concepts through comics. Information
Architecture Summit, Vancouver, BC, March 25.
Clarke, I. (1991). Patterns of thinking. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Cohn, N. (2013). The visual language of comics. London: Bloomsbury.
Dondis, D. (1973). A primer of visual literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
enGuage. (2003). 21st century skills: Literacy in the digital age. Naperville, IL: NCREL.
190
Farnum. C. (2002). Information architecture: Five things information managers need to know.
The Information Management Journal, 35(5), 33-40.
Frey, L., Botan, C., Friedman, P., & Kreps, G. (1992). Interpreting communication research.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Garrett, J. (2010). The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web and
beyond (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: New Riders.
Gavigan, K. (2011). More powerful than a locomotive: Using graphic novels to motivate
struggling male adolescent readers. Journal of Research on Libraries and Young
Adults (Nov.). http://www.yalsa.ala.org/jrlya/2011/06/more-powerful-than-alocomotive-using-graphic-novels-to-motivate-struggling-male-adolescent-readers/
Gosselin, D. (2002). Graphic user interface design curriculum. (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No. 3068561)
Green, M., & Rieck, R. (2013). Missed it. Annals of Internal Medicine, 158(5), 357-361.
Haridakis, P., & Hanson, G. (2009). Social interaction and co-viewing with YouTube:
Blending mass communication reception and social connection. Journal of
Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(2), 317-335.
Information Architecture Institute. (2013). What is IA? Beverly, MA: Information Architecture
Institute.
International Visual Literacy Association. (1996). What is visual literacy? Philadelphia, PA:
International Visual Literacy Association.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication.
London: Routledge.
Lehenbauer, M., Kothgassner, O. D., Kryspin-Exner, I., & Stetina, B. U. (2013). An online
self-administered social skills training for young adults: Results from a pilot study.
Computers & Education, 6,1217-224.
Library of the Living Dead. (2011). CILIP Update, 10(5), 50.
Mattelmäki, T. (2008). Design probes (2nd ed.). Helsinki, Finland: University of Art and
Design.
Mayer, R. E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., & Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more:
Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 64-73.
McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. New York: Harper Perennial.
1993.
191
McLuhan, M. (1994). Understanding media: The extensions of man. Cambridge, MA: The
MIT Press.
Mortimore, S. (2009). From picture to word to the world: A multimodal, cultural studies
approach to teaching graphic novels in the English classroom. (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No.
3376937)
Morville, P. (2004). Preface: A brief history of information architecture. In A. Gilchrist & B.
Mahon (Eds.), Information architecture: Designing information environments for
purpose (pp. xiii ). New York: Neal-Schuman.
Mullet, K., & Sano, D. (1995). Designing visual interfaces communication oriented
techniques. Mountain View, CA: Prentice-Hall.
Pake, G. E. (1985). Research at Xerox PARC: a founder’s assessment. IEEE Spectrum,
22(10), 54–61.
Peirce, C. (Ed.) (1883). Studies in logic. Boston, MA: Little Brown.
Pettersson, R. (2006). Research in information design. Journal of Visual Literacy, 26(1), 7788.
Pettersson, R. (2002). Information design, an introduction. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamin
Publishing.
Pettersson, R. (1997). Verbo-visual communication: Presentation of clear messages for
information and learning. Goteborg, Sweden: Valfrid Publishing Association and
Goteborg University.
Pettersson, R. (1993). Visual information. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technologies
Publications.
Rose, G. (2001). Visual methodologies: An introduction to the interpretation of visual
materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ross, P. (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Tarquin, P., & Walker, S. (1997). Creating success in the classroom! Visual organizers and
how to use them. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
Toms, E. (2002). Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture.
Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(10), 855862.
Weinberger, D. (2007). Everything is miscellaneous: The power of the new digital disorder.
New York: Times.
Biographical note
192
Dr. Lesley Farmer, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the
Librarianship program. She earned her M.S. in Library Science at the University of North
Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University.
Dr. Farmer has worked as a teacher-librarian in K-12 school settings, public, special and
academic libraries. She edits the International Federation of Library Associations’ School
Libraries and Literacy/Reading Sections blogs. A frequent presenter and writer for the
profession, she won IASL’s Research Award, American Library Association’s Phi Beta Mu
Award for library education, and Library Instruction Round Table’s Librarian Recognition
Award. She is also a Fulbright scholar. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include digital
citizenship, information literacy, collaboration, assessment and data analysis. Her recent
books are Introduction to Reference and Information Services in Today’s School Libraries
(Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) and Library Services for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ALA, 2013).
Abstract
Comic arts provide a compelling media for communicating concepts in an accessible and
engaging manner, and its conventions leverage the interdependence of text and image, thus
modelling effective information architecture. To that end, education needs to explicitly teach
the medium’s communication conventions to help learners comprehend, critique, and
generate content using comic arts. This paper explains information architecture, focusing on
comic arts’ features for representing and structuring knowledge, also noting visual literacy.
Content analysis of students’ graphic novels determined how well pre-service teacher
librarians demonstrate competency in information architecture.
193
Does Guided Inquiry enhance learning
and metacognition?
Lee FitzGerald
School of Information Studies
Charles Sturt University
Locked Bag 588
Wagga Wagga, NSW. 2678
Australia
lefitzgerald@csu.edu.au
Abstract
Research carried out at Loreto Kirribilli, a Catholic independent secondary school in
Sydney, Australia, in 2014 demonstrates that Guided Inquiry scaffolding enhances
learning and metacognition. Students undertaking the Historical Investigation in Year
11 develop an interest in an area of Ancient or Modern history, explore it, develop an
inquiry question, and answer it in an essay. The Ancient History class was scaffolded
by Guided Inquiry curriculum design and support, while the Modern History class
conducted their investigation independently. Deep learning was evident in the
questions asked and the answers written in the Ancient History essays. There is
evidence of a difference in quality in the questions asked and answered by Modern
Historians. It would appear that the scaffolding of Guided Inquiry has enhanced
learning, while recognizing the effect an excellent teacher has on already high
achieving students. Ancient history students also demonstrated a high level of
metacognition in their reflections.
Keywords: Guided Inquiry; Information Search Process; Guided Inquiry Design
Process; metacognition
What is Guided Inquiry (GI)?
“GI is a way of thinking, learning and teaching that changes the culture of the classroom into
a collaborative inquiry community.” (Kuhltau, Maniotes, Caspari, 2012)
It is an emerging pedagogy said to produce deep learning by its focus on the Information
Search Process (ISP), the autonomy of students in finding and answering their own inquiry
question, its focus on working in groups (inquiry circles), and its ongoing support for students
from teachers and teacher librarians (TLs).
st
To thrive as 21 century learners, students must be able to judge the quality of information,
find a way through complex and disparate information, formulate their own focus and
answers to their own questions, and transform information into knowledge. They need to be
agile, critical thinkers who are digitally fluent, able to read complex texts and write clearly.
194
They need to come up with creative solutions to problems they identify and to learn the skills
of working in teams. These are the skills of the 21st century worker, and they are
synonymous with the skills of GI.
In a time of global curriculum reform, there is a move to inquiry learning across education
systems in many countries. Since Peter Drucker’s (1992) work on knowledge workers, there
has been a slow move towards at least enriching the industrial model of education
(Robinson, 2010), in favor of education systems which produce people who can think
creatively, research effectively, problem solve, and work in teams. Across the globe,
education systems are reforming in favor of 21st century skills. Definition and promotion of
these are the subject of close attention (Abbott, 2014; ATC21S, 2012; EE Explore America,
2012; GELP, 2012; P21, nd; Responsible subversives, 2011).
Common to taxonomies of 21st century skills are these: Creativity, innovation, critical
thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, Learning to learn/metacognition, Information
literacy, ICT literacy, communication, collaboration, citizenship and responsibility. These are
the central concerns of GI.
Central elements of GI
Figure 1: Model of the Information Search Process and the Guided Inquiry Design Process (Kuhlthau, 2012)
The ISP is the central concept of GI. New to GI is the Guided Inquiry Design Process (GID),
with the two processes sitting side by side. The ISP describes what students do when they
195
research; and the GID process is what the inquiry community (the class) is doing. It is
evident from the stages of the ISP in the diagram above that it takes time to develop the
personal engagement characteristic of deep learning. Also the ISP suggests that there are
times of information overload and stress during a researcher’s journey from curiosity to
knowledge.
At the bottom of Figure 1 is the GID process. This is intended to be used by teaching teams
to:
 create the unit of work
 set the task in its stages
 use a shorthand for all students to use for the stage they are up to.
 schedule the task
 teach the skills required at each phase
 describe what the Inquiry community (class) is doing at any given point.
Guided Inquiry design: A framework for inquiry in your school (Caspari, Kuhlthau and
Maniotes, 2012) (GIDF) has made the operation of a GI quite concrete. The book presents a
highly structured approach to GID, and looks in detail at central concepts, such as
 Collaboration of the instructional team guiding the inquiry – the roles of each
member in each part of the process from design, to implementation, to assessment.
 Third space: bringing the world of the student (first space), the world of curriculum
(second space) into a third space where students can construct world views of their
own.
 Whole units delivered by inquiry – where there is minimal teaching and the
emphasis is on learning taking place by inquiry with teacher and TL facilitators.
 Inquiry community and Inquiry circles – The whole class group is the Inquiry
community. Inquiry circles can be used in curriculum areas which might benefit from
dividing up the work into perspectives. Inquiry circles are useful for students working
together on inquiry skills.
 6C’s: Collaboration, Conversation, Composition, Choosing, Charting, and
Continuing – These are the six elements of a GI – the six skills necessary to its
continuance.
 Journals, logs and inquiry charts – Throughout a GI, students keep notes, record
logs of their bibliographic processes, and at the Collect/Create and Present phases,
use inquiry charts and mind maps to synthesize their information.
 Continuous reflection and feedback – A hallmark of a GI is reflection. This can be
a formal reflection and/or conversation between student and the teaching team.
Reflections can be used to gather data for evidence-based practice.
 Culmination conversation – There is a formal agenda in GIDF for the teaching team
to use at the conclusion of an inquiry unit. It allows for discussion on the
achievements or otherwise of individual students. It also allows for discussion of
interventions that worked, those that didn’t, and changes that might be needed.
In some schools, the idea of a culmination conversation has become a part of what’s
expected of students, as well as the teaching team, at the end of an inquiry unit. Students
are given five minutes to think about a higher order question arising from their area of study,
but not the same as their inquiry question, and then speak for 2 minutes on it, with the rest of
196
the inquiry community listening. The culmination conversations for students make clear that
the level of engagement a GI demands pays off in terms of deep learning, critical thinking
and commitment.
Literature review
Professor Carol Collier Kuhlthau’s observations of how people of all ages feel, think and act
when they are doing a research task have spanned multiple studies over the last three
decades. The original study can be found in Kuhlthau (1989) and a comprehensive re-visiting
of the ISP was carried out in 2008 (Kuhlthau, Heinstrom &Todd). This study showed the
model to be as relevant as ever, especially in the digital environment. Other studies by
Kuhlthau confirmed the ISP as an observed model of how people research (Kulthau 1988a,
1988b, 1989, 1991).
The theory and practice of GI has burgeoned over the last 10 years in the publication of three
books on Guided Inquiry, which are practical approaches to its implementation – (Kuhlthau
2004; Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari,2007 and 2012). Alongside this, evidence based
practice has become very much part of what TLs need to do to demonstrate the difference
they make to student learning. (Gordon 2009a and 2009b; Gordon & Todd 2009; Todd
2011b, 2012a and 2012b). The School Library Impact Measure (SLIM) (Todd, Kuhlthau &
Heinstrom, 2005) was devised for practitioner’s use in schools, and has been used by TLs,
especially in Australia. (Todd, 2011 and 2012a).
The combination of the developing theory and practice of GI, and the need for evidence
based practice has led to practitioner articles about GI and the use of SLIM to demonstrate
achievement of learning outcomes, for example FitzGerald (2011), Scheffers (2008) and
Sheerman (2011).
There have been studies carried out by academics in schools to demonstrate the impact of
GI on student learning as well. (Harada, 2002; Todd, 2006; Kim & Todd, 2008; Todd, 2010).
And academics have written in practitioner journals to spread the word about evidence based
practice and GI (Todd 2011a; Hay & Todd 2010; Todd 2011b, 2012a and 2012b).
There was an opportunity offered by the 2014 historical investigations at Loreto Kirribilli to
use the new scaffolding of GI (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2012), elements of SLIM
(Todd, Kuhthau &Heinstrom, 2005), and other data to investigate whether students with the
benefit of this support fared better in their growth to deep learning than students not so
supported.
Research aim
My aim was to find out if the scaffoldings of GI assisted in both the development of deep
learning and awareness of the process of learning and to answer my research question:
Does GI enhance learning and metacognition?
Context/participants
History students at Loreto Kirribilli, a Catholic independent school in Sydney, Australia,
undertook an historical investigation in 2014, with one class conducting their investigation
using GI methods and scaffolding, while the other two classes had scaffolding of a moderate
level. The class that was scaffolded with GI was Ancient History, and the two classes that
were not so scaffolded were Modern History.
197
The Year 11 Historical Investigation was chosen as the area of research, because it is
possibly the only time in the History curriculum where students are free to identify, explore
and make conclusions on an area of history, only restricted by time periods and whether or
not the topic is one they have to study as part of their curriculum
The sample was 52 students in two modern history classes of 18 students each, and one
Ancient history class of 16 students. The students are 16/17 years old, all capable, highly
motivated students, who have never undertaken a long term inquiry project before. Their
teachers and TLs are dedicated, talented teachers.
Control group issues
It was intended that the control group of two Modern History classes would take exactly the
same survey questions. But it turned out for reasons beyond the researcher’s control that the
only valid responses were for Question 5 and for Question 6, and from one class only.
What did the GI entail?
The inquiry task in each class was effectively the same – Choose an area of Modern/Ancient
history, create a question and answer it in an essay.
What was the same for both Modern and Ancient History?
Each class had:
 active support and feedback from teachers throughout the process
 resourcing from the TL.
 teaching of how to use Easybib, (a bibliographic software), create footnotes and to
use the PEEL(Point, Evidence, Explain, Link) essay writing technique
 similarly highly motivated and capable students
 a culmination conversation at the end of the unit.
What was different in the Modern and Ancient investigations?


Ancient historians:
were explicitly taught the use of GI and the ISP throughout, including different search
techniques for different stages of the ISP.
 worked in inquiry circles, which categorized choices of topics, as well as providing
peer support for information gathering and synthesizing.
 reflected daily, as well as using the SLIM toolkit, on the wiki created by the TL for the
task.
 had TL support throughout.
 used the wiki to house the task, scaffolds, reflections and feedback.
 were taught how to use Questia (an online database) and Evernote, (a notetaking
software and app) with feedback.
 were scaffolded explicitly on creating questions.
On all of the above points, modern historians had no input.
The teaching team in the GI
The team of teacher and TLs for the Ancient History GI had the following responsibilities:
Teacher
Teacher librarians
198
Teacher
Introduced the Ancient Historical
Investigation
Scaffolded choice of topics into inquiry
circle areas
Teacher librarians
Introduced Guided Inquiry and Information
Search Process
Taught searching appropriately for each
stage of the process.
Provided sources throughout inquiry.
Provided feedback on wiki
Set up and monitored wiki for reflection
Worked with students on sources
Set up and provided feedback on Evernote
Marked the essay
Marked the process side of the assignment
and cross marked essays with teacher.
Both: Attended each class, worked in inquiry circles, worked with students on a roster,
worked with students to develop inquiry questions, and attended culmination
conversations. The inquiry took 5 weeks, with 3 classes per week.
Methodology
The following data were gathered from both Modern and Ancient History students:
 Responses to the SLIM Toolkit (School Library Impact Measurement) (Todd,
Kuhlthau & Heinstrom, 2005)
 Essays written by students, including comparison of questions between Ancient and
Modern historians.
 Marks given to students for their essays and for their process.
A final reflection was asked of the Ancient historians only: Describe your feelings as you
progressed through the stages of the Information Search process.
These are the questions in the SLIM Toolkit:
Q1: Take some time to think about your topic. Now write down what you know about it.
Q2: How interested are you in this topic? Not at all/Not much/Quite a bit/A great deal
Q3: How much do you know about this topic? Nothing/ Not much/Quite a bit/A great deal.
Q4: When you do research, what do you generally find easy to do?
Q5: When you do research, what do you generally find difficult to do?
Q6: What did you learn in doing this research project?
This instrument has been used in frequent practitioner and professional research. The
questions were presented to students at Open, Identify, and Create/share stages of the task,
except the last question, offered once at the end.
199
Findings
Question 1:
Take some time to think about your topic. Now write down what you know about it.
This is the question with the potential to answer the first part of the research question: Does
GI enhance learning? Analysis involves tabulating each response as to whether they are
facts, explanations and conclusions. Typically students will have a lot of facts at Open. It is
hoped they will begin to add to the facts with explanations and conclusions as their
knowledge and commitment to the topic grows. The underlying thesis is that students
allowed to follow their own interest and given time to do so, will develop deep learning, as
evidenced by the growing number of explanations and conclusions.
From Question 1, ideally there should be a movement from many facts at the beginning,
diminishing at the second and third collection points into a smaller but clear growth of
explanations and conclusions. This is evident here.
This graph shows three students in the top range (for essay and process marks) and the
number of facts, explanations and conclusions they had at the three gathering points.
200
This graph shows three students in the mid-range for process and essay marks and the
number of facts, explanations and conclusions they had at the three gathering points.
These students, who scored in the lower range on their essays and process marks
nonetheless show a growth from facts to explanations, while they show less movement to
conclusions than the other two groups.
All students showed a growth indicative of the processing of information from facts, through
explanations, to conclusions – thus demonstrating a clear growth towards deep knowledge.
Analysis of Question 1 caused the researcher to consider types of conclusions and if there
were differentiations to be made on the kinds of conclusions students use. Analysis of the
essays of these students demonstrated that though there were many conclusions, they were
of distinctly different quality. A differentiation was made on the following basis:
C – Straightforward expression of conclusion, no justification or elaboration
C2 – Conclusion contains 1 justification or elaboration
C3 – Conclusion contains more than 1 justification or elaboration.
An analysis of the top ranked students’ essays demonstrated that:
201

they had a uniform number of conclusions in their essays.

they had no C conclusions.

their conclusions included a substantial number of the richer kind of conclusions.
This pattern was generally not repeated in the lower marked students, who had mostly
straightforward conclusions.
Question 2:
How interested are you in your topic?
This question was given to students at Open, Identify, Create/Share parts of the process.
They could choose not at all, not much, quite a bit, a great deal. This is an excellent finding,
as it shows a majority of students expressing unwavering interest throughout the project.
Question 3:
How much do you know about your topic?
This response shows student self-judgment on how much they know about their topic,
collected at the three gathering points for the survey. They could choose nothing, a bit, quite
202
a bit, a great deal. Most started at knowing nothing and moved to quite a bit. Some judged
themselves by the end of the project as knowing a great deal.
Question 4:
What do you generally find easy to do?
This was administered at Open/Identify/Create and Share. Of interest is the fact that the two
things students say they could do best are Take notes using Evernotes, and Search
effectively for each stage of the ISP. However, the affirmation for taking notes and searching
effectively for the stage of ISP may be as a result of the focus on these two elements of the
GI. It is interesting too that nobody thought it was easy to create an inquiry question, or to
answer it.
203
Question 5:
What do you generally find difficult to do?
This and Question 6 are the only ones that the researcher was able to gather data from both
classes for, owing to circumstances in the school beyond her control.
The Ancient historians show an interesting range of difficulties here. They could articulate
that it is difficult to persevere through the dip of confidence that comes in the ISP at Immerse,
and to stay on track, and to search effectively for the stage of the ISP. Their awareness of
the process of research was articulated, showing that students have gained some facility with
the ISP. They also report that they find it difficult to use complex sources.
The Modern History group did not have the ISP outlined to them, and their reported
difficulties are noticeably different from the Ancient History group. It is interesting that a
significant number did not know how to get started. Identifying their own perspective was the
greatest difficulty they had, followed by equally, stay on track, use appropriate sources, and
synthesize information. They did not refer to reflecting on their process, and in the “other”
category were three responses saying I don’t know how to start my investigation, and I need
a more structured approach to my investigation.
204
Question 6:
What did I learn from doing this project?
Ancient Historians learnt some of the same concrete tasks as the Modern historians, i.e. to
use Easybib, and to do footnotes. Ancient historians highlight that they learnt to take notes
using Evernote, indicate a high level of awareness of the ISP, and the graph shows that they
learnt how to use appropriate sources as their biggest learning.
Modern historians’ most often expressed learning was recording bibliographic details, which
included footnoting. There is no awareness of the ISP.
205
Summary of findings from the SLIM questions
Questions 1-4 were taken by the Ancient History class only, due to difficulties with the
administration of the survey for Modern History.
Q1: Take some time to think about your topic. What do you now know about it?
The growth from facts to explanations to conclusions in the reflection sheets and in the
essays does demonstrate a growth to deep knowledge. Every Ancient history student was
able to take the movement from large numbers of facts, through explanations, to variable
numbers of conclusions. But conclude they all did. Some of this movement can be attributed
to the quality of the teaching they had, and their intrinsic motivation as highly achieving
students at a highly achieving school, some to the scaffolding provided by GI.
The Culmination Conversation also demonstrated the growth of deep knowledge, as
students were able to express knowledge about historical ideas relating to their content area
very clearly and at some depth.
Q2: How interested are you in this topic?
Ancient historians all maintained a high level of interest in the project throughout.
Q3: How much do you know about this topic?
Ancient history students’ self-reported knowledge grew from Response 1 to Response 3
Q4: When you do research, what do you generally find easy to do?
The most frequently mentioned items were take notes, and search effectively for the stage of
the ISP.
Q5 and Q6: taken by both classes.
Q5: When you do research, what do you generally find difficult to do?
Persevering and using complex sources were the most mentioned by Ancient historians
Getting started, identifying own perspective, persevering, using appropriate sources,
synthesizing information were the most mentioned by Modern historians.
Q6: What did you learn in doing this research project?
Both groups learnt the same concrete tasks, Use Easybib and how to do footnotes. Ancient
historians also learnt how to search differently for the stage of the ISP concerned, use
Evernote for notetaking, and Questia for deeper reading at Explore. Ancient historians
demonstrated a strong awareness of ISP, while Modern historians had no awareness of an
information process.
206
Other data - Essay questions
This is a range of Ancient Historians’ essay questions and the mark assigned to them
/25.
Of note is the higher order nature of the questions, the use of quotes to frame the question.
Note also, that even the highest achieving students did not achieve full marks. This could be
explained by a more rigorous process of marking in Ancient History.
207
This is a range of Modern Historians’ essay questions and the mark assigned to them
/25.
A clear difference from Ancient history questions is not using quotes to frame a question and
a wider approach to what makes history. Questions are much more straightforward than their
Ancient history counterparts. Specific guidance in creating questions was given to the
Ancient historians.
208
Other data - Marks
Ancient historians’ process and essay marks show some alignment between process and
essay, especially the top rangers, 4, 5, 9 and 16. The graph shows lower marked students
having correspondingly lower process grades: 1,2, 8. Other factors, as in student 1, where
her process was haphazard, but her essay quite good, can be accounted for with good
writing skills, and/or a good question.
In the Modern History project, teachers did both process and product marking. There was no
TL involvement in the marking. There were considerably less steps expected in the process
209
and this may account for the closer alignment between process and product than appears in
the Ancient marks, where process was marked by TL and product was marked by teacher.
The marks awarded for essays in the top range are higher than in Ancient. This could be
because of differences in teacher marking expectations and better writing in some of the
Modern students.
Other data: Reflections - Describe your feelings as you progressed through the
stages of the Information Search process.
Following are reflections gathered from the final reflection, administered to the Ancient
historians only. They show more than any of the graphs the level of involvement in learning
students had, and the quality of their metacognition. They show a definite yes to both parts
of the research question: Does GI enhance learning and metacognition?
Open
I liked that we were also given complete freedom to choose what we liked, that way it was
ensured that we were doing something that we found interesting, rather than something that
was assigned…
Immerse
The Sea people were so fascinating to me and I couldn’t wait to immerse myself in
information about them. But I made sure to keep to overview information and not to immerse
myself too greatly…
The true honeymoon stage! Basking in my decision to focus on Emperor Nero, I pursued
various online encyclopedias and websites and watched as many YouTube videos as I
could, .his was a great way to absorb information quickly whilst being entertained, and gave
me a fantastic overview basis to envisage the path for exploration...
Explore
This was the fun part of the assignment, where there was no imposed time limit on you or
any sort of expectation/pressure (yet). I could actually just sit there hours on end just reading
information about the Sea Peoples…
There was so much information! I did fall into a dip, in which I wished to change my topic as
I felt that there was nothing controversial about Herodotus..
Identify
At this point it was clear that my area of interest was in how history had shaped the various
portrayals of Alexander through time and the implications of this for our modern idea of who
the ancient personality was..
I found this part quite challenging as it was really hard to narrow my choices down. But with
the help of my teacher and TL, it was easier for me to decide on my focus area..
Gather
When it was time to start gathering relevant information was when I had the most challenges
in my research process. . I found it extremely tedious and time consuming. This stage really
required active learning, and persistence…
210
Create/Share
For me, the most challenging part of this whole process was the essay. I had talked over my
mind map with my teacher, which definitely helped the whole process and I had a definite
idea of where my essay was going however getting all my ideas out of my head and onto
paper was harder than anticipated. At this point I was feeling frustrated, and I just wanted the
whole process to be over…
Evaluate
Throughout this whole topic I have had the chance to evaluate my research skills. The daily
logs have been good in a sense as they have structured my reflection and given me key
goals to complete both short term and long term. The weekly reflections have helped me to
gauge the progression of my researching skills and have targeted particular aspects of my
research which I have needed to keep up to date, such as Easybib…
Conclusions
Does GI enhance learning and metacognition?
It would appear that the scaffolding provided to Ancient history students did enhance learning
and metacognition, as evident from the data showed in this paper. There are other reasons
for the achievements of these students – they are motivated, high achievers, often with
strong writing skills. They have very experienced and dedicated teachers. Achievements of
the Modern historians without the benefit of GI scaffolding show that there are other factors
at play, such as those mentioned already. However, there are definite differences in the
quality of the questions posed by the two groups, and it is also clear that the Ancient
historians became adept at recognizing the stage of the ISP they were experiencing, and
their reflections show this. They learnt how to manage their information process, and what to
expect whenever they do research, e.g. The Dip - that loss of confidence expected at
Explore in the ISP.
Reading complex sources is anecdotally the greatest difficulty both groups had – they resist
it. As well, there were issues with creating an inquiry question – Modern historians said they
found it difficult, Ancient historians wanted to create it too early.
In conclusion, it would appear that teaching/providing students with the scaffolding of GI and
the ISP has enhanced their learning and metacognition.
Implications for practice
Some broad generalizations about using GI in schools might be developed from this
research, and the myriad other studies in this area, mentioned in the Literature review. They
are:
 Teach students the ISP and help them practice using it – from as early as Year 5.
The earlier students realize that their information seeking and using behavior follows
the same process every time they have an assignment, if they are doing it with
engagement, is a valuable support for learning.
 Allow students to choose their own area of interest and to develop their own
questions as often as it is feasible, as this is at the heart of GI, and inquiry learning,
which is so favored in curriculum documents in Australia and elsewhere.
 Expect TLs to-co plan, co-teach and co-assess research tasks. They are teaching
partners in the inquiry curriculum of the school.
211





Make TLs responsible for information literacy skills, and for the school’s achievement
of the Critical and Creative Thinking General Capability (CCT) in the Australian
curriculum, by building process steps into the grading of any inquiry task.
Teach students how to search appropriately for the stage of the ISP they are at.
Essentially this is to avoid information overload at Explore, to keep the search general
then, in order to gather a notion of the scope of the topic. It’s also to search deeply at
Gather, when pertinent information is the key, rather than just relevant.
Teach students how to create inquiry questions, and specifically not to create them
too early. Use scaffolding provided by such techniques as Question Focus
Formulation (Rothstein & Santana, 2011)
Consider whether active teaching on coming to rich, substantiated conclusions where
the conclusion is substantiated is necessary.
Look at how (if?) students are reading non-fiction texts and provide scaffolding from
early years.
The last word is from a student, demonstrating the excitement of learning, through GI:
Without realizing it I have actually connected a few dots in my understanding of world history
as Alexander’s world is linked to the experiences of other people in history. It surprised me at
how connected every event is despite seeming a long time ago. I’m very happy with my final
essay.
References
Abbott, J. (2014) Battling for the soul of education: moving beyond school reform to
educational transformation. Retrieved from:
http://www.battlingforthesoulofeducation.org/
ATC21S Assessment & teaching of 21st century skills (2012): 21st Century skills. Retrieved
from: http://www.atc21s.org/
Drucker, P. (1992) The new society of organisations. Harvard Business Review, Sep-Oct;
70(5):95-104.
EF Explore America (2012) What is 21st Century education? Retrieved from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ax5cNlutAys
FitzGerald, L. (2011) The twin purposes of Guided Inquiry: guiding student inquiry and
evidence based practice. Scan 30(1)
Global Education Leadership Programme (GELP) We wanted to talk about 21st Century
education. Retrieved from: https://vimeo.com/32674575
Gordon, C.A.(2009a) An emerging theory for evidence based information literacy instruction
in school libraries, Part 1: Building a foundation. Evidence based library and
information practice 4:2
212
Gordon, C.A. (2009b) An emerging theory for evidence based information literacy instruction
in school libraries, Part 2: Building a culture of inquiry. Evidence based library and
information practice 4:3
Gordon, C.A. and Todd, R. J. (2009) Weaving evidence, reflection and action into the fabric
of school librarianship. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 4:2
Harada, Violet H. (2002). Personalizing the information search process: a case study of
journal writing with elementary-age students. School Library Media Research, 5.
Hay, L. & Todd, R.J. (2010). School libraries 21C: The conversation begins. Scan, 29(1), 3042
Kim, S.U. & Todd, R.J. (2008) The information search process of English language learner
(ELL) students in a Guided Inquiry Project: an in-depth case study of two Korean
high school students in the United States. Information Research, Vol.13, No 4
Kuhlthau, C.C. (1988a) Longitudinal case studies of the information search process of users
in libraries. Library and Information Science Research, 10, 257-304
Kuhlthau, C.C, (1988b) Perceptions of the information search process in libraries: a study of
changes from high school through college. Information Processing and
Management, 24, 419-427
Kuhlthau, C.C. (1989) The information search process of high-, middle- and low-achieving
high school seniors. School Library Media Quarterly, 17, 224-226.
Kuhlthau, C.C. (1989) Information Search process: A summary of research and implications
for school library media programs. School Library Media Quarterly, Volume 18,
Number 1.
Kuhlthau, C.C. (2004) Seeking meaning: a process approach to library and information
services. Westport CT: Libraries Unlimited
Kuhlthau, C.C., Maniotes, L.,and Caspari, A.(2007) Guided Inquiry: learning in the 21st
Century. Santa Barbara, California, Libraries Unlimited.
Kulhtau, C.C., Heinstrom, J., and Todd, R. (2008) The Information Search process revisited:
Is the model still useful? Information Research, Vol 13, No 4
Kuhlthau, C., Maniotes, L.,and Caspari, A. (2012) Guided Inquiry design: a framework for
inquiry in your school. Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited.
Partnerships for 21st Century skills (nd), Framework for 21st Century learning. Retrieved from:
http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework
Responsible subversives (2011) Born to learn. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=falHoOEUFz0
213
Rothstein, D and Santana, L. (2011) Make just one change – Teach students to ask their
own questions, Harvard Education Press
RSA Animate - Robinson, K. (2010) Changing educational paradigms. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDZFcDGpL4U#aid=P8wNMEma2ng
Scheffers, J. (2008) Guided Inquiry: a learning journey. Scan 27 (4)
Sheerman, A, (2011) Accepting the challenge: evidence based practice at Broughton
Anglican College. Scan 30 (2).
Todd, R. J. (2006). From information to knowledge: charting and measuring changes in
students' knowledge of a curriculum topic. IR Information Research, 11 (4).
Retrieved from: http://www.informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper264.html.
Todd, R. J., Kuhlthau, C.C. & Heinstrom, J.E. (2005) School library impact measure (SLIM)
Center for International Scholarship in School Libraries, Rutgers University.
Retrieved from: http://cissl.rutgers.edu/images/stories/docs/slimtoolkit.pdf
Todd, R. J. (2010) Guided Inquiry: a framework for opening doors and opening minds
through the school library (in Swedish) in Framsidan 1: Oppna Dorrar For Oppna
Sinnen: Skolbiblioteken Och Framtiden, edited byFredrik Swedemyr. Gotebord,
Sweden: Kultur I Vast Regionbiblioteket,
Todd, R.J. (2011a) Charting student learning through inquiry. School Library Monthly, Vol 28
(3) p5-8.
Todd, R.J. (2011b) From literacy to inquiry: a holistic approach to literacy development in
selected Australian Schools. IFLA 2011 Puerto Rico. Retrieved from
http://conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2011/114-todd-en.pdf
Todd, R. J. (2011c) One Common Goal: Student Learning. Evidence from New Jersey.
Synergy 9(2).
Todd, R. J. (2012a) Visibility, Core Standards and the power of the story: creating a visible
future for school libraries. Teacher Librarian, vol.38, 6, p8+
Todd, R. J. (2012b) School libraries as pedagogical centers. SCAN, vol 31, (3) p. 27-36
Biographical note
Qualifications:
Sydney University: B.A. Dip. Ed. (English and Modern History)
UTS, Sydney: Graduate Diploma in Library Science
Australian Catholic University: Master of Education (Curriculum)
Lee FitzGerald joined Charles Sturt University School of Information Studies in January,
2014, following a long career as a teacher librarian in school libraries. She has a passion for
214
teacher librarianship and the burgeoning theory and practice of Guided Inquiry. Her research
interest is to confirm the growth of deep learning through inquiry, as well as the transferability
of the process from one subject area to another, which she is investigating with Dr. Kasey
Garrison. He book for ABC Clio in the Guided Inquiry series, tentatively entitled:
Implementing Guided Inquiry in a time of Global Curriculum Reform is due for publication in
2016.
215
Self-Regulated Learning in Practice: a
comparison of national board certified
teacher librarians and non-national
board certified teacher librarians in the
United States
Dr. Kasey L. Garrison
Lecturer
Teacher Librarianship Program
Locked Bag 588
Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650
Australia
kgarrison@csu.edu.au
Dr. Robin S. Spruce
Lecturer
School of Education and Leadership Studies
College of Arts and Sciences
University of San Diego
5998 Alcala Park
San Diego, CA 92110
United States of America
rspruce@sandiego.edu
Abstract
In the United States, educators have the opportunity to apply for National Board
Certification (NBC), a rigorous process that awards them the highest recognition of
teacher mastery and accomplishment in the nation. A core proposition of NBC, the
management and monitoring of student learning, is strongly related to self-regulated
learning (SRL) and the role of the teacher librarian (TL). This research investigates the
differences and similarities between the application of SRL strategies in the teaching of
two groups of TLs in the US: five with NBC and five without NBC. Using interviews and
teaching observations, researchers found similar practice of SRL strategies by both
groups in their teaching. However, in the interviews, the TLs with NBC were better able
to articulate and provide context for how they teach students SRL strategies. These
216
findings support research from other scholars regarding NBC (Johnson, 2009; Strong
et al., 2007; Unrath, 2007).
Keywords: Metacognition, Self-regulated Learning, National Board Certified
Teachers, Teacher Librarian, National Board Certification
Countries around the world have differing ways of recognizing talented educators. There are
many awards available where teachers are nominated by students, colleagues, and their
surrounding communities. Some examples of such programs include the National Teacher
Award in South Africa, the Roll of Honor Award given to educators demonstrating
outstanding service in the Jamaican Teachers’ Association, and the Global Teacher Prize
awarded to nominated teachers from around the world.
In addition to awards, some countries have special programs where teachers provide
extensive support and evidence to demonstrate their mastery. In Australia, teachers apply for
recognition as Highly Accomplished and Lead Teachers, submitting artifacts and evidence of
their mastery to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL, 2014).
(For a firsthand account of this process, see Uther & Pickworth, 2014.) Teachers in the
United States apply for National Board Certification (NBC), one of the highest recognitions an
educator can earn. The application process is very rigorous and enlists applicants to
demonstrate mastery of Five Core Propositions relating broadly to professional practices and
applications of teaching and learning. Proposition 3 states: “Teachers are responsible for
managing and monitoring student learning” and stresses the need for teachers to utilize
divergent teaching strategies and instructional techniques with their students (National Board
Professional Teaching Standards, 2013). In this paper, we consider the role of the teacher
librarian (TL) as related to this proposition using the lens of self-regulated learning. The main
purpose of this research was to examine how National Board Certified Teacher Librarians
(NBCTLs) and non-NBCTLs apply self-regulated learning strategies in their teaching and to
investigate the differences between the two groups.
Literature Review
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's own learning
processes. Van den Boom, Paas, and Merrienboer (2007) assert “there is a broad
consensus that SRL comprises many aspects related to students' learning, such as goal
setting, using effective strategies to organize learning, monitoring, performance, selfawareness, motivation and holding positive beliefs about capabilities” (p. 533).
After an extensive search of literature on SRL and NBCTs, no direct studies were
discovered. However, research about NBCTs and patterns in their teaching practices reveal
connections to SRL. For example, reflection is an integral part of SRL as learners monitor
and consider their own learning processes and progress. In a self-report survey study of
NBC art teachers, Unrath (2007) found that these teachers labeled themselves as reflective
practitioners before undertaking the certification process, but that they noted an increase in
their reflective practices after engaging in NBC. Johnson (2009) found similar results
regarding reflection in her sample of 57 teachers’ practices post certification. NBCT
participants in another study also noted how the certification process reinforced to them the
217
importance of developing critical thinking capabilities in their students (Scheetz & Martin,
2006). Both reflection and the ability to think critically are important to fostering SRL.
Researchers examining differences between NBCTs and teachers without this specialized
certification show mixed results regarding student achievement. Some results indicate
superior student achievement using competency measures or standardized achievement
data (Phillips, 2008; Vandevoort, Amerine-Beardsley, & Berliner, 2004). For example, in a
study comparing NBC and non-certified physical education teachers, the students of NBCTs
outperformed students of non-NBCTS on measures of motor skill performance, cognitive
fitness knowledge, outside of class participation and health related fitness levels (Phillips,
2008). Conversely, a comparison study of 27 NBCTs and 27 non-NBCTs teaching
Kindergarten through Grade 8 found that student scores on end of the year standardized
tests did not significantly differ (Rouse, 2008). Finally, data from a larger study incorporating
statistical analysis of standardized test variables and qualitative data including teacher
interviews and classroom observations found that while NBCTs’ dispositions and preinstructional characteristics were higher quality than non-NBCTs, no differences were
observed in classrooms between the two groups (Stronge et al., 2007). Findings from these
studies suggest there is a need to explore both qualitatively and quantitatively NBCTs and
those without this certification to better identify what factors influence teachers to pursue
certification and what influence the process itself may have, or not, on their classroom
practice. Specifically, this study aims to illuminate how teacher librarians with NBC and those
without differ in their explanation and practice of SRL in the school library.
Methods
This study used mainly qualitative methods to study the teaching and learning practices of
NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs in regards to their practice of SRL as teachers and learners. We
compared two groups of five NBCTLs and five non-NBCTLs working in primary and
secondary schools in the mid-Atlantic area of the United States. The ten participants
volunteered to be interviewed and observed while teaching after completing an online
questionnaire for a preliminary stage of this research reported in Garrison and Spruce
(2013). The information in Table 1 includes demographic and descriptive information about
the ten participants.
NBCTL
Status
NBCTLs
Participant
School
Level
Highest
Degree
Gender
Age
Years of
Education
Experience
(Library/Total)
Naomi
Elementary
Masters
F
Under 35
9/9 years
Eleanor
Middle
Masters
F
Over 45
15/18 years
Violet
Elementary
Masters
F
Between
35-45
23/23 years
Incognito
Secondary
Masters
F
Over 45
15/31 years
Ruby
Secondary
Masters
F
Over 45
34/34 years
218
NBCTL
Status
NonNBTLs
Years of
Education
Experience
(Library/Total)
Participant
School
Level
Highest
Degree
Gender
Age
Sydney
Elementary
Masters
F
Between
35-45
4/14 years
Owl
Secondary
Masters
F
Over 45
2/20 years
Jacqueline
Elementary
Masters
F
Between
35-45
7/20 years
JDL
Secondary
Masters
M
Between
35-45
16/20 years
Tessa
Middle &
Secondary
Masters
F
Over 45
26/26 years
Table 1: Characteristics of Teacher Librarian Participants
Each participant engaged with one of the researchers in an approximately one hour interview
and two of their library lessons were observed by one or both of the researchers as well. The
interview and observation protocols were created by one of the researchers for her
dissertation research using a similar research design studying classroom teachers (Spruce,
2012). See Appendix A and B for these protocols. The interview includes 16 questions about
teacher perception, understanding, and application of SRL and was developed from
Zimmerman’s SRL model (2008). The observation protocol lists 18 observable behaviors
teachers might perform to facilitate student development of SRL across three phases of
learning: Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluating (Zimmerman, 2008). These behaviors were
evaluated using a scale ranging from zero to four with zero meaning the behavior was not
observed and four meaning there was a strong application of the behavior observed. The
observation protocol was designed using Zimmerman's model of SRL (2008) and also
Schraw's Metacognitive Checklist (1998) as guides.
The scores from the observation protocol are the sole quantitative data used in this study.
The participants’ were rated in both observations and then the average score of the two
observations were taken for each of the three stages of learning and the overall mean. Next,
the researchers used an inductive content analysis approach to investigate the patterns in
qualitative data (Patton, 2002). In this method, themes and patterns emerge and become
categories; researchers then code the data using these categories. In this study, we
analyzed the interview transcripts first to find recurring themes and patterns in the
participants’ responses. After analyzing the interviews, the codes listed and defined in Table
2 emerged from the data.
Code
Visualization
Definition
 Visual or graphic representation of concepts or the learning process
to aid in imagining a topic or idea
219
Code
Chunking
Definition
 Dividing tasks into smaller steps in order to prepare for and
manage learning
 Scaffolding student learning by literally showing them how to do
something, often described as a thinking aloud to monitor internal
processes
 The thinking that occurs after a learning event or activity, a
deliberate consideration and evaluation of the learning process
 Challenges to implementing time for reflection also emerged
Modeling
Reflection
Table 2. Codes Emerging from Interviews Applied to Observations
The researchers then used these codes to analyze the observation field notes and protocol
to investigate how the participants translated their interview reflections into their practice.
This involved searching for particular instances where these codes were implemented. The
following discussion of the results will examine first similarities and then differences with the
NBCTLs and non-NBTCLs for each of the four codes, integrating the interview and
observation data.
Results
Analysis of the interview and observation data reveals mixed results of the knowledge and
application of SRL strategies across the two sample groups. The observation scores for the
ten participants are included in Table 3 across the three stages of learning including totals for
each individual (far right column) and each group labeled in bold.
Status
Participants Planning(4)
Monitoring(4)
Evaluating(4)
Totals(12)
1.54
1.89
0.3
3.73
Violet
1.8
2.64
1.5
5.94
Eleanor
2.75
4
1.6
8.35
Incognito
1.42
1.79
0.4
3.7
Ruby
1.3
2.5
0.5
4.3
NBCTLs Mean Totals
1.76
2.56
0.86
5.20
NonOwl
NBCTLs
Sydney
1.08
2.64
0
3.72
1.42
1.79
0.5
3.71
Tessa
2.58
3.64
0.3
6.52
Jacqueline
2.6
3.15
1.5
7.25
JDL
1.33
1.57
0.6
3.5
NBCTLs Naomi
220
Non-NBCTLs Mean
Totals
1.80
2.56
0.58
4.94
Table 3. Observational Scores for the Participants Across the Three Stages
These scores reveal little difference with the inclusion of SRL strategies in teaching across
the two groups; the scores are quite similar within the three stages. Similarities were also
found in their teaching of SRL strategies. At the same time, however, differences in the
knowledge and explanation of using such strategies were detected in the interview data. The
remainder of the discussion surrounding the findings will address these themes organized by
similarities and differences and supported by the interview and observation data.
Similarities
Visualization Similarities
Both groups discussed the visual representation of concepts, such as graphic organizers,
outlines, or teacher provided prompts to imagine or visualize an idea. In interviews, many
mentioned offering graphic organizers to students, linking to the idea that seeing material
presented visually was helpful for learners. For example, non-NBCTL Sydney said in
reference to setting up goals for a learning event:
...ways to do goal setting so that you can present it to them and that they can choose
a way to do it, you know. Often, graphics, some kind of graphic organizer is what we
tend to lean towards because kids are visual.
From classroom observations, the researchers observed little implementation of the
strategies described by the teacher librarians. Four of the librarians in the study either made
mention of using visual strategies to guide learning or offered a teacher-designed frame to
help students sort information. Two of these were NBCTLs and two were not. They offered
encouragement to their students to either use the tool, Incognito and Violet, or verbally
encouraged their students to try to imagine/envision the information being presented, JDL
and Sydney. None of the teachers during the observed classes offered students the
opportunity to develop or consider their individual learning processes and what might best
serve those for the learning activity, which would have elicited a higher observation score.
Chunking Similarities
Across groups, TLs used similar language and named like strategies when discussing
dividing tasks to prepare for learning. Some of these included "chunking," "breaking things
down into steps," "checklists," and "calendars." They suggested using checklists and
calendars as tools for helping students break tasks into manageable "chunks" or "steps." For
example, NBCTL Naomi describes beginning the process with students as young as five
years-old:
even my kindergartners, I start with Froggy Gets Dressed, that little book, and tell
them about you know, Froggy didn’t get to play in the snow because he didn’t have a
process for getting dressed so he just sat there starting over all the time, and um,
that’s where you need a process because if you want to get something done, you’re
going to have to have the steps to be able to do it.
221
Non-NBCTL Jacqueline described this same idea with reference to calendars and helping
students to develop and maintain schedules for completing tasks. All five of the NBCTLs
referenced "chunking" or "steps" in some way as did four of the non-NBCTLs, Tessa,
Jacqueline, Sydney, and Owl.
Upon observation, however, there was scant evidence of this type of skills coaching across
both groups. NBCTL Eleanor made a verbal reference to breaking down the tasks for the
class period, what students will accomplish, and the timeframe for doing so. One of the
observed lessons non-NBCTL Tessa taught introduced a new research project where
students used index cards to organize their notes; the handout of instructions for this project
did include a marking rubric with deadlines. However, no other teachers referenced or used a
calendar, rubric, or checklist for breaking down either a long-term project or the class period
itself.
Modeling Similarities
Both the NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs stressed the importance of modeling and scaffolding
student learning in their interviews. Non-NBCTL Sydney noted in her primary school library
“modeling thinking is very important.” The NBCTLs frequently mentioned sharing their own
personal ways of learning with their students to help give them a model to practice. NBCTL
Violet was clear in her view of this as she said, the “other thing we do a lot of is modeling
that, that um, as librarians we’re also, we’re teachers, but we’re also learners.” NBCTL
Eleanor, who was teaching a middle school class researching a famous person of their
choice, noted that the kids “haven’t lived long enough to have a really good schema on any
of these topics” so “you show them what you want the product for each step to look like…and
by doing it that way you scaffold them, you know, to build them up to succeed.”
This modeling and scaffolding was quite evident in the observations from both groups. Many
of these class sessions were dealing with the research process and using resources within
the library collection like print books and online databases to find information. Non-NBCTL
Owl modeled her search processes for her secondary students as did non-NBCTL Tessa
and NBCTLs Naomi, Eleanor and Incognito. Naomi did a demonstration of an online search
using her library’s catalog for her grade five students. The students were then encouraged to
use the catalog themselves to find resources interesting them. Tessa’s lesson was heavy on
research and included students critically analyzing the value of their sources. She engaged
them in a discussion about Wikipedia as a source stating, “Let’s talk about Wikipedia for a
moment, I know it is not to be a resource, but I also know you will use it.” She went on to
admit using Wikipedia herself and described the ways she uses it, verbally modeling her own
research processes.
Reflection Similarities
In the interviews, all participants stressed the importance of reflecting on the process of
learning in broad and detailed terms. Reflection activities mentioned by both groups included
exit tickets, peer evaluation exercises, and self-questioning techniques. NBCTL Violet stated
it is important to be:
…encouraging kids to be reflective about what they’re doing. So, not just doing it,
again, but understanding why you’re doing it and what’s working and what’s not
222
working so then they can start to think about, okay, what do I need to do better or
differently next time and really getting them to think about the whys.
As shown in Table 3 reporting the observation scores of each of the ten participants, the
scores for the reflection phase were the lowest scores across the three phases and across
the two groups. The NBCTLs scored just slightly higher than the non-NBCTLs. NBCTL
Eleanor and non-NBCTL Sydney included “exit tickets” for their students to complete before
leaving the library. However, Sydney’s activity was more content-driven instead of processdriven, and process is what the observation protocol sought. Non-NBCTL JDL and NBCTL
Violet included verbal prompts for their students to reflect on the “why” of how and what they
learned during the research lesson. These were the only instances of reflection observed
during the lessons.
There was also a clear pattern of challenges in regards to the interviews about the reflection
phase. Both groups noted time constraints and the testing culture as impacting their ability to
incorporate reflection activities. NBCTL Ruby reflected “it’s the [standards], maybe we’re so
test driven now that kids can’t sit around a table and come up with a solution to a problem.”
NBCTL Eleanor voiced a similar statement when she noted being “so crunched with the
demands of the curriculum that [she] struggle[s] to get [teachers] to do the lengthy things we
used to do for research.” Despite the time and curricular challenges in implementing
reflection into the final stage of a learning event, Naomi eloquently notes that:
…really that last step is the one that gets shoved off sometimes because we just want
to be done with the stinking thing, but it’s one of the most important to get the kids to
do, is really to get them to reflect on what they’ve done because otherwise it’s just
kinda um, repeating the same mistakes and um, you know you’re not getting
experience your just doing a bunch of stuff.
Differences
Visualization Differences
Despite the similarities reported, a pattern of difference emerged from the theme of
visualization. While NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs discussed many of the same strategies for
making ideas more visual for students, including graphic organizers, imagery, and outlines,
the information presented by the NBCTLs was more detailed and context embedded (i.e.,
provided an example of strategy use in an example from classroom practice.) A comparison
of two responses helps illustrate this distinction. NBCTL Incognito shared her perspective on
strategies to help learners set goals for an assignment saying:
so like for me, two column notes are magic, but you might hate that, it may not work
for you at all. So you need a different trick and maybe your trick is making a movie in
your head about everything you read, about everything that is being lectured, or draw
a little picture every time there is a key concept in the lecture, drawing a little picture
in your notebook so finding those tips and tricks or maybe you have to talk it out,
underlining it and when you get home you just talk it out. Whatever works for you,
teach your brain that, this is my tip, this is my trick, this is what works, this is what
makes me successful, tada!
223
While non-NBCTL JDL also lists some of the same ideas, he provides little elaboration of
direct application, stating, "...making outlines and lists and using note cards for research,
others might use the technology, there are organizers."
As discussed previously, four of the observed TLs included references to worksheets for
visually representing ideas from the lesson: JDL and Sydney, non-NBCTLs and Incognito
and Violet, NBCTLs. Both of the NBCTLs had handouts for the students to use. Incognito's
was a step-by-step guide for working through a science inquiry lesson requiring book and
Internet research. The sheet involved complex thinking tasks and a graphic to guide
students' analysis of various minerals. Violet also guided students through an Internet
research activity; hers was to help students evaluate websites. The sheet she provided them
was a graphic organizer based around the acronym CARRDSS, each letter representing a
step in the website evaluation process. Students' evaluated websites in collaborative groups,
using the organizer as a tool. These four examples illustrate a striking contrast between the
two groups of TLs. The NBCTLs had materials prepared for their students to use that visually
organized information for them. Two non-NBCTLs depended solely on verbal prompts to do
so.
Chunking Differences
Two distinct differences emerged from the data regarding "chunking" of tasks. As noted
above, in practice, TLs did little to support this skill. However, from interviews, the NBCTLs
once again provided greater context and a stronger narrative for describing how to
implement these tools than did the non-NBCTLs. NBCTL Ruby used an example to describe
how she might herself go about using time/calendar as a guide for accomplishing a learning
task:
...set time goals for yourself. In two weeks, I want to know um, everything about
ancient art, I want to be able to identify all the pieces of ancient art, or pictures that
are going to be on that, or I want to um, be able to recognize all the vocabulary for
this unit and then move into the next step and the next step and you have to be so
methodical about it in order for them to grasp so much knowledge.
She both references time and breaking the task into steps in the example she sketches. In
contrast, non-NBCTL Tessa describes breaking a unit into steps for students, but speaks in
more general terms:
Monitoring is a matter of steps. Any good teacher is going to create a unit with lots of
little baby steps and again this depends on the age because we deal with, at my
school, with such a wide range of learners um, and they, ages and grades, it really
varies heavily from the youngest to the oldest, but you’re gonna structure the unit in
small steps.
Tessa's example leads into the second notable difference between NBCTLs and nonNBCTLs discussion of "chunking." The NBCTLs placed a greater emphasis on student
independence and autonomy; the goal of teaching or modeling the skill of chunking was to
have students be able to carry out that task themselves. Whereas the non-NBCTLs spoke of
"chunking" more in terms of what they do to structure a lesson, as did Tessa in the quote
above.
224
Modeling Differences
As noted in the previous themes, the major difference between these two groups in the area
of modeling was again the NBCTLs discussion of the ways that they model and scaffold for
students. There were nineteen instances where statements from the NBCTLs’ interviews
were coded into this pattern with only seven instances from the non-NBCTLs’ interviews.
Further, in the interviews, the NBCTLs discussed more descriptively that modeling and
scaffolding were essential to their teaching; they considered it part of the lesson. However,
some of the non-NBCTLs voiced more surprise at the level of scaffolding and modeling their
students needed. In working with secondary students, non-NBCTL Owl noted “I really was
amazed at the amount of coaching and scaffolding that I felt was necessary to make projects
successful.”
Reflection Differences
Prior analysis of reflection similarities detailed here showed little difference between the
teaching observation scores with the two groups in regards to reflection. However, there
were clearer differences in the interviews about reflection. The NBCTLs gave a stronger
discussion in how to implement reflective activities into their teaching, offering specific details
and more succinct responses than the non-NBCTLs. They gave examples of the types of
questions they would enlist students to ask themselves post-learning in order to pinpoint their
strengths and weaknesses as researchers. NBCTL Violet described this process of selfquestioning using a journey metaphor:
So we’re trying to build, I’m trying to build in constantly space for kids to reflect on
either how something can help them in a different situation or how can they improve
whatever it is they’ve done so that the next time they encounter it, they sorta know
how to know what the new road map is.
Limitations
Limitations that must be noted from this study are related to the participants and their
different characteristics as well as the schools they teach. There was a wide range of
experience in teaching and teaching in the school library, but it is clear that the NBCTLs have
more school library and teaching experience, respectively, (96/115 years) than the nonNBCTLs (73/100 years). Further, the researchers note that we only observed two teaching
lessons and that the both groups of TLs may incorporate more SRL strategies into other
lessons. The age range of learners is another factor. It would be assumed that secondary
students should naturally have more autonomy and knowledge of their learning processes
than primary students.
Another factor that we note that was evident in our discussion in the findings as well is the
difference in the interviews of the NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs. In many cases, the NBCTLs
were better able to express and reflect on their teaching and learning practices. The process
for earning NBC is very rigorous and includes multiple elements of just this: reflecting and
analyzing one’s teaching. Thus, the NBCTLs would have much practice and experience in
answering questions like those in our interview protocol. Using the observations helps to
negate this limitation, but it was still present as we analyzed the interview data.
225
Significance
Research regarding differences between NBCTs in the US and those without the certification
includes mixed results. Researchers reported that NBCT before engaging in the process of
certification tend to be reflective practitioners and carry a belief system of encouraging critical
thinking (Johnson, 2009; Unrath, 2007). Our study found similar results in that while the
NBCTLs in our sample more richly described reflective practice, they did not engage their
students more actively in it than did the non-NBCTLs. NBCTLs provided a richer, more
complex context and extensive answers to interview questions across emic codes than did
the non-NBCTLs, yet classroom practice looked largely the same. This finding correlates to
the work of Stronge et al. (2007) who found that in interviews with NBCTs, their description of
strategy was superior to non-NBCTs, but classroom practice was generally equivalent.
Sparse research has paired examining SRL knowledge - as described by teachers - with
classroom practice. However, much evidence indicates that the skills can be taught
(Azevado & Cromley, 2004; Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). Key factors for
students to learn these skills include direct teacher instruction, guided practice, and instructor
feedback (Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008; Bol, Hacker, Walck, & Nunnery, 2012; van
den Boom, Paas, & van Merrienboer, 2007). While our study did not examine student
achievement or SRL skills acquisition specifically, these findings tie to comments made by
some of the study participants.
Participants from both groups explained the major obstacle for teaching SRL skills is finding
time to do so in the school day. Time for direct instruction, guided practice, and meaningful
feedback of SRL skills has to compete with instruction on content area learning as measured
by high-stakes standardized tests. Even though many of our participants knew of and
understood how to teach SRL skills, NBCTL and non- NBCTL alike, results from this study
suggest SRL skills instruction is losing the race. However, teachers from our study clearly
value these skills and the Common Core Standards adopted by most states in the US place
the emphasis back on skills instruction. Perhaps, this will help boost SRL skills back into the
winners' circle.
References
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. (2014). Certification of Highly
Accomplished and Lead Teachers. Retrieved from,
http://www.aitsl.edu.au/certification/about-certification/certification-of-highlyaccomplished-and-lead-teachers.
Azevado, R., Moos, D., Greene, J., Winters, F., Cromley, J. (3008). Why is externallyfacilitated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia?
Education Tech Research Development, 56, 45-72.
Bol, L., Hacker, D., Walck, C., & Nunnery, J. (2012). The effects of individual or group
guidelines on the calibration accuracy and achievement of high school biology
students. Contemporary Educational Psychology.DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.02.004
226
Butler, A. C., Karpicke, J.D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Correcting metacognitive error:
Feedback increases retention of low-confidence correct responses. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 918-928.
Garrison, K.L., & Spruce, R.S. (2013). “Asking questions,” “chunking,” & “sharing the
progress”: How school librarians apply metacognitive strategies in their teaching.
American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, San Francisco,
CA, USA.
Johnson, T.S. (2009). Performing “teacher”: A case study of a National Board Certified
teacher. English Education, 41(2), 158-176.
National Board of Professional Teaching Standards. (2013). The Five Core Propositions.
Retrieved from, http://www.nbpts.org/five-core-propositions.
Perry, N., VandeKamp, K., Merer, L., Nordby, C. (2002). Investigating teacher-student
interactions that foster self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 37, 5-15.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Phillips, A. (2008). A comparison of National Board Certified Teachers with non-National
Board Certified teachers on student competency in high school physical education.
The Physical Educator, 114-121.
Rouse, W. (2008). National Board Certified Teachers are making a difference in student
achievement: Myth or fact?. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 7, 64-86.
Scheetz, N. & Martin, D. (2006). Teacher quality: A comparison of National Board-Certified
and non-Board-Certified teachers of deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf,
151 (1), 71-87.
Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26,
113-125.
Spruce, R. S. (2012). Teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practice of metacognition and selfregulated learning (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Old Dominion University.
Norfolk, VA, USA.
Stronge, J., Ward, T., Tucker, P., Hindman, J., McColsky, W., & Howard, B. (2007). National
Board Certified Teachers: Is there a difference in teacher effectiveness and
student achievement? Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 20 (3-4), 185210.
Unrath, K. (2007). The impact of the reflective portfolio on National Board Certified art
teachers. Visual Arts Research, 33(1), 100-109.
227
Uther, J., & Pickworth, M. (2014). TLs as leaders: Are you a highly accomplished teacher
librarian? Access, 28(1), 20-25.
van den Boom, G., Paas, F., van Merrienboer, J. (2007). Effects of elicited reflections
combined with tutor or peer feedback on self-regulated learning and learning
outcomes. Learning and Instruction, 17, 532-548.
Vandevoort, L., Amrein-Beardsley, & A., Berliner, D. (2004). National Board Certified
Teachers and their students' achievement. Education Policy and Analysis
Archives, 12(46).
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background,
methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational
Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183.
Biographical Notes
Kasey Garrison is a lecturer with the Teacher Librarianship Team in the School of
Information Studies at Charles Sturt University’s Wagga Wagga campus in New South
Wales, Australia. Kasey’s primary research areas are focused on diversity within children’s
and young adult literature and reader responses to such titles. She earned a PhD in
Education from Old Dominion University in August 2012. Her dissertation, entitled “’This
intense desire to know the world:’ Factors Influencing the Collection Development of
Multicultural Children’s Literature,” was a mixed methods study focused on diversity within
library collections and their surrounding communities.
Robin Spruce is a lecturer at the School of Education and Leadership Studies and in the
College of Arts and Sciences at the University of San Diego, in the state of California, United
States. Her research interests include teacher and student self-regulated learning as well as
sense of community in on-line learning environments. Robin earned a PhD in Education from
Old Dominion University in August 2012. Using mixed methods in her dissertation, "Teacher
knowledge and practice of self-regulated learning and metacognition" she examined teacher
knowledge and practice of self-regulated learning in relationship to their classroom actions.
228
Appendix A.
Interview Protocol
Planning:
1. How might you use goal setting in your own learning?
2. How would you encourage your students to use goal setting when planning for a learning
task?
3. How would you plan before beginning a learning task?
4. How would you encourage students to plan for a learning task?
5. How would you enhance students' self-motivational beliefs to improve student learning?
Probe: Self-Efficacy
Probe: Outcome expectations
Probe: Task interest
Probe: Goal orientation
Monitoring:
6. In what ways would you monitor or control your own learning (assert self-control)?
Probe: Using self-instruction?
Probe: Using imagery?
Probe: Using attention focusing?
Probe: Using specific task strategies?
7. What techniques might you employ to encourage self-control (self-instruction, imagery,
attention focusing, specific task strategies) of learning for your students?
8. What are some methods you might employ to monitor your learning process,
metacognition, while engaged in a learning task?
9. How would you encourage or implement monitoring of the learning process,
metacognition, in your teaching?
10. What are some techniques you might use to track your progress through a learning task?
11. How would you encourage students to track their progress through a learning task?
Evaluation:
12. How might you evaluate your learning after completing a learning task?
Probe: Self-evaluation
Probe: Causal attribution
13. What are some activities you might design to encourage student reflection and evaluation
after a learning task?
229
14. How might you determine your satisfaction with a learning outcome after you complete a
learning task?
15. How would you encourage students to evaluate their satisfaction with the outcome of a
learning task?
16. How would you describe self-regulated learning to your students?
Appendix B. Observation Protocol
SRL Classroom Observation Instrument
Pseudonym: _______________________________________________________________
R = Teacher reference to
DA= Teacher provided opportunities to practice/perform/discuss (directed activity)
Observable Behaviors
Planning
reference to/directed
activity for:
0
Not
observed
1
Limited
application
R
2
Somewhat
limited
application
R (once)
3
Somewhat
strong
application
DA
4
Strong
application
DA (more
than once
0
1
2
3
4
1. setting task goals
2. seeking information
and strategies needed
3. setting time and
resource allotment
4. self-instruction
5. attention focusing
6. self-recording (e.g.
maintenance of a
record of progress)
Monitoring
activity for:
7. clarifying
understanding of
task/content
8. evaluation of
progress towards goals
9. self-instruction
230
Observable Behaviors
Planning
activity for:
0
Not
observed
1
Limited
application
R
2
Somewhat
limited
application
R (once)
3
Somewhat
strong
application
DA
4
Strong
application
DA (more
than once
0
Not
observed
1
Limited
application
R
2
Somewhat
limited
application
R (once)
3
Somewhat
strong
application
DA
4
Strong
application
DA (more
than once
10. attention focusing
11. self-recording
12. use of specific task
strategies
13. assessment of
task-understanding
Evaluating
activity for:
14. progress towards
task goals
15. strategy use those that succeeded
and failed
16. actions to be
repeated or modified
for subsequent related
tasks (adaption based
on performance)
17. determining selfsatisfaction (based on
performance)
18. causal attribution
Comments:
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
231
Awards with rewards: implications and
perceptions for collection development
for youth
Dr. Kasey L. Garrison
Lecturer
Teacher Librarianship
Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650
Australia
kgarrison@csu.edu.au
Keywords: Multicultural children’s literature, children’s literature awards,
collection development, ethnicity
Including award-winning literature in children’s library collections is often openly stated in a
library’s collection development policy. Hateley (2012) notes these “meaningful markers” as a
way “to grant our wish of someone somewhere, somehow having read all the books, and
worked out which one is best” (p. 190). In an age where librarians are pushed to their limits
with time, budget, and curriculum, such designators are useful in helping to develop and
maintain a quality collection. At the same time, Hateley (2012) enlists readers to
acknowledge the unavoidable human subjectivity involved in the judging process of literary
book awards:
What must not be forgotten, however, is that this superhuman work is undertaken by
humans—passionate and knowledgeable humans, to be sure, but humans
nonetheless. To automatically rely on award winners for collection development may
mask the necessary fallibility and idiosyncrasies of individual judges or judging
panels. (p. 197)
In a study of “Children’s-Choice” State Book Awards in the US, Storey (1992) further notes
censorship issues associated with the selection of books on the award lists and, thus, the
availability of books to the children readers meant to select the winners. Storey’s (1992)
research reports on a survey of school librarians about censorship related to these book
awards. The librarians in the study noted that censorship was “expected and accepted”
(Storey, 1992, p. 1). They also supported the use of award lists for selection and collection
development which is the focus of the current study reported in this paper. Specifically, the
purpose was to investigate youth librarians’ perceptions of using award lists for collection
232
development and to also survey their collections for the presence of five children’s book
awards.
Literature Review
The professional library literature is fraught with debates about the value and quality of
children’s book awards. Sometimes the crux of the issue in these discussions is the fact that
adults are making the choice of the best books; these may not necessarily be the books that
the intended audience (i.e., children) would choose as the best or would even check out from
the library at all. In the Australian context, Hateley (2012) notes the importance of
encouraging librarians and young patrons to use a critical lens when evaluating award
winners and to also examine the collection development policies in relation to such choices
as one would any addition to the collection. In the United States, much controversy
surrounds ethnic specific book awards including the Coretta Scott King Award honoring
African American writers and illustrators (Aronson, 2001; Pinkney, 2001), the Pura Belpré
Award recognizing Latino/a American writers and illustrators (Balderrama, 2006), and the
Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature (APAAL) acknowledging outstanding literature
with Asian/Pacific American themes.
However, children’s book awards like these based on ethnicity were created due to a lack of
diversity within the ranks of popular non-ethnic specific awards such as the Caldecott and
Newbery Awards (Pinkney, 2001). Gillespie, Powell, Clements, and Swearingen (1994)
analyzed the ethnicity of characters within the 73 Newbery Award-winning books from the
award’s inception in 1922 through 1994 and found 90 percent featured White Anglo
characters. Characters from non-Anglo backgrounds (using labels from Gillespie et al., 1994)
included: Blacks at 26 percent, Native Americans at 19 percent, White non-Anglos at 18
percent, and Hispanic and Asian/Pacific peoples both at 10 percent. Research by Rawson
(2011) of young adult awards and lists like the Michael L. Printz Award suggests a similar
lack of diversity. For example, in her sample of 297 books, she found 241 books (81.1
percent) included White characters but only 11 books (3.8 percent) included Hispanic
characters (Rawson, 2011).
Research from Kidd (2009) suggests “anticensorship efforts…function much like literary
prizing” (p. 197). This makes sense considering that a lack of diversity within literary award
lists like the Newbery Award and Caldecott Award is partly what led to awards like the
Coretta Scott King Award and Pura Belpré Award (Pinkney, 2001). Kidd (2009) notes that the
very presence of censorship creates “nearly always leads to or involves anticensorship” (p.
214).
Methods
The research reported here resulted from findings from the author’s dissertation study
(Garrison, 2012). In this mixed methods study analyzing the factors influencing the collection
development of multicultural literature in children’s collections, the researcher surveyed the
collections themselves and the youth librarians tasked with developing these collections. The
researcher searched the library collections for five children’s literature awards including the
APAAL, King Award, Newbery Award, Belpré Award, and Caldecott Award. The APAAL
began in 2006 by the Asian/Pacific American Library Association (APALA), and is awarded
annually to books “related to Asian/Pacific Heritage, not necessarily written by or illustrated
by an Asian/Pacific American” (APALA, 2010, para. 1). The other three awards are given by
233
sections of the American Library Association (ALA) including the Ethnic and Multicultural
Information Exchange Round Table (EMIERT) and the Association of Library Services to
Children (ALSC). The Coretta Scott King Award began in 1970, and is given annually to one
African American author and one African American illustrator who have created books
celebrating the African American experience (EMIERT, 2011). Started in 1922, the oldest
award, the John Newbery Award annually honors the author of “the most distinguished
contribution to American literature for children” (ALSC, 2011c, para. 1). The Pura Belpré
Award was started in 1996 and honors one Latino/a author and one Latino/a illustrator who
have written or illustrated a children’s book celebrating the Latino cultural experience (ALSC,
2011a). It was given biennially until 2008 and has been awarded annually after that. Since
1938, the Randolph Caldecott Award has annually honored the illustrator of “the most
distinguished American picture book for children” (ALSC, 2011b, para. 1).
As stated previously, the Newbery and Caldecott are non-ethnic specific while the other three
awards focus on specific ethnic groups. Since these awards began in different years, the
researcher started the survey with books honored from 1996 to 2010 for the Belpré,
Caldecott, King, and Newbery as the Belpré began in 1996; the APAAL survey started in
2006 when the award came into existence. Further, the APAAL, Belpré, and King include
author and illustrator awards so each year, there will be two winners of these. All of the
awards also include one to four honor titles each year depending on the pool. Of these years,
the research looked for a total of 221 books in the ten communities in the sample. The
researcher searched the library’s online public access catalog for these books.
This purposeful sample included ten communities of different geography, population, and
cultural diversity in one mid-Atlantic state in the US. The characteristics of these ten
communities and their representing library systems are shown in Table 1.
White,
Non-Hispanic
African American
Hispanic/
Latino
Asian & Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
Number of
Libraries and Branches
in System
Number
of Municipalities Served
by Library System
98.6%
0.3%
0.8%
0.2%
16,469
1
1
Brookfield
72,711
95.5%
2.3%
1.3%
0.5%
149,818
2
2
Grasston
35,604
38.5%
59.0%
2.1%
0.4%
93,990
2
3
Treetown
97,032
64.2%
28.5%
5.5%
1.8%
265,639
6
1
Creekton
118,542
86.2%
5.7%
8.2%
1.5%
246,770
3
3
Lakeland
149,270
88.8%
3.2%
8.1%
1.6%
274,946
7
3
Streamland
204,214
40.8%
50.6%
6.3%
2.4%
467,627
8
5
Forest City
209,021
78.7%
12.9%
4.6%
3.8%
691,807
9
1
19.6%
6.6%
6.3%
1
b
Total
Population a
2,321
Collection Size
in Volumes
Communities
Riverburg
437,994
67.7%
754,796
10
Hillville
1,104,291
62.8%
9.1%
15.6%
17.6%
2,302,357
22
2
Sample Totals
8,001,024
68.6%
19.4%
7.9%
5.6%
5,264,219
70
22
Watervale
Table 1. Characteristics of the Ten Communities in this Sample
a
Population data is from U.S. Census Bureau (2011).
This data is from Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) website (2009).
b
234
As shown,
these ten
communities
are of varying
sizes and
cultural
diversity.
Riverburg is the
smallest in the
state while
Hillville is the
biggest. The
information in
Table 2
includes
characteristics
of the youth
librarians
selecting
resources for
these
libraries.Library
System
Riverburg
Chosen
Pseudonym
Job Title
Highest Degree Attained
Cultural
Background
Study Participation
Renee
Library Director
Bachelor of Arts
Not given
Questions only
Brookfield
Dixie
Interviewed by phone
Virginia
Not given
Treetown
Dana
Creekton
Carolina
Bachelor of Arts in K-6
Education
Masters & 36 post graduate
credits in non-profit
leadership
Masters of Library and
Information Science
Not given
Caucasian
Grasston
Children’s
Librarian
Library Director
Lakeland
Kari
Forest City
Frog
Streamland
Leann
Watervale
Mary
Hillville
Libby
Youth Services
Caucasian
Librarian
Youth Services
Not given
Librarian
Coordinator of
Double Bachelors
Irish
Youth Services
Children’s
Masters
Caucasian
Services Manager
Collection
Masters
White/ European
Development
descent
Manager
Youth Librarian Masters in English, Masters
Not given
in Library Science
Children’s and
Masters of Library and
German, English,
Young Adult
Information Science
Irish
Selector
Questions only
Interviewed by Skype
Interviewed in person
Table 2. Characteristics of the Ten Youth Librarians in this Sample
Each of these librarians was interviewed by phone, on Skype, or in person or answered a
survey questionnaire including questions about their collection development practices and
the tools they use to aid in selection. The interview guide was developed using a blueprint
based on a thorough review of the professional literature regarding collection development
and selection. During this review, themes of professional practice and personal beliefs
emerged within the areas of the value of multicultural literature, professional policies
regarding selection, user value for multicultural literature, selection sources, and challenges
during the selection process. The interview guide is included in Appendix A. In order to
analyze the interview data, the researcher first used a deductive approach to examine the
more fixed questions (e.g., What specific review journals do you use?). The researcher then
235
used an inductive content analysis approach to analyze questions eliciting more open-ended
answers (e.g., How important do you believe award lists are for your collection
development?). An inductive approach allows themes and patterns to emerge from the data
instead of implementing strict codes of analysis. The research reported in this paper focuses
on the aspects of the awards lists and the participants discussion of that topic.
Findings
The study reveals interesting results for the way librarians use award lists for collection
development. To give a background context, first examine the data in Table 3.
Award (N)
Mean of Titles
Median of Titles
(percent of N)
(percent of N)
Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature (APAAL)
Mode of Titles
(percent of N)
Range of Titles
(percent of N)
Winners (8)
2.89 Titles (36%)
3 Titles
(38%)
3 Titles
(38%)
0-6 Titles
(0-75%)
Honors (11)
2.97 Titles (27%)
2 Titles
(18%)
1 Title
(9%)
0-9 Titles
(0-82%)
Totals (19)
5.81 Titles (31%)
5 Titles
(26%)
3 Titles
(16%)
0-14 Titles
(0-74%)
7.24 Titles (40%)
7 Titles
(39%)
8 Titles
(44%)
0-17 Titles
(0-94%)
12.32 Titles (26%)
11 Titles
(23%)
8 Titles
(17%)
0-40 Titles
(0-85%)
19.56 Titles (30%)
17 Titles
(26%)
17 Titles
(26%)
0-56 Titles
(0-86%)
Pura Belpré Award
Winners (18)
Honors (47)
Totals (65)
Coretta Scott King Award
Winners (18)
12.37 Titles (69%)
14 Titles
(78%)
16 Titles
(89%)
0-18 Titles
(0-100%)
Honors (42)
20.39 Titles (49%)
22 Titles
(52%)
22 Titles
(52%)
1-42 Titles
(2-100%)
Totals (60)
32.76 Titles (55%)
36 Titles
(60%)
36 Titles
(60%)
1-60 Titles
(2-100%)
Randolph Caldecott Award
Winners (9)
8.20 Titles (91%)
9 Titles
(100%)
9 Titles
(100%)
2-9 Titles
(22-100%)
Honors (30)
22.75 Titles (76%)
25 Titles
(83%)
25 Titles
(83%)
8-30 Titles
(27-100%)
Totals (39)
30.95 Titles (79%)
34 Titles
(87%)
37 Titles
(95%)
10-39 Titles (26100%)
Winners (9)
8.22 Titles (91%)
9 Titles
(100%)
9 Titles
(100%)
2-9 Titles
(22-100%)
Honors (29)
22.71 Titles (78%)
25 Titles
(86%)
27 Titles
(93%)
8-29 Titles
(28-100%)
Totals (38)
30.92 Titles (81%)
34 Titles
(89%)
37 Titles
(97%)
10-38 Titles (26100%)
John Newbery Award
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for the Awards across Library Sample
236
This table shows descriptive statistics, including the mean, median, mode, and range of
titles, to compare the prevalence of these five awards in the ten library systems overall. The
full range of the APAAL and the Belpré Award were present in the library collections less
often than the King, Newbery, and Caldecott Awards. None of the libraries had all of the
APAAL and Belpré Award titles, but some of the libraries did have all of the King, Newbery,
and Caldecott Awards based on these figures. The APAAL and Belpré also had the lowest
means for their winners and honors.
Using Award Lists for Selection
In the interviews, the participants revealed their perceptions about award lists and how/if they
used them for collection development and reading promotion. They were specifically asked
about their familiarity with the five awards used in this study; these results are shown in
Table 4.
CommunityLibrarian
Riverburg- Renee
Brookfield- Dixie
Grasston- Virginia
Treetown- Dana
Creekton- Carolina
Lakeland- Kari
Forest City- Frog
Streamland- Leann
Watervale - Mary
Hillville- Libby
Totals (N=10)
Newbery
Caldecott
King
Belpré
APAAL
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8
X
X
X
3
Table 4. Youth Librarian Participants’ Knowledge of Awards used in this Study
As shown in the table, the least known awards were the awards for literature specifically
honoring minority groups including Latino/a Americans and Asian/Pacific Americans. This
finding is mirrored in the presence of these titles in the library collections as shown in Table
3.
Overall, all of the librarians noted award lists as tools they use to help select books for their
collections. Many of the librarians talked about waiting to hear the titles on the award lists
when they come out in January and then matching up what they already had in their
collection to the winning titles. Dana and Dixie talked about how good it felt when they had
already selected the books because they knew the books were good the preceding year
when they were first published. Others were purchased right after the award announcement.
Frog said, “I am most aware of [the awards] when, you know the Newbery and the others
come out, and at that time, I usually order most of them.”
In fact, the Newbery and Caldecott Awards were often mentioned in the interviews as
important pieces of the collection before the award question was asked. Mary reflected that
“…those [Caldecott and Newbery] are the books people are going to possibly hear about,
read about, so I think it’s a real disservice to the public if you don’t have those.” Dixie echoed
Mary’s sentiment:
237
…we want to have the award lists, and especially the most known ones, but I can’t
wait to try this Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature and take a look and see
that too because, you know, you want to have these things, and they are
recommended things, and I love recommended lists…you know if it is a list, I mean
someone is going to come looking for it.
Dana further noted that the award lists offer “librarians a way to do readers advisory
unplugged if necessary. You want a great illustrated book? Go visit the Caldecotts."
Publishing Challenges
It was further evident in the interviews that using ethnic specific award lists are particularly
useful when the ethnicity is outside of one’s own cultural experience. Leann is the sole
selector for her nine-branch library system. She noted that “Because of the background that I
have, sometimes I feel like I am not, that I am making assumptions about what people of a
different culture are going to want that may not be true.” Mary identified ethnic specific
awards like the three used in this study as holding strong implications for selection and
collection development because the books have “that stamp of endorsement on it.” At the
same time, Dixie was mindful that “you still take them with a little grain of salt for the most
part.”
Circulation
Circulation was one of the main reasons identified by the librarian participants for purchasing
books, whether or not the books were recognized by the field as high quality like the
Caldecott and Newbery Award titles or acknowledged by the librarian participants as lower
quality like Dana’s examples of “Dora the Explorer” and “Transformers.” Leann talked about
this with her statement, “the reality is, it’s not always high quality stuff that is really moving
out the doors the fastest.” Dana noted that:
I need to have books that are going to serve the people that come in these doors,
because there is nothing better than being able to pull a book off of the shelf that is
what they want at that instant.
At the same time, the librarian participants identified circulation as a conflicting balance
between what culturally diverse materials will and what will not get circulated. While Dana
wants to have the books for her patrons, she does not feel she can justify buying them
because that particular ethnic demographic is not visiting her library. Virginia echoes this with
regards to the APAAL used in this study:
I have seen that [Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature] but I have not really
ordered that because we don’t have a lot of Asians in our community. I have seen it
in some readings I have done, but I have never had to use it, it would not have been
desired here.
Virginia does not think purchasing the APAAL will serve her community because they are not
represented by the Asian/Pacific American demographic. According to Virginia, the demand
is not there because the demographic is not there.
238
Whilst not a specific question, many of the librarian participants cited the same circulation
order for the book awards used in this study. Of further interest is that this order (Caldecott,
Newbery, King, Belpré) mirrored the mean order featured in Table 3. Carolina explained:
so Newbery and Caldecott are asked for right away. Coretta Scott King Awards, they
always circulate, I find that within that same day they are checked out. I don’t hear
the running footsteps on them as I do for Newbery and Caldecott, but Coretta Scott
King Awards, they are. The Pura Belpré Awards will be checked out, but as soon as
we focus on that, put up a display. We do still give some explanation of that. And
then the Asian/Pacific always seem to be very vibrant books that have great covers
and so whether it is an award winner or not, people are going to pick them up.
Carolina’s quote also indicates the way the books are marketed to patrons encourages
circulation, which then encourages the selectors to purchase the books. Some of the
librarians mentioned that in order to facilitate access to the Caldecott and Newbery Awards,
they are separated out from the general children’s collection and put on their own shelves.
While this may assist patrons in finding these books, it could also prevent them from
checking out other shelves, including those where the King, Belpré, and APAAL titles reside.
Significance
It is clear from the interviews and collection surveys that librarians are using award lists for
selection and collection development. However, as the descriptive statistics included in Table
3 show, different awards are present (i.e., selected) at different frequencies. As is common in
mixed methods studies, the qualitative data collected from the interviews serves to shed light
on the findings from the quantitative data.
A potential explanation for the low mean and familiarity of the APAAL could be its lack of
affiliation with ALA. The APAAL was the only award in this study that is not awarded by
divisions or groups within ALA. Some of the librarian participants pointed at this lack of
affiliation with ALA as a reason it is not as popular. Dana was explicit about this in saying,
“because [the APAAL] is not on the ALA list, I don’t think it gets as much push as it should.”
The Newbery, Caldecott, King, and Belpré Awards hold authority for these selecting
librarians partly due to the awards’ relation to ALA. Further, the librarian participants
identified the ALA awards, specifically the Newbery and Caldecott, as getting more media
attention than other award lists. Renee said that “those are the ones that get recognition in
the news so they’re the ones people will be asking for.” This perpetuates the cycle of
circulation and drives selection decisions as librarians know award titles like the Newbery
and Caldecott will circulate, but may be less convinced about the three ethnic awards.
By focusing on circulation, the librarians are supporting the demand of the patrons who
already use their library, but could potentially be missing other groups. Dana stated this
explicitly:
In my mind, I am trying to address the needs of the people who use our library. I
would love to have an award winning collection of beautiful gorgeous books that won
every illustration award possible, but you know, those are not books that consistently
check out for our patrons.
239
Some of the librarians noted the challenge in encouraging diverse groups in their community
to use the library and check out books, which would in turn, justify more diverse book
purchases. As shown in Table 1, many of the communities represented by these youth
librarians have high populations of Latinos and Asian/Pacific Americans who need literature
with metaphorical mirrors reflecting their socio-cultural identity. Further, as stated in the IASL
2015 conference theme, the library should serve as a window to the world. Thus, patrons
from other ethnic groups need to have access to cultures different from their own but
represented in their local and global communities.
References
Aronson, M. (2001). Slippery slopes and proliferating prizes. The Horn Book Magazine,
77(3), 271-278.
Asian/Pacific American Library Association. (2010). Literature award guidelines:
Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature. Retrieved from
http://www.apalaweb.org/awards/literature-awards/literature-award-guidelines/.
Association for Library Service to Children. (2011a). About the Pura Belpré Award. Retrieved
from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/
bookmedia/belpremedal/belpreabout/index.cfm.
Association for Library Service to Children. (2011b). Caldecott Medal. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/caldecottmedal/
caldecottmedal.cfm.
Association for Library Service to Children. (2011c). Newbery Medal. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/newberymedal/
newberymedal.cfm.
Balderrama Balderrama, S.R. (2006). ¡Celebración!: The tenth anniversary celebration of the
Pura Belpré Award. Children and Libraries, 4(3), 35-37.
Ethnic and Multicultural Information Exchange Round Table. (2011). About the Coretta Scott
King Book Awards: History of the award. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/rts/emiert/cskbookawards/about.cfm.
Garrison, K.L. (2012). “This intense desire to know the world”: Factors impacting the
collection development of multicultural children’s literature. Unpublished
dissertation study, Old Dominion University.
Gillespie, C.S., Powell, J.L., Clements, N.E., & Swearingen, R.A. (1994). A look at the
Newbery Medal books from a multicultural perspective. The Reading Teacher,
48(1), 40-50.
Hateley, E. (2012). And the winner is…?: Thinking about Australian book awards in the
library. The Australian Library Journal, 61(3), 189-199.
240
Institute of Museum and Library Services. (2009). Library Statistics. Retrieved from
http://harvester.census.gov/imls/compare/index.asp.
Kidd, K. (2009). “Not censorship but selection”: Censorship and/as prizing. Children’s
Literature in Education, 40, 197-216.
Pinkney, A.D. (2001). Awards that stand on solid ground. The Horn Book Magazine, 77(5),
535-540.
Rawson, C.H. (2011). Are all lists created equal?: Diversity in award-winning and bestselling
young adult fiction. Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults, 1(3).
Retrieved from, http://www.yalsa.ala.org/jrlya/2011/06/are-all-lists-created-equaldiversity-in-award-winning-and-bestselling-young-adult-fiction/.
Storey, D. (1992, February). Censorship and child-choice state book award programs
(Report No. IR053983). Retrieved from Educational Resources Information Center
database. (ED 345721)
U. S. Census Bureau. (2011). 2010 Census Data. Retrieved from
http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/.
Biographical Note
Kasey Garrison is a lecturer with the Teacher Librarianship Team in the School of
Information Studies at Charles Sturt University’s Wagga Wagga campus in New South
Wales, Australia. Kasey’s primary research areas are focused on diversity within children’s
and young adult literature and reader responses to such titles. She earned a PhD in
Education from Old Dominion University in August 2012. Her dissertation, entitled “’This
intense desire to know the world:’ Factors Influencing the Collection Development of
Multicultural Children’s Literature,” was a mixed methods study focused on diversity within
library collections and their surrounding communities.
241
Appendix A. Interview Guide
Opening Script
 Thank you so much for doing this interview with me; I really appreciate your time!
First, let me explain a little bit about this study. The main purpose is to analyze
factors impact your collection development decisions of multicultural children’s
literature. You have read the study description and have forwarded me your signed
informed consent forms. Do you have any questions about the study or your
participation before we begin?
 I am going to be using pseudonyms for you and your library system in the transcripts
and paper, I already have a pseudonym selected for your library and will replace that
with any references you make throughout the interview, so feel free to use your
system’s real name.
o Have you chosen a pseudonym for yourself?
Library Pseudonym_____________________
Participant’s Selected Pseudonym_______________________
 I am going to be a little repetitive here once I start the recording, but just to be sure,
you agree to be audio recorded? If yes, push record on recorder.
Introductory Questions
 I am interviewing Participant’s Pseudonym_________________________ on
DATE_________, discussing my dissertation study on collection development.
Participant’s Pseudonym__________________________ has signed the informed
consent forms, and again, do you agree to be recorded? Have Participant say
yes so it is recorded.
 Participant’s Pseudonym____________________________, before we begin, do you
have any questions about the study or your participation?
Interview Questions
Professional Organizations
1. What professional library organizations do you belong to?
2. How would you describe your level of activity with these organization(s)?
Possible Probes: VLA, ALA, ALSC; Do you attend the national, state, or regional
conferences? Do you read the organization’s publications?
3. How does your participation in these organizations influence or guide your collection
development activities?
Possible Probes: Do you use them as a reference? Do you have a copy of the
policies?
a. Does your library have its own collection development policy?
User Value
4. What community factors do you take into account when selecting books for your
children’s collection?
a. Do you perform needs assessment of your community? Formal or informal?
i. If so, what factors do you analyze? How does this process work?
ii. What is most challenging about this process?
Selection Sources
5. What vendors does your library use?
242
6. How does your library use your vendor for selection?
a. Do they offer specific services?
Possible Probes: Needs Assessment of community by vendor; Outsourcing
7. Besides your vendors, what other resources do you use when selecting books for
your children’s collection?
Possible Probes: People including patrons, word of mouth
8. What selection journals do you use most frequently for your children’s collection
development?
Award Lists
9. I am going to name five children’s book awards, you will be familiar with some of
them. Please tell me which ones you are and are not familiar with.
Newbery Award Y or N Caldecott Award Y or N Pura Belpré Award Y or N
Coretta Scott King Award Y or N Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature Y or
N
10. Do you use any of these award lists when selecting books for your children’s
collection?
a. Which ones?
b. Why or why not?
c. Do you see these awards being circulated frequently?
i. How does this influencing your selection decisions?
11. How important do you believe award lists are for your collection development?
Challenges in Selection
12. What is most challenging about choosing multicultural literature for your children’s
collection?
Possible Probes: Lack of experience with representing cultures; Lack of quality titles
being published or included in review sources like journals and award lists
13. To what degree do you believe your own cultural background affects your selection
and collection development decisions?
14. How diverse do you think a children’s collection should be?
Possible Probes: Reflective of immediate community; reflective of global community
Other Potential Questions
1. Does your library use the state’s interlibrary loan system?
a. If so, how much is this used by your patrons?
Closing Script
 Thank you so much for doing this interview with me; I really appreciate your time! Is
there anything you would like to add to your responses or clarify? Do you have any
other questions about the study?
 Is the address I sent your form packet to the address the best address to reach you
via postal mail?
o If not, please give me the best address:
 Thanks so much again!!
243
A study of the Bookery’s Library
Assistants programme in Cape Town:
a way forward for the staffing of
school libraries in South Africa and
other developing countries?
Genevieve Hart, PhD
University of the Western Cape, South Africa
ghart@uwc.ac.za
Abstract
The paper reports on a qualitative case study of one high school library. It forms part of
a broader study of the Bookery’s School Library Project which has established 40
libraries in disadvantaged schools in Cape Town. The paper examines what difference
the library is making to the school. The overarching aim is to find what might be learned
from the Bookery’s Library Assistant (LA) programme about the staffing of school
libraries in the South African context, where fewer than 20% of schools have functional
libraries. The case study over two weeks comprised observations, interviews, and a
questionnaire survey of the teachers. The working relations between the Bookery
library assistant and the “teacher-librarian”, a full- time class teacher and the library’s
driving force, are found to be crucial to the library’s sustainability. The library is clearly
playing an important role in the students’ school experience and in meeting the
information needs of teachers in their classroom teaching. But, despite general beliefs
that the library is “a good thing”, only a minority of teachers integrate it into their
teaching. It seems that teachers lack insight into the role of a library and information
literacy in 21st century learning. Other key restrictions on the fulfilment of the library’s
potential are its limited collections and the lack of ICTs. In the words of one participant,
the overall conclusion is that “ It is helping but there are limitations”.
Keywords: South Africa, library staffing, the Bookery , case study
Introduction
The paper reports on a case study of one library that forms part of a larger study of the
Bookery’s School Library Project in Cape Town. The findings that result from my
observations and interviews over the two weeks in the school will I hope provide useful
insights in themselves – and later will add richness to my broader survey of the other
schools. The Bookery claims to be building a model that offers a feasible solution to the huge
backlogs in school library provision in South Africa.
244
The Bookery came into being in 2010,– having evolved from the School Library campaign of
the civic action group Equal Education. It has so far established 40 libraries in disadvantaged
township schools. Seeing the waste in providing libraries that are locked up all day for lack of
staff, the Bookery supports a team of library assistants (LAs). They are mostly unemployed
school leavers who are paid a stipend. The Bookery is confident that they are making a real
difference in their schools. My research aims to explore this claim – with a view to throwing
light on the bigger questions over the possible value of the Bookery project in dealing with
our huge backlogs.
Library advocacy in the South African context and probably that of other developing societies
is especially challenging. Can one argue for libraries over proper sanitation for example?
Nonetheless, a fundamental premise of my research is that advocacy for school libraries is
advocacy for quality education and equal opportunity. As the LIS Transformation Charter
(2014: 47) asserts: “If school libraries are deemed to be important for quality learning, then
the principles of redress and equity enshrined in the South African Constitution and
educational legislation mean that ways must be found to provide them”.
Another premise of my research is that the provision of infrastructure is futile if it is not
accompanied by the provision of staff. My lens in this paper is focused on how the Bookery
library is staffed and how this impacts on its use. As I will argue below, the issue of human
resources is arguably the most pressing question confronting advocates of school libraries in
South Africa.
School LIS in South Africa
Since the mid-1990s I and other commentators have been documenting the dire, and indeed
deteriorating, position of school libraries in South Africa. Our advocacy has argued for the
contribution of libraries to quality schooling (for example Hart & Zinn 2007). Nicholas Spaull,
a prominent researcher in education, estimates that 75% of our schools are dysfunctional.
His study of our educational performance since 1994 highlights how our schooling is
perpetuating historic inequalities:
Most black children continue to receive an education which condemns them to the
underclass of South African society …. This substandard education does not develop their
capabilities or expand their economic opportunities, but instead denies them dignified
employment and undermines their own sense of self-worth. In short, poor school
performance in South Africa reinforces social inequality and leads to a situation where
children inherit the social station of their parents, irrespective of their motivation or ability
(Spaull 2013: 60).
Sadly, one of the indicators of disadvantage across our schools is the non-existence of a
library. Most commentators rely on the figures given in the Department of Basic Education’s
NEIMS report in 2011 which found that about 21% of schools had a library with 7% of those
having “stock” (Table 7). The vast majority of our school librarians are to be found in the
historically advantaged sector – their contracts paid from school fees levied by schools’
governing bodies.
Nonetheless, the past three years have brought some positive developments. The LIS
Transformation Charter, commissioned by our National Council for Library and Information
245
Services (NCLIS), was approved by government early in 2014; it asserts unequivocally that
school libraries are important for quality learning. In November 2014 NCLIS hosted a
gathering of the LIS sector at the National Library of South Africa which placed “national
school library policy” as the second most pressing priority for action. At number four was the
recommendation that courses in school librarianship and information literacy be embedded in
our teacher-training programs (Library and Information Services Charter: an update. 2015).
Secondly, thanks to the campaigning of Equal Education, we now have regulations for norms
and standards for school infrastructure that state that every school must have a library
space. (However, no mention is made of staff or stock). Thirdly, although lacking the teeth of
policy, the release of the National Guidelines for School LIS by the Department of Basic
Education (DBE) in 2012 opens a door through which government might be held to account.
The chapter in the Guidelines on staffing is of particular interest. It begins with the assertion
that a school library should be under the management of an appropriately qualified teacherlibrarian or a "dedicated trained person". Smaller schools should appoint part-time librarians;
and larger schools should have fulltime teacher-librarians as well as fulltime library assistants
(p.19). Such statements look good on paper – but without a funded policy on school library
staffing they are empty rhetoric. Central government dictates teacher-pupil ratios across all
the provinces and any "extra" post has to be paid for from funds generated by schools.
Research problem and questions
The issue of school library posts is indeed a hot potato. There is consensus that teachers’
salaries are taking up too much of our educational budgets at the expense of other needs
(Spaull 2012). Even if school libraries received a huge injection of funds from Treasury as
public libraries did (Department of Arts & Culture 2012), where would the staff come from?
School library training has largely disappeared from our university library schools. Moreover,
an alarmingly high proportion of our existing school librarians are at retirement age
(Reynolds 2008: 15).
My interest in the Bookery project comes from its recognition that a library is not merely a
room or collection of materials. Its distinguishing feature is its Library Assistant program, in
which unemployed school leavers are employed to manage the Bookery libraries. My
research explores what we might learn about the staffing of school libraries in the South
African context by investigating the strengths and weaknesses of the Bookery’s LA program.
The Bookery is confident that their LAs are making a difference in their schools. Is this
indeed so?
The research poses such questions as:
 What is the status of the LAs assistants in their schools?
 What are their functions and responsibilities?
 What involvement do the assistants have in the learning programs of their schools?
 How are they regarded by the teachers?
 What support do they have – inside and outside their schools?
 How do the assistants perceive their work and their futures?
The data gathering to throw light on these questions has two phases or components:
246


Questionnaire surveys of and interviews with the LAs – conducted since late 2013.
So far 48 respondents are included.
A qualitative case study of the workings of one of the longest-established libraries.
Here the lens widens to include interviews with the principal and key informants and a
questionnaire survey of the teachers.
The focus of this paper is this second component.
Case study at NSS High School Khayelitsha (pseudonym)
I hope that the case study might provide insights which are applicable to the larger group of
libraries; and, I hope as well that it might stand alone. There might be doubt about the value
of a small-scale case study of one library in terms of its generalizability to the larger
population of Bookery sites. Many qualitative researchers would dismiss such concerns. As
Stake puts it in one of the standard texts on case study research:
The real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular
case and come to know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from others but what it is,
what it does. There is emphasis on uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that
the case is different from, but the first emphasis is on understanding the case itself (1995: 8).
In his article Five misunderstandings about case study research, Flyvbjerg shows how
indeed a single case throws light on the larger group. He points out that knowledge is built
from many cases:
Context-dependent knowledge and experience are at the very heart of expert activity. Such
knowledge and expertise also lie at the center of the case study as a research and teaching
method … (2006: 222).
To explore the above questions, I spent two weeks in the NSS library towards the end of the
first quarter of 2015. I deemed this to be a good time since learners were busy completing
assessment tasks as laid down by CAPS, South Africa’s national curriculum; and I assumed
the library would be in heavy use.
In Flyvbjerg’s terms the school could be regarded as a “good” site (2006: 230) as it differs
from most of the Bookery schools in that it has a qualified school librarian on its staff. She is
however a full-time teacher and a Head of Department. Flyvberg claims that an atypical
case often opens up the deeper causes behind a given problem (p. 229). Another reason for
the choice is that it is one of the early Bookery libraries and so should be well embedded in
the school. The school was built in the 1980s with a library room but, in common with most of
the so-called “black” schools in the apartheid era, its library never functioned properly.
Photos in 2010 show it to be in shambles. At the start of its School Library campaign in 2011
Equal Education revived it and provided a volunteer assistant. It was then taken over by the
Bookery when Equal Education decided that it could no longer sustain its libraries.
NSS School is one of the 12 schools with Bookery libraries in Khayelitsha, a densely
populated township established in 1983 by the apartheid government as a relocation point for
African residents of the city (South African History Online n.d.). The area immediately
surrounding the school is pleasant with two parks and solid brick houses. But I was told by a
247
key informant that the learners in NSS School are largely from the informal settlements
further away.
The library is a stand-alone single storey building. I was to learn the significance of this fact
on hearing how thieves broke in through the roof last year and stole four PCs . The library is
often used as a meeting place - to the chagrin of the library staff whom I heard complain that
the principal likes to use it as a “showpiece”. And indeed it was shut for a whole day in the
first week of my stay for a meeting of the surrounding principals.
The library has a Bookery Library assistant (LA), Lindi Maropa (a pseudonym), who has been
working in it since 2013 with a stipend from the Bookery. The driving force behind the library
is Thandi Sibandla (pseudonym), who trained as a school librarian at the University of the
Western Cape in 2010, one of 120 teachers whose training was funded by the provincial
Western Cape Education Department (WCED) in the school improvement initiative QIDS-up.
The fundamental failure of the QIDS-up project is that, despite the provincial funding, there
were no librarian posts for the graduates (Hart 2012; Hart 2013). They are almost all still
today full-time classroom teachers.
Data-gathering methodologies
 My data in the course of the two weeks came from a variety of sources:
 Field diary notes and photographs
 An interview with the principal - international research has highlighted the importance
of school principals to the success of school libraries (for example Henri, Hay &
Oberg 2002)
 Interviews with the computer studies teacher whom I assumed to be an important
role-player and with Mr Isaacs (pseudonym), a senior teacher, who is described by
the library staff as a key supporter
 A series of interviews with Lindi Maropa, the LA, and Thandi Sibandla, the teacher–
librarian
 A questionnaire survey of the teachers.
Summary & analysis of findings
This section summarizes the data from each component – analyzing the data and
triangulating the different sets of data where useful. All names are pseudonyms to protect
participants’ anonymity.
Observations: Day 1 – emerging themes
Space constraints make it impossible to describe all the days I spent in the school. The
solution to the space restraints is to follow the advice of an expert on case study, Robert
Stake, in making use of the device of vignettes. Vignettes are, according to Stake, “briefly
described episodes to illustrate key aspects of the case” (1995: 128). The vignette of the first
morning that follows depicts experiences on the first morning.
My first morning
248
My first morning
9.00
I make my way to the library where I meet up with Lindi the LA. We sit together for an
introductory conversation. She talks of studying to be a teacher. But she is the sole bread–
winner in her family and, as she puts it, “My family needs me not to be a student”. Her vision
of a library is revealed when she compares NSS with her own high school library which she
describes as “just a place to study, not functional". NSS is better she says as “It’s more
welcoming and the books are more relevant. It’s a resource centre rather than a place to
study”.
She suddenly breaks off to say: “Things are messed up. Some teachers booked the library
for Life Orientation and Arts & Culture but now the timetable is all wrong. Ms Sibandla will
visit at break to let me know the changes”.
9.30
Thandi comes in. She tells me that it is her one free period for the day. I ask her how she
copes with so little time in the library.
Ncwdi:. I feel stifled. I want to grow.
GH: If you were in the library more – would that be growing for you?
Thandi: YES! I want to own it. I want to become part of the library. I feel an outsider.
9.50
A Maths teacher, new to the school, comes in. Thandi tells her about Lindi and the block loan
services of EDULIS, WCED’s teachers’ library. She also tells her about “the trolley”, a
secure container on wheels box with TV and CD player that is kept in Thandi’s classroom.
She tells later me that she “keeps the trolley to herself” as it’s a “way to rope in teachers”. As
the teacher leaves, Thandi tells her: “If I’m not in the library I’m in my classroom”.
Another teacher comes in asking if she can bring her Life Orientation (LO) class in the next
period to work on careers. Thandi laughs and says: “I love you to bits but you could have told
us!” I wonder about the contradiction here – Lindi told me earlier that she had been expecting
a LO class. Thandi and Lindi and the teacher go to the careers shelves. The teacher says “I
don’t know the topics”. Thandi takes charge of the conversation - and they decide that the
learners will be grouped according to their career interests. Lindi is quiet but is involved –
then she moves away to the library shelves to gather books to put out on the tables. But I jot
down a question in my field notes: “What if it had not been Thandi’s free period and she had
not been here?"
The teacher leaves and I continue the conversation with Thandi. I pick up her earlier
statement that she is an “outsider”. She talks of her allies in the staffroom, for example Mr
Isaacs, who has the “attention” of the principal. She says: “I try to work hand in hand with
him. If I take something to him the fact that he’s a guy makes teachers learn from him. He is
my Ace card - he’s an HOD for CAT [Computer Applications Technology] and he feels guilty
about the computers”. She then describes how in the refurbishment of the computer lab last
year she asked for at least four of the old PCs for the library. Apparently Mr Isaacs’s “guilt”
comes from his unfulfilled promise some months ago to set some of the old PCs up in the
library.
Another teacher comes in – to borrow the newspaper. He tells me that libraries are important
249
My first morning
to preserve culture. Thandi reminds him of the reading club proposed by a Xhosa specialist
at EDULIS; she asks him why no one from the Xhosa department attended her presentation
the week before. When he has left Thandi proclaims: ““He theoretically says all the right
things but then he disappears - and never comes near the library”.
The siren goes for the 3rd period. Thandi hands her classroom keys to a passing pupil asking
her to open the room.
10.06
The Grade 11 LO class comes in to gather information on possible careers. They have been
provided in class with questions. Their teacher tells them “Lindi will help you find information”.
Lindi has already placed some materials on the tables but there are not enough for the large
class. Lindi moves from group to group guiding them to answer the questions. Her comment
afterwards is: “They all want to ask ‘When can I earn R60, 000!’”
Already by 10.30 on the first day, themes were emerging to be followed up in interviews,
such as:
 The working relationship of Lindi and Thandi
 Thandi’s frustrations as a fulltime teacher
 Power issues: as shown in Thandi’s comments on her reliance on Mr Isaacs.as “a
guy”
 The vision of the library as, in Lindi’s words, a “learning resources centre rather than
a place to study”
 The lack of ICTs.
The questions around ICTs and Internet access in the library clearly had to be explored in
the next few days. They made up a large part of my interview with the CAT (Computer
Applications Technology) teacher. He runs the only functional computer lab in the school,
which is restricted to learners taking CAT as a school subject. There are another two labs:
one is used in the afternoons for the WCED’s Telematics broadcasts to the Grade 12
learners; and the other is the old Khanya lab, now disused and with its PCs piled up in a
storeroom. WCED’s Khanya project, from 2002 until 2012, was tasked with installing ICT
infrastructure in every school in the Western Cape. Given the pressing need to redress
historical disparities, the empty Khanya lab throws doubt on the claims from its director in
2011 that it is “the most successful project of its kind in South Africa” (Marnewick 2011). It
also throws into relief Thandi and Lindi’s constant complaints over the lack of ICTs in the
library.
The need for Internet access was highlighted in an incident in the first week of the case
study, which uncovered the limitations of the library’s collection and also Lindi’s lack of power
in the school’s hierarchies. A Grade 9 Arts and Culture class was in the library with their
teacher to work on their Visual Arts formal assessment task, in which they had to “research a
South African artist". The textbook told learners to choose a South African artist who
interested them. Lindi put out one book on each table from a boxed set of seven books, each
on one artist. There was thus no possibility of browsing and choosing – and six children were
extracting information from one book. Seeing this and that one table had no book, Lindi
decided to go across to the administrative block which has Internet access to search for
material. However, she came back empty-handed – having not been allowed access by one
250
of the secretaries. Some days later, I chanced upon one of the outcomes of the Visual Arts
project – a poster. At first sight it looked rather impressive – but a closer look revealed that
the pages provided in the pouch were merely photocopies from one of the library books with
no acknowledgement of the source. The Visual Arts assignment gave rise to some
questions, for example:
 How do teachers assess this kind of work?
 How aware are they of the demands of this kind of assignment?
 What do they think the library is for?
Much of the focus of the case study was on the teachers’ use of the library and their beliefs
about its role. I soon realized that the first morning, when three teachers had come into the
library by 10.30, was misleading. In the first week of the study the library was booked by two
teachers for two of their classes to work on assessment tasks and by one (the principal who
is also a Xhosa teacher) for a reading session. As will be shown in a later section, the
underuse of the library by the teachers is a strong thread in my interviews with Lindi and
Thandi.
Questionnaire survey of teachers
The questionnaire was a convenient tool to explore the attitudes of teachers to the library.
Only 16 of the school’s 35 teachers chose to complete the questionnaire – 13 of them
claiming to have supported the revival of the library in 2010. Bias in favor of the library in the
analysis of the questionnaires is thus likely. Statistical analysis would be inappropriate in
dealing with such small numbers – so the discussion below merely summarizes the
responses.
The average time at the school is 15 years. On being asked why they supported the revival
of the library in 2010, several refer to the need to improve the reading culture of the school
and several talk of access to resources. The issue of resources is returned to frequently in
answers to later questions. Three make the point that their learners have no other resources
– with one saying “Most of our learners are from disadvantaged communities (informal
settlements), our library is the best place for them to do their school work”. The clear concern
over low literacy is evident in the finding in the next question where almost unanimously all
rate their learners’ literacy abilities as “weak”.
The figure below summarizes the responses to a series of generalized declarations on the
value of school libraries. It reveals almost unanimous positive views.
251
Figure 1: What are school libraries for?
Opinions are more divided when asked in the next question if the library in their school is
fulfilling its full potential – with seven saying yes and nine no. Those who answer negatively
give a range of suggestions on how it might improve as follows:
 More resources - one adding they should be more up to date
 Access to the Internet
 Two say a full-time qualified librarian is needed.
The comments from two respondents on the under-use of the library are significant. One
asserts that if teachers used it more it would reach its potential; and the other reveals that
Thandi Sibandla “keeps complaining to the teachers that they don’t utilise the library”.
Figure 2 summarises the responses to a series of statements about the NSS School library probing their use of specifically this library.
Figure 2: Use of NSS School library
Despite their claims of the value of the library to their teaching, Figure 3 confirms my
observations on the low use in the teaching day.
252
Figure 3: How many times have you brought a class to the library this year?
There are three categories of responses to the follow-up question on what students learn in
the library as opposed to the classroom:



The use of and behavior in a library
Independence – in finding information and reading and studying
Extending classroom knowledge for new insights.
The table that follows shows, perhaps surprisingly that, although the teachers might not be
bringing their classes to the library, they themselves depend on it for their own information
seeking.
Table 1: Respondents’ sources for their professional information needs &
teaching
Q12.8 World Wide Web (Internet) at public library
Q12.5 Public library
1
Q12.7 World Wide Web (Internet) at school
Q12.6 World Wide Web (Internet) at home
6
Q12.3 EDULIS (WCED’s teachers’ library)
Curriculum materials from the Education
Q12.2 Department(s)
Q12.1 Textbooks
11
Q12.4 Mayisile school library
16
4
10
12
15
Interviews
This section extracts a few of the themes in the interviews with three central role-players: the
LA, the teacher-librarian and the principal. The underuse of the library by teachers and the
standing of the library in the school are two strong themes running through the interviews
with the LA and teacher-librarian. Other themes are:
 The complex relationships inside the library
253



The sustainability of the library
The impact of the library on students’ academic performance
The ambiguities of the LA job.
In their separate interviews Thandi and Lindi agree that the underuse by teachers is their
biggest challenge. Echoing the finding of the questionnaire survey (Figure 1), Thandi
acknowledges that teachers do not consult enough with the library:
“I wish more teachers would include the library in their planning: If we can get some support
from teachers …. Like working together, you know, the planning and so forth. That for me
would work. And not only that . I think.. Giving credit, not only to people … but
acknowledging the library, and what it can do.”.
Thandi refers to the prevailing teaching styles – in which the library is something “extra”:
“Not everybody sees the value because they are too busy in the classroom. For them library
is an extra thing. Whereas in reality you should be incorporating it into learning. I don’t know,
it’s as if, … sometimes one gets the feeling that it’s two schools in one. It’s like the library
does its own thing and then the school functions - whereas we should actually work together.
For some reason there’s something missing.”
Linda provides another perspective in the extract below. To her the problem might lie in
staffroom politics. Some teachers see Lindi and the library as belonging to Thandi and so
keep away:
“Because I am always with her [Thandi], I work with her, then maybe some teachers don’t
like her. So they don’t like the idea of the library because she takes ownership of it, she is
very protective of the library. She is very territorial.”
Thandi is certainly aware of staffroom politics. In her interview she talks of how she uses her
allies in the staffroom as “leverage” “to go and influence the other guys”.
Thandi and Lindi’s working relationship surfaces in Thandi’s interview when I ask for her
opinion on whether the Bookery’s LA programme offers a possible solution for the staffing of
South African school libraries. She says it does as Lindi can “keep the library open during
the day”:
“I think it does in a way, Gen. … there are times, for instance in the morning, I should be in
the library, and I’m thinking “If I’m not there, what happens?” Because she [Lindi] is there to
ensure that the library is open during the day. Whereas, if it was just me and the kids [the
library monitors], obviously there will be days when I’m able to, and days when I’m unable to.
So again, even if I’m not there, like yesterday afternoon for instance … I don’t have to worry
who manages the library, … so to me it does work to my advantage.”
. And later on she expresses confidence in Lindi’s capacity to teach:
“But in a way, I’m kind of glad that she’s kind of thrown in the deep end because one thing
she has shown me is that she is not sinking. Instead she is swimming …if there is a class in
here - information skills or whatever it is.”
However, later she seems dismayed at my comment that many Bookery LAs do not have a
teacher-librarian to work with and suggests that Lindi can only “swim” because of her:
254
“If I wasn’t there would she [Lindi]’ be able to swim?
You mean that guys are on their own without anyone. Huh! That’s torture.”
Thinking of an incident earlier in the week when a male library monitor upset Lindi, I ask
about delineation of responsibilities.
G Hart Are there issues in terms of you working together in terms of who does what?
Thandi No.
GH
Because there was that incident the other day with Unathi feeling that the monitors
were not listening to her.
Thandi No, I think kids in high school will always be… Some of them tend to be emotional
GH
Who do they report to? You or Lindi?
Thandi Both of us are the bosses if you like
GH
Don’t they play one off against the other?
Thandi Not necessarily , well they try to but then fortunately it doesn’t work like that. But for
instance I think I just , the incident that you talk about, I wasn’t there when it
happened. But then I tried to get both sides of the story but she [Lindi] was very
upset about the whole thing you know and then the kids were also upset but for me
now, I’ve got to try and mend those fences.
My main interest in speaking with the principal was to find out how he values the library and
sees its future, specifically with regard to its staffing. He praises Thandi Sibandla’s “tireless
work” in establishing the library but is quick to add “with our support of course”. He adds: “I
persuaded her to study because she is so passionate about library issues”. Later on we
return to Thandi’s position as a fulltime teacher.
G
Hart .
P
Your situation is different from the other Bookery schools, most of them, because
you do have [Thandi Sibandla] and [Lindi Maropa], who is here on a stipend from
the Bookery. Most of the other schools don’t have a qualified librarian, but Ms
Sibandla is, as you know, a full time English teacher, and an HOD. She’s very
involved in all sorts of things like the timetabling and the telematics in the afternoon.
Do you think that’s sustainable? Do you think that that situation can last forever?
Because she is actually doing, what many people would say, is two full time jobs.
Ja, it is not completely sustainable. It is not completely sustainable, I’m concerned
that she is going to leave us, for the personal growth. … So my main worry.. We
need to have someone whom we should groom . But besides that someone can
work with her because she’s overloaded. She has got too much work. She works
over weekends, she works afternoons and all that - but what is happy is that I am
pleased with her. She’s got a group of learners [ library monitors] that she is working
with. She has groomed those learners so even if she is not there they can fill the
gap.
Despite this seeming recognition of Thandi’s untenable position, he admits that he would be
reluctant to let her drop her English teaching if librarian posts were created, " Because really
she’s doing very well in both.”
255
Noting that he refers to the student monitors but not to the LA, I ask what he would do if the
Bookery withdrew the stipend. (The Bookery schools are expected to take over responsibility
for the LAs after three years). As the following extract shows, he is perplexed by my question
but eventually suggests he would find a volunteer or rely on student monitors – again using
the phrase “fill the gap”:
“Well, well, well, well – I’ll I’ll I’ll … persuade the governing body … sure the governing body
has got a muscle of power to tell the parents in terms of saying can’t we donate something
for this particular person. Or or …whereas I know in the community round here there are
unemployed. We once had a similar problem [when Equal Education withdrew its support]
…but certain kids in the school they managed to fill the gap. It’s part of empowerment when
a child is involved.”
In their separate interviews both Thando and Lindi agree on what they like best – seeing the
library full of learners. Lindi describes a “good” day as one when she cannot get away at her
usual time of 4.00:
“The library was very full. Lots of learners came and asked for books. There was a lot of
issuing of fiction books like the English novels and the Xhosa novels. And I actually leave at
five o’clock. So, that would be a good day. Like there was a lot of activities.”
She says this might happen three times a week.
Lindi talks with pride of the reading intervention she conducted with 30 Grade 9s in 2014 at
the end of which she says they were reading all the FundZa books. All three interviewees are
confident that the library’s programs have contributed to the improvement in recent years in
matric results and in the DBE’s Annual National Assessments for languages and maths. The
principal was at pains to show me the congratulatory letter from the WCED.
Throughout the study Lindi was busy planning a program for Human Rights Day 21 March.
She was excited to have found a veteran of the 1953 Langa pass law protests to speak.
However, her excitement was dashed when the principal vetoed her invitation at the last
minute. She sent me an SMS “It’s very bad!” Having seen the hours that Lindi spends alone,
it was no surprise to learn from her that the worst part of her job is its isolation. She told me:
“It’s quite lonely. It’s almost like you’re a bit of an outsider.” The evident ambiguity around her
position supports her feeling. She is about the only person apparently who is not expected to
sign in every day. I have already mentioned the hurtful incident when a monitor told her she
did not belong – she should “go away”. Mr Isaacs, supposedly a library ally, was surprised to
hear from me that she is not a volunteer. Both she and Thandi told me that the Bookery
should be clearer on her status:
“I would like them [the Bookery] to be more visible first of all.
GH: Because?
“Like, actually, them having a relationship with the principal. Like if I know that I have the
Bookery behind me, it would actually make things easier.” (Lindi)
“I think the Bookery needs to explain, because you know how it is, people get they can make
their own conclusion at the end of the day if nobody says anything. So I think the Bookery
has to tell them [the school] “You know what? This person does A, B, C.” Then everything is
clear. Because sometimes we don’t know. I don’t think they [the school] give her the credit
she should be given at the end of the day because no one actually came up and said “Hey
guys this is so and so”.” (Thandi)
256
Conclusions
Earlier, I expressed the hope that, in uncovering the strengths and weaknesses of the NSS
library, the case study might give insights into the potential of library assistant programmes to
fill the gaps in school library provision in South Africa. This paper has just scratched the
surface of the mounds of data I accumulated but I hope it has achieved this goal.
The shortcomings are evident, for example:
 The low use by teachers with their classes raises questions over how the school is
developing the information skills required of today's school leavers
 The lack of ICTs hampers its mission to teach these information skills
 The teacher-librarian’s position is untenable. She says that, if she could drop two of her
classes, she would be able to establish better relations with teachers – with the
assistance of the LA to manage the library
 The surprising vagueness over the status of the LA affects her morale and probably
contributes to the low use of the library by teachers.
However, despite the problems, the overall finding has to be that the library is indeed making
a difference in the lives of the learners and the school would suffer if there was no assistant
to keep the library open throughout the school day and afterwards. Thus:
 It is crammed with learners every lunch time and afternoon
 It is a lively reading center and there is consensus that its reading programs have made a
difference to reading skills
 The principal is convinced that the school’s improved academic performance might be
attributed to the revival of the library
 It is the teachers’ number one resource for their professional information needs.
However, the study highlights the importance of the committed teacher-librarian to support
the LA. The larger study might throw light on the significance of Thandi’s librarian
qualification. Lindi Maropa and Thandi Sibandla’s shared vision and commitment are clear –
despite the challenges from their rather inhospitable environment. The findings might be
summed up in the judgement of one of the teachers:
“It is helping but it has a lot of limitations.”
References
Department of Arts & Culture. ( 2012). Community libraries conditional grant. Pretoria:
National Library of South Africa.
Department of Basic Education. (2011). NEIMS (National Education Infrastructure
Management System) reports May 2011. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.
Retrieved from
http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=hHaBCAerGXc%3D&tabid=
358&mid=180.
Department of Basic Education. (2012). National Guidelines for School Library and
Information Services. Pretoria: DBE.
Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case study research. Qualitative Inquiry,
12 (2), 219-245.
257
Hart G. (2012). Teacher-librarians leading change: some stories from the margins. School
Libraries Worldwide, 18 (2), 51-60.
Hart, G. (2013). How school libraries improve literacy: some evidence from the trenches.
Mousaion, 30 (2), 47-60.
Hart, G. & Zinn, S. (2007). The conundrum of school libraries in South Africa. In T.
Bothma, P. Underwood & P. Ngulube. (Eds). Libraries for the future: progress and
development of South African libraries (pp.89-107). Pretoria: LIASA.
Henri, J, Hay, L & Oberg, D. (2002). The school library-principal relationship: guidelines for
research and practice. The Hague: IFLA.
Library and Information Services Charter: an update. (2015). LIASA-in touch, 16(1), 4.
Marnewick, A. (2011, September 28). A look at Khanya and ICT in schools with Kobus van
Wyk. Teacher’s Monthly. Retrieved from http://www.teachersmonthly.com/a-lookat-khanya-and-ict-in-schools-with-kobus-van-wyk/
Reynolds, M. (2008). Capacity building for the school library of the future. Background paper
to a workshop at the ISASA School Librarians Conference,Hilton College, April
2008. Retrieved from mreynolds@stithian.com.
South African History Online. (nd). Khayelitsha township. Retrieved from
http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/khayelitsha-township.
Spaull, N. (2013). South Africa’s education crisis: The quality of education in South Africa
1994-2011 . Report commissioned by CDE. Johannesburg: Centre for
Development & Enterprise. Retrieved from http://www.section27.org.za/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/Spaull-2013-CDE-report-South-Africas-EducationCrisis.pdf
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Biographical note
Dr Genevieve Hart is Extraordinary Associate Professor in the Department of Library and
Information Science at the University of the Western Cape. Before arriving at UWC in 1995,
she had many years’ experience as a high-school teacher and then librarian in academic,
research, public and school libraries. She is a National Research Foundation rated
researcher, with her research interests including: information literacy and literacy education
in schools and libraries; the role of libraries in social inclusion; and LIS human resources
issues.
Enabling Teacher Librarian
Leadership for Technology Integration
258
Melissa P. Johnston
Assistant Professor
University of Alabama
School of Library & Information Studies
Tuscaloosa, AL USA
mpjohnston@slis.ua.edu
Abstract
The highly technological environment of 21st century schools has significantly redefined
the role of the teacher librarian by presenting the opportunity to assume leadership
roles through technology integration. The teacher librarian must evolve as a leader in
order to address the needs of today’s learners and ensure that they are equipped with
the knowledge and skills they need to use technology as an important tool for learning.
This research, based on distributed leadership theory investigates practices of teacher
librarians in order to identify what is enabling some to thrive as technology integration
leaders and what is hindering others. This paper presents the findings from the
replication research identifying what is enabling some teacher librarians to thrive as
technology integration leaders and serve as a foundation on which to build researchbased strategies to support practicing teacher librarians in understanding how to enact
this vital role and on how to better prepare future teacher librarians for a leadership role
in the integration of technology.
Keywords: teacher librarianship, leadership, technology integration
Introduction
The ubiquitous presence of technology and digital resources has resulted in major changes
in education in the 21st century, leaving schools searching for ways to deal with and
integrate technology for learning. This presents an important opportunity for teacher
librarians as they themselves seek to establish their place in these efforts and maintain
relevancy in the digital age. Teacher librarians are in a unique position to make meaningful
contributions to the integration of technology for teaching and learning due to their
knowledge of pedagogical principles and curriculum paired with their technology and
information expertise (Johnston, 2012). As technology and digital resources have evolved to
an essential component of teaching and learning, teacher librarians have been afforded the
opportunity to be responsible for the management and integration of technology as many
U.S. schools are utilizing the expertise of the teacher librarian as a key element in the
transition to digital learning to aid in the effective integration of technology to improve student
outcomes (Wolf, Jones, & Gilbert, 2014).
This research is a replication of previous research conducted in 2011 that examined the
enablers and barriers teacher librarians experience enacting a leadership role in technology
integration. The original research focused on a purposive sample of those teacher librarians
in the United States who have obtained National Board certification. The present research
was conducted with a random nation-wide sample of teacher librarians across the United
States.
259
Research Purpose
As technology permeates teaching and learning, teacher librarians are continually directed to
assume a leadership role in integrating technology in schools from professional standards
and guidelines, as well as from theorists and researchers in this area (e.g., Everhart &
Dresang, 2006; Everhart, Mardis, & Johnston, 2011; Hanson-Baldauf & Hughes-Hassell,
2009; Shannon, 2002), yet there is limited research and direction on how to enact this role in
practice. The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to
teacher librarians who are uncertain how to and ill-prepared to enact this vital role. The
specific purpose of this research was to identify what is enabling some teacher librarians to
thrive in the role of technology integration leader, as well as the barriers they face, to inform
practice and further the understanding needed to enact this role successfully.
The goal of this research was to serve as a foundation on which to build research-based
strategies to support practicing teacher librarians who seek to overcome barriers, and to
distinguish those factors that enable this vital role to be achieved in practice and to inform
teacher librarian preparation programs in preparing future teacher librarians for a leadership
role in the integration of technology. Additionally, this research is a replication of previous
research, but with a larger random sample of teacher librarians from across the United
States and serves not only to lend validity to the findings, but also strengthen the application
of the theoretical framework and conceptual framework to teacher librarian research. This
report of the findings will focus on the enabling factors from a nationwide survey of teacher
librarians from across the United States.
Defining Technology Integration
In the world of education there is much terminology with multiple definitions, technology
integration being among these. For this research technology integration is defined as
Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology
as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting.
Technology enables students to learn in ways not previously possible. Effective
integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology
tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the
information, and present it professionally. The technology should become an integral
part of how the classroom functions — as accessible as all other classroom tools.
The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology. (ISTE,
2000, p. 6)
The key to technology integration in education is that technology is seamlessly blended to
enhance the learning experience and develop learners’ thinking skills, not as an add-on or
afterthought (Hew & Brush, 2007). “Leveraging technology can help…improve learning and
assessment, technology can help…build the capacity of educators by enabling a shift to a
model of connected teaching” (Office of Educational Technology, 2010, p. 39). The National
Educational Technology Plan set out three categories that define technology integration by
teachers: “powerful use of innovative digital teaching objects; curriculum planning and
assessment to ensure consistency and differentiation; a new digital and teaching learning
environment.” Access to technology and digital resources for teaching and learning has
become paramount, with the school library and the teacher librarian becoming key
components in providing access to these resources, yet teacher librarians also have
260
expertise to offer in regards to effectively integrating technology (Everhart et al., 2012;
Johnston, 2011; Mardis, ElBasri, Norton, & Newsum, 2012).
Why Technology Integration?
Integration of technology in schools has changed the world of education and also the way
teachers instruct and that students learn. Technology provides ways to enhance instruction,
personalize it, make it relevant for students, and therefore engage them in the learning
process. Progress is also being made in the research that reinforces the benefits of
effectively integrating technology and the link to student achievement, which has led to an
increasing number of educators realizing the potential that technology has in their efforts to
improve student achievement (e.g. Darling-Hammond, Zielezinski, Goldman, 2014; Project
Tomorrow, 2014; Duffey & Fox, 2012). There are also many federal and state policies that
encourage greater use of instructional technology, coining the term “digital learning” (e.g.
Alliance for Excellent Education, 2011; Office of Educational Technology, 2010; U.S.
Department of Education, 2013). The Alliance for Excellent Education defines digital learning
as “any instructional practice that is effectively using technology to strengthen the student
learning experience.” Digital learning encompasses a broad array of tools and practices,
including online courses, applications of technology in the classroom, computer-based
assessment, and adaptive software for students with special needs (Alliance for Excellent
Education, 2012).
Why the Teacher Librarian?
Since Information Power was released in 1998 (ALA), teacher librarians in the United States
have been tasked as the person responsible for technologies in the school. In 2009, when
Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL, 2009) was
released, the belief that teacher librarians should act as leaders within their school
communities to ensure that learners are equipped with the skills and knowledge they need to
succeed and participate in the technological society of the 21st century was emphasized.
Teacher librarians are charged, “to play a leading role in weaving such skills throughout the
curriculum so that all members of the school community are effective users of ideas and
information” (AASL, 2009, p. 46). It is this “weaving” or the integration of technology into the
curricular areas where teacher librarians, based on their knowledge of pedagogical principles
and school curriculum, technology expertise, and collaborative experience, can serve as
leaders and valuable assets to their schools (Johnston, 2012).
Increasingly learning resources and tools are digital, and while the number of teachers using
these resources in their classroom is increasing, there are still issues with effectively
integrating and appropriately utilizing them to present new opportunities for student learning
(Common Sense Media, 2013; digedu, 2014; Mardis et al., 2012; Project Tomorrow 2012).
Teachers are still struggling in locating digital resources, with a majority of teachers agreeing
that it is difficult to find the digital resources they need and research shows that educators
are regularly frustrated when seeking digital resources to support the needs of a variety of
students (Common Sense Media, 2013; Mardis et al., 2012). Further, educators’ confidence
in locating and selecting digital resources has been shown to influence their future use of
these resources for instruction, yet teachers lack adequate information skills to locate and
manage educational resources and continue to express being overwhelmed by the amount
of digital resources when searching for resources to support their instruction (Albertson &
Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen, 2012; Duke & Ward, 2009;
261
Mardis et al., 2012). It is this lack of information skills and frustration that continue to lead to
the underutilization of digital resources by educators even though they are aware of the
importance and usefulness demonstrating that teachers are in need of professional
development instruction for locating and identifying digital content, to enhance student
learning (Albertson & Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen,
2012; digedu, 2014; Mardis, 2009; Project Tomorrow, 2014).
The research supports the assertion that teacher librarians must embrace their leadership
role in technology integration, identifying two roles of the teacher librarian that impact student
achievement: leader and technology facilitator (Scholastic, 2008). Classroom teachers need
assistance in harnessing the new technology and digital tools for both teaching and learning
and teacher librarians can lead the efforts to integrate digital resources and technologies
effectively into all disciplines across the curriculum and at every grade level (Albertson &
Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen, 2012; Duke & Ward, 2009;
Johnston, 2012; Mardis et al., 2012). Teacher librarians can lead through modeling and
partnering with teachers to offer expertise on the integration of emergent technology and
digital resources, through keeping teachers abreast on new technologies, facilitate teachers’
efforts to utilize technology through ongoing professional development opportunities that help
them learn how to use new technologies, the instructional strategies needed to integrate
technology into their teaching, including practical applications (AASL, 2009; Branch-Mueller
& de Groot, 2011; Ertmer, 2005; Everhart et al., 2010; Johnston, 2011).
Students also need support in digital learning, with the AASL Standards asserting that with
the changing information landscape of the 21st century that includes interactive technologies
and a participatory culture, teacher librarians must evolve as leaders to address the needs of
this new generation of learners. As educators it is the responsibility of teacher librarians to
prepare students for their future and to “develop information skills that will enable them to
use technology as an important tool for learning, both now and in the future” (AASL, 2007, p.
2). Students need to be taught the skills they need to create, invent, design, and expand their
world by actively participating in the digital culture (Todd, 2008). Addressing these needs
requires a shift in thought about instructional practice and provides an opportunity for teacher
librarians to lead by applying their knowledge of learners, curriculum, and technology to
enact changes in the way teachers utilize technology to connect to their students to create
engaging and relevant learning experiences for students (AASL, 2009). These 21st century
learners and the new literacies that they require present the opportunity for teacher librarians
to assume leadership roles within their schools through modeling and teaching integrating
technology (Hanson-Baldauf & Hughes-Hassell, 2009; Johnston, 2011).
Theoretical Framework: Distributed Leadership Theory
This research assumes that teacher librarians operate as teacher leaders within a school and
the leadership practices of teacher librarians are essentially those of teacher leaders.
Teacher leaders are those teachers that assume informal and formal leadership
responsibilities outside the classroom, create a participatory environment where all learn
from each other, and engage with others in working together for student learning
(Katzenmeyer & Moller 2009; Spillane 2006). Therefore this research is based on the
educational leadership theory of distributed leadership, which asserts that leadership is about
more than just people in formal leadership positions and attempts to acknowledge all
contributors, formal or informal, who participate in leadership practice (Spillane 2006). The
262
most contemporary interpretation of distributed-leadership theory from Spillane defined
leadership as ―the activities tied to the core work of the organization that are designated by
organizational members to influence the motivation, knowledge, affect, or practices of other
organizational members as intended to influence their motivation” (2006, p. 11) and
leadership practice as ―the activities engaged in by leaders, in interaction with others in
particular context around specific tasks” (2006, p. 5). Spillane has asserted that in a
distributed approach, it is necessary to start by examining leadership practices and then to
explore interactions among leaders, followers, and their situation. A fundamental proposition
of distributed leadership is that “the situation is not simply a context within which school
leaders practice; it is a defining element of practice” (Spillane, 2006, p. 22). Aspects of the
situation define leadership practice, and, therefore, it is necessary to understand how these
aspects enable and constrain leadership practice. It is this proposition, in Spillane’s
interpretation of distributed-leadership theory, that formed the theoretical basis, and
presented a means for exploring and analyzing the leadership activities, actions, and role of
teacher librarians.
Method
The collection of new research is not always a necessary step in the research process; it is
sometimes possible to examine a new research question using previously collected data, or
secondary analysis. Original survey research rarely uses all of the data collected and this
unused data can provide answers or different perspectives to other questions or issues
(Clark & Maynard, 1998), therefore the researcher chose to utilize unused archived survey
data that addresses the enablers and barriers teacher librarians perceive when enacting
technology integration leadership practices.
Data Collection
This research utilizes the data obtained from the two open-ended questions at the end of the
School Library Media Specialist and Technology Integration Survey (PALM, 2009), which
asked respondents about enablers and barriers that facilitate or constrain their technology
integration leadership involvement. This was the same instrumentation utilized in the
previous research with the sample only consisting of National Board Certified teacher
librarians (Everhart et al., 2012).
Technology integration leadership practices, for the purposes of this research, are identified
as those found in the School Library Media Specialist Technology Integration Survey (PALM,
2009) (Appendix A). The first section of the survey consisted of 30 demographic questions
covering areas such as staffing levels, education and experience of the teacher librarians, as
well as questions relating to the technology available and Internet accessibility in the school
where they worked. The second section, and the main focus of the survey, was 60
statements related to technology integration activities with response choices for statements
that reflected respondents’ degree of leadership regarding the particular integration activity:
0=Not my job; 1=Rarely involved; 2=Partially involved; 3=Substantially involved; 4=Fully
involved. Each of these response choices was fully explained in the context of the survey
instrument. Finally, there were open-ended questions that asked respondents to discuss
barriers, enablers, and other factors that influenced their leadership practices. These
questions ask respondents to “Think back about the activities in the preceding statements,
specifically those in which you are fully involved. What enables you to be involved at that
level?” and “Again, think about those activities addressed earlier. Are there any activities in
263
which you’d like to be more involved than you are right now? If so, please tell us about the
barriers that hinder your involvement” (PALM, 2009). This research focuses on the two openended questions as they allowed respondents to provide a personal answers in their own
words to questions; which yield useful information, especially when researchers need to
explore issues that do not have a finite or predetermined set of responses (Babbie, 2013;
Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2009) as is the case in this research.
Participants
The participants in this research are the same as those documented in the primary research
teacher librarians practicing in various schools across the United States at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels. The 1183 usable survey responses from the primary study of
teacher librarians practicing in various schools across the United States at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels is the same sample utilized by this secondary research. This
research is based on those respondents who answered the open-ended question addressing
the variable of interest, enablers to the enactment of the leadership role in technology
integration. Upon obtaining the original data it was found that 976 (82.5%) participants that
answered the enabler question.
Procedure
Secondary analysis is a systematic method with procedural and evaluative steps to be
followed, just as there are in collecting and evaluating primary data. The advantage is that
the data already exist in some form and can be evaluated for appropriateness and quality in
advance of actual use (Stewart & Kamins, 1993); however, it is important to identify and
evaluate data in a “stepwise fashion.” The researcher utilized Stewart and Kamins’ (1993) six
step process for evaluating a dataset: (a) what was the purpose of this study; (b) who was
responsible for collecting the information; (c) what information was actually collected; (d)
when was the information collected; (e) how was the information obtained; and (f) how
consistent is the information obtained from one source with information available from other
sources. In answering these questions the researcher utilized documentation of the primary
study, information from the original study found in publication, and consulted the
investigators from the primary study. In the case of this replicated research the data from the
School Library Media Specialist and Technology Integration Survey (PALM, 2009), was once
again evaluated to ensure congruency, appropriateness, and quality of the primary study and
the resulting dataset.
Data Analysis
This research employed content analysis for “systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of
message characteristics” (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 1). In the case of this research, the messages
are the responses to the two open-ended survey questions. Content analysis allowed for
coding and categorizing the text in a way that relationships could be identified. The goal of
this content analysis was to identify the enablers perceived by respondents, categorize them,
and then determine frequency.
In order to extract the specified enablers and barriers from the text of the open-ended
questions, the researcher performed content analysis. The researcher has 12 years of
experience as a teacher librarian; this background of practice and commonality of experience
assisted the researcher in performing the content analysis through reading each response to
determine manifest and latent content enablers and barriers. The participant responses were
264
read and analyzed to extract individual descriptors of enablers and barriers. In most cases,
participants listed more than one enabler in their responses. Once enablers were identified,
they were spilt into separate fields in the spreadsheet, but each remained connected to their
individual case number. This resulted in 2222 enablers to be considered for analysis. The
content analysis and data coding resulted in the identification of the perceived enablers and
barriers for teacher librarians in enacting a leadership role in technology integration.
Following Neuendorf’s (2002) procedure for content analysis, the researcher utilized an a
priori coding scheme of exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories taken from the
conceptual framework. In the previous research, the conceptual framework The Four
Domains of Supports and Barriers to Teacher Leadership (Zinn, 1997), taken from teacher
leadership research, was utilized to categorize the enablers and barriers. A result of that
research was an adapted version of the framework for teacher librarians, Johnston’s
Domains of Enablers and Barriers to School Librarian Technology and Leadership (Johnston,
2011). This newly created framework was utilized in this replicated research and the
enablers were coded and categorized based on the Johnston’s Domains framework
(Appendix B) which are: Domain One: People and Interpersonal Relationships, Domain Two:
Institutional Structures, Domain Three: Personal Considerations and Commitments, and
Domain Four: Intellectual and Psycho-social Characteristics. This framework explicitly lists
descriptor indicators within each category of specific enablers and barriers that reside in
each domain. The data was coded by the most finite enabler descriptor and by broader
domain as well.
Results
The result of the content analysis was the identification of the perceived enablers for teacher
librarians in enacting a leadership role in technology integration, as well as frequency
distribution tables. Frequency or univariate tables represent the simplest method for
analyzing categorical data and are often used as a procedure to review how different
categories of values are distributed in the sample (Vaughn, 2001). Table 1 displays the list of
enablers, in descending frequency in which participants mentioned the enabler as facilitating
involvement in technology integration leadership.
Enablers
Rep. f
Rep. %
Initial
f
Initial
%
%
Difference
230
10.3
70
9.67
0.63
189
8.5
69
9.53
171
7.69
41
5.66
157
7.06
69
9.53
132
5.94
33
4.56
1.38
Sense of obligation to get involved
131
5.89
48
6.63
-0.74
Personal interest in technology
92
4.1
19
2.62
1.48
Personal belief and values
90
4.0
22
3.04
0.96
Professional organizations
115
5.17
33
4.56
0.61
Supportive principal
Opportunities for a leadership role and
responsibilities
Commitment to continual professional
growth
Desire to make a difference for
students and teachers
Collaborative teachers
265
-1.03
2.03
-2.47
Enablers
Rep. f
Rep. %
Initial
f
Initial
%
%
Difference
Professional development
opportunities
74
3.3
60
8.29
Technology resources
72
3.2
15
2.07
1.13
Respected and valued by staff
68
3.1
15
2.07
1.03
Flexible schedule
64
2.88
12
1.66
1.22
Expertise
63
2.8
36
4.97
-2.17
District level support
Time
Supportive teachers
61
57
53
2.7
2.56
2.38
17
11
12
2.35
1.52
1.66
0.35
1.04
Professional responsibility
52
2.3
18
2.49
-0.19
Dual role as instructional technologist
48
2.16
16
2.21
-0.05
Collaborative instructional technologist
46
2.1
7
0.97
1.13
Education
35
1.57
16
2.21
-0.64
Personal time
35
1.57
2
0.28
1.29
Experience
34
1.5
14
1.93
-0.43
Funding
32
1.4
15
2.07
-0.67
Full-time clerk
30
1.3
10
1.38
-0.08
Supportive district personnel
27
1.2
17
2.35
-1.15
Full-time tech support
14
0.63
9
0.40
0.69
NA
-0.06
Small school population
5
NA
Supportive school climate
8
0.36
5
0.69
-0.33
Volunteers
6
0.27
6
0.27
0.69
NA
-0.42
Curriculum
5
NA
Staffing
6
0.27
NA
NA
Personal finances
5
0.22
5
3
2
0.22
0.13
0.09
0.14
NA
0.08
Standards
Family support
Students
1
NA
1
NA
0.14
NA
-0.01
-4.99
0.72
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Leadership Enactment Enablers
Note. The replication % (Rep. %) symbolizes the percentage that the specific enabler was
found in relation to all the total identified enablers (n=2222). The initial % symbolizes the
percentage that the specific enabler was found in relation to all the total identified enablers
(n=724).
The researcher calculated frequency distribution tables for the enablers in each of the four
domains (Table 2), finding: Domain One: People and Interpersonal Relationships (n=673),
Domain Two: Institutional Structures (n=681), Domain Three: Personal Considerations and
Commitments (n=43), and Domain Four: Intellectual and Psycho-social Characteristics
266
(n=825). This framework explicitly lists descriptor indicators within each category of specific
enablers and barriers that reside in each domain.
Domain
Domain 1: People & Interpersonal
Relationships
Domain 2: Institutional Structure
Domain 3: Personal
Considerations & Commitments
Domain 4: Intellectual & Psychosocial Characteristics
Rep. f
Rep. %
Initial f
Initial
%
673
30.28
188
25.97
681
30.64
243
33.56
43
0.02
4
0.55
825
37.12
289
39.92
%
Difference
4.31
-2.92
-0.035
-2.8
Table 2. Frequency of Leadership Enactment Enablers Categorized by Johnston’s Domains of Enablers and Barriers to School
Librarian Technology and Leadership
Note. The replication % (Rep. %) symbolizes the percentage of enablers in the Domain in
relation to all the total identified enablers (n=2222). The initial % symbolizes the percentage
of enablers in the Domain in relation to all the total identified enablers in the initial study
(n=724).
Findings and Discussion
This report of the findings focuses on the identification of the factors that enable teacher
librarians to be fully involved in technology integration leadership practices. Overall it was
found that the random sample of U.S. teacher librarians mirrored the results of those teacher
librarians in the U.S. who have achieved National Board certification. The conclusions about
those most frequently identified enablers and the similarities and differences in the two
populations will be discussed.
Relationships
The “success or failure of teacher leadership depends in large part on the effectiveness or
personal support systems, mutual respect, and interdependency” (Zinn, 1997, p. 17). As in
the initial research, the relationships identified as frequently occurring factors in teacher
librarians’ technology integration leadership enactment include: the principal, the district
administrator, teachers, other teacher librarians, and instructional technologists. As in the
initial study, the most frequently cited enabler in teacher librarians enacting a leadership role
in technology integration is a supportive principal. Respondents comment on encouragement
they received from their principal in assuming a leadership role and responsibilities, such as
“I have a principal who encourages my participation. I am asked to get involved in technology
related committees and groups.” Others describe respectful relationships where leadership
was shared and their opinion was valued, with responses such as “I work for a principal who
has confidence in my ability to research, apply and teach new technologies” and “support
from my principal who values my skills and expertise” as enablers to technology leadership
enactment. The quality of a principal’s relationship with teachers is correlated with teachers’
willingness to participate in teacher leadership: the more open, supportive, and facilitative a
principal is with teachers, the more willing they are to take on a leadership role (York-Barr &
Duke, 2004).
267
Administrators other than the school principal serve as enablers for teacher librarians in
enacting technology integration leadership. Slightly more participants spoke of a district
school library coordinator or supervisor who facilitated their efforts in technology integration
leadership. One comment was that “we have a media director who oversees the district's
media program and helps each media specialist with education and technology initiatives”
This facilitating relationship with district administrators is not prevalently mentioned in the
teacher leadership literature and only limited research exists in the teacher librarian literature
(DiScala, Moses, & Weeks, 2015; Hughes-Hassel & Hanson-Baldauf, 2008; Johnston, 2011)
that examines this connection. The association of the district library supervisor as an enabler
is a relationship that has emerged from this research and appears to be unique to teacher
librarians.
Participants in both studies highly noted collegial relationships with teachers serving as
enablers that facilitate teacher librarians’ enactment of a leadership role in technology
integration. Respondents spoke not only of teachers supporting them in their efforts through
serving as “critical friends,” but also through respecting and valuing their contributions to
technology integration efforts and in their willingness to collaborate with them. For example,
one respondent shared that “collaboration with classroom teachers provides me
opportunities to instruct students and teachers” was what enabled them to function as
technology integration leaders. Cultivating accepting and trustful relationships with teachers
is vital for enacting leadership. In the initial study participants spoke of the importance of
professional organizations as enabling their leadership, in this replication that same finding
was present with respondents increasingly naming local, state, and national professional
organizations that serve as enablers. Professional organizations provide support for teacher
librarians through relationships with other school librarians, but this research finds that
professional growth opportunities from professional organization activities such as
conferences and publications serve as enablers as well. One respondent expresses that
“professional organizations keep my knowledge fresh and me involved.” These findings
reveal the importance of professional organizations as providing a network of fellow teacher
librarians to learn from and share with. Finally, a relationship that emerged from the initial
research and was also prevalent in this replication was the collaborative relationship with
their building level instructional technology specialist. Respondents noted “having a great
professional and personal relationship with the tech specialist” and of being viewed “as a full
partner” by the instructional technology specialist when it comes to technology integration.
The emerging relationship between the teacher librarian and technology specialists is one
that is of great concern as schools search for ways to deal with the increased demands of
technology for teaching and learning (Johnston, 2015).
Leadership and Professional Development Opportunities
Opportunities for an authentic leadership role and responsibilities were mentioned very
frequently as enabler facilitating involvement in technology integration leadership in both
studies. It must also be noted that a school principal’s influence in enabling leadership
enactment is overarching in that the principal can serve to encourage and promote teacher
leadership opportunities with formal appointments such as creating teams to address certain
tasks or responsibilities as a substitute for administrative leadership, suggesting a teacher
conduct a professional development session in an area of expertise or creating a situation for
spontaneous leadership to emerge (Spillane, 2006). Both studies found that leadership
opportunities, such as serving on leadership, technology, and curriculum committees at the
268
school and the district level served as natural enablers for involvement in technology
integration leadership. Teacher leaders require opportunities to be involved in school
decision-making and to be involved in the professional development of others (Katzenmeyer
& Moller, 2009; Spillane, 2006). When educators are part of decision-making, they feel that
their expertise is valued and they increase their commitment and participation in the school
(Barth, 2001). Also respondents describe serving in a leadership role as providers of staff
development for their faculty. Teacher librarians have the potential to serve as leaders
through “forg[ing] partnerships” with teachers and sharing their expertise with the teaching
staff by using collaborative activities and by designing and teaching staff development
workshops (Zmuda & Harada, 2008, p. 39). Opportunities for leadership are vital in providing
teacher librarians with the experience, confidence, and skills necessary for leadership
involvement. Participants in both studies mentioned opportunities for professional
development frequently, but the professional development was more related to technology,
rather than leadership skills. The teacher librarian respondents in both studies perceive
professional development activities and opportunities that were devoted to technologies and
learning to be essential for developing “expertise” in technology and technology integration in
order to lead. This research reveals the important connection to expertise; in order to
assume a leadership role in technology integration it is important to have the technology
expertise necessary, including the knowledge and skills to integrate technology into
instruction. Yet, the teacher leadership literature asserts that instructional expertise alone is
insufficient to allow teachers to function as instructional leaders and requires knowledge and
skills related to leadership in addition to the instructional expertise (Barth, 2001;
Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009). Therefore the same could be assumed for teacher librarian
leaders, signifying a needed change in the professional development needed for teacher
librarians.
Self-Initiative
Six of the top ten most frequent enablers identified in both studies reside in Zinn’s framework
as intellectual and psycho-social characteristics including a commitment to continual
professional growth, a desire to make a difference for students and teachers, sense of
obligation to get involved, personal interest in technology, and personal beliefs and values. In
this domain the teacher librarian, herself serves as an enabler to leadership enactment;
these enablers represent the personal characteristics and beliefs that can serve to facilitate
one to assume leadership responsibilities (Zinn, 1997). Teacher librarians in both studies
illustrate these same beliefs. The perception that one can make a difference in the lives of
student and teachers is prominently identified as the third third most frequently occurring
enabler facilitating teacher librarians’ involvement in technology integration leadership
practices demonstrating the commitment of teacher librarians to ensuring that students are
equipped with the skills and knowledge they need for success. Respondents often noted a
responsibility to advocate on behalf of students to ensure access and equity, commenting on
the importance of ensuring that students are equipped for their future, can use technology in
their learning, and making sure that teachers know how to integrate technology to benefit the
students. This intrinsic reward of improving learning outcomes for students is rewarding work
for teacher librarians and serves as an enabler for technology integration leadership
enactment.
Teacher librarians in both studies also commented on being enabled by personal
connections to their tasks through their personal interest in technology, personal values and
beliefs that demand excellence, and a professional responsibility. These findings illustrate
269
the parallels between teacher leaders and teacher librarians in taking ownership of, and
responsibility for, maximizing student learning. This is consistent with the finding of HansonBaldauf and Hughes-Hassell (2009) that teacher librarians agree that integrating technology
into their instruction is an important aspect of their job. Strong personal beliefs can serve to
motivate teachers to assume leadership responsibilities through belief in strong work ethics,
a need to maximize talents and expertise, and commitment to excellence (Zinn, 1997).
Recent scholars have recognized that successful leaders have a clear awareness of their
values and beliefs and these leaders work with integrity allowing values and beliefs dictate
their decision-making. Many teacher leaders prefer leading to following when the issues have
personal importance or there is a sense of connection with the task (Sergiovanni as cited in
Robertson, 2008).
A personal sense of obligation to get involved in technology integration leadership activities
is found to facilitate involvement in technology integration leadership activities. Teacher
librarians in both studies reflect a willingness with comments such as feeling a need to get
involved and a personal commitment to being an active involved part of the learning
community; they spoke of getting involved because that is what is needed to be done.
Respondents also mention professional responsibility and that it was the responsibility of
teacher librarians to step up and take on this role not only because of their knowledge and
skills, but also a personal desire or self-motivation to be involved. Zinn (1997) defines this as
an “initiator,” a teacher who recognizes that leadership is needed in a situation and is willing
to step up and take on additional responsibility.
The commitment to continual growth is a prominent enabler in facilitating teacher librarians’
involvement in technology integration leadership practices. These efforts are designated
differently from “professional development opportunities” which represent formal professional
development leadership opportunities through institutional structures. Aligning with the
literature, this research conveys the importance of professional growth in leadership
involvement, but respondents in both studies frequently note informal professional growth
activities that enabled them to be involved in technology integration leadership practices.
Respondents comment on their efforts and commitment to continual learning and staying
current, including personal informal self-initiated efforts such as reading journals, attending
conferences, reading web pages, joining listervs, creating a PLN (Personal Learning
Networks) through social media, and attending webinars. This is consistent with Miller’s (as
cited in Massey, 2009) findings that professional development gained either from attending
conferences or from consulting with colleagues, positively influenced technology integration.
When asked how they prefer to learn to use technology tools and applications, teacher
librarians in the 2008 research by Hughes-Hassell and Hanson-Baldauf also chose methods
that indicated self-motivation and that they were willing to learn technology on their own time
to develop their expertise. Teacher leaders are consummate learners and research suggests
that a sense of inquiry and love of learning enables teachers to assume leadership
responsibilities (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009; Zinn, 1997). Technology is constantly
changing and it is essential that teacher librarians to stay up to date through continuing their
professional learning in order to advance and hone the skills and knowledge that are
mandatory to lead in technology integration efforts.
Implications
270
The initial study served as the initial identification of enablers and barriers that teacher
librarians experience in enacting a technology integration leadership role. This replication of
the research with a larger random sample contributes to the validity and the reliability of the
findings. While the overall goal was not generalizability, there are implications of interest to
the school library profession as a whole. The findings from this study have implications for
the teacher librarian research and literature, including an adapted framework; for teacher
librarian preparation programs; and for the practice of teacher librarianship.
The implication for the research and literature of teacher librarianship and teacher leadership
is that this study fills a gap in the existing teacher librarian research and contributes to the
literature regarding teacher librarians as leaders in technology integration. Currently there is
very little research that examines leadership roles of teacher librarians and no research that
examines teacher librarian leadership practices in technology integration within a teacher
leader framework. While there is limited research on teacher librarians’ role in technology
integration and separate research on the leadership role, there is little empirical research that
combines the two areas to examine teacher librarians as technology integration leaders.
Additionally the replication research allowed for reusing the survey and utilizing the adapted
framework created as a result of the initial study, contributing to instrument reliability and
validity for both the survey and the framework.
The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to teacher
librarians who are ill prepared to enact this vital role. The identification of the enablers and
barriers that teacher librarians experience enacting a leadership role is valuable information
for school library preparation educators. Future teacher librarians can be taught how to
identify enablers and develop strategies to use them to their advantage. The findings from
this research can be useful for planning curriculum to better prepare teacher librarians to
assume an active leadership role. Teacher librarian preparation programs need to include
competencies that support the concept of teacher leadership and teach teacher librarians
leadership skills such as effective communication, relationship building, problem solving,
conflict resolution, time management, and other skills that will prepare them to assume
leadership roles.
The primary implication of this research is the identification of the enablers and barriers that
can facilitate and constrain teacher librarians’ involvement in technology integration
leadership. The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to
teacher librarians who are uncertain how to perform this role in practice. This research
informs practice by providing support for teacher librarians in searching out those factors that
will enable enactment and in identifying the barriers that must be overcome in order to
achieve this vital role in practice. These findings are useful to furthering the understanding of
this role for practicing teacher librarians who seek to enact or expand their leadership role in
technology integration.
References
Albertson, D., & Johnston, M. P. (2015). Science teachers and interactive video retrieval.
Electronic Library.
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2011). Digital learning and technology: Federal policy
recommendations to seize the opportunity—and promising practices that inspire
271
them. Washington, DC. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/DigitalLearning.pdf
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2012). The digital learning imperative: How technology and
teaching meet today’s education challenges. Washington, DC.
www.all4ed.org/files/DigitalLearningImperative.pdf
American Association of School Librarians (AASL). (2009). Empowering learners: Guidelines
for school library media programs. Chicago: American Library Association.
American Association of School Librarians (AASL) & Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (AECT). (1998). Information power: Building
partnerships for learning. Chicago: American Library Association.
Anderson, R. E., & Dexter, S. (2005). School technology leadership: An empirical
investigation of prevalence and effect. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(1),
49-82. doi:10.1177/0013161X04269517
Babbie, E. (2013). The practice of social research. (13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Thomson Learning.
Barth, R. S. (2001). Teacher leader. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(6), 443-449.
Branch-Mueller, J., & de Groot, J. (2011). The power of web 2.0: Teacher-librarians become
school technology leaders. School Libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 25-41.
Clark, R., & Maynard, M. (1998). Using online technology for secondary analysis of survey
research data - Act globally, think locally. Social Science Computer Review, 16(1), 58-71.
doi:10.1177/089443939801600108
Common Sense Media. (2013). Teaching with technology: The promise and reality of the
U.S. digital classroom. Retrieved from https://www.graphite.org/blog/teaching-withtechnology-the-promise-and-reality-of-the-us-digital-classroom
Darling-Hammond, L., Zielezinski, M. B., & Goldman, S. (2014). Using technology to support
at-risk students’ learning. Washington DC: Alliance for Excellent Education and
Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education.
Diekema, A. R. & Olsen, M. W. (2012). The notion of relevance in teacher information
behavior. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 49(1), 1-9.
Digedu (2014) Technology use in the classroom: Benefits & barriers. Retrieved from
http://digedu.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/04/Benefits-Barriers-Report.pdf
Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. M. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode
surveys: Tailored design method (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
272
DiScala, J., Moses, A., Weeks, A. C. (2015). Take me to your leader: The (invisible) school
district library supervisor. School Library Monthly, 31(5), 29-31.
Duffey, D. & Fox, C. (2012). National educational technology trends 2012: State leadership
empowers educators, transforms teaching and learning. Washington, DC: State
Educational Technology Directors Association (SETDA).
Duke, T. S., & Ward, J. D. (2009). Preparing information literate teachers: A metasynthesis.
Library & Information Science Research, 31, 247-256.
Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for
technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development,
53(4), 41-56. doi:10.1007/BF02504683
Everhart, N., & Dresang, E. T. (2006, January). School library media specialists for the 21st
century: Leaders in education make a difference. Paper presented at the
Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) National
Conference, San Antonio, TX.
Everhart, N., Mardis, M., & Johnston, M. P. (2012). National Board Certified school librarians’
leadership in technology integration: Results of a national survey. School Library
Media Research, 14. Retrieved from http://ala.org/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/slmrb/
Hanson-Baldauf, D., & Hughes-Hassell, S. (2009). The information and communication
technology competencies of students enrolled in school library media certification
programs. Library and Information Science Research, 31(1), 3-11.
doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.03.003
Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning:
Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 223-252. doi:10.1007/s11423-0069022-5
Hughes-Hassell, S., & Hanson-Baldauf, D. (2008). Information and communication
technology use by North Carolina school library media specialists: Perceived
competencies and barriers. School Library Media Research, 11. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/aasl/sites/ala.org.aasl/files/content/aaslpubsandjournals/slr/vol1
1/SLMR_InformationCommunication_V11.pdf
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). (2000). National educational
technology standards for students: Connecting curriculum and technology.
Retrieved from http://www.iste.org/standards
Johnston, M. P. (2015). Blurred lines: The school librarian and the technology specialist. The
school librarian perspective. Tech Trends.
Johnston, M. P. (2012). Connecting teacher librarians for technology integration leadership.
School Libraries Worldwide, 18(1), 18-33.
273
Johnston, M. P. (2012). School librarians as technology integration leaders: Enablers and
barriers to leadership enactment. School Library Research, 15(1). Retrieved from
www.ala.org/aasl/slr
Johnston, M. P. (2011). School librarians at technology integration leaders: Enablers and
barriers to leadership enactment. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
Dissertation Abstracts International. (3483677).
Katzenmeyer, M., & Moller, G. (2009). Awakening the sleeping giant: Helping teachers
develop as leaders (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Mardis, M. A. (2009). Classroom information needs: Search analysis from a digital library for
educators. D- Lib, 15(1/2). Retrieved from http://www.dlib.org/
Mardis, M. A., ElBasri, T. E., Norton, S. K., & Newsum, J. (2012). The new digital lives of
teachers: A research synthesis and trends to watch. School Libraries Worldwide,
18(1), 70-86.
Massey, S. A. (2009). Digital libraries in schools: The best practices of National Board
Certified library media specialists. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
Dissertation Abstracts International. (3359753).
Neuendorf, K. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Office of Educational Technology. (2010). Transforming American education: Learning
powered by technology. National Educational Technology Plan (NETP) 2010.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Partnerships Advancing Library Media (PALM) Center, Florida State University (2009).
School library media specialist and technology integration survey. Unpublished
instrument.
Project Tomorrow. (2012). Speak up 2011: Mapping a personalized learning journey—K–12
students and parents connect the dots with digital learning. Irvine, CA.
http://www.tomorrow.org/speakup/pdfs/SU11_PersonalizedLearning_Students.pdf
Project Tomorrow. (2014). The new digital playbook: Understanding the spectrum of
students’ activities and aspirations. Irvine, CA: Project Tomorrow. Retrieved from
http://www.tomorrow.org/speakup/SU13DigitalLearningPlaybook_StudentReport.ht
ml
Robertson, M. O. (2008). Distributing leadership to teachers through a district level math
council. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts
International. (3296859).
Scholastic. (2008). School libraries work! Retrieved from
http://www2.scholastic.com/content/collateral_resources/pdf/s/slw3_2008.pdf
274
Shannon, D. M. (2002). The education and competencies of school library media specialists:
A review of the literature. School Library Media Research, 5. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/slmrb/schoollibrary.cf
m
Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Stewart, D. W., & Kamins, M. A. (1993). Secondary research: Information sources and
methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
U.S. Department of Education. 2013. Expanding evidence approaches for learning in a digital
world. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Technology. Retrieved from
http://tech.ed.gov/files/2013/02/Expanding-Evidence-Approaches.pdf
Todd, R. J. (2008). Youth and their virtual networked worlds: Research findings and
implications for school libraries. School Libraries Worldwide, 14(2), 19-34.
Retrieved from http://www.iasl-online.org/pubs/slw/index.htm
Vaughan, L. (2001). Statistical methods for the information professional: A practical, painless
approach to understanding, using, and interpreting statistics. Medford, NJ:
Information Today.
Wolf, M. A., Jones, R., & Gilbert, D. (2014). Leading beyond the library. Washington, DC:
Alliance for Excellent Education.
York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from
two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255-316.
doi:10.3102/00346543074003255
Zinn, L. P. (1997). Supports and barriers to teacher leadership: Reports of teacher leaders.
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International.
(304369244)
Zmuda, A., & Harada, V. H. (2008). Librarians as learning specialists: Moving from the
margins to the mainstream of school leadership. Teacher Librarian, 36, 15-20.
Biographical Note
Melissa P. Johnston is an Assistant Professor at The University of Alabama in the School of
Library and Information Studies, where she coordinates and teaches graduate courses in the
school library media certification program. Johnston worked as a school librarian for 13 years
in Georgia before completing her PhD at Florida State University’s School of Information.
Johnston received the IASL Ken Haycock Leadership Award in 2013 and the IASL Takeshi
Murofushi Research Award in 2011 to investigate international school librarian practices. In
2014 Johnston was the co-recipient of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology Cross-Cultural Research Award. Johnston’s research and publications focus on
school librarians as leaders, the school librarian’s role in technology integration, and school
librarianship on a global level.
275
276
Growing from Nothing: the
performance of teacher librarians in
Taiwan
Joyce Chao-chen Chen
Professor, National Taiwan Normal University
cc4073@ntnu.edu.tw
Li-jen Tseng
Research Assistant, National Taiwan Normal University
tzenglij@ntnu.edu.tw
Abstract
Since 2009, Taiwan's Ministry of Education has begun to add the post of teacher
librarians in some elementary schools. Teachers who are enthusiastic about reading
education become teacher librarians to take charge of managing school libraries and
promoting reading after receiving short professional training. This study aims to probe
into whether the system is helpful to the management of libraries in elementary schools
and to the establishment of reading environment at school.
Specifically speaking, this study aims to discuss whether there is any difference in the
activities of school libraries and schools' attitudes toward reading between schools with
teacher librarians and schools without ones. The study surveyed elementary schools in
Taiwan with a questionnaire which was filled out by teacher librarians or general
librarians at school. The questionnaire was tested with Cronbach’s α reliability, and a
coefficient of 0.975 was obtained, which is considered excellent reliability.
742 copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, and 741 of them were considered valid
after the elimination of one with incomplete answers. Among which, 213 copies were
from schools with teacher librarians, and the rest 528 copies were from schools without
teacher librarians. In addition, the fill rate of schools with teacher librarians reached
80%. The study found that schools with and without teacher librarians had significant
differences in library management of their libraries and behavior and attitudes toward
reading.
Keywords: Professional development, Teacher librarians, Taiwan
Introduction
Most of Taiwan’s elementary school libraries are primarily supervised concurrently by the
section chief of the equipment section; most of these libraries do no hire full time librarians. If
these libraries are to open to the students, the assistance of the parent volunteers are
required; they are to be in charge of the basic circulation services of the library. To enhance
277
the function of the library and to promote reading, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan began
to establish the position of teacher librarians in 2009. The selected teacher was to reduce ten
of his or her teaching hours; he or she is responsible of the operation of the library and the
reading promotion tasks. The number of teacher librarians assigned has been increased year
by year. In 2014, 308 schools have employed teacher librarians. Because the small number
of schools that are financially supported by the Ministry of Education, cities such as Taipei,
New Taipei City, and Taichung started to subsidize the grant to financially support the
schools that have not received any grant from the Ministry of Education to organize their
establishment of teacher librarians. The teacher librarians are not full time professionals. In
addition to assist with the operation of the school libraries and the promotion of reading, they
are required to provide official course instructions. The teacher librarians do not receive
complete professional training; they only received three-day short-term training for beginners
and for advanced learners.
Although the conditions for teacher librarians are inadequate, to the education authorities,
the establishment of teacher librarians is the enthusiastic work resulted from the resources.
In addition, to the school, the establishment of teacher librarians displays the evidence that
the school does place its focus on reading. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the
issue that whether the schools that provide the professional services of teacher librarians
possess better quality in reading awareness and attitudes displayed by the teacher librarians
(or the person in charge of operating the library), the staff, and the parents in comparison to
the schools without the establishment of teacher librarians.
Literature Review
The elementary school libraries in many countries include full-time teacher librarians or
school librarians. For examples, many European elementary schools employ school librarian
and chartered librarians. Similarly, the elementary schools and the junior high school in the
US include library media specialist or school media specialist. In addition, the elementary
schools in Japan and Korea acquire teacher librarians and in Hong Kong, “director of the
library” (Lu and Lin, 2008).
In 1988, the U.S. Department of Education formalized the appointment standards of school
librarian teachers. The law requires that the school must include a full time library media
specialist who meets the appointment standard. The responsibility of the library media
specialist is to provide the curriculum teaching resource and the teaching material consulting
services for the entire school. In addition, the law clearly specified the roles of the library
media specialist; the specialist plays the role of a teacher, teacher partner, information
specialist, and administrator. To ensure that the library media specialists are able to play the
diverse roles, they must acquire a master’s degree and receive curriculum training in library
and information science, teaching technology, and communication theories (AASL & AECT,
1988).
Loertscher, Ho, and Bowie (1987) investigated the personnel organization and services of
the teaching resource center from 209 public elementary schools in the US. The study found
that up to 84% of the school included at least one full-time professional personnel and
several staff members who were responsible of managing the teaching resource center. In
addition, between 2006 and 2009, Dow, Lakin, and Court (2012) conducted an investigation
in the library at the public school located in Kansas. The study examined whether or not the
library media specialist had positive influence on the learning achievement of the students.
The participants of the study included approximately 2,500,000 students from 1389 schools;
the schools comprised of elementary, junior high, and high schools in Kansas. The results of
278
the study showed that in schools where full-time library media specialists were employed, the
academic achievement of the students were significantly better than the school where no
library media specialists were employed or only part-time library media specialists were
employed.
To enhance the reading ability of the students, in September 1998, the Education Bureau in
Hong Kong started to provide elementary schools with financial assistance to support the
operation of the school library including its construction and book collection. In addition, the
funding required that the schools provided the position of the director of the school library
who must have at least two years of teaching experience and a professional employee
history in library management. The directors of the library who obtained an employment offer
must study the day-time training courses or other professional training courses organized by
the Hong Kong Education Bureau.
The Hong Kong curriculum development council recommended that in addition to planning
and managing the daily operation, the directors of the school library are to play the role of a
coordinator for reading resources and reading projects. Specifically, the director must also
play the roles of information literacy trainers, and the assisting personnel of teachers of
various subjects and curriculum development (Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council,
2002). The following figure explained the five service levels of the directors of school library.
The work content of the five service levels are shown as follows:
The First level: the basic operations of the library including the recommendation and
purchasing of the library data, assigning the call number and formatting files, borrowing and
returning of books, library spatial planning, book collection development, and reading
promotion activities.
The Second level: the planning and the conducting of library utilization educational courses
for the entire grade levels.
The Third level: the directors of the school library must cooperate with the need of the
teachers from the various subjects to purchase books required for teaching instructions.
The Fourth level: the directors of the school library must conduct team teaching with other
teachers, thereby cultivating the information sensitivity of the students. In addition, the
teacher librarians must participate in the planning and designing of the curriculum; the library
should support the teaching and learning demand of the school.
The Fifth level: The integration of diverse data resources from the community, the public, and
the schools; the planning of school-wide, diverse reading projects that encourage the
teamwork of the faculty and staff, the parents, and the students to jointly participate in the
reading projects organized by the school.
279
Students learn the way to learn
parent
student
integrate
integrate the
the teaching
teaching information
information technology
technology of
of the
the various
various academic
academic fields
fields
Organize
Organize diverse
diverse reading
reading projects
projects
Invite
Invite parents
parents and
and other
other partners
partners to
to jointly
jointly participate
participate
teacher
librarian
teacher
閱讀推動教師
Director of
the school
library
閱讀推動教師
Director of
the school
library
教師，學生
Instructor,
Student
Instructor,
Student
Coordinate
Coordinate with
with other
other team
team members
members to
to conduct
conduct teaching
teaching and
and
training
training on
on information
information technology
technology
Participate
Participate in
in the
the planning
planning and
and design
design of
of the
the school
school curriculum
curriculum
教師，學生
Instructor,
Student
閱讀推動教師
Director of
the school
library
閱讀推動教師
Director of
the school
library
develop
develop library
library collection
collection with
with the
the main
main
content
content on
on curriculum
curriculum
To
To support
support learning
learning and
and promote
promote reading
reading
Participate
Participate in
in several
several teaching
teaching activities
activities
Plan
Plan library
library curriculum
curriculum
Provide
Provide general
general information
information
required
required for
for teaching
teaching
Operate
Operate the
the fundamental
fundamental library
library
services
services
Support
reading
projects
Support reading projects
Purchasing
Purchasing books
books
Cataloguing
Cataloguing
Borrowing
Borrowing books
books
Influence the
development of
curriculum and learning
outcomes
Cooperate with teachers and
students (participate in course
planning and teaching)
Learning through
resources
Support fundamental demands on
learning and teaching
The main demand is to enhance
capabilities
閱讀推動教師參與教學的最小程度
閱讀推動教師參與教學的最小程度
Figure 2-1. The five service levels of the director of the school library in Hong Kong
Data source: Curriculum Development Council (2002). Basic Education and Curriculum Guide: Building on the Strength (1st
grade to 9th grade). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Bureau.
The least participation in teaching
by the director of school library
In conclusion, professional librarians or teacher librarians are necessary professional
personnel of the elementary school libraries in advanced countries. The work responsibilities
of the teacher librarians not only include the basic operation and management of the
libraries, they are required to instruct the educational use of the library, to provide library
resources for the teachers of the various subjects in order to team teach with the teachers of
the various subjects and to participate in the curriculum design of the entire school including
planning school-wide reading activities.
Method
Research Hypotheses
Based on the previously mentioned studies, this study hypothesized several differences
between the schools that offer teacher librarians and the schools that do not offer the
position. The differences are stated in the following hypotheses:
H1: There is difference in the basic operation and management of the library such as book
purchasing, cataloging, borrowing and returning books, training volunteers, and promoting
reading.
H2: There is difference in the library education.
280
H3: There is difference in developing the library collection to support teaching and learning
and to support reading activities.
H4: There is difference in collaborative teaching and the participation of school curriculum
planning.
H5: There is difference in the integration of the teaching resources and the planning of
school-wide reading projects.
H6: There is difference in the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and
non-teacher librarians.
H7: There is difference in the reading attitudes of the faculty and staff, students, and parents
between the schools that offer teacher librarians and the schools that do not offer the
position.
3.2 Research Method and Tool
This study adopted questionnaires; the questionnaires mainly included the two major
dimensions: the management of libraries and the reading attitudes and behaviors. In the
management of libraries, the study mainly referred to the job responsibilities defined by the
Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council in issue designing. In reading attitudes and
behaviors, the study mainly referred to the Reading Habits and Literacy Attitudes of Inservice and Prospective Teachers compiled by Morrison, Jacobs, & Swinyard (1999) and the
Reading Attitudes of Teachers compiled by Wang (2009) when designing the questions. In
addition, the questionnaire adopted 5-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s test was adopted to
test internal reliability. The overall reliability or the coefficient of Cronbach’s α was 0.975,
which indicated the excellence of the reliability of the questionnaire.
Data Collection
In May 2014, the questionnaires were distributed to the 2768 elementary schools in Taiwan.
742 questionnaires were retrieved; one questionnaire was invalid because of incompletion.
Thus, the number of valid questionnaire was 741; the availability factor of the questionnaire
was 99.87%. Of the 741 valid questionnaires, 213 were from the schools that employed
teacher librarians and 528 were from the school without such positions. The completed ratio
of the schools that employed teacher librarians reached 80% whereas the completed ratio of
the schools without such position reached 21.87%. The distribution and the retrieving of
questionnaires of the schools with teacher librarians and those without such position were
compiled in Table 3-1.
Schools with teacher librarians
The number of valid
213
questionnaires
The number of
264
school nationwide
Percentage
80.68
Schools without
teacher librarians
Total
528
741
2414
2678
21.87
27.67
Table 3-1. The distribution and the retrieving of valid questionnaires of the schools with teacher librarians and those without
such positions.
Results
281
The analysis of variance on the basic operation of libraries between the schools that employ
teacher librarians and the schools without the position
The basic operation management is the fundamental service that meets the demands of the
teachers and students and also provides the necessary tasks before the high-level of
services can be offered. The basic task of the librarians include purchasing library resources,
cataloguing, borrowing and returning books, volunteer training, theme exhibition, and reading
promotion activities.
Table 4-1 showed that regardless of the employment of the teacher librarians, the mean
number of the operation task: borrowing and returning books was the highest in the 7
dimensions. However, the independent sample t-test analysis indicated that the significant
differences were found between the two types of schools in the various dimensions. Of the 7
dimensions, the items with the most differences were found in the following dimensions such
as whether the libraries are cultivating volunteers, organizing theme exhibition, and
promoting reading activities. The data indicated that the school’s employment of teacher
librarians was beneficial to the basic operation and management of the school libraries.
School with
School without
teacher librarians teacher librarians
Significant
T value
test (P)
Standard
Standard
Mean deviation Mean deviation
df
The school will assign
budget
annually
to
purchase library books
4.13
0.99
3.44
1.14
8.22
0.00***
452
The school will assign
budget annually to
organize reading
promotion projects
4.15
0.99
3.47
1.10
8.32
0.00***
436
The school library
conducts book purchasing
and cataloguing
4.80
0.46
4.34
0.80
9.85
0.00***
651
The school library
conducts putting books on
the shelves, organizing
shelves, burrowing and
returning books
4.93
0.25
4.55
0.67
11.47
0.00***
735
The school library
conducts the recruitment,
training, and management
of volunteers
4.61
0.70
3.67
1.20
13.24
0.00***
643
The school library
conducts spatial planning
and theme exhibition
4.57
0.65
3.75
0.98
13.18
0.00***
580
282
School with
School without
Significant
T value
test (P)
Standard
Standard
df
The school library often
organizes reading
promotion activities
4.52
0.66
3.60
0.94
15.21
0.00***
554
Total
4.53
0.45
3.82
0.70
16.29
0.00***
600
Table 4-1. The variance analysis on basic operation of libraries between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that
provide no such position
***P<0.001
The variance analysis on library education between the schools that employ teacher
librarians and the schools without the position
Library education is to nurture students’ basic skills to use the library and search for the
various resources. This required capability is necessary for the students to conduct research
project.
Table 4-2 indicated that the overall performance of the 4 items including “planning library
usage courses for all grade levels”, “instructing library use for students from all grade levels”,
“providing relevant book recommendation for the courses of the various subjects”, and
“providing relevant resource websites for the courses of the various subjects” are better than
that of the school without the employment of teacher librarians. The results of the
independent t test analysis indicated significance among the variance of the various
dimensions.
School with
School without
Significant
T value
Standard
Standard
test (P)
df
The school library plans
library-utilizing education
for the various grade
levels
4.57
0.61
3.40
1.14
18.11
0.00***
684
The school library
instructs library
education courses for
the various grade levels
4.49
0.66
3.28
1.07
18.79
0.00***
621
The school library
provides reading
recommendation for the
various subjects for all
3.82
0.97
2.96
1.11
9.81
0.00***
739
283
School with
School without
Significant
T value
Standard
Standard
test (P)
df
the grade levels
The school library
provides course-related
resource websites for
the various subjects
3.67
1.00
2.85
1.07
9.65
0.00***
739
Total
4.14
0.63
3.12
0.94
17.04
0.00***
576
Table 4-2 The variance analysis on library education between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no
such position
***P<0.001
The variance analysis on developing library collection to support teaching and learning, and
to promote reading activities between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that
provide no such position
The third level of the job responsibilities of teacher librarians is to develop library collection to
support teaching and learning, and to promote reading activities, thereby allowing the library
resource, teaching and learning to become closely connected.
Table 4-3 indicated that on “the use of reading strategies to conduct reading instruction
curriculum”, “the cooperation of the demands of the teachers from various subjects to
purchase relevant library collection”, “the integration of curriculum of the various subjects to
organize relevant reading promotion activities”, and “the integration of curriculum from
various subjects to provide relevant learning recommendations or homework”, the schools
that employed teacher librarians showed greater quality compared to the schools without
such positions. The independent t test analysis indicated that on developing library collection
to support teaching and learning and promoting reading activities, the differences between
the two types of schools reached significance.
School with
School without
Significant
T value
df
Standard
Standard
test (P)
The school library uses
reading strategies to conduct
reading instruction
curriculum
4.33
0.78
284
3.20
1.03
16.24
0.00***
511
The school library
cooperates with the
demands of the teachers
from various subjects to
purchase relevant library
collection
4.20
0.82
3.45
1.06
10.33
0.00***
504
The school library integrates
the curriculum of the various
subjects to organize relevant
reading promotion activities
3.95
0.89
3.08
1.08
11.36
0.00***
472
The school library integrates
the curriculum from various
subjects to provide relevant
learning recommendations
or homework
3.69
1.01
2.88
1.13
9.50
0.00***
437
Total
4.04
0.69
3.15
0.93
14.38
0.00***
524
Table 4-3 The variance analysis on developing library collection to support teaching and learning, and to promote reading
activities between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position
***P<0.001
The variance analysis on teacher librarian’s (or the person in charge of the library)
conduction of collaborative teaching and participation in planning school curriculum between
schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position
If the teacher librarians or the person in charge of the library can coordinate with the teachers
of the various academic fields to conduct team teaching and participate in school curriculum
planning, the role or the library will be more incorporated with the teaching and learning of
the school.
Table 4-4 indicated on “the participation of planning and designing of school curriculum”, “the
establishment of the group for developing teachers’ reading expertise”, “the team teaching
with teachers of the various academic subjects”, and “the design of teaching materials that
nurture students’ information literacy”, the schools that employed teacher librarians showed
greater quality compared to the schools without such positions.
Compared to the tasks of the other 3 dimensions, the mean of teacher librarians’
participation in team teaching was significantly lower; this dimension requires further
development.
The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on team teaching and the participation
of school curriculum planning, significant difference were found between the schools that
employ teacher librarians and the schools without this position.
School with
School without
Significant
T value
Standard
Standard
test (P)
285
df
The school library
participates in planning
and design of the school
curriculum
4.02
0.92
2.89
1.13
14.15
0.00***
478
The school library plans
and establishes the group
for developing teachers’
reading expertise
4.20
0.94
2.86
1.20
16.24
0.00***
499
The school library
conducts team teaching
with teachers of various
subjects
3.81
0.84
2.68
1.10
15.06
0.00***
507
The school library
designs materials that
nurture students’
3.95
0.85
2.69
1.09
16.79
0.00***
497
Total
4.00
0.69
2.78
1.00
18.91
0.00***
556
Table 4-4 The variance analysis on collaborative teaching and the participation in school curriculum planning between schools
that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position
***P<0.001
The variance analysis on the integration of teaching resources of the various academic fields
and the planning of school-wide and comprehensive reading project between schools that
employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position
Reading is not an activity that confines to the students and teachers; the role of the parents
is crucial. Thus, the greatest challenge for promoting reading by the school is to integrate the
relevant resource and academic subjects and to incorporate the comprehensive reading
planning of the parents and the community.
Table 4-5 indicated that on “the integration of public libraries and civil resource to jointly
organize reading activities”, “the invitation of the entire faculty and staff to jointly participate in
reading activities”, “the invitation of parents of the entire student body to jointly participate in
reading activities”, “the coordination of school-wide activities such as school anniversary to
plan relevant reading activities”, and “the integration of teaching resource and related
technology of the various academic fields to plan school-wide reading projects”, the mean of
the schools that employed teacher librarians was higher than the school without such
positions. The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on “the integration of
teaching resources of various academic fields and the planning of school-wide and
comprehensive reading projects”, the difference between the two types of schools was
significant.
School with
School without
286
T value
Significant
df
test (P)
Mean
Standard
Standard
deviation Mean deviation
The school library
integrates public libraries
and civil resources to
jointly organize reading
activities
4.15
0.95
3.04
1.26
13.14
0.00***
516
The school library invites
the entire faculty and staff
to jointly participate in
reading activities
4.51
0.63
3.45
1.13
16.20
0.00***
670
The school library invites
the parents of the entire
student body to jointly
participate in reading
activities
4.28
0.78
3.13
1.14
15.75
0.00***
567
The school library
coordinates with schoolwide activities such as
school anniversary to plan
relevant reading activities
4.39
0.77
3.20
1.18
16.16
0.00***
589
The school library
integrates the teaching
resources and relevant
technology of the various
academic subjects to plan
school-wide reading
projects
4.09
0.86
2.99
1.14
14.34
0.00***
518
Total
4.28
0.61
3.16
0.99
18.76
0.00***
621
Table 4-5. The variance analysis on the integration of teaching resources of the various academic fields and the planning of
school-wide and comprehensive reading project between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such
position
***P<0.001
The variance analysis on the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and
the personnel who are not
Reading is a habit. The person who promotes reading must possess passion for reading and
a positive attitude toward reading. Table 4-6 indicated that for teacher librarians and the
personnel who do not possess this title, they are aware that reading is a valuable activity and
a habit that is beneficial to lifelong learning. In addition, they were able to feel the joy of
reading and were willing to share with their families and friends. However, the mean of
reading during leisure time and carrying books while traveling, and sharing their reading with
287
their families are higher for the teacher librarians compared to the individual who do not carry
this title.
The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on reading attitudes and behaviors, the
two groups were significantly different.
School with
School without
Significant
T value
Standard
Standard
test (P)
df
I can feel entertained
while reading
4.89
0.33
4.40
0.66
13.33
0.00***
705
I will read for the
purpose of leisure
entertainment
4.73
0.59
4.31
0.77
8.13
0.00***
504
I believe that reading
is a valuable activity
4.93
0.25
4.54
0.60
12.67
0.00***
738
I enjoy the fulfillment
after reading
4.87
0.36
4.44
0.66
11.52
0.00***
678
I believe that reading
is beneficial to the
habit and growth of
lifelong learning
4.92
0.27
4.54
0.61
11.85
0.00***
731
When I have time, I
usually read
4.73
0.51
4.22
0.79
10.52
0.00***
592
When I travel, I will
carry books and read
4.51
0.75
3.80
1.02
10.46
0.00***
529
I would be happy to
purchase my own
reading material
4.70
0.54
4.13
0.86
10.67
0.00***
609
When I find interesting
reading material, I will
share it with others
4.77
0.47
4.26
0.81
10.63
0.00***
646
I will read with other
family members and
friends
4.62
0.61
4.01
0.92
10.65
0.00***
586
Total
4.77
0.34
4.26
0.62
14.12
0.00***
676
Table 4-6. The variance analysis on the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and the personnel who are
not
***P<0.001
288
The variance analysis on reading attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, students, and
parents between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such
position
The attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, the reading habit of parents, and the reading
interaction between parent and child all provides positive influence on a child’s reading
attitude and behavior. During their participation in relevant reading activities, the teacher and
parent not only can share their learning experience, they can create a model that helps
students to engage and become highly involved in reading, and create a reading atmosphere
for the students. Thus, the reading attitudes and behaviors of the faculty and staff and
parents can influence the reading attitudes and behaviors of the students.
This major issue is to investigate the reading attitudes and behaviors of the faculty, staff,
parents, and students. However, the questionnaire did not directly inquire the faculty, staff,
parents, and students. The teacher librarians or the personnel in charge of the library were
asked to answer the questions based on their understanding of the situations.
Table 4-7 indicated that on the attitudes of faculty, staff, parents, and students, the parents of
all the schools (regardless of having teacher librarians or not) did not oppose their children in
reading extracurricular books. All the students enjoyed participate in reading activities
organized by the libraries. The faculty and staff greatly support the library in reading
promotion projects. The parents all supported their children in participating in the reading
activities organized by the library. The findings of this study indicate that the parents, faculty
and staff, and students shared positive attitude toward reading and reading activities.
The independent sample t test was adopted to analyze the difference between the two types
of school on the reading attitudes displayed by the faculty, staff, students, and parents. The
results indicated significant difference in each dimension. The school that employed teacher
librarians showed higher support from faculty, staff, students, and parents compared to the
schools without such position.
School with
School without
T
Significant
Standar
Standard
df
value test (P)
d
deviation
Mean deviation Mean
The faculty and staff are
supportive of the reading
promotion projects organized
by the library
4.35
0.72
3.75
0.88
9.61
0.00***
472
The faculty and staff enjoy
reading and are willing to
share their joy in reading
4.07
0.82
3.57
0.92
7.20
0.00***
437
The students enjoy
participating in reading
activities organized by the
library
4.44
0.61
3.76
0.90
11.93
0.00***
571
The students enjoy reading
and are willing to share their
joy in reading
4.22
0.68
3.63
0.94
9.51
0.00***
533
289
The students can motivate
themselves spontaneously to
reading extracurricular books
4.06
0.77
3.43
0.92
9.55
0.00***
463
The parents support their
children to participate in the
reading activities organized
by the library
4.36
0.75
3.73
0.92
9.62
0.00***
477
The parents do not oppose
their children in reading
extracurricular books
4.55
0.59
4.03
0.82
8.54
0.00***
739
The parents will read with
their children
3.77
0.86
3.04
1.03
9.18
0.00***
739
Total
4.23
0.57
3.62
0.76
11.97
0.00***
520
Table 4-7 The variance analysis on reading attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, students, and parents between schools that
employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position
***P<0.001
Conclusion
1) After the analysis of this study, the following conclusions were found:
2) Significant difference was found in fundamental operation and management of the
library; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this
area compared to the school without such positions.
3) Significant difference was found in the library-utilizing education; the schools that
employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the
school without such positions.
4) Significant difference was found in the development of library collection to support
teaching and promoting reading activities; the schools that employed teacher
librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such
positions.
5) Significant difference was found in team teaching and the participation in school
curriculum planning conducted by the teacher librarians; the schools that employed
teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without
such positions.
6) Significant difference was found in the integration of teaching resources of the various
academic fields in planning school-wide and comprehensive reading projects; the
schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area
compared to the school without such positions.
7) Significant difference was found in the reading attitudes and behaviors between the
teacher librarians and the personnel who did not carry this title; the schools that
employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the
school without such positions.
8) Significant difference was found in the reading attitudes of faculty, staff, students, and
parents; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this
area compared to the school without such positions.
290
9) The job responsibilities of a teacher librarian including library operation management,
library education, supporting teaching and learning, collaborative teaching, and
comprehensive reading planning and promotion indicated that the position is a
professional work that requires professional training. Although the current teacher
librarians in Taiwan do not require a full-time commitment and obtained short-term
training, this study indicated the excellent performance achieved by the teacher
librarians. The schools that employed teacher librarians showed higher qualities on
reading environment, reading education, reading support, and reading attitude
compared to the schools without this position. The finding supported the significant
value of investment by the government in supporting professional reading personnel.
References
AASL, & AECT. (1988). Information Power﹕Guidelines for School Library Media Programs.
Chicago: American Library Association.
Curriculum Development Council (2002). Basic Education and Curriculum Guide: Building on
the Strength (1st grade to 9th grade). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Bureau.
Dow, Mirah J., Lakin, Jacqueline McMahon, & Court, Stephen C. (2012). School Librarian
Staffing Levels and Student Achievement as Represented in 2006–2009 Kansas
Annual Yearly Progress Data. SCHOOL LIBRARY RESEARCH, 15.
Loertscher, David V, Ho, May Lein, & Bowie, Melvin M. (1987). " EXEMPLARY
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS" AND THEIR LIBRARY MEDIA CENTERS. School
Library Media Quarterly, 38-40.
Lu, Jui-Lien, & Lin, Chi-Hui (2008). A Delphi Study of Elementary Library Science Teachers’
Information Management Competence. Journal of National Taiwan Normal
University,53(2),83-110.
Morrison, T. G., Jacobs, J. S., & Swinyard, W. (1999). Do teachers who read personally use
recommended literacy practices in their classrooms? . Reading Reserch and
Instruction, 38(2), 81-100.
Wang, Ling Yan (2009). A study of relationship between the kindergarten classroom reading
environments, teacher reading attitudes and young children reading attitudes
(Unpublished master’s thesis). National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
291
Mind the gap: school librarians’
anticipated and preferred professional
development methods for integration
of digital textbooks
Ji Hei Kang
142 Collegiate Loop, Tallahassee, FL 32306
USA
jk11e@my.fsu.edu
Abstract
While the mandate to adopt digital textbooks in the U.S. state of Florida is looming for
the next school year, there has been few discussion about how to provide professional
development for school librarians who will be expected to play a leadership role. This
study identifies both preferred and anticipated methods of professional development of
Florida school librarians and the gap between them. It has been found that school
librarians wish to initiate their training with other colleagues through workshops and
study groups, which will enable them to discuss digital textbooks, and build networks
with respect to the new technology. The anticipated way, however, reflects the
environment of solo librarians. In conclusion, this study urges that professional
development that will enlarge their viewpoint and enhance their awareness of the need
for methods of implementation of digital textbooks, is urgently required.
Keywords: professional development, digital textbooks, school librarian
Introduction
The comprehensive adoption of digital technology has led to the exploration of digital
textbook initiatives: twelve states in the U.S. (Fletcher, Schaffhauser, & Levin, 2012), and
such countries as Denmark, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea have initiated
digital textbook projects (Kampylis et al., 2013). This trend is projected to expand (Murray &
Perez, 2011): by the 2015-2016 school year, it will be mandatory in Florida to use only digital
textbooks for public schools from kindergarten through grade twelve (K–12) (The Florida
Senate, 2011).
With this mandate, school librarians are expected to play a leadership role in integrating
technology into schools while also taking charge of various traditional tasks (Everhart,
Mardis, & Johnston, 2012; Johnston, 2012; Perez, 2013). In order to help school librarians be
leaders in implementing digital textbooks, it is essential for them to have opportunities for
292
professional development. There should be wider discussion about such professional
development, as various factors impact how educators integrate technology, including
content, depth, and delivery format (Claesgens et al., 2013; Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009).
Empirical research to identify professional development for digital textbook implementation is
not present in the literature. As an initial step, this exploratory study identifies the methods of
professional development that school librarians prefer and anticipate to educate themselves
in digital textbook integration. This study also suggests an improved method to provide
professional development tools by analyzing the gaps between the expected and anticipated.
Literature Review
School librarians have taken on various roles, such as leaders, instructional partners,
information specialists, teachers, and program administrators (American Association of
School Librarians, 2009). The new leadership roles for integrating technology in schools are
still emerging for school librarians (Branch-Mueller & De Groot, 2011; Everhart et al., 2012;
Johnston, 2012; Lankford, 2006; Perez, 2013). School librarians are expected to increase
instruction and services for learners, in addition to collaborating with teachers, counselors,
and administrators to provide better access and promote information literacy (Perez, 2010).
Previous research asserts that professional development has been a valued approach for
educators to continue learning about educational technology innovations. This in turn
reinforces leadership development (Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009; Muijs & Harris, 2007), a
key type of professional development for school librarians to integrate technology into
schools (Johnston, 2012; Perez, 2010) and they have employed a variety of professional
development methods such as traditional conferences, workshops, periodicals, and books.
Yet school librarians are also using 21st century tools such as wikis, blogs, online learning
communities, collaborative dialogue, and professional learning networks (Harvey, 2012;
Starkey, 2012). After a recent radical restructuring of professional development channels,
professional development tools can be customized and include free online webinars,
livestreams, Twitter chats and podcasts. School librarians are encouraged for to use digital
these tools (Foote, 2013), but the discussion about professional development for digital
textbook implementation remains absent.
On the other hand, digital textbooks which may seem simple on the surface, have complex
and unique features. Digital textbooks are now encompass “a reader, read-on-demand
computer-based textbooks, print-on-demand digital textbooks, and modular assemblages of
audio, visual, interactive, and text resources” (Mardis, Everhart, Smith, Newsum, & Baker,
2010, p. 3). This provides various interactive functions for students to study anytime and
anywhere by containing “reference books, workbooks, learner's dictionaries, notebooks, and
existing textbooks as well” (The Korea Education and Research Information Service
(KERIS), 2009, para. 1). School librarians’ will continue to implement their expert knowledge
at “identifying, collecting, and organizing the best content” (Mardis et al., 2010, p. 14) and
building open-content learning resources. They will also continue to collaborate with
classroom teachers in the use of digital textbooks.
293
Data Collection
In order to identify school librarians’ anticipated and preferred professional development
methods, the researcher conducted a survey with Florida school librarians in October, 2012.
The researcher promoted the research among the members of the Florida Association for
Media in Education (FAME) and recruited 170 school librarians from both primary and
secondary schools (K-12).
There were two questions regarding professional development methods and the
questionnaires allowed for multiple responses. The first question—inquiring about anticipated
professional development methods—obtained 568 answers from 160 participants. The
second question asked about preferred professional development methods and obtained 462
answers from 158 participants.
Data Analysis
The researcher investigated two survey questions and identified the gap between anticipated
and preferred methods of professional development:
Figure 2: Anticipated and preferred professional development methods
What method do school librarians prefer for professional development regarding
digital textbooks?
Regarding the preferred way to be educated about digital textbooks, the survey found that
22.9% (n=106) of responses preferred “county or school-based workshops.” Workshops are
considered a very hands-on way for school librarians to plunge into discussion, and are the
best method to build networking (Harvey, 2012). Analysis thus suggests that school librarians
need more in-depth meetings to interact with other school librarians.
Of the responses, 17.5% (n=81) preferred “colleagues or study groups with colleagues”,
15.4% (n=71) “professional seminars including webinars”, and 9.1% (n=42) preferred
“conferences.” These high-ranked methods consist of 64.9% of all responses, indicating that
school librarians prefer to be educated in a collaborative way. The six methods that got lower
answers, suggest that school librarians have low interest in being educated as follows:
294
14.7% (n=68) “on the job”,6.9% (n=28) “by myself”, 6.1% (n=28) “online course”, 5.2%
(n=24) “mentors”, 1.7% (n=8) “university campus-based courses”, and 0.4% (n=2) “other”
methods.
What do school librarians anticipate for professional development regarding digital
textbooks?
The second question pertains to which methods school librarians anticipate in order to
educate themselves about digital textbooks based on their previous experience. Unlike the
answers about their ‘preferred’ way, the answers for anticipated professional development
methods are more concentrated. The highest ranking method is “on the job” (20.1%, n=113)
indicating librarians expect to be educated on the job. The third highest method is “by myself”
(17.2%, n=97). These two methods describe modern school librarians’ working environment
as solo librarians who work independently.
The traditional methods are as follows: “county or school-based workshops” (18.5%, n=104),
“colleagues or study groups with colleagues” (15.8%, n=89), “professional seminars including
webinars” (12.1%, n=68) and “conferences” (8.7%, n=49).
Gap between anticipated way and preferred way
Statistical analysis confirms that school librarians express strong disagreement between the
anticipated and preferred ways. The researcher entered the statistical data into Statistical
Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 21.0. The anticipated percentage of each
method differs by the expectation percentage: χ2 (1, N = 1025) = 42.503, p = .00. Figure 2
indicates the percentage gaps between anticipated and preferred methods.
Figure 3: The gap between anticipation and preference
Among the ten items, “by myself” has the biggest gap (10.3%). It means that the selfeducation is the way that school librarians did not want to have, but they anticipated that they
295
would have most. As another indicator of self-education, “on the job” received 5.4%,
indicating that more school librarians anticipated that they would educate themselves during
their jobs. On the other hand, 4.5% more school librarians preferred “county or school based
workshops” for their professional development, and 3.3% of school librarians preferred
“professional seminars including webinars”. Although a small number of participants chose
“online course”, 3% more librarians selected “online courses” for their preferred method of
professional development.
Conclusion and Suggestions
Although the previous literature has indicated that professional development, and the
methods by which that is accomplished, are significant for the integration of technology in
schools, there has been no discussion about how to provide professional development for
school librarians in integrating digital textbooks. In order to stimulate discussion on this
subject, this study identifies both preferred and anticipated methods of professional
development and the gap between them. It has been found that school librarians wish to
initiate their training with other colleagues through workshops and study groups, which will
enable them to discuss digital textbooks, and build networks with respect to the new
technology. This result is consistent with Kang and Everhart's (2014) research. Since school
librarians’ most significant stage of concern is Stage 0, Unconcerned, and most of them have
lower stages of concern (unconcerned, personal and informational stages), they will require
consultations and discussions about digital textbooks in order to understand their
importance. However, the anticipated method reflects the environment of the solo librarian,
who is likely to receive professional development alone or on the job. These two methods
differ greatly. Because school librarians are largely not yet interested in the implementation
of digital textbooks, it is worth noting that professional development should address not only
technical skills, but also school librarians’ beliefs and attitudes (Hixon & Buckenmeyer,
2009).
Digital textbooks will be embraced in the next school year, and school librarians, who are
leaders in technology integration, still express lower stages of concern about the subject. In
order to help school librarians play their part by creating new services, collaborating with
other educators, and celebrating this new technology, professional development that will
enlarge their viewpoint and enhance their awareness of the need for methods of
implementation of digital textbooks, is urgently required.
References
American Association of School Librarians. (2009). Empowering learners: Guidelines for
school library media programs. Chicago: American Association of School
Librarians.
Branch-Mueller, J., & De Groot, J. (2011). The power of Web 2.0: Teacher-librarians become
school technology leaders. School Libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 25-41.
Claesgens, J., Rubino-Hare, L. L. h. n. e., Bloom, N., Fredrickson, K., Henderson-Dahms, C.,
Menasco, J., & Sample, J. (2013). Professional development integrating
technology: Does delivery format matter? Science Educator, 22(1), 10-18.
296
Everhart, N., Mardis, M., & Johnston, M. P. (2012). National Board Certified school librarians’
leadership in technology integration: Results of a national survey. School Library
Media Research, 14, 1-19.
Fletcher, G., Schaffhauser, D., & Levin, D. (2012). Out of print: Reimagining the K-12
textbook in a digital age. Washington, DC: The State Educational Technology
Directors Association (SETDA).
Foote, C. (2013). From professional development to personalized learning. Library Media
Connection, 31(4), 34-35.
Harvey, C. A. (2012). Adult learners: Professional development and the school librarian.
Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited, an imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC.
Hixon, E., & Buckenmeyer, J. (2009). Revisiting technology integration in schools:
Implications for professional development. Computers in the Schools, 26(2), 130146. doi: 10.1080/07380560902906070
Johnston, M. P. (2012). Connecting teacher librarians for technology integration leadership.
School Libraries Worldwide, 18(1), 18-33.
Kampylis, P., Law, N., Punie, Y., Bocconi, S., Brečko, B., Han, S., . . . Miyake, N. (2013).
ICT-enabled innovation for learning in Europe and Asia. Retrieved from
http://ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/JRC83503.pdf doi:10.2791/25303
Kang, J. H., & Everhart, N. (2014). Digital textbooks: School librarians' stages of concerns in
initial implementation. Information Research, 19(2), paper 625. Retrieved from
http://InformationR.net/ir/19-2/paper625.html
Lankford, M. D. (2006). Leadership and the school librarian: Essays from leaders in the field.
Worthington, Ohio: Linworth Pub.
Mardis, M., Everhart, N., Smith, D., Newsum, J., & Baker, S. (2010). From paper to pixel:
Digital textbooks and Florida's schools. Tallahassee, FL: PALM (Partnerships
Advancing Library Media) Center.
Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2007). Teacher leadership in action: Three case studies of contrasting
schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(1), 111-134.
doi: 10.1177/1741143207071387
Murray, M. C., & Perez, J. (2011). E-textbooks are coming: Are we ready? Issues in
Informing Science & Information Technology, 8, 49-60.
Perez, L. (2010). The Role of school librarians in promoting the use of educational
technologies. Teacher Librarian, 38(1), 72-73.
Perez, L. (2013). Master librarian. Knowledge Quest, 41(4), 22-26.
297
Starkey, C. J. (2012). Releasing your inner leader. Knowledge Quest, 40(3), 10-13. The
Florida Senate. (2011). SB 2120: K-12 Education Funding. Retrieved from
http://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2011/2120
The Korea Education and Research Information Service (KERIS). (2009). Digital Textbook.
Retrieved from http://www.dtbook.kr/renew/english/index.htm
Biographical note
Ji Hei Kang is a doctoral candidate at the School of Information within the College of
Communication and Information at Florida State University (FSU), USA. The main topic that
she focuses on is school librarians’ leadership role in implementing technological
innovations. For her dissertation project, she is conducting research analyzing school
librarians’ Stages of Concern in employing digital textbooks. She plans to follow up her
research by applying a qualitative method to identify school librarians’ Level of Use of digital
textbooks. She is also interested in studying how librarians promote new types of educational
technology, such as mobile augmented reality and big data, in theory and practice. She can
be contacted at jk11e@my.fsu.edu.
298
Information literacy: Hong Kong
primary teachers’ perceptions of the
role of the teacher librarian
Leung Yuet Ha, Angel
HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education;
Rm608, Chun Mau House, Ko Chun Court, Yau Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong;
China/Hong Kong;
ambitiousangel_iasl@yahoo.com.hk
Abstract
This study aims at investigating Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the
teacher librarian role in relation to information literacy. Primary teachers’ responsibility
for equipping students with information literacy skills in cooperation with the teacher
librarian is focused. A mixed-method of quantitative and qualitative approach was
taken. The data were collected through questionnaires sent to every tenth primary
schools listed in the Primary School Profiles 2011 published by the Committee on
Home-School Co-operation, EDB, HKSAR and face to face interview with six
questionnaire respondents. Questionnaires were sent to 146 schools. 75 teacher
respondents answered and sent back. The results have identified teachers’
understanding of information literacy, the need to develop student such skills,
professional development needs and teaching in terms of information literacy skills,
government policies and school administration related to the teacher librarian role.
Some suggestions were made regarding to teachers’ professional development needs
in terms of information literacy.
Keywords: Information Literacy, information technology and information skills;
Differences in the teacher librarian role; Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of
the teacher librarian role; teachers’ professional development need in terms of
information literacy; CPT and flexible library timetable.
The research problem and its context
Information needs and library programs in the information age
Advances in computers and information technology mean that the world is now experiencing
the ‘Age of Information’ (Heilprin, 1989). According to Todd 1996, the amount of information
available is growing rapidly at an exponential rate. Production, processing and use of
information have become one of the most important human activities. The world economy is
changing from one based on manufacturing to one based on information (Ontario Ministry of
Education and Training, 1995) and the major unit of exchange has shifted from goods to
information or knowledge. “Knowledge is information from every available source, analysed
299
and targeted to needs. The skills for doing this are what we mean by information literacy”
(Latham, 1998, p.1). Extracts from Doyle’s (1993) and McKenzie’s (1998) work defined
information literacy as the six skills of formulating need based questions; identifying and
locating all possible sources of information effectively; evaluating and organizing information
for application; combining new information with the existing knowledge to create new
knowledge; making informed decisions; and using information in problem solving. Information
literacy is also at the core of lifelong learning (American Association of School Librarians,
1998). To ensure the employability of workers, the government must provide citizens with the
necessary education and training to ensure that they know about and are able to use
information literacy skills (Latham, 1998). In the information age, the mission of the programs
run by the teacher librarians in school libraries is to ensure that students and staff are
effective users of ideas and information. These programs should be centered on information
literacy that are designed around active and relevant learning where the skills learnt can be
used in daily life (American Association of School Librarians, 1998). Since 1998, Hong Kong
government has provided each primary school with a school library and a teacher librarian to
manage the library. This is a rather unique development which requires scrutiny and
investigation of the role of the teacher librarian.
The provision of the teacher librarians and their roles
In Hong Kong schools, before 1997, the Chinese and English Extensive Reading Schemes
had been implemented by phases by the Education Department, HKSAR. Since 1997, the
government has extended these schemes “gradually to cover Primary 1 to Secondary 5”
(Education Department, 1997, cited in Education Bureau, HKSAR, 2012, n.p.). School
libraries and teacher librarians have been provided by the government for primary schools
since 1998. Such provision was to “enhance the library services and to coordinate the
implementation of the Chinese and English Extensive Reading Schemes in primary schools”
(Education Department, HKSAR, 1998, n.p.). It did not mention meeting the information
needs of students in this new and ever-changing information age by equipping them with
information literacy skills. It was not until 2001, the duty of the teacher librarian to “enhance
students’ self-learning ability and attitude in project learning” (Education Department,
HKSAR, 2001, p.2) was legislated. In 2002, the need to develop student independent
learning skills was stressed in the education reform document when the Education
Department, HKSAR, (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) set out seven learning goals
that Hong Kong students should be able to achieve in ten years' time. Independent learning
skills were the fifth goal. In 2010, independent learning was reiterated together with lifelong
learning by the Education Bureau (formerly known as Education Department), HKSAR, in the
Consultation Document on the Information Technology for Quality Education (Education
Bureau, HKSAR, 2010). What the newly established teacher librarian in Hong Kong primary
schools should and can do is unprecedented. The role of the teacher librarian has never
been made explicit to the teachers. In May 2000, A Pilot Scheme on Collaboration and
Learning: Role of the Teacher Librarian, was jointly organized by the Education Department
and District Teacher Network, Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association
(Education Department, HKSAR, 2000; District Teacher Network, 2000). A team of the
principal or the vice-principal, one to two subject teachers and the teacher librarian from each
school were invited to participate in order to gain an understanding of the value of
collaborative planning and teaching (CPT) between subject teachers and the teacher
librarian. A video recording of this pilot project and the practices that were developed was
300
produced, but follow-up sessions and new resources have not happened and have not been
produced.
Interpretation of the legislated teacher librarian role
Although the role of the teacher librarian is legislated, the interpretation of this varies in
different schools. Their duty ranges from the circulation of library materials to the set of
information services that integrate school library resources into effective classroom learning
activities (McDougald and Bowie, 1997). One of the key ways of determining what the role of
the teacher librarian looks like is to consider the teaching workload issues that face teacher
librarians. From the school year of 2003/04 to 2007/08, the Library Section, Education
Bureau, HKSAR (2009) had collected data of the overall teaching workload, including the
teaching of library lessons, of teacher librarians. Questionnaires were completed by the
teacher librarian of all schools at the beginning of each school year and sent back to the
Library Section of the Education Department, HKSAR. Most (19 – 26%) of the teacher
librarians had to teach 11-20 lessons per week in addition to managing the school library in
primary schools. The number of teaching lessons per week ranged from zero to 31 showing
a great variety of deployment models.
In-service training and professional development of teacher librarians
Year after year, the government continues to fund the in-service teacher librarianship training
for newly appointed teacher librarians who then work as ordinary subject teachers when they
go back to school after such training. The huge gap between the latest global professional
development trends in teacher librarianship introduced in the training courses of teacher
librarians and the actual practices in participants’ schools have been a source of frustration
for me ever since I have been involved in all the above including being an ordinary subject
teacher, a newly appointed teacher librarian in 1998 and in another school in 2008, a
participant in the pilot scheme in 2000 and a part-time tutor of the Diploma in Teacher
Librarianship in the University of Hong Kong, School of Professional and Continuing
Education, which is totally funded by the government. Most course participants complain that
they are part-time teacher librarians. They cannot find their specific role in their schools.
They are assigned to subject teaching jobs which are their major duties in addition to
managing the library. Very limited time resource is allocated for the library related work. Most
participants of the course are not working as full-time teacher librarians. What they learn in
the training course can hardly be put into practice when they go back to their schools.
Principals and subject teachers have no ideas about their instructional roles solely as teacher
librarians. So subject teaching duties are assigned to them. There is hardly any personal
pursuance of professional development.
The two year in-service professional training for a mostly part-time job is questionable. The
government, school administrators and teachers are not consistent in their expectations of
the fully funded professional training course for teacher librarians. There is a huge gap
between the budget spent funding such a professional training course and the daily job
conditions of the professionally trained teacher librarians. Participants of the training course
often complain that their teacher colleagues and the principals do not understand their
specific role. To some extent, the principals’ perceptions represent teachers’ perceptions. In
the long term, experienced teachers will become principals. So studying teachers today
involves the principals of tomorrow. Principals’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian
have a direct impact on utilizing such a post which in turn shapes the teachers’ perceptions
301
of the role of the teacher librarian. Being the part-time tutor of the training course for newly
appointed teacher librarians, I have to face the course participants who have difficulties
performing their specific role to collaborate with their teacher partners to equip students with
information literacy skills. I need to know what teachers think or how they perceive this role
which drives me to carry out this research.
Literature review
Information Literacy, information technology and information skills
The definition of information literacy for the necessary skills has been discussed in the
previous section. For attitudes and mindset, I combine Stauffer Library, Queen’s University’s
(2012), Colorado Educational Media Association’s (1994) and Association of College and
Research Libraries of American Library Association’s (1998) information literacy
characteristics to include the following:
 actively deal with ideas;
 be confident to solve problems;
 function smoothly whether there are more than one answers or none;
 complete work to high standards and create quality products;
 be flexible and adaptable;
 function independently and in groups; aware of opportunities;
 being able to express personal ideas; develop arguments;
 refute others’ opinions when necessary;
 learn new things and identify the truth.
One of the eight Key Learning Areas in Hong Kong primary schools is Information
Technology (Education Bureau, HKSAR, 2015). Information technology and information
literacy have always been taken as similar in education settings. There is a need to
distinguish information literacy from information technology so that the research area of this
study will not be misunderstood. Bruce (1995) argued that information literacy is the ability to
use information technology for information retrieval and communication. Stauffer Library,
Queen’s University (2012) clarified the relation between them by saying that information
literacy includes computer literacy. Computer skill enables people to use electronic
information tools to gain access to information which is only part of the variety of information
tools. It should not take greater value than other tools. Computers do not think by themselves
so that effective searches rely totally upon the searchers themselves.
One of the four 2002 legislated teacher librarian roles by Hong Kong government states that
teacher librarians are information and media specialists who develop students' information
skills. The relation between information literacy and information skills needs to be clarified.
According to The Library, University of Bath (2015), information skills include: Finding
quality information, avoiding plagiarism and the ability to find, evaluate and synthesize
various
sources of information. Carey (1998) pointed out that information skills are an indispensable
component of information literacy.
Differences in the roles of teacher librarians
302
School Library Association of South Australia (SLASA) (2008) highlighted the dual role of
teacher librarians as both teachers and information specialists. They issued the Teacher
Librarian Role Statement which can be adapted to suit the level of responsibility of the
teacher librarian. When all the roles listed are fulfilled, the teacher librarian is at a leadership
level. I would like to compare some of the teacher librarian role stated by SLASA and the
Education Bureau (EDB), HKSAR (2002) below.
In the teaching and learning role of the teacher librarian, SLASA listed training students to
seek, critically evaluate, synthesize and present information. These are the four out of the six
skills in the definition of information literacy discussed in the previous section. EDB, HKSAR
did not list the information literacy skills to be learnt by students. Rather, a comparatively
general role of the teacher librarian to facilitate the development of information literacy within
the school was legislated. Developing resource-based programs to enhance the independent
learning skills of students was also stressed. SLASA listed integrating the necessary
knowledge, skills and dispositions of the South Australian Curriculum Standards and
Accountability Framework into teaching and learning programs. EDB, HKSAR did not list
integration of skills into teaching. SLASA listed collaboratively planning and teaching units of
study with subject and classroom teachers to develop information literacy skills. EDB,
HKSAR also listed working collaboratively with teachers in planning and teaching. But the
aim was to promote the use of a wide range of information sources in learning and teaching.
In curriculum involvement, SLASA listed being a partner in planning, implementing and
assessing school policies relating to the curriculum and advocating student information
literacy across the curriculum. These were missing in EDB, HKSAR’s teacher librarian role
statement. According to SLASA, the aim of working with teachers was to establish a schoolwide information skills continuum and to cooperate with school administrators to incorporate
Information and Communication Technology into the curriculum. In the EDB, HKSAR’s role
statement, such aim does not relate to skill learning but to identify required curriculum
content, appropriate information resources to develop school-based curriculum strategies
such as project learning and “life-wide” learning activities.
In services, the aim of coordinating resources by SLASA was to support the information
needs of the whole school. Such aim by EDB, HKSAR was to support learning through
reading and curriculum development. SLASA listed arranging efficient policies for delivery of
services, including flexible time-tabling for use of the library which was not mentioned in
EDB, HKSAR’s statement. The role of the teacher librarian is central to this research. There
will be research questions arising out of the role of the teacher librarian.
Cooperative planning and teaching (CPT)
Henri (1990 ) claimed that cooperative planning and teaching (CPT) is an instructional model
in which the teacher librarian and the class teacher are equal partners in the instructional
process. They share the responsibility for the planning, implementing and evaluating of
learning programs that incorporate information literacy. Resource based enquiry approaches
will be employed wherever suitable to maximize the contribution from the teacher librarian
through the use of a wide range of learning resources, and the application of information
skills. The role that each of the partners plays varies from a little more than an exchange of
ideas to the very detailed and time consuming input from both partners resulting in a fully
integrated unit of work in the optimum use of the partners which is most likely to enhance
303
student learning. The information skills that are trained in a unit must be appropriate to the
learners’ need as it arises, in curriculum context, not scheduled at the beginning of the year,
not just an extra item.
“When a decision is made to involve the teacher librarian in the assessment of student
work, it makes sense to involve the teacher librarian in the assessment of the students
and their use of information skills. It makes little sense simply to divide the students’
work into two piles” (Henri, 1990, p.12).
Class teachers benefit from getting a few trusted items and relevant information to the topic
without going through unnecessary ones. They have no time to read more than enough
materials (Henri, 1990).
Flexible library timetable
Mills (1991) argued that to carry out CPT, administrative changes must be made in the use of
the school library. The library accommodates the students’ learning needs as they arise. Its
use is not determined by a schedule. Fisher (2000) claimed that the flexible library timetable
enables teachers to decide the frequency and length of library time in need. Students will go
to the library with the needs to solve problems making the library visit more motivated to
learn and practice their locating skills. Individual students are able to seek immediate
answers to the problems they encounter in the classroom. Small groups from different levels
can share the same library space and time slot so long as the resources needed are
different. The reference collection and audio visual resources will play their role as research
tools which they should be. Literature and non-fiction books can play an active role in
creative subjects such as Art and Writing.
“Lessons, activities, assignments on units of study will be planned co-operatively by the
teacher and library staff by first checking to see the extent of relevant resources in the library.
Teachers can share unit activities and resources more effectively and thus save doubling up
on preparation and time”(Fisher, 2000, n.p.).
The research title and questions
The title of this research is: Information literacy: Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of
the role of the teacher librarian. The following questions are derived from the research title:
 What is the role of the teacher librarian in Hong Kong primary schools?
 What are teachers’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian?
 How have these perceptions developed?
 What are teachers’ perceptions of information literacy skills?
 Who do teachers think are responsible for developing student information literacy skills?
 What strategies teachers have been adopting to develop information literacy skills
 amongst their pupils?
Findings and discussions
This section discusses some of the findings from the data collected from the questionnaire
survey and the open ended questions in the questionnaire survey and the face to face
interview. The qualitative data collected are represented by fifteen themes and their
subthemes. Some themes have only one subtheme while others have more than one. They
are bolded for easy identification. “Respondents” refers to questionnaire respondents. To
304
enhance the clarity of presentation, direct quotations of the interviewees’ responses are
italicized and enclosed with double quotation marks. (Q16:2) means interview question 16
responded by Interviewee Two. The literature reviewed is referred to during the discussions.
Teachers’ understood information literacy skills as observing copyright
66.3% respondents said that they understood information literacy skills. An examination of
their specification in their own words about what they understood by “information literacy
skills” found that 42% understood them as copyright. McKenzie (1998) mentioned three
components of information literacy. One of them is creating new insights and fresh
knowledge which is completely different from rehashing others’ ideas and plagiarizing. It
means information literate people observe copyright. The ability of observing copyright is
only one of the information literacy skills.
Teachers take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills
11% respondents take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills.
Stauffer Library, Queen’s University (2012) clarified the relation between the two by saying
that information literacy included computer literacy. Computer skill enables people to use
electronic information tools to gain access to information which is only part of the variety of
information tools. It should not take greater value than other tools. Computers do not think by
themselves so that effective searches rely totally upon the searchers themselves. Most
(61.3%) respondents selected “another person” who mainly teaches students how to use
information in an ethical and responsible way. 79.2% of this another person are Information
Technology (Computer) teachers. This shows that teachers take information literacy skills as
part of information technology skills which might be taught by information technology
teachers. It is just the opposite according to Stauffer Library. It is further evidenced by one
respondent who said that, “Information Technology panel head,” was the person who was
mainly responsible for developing teachers' and students' information searching skills and
information literacy skills in the use of the school library collection. “But s/he does not
necessarily use the school library collection.” S/he took information literacy skills as
information technology skills which could be disconnected with library books. Similarly, in
Interview Data Theme Thirteen: Teachers’ information literacy skills ─ understand
information literacy skills as Information Technology ability to use a computer, tablet PC and
software. The 66.3% respondents said that they understood information literacy was not
completely reliable when compared with the literature. Two third, the majority of the
respondents did not give reasons to support their agreement to the fact that “information
literacy skills are necessary in the information age”. That mirrors 32.4% of the respondents
who said that they were at the poor level of understanding information literacy skills.
Most (33%) respondents agreed that the initial teacher training course prepared teachers to
teach information literacy skills. Given the fact that teachers take information literacy skills as
part of information technology skills, are they assuming that the training of information
technology skills provided by the government and in teacher training includes information
literacy skills? Such assumption is supported by the following statement, “It is the
responsibility for all teachers to teach information literacy skills, however training is not
necessary” (Q12:2, 3). The assumption that information technology skills include information
literacy skills misleads teachers to the following statements:
 “The 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist can be
fulfilled by non-teaching clerical staff” (Q16:2).
305


“The 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist is not
the case in my school” (Q13:1, 2, 4), (Q14: 2, 4), ( Q15:2).
It is recommended to clarify the relationship between information literacy skills and
information technology skills in teacher training course.
Teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop student information literacy skills
The third largest group (47.3%) chose "Students learn how to solve a problem on their own
by searching for relevant information from the school library" to be a difference to the
teaching and learning since the presence of the teacher librarian in their school since 1998.
Less than half schools have such student performance. Only two related examples were
provided by the interviewees in the interview. Solving problems independently is one of the
six information literacy skills. Function independently is one of the information literacy
characteristics. Teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop student such skills were
reflected in the interview data as Interviewee One said,
“In my school, senior grades do more project-based learning. Each time when we do project
learning, the teacher must ask students to find information from the following sources:
newspapers, books, Internet resources. So we will certainly ask students to go to the library
to try to find information. They need to search for information not just from our school library,
also from libraries outside our school. Of course, given the ability of the students, whether
they are able to find suitable resource is another matter, but we must ask students to really
get to the library to find appropriate resources / information. May be even not just projectbased learning, sometimes for homework, we also ask them to do so. So the teacher
librarian does his/her duty to help students find resources” (Q45:1).
“Project learning” (Curriculum Development Council, HKSAR, 2001, p.83) is one of the four
key tasks in the education reform in Hong Kong since 2001. The above school is really
implementing it. All teachers are involved including the teacher librarian. Students
increasingly need the skills to search for suitable information which they are simply asked to
during project learning and in doing homework. Definitely, they need the two skills of
“identifying and locating all possible sources of information effectively; and, evaluating and
organizing information for application” out of a series of six information literacy skills. They
also need the other four skills of formulating need based questions when deciding on their
project titles; combining new information with the existing knowledge to create new
knowledge to achieve their project learning outcome; making informed decision when
answering the project learning question and using information in problem solving when they
present their project learning results. The teaching in this school reflects the questionnaire
survey result of 93.2% teachers strongly or agreed that “information literacy skills are
necessary in the information age”. Twenty four out of seventy five, nearly one third of the
respondents gave the following reasons to support their agreement:
 “The wealth of information is part of life.”
 “Work more efficiently.”
 “Do not want to cause ‘crime’ due to ‘convenience’”.
 “Opportunities for the need of using information technology in daily life and classroom
learning are increasing. Unable to grasp the information literacy skills will inevitably
create obstacles for learning, will most likely be eliminated by the information age.”
 “Now it is too easy to receive all kinds of information, people must know how to
distinguish and choose the true and beneficial.”
 “The online world is the same as the real world. It reflects personal behavior and quality.
306
Each person should be responsible for their own actions.”
 “Lacking this skill will become blindly and will be utilized to create a force. It may
eventually contribute to cyberbullying.”
 “Avoid breaking the law, to educate the importance of respecting intellectual property
rights.”
These are only a small part of the information literacy attitude and mindset of being confident
to solve problems; function smoothly whether there is more than one answer or none; learn
new things and identify the truth. In project learning group work and doing homework,
students need more information literacy skills, attitudes and mindset such as completing
work to high standards and creating quality products; be flexible and adaptable; function
independently and in groups; aware of opportunities; being able to express personal ideas;
develop arguments; refute others’ opinions when necessary as mentioned in the literature
review.
The reasons of agreeing that “information literacy skills are necessary in the information age”
provided by the respondents show that being a community member in the globalized
information society; teachers have already sensed the importance of information literacy.
However, being the front line educators and teachers who are students’ significant adults,
they lack the information literacy cognition. They need the comprehensive and professional
understanding of information literacy skills and most importantly, the way to equip students
with them because they have such responsibility as in Interview Data Theme Six: Agree with
the 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist ─ we need
to develop students' information skills.
The second largest group (30%) of respondents disagreed that the initial teacher training
course prepared teachers to teach information literacy skills. That means not all the teachers
are ready to teach information literacy skills. It was argued that “Only when teachers
understand that information literacy must begin with them, is an information literate school
community possible” (Henri, Hay and Oberg, 2002, p.2). 58.9% respondents chose
“Awareness of information literacy skills” to be the way to help them utilize the skills of the
teacher librarian and 41.1% chose “Developing your personal information literacy skills.” It is
recommended that the initial teacher training course develop teacher information literacy
skills and prepare teachers to teach information literacy skills.
Teachers’ perception of further professional development needs in terms of
information literacy skills.
Most (57%) respondents agreed that they have further professional development needs in
terms of information literacy skills. This is consistent with Interview Data Theme Fourteen:
Teachers’ responses regarding information literacy skills ─ it is the responsibility for all
teachers to teach information literacy skills. The following kinds of training requirement are
needed for them to be able to do that:
1. “Coupled with the ability of teachers to use information technology, what is information
literacy? How to teach students knowledge in this area?”(Q12:1)
2. “In today's heavy teaching, teachers cannot afford to attend courses frequently. In my
school experience, different subject teachers go out to attend lectures. The message will
be disseminated in our school's own sharing sessions and staff meetings. The teacher
librarian, who gets his /her training, can share with us when s/he comes back” (Q12:6).
3. “Some workshops by the Education Bureau for colleagues to attend. Let colleagues know
307
what to pay attention to.….. Or simply circulate a memo. Then we will all know about
what we have to comply with the Code” (Q12:4).
4. “First teachers have to correct the concept that making use of information and library
materials are the duties of the teacher librarian or the Information Technology teacher.
Now learning is not a teacher only responsible for a subject. When teachers are on the
Internet, endless and unlimited information appear. How should we apply the information
and do screening? When encountering copyright issues, some skills are needed. Some
points need to be noted. We should not casually use someone’s information. How to tell
whether one is able to use the information correctly? If teachers are aware of these, they
are willing to share the work to help students learn” (Q12:5).
Other findings and discussions include:
 The relationship between the role of the specialized teacher who teaches information
literacy skills and the responsibility of all teachers to teach such skills.
 There is no conventional way of teaching information literacy skills.
 The legislated teacher librarian role is not known explicitly to all.
 The library does not have a curriculum guideline. The progress of each school is not the
same.
 Disagree with some items in the 1998 legislated teacher librarian role items (a) to (j).
 Teachers’ perceptions of the teacher librarian role as a teaching partner.
 Teachers’ perceptions of the four roles of the teacher librarian legislated in 2002.
 Trained teacher librarians fulfil the role of ordinary subject teachers.
 Reading materials versus curriculum-related resources.
 Administration jobs versus management jobs in a library.
References
American Association of School Librarians, Association for Educational Communication and
Technology (1998). Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning,
American Library Association, Chicago and London.
Association of College and Research Libraries, American Library Association (1998). A
Progress Report on Information Literacy: An Update on the American Library
Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report [online].
Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/progressreport
Bruce C. (1995). Information literacy: how do university educators understand this
phenomenon? Paper submitted to Learning for Life-Information Literacy and the
Autonomous Learner, 2nd National Conference on Information Literacy, to be held
in Adelaide 30 Nov-1 Dec, 1995.
Carey J. O. (1998). Library Skills, Information Skills, and Information Literacy: Implications for
Teaching and Learning [online]. Retrieved from
file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/angel/My%20Documents/DEd/Literature
%20Review/SLMR_LibrarySkills_V1.pdf
Colorado Educational Media Association (1994). Information Literacy Guidelines. Denver,
Colo.: Colorado Department of Education.
308
Curriculum Development Council, HKSAR, China (2001). Learning to learn: Life-long
learning and whole-person development ─The way forward in curriculum
development. Hong Kong: CDC, HKSAR.
Doyle C. S. (1993). The Delphi Method as a Qualitative Assessment Tool for Development of
Outcome Measures for Information Literacy. School Library Media Annual (SLMA),
v11, pp.132-144.
Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2012). Overview on Primary Education [online]. Retrieved
from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primarysecondary/primary/overview/index.html
Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2015). Subjects under the 8 Key Learning Areas. [online].
Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/curriculum-development/cs-curriculumdoc-report/8-key-area/index.html
Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2010). Consultation Document on the Information
Technology for Quality Education Chapter 1 - Our Vision [online]. Retrieved from
http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/about-edb/press/consultation/it-quality-edu/ch1.html
Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2002). Basic Education Curriculum Guide -- Building on
Strengths, Booklet 7 [online]. Retrieved from
http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/EN/Content_2909/html/index.html
Education Department, HKSAR, China and District Teacher Network (2000). A Pilot Scheme
on Collaboration and Learning: Role of the Teacher Librarian (leaflet).
Fisher, J. (2000). Handout at Collaborative Planning and Teaching Workshop 3, Hong Kong
District Teacher Network: Resource Based Teaching and Learning Through
Collaborative Planning and Teaching, 19-20 May, 2000.
Heilprin L. (1989). Foundations of information science reexamined. Annual review of
information science and technology. Volume 24, p.343-372
Henri J. (1990). Cooperative Curriculum Planning and Team Teaching: A Conceptual
Overview. In ed. Henri J. Cooperative planning and teaching: Australian theory and
practice. Wagga Wagga, NSW: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt
University-Riverina.
Henri, J. Hay, L. and Oberg, D. (2002). The School Library-Principal Relationship: Guidelines
for Research and Practice. The Hague, IFLA Headquarters, IFLA Professional
Reports
Latham M. (1998). Information Access, Information Literacy, Lifelong Learning: Keys to Our
Survival and Progress in the Global Economy. In ed. Booker D. Information
Literacy: The Professional Issue, Proceedings of the third national information
literacy conference conducted by the University of South Australia Library and the
309
Australian Library and Information Association Information Literacy Taskforce 8
and 9 December 1997, Adelaide, University of South Australia Library
Library Section, Education Department, HKSAR, China (1998). Appointment of TeacherLibrarians in Primary Schools, Government document. Circular LIB48C/122/82
Library Section, The Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2009). Teacher Librarians Survey
[online]. Retrieved from
http://www.edb.gov/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=4282#seclesson
Little, J.W. (1981). The power of organizational setting: school norms and staff development.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Los Angeles, CA, 13-17 April 1981.
McDougald, D. and Bowie, M. (1997). Handbook for school libraries. 2nd edn. Ryde, NSW:
Curriculum Directorate, The Department.
McKenzie J. (1998). The Information Literate School Community. From Now On
The Educational Technology Journal, Vol 8, No 1, September, 1998 [online].
Retrieved from http://fno.org/sept98/infolit.html
Mills, M.L. (1991). Cooperative Program Planning and Flexible Scheduling: What do
Principals Really Think? Emergency Librarian, September October 1991, 19:1,
p.25-28
Ontario Ministry of Education and Training (1995). Information Literacy and Equitable
Access: A Framework for Change. A Draft Document for Discussion and
Response.
School Library Association of South Australia (2008). SLASA Teacher Librarian Role
Statement [online]. Retrieved from
http://www.slasa.asn.au/Advocacy/rolestatement.html
Stauffer Library, Queen’s University (2012). Information Literacy [online]. Retrieved from
http://library.queensu.ca/inforef/literacy.htm
The Library, University of Bath (2015). Information Skills [online]. Retrieved from
http://www.bath.ac.uk/library/infoskills/
Biographical note
Leung Yuet Ha, Angel, Part time studying Doctor of Education--Lifelong Education, The
University of Nottingham. Master of Applied Science (Library and Information Management),
Charles Sturt University. Bachelor of Education (Primary and Secondary Education), Major in
Library Studies, The University of Hong Kong. Primary teacher, teacher librarian, Primary
School Mistress Curriculum Development and Director of Academic Affairs. Part-time tutor
for Diploma in Teacher Librarianship at HKU SPACE since 2005. Education Officer,
“Reading Battle”, Cite HKU since 2013. Part time tutor for a training workshop in Macau as
310
part of the “Promoting Reading Research Project” (CACLER) Faculty of Education, HKU
since 2013. Mentorship Coordinator, Librarian Training Program in Hefei, Anhui, China, and
Hong Kong and Macau Coordinator, School Library Research Program, Chen Yet-sen
Family Foundation. 2006-2009 elected East Asia Regional Director of IASL. Currently the
vice-president of Hong Kong Teacher-Librarians’ Association. Main research topics are
reading, information literacy and teacher librarianship.
311
Transfer, transformation, transition:
what the school librarian can do in
transliteracy, the French context
Anne Lehmans
Bordeaux University, School of Education,
Bordeaux Montaigne University
ESPE d’Aquitaine, 33705 Mérignac
France
anne.lehmans@u-bordeaux.fr
Valentine Mazurier
Bordeaux University, School of Education,
Bordeaux Montaigne University
ESPE d’Aquitaine, 33705 Mérignac
France
valentine.mazurier@u-bordeaux.fr
Abstract
With the emergence of digital information, the school library as a physical location still
exists but its spaces and boundaries are reshuffled. This major change encourages us
to study the new distribution of spaces in school libraries, the relationships between
different types of spaces (physical and digital, individual and social, private and public)
and the way pupils move from one to the other. Information transliteracy is the topic of
a research project led in France. Our research points out the transformation of learning
strategies in collaborative situations, transfers between informal personal digital
abilities and formal academic skills and between experts and novices, transition from
learning to creating, cognitive redistribution between spaces. We explore and try to
explain some of these processes which seem to us encouraging for the future of school
libraries and signs of a renewal of the task of librarians, implying new modes of action
which we will describe: mediation, creation, education.
Keywords: Transliteracy, school library, teacher librarian, mediation, knowledge
format.
Introduction
Information literacy can be defined as series of abilities that can be connected to various
ways of seeking, selecting, finding, scrutinizing, organizing and compiling information for
meaningful use in late modern society, where people are expected to use information for
constructing new knowledge (Limberg, Sundin, Talja 2013). It is based on a humanistic and
312
universalistic conception of the right to be educated (Lehmans, 2007) and the project to make
education a path to individual empowerment towards information. Recently, information
literacy has been completed and enlarged by the concept of transliteracy that Sue Thomas
(2007), defines as the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and
media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and films, to digital social
networks. According to Vincent Liquète (2012), the concept of transliteracy focuses the
attention on the “trans” prefix: transversality of skills and abilities common to all media
contexts and techniques, transformation of situations and information by personal practices
and procedures, transition from personal to collective knowledge, transgression of academic
standards. It is at the crossroad of three main fields: information, media and computer
literacies, as well as a metaliteracy. Digital literacy, computer literacy, information literacy,
and media literacy are no longer isolated.
The concept of transliteracy has been evolving and already impacted the organization of
spaces, resources, and teaching by school librarians. It is related to the transmedia and
culture convergence theory (Jenkins, 2006) describing the layering, diversification and
interconnectivity of media, and it points out the importance of interaction skills applied by
users on all types of media and communication, oral, textual, iconic, digital, mainly in digital
environments (Delamotte, Liquète, Frau-Meigs, 2014, 146). The way pupils at school access
to and use information, which is available anytime and anywhere, has changed learning
strategies and the relationship between information and knowledge. Library professionals
have to accommodate to this new informational ecosystem inside and outside the walls of
the library.
In France, in every secondary school, a teacher librarian is in charge not only of the school
library management and organization, but also of education on information. Even if the
teacher librarian does not usually follow a precise curriculum, he plays an important role in
information and media literacy. He is dedicated to the training of information literate pupils,
which is a prerequisite for the sustainable development according to the Moscow Declaration
(2012), and for their integration in the knowledge society demanding the skills to ask
questions about the construction and dissemination of particular media artefacts. (boyd,
2014 : 181). We try to question the way the concept of transliteracy, which has precise
theoretical roots, has been transforming the understanding of school libraries’ and teacherlibrarians’ action in and on education.
Information transliteracy is the topic of a research project led in France, Translit. School
libraries have long been places dedicated to collect, storage, access and preservation of
printed collections. With the emergence of digital information, the school library as a physical
location still exists but its spaces and boundaries are reshuffled. This major change
encourages us to study the new distribution of spaces in school libraries, the relationships
between different types of spaces (physical and digital, individual and social, private and
public) and the way pupils move from one to the other. Our research points out the
transformation of learning strategies in collaborative situations, transfers between informal
personal digital abilities and formal academic skills and between experts and novices,
transition from learning to creating and from creating to learning, cognitive redistribution
between spaces. These phenomena are facilitated by, and sometimes created by the action
of the teacher librarian.
313
We intend to explore and try to explain some of these processes which seem to us
encouraging for the future of school libraries and signs of a renewal of the task of librarians,
implying specific modes of action which we will describe: mediation, creation, education.
Mediation by space organization and transfer process
School librarians are mediators in different ways: socially -between school disciplines,
teachers, families, institutions, and pupils regarding skills and expertise-, informationally between documents and users-, cognitively, developing instrumental skills with tools and
devices, facilitating situated and shared knowledge creation in spaces. In the context of
transliteracy, space is a key component to consider. It is not an empty frame, it does
influence pupils’ uses. To encourage interaction, exploration and shared knowledge creation,
James Paul Gee (2004 :73) proposes the concept of “ affinity space ” as " a place or set of
places where people affiliate with others based primarily on shared activities, interests, and
goals, not shared race, class culture, ethnicity, or gender ”. School librarians‘ actions of
mediation may focus on space to propose a third space, an autonomous, incentive but not
intrusive space.
Methodology and research design: space in the pupils’ information ecosystem
In the research project we are working on, we have tried to characterize typical
transliterate activities which are cognitively distributed and situated. Our scientific
protocol is based on an “ecological” approach of capturing pupils’ information
retrieval and production practices, and teachers’ training practices. We focus on
environments and interactions in the phenomenographic tradition (Limberg et al.,
2013), considering the social, ideological, and physical contexts and environments in
which information and technical artefacts are used' (Tuominen et al., 2005, 340). For
this project, we observe the information activities of young people in school project
situations, especially in school libraries. Our research, based on ethnographic
qualitative methodologies, enables us to observe in details thin and elaborate
cognitive phenomena and social relations taking place in the pupils’ information
working process, especially when digital tools allow them to expand the walls of the
classroom and the library.
The teacher librarian in France is in charge of the school library in middle and high schools,
called Center for Documentation and Information, which is supposed to support pupils and
teachers in their need of information. It provides not only books related to school work, but
also leisure literature – or at least literature which may give them the desire to read-, and
digital resources. The teacher librarian is in charge of information literacy, education on
media and information, culture and communication, bibliotheconomy. The emergence of
digital technologies in everyday life has questioned the role of school in the use of tools
which can at the same time be useful to get needed information for academic or professional
work, and be damaging to the attention and safety of children and personal freedom. Most
CDI are equipped with computers, but digital uses and practices differ from school to school,
depending on equipment and access to the internet, the policies of the headmasters, and the
capacity of the teacher librarian to manage the use of these computers. Thereby, the CDIs
can be considered as unifying spaces for the pupils, and even mediating spaces: with the
same spatial organization, the same codes and the same tools, they provide a familiar
informational structuring environment where pupils can expect the help and training of an
314
information professional. Many discipline programs mention the CDI as a place where pupils
are supposed to go, get information and work with, especially when they work on projects.
The real space is often completed with a virtual space, either on a virtual office where pupils
can find documents, or on a web site where the teacher librarian organizes documentation
through special pages. Some teacher librarians also use social networks, creating a
Facebook or a Twitter account for the CDI, in order to disseminate information using familiar
tools or to educate pupils to the use of these networks.
Nobody doubts that pupils develop informal information uses and skills in their private,
personal leisure activities. But researchers (Fluckiger, Bruillard, 2008) point out a limited
transfer between these skills and formal ones inside the walls of the classroom and, by
extension, the school library, contrary to the assertions of Mark Prensky’s “digital natives”
theory. The use of academic digital workspaces which seems to fit pupils’ habits and
practices remain quite limited at home. Besides, teachers are sometimes still reluctant to use
digital tools and favor broadcasting media (Guichon 2012). It is as if personal, digital and
informal space on one hand and academic space, on the other hand , were impervious. This
is why mediation action seems to be necessary. School librarians develop different mediation
devices. Fabre and Gardies (2010) point out the distinction between intentional device and
attribution device. The teacher librarian builds the first one using professional standards and
skills in order to organize and disseminate information. When pupils appropriate the second
one, it conveys meaning. The mediation action of school librarians is to create devices
enabling pupils to play an active role in their information literacy learning process. These
devices are various but they all serve the same purpose: to help with the ability to embrace
the multimedia layout that encompasses skills for reading, writing, counting and computing
with all the available tools (from paper to image, from book to blog); and the capacity to
navigate through multiple domains that includes the ability to search, to evaluate, to test, to
validate, and to modify information according to its relevant contexts of use (as code, news
and document) (ANR, 2012).
Web based platforms are specific devices among others. They are likely to enable pupils to
find an in-between space: a digital space proposing academic and more informal resources.
Pupils can access the platform at home and in the walls of the school. This type of tool can
play a positive role of frontier. Border is often considered as a physical limit but it is also a
relation and a link, a boundary-object (Star, 2010) between print and digital collections, print
and digital uses, private and social spaces. To what extent do pupils benefit from this type of
device? Does it enlarge spaces and practices as school librarians may assume?
To answer these questions, we made an inquiry in the context of a junior high school located
in Bordeaux with thirteen-years old pupils with heterogeneous academic levels. We collected
qualitative material resorting to semi-structured interviews and observation of pupils’ uses of
the web-based platform inside the school library. The platform is “Scoop-It”, a widely spread
platform in the educational field and especially in school libraries. It enables professionals to
curate and publish content. The interface is seducing, it contains both images and short texts
to present web pages. It is quite easy to update. The web pages suggested on the platform
come from the school librarian‘s choices. They are selected according to the criteria of
quality and reliability, free information, match to school syllabus and pupils‘ main interests
and information needs considering pedagogical projects and news.
Mediation as a complex process of boundaries creation for information and competencies
transfers
As teenagers spend a lot of time on the internet, we assumed that the platform was
transparent to them and quite easy to understand and master. What we observed is rather
315
different. Pupils’ answers to our survey show that they are not comfortable with it: 35% find it
“difficult” to use. They have difficulty to understand how it works - its intellectual organization
but also its technical functioning-. Most pupils are not able to define it at once and 40 % of
them simply answer « I don’t know » when asked to describe it. No pupil can say that it has
been created by the teacher librarian. It confirms that, at that age, pupils have a poor
knowledge of the internet as a whole and of the teacher librarians’ tasks. They do not
understand the organization of the home page while it is very important for the librarian to
make it readable and efficient. The technical facets are not as easy as we may think for
pupils to describe. One pupil says: “You need to push to access information”. Another one
even says he doesn’t know how to access the web pages. Observing pupils in the library
confirms that they have difficulty to understand and to use this tool. They hardly browse the
website. They examine neither pages nor topics. They target a single page. They skim the
page through and their use is extremely limited. It confirms that skills, even the basic ones,
are not inborn. But it also sheds light on the device as an additional layer to access
information. Instead of making it easier, the platform adds difficulty and may widen the gap
between pupils. No pupil consulted the Scoop-It platform at home or on their own in the
library even if 95% of them found it useful at school. The reason is the same for all of them,
even if they formulate it in different ways: “I don’t think of it” or “I forget”. Only 10 % express
their lack of interest. They clearly distinguish private use and academic use. One pupil state :
“At home, I never visit websites for school”. Even if they all declare using the internet every
day at home, only 30% of the sample use the internet at home for school.
We know that listening to music is one of the most widespread leisure activities among
teenagers. However, the link to Deezer was not used at all. This site was directly linked to a
project led with another group in music lessons. Thus, not one of the pupils activated the link.
It highlights the question of information need. If there is no direct information need for school,
the resource is not consulted, which is quite easy to understand. Thirteen-years old pupils’
relationship to knowledge is still in construction. They are building their own autonomy and
tools can’t replace it. It also shows that even if music is familiar to them, it remains a private
activity that teenagers do not want to introduce at school except in their earphones.
The project points out the fact that boundaries not only concern uses and skills but also time
and space. The development of digital information which is supposed to abolish time and
space borders could reinforce them in reality. Space may even be an additional barrier and
constraint to develop transliterate uses and skills inside the walls of the school, and teacher
librarians can’t ignore it. Fabre (2013) shows that the distribution of spaces in French school
libraries is constraining because it splits medium and, consequently, use. It
compartmentalizes information uses, and even organizes it in a hierarchy, instead of favoring
mobility. At another level, French researchers Roselli and Perrenoud (2010) led a research
project on Toulouse University library and point out how space planning, but also sorting, and
professionals, create genuine but invisible frontiers inside the library. The way teacher
librarians foresee passage from one to another requires some reflection. Both school
librarians and pupils have difficulty to move original boundaries. “Bring Your Own Device”
(BYOD) may be a chance to think over space issue. It reshuffles boundaries and changes
the way pupils relate to space, mixing informal skills and formal environment, mobile
technologies and physical location, private and social spaces.
It could be interesting to conduct the same study with older pupils. Secondary school time is
a transitional period leading to more autonomy. Guichon (2012) points out that high school
pupils use social networks to solve homework difficulty all together, for example by
publishing Facebook status. Teachers can’t be aware of this specific collaborative use
316
because they simply do not know, refuse or ignore it. Reflection on a specific space for
homework may be a first step to bridge the gap between informal and formal skills, private
and social spaces as it is situated at the crossroads of home and school. Transliteracy may
be an opportunity for school librarians to propose new space affordances to ensure a real
information culture.
Creation by knowledge formats and transformation process
In a part of our research dedicated to sixteen years old high school pupils working on group
projects, we were able to evaluate the pupils’ capability to organize their information
environment, to coordinate the work among the members of the groups and to use various
information strategies in order to achieve a creative project. There is a direct correlation
between these capabilities and the success of the projects. The supply of adequate
knowledge formats in project scenario is a way to combine individual and collective
strategies, tools and spaces in the process of knowledge creation.
Conditions for creative learning
Education in France is based mainly on the mastering of disciplinary, patrimonial and formal
knowledge. Project based education is still quite rare and late in the school curriculum. Pupils
are used to meet the demands of teachers with very formal strategies, without resorting to
creative springs. These are mobilized at home, or clandestinely at school, during or between
courses, in non-formal practices. Elisabeth Schneider (2012) shows that students have
writing practices which design complex journeys during classes, away from the eyes of
teachers, mobilizing complex skills and transmedia activities.
Yet digital tools appear as a means of fostering creativity so little encouraged at school,
because it is, in the imagination of pupils, associated with private practices, games,
communication. When a teacher encourages personal skills for school use, pupils can take
to move the boundaries they usually oppose the demands of the teachers.
Nonetheless, our research has shown that they do not easily use their personal skills and do
not “naturally” make bridges between their private uses and academic demands. They have
to be encouraged and work in strong groups where they can rely on each other. When asked
why they do not rely upon their personal skills, some answer that they do not want to mix
school life and leisure, and that it would kill the pleasure to use tools such as a blog or
Facebook. They have to be encouraged to “have fun” with their school work in order to allow
themselves the right to use their ordinary creation practices, image creation and mixing,
video and music making, creative writing. We have observed some teachers who did so and
encouraged pupils in this way, while others were too demanding on academic forms to allow
any creative process.
It appears that it is important to valuate unformal, private skills and tastes, to give
consciousness and confidence to pupils into their own capabilities and also to their
understanding and critics. Similarly, while pupils often find information through images (via
Google image or YouTube), they do not appear to them as legitimate sources of information:
a movie, a video or an image is used only with the encouragement of teachers but not
spontaneously. The image is a research format, but rarely a legitimate knowledge building
size or disclosure. Moreover, if most pupils have integrated the importance of authorship in
high school, and the need to cite sources, they do so only for written sources. For still images
or movies, questioning the author seems to disappear behind an informational status of the
image blur difficult to question. The images belong to the personal world of leisure and
317
intimacy, the text to the school and knowledge world. There is a gap between actual
cognitive processes and representation of legitimate knowledge. This shift is reinforced by
the sense of generational gap. The bridge is so difficult to build between the informational
universe of the web, shifting and blurring, and school communication formats and legitimacy.
Several examples illustrate these blocking in legitimacy. For example, bibliographies, which
are often webographies, are mostly built as copied and pasted url lists, except when a
specific instruction is given and explained by the teacher-librarian. The use of copy-paste is
considered illegitimate, except when teachers see it as a first phase in the work of collecting
information, followed by a writing and reformulation phase. Formats are sources of reflection
on legitimacy.
Forms, formats and transformation
Knowledge formats allow the establishment of communicative conditions and provide
frameworks for the emergence of transliterate skills. A format is a tangible and intangible
knowledge organization model, linking "logic of knowledge and dynamic of uses" (Morandi,
2013, 139). It designs forms to knowledge and information questioning (mind maps), work
organization (logbooks), information management (indexing) or communication (books, web
documentaries, blogs…). The logbook, for example, is mandatory in some projects but often
reduced to a formal and unnecessary requirement. Some teachers have transformed this
requirement by explaining it as an effective information storage tool and work organization.
When it exists, the book may be strictly organized by some pupils with a color code system,
and often used to store and manage the references of key documents and ideas that are
useful to the editor. It sometimes becomes, at the initiative of the teacher librarian, a true
cognitive and didactic training tool. The logbook is a tool for storage, sharing and
documentation of found information. It allows to organize information at the end of the
project, a heuristic for retrieved media information to operate and maintain the correct
references. Logbooks of pupils we observed in high schools also reflect the diversity of
research tools and communication skills. A pupil, for example, explains in his diary that he
synthetized information in English combined with video clips of presidential speeches for his
subject on the U.S. elections. He adds that he wanted to propose an oral presentation based
on an animated slide show, mixing music clips and photo montage. His logbook shows quite
a complex hybridization of practices monitoring academic prescription (standardized
references as prescribed by the teacher librarian) and communicative creativity and support
on its common research and communication practices. Formats can also be offered in a
prescriptive guide blog and was effective in our observations from one year to another, to
guide pupils in their choice of tools and document description formats. Finally, a specific
communication format allows pupils to think about alternative ways of rendering a research
and reduces the contradictions they perceive between familiar multimedia fixtures and
academic formats used at school (written presentation). This is the case for radio, video, data
visualization or blog productions in media classes. These formats may open pupils to the
design of information through content production, they do not only solicit academic
knowledge, but critical thinking, not just problem solving, but also issues discovering.
Despite what is commonly said on pupils’ information practices, they own an elaborate “art of
doing” (de Certeau, 1980) and a strong consciousness of their uses and the management of
their personal information system. They tend to invent ways of doing things which are not
orthodox according to what they are taught, but nonetheless efficient and explicable using
thoughtful devices. They need to be mentored in the process of transfers of uses and
318
expertise among them. We use the word grammatization of information to characterize the
process of creative learning, construction of knowledge and competencies on information
which lead to information culture or transliteracy. This grammatization appears when pupils
are induced to think about their own practices and criticize them according to their social,
academic and individual needs, constructing formal from informal knowledge on information,
media and computers. It relies on two conditions: the existence of intuitive but nonetheless
efficient information practices, commonly acquired in social situations, and the presence of a
teacher librarian who induces awareness and control of the practices through conscience
knowledge formats. When one of these conditions is lacking, the process cannot be
completed. It was the case in some situations that we observed: when pupils have no or poor
social experience of using media information and when the teacher librarian has few
occasions to interact with them, a strong difference among pupils is observed, which creates
inequality: in this case, transliteracy will mainly depend on social conditions and not on
education. In the third case, while the pupils’ social conditions are not favorable to transfers
between personal and school information practices or between different media, the role of
the teacher librarian is important to compensate the lack or poverty of informal knowledge.
Transition and education process
Educational support to media, digital and information literacy is the sine qua non condition of
equality in transliteracy and promotion of democracy at school. Our observations show that
pupils are very unequal regarding access to and use of information. They also need to
develop their critical sense. A more or less formal curriculum is necessary to ensure a real
«information culture » based on transliteracy among pupils.
Education in transliteracy as a social construction
The fundamental role of teacher librarians is to guarantee the emancipation of the individual,
conscience and knowledge production. This emancipatory function appears all the more
essential that the cultural and cognitive "legacy" of students is unequal, depending on the
geographical location and the social composition of the school. In the vocational school we
observed, students are those of much greater difficulties than others to construct knowledge
from information and from personal and informal practices. In this situation, digital tools make
the social and cognitive gap wider, and education in essential.
The digital gap between pupils is so important that a systematic effort on education has
appeared as a necessity. We observed different schools in which the educational strategies
were quite different. The problem is that information and media literacy are not included into
a formal program but cross different programs in which the teachers do not always pay equal
attention to information competencies. In training schools, it may have dramatic
consequences, because most pupils do not have access to knowledge on information in their
families or social groups. Under the vocational school, the process of mutual enrichment
between personal, social and academic practices is complicated, either because non-formal
information practices are poorly developed, mainly for entertainment, or because the school
format is not mastered by pupils: the transition from spontaneous information and
communication practices to school knowledge requires significant support from the teacherlibrarian. Some mechanisms may still be unlocked when letting, for example, pupils seek
information from images, or Wikipedia, and encouraging them to link the information found
with their personal observations on the professional field, or with a collective reflection
involved in the group with the teachers.
319
Education as an activity-based transition process
Finally, the role of teacher librarians facing the ever-changing information environments
relies in their ability to draw knowledge path from the non-formal and multimedia practices.
Our study shows how the spontaneous and ordinary information and communication
practices are a lever for educational action. Moreover, teacher librarians met during our
investigations tend to encourage and value these practices, which is rarely the case for
teachers from traditional disciplines who tend to reproduce a closed discourse centered on
prohibitions and restrictions, nor for librarians who are more interested in the information
searching processes than in its use for learning (Limberg, Sundin, Talja, 2013). On one
hand, the discipline teachers only consider the content of knowledge produced and not of its
mode of production, which is a source of tension between the teachers themselves. On the
other hand the librarians, especially at university, do not pay attention to the cognitive
processes and rely on procedures and tools. Information literacy, as Christine Bruce (1997)
has clearly demonstrated, is not uniform but engaged into various experiences and
constructions of information uses.
From the beginning of their history, French teacher librarians have tried to assume
pedagogical strategies. Their actions focus on skills to empower pupils to become
enlightened and critical information literate citizens in an unstable and information
overloaded environment. Knowledge mediation is even more on the agenda as people often
confuse information and knowledge, access and skill. Researchers and field actors develop a
set of information and documentation didactic notions. They promote the idea of a curriculum
to ensure a real and solid “information culture”. They use various learning situations.
Distance learning is also an interesting path which starts to be used by some teacher
librarians who build personalized courses (Lehmans, Cordier, 2012) based on collaboration
between pupils. This field of research is still under construction but it already shapes school
librarians actions, tools and mediations. The lack of a precise academic program forces them
to concentrate their action on activities, processes and projects prior to a locked knowledge
content. The transliteracy perspective engages them into a renewed reflection on the
architecture of school learning and information literacy (Cordier, Liquète, 2013) taking into
consideration social and technical interactions and transfers, and the need of creative
mediation processes. The theory of activity (Engeström, 2014), based on the socioconstructivist legacy, reminds the centrality of the cognition processes in the use of
information as socially situated and distributed into the activity understood as a process of
production and meaning construction.
Conclusion
Transliteracy, observed in educational and informational contexts, features a transformation
of learning strategies and porosity between academic skills and "intuitive" competencies,
formal and informal. This transformation of the constitutive rules of schoolwork and
redistribution of cognitive and social roles, skills and knowledge in building transliterate
strategies, highlight the need to support knowledge formats, informational activities, and new
forms of pedagogical mediation allowing the meeting of spontaneous informal practices with
formal requests and legitimate and inclusive cultural constructs.
References
320
ANR TRanslit (2012). Présentation. Available at: http://www.univ-paris3.fr/presentation-anrtranslit-317833.kjsp [accessed 10/3/2015].
Boyd, d. (2014). It’s complicated: the social lives of networked teens. New Heaven: Yale
University Press.
Bruce, C. (1997). The Seven Faces of Information Literacy. Adelaide: Auslib Press.
Certeau, M. (de). (1980) L'Invention du quotidien, 1. : Arts de faire. Paris: Gallimard.
Cordier, A., Liquete, V. (2013) La translittératie, un facteur de réagencement de
l'organisation scolaire ?. 19ème Colloque Bilatéral Franco-Roumain en Sciences
de l'Information et de la Communication, Mar 2013, Romania. Available at:
http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_01066402 [accessed 10/3/2015].
Delamotte, É., Liquète, V., Frau-Meigs, D. (2014) La translittératie, ou la convergence des
cultures de l’information : supports, contextes et modalités, Spirale, 53, 145-156.
Engeström, Y. (2014) Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to
Developmental Research. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.
Fabre, I. (2013). L'espace documentaire comme lieu de médiations. Esquisse. Available at :
http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/9136/1/Fabre_9136.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015].
Fabre, I., Gardies, C. (2010). La médiation documentaire. In Médiations, Les essentiels
d’Hermès, Institut des sciences de la communication du CNRS (ISC), 121-139.
Fluckiger, C., Bruillard, E. (2008). TIC : analyse de certains obstacles à la mobilisation des
compétences issues des pratiques personnelles dans les activités scolaires.
Available at: http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_00343128 [accessed 10/3/2015].
Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated Language and Learning: A Critique of Traditional Schooling.
London: Routledge.
Guichon, N.(2012). Les usages des TIC par les lycéens - déconnexion entre usages
personnels et usages scolaires, STICEF, Vol.19, Available at : http://sticef.org
[accessed 10/3/2015].
IFLA, UNESCO (2012). The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy.
Available at: http://www.ifla.org/publications/moscow-declaration-on-media-andinformation-literacy [accessed 10/3/2015].
Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, New York:
NYU Press.
Lehmans, A. (2007). Information Literacy : un Lien entre Information, Education et
Démocratie. Esquisse, 50-51, 25-40 .
321
Lehmans, A., Cordier, A. (2012) Distance learning as a central issue for the learning and
professionalization process of professeurs documentalistes: The French synthesis
of transliteracy. School Libraries Worldwide, International Association of School
Librarianship, 18(2), 41-50.
Limberg, L, Sundin, O., Talja, S. (2013). Three Theoretical perspectives on Information
Literacy, Human It, 11(01).
Liquète, V. (2012). Can one Speak of an “Information Transliteracy”? International
Conference Media and Information Literacy (MIL) for Knowledge Societies, 24-28
June, Moscow, Russian Federation, Available at :
http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/In_Focus/Liquete
_text.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015].
Roselli, M., Perrenoud, M. (2010). Du lecteur à l’usager : ethnographie d’une bibliothèque
universitaire. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail.
Star, S.L. (2010). This is not a boundary object: Reflections on the origins of a concept.
Science, Technology and Human Values, 35(5), 601-617
Schneider, E. (2012) Pratiques d'écriture adolescentes et translittératie. GRCDI (Groupe de
Recherche sur la Culture et la Didactique de l’Information) Séminaire du 7
septembre 2012 : La translittératie en débat : regards croisés des cultures de
l’information (infodoc, médias, informatique) et des disciplines. Available at:
http://culturedel.info/grcdi/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Seminaire-GRCDI2012_texte-E.Schneider.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015].
Thomas, S and al. (2007). Transliteracy. Available at:
https://suethomasnet.wordpress.com/transliteracy / [accessed 10/3/2015].
Tuominen, K., Savolainen, R. & Talja, S. (2005). Information literacy as a socio-technical
practice. Library Quarterly, 75(3), 329-345.
Biographical notes
Anne Lehmans has worked as associate professor at Bordeaux University (School of
Education) since 2003. She holds a PhD in Political Science. She holds and coordinates
courses on information literacy and information and communication science. She takes part
of the selection board of teacher librarians for the French Minister of Education. She is a
project manager for digital uses at the School of Education in Bordeaux university. She is
involved into several research projects among which Translit (Convergence between media,
digital, information literacies). Her most recent contributions were in Media and Education
Futures Conference in Tampere (Finland) with Vincent Liquète in Conditions for a
Sustainable Information Transculture and in the European Conference on Information
Literacy 2014 in Dubrovnik (Croatia) with Anne Cordier in Transliteracy and knowledge
formats. She is one of the authors of the book Culture of information recently published by
Vincent Liquète (CNRS, Essentiels Hermès, 2014).
322
Valentine Mazurier has been a teacher librarian in Bordeaux since 1999. She is a PHD
student in Information and Communication Science (under the direction of Pr Vincent
Liquète). Her research subject focuses on the documentary space in the French context of
school libraries through the study of representations and practices of teacher-librarians and
pupils in terms of space. She takes part in the teacher librarian training at the School of
Education in Bordeaux. She has been a selection board member of teacher librarians
(CAPES) for the French Minister of Education (2007-2010).
323
Educational activities of the School
Library of the School Teaching Centre
of Basic Education of UFMG
Flávia Filomena Rodrigues da Mata
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Brasil
flaviafilo@hotmail.com
Raquel Miranda Vilela Paiva
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Brasil
quelvilela@yahoo.com.br
Abstract
Working in a school library requires a professional who combines his library
science técnias with knowledge of Education. From the premise that the library is
no longer an accumulation of space but now a place of dissemination of
knowledge, its performance changes, is increased. Thus, in 2013, the School
Teaching Centre of Basic Education Library was called to offer one GTD – WGD
- Working Group Differential - for students of the second cycle of human
development. The GTD is a present discipline in the curriculum of Teaching
Centre. The overall objective of GTD "storytelling" was to interest students of the
second cycle of human training to become storytellers. The search activity to the
dictionary, with a view to enriching the vocabulary, was called "The Word is". The
librarian working together with teachers demonstrates the importance of this
partnership and the good achieved consequences.
Keywords: School librarians, School library, Librarians – Activities, Brazil.
The School library in Brazil
When speaking in Brazilian school library is important to consider the question of education
in Brazil. Thus, the library follows the rise and the development of education in the country.
The books, as well as schools, arrived in Brazil together with the Jesuits around 1549, in
Bahia. At that time the books were few and difficult to acquire, which required that the priests
would use the collections of the libraries of convents for literacy. This shortage and the lack
of specific books for children were obstacles to the establishment of libraries dedicated to
teaching, that is, to the existence of what we now know as school library.
Still, we note that "the strength of religious colleges in the construction of school libraries
324
occurred, significantly, until the end of the eighteenth century, when it begins its decline,
effective in mid-nineteenth century (Silva, 2011, p. 492)".
The decadence of religious schools create the conditions necessary for the foundation of
other types of schools. In this context, school libraries are formed very focused on students
and create an association between children's literature and school literature. In relation the
functions of education, Válio (1990) indicates that "schools have been established with the
law of 10/15/1827 to teach reading, writing, arithmetic and religion, privileging the readings of
the Empire Constitution and History of Brazil (Válio, 1990, p. 16)."
Also related to the creation of the first school libraries in Brazilian lands Válio (1990) points
out that
"The creation of school libraries within the meaning understood today, started
happening in the country with the establishment of normal schools. The first to be
created was the Library of Normal School Caetano de Campos, São Paulo, on
June 30, 1880 and, years later, on June 16, 1894, inaugurated the Library State
Capital Gymnasium (INL, 1944) (Válio, 1990, p. 18).”
If the implementation of the first school library, with the characteristics we know today, only
occurred in the late nineteenth century, discussions and reflections on this space and its
functions only started from the mid-twentieth century. Making an analysis of these
discussions is possible to observe changes in the concept of school library over the decades.
Until the 1970s, the literature on school library consists of many manual for implementation
or maintenance of these spaces. This decade brings the discussion around the school
research and puts the formation of readers as library function. But in fact the schools, this
space is often non-existent or poor.
The 1980s mean to the school library an increase in the debates which includes its concept
and possibilities arising from new technologies. Different from the traditional concept, the
library goes to show as a resource for teaching and as an alternative place for development
of educational activities. However, even if the discourse on school library exalt this space, it
is perceived that it is still precarious.
Conceptually, the 1990s seems to recover the concepts of earlier decades: the school
search gets new enhancement, especially because of the possibilities from the Internet, and
reading continues valued. The difference is that the reading acquires more than its utilitarian
function, but also happens to be explored your playful side, enjoyment and pleasurable.
Despite the fervent discourses in favor of school libraries, their importance still remained on
paper. At this time, enough to question the need for school library, since its lack does not
prevent the teaching-learning process (Silva, 2001).
From the 2000s, the discussion on information literacy brings to the library the need to
change and adapt to the new model of society and citizens. While this concept and its
debates have arisen in the United States even in the 1980s, only from 2000s Brazilian
librarians begin to reflect on this issue.
325
Information Literacy wish to move the library and insert it really as a pedagogical tool within
the school. This is an alternative to change the present situation of school libraries in the
country. However, the position of librarian, active in school libraries should also change.
These professionals must have the challenge to prepare students for the present context,
which noted an informational excess.
Thus, it is necessary to break with the notion of the library as a mere appendage of the
school, making it a vital space in the process of teaching and learning, both students and the
school collective (Dias & Santos, 2004). This way "it can be considered that information
literacy is a step forward in the path of the library profession in the search for more space to
exercise their educational role (Campello, 2009, p. 7)."
School library x Education
By analyzing the history of the school library in Brazil, as well as education, we can see
changes not only at the conceptual level, but also in their functions. At the moment the
school library was established like a teaching support tool, is now considered necessary for
the school.
In this new scenario, the school library provides services not only to students but also to the
teachers, which becomes part of the users of this space. From the premise that the library is
not an accumulation of books, but now a place of dissemination of knowledge, its change of
operation is accentuated.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century can be registered the state's efforts and society
to eradicate illiteracy in Brazil. Of the various elaborate campaigns and programs, we can
highlight Paulo Freire's efforts (late 1950s, early 1960s), which has its distinctive method of
the current education yet. For Freire, the subject is part of the teaching-learning process and
this new vision of the student directly affects the teaching methodology.
But Freire's view, because of the very changes in the political order, will be questioned by the
military regime in post-1964 force in Brazil and as a result of the new balance of power in
place, Freire's educational proposal is emptied and replaced. Thus, in the 1970s there is the
replacement of a focused education in critical reflection and giving up the institution of
MOBRAL.
The state creates the MOBRAL as a new attempt to eradicate the question of illiteracy in the
adult population in the country. The school then goes on to have as a guideline the formation
of an economically productive guy, so as to respond to market demands, and therefore
considered a valuable citizen. In August 1971, Law No. 5692 proposes to reformulate the
education that shall be replaced by as general objective provide the student the formation
skills to enable their development for self-realization, to work and to the conscious exercise
of citizenship.
Also in the 1970s enlarges the influence of capitalism, and the society is, in a forceful way, to
be regulated by the market. According Frigotto (1991), Brazil, from the point of view of its
economy, came late in capitalism, bringing rancidity of a patriarchal, slavocratic and
conservative society. In this scenario the author explains that the idea included at that time
326
was that "the pure and simple access to school would raise all Brazilians to equal competitive
conditions in the market. Thereafter the problem is each (Frigotto, 1991, p. 47). "
However, the same author points out that "not MOBRAL solved the problem of illiteracy,
aggravated it, not everyone had access to school and, much less, who had obtained access
greater social mobility (ibid, p. 48)." That is, access to education was seen an apologetic
way, as being able to save all the people, but without then this responsibility was transferred
to the individual, leaving him perform the necessary change in the country.
In the context that in Brazil as previously said is characterized by the military dictatorship
education takes a utilitarian function, leaving aside the humanistic education in favor of
forming a qualified workforce. In light of this movement education, the school library also
suffers restructuring. At this time, it becomes a center of information and culture, which
should serve the school community. Law 5.692 / 71 brings elements that contribute to the
debate on the school library at that time and the search for changes in its operations. At that
moment there is a valuation of school research and the formation of readers as essential
functions of school libraries.
The 1980s is marked by the economic crisis and political effervescence in Brazil. It is called
by many the last decade, but in the educational environment, was not as negligible. The
establishment of the Constituent brought political discussion to the educational environment
(Frigotto, 1991). Law 7044/82 amending the Law 5692/71, however, maintains the objective
of teaching four ideas considered fundamental:
- The development of the student's potential;
- Self-realization;
- Preparation for work;
- Preparation for the conscious exercise of citizenship. (Silva, 2001, p. 40-41)
As pointed out, the school library suffers an impulse in his reflections, ranging from
conceptualization of space to issues of technology. It is at this time that presents itself as an
alternative space for teaching and learning within the school.
By the time the school library has established itself as a tool to support teaching, became
perceived as necessary to school. In this new scenario, the school library is not only
positions the student service, but also the teaching staff, which is placed as part of the users
of this scope.
The expansion of the use of the library by the school community expand the informational
and formative opportunities for students, who until then were limited to the information
contained in the textbooks. Given this reality, the practice of scholarly research is gaining
ground in the debate arena. The studies about this practice show positive and negative
points. The negative points, the most criticized is the fact that, generally, the school library
research has become synonymous mere copy. This practice certainly does not contribute
effectively to the formation of knowledge.
Another element that gained even more strength in the discussions was the question of
327
reading development, more precisely, the importance of educating readers. We agree that
the library is a way to guarantee citizens the right to access to reading, but the way of
performing such an enterprise is not yet effective. Thus, spite of so many speeches in favor
of the importance of the library, which can be seen in the 1980s is that it remains far from
their ideal continuing with a poor performance.
The 1990 presents discussions in Education around the student as an individual, that is, it
becomes the focus of action in order to develop their potential, their freedom, their continued
learning. Finally, the student is seen and respected with its own characteristics.
Accompanying the changes of Education, the school library also has new functions. Face of
this new approach to education, the library is viewed as a space that contributes to the
formation of the student.
The evolution of society has brought new concepts, including the Information Society. This
new society has in itself the information explosion and the necessary changes in all areas.
The information society also requires a new individual model, namely flexible people,
criticism, attentive to changes, conscious of their rights and obligations, able to act in this
new context. Thus we have a society with a new model citizen hat generates the need for
change in the education scenario and consequently the school library. Today it is required
that the individual is able to consciously select what you relevant, thus exercising, reading
skills, research and selection.
This information society brings with it new educational paradigms as accents Furtado (2004)
Once one of the new paradigms of education is learning to learn; that is, acquire
the ability to learn, know how to get, use and generate new information;
information systems become extremely important as they may contribute to its
democratization, namely to facilitate and increase their access and even more,
contribute to the received information to become knowledge, improving the
quality of life of citizens. (Furtado, 2004)
The new educational paradigm throws on the man responsibility for their learning, without
worrying about the context in which it operates. Morin (2006) made the UNESCO request
some reflections on what he calls seven knowledge necessary for the future education. Are
they:
1. The blindness of knowledge: the error and illusion. You need to know what really is to
know. There is a need to understand brain function, physical, mental and cultural
part, seeking to have the clarity that may be incurred in error or illusion.
2. The principles of the relevant knowledge. The familiar should be designed as possible
to understand global and fundamental problems, inserting partial and local
knowledge. Knowledge should not be fragmented, seizing thereby the objects in
context, given its complexity, as a whole. To this end, it is necessary teaching
methods to establish mutual and reciprocal relations between the parties and the
whole in a complex world.
3. Teaching the human condition. The human being is also complex. Also consists of
328
4.
5.
6.
7.
several parts (physical, biological, psychological, cultural, social) to compose a whole,
however, the education tends to study this all too piecemeal, disintegrated into
disciplines. Therefore, it is necessary to reconstruct the integrity, this complex
identity.
Teaching earthly identity. The development of planetary era begins in the sixteenth
century, with the advent of communication between all continents. The global
financial crisis triggered in the twentieth century points out that human beings share a
common destiny.
Addressing the uncertainties. The sciences produce many certainties and these were
followed by numerous other uncertainties. Education should prepare the student to
deal with unforeseen, unexpected situations and uncertainties, making a counterpoint
to the deterministic concepts of human history.
Teach understanding. For the development of understanding, the reform of mentality
is required. It is more important to understand what causes racism, xenophobia and
despises than gather and explain your symptoms. This is the most effective way in
the search for peace.
The ethics of humankind. The human condition is at the same time, be individual /
society / species. This reality evokes the twenty-first century, global citizenship, and
ethics developed from the moment the individual to understand how formed and
forming these three facets.
Therefore, based on the reflections of Morin (2006), thinking about education this century is
to go beyond what was set before. It is more to think about the student as a repository of
knowledge transmitted by the teacher. It think about the formation of terrestrial, complex and
citizens living in a complex society also. Simplistic solutions, who view only one or another
aspect of the problem, cannot obtain satisfactory results. These changes certainly are
reflected in school libraries and reinforce the need to put the librarian to act as educator.
School librarian educator
The course of decades, the conceptual and library functions changes made the librarians
would also go to work as educators and this premise must accompany these professionals.
Authors such as Santos (2000) emphasize that the active librarian in the school library must
match of library techniques with a social and human side.
The librarian, especially one operating in the school context, should be willing to serve as a
catalyst for information, dynamically and integrated into the educational performance of
teachers. As I said, this professional must master more than of library techniques, requiring
some understanding of the area of Education, since they must also act as educators.
In the information society, where the information really is the center of the discussions, the
school library can serve as a center for cultural dissemination, through activities such as
storytelling, lectures, meeting with writers, among others (Furtado, 2004).
Also the movement of Information Literacy (Dudziak, 2003) brings reflections on the role of
the library and the librarian, by changes in behavior and attitude of both, "this way, librarians
need to reinvent themselves, taking a more active stance, triggering processes and
organizational innovation projects, both within the library, as in the context of educational
329
institutions (Dudziak, 2003, p.33). "
The research Morais (2009) demonstrates the difficulty of librarians to act as educators,
since all the librarians interviewed said they were not prepared to coordinate school libraries
during your undergraduate degree. The Silveira's work (2007) shows the importance given to
the technical content of the librarian profession in lieu of the humanistic disciplines.
However, in a different light, Campello (2009) emphasizes there by librarians awareness of
their role as educators, beyond the technical functions they need to perform. Therefore, the
practice within the school context, allied to search for additional training, help to minimize the
librarian performance difficulties in the educational context.
In its work in the school library, the librarian needs initially to raise awareness and gain the
user. Thus, the predominant actions that attract the school community to the library and
reading.
Authors like Alves (1992), Mota (2004) and Morais (2009) highlights the need for interaction
between teachers and library staff, which does not always occur. This relationship would be
very promising, but unfortunately is still lacking, by several factors. Among these factors we
can cite the lack of knowledge on the part of teachers of the school's performance and
potential library. Thus, a stereotypical and negative view of the teacher regarding this space
ends up interfering with the students with the library.
Silva (2001) highlights the fact the school library, mostly just consider the student as a user,
forgetting the teacher and the school community. In this process of forgetting, the library
ends up away or fail to approach the teachers, which could contribute greatly to the work of
both professionals.
Although the librarian has to play their role as an educator, Ellwein (2006) points out that,
However, must be careful, do not confuse its function, ie having well defined who
is the teacher and who is the librarian because the librarian was not prepared to
be a teacher and the teacher was not prepared to be librarian. (Ellwein, 2006, p.
91)
The school librarian should be a dynamic and pro-active professional who is aware of the
need for constant updating. Should also seek their insertion in the school community,
partnering with teachers and showing the library's potential to aid the process of teaching
and learning.
The School Teaching Center of Basic Education UFMG
The Pedagogical Center originated in old Application Gymnasium UFMG, which was founded
in April 21, 1954, to comply with legal arrangements established by Decree Law No. 9053 in
1946. This Decree forced the Faculties of Philosophy Federal to maintain a school for the
teaching practice of students enrolled in its Didactic courses.
From 1958 became Application School, to meet the demand of Education of valuation. At
that time the courses offered: High School, Scientific, Classic and Normal.
330
In 1968 the UFMG was restructured and at that time the "College of Philosophy School of
Application" became "Pedagogical Centre", integrated into the "Faculty of Education of
UFMG" and with the basic function of offering courses on education 1st and 2nd degrees.
From 1972, the "Pedagogical Centre" was moved to the campus of Pampulha and started to
take responsibility only for the then 1st Degree. Also started to work in our own building. At
this time, begins the Technical College, which will offer professional development courses for
high school.
In 1997, based on guidelines of the new Guidelines and Framework Law (LDB 9394/96), the
School of 1st degree received a new name: "Elementary School of the UFMG Teaching
Centre".
In 2007, the Pedagogical Centre (CP) joined together with the Technical College (COLTEC)
and the University Theatre (TU), the School of Basic Education and Professional UFMG,
special unit whose charter was approved by the University Council of the University Federal
of Minas Gerais by Resolution No. 05/2007 of 03 May 2007.
To suit the legislation, since 2006, the elementary school is offered in nine (09) years and
based on the Human Formation Cycles (this one from 1995). The entrance to the school is
made by lottery.
As the school itself, its objectives are:
 Teach the elementary school, taking it as a basis for the production of investigative
knowledge, education and research.
 Constitute itself as field of reflection and research on pedagogical practice.
 Constitute itself as space of new pedagogical experiments, that support progress and
reflection on educational practice.
 Place for holding internship for students of Degree and Graduation.
The GTD and the library
With the conceptions of school library, with the premise of the teacher librarian role and
being in a school with the philosophy of the Pedagogical Centre in 2013, the library was
called to offer a GTD (Group Differentiated Work) for students of the second cycle of human
development.
The GTD is a discipline included in the curriculum "Teaching Centre". This is the formation of
a group of students from the diagnosis of their training requirements, aiming to make
possible the expansion of this curriculum. Search respect the pace, time and experience of
each student.
Just as the school teachers who offer GTD, one of the school librarians conducted the work
with a group, performing systematic monitoring. In a collective work with teachers, the
librarian participated in the planning, coordination and definition of the group to be assisted.
Was proposed to draw up a GTD Library to teach students the art of storytelling. The aim
331
was to form storytellers among the students of the second cycle of human, that is, students
between 9:11 years old or so.
The methodology used included the weekly meetings with students, totalling 60 hours during
the semester. The works were developed with the child and youth literature books that treat
or bring legends of Brazilian folklore, rhymes, riddles and tongue-twister. It was organized
also a literary contest, where the characters and authors of children's books were worked.
Experiments were done with drama, recitations and retellings of the stories, written and oral
forms. It was also developed research activity in the dictionary with the goal to enrich the
vocabulary. This activity was called "The Word is".
At the end of the semester was made the evaluation of GTD with students as well as
teachers of that cycle. The evaluation and the exchange of information was made at a
meeting. In the final evaluation, was appointed the individual student progress and of each in
relation to the working group.
Conclusions
The school library assumes, from the 1980s in the United States, and 2000 in Brazil, its more
proactive and integrated into the teaching process. The assumptions of information literacy
bring to the practicing librarian in this space the need to re-invent and take an educational
role. This role is best played when it is integrated into the education program and in
partnership with the school staff.
In the Pedagogical Centre for Basic Education UFMG, the discipline of GTD intended to be a
time of expansion of the students' knowledge of training, according to their needs and
interests. So the role of the library at this time demonstrates its interaction with the school's
goals where it belongs and also the possibilities of training of students within that space. The
school's invitation to a librarian to take responsibility for a group of students shows the
recognition of that school's educational professional role and potential of the library as an
alternative space for student education.
The librarian working together with teachers demonstrates the importance of this partnership
and the good achieved consequences. Finally, the study demonstrates the importance of
effective use of library space, the acting professional in the same and their collections, which
are devoted to the service of the students' knowledge of training.
References
Alves, M. C. (1992). A integração bibliotecário-professor no Brasil: o estado da arte.
Dissertação (Mestrado), Faculdade de Biblioteconomia, Pontifícia Universidade
Católica De Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brasil.
Campello, B. S. et al. (2007). Literatura sobre biblioteca escolar: características de citações
de teses e dissertações brasileiras. Transinformação. v. 19, n. 3, p. 227-236.
Campello, B. S. (2009 ) Letramento informacional no Brasil: práticas educativas de
bibliotecários em escolas de ensino básico. Tese (Doutorado em Ciência da
332
Informação). Escola de Ciência da Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brasil.
Dias, M. C. P. A.; Santos, L. V. M. (2004). Desenvolvimento do acervo das bibliotecas da
rede municipal de ensino de Belo Horizonte. In: Anais Do Segundo Seminário
Biblioteca Escolar Espaço De Ação Pedagógica, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brasil.
Retrived 15 may 2008, from http://gebe.eci.ufmg.br/downloads/309.pdf
Dudziak, E. A. (2003). Information literacy: princípios, filosofia e prática. Ciência da
Informação, v. 32, n. 1, p. 23-35.
Ellwein, S. A. F. (2006). Pesquisa escolar e o enfadonho exercício de cópia: como separar o
trigo do joio. In: Silva, R. J. & Bortolin, S. (Org.). Fazeres cotidianos da biblioteca
escolar. São Paulo: Polis.
Frigotto, G. (1991). O contexto sócio político brasileiro e a educação nas décadas de 70/90.
Contexto e Educação, year 6, n. 24, p. 43-47.
Furtado, C. (2004). A biblioteca escolar brasileira no sistema educacional da sociedade da
informação. In: Anais Do Segundo Seminário Biblioteca Escolar Espaço De Ação
Pedagógica, Belo Horizonte. Retrived 15 may 2008, from:
http://www.eci.ufmg.br/gebe/downloads/317.pdf
Morais, E. M. C. (2009) Impasses e possibilidades da atuação dos profissionais das
bibliotecas da Rede Municipal de Belo Horizonte. Dissertação. (Mestrado em
Educação). Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo
Horizonte, Brasil.
Morin, E. (2006). Os sete saberes necessários à educação do futuro. (11ª) São Paulo:
Cortez & Brasília: Unesco.
Mota, F. R. L. (2004). Bibliotecários e professores no contexto da biblioteca escolar: uma
interação possível e necessária. In: Anais Do Segundo Seminário Biblioteca
Escolar Espaço De Ação Pedagógica, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brasil.
Santos, C. A. S. & Santos, M. P. (2013). A atividade de “indicação de leitura” realizada na
IFSP: promoção de práticas de incentivo à leitura. Bibl. Esc. em Rev., v. 2, n. 1, p.
55-68.
Silva, J. L. C. (2011). Perspectivas históricas da biblioteca escolar no Brasil e análise da lei
12.244/10. Revista ACB: Biblioteconomia em Santa Catarina, v.16, n.2, p. 489517.
Silva, M. A. (2001). Biblioteca escolar e professor: duas faces da mesma moeda?
Investigação sobre a interação entre a biblioteca escolar e o professor do ensino
fundamental na Rede Municipal de Ensino. Dissertação (mestrado) – Escola de
333
Ciência da Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte,
Brasil.
Silveira, F. J. N. (2007) Biblioteca como lugar de práticas culturais: uma discussão a partir
dos currículos de Biblioteconomia no Brasil. Dissertação (Mestrado em Ciência da
Informação) – Escola de Ciência da Informação Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil.
Soares, L. V. O. (2014). A formação como aliada no exercício do papel educativo do
bibliotecário na escola. Dissertação (Mestrado em Ciência da Informação) –
Escola de Ciência da Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo
Horizonte, Brasil.
Válio, E. B. M. (1990). Biblioteca escolar: uma visão histórica. Transinformação, v. 2, n. 1, p.
15-24.
Biographical notes
Flávia Filomena Rodrigues da MATA has worked as library school on Federal University of
Minas Gerais. Master's Degree in Education from PUC-Minas. It storyteller. Teaches courses
and workshops on the subject and had recurring roles in the Hall of Books and Literature
Meeting sponsored by the Mining Book Council and Municipality of Belo Horizonte. Work
and study on Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Raquel Miranda Vilela PAIVA, PhD student in Information Science from the ECI / UFMG.
Master in Information Science from the School of Science at UFMG info (2009). Graduated in
Library Science from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (2006) and a degree in Social
Empowerment Communication in Advertising in the Belo Horizonte University Center UniBH (1999). Doing broad post-graduation, specialization Readers Training. He is currently
a librarian Information Officer, Federal University of Minas Gerais, the Pedagogical Centre.
Areas of interest: school library, study users, literacy and information literacy.
334
A Glimpse into the Brighton College
Abu Dhabi Library’s Virtual Learning
Environment: how can this help school
libraries?
Virgilio G Medina Jr
Brighton College Abu Dhabi
PO Box 129444
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi
library@brightoncollege.ae
Abstract
The Virtual Learning Environment is becoming a popular learning platform among
various educational institutions in delivering a vibrant and effective learning
environment. It enables many school libraries to perform their role in improving
services and supporting the school community.
The researcher examined the status of Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library’s VLE
based on users’ preferences and usage. The researcher surveyed pupils, teachers,
and administrators and used frequency distribution to show results.
The findings revealed how the library VLE could further be improved and marketed to
strengthen its value to the community.
Along with this, the included sample of the library VLE content structure and each
content’s description can serve as a guide in designing a library VLE.
Keywords: Virtual Learning Environment, Digital library, e-learning, library
management, VLE
Introduction
Brighton College Abu Dhabi: Overview
Opened in 2011, Brighton College Abu Dhabi (BCAD) campus was built through a joint
venture between UK and Bloom, the property development arm of National Holding of Abu
Dhabi.
Brighton College Abu Dhabi comprises of three schools: The Pre-Prep caters to children
from the Foundation Stage 1 to Year 2, the Prep School from Years 3 to 8, and the Senior
School from Years 9 to 12.
335
Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library is committed to serving the community by providing
wide-range items covering Fiction, Non-fiction, General Subjects, References, Subjectbased, Arabic materials and online resources which aim to support the college curriculum,
develop reading skills, and enhance the information literacy of the community.
Related Literature
School Libraries in a Digital World
Transforming students to be proficient in the digital world appears to be one of the
challenges of every educational institution today. This conformed to the statement of
Kuhlthau (2010) that the “21st century demands for new skills, knowledge, ways of learning
that prepare students with abilities and competencies to address challenges of an uncertain
changing world” (p. 17). Schrum & Levin (2009) believed that knowledge should not occur in
just one individual, text, object or tool. Thus, Asselin (2008) emphasized that it has become
urgent that meeting the literacy and learning needs of the net generation must be addressed.
What is fortunate, however, is that Kelleher (2013) believed that the digital age provides an
opportunity that enables a school library to create a distinctive space where it can continue to
inspire the love of learning, whether in the traditional world or online.
Former American Association of School Librarians (AASL) President David Loertscher
(2008) coined the term ‘School Learning Commons’ that describes a flexible, studentcentered space where students and teachers have access to mobile technologies, digital and
print resources, and modular spaces that can be utilized for collaborative activities, content
creation, presentation and even performances (Loertscher, as cited in Mclester, 2013). The
Canadian Library Association (2014) defined it as the “physical and virtual collaborative
learning hub of the school” (p. 5).
The information overload that learners can experience nowadays has caused the school
libraries to contemplate how they can stay relevant in the digital world (Roscorla, 2013). This
issue has been a concern back then but it still continues to bring an impact to the
development of school libraries. Leunissen (2013) explained that digital resources are
becoming more abundant to the point that learners cannot find or evaluate the right
resources.
What is a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)?
A virtual learning environment is defined as a collection of integrated tools enabling
management of online learning, providing a delivery mechanism, student tracking,
assessment and access to resources (JISC, 2004). JISC also noted that a VLE is designed
to support and enhance the learning progress of the community. To sum up, it is a learning
platform that allows users 24/7 access through the Internet.
Moreover, the VLE serves as a platform for collaboration where interaction can take place
among its users (O’Driscoll, Cross, & Trondsen, 2007). Thus, tutors can monitor their
students’ progress and can provide immediate feedback, whilst pupils can access various
resources and other academic requirements set by their tutors.
Notably, O’Leary and Ramsden (2002) enumerated the tools and features of VLE (p. 2) as
detailed below:
336
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
“Communication between tutors and students - e.g. emails, discussion board and
virtual chat facilities, which support various types of communication.
Self-assessment and summative assessment – e.g. multiple-choice assessment with
automated marking and immediate feedback.
Delivery of learning resources and materials – e.g. through the provision of lecture
notes and supporting materials, images and video clips, links to other Web resources,
online discussion and assessment activities.
Shared and work group areas – allows designated groups of students to upload and
share files as well as communicate with each other.
Support for students – could take the form of communication with tutors or other
students, provision of supporting materials such as course information and Frequently
Asked Questions (FAQs).
Management and tracking of students – usernames and passwords to ensure that
only registered students can access the course; analysis of assessment undertaken
by students or their use of materials within the VLE.
Student tools – e.g. individual student webpages, ‘drop boxes’ for the upload of
coursework, electronic diaries and calendars.
Navigation structure – structured delivery of information supported by a standard
navigation toolbar. Most VLE software assume that students will work their way
through linear sequences of instructional material. Others are more flexible and will
accommodate alternative information structures, e.g. multi-path case studies” (p. 2)
The Roles of Virtual Learning Environment in School Libraries
In Roche’s blog post (2015) she discussed that ICT opportunities, like those offered by VLEs,
can make the library accessible 24/7 to the school community “by means of school library
websites, online catalogues and the use of Web2.0 services”. Librarians and school
administrators should make use of these opportunities because according to Koganuramath
(2007), “virtual library appears to offer substantial benefits to lifelong learners over both
formal study and conventional open learning” (p. 538). This enables students to utilize and
explore various options in relation to their queries in an effective and economical manner.
In 1995, Marchionini and Maurer (Cited in Gunn, 2002) pointed out that virtual libraries
tailored for specific needs could produce global communities of learners. Tutors or other
educators should not be complacent on a traditional learning space and instead should
explore various options that cater to the needs of the present generation. Riccio (2001)
defined that a virtual a library is a technological way of bringing resources together so users
can find what they need.
Lamb and Callison (2005) highlighted the following services provided for online users
through a virtual school library media center:
●
●
●
“Instructional resources such as online tutorials, WebQuest, practice/testing
environment, instructional modules, virtual labs, and simulations;
Informational materials such as pathfinders, electronic databases, reference
resources, streaming video, and digitized primary resources;
Virtual adventures such as Web-based tours and virtual field trips
337
●
●
●
●
●
Live interactions using video conferencing such as special events and expert
interactions;
Collaborative online learning such as email, blogs, discussions, project sharing,
collaborative science experiments, collaborative writing, online book discussions,
online author visits and expert discussions;
Online assistance such as technical support, reference questions, mentoring and
peer tutoring;
Sharing space such as virtual galleries of student work, online newspapers, and
collaborative writing areas; and
Online request such as interlibrary loans and multimedia ordering that can be sent
through mail to students” (p. 32).
Subsequently, the idea of a virtual library, which can be supported by the VLE, serves the
concept of “Just in time learning” and “Just enough learning”, coined by Gunn (2002),
wherein instead of looking around in the Internet where information overload is common,
pupils can browse only the recommended and useful resources evaluated by librarians or
teachers.
Roles of Virtual Libraries (through the VLE) in supporting Pupils’ Learning Progress
Gunn (2002) cited various examples that reinforce the idea that virtual libraries support
student learning as they are designed to assist in meeting pupils’ needs through credible and
reliable resources. She also added that these are very valuable when searches for the right
information elsewhere can be time-consuming and the results can be incomplete, or filled
with biases or commercial advertising. Besides, according to Lamb and Callison (2005),
virtual libraries “enhance the experience of online learners” by providing access to remote
materials.
Furthermore, Neuman (Cited in Gunn, 2002) mentioned that two different types of learning
that can result from using digital libraries: “Learning related to accessing, evaluating, and
using the information resources available in this environment and learning related to
mastering and building upon ideas embodied within these resources” (p. 1).
Aside from this, Northcote (2008) argued that online learning environments, like digital
libraries in VLE, necessitate that students apply various skills (e.g., analyzing, filtering, and
organizing online resources, interactive communication skills, etc.) that eventually leads to an
environment that encourages their contribution and development.
Teachers nowadays are also encouraged to explore further possibilities that support their
classroom instruction. For instance, teachers are now engaged in probing the potential of
blogs, media-sharing services, and other social software which are specifically designed for
e-learning that can empower students and can create exciting learning opportunities (O’Hear
2006). However, Markus (Cited in International Federation of Surveyors, 2010) argued that
“e-learning does not save time for the teachers – but it improves the knowledge transfer” (p.
24).
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Virtual Learning Environment
As mentioned, VLE is becoming prevalent in the present academic setting, not only because
of institutions making the most of information technologies for education, but also because of
338
the impact that it can bring to the students’ learning. BBC Active (2015) provided some
reasons in using the VLE:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Collaboration with others
Submitting prep/homework virtually
Online storage for all shared resources
Customizable and dynamic home page on each subject area
Links to various online resources
Embedding outside useful resources
Integration of various format and multimedia in classroom’s instruction
On the other hand, technology entails pitfalls that every user has to understand. Below are
the disadvantages in handling the VLE (Posey, Burgess, Eason, & Jones 2010):
●
●
●
●
●
Time consuming
Long-term technical training
Lack of face-to-face interaction
Technical problems/connectivity
Cost allocation
Given all of these, the success of VLE relies not on a short term effort but on a long term
commitment that requires proper management, support, and guidance among the school
community.
Research Problem
Users' preferences and usage were examined, along with their awareness of the library VLE
features. The researcher intended to find out the level of success of the implementation of
the virtual library through VLE in terms of helping the school library perform its roles in
improving and managing library services. The findings also serve as a guide in further
developing the library VLE in order to promote more the value of the school library to the
community.
VLE in the Brighton College Abu Dhabi
The VLE was initiated last 2014 by the ICT department. Each school subject and department
has its own VLE champion who is responsible in overseeing and maintaining its VLE
contents and layout.
In conceptualizing the library VLE contents, the author decided to structure it based on
current library services and activities. The library VLE is divided into three major areas:
Senior, Prep, and Pre-prep School. Each school has its own customized features suitable to
the pupils’ needs and teachers’ requirements.
Under each school section, the BCAD library VLE is further subdivided into five major
sections: “about the library”, “library announcements”, “library system”, “online resources”
and “library services” as illustrated on Figure 17. The chart is the primary tool in planning the
library VLE contents. The contents may vary depending on the school’s needs and policies
but it is also essential that each feature has to be in line with the current library practices.
339
Subsequently, the author came up with a supporting document that explains each feature’s
description and levels of user access. It also enumerates overall contents of each school’s
section library VLE (See Figure 18.). All of these were ultimately approved by senior
management before it was implemented.
Research Methodology
A modified survey based on the study of Barker and Gossman (2013) was utilized to
determine the students’ and teachers’ awareness of the college VLE, to identify its effective
VLE features, to discover technical challenges in using VLE, and to gather ideas in further
improving the library services in support to the community’s learning progress.
Results and Discussions
Frequency of Pupils’ VLE Usage
Figure 1 illustrates the VLE frequency usage of the respondents. The author found out that
the majority of the respondents (56.66%) use the VLE once a month, followed by 36.67% of
respondents who use it weekly and the rest of respondents (6.67%) visit it daily. It is
assumed that if teachers use the VLE more often, the usage on VLE will increase and pupils
will likely be more encouraged to use it.
6,67%
Daily
36,67%
56,66%
Weekly
Monthly
Figure 1: Frequency of Pupils’ VLE Usage
Frequency of Pupils’ Internet Usage
Respondents were asked whether they use Internet in a frequent basis (Figure 2). There was
a huge difference in the percentage of daily use (89.48%) compared to weekly (7.89%) and
monthly (2.63%) use. These responses signified that the Internet has become a daily
experience of most of all the respondents which potentially enables them to access any
resources they wish to have. Considering the frequency of their Internet use, the VLE can
easily serve as an additional online platform for learning where they can get their educational
resources.
340
2,63%
7,89%
Daily
Weekly
Monthly
89,48%
Figure 2: Frequency of Pupils’ Internet Usage
Usage of Subject Areas in the VLE by Pupils
Another survey question determined which subject areas the pupils usually consulted with
while using the VLE. Science (Physics/Chemistry/Biology) ranked the first having 70.00%
followed by Maths at 66.67%. Fifty percent (50%) of the respondents answered they use VLE
for Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) (i.e., French, Spanish, Italian, Mandarin). English
ranked 4th on the list at 46.67%. However, Careers, Islamic Studies and Psychology were the
least used subjects in VLE in support of their classroom instruction while the teachers
teaching the three least used subjects do not use the VLE more often in their classroom. In a
librarian’s perspective, this data is a great indicator in deciding how the digital resources can
be further developed; for instance, which databases to acquire and highlight in the virtual
library, in line with the needs of teachers and pupils. The author believed that continuous
collaboration appears to be an effective way of strengthening the contents of the library’s
offering in the VLE.
Science (Physics /Chemistry / Biology)
Maths
MFL ( French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Mandarin &…
English
Humanities
Computing
Arabic
Music
DT
Year 3 and 4
Senior School PE
SEN
House Rooms
Government & Politics
EAL
Drama
Business Studies & Economics
Art
Psychology
Islamic / Social
Careers and UCAS
70,00%
66,67%
50,00%
46,67%
36,67%
26,67%
20,00%
13,33%
10,00%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
6,67%
3,33%
3,33%
3,33%
Figure 3: Usage of Subject Areas in the VLE by Pupils
341
Pupils’ Awareness of the VLE Features
As the next figure showed, uploading of documents/revisions/presentations/video (88.46%) is
the most popular VLE feature. Identifying their learning path (i.e getting immediate feedback
from their teacher) was next in the list at 38.46%. And 34.62% of respondents said that they
are also aware of the feature that enables teachers to communicate with pupils and to use
school calendar. On the other hand, four features were identified as the least popular at
15.38%: communicating using a forum, administering assessment work, creating a question
database, and enabling a parental log in. These findings might indicate that some features
are less known as these may only be available to other authorized users like teachers and
parents. As observed, some of the VLE features that pupils were least aware of only apply to
those who administer the subject or parents who ensure and control their children’s access
of information. Yet, the most popular VLE feature allowed collaborations among pupils,
teachers and parents and aimed to monitor users’ learning development.
Uploading documents/Revisions/Presentations/Videos
88,46%
Identifying learning path
38,46%
34,62%
34,62%
30,77%
30,77%
26,92%
23,08%
19,23%
19,23%
19,23%
19,23%
15,38%
15,38%
15,38%
15,38%
Using school calendar
Communicating with pupils
Conducting quizzes/exams/assessments
Posting announcement
Posting subject-related external links (online resources)
Communicating with staff
Creating a virtual to do list
Blogging
Surveying pupils
Communicating with parents
Enabling a parental log in
Creates question database
Administering assessment work
Communicating using a Forum
Figure 4: Pupils’ Awareness of the VLE Features
VLE Features Used by Pupils
Pupils were questioned about the VLE features they have used (Figure 5). 86.36% of the
pupils answered that they use VLE to upload documents/revisions/presentation/videos. Aside
from this, they saw VLE as a way to communicate with staff by 22.73%. Posting
announcements and creating virtual to-do lists have the same percentage of usage at
13.64%. Communicating with parents was the least used feature (4.55%) as indicated on the
table. The author assumed that the teachers’ initiative to integrate VLE in their lessons plays
a vital role to maximize the pupils’ VLE usage.
342
86,36%
22,73%
Creating a virtual to do list
13,64%
13,64%
Blogging
9,09%
Communicating using a Forum
9,09%
9,09%
4,55%
Figure 5: VLE Features Used by Pupils
Reasons in using the VLE by Pupils
The library wanted to find out what factors push the respondents to engage in the VLE. As
figure 6 demonstrated, the highest percentage of respondent (51.72%) has answered that
“finding online resources”, “following teacher’s requirements” and “checking
homework/prep/projects” are the main reasons why they use VLE. This is followed by
“finding answers to my assignment” at 24.14%. Yet, logging into VLE to ask a question and
communicating to teachers seemed to be the least compelling reason at 6.90%. The
responses only confirmed that the success of the VLE implementation hinged largely on the
teachers’ initiative in promoting it in their class, as they play a huge role in ensuring its
usage.
To find online resources
51,72%
To check my homework/prep/projects
51,72%
My teacher requires me to do so
51,72%
To find answers to my assignments
24,14%
To upload my homework/prep/projects
20,69%
To waste my time/when I am bored
10,34%
To ask questions
6,90%
To communicate with my teacher
6,90%
Figure 6: Reasons in Using the VLE
343
How the VLE Affects a Pupil’s Learning Development
In order to measure the effectiveness of the VLE in the pupil’s learning development, they
were asked how the VLE helps them in their studies. Interestingly, 22.58% of the
respondents strongly agreed and 35.48% of them agreed that VLE helps in identifying the
right resources/material. Meanwhile, 15.63 of them strongly agreed that it helps them to
identify what to accomplish or what they want to accomplish at 15.63% and 40.63% of the
other respondents agreed with this.
Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Mean
The VLE helps me to
become an effective pupil
3.13%
50%
28.13%
6.25%
12.5%
2.75
The VLE helps me to
identify what/want to
accomplish
15.63%
40.63%
15.63%
18.75%
9.38%
2.66
The VLE helps me to
become motivated and
inspired
0.00%
37.50%
25.00%
25.00%
12.50%
3.13
The VLE helps me to
improve my learning
habits
6.25%
46.88%
21.88%
12.50%
12.50%
2.78
The VLE helps me to do
my independent reading
and learning
3.13%
34.38%
34.38%
15.63%
12.50%
3
The VLE helps me to
identify the right
resources/material
22.58%
35.48%
25.81%
9.68%
6.45%
2.42
The VLE helps me to
collaborate with other
classmates
0.00%
6.45%
48.39%
19.35%
25.81%
3.65
The VLE helps me to
become updated with my
academic requirements
6.25%
46.88%
21.88%
15.63%
9.38%
2.75
Figure 7: How the VLE Affects Pupil’s Learning Development
Problems and Challenges Encountered in the VLE
The next question inquired about the problems and challenges in using the VLE. Being at the
top of the list at 45.45%, lack of interest was the major issue. Though, 40.91% of the
respondents stated that technical skills also hinder them to use the VLE. While 9.09% of
respondents had other various concerns including password not being provided to them, lack
of information regarding VLE, and some never trying it at all. These responses gave the
author some ideas on how to re-design the library VLE into a site not only tailored for
academic purposes but a place where they can interact and play as well.
344
Overload
information;
22,73%
Others; 9,09%
Lack of
interest;
45,45%
Lack of
time;
27,27%
Lack of
technical
skills;
40,91%
Non-related
topics; 27,27%
Figure 8: Problems and Challenges Encountered in the VLE
Teachers and Pupils’ Awareness with the Library Services
The library had to determine the community’s level of awareness of the current library
services. The responses will support the librarian’s initiative to identify effective features and
services that encourage and promote the library VLE. The respondents’ level of awareness
to various library services was provided on Figure 9. Most of the pupils (42.86%) were aware
that the library offers library lessons to classes and most of them were also aware that
reserving a book (38.10%) for check-out are library services. Suggesting a book was the
third most popular library services at 33.33%. On the other hand, providing library guides and
uploading eBooks, and booking a library (room) are services which pupils are least aware of
(4.76%).
For the teacher’s part, recommended reading lists at 60.71% was the most well-known
library service. This was followed by suggesting a book to the library which is at 53.57%. On
the other hand, uploading eBooks (3.57%) seemed to be the library service they are least
aware of as illustrated below.
The responses only reinforced the notion that collaboration with department heads and
teachers should continue in strengthening the library services. The lack of awareness in
some of the library services may signify that a more effective library management should be
made top priority.
345
Students
Teachers
42,86%
Library lesson
Reserving a book
21,43%
33,33%
Suggest a book to the library
New titles in the library
60,71%
23,81%
14,29%
Library announcements
23,81%
Searching online resources
23,81%
28,57%
17,86%
19,05%
Library events/competitions
Library information/hours/email
14,29%
Reference service (Virtual)
14,29%
Booking a library room
4,76%
Uploading ebooks
4,76%
Library guides
53,57%
28,57%
Recommended reading lists
50,00%
38,10%
39,29%
21,43%
21,43%
17,86%
3,57%
4,76%
28,57%
Figure 9: Teachers and Pupils’ Awareness with the Library Services
Teacher’s Encouragement to Use the VLE
The teachers were asked whether they encourage their pupils to use the VLE. Notably, the
majority of the teachers said ‘Yes’ at 43.47%, followed by ‘only when needed’ at 34.78%.
However 21.74% of the teachers answered that they do not actively recommend their
students to use the VLE. With these responses, the majority was still in favor in using the
VLE and believed that VLE can help them in supporting their classroom instruction.
Only when
needed
34,78%
Yes
43,47%
No
21,74%
Figure 10: Teacher’s Encouragement to Use the VLE
346
Common VLE features used by Teachers
Understandably, “uploading documents/revisions/presentations/video” obtained (82.05%)
with respect to teachers’ usage of all VLE features. “Posting subject related-external links
(online resources)” at 48.72% was ranked at second place. Many teachers also confirmed
that they use VLE as one way to communicate with parents (28.21%). In contrast,
communicating with staff and creating virtual to-do lists (2.56%) were the least used feature.
These responses showed that VLE functions not only to support the community’s learning
progress but also as an alternate for collaboration with pupils and parents.
82,05%
Posting subject-related external links (online resources)
48,72%
28,21%
23,08%
23,08%
Identifying learning path
17,95%
Conducting quizzes/exams/assessments
10,26%
Administering assessment work
10,26%
Enabling a parental log in
7,69%
Using school calendar
7,69%
Surveying pupils
7,69%
Communicating using a forum
Creating question database
Blogging
7,69%
5,13%
5,13%
Creating virtual to-do lists
2,56%
2,56%
Figure 11: Commonly VLE features used by Teachers
Teachers’ Motivation in Using the VLE
As the next chart (Figure 12) revealed, 60.47% of the teachers are motivated to use the VLE
because the college requires it while 51.16% of them believed that this can increase
communication with staff/parents/pupils. However, “to save time” was the least motivator in
usage (11.63%). These responses suggested that the school’s initiative to require every
teacher to utilize the VLE can maximize its use. Not only this, it can also create a unified
learning platform where everyone from the community can collaborate.
347
60,47%
51,16%
37,21%
20,93%
11,63%
To save time
I am into
technology
It helps and
Increase
supports me to
communication
provide quality
with
learning
staff/parents/pupils
School policy
requires it
Figure 12: Teachers Motivation in Using the VLE
Expertise and Skills needed for VLE
Of all the faculty respondents, almost 61.54% of the teachers thought that basic HTML
programming is the most important skill needed for VLE. Followed by this was the basic web
browsing skill (41.03%) that teachers should be competent with. 30.77% of the respondents
recommended that the skill of teaching technology is a requirement in using VLE as faculty,
while only 12.82% of them believed blogging is essential. It is believed that expertise and
skills should also be put into priority. Not everyone has experienced this platform before, so it
is important to align the training development of faculty based on the perceived technical
expertise and skills needed for VLE.
61,54%
41,03%
30,77%
25,64%
12,82%
Blogging
MS Office
applications
Teaching
technology to
others
Basic web
browsing
Figure 13: Expertise and Skills needed for VLE
348
Basic HTML
Programming
How the VLE Library Supports Teacher’s Classroom Instruction
In the responses to the question on how the VLE library supports academic classes, Figure
15 revealed that 56.76% of the faculty respondents agreed and 10.81% strongly agreed that
the VLE library helps pupils to become effective users of technology. And teachers strongly
agreed by 13.89% that it introduces the pupils to a wide-range of resources. The result of this
part the survey shall help the librarian to structure the VLE library contents based on users’
needs. For instance, 54.05% of the respondents said they are uncertain whether the VLE
library helps their pupils to identify what is only needed. With this information, the librarian
will in the future create an advanced list of online resources and recommended titles based
on the scheduled weekly lesson. Also, having reading lists for class lessons in advance
placed in the library prior to the lessons will also be put into consideration.
Strongly
Agree
Questions
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Mean
It helps me to create a list of
resources I needed for my
class
5.13%
33.33%
48.72%
7.69%
5.13%
2.74
It helps me to create reading
list for independent reading
5.26%
50.00%
31.58%
7.89%
5.26%
2.58
It provides additional
references to my pupils’
homework/projects
11.43%
48.57%
31.43%
8.57%
0.00%
2.37
It helps me to know the
existing library collections
10.81%
45.95%
37.84%
5.41%
0.00%
2.38
It introduces my pupils to a
wide-range of resources
13.89%
44.44%
30.56%
11.11%
0.00%
2.39
The VLE helps my pupils to
identify the right resources
they ‘only’ needed
5.41%
29.73%
54.05%
5.41%
5.41%
2.76
The VLE helps me to inform
my class about the library
updates/activities/programs
5.41%
43.24%
37.84%
10.81%
2.70%
2.62
It supports my pupils to read
different wide range of
books
5.26%
50.00%
36.84%
5.26%
2.63%
2.5
It helps my pupils to develop
their reading habit
5.26%
44.74%
44.74%
2.63%
2.63%
2.53
It helps my pupils to become
effective users of technology
10.81%
56.76%
27.03%
2.70%
2.70%
2.3
Figure 14: How the VLE Library Supports Teacher’s Classroom Instruction
Teachers’ Attitudes in Using Technology
With regards to the usage of technology, more than half of the faculty respondents (56.62%)
stated that they are confident in using technology while some (41.30%) are still open to
receive assistance with regards to using it. It is remarkable to say that all respondents had
shown an interest in exploring technology. The author believes that the users’ positive
349
attitudes towards using technology may exactly reflect their attitudes towards the wellmanaged and structured VLE.
I am confident in using it
56,52%
I am open to learn yet need assistance
41,30%
I am afraid because I have no background
in IT
4,35%
I don’t need this for my subject
I have no interest in exploring technology
2,17%
0,00%
Figure 15: Teachers’ Attitudes in Using the Technology
Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions
The succeeding data summarizes the principal findings of Users’ preferences and usages
survey administered to the respondents:
For the pupils
a. Majority of the respondents said that they use VLE on a monthly basis at 56.66%.
b. Most of the pupils (89.48%) mentioned that they use Internet on a daily basis.
c. Science (Physics/Chemistry/Biology is the most preferred subject used by pupils at
70%.
d. 88.46% of the pupil respondents told that uploading
e. Documents/revisions/presentation/videos considered to be the most popular VLE
feature.
f. Finding online requirements, checking of homework/prep/projects and teacher’s
requirement are the main reasons why most pupils (51.72%) use the VLE.
g. By having average mean of 2.42, pupils believed that VLE help them to identify the
right resources/material.
h. Lack of interest seems to be the major problem in using the VLE at 45.45%.
i. Library lesson is the most known library service as per pupils (42.86%).
For teachers and administrators:
j. Teachers and administrators indicated that the recommended reading list is the most
popular library service at 60.71%.
k. 43.47% of the teachers answered that they encourage their pupils to use the VLE
when needed.
l. Likewise, uploading documents/revisions/presentation/videos is the most aware VLE
feature at 82.05%.
m. Teachers (60.47%) are motivated to use the VLE because the college requires them.
350
n. Majority of the teachers (61.54%) said that basic HTML programming is the most
important skill needed for VLE.
o. Having 2.3 average mean, teachers believed that using library VLE helps their pupils
to become effective users of technology.
p. Most of the teachers (56.52%) described that they are confident in using technology.
Recommendations
These are the following recommendations to effectively promote the usage of library VLE
and strengthen its purpose in providing library services to the community:
 Continuous collaboration with teachers on how the library can support their
classroom instruction.
 Promote the newly-acquired subject-based online resources in the Library by
creating a Current Service Awareness program.
 Coordinate with teachers on what resources can be acquired for each subject
area.
 Collate all online resource links from the subjects’ areas in VLE and organise
them in the library VLE for school community reference.
 Maximise the function of VLE by encouraging and motivating pupils to use it as
part of the academic requirement or homework.
 Conduct training and support to the school community regarding VLE and its
developments and changes.
 Establish interactive yet subject-based learning activities as one motivator in
using the VLE.
 Recommend VLE as part of the school and learning policy.
 Boost various lesser known library services mentioned by respondents and
teachers by conducting marketing and promotional programs.
 Re-assess library programs based on users’ needs and satisfaction.
Conclusion
The movement of school libraries towards establishing a virtual library through a VLE is a
trend which shows that librarians have realized their important roles in assisting learning in
the digital world. The virtual library’s benefits and roles empower school libraries to perform
its function in supporting the school community. It is also believed that, by providing wellstructured and constantly managed library VLE contents, school libraries can further
strengthen its importance by successfully meeting current and hopefully even future
demands.
References
Asselin, M. & Doiron R. (2008). Towards a transformative pedagogy for school libraries 2.0.
School Libraries Worldwide. 14(2), 1-18.
BBC Active (2015). Why you should use a virtual learning environment. Retrieved from
http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/WhyyoushoulduseaVirtu
alLearningEnvironment.aspx
Canadian Library Association (2014). Leading learning: standards of practice for school
library learning commons in Canada. Retrieved from http://apsds.org/wp351
content/uploads/Standards-of-Practice-for-SchoolLibrary-Learning-Commons-inCanada-2014.pdf
Gunn, H. (2002). Virtual libraries supporting student learning. School Libraries Worldwide.
8(2), 27-37.
International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), (2010). Enhancing surveying education through
e-learning. Retrieved from https://www.fig.net/pub/figpub/pub46/figpub46.pdf
JISC Infonet. (2004). Effective use of VLEs: introduction to VLEs. Retrieved from
http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/vle/
Kelleher, T. (2013, May 30). What does a school library look like in a digital age? [Blog post].
Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/teacherblog/2013/may/30/school-library-digital-age
Koganuramath, M. (2007). Virtual library: an overview. INFLIBNET's Institutional Repository.
Retrieved from http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1944/1430/1/535-542.pdf
Kuhlthau, C.C. (2010). Guided inquiry: school libraries in the 21st century. School Libraries
Worldwide. 16,(1), 17-28.
Lamb, A. & Callison, D. (2005). Key words in instruction: online learning and virtual schools.
School Library Month. 11(9), 29-35.
Leunissen, R. (2013, November 12). What is the new role of a school library in the digital
age? Retrieved from http://elearningindustry.com/what-is-the-new-role-of-a-schoollibrary-in-the-digital-age
Mclester, S. (2013, March). Transitions to digital media: are school libraries on the way out?
Retrieved from http://www.districtadministration.com/article/transitions-digitalmedia
Northcote, M. (2008). Sense of place in online learning environments. Paper presented at
Ascilite 2008 Melbourne: hello! where are you in the landscape of educational
technology?, Melbourne, Australia.
O’Driscoll, T., Cross, J., & Trondsen, E. (2007, March). Another life: virtual worlds as tools for
learning. eLearn Magazine. Retrieved from
http://elearnmag.acm.org/featured.cfm?aid=1235515
O’hear, S. (2006, August 8). E-learning 2.0 – how technologies are shaping education.
Retrieved from http://readwrite.com/2006/08/08/e-learning_20
O’Leary, R. & Ramsden, A. (2002). Virtual learning environments. Retrieved from
https://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/printable/vle_v5.pdf
352
Posey, G., Burgess, T., Eason, M., & Jones, Y. (2010, March 3). The advantages and
disadvantages of virtual classroom and the role of the teacher. Paper presented at
Southwest decision sciences institute conference, Dallas, Texas.
Riccio, H. (2001, December 3). The virtual library – past, present, & future. Retrieved from
http://www.llrx.com/features/virtuallibrary.htm
Roche, C. (2015). Virtual libraries. Retrieved from http://heartoftheschool.edublogs.org/whatwe-do/virtual-libraries/
Roscorla, T. (2013, December 5). 5 ways school libraries can stay relevant in the digital age.
Retrieved from http://www.centerdigitaled.com/news/5-Ways-School-LibrariesCan-Stay-Relevant-in-the-Digital-Age.html
Schrum, L. & Levin, B. (2009). Leading 21st century schools: Harnessing technology for
engagement and achievement. USA: Corwin.
Biographical Note
Virgilio G Medina Jr is currently working as Librarian at Brighton College Abu Dhabi. He
graduated cum laude with the course of Library and Information Science in University of the
Philippines-Diliman. He is responsible in managing the library and has successfully
organized various library programs and events that promote the importance of the library and
reading in the school community. His areas of interest include library planning and
management, library technology, marketing programs, collection development, information
and references, and information literacy.
353
Appendix I
VLE
Fronter
About the library
Senior
Prep
Pre-prep
Announcement
Library System
Online Resources
Library Services
Mission and
Objectives
New Books
English
Suggest a book
How the books
arranged?
Library News
Science
(Chemistry,
Biology, Physics)
Reading lists
Library Rules
Reviews
Maths
Library Awards
DT
History
Humanities
Geography
Drama
Music
PE
MFL
Arabic
Business
Psychology
Career
Teachers
Resources
General
References
Figure 47: BCAD's Library VLE Contents
354
Appendix II
Figure 18: Library VLE Contents Description
355
Literature in digital environments:
changes and emerging trends in
Australian school libraries
Judy O’Connell
Courses Director, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt
University, Australia.
juoconnell@csu.edu.au
Dr Jenni Bales
Adjunct Lecturer, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt
University, Australia
jbales@csu.edu.au
Pru Mitchell
Manager, Information Services, Australian Council for Educational Research; Adjunct
Lecturer, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University,
Australia
pmitchell@csu.edu.au
Abstract
Igniting a passion for reading and research is core business for school libraries,
inevitably placing the library at the center of the 21st century reading and learning
experience. It is in this context that digital literature creates some challenging questions
for teachers and librarians in schools, while the emergence of digital technology and/or
device options also offers a great many opportunities. Collection development in school
libraries encompasses an understanding of the need to contextualize these e-literature
needs within the learning and teaching experiences in the school. The Australian
Library and Information Association’s 2013 statement Future of collections 50:50
predicted that library print and ebook collections in libraries would establish a 50:50
equilibrium by 2020 and that this balance would be maintained for the foreseeable
future. This statement from the Australian professional body raised the need to know
more about e-collections in school libraries. For teacher librarians in Australian schools,
the nature of online collections, and the integration of ebooks into the evolving reading
culture is influenced by the range and diversity of texts, interfaces, devices, and
experiences available to complement existing print and media collections or services.
Management and budget constraints also influence e-collections. By undertaking a
review of the literature, a discussion of the education context, and a critical analysis of
the trends evidenced by national survey data, this paper presents an overview of the
changes and emerging trends in digital literature and ebook collections in school library
services in Australia today.
356
Keywords: eBooks, eReading, School libraries, Collection development, Learning
ecology
Like the history of libraries around the world, school libraries also have a long history
reaching back to medieval times. While the physical expression of the idea of a school library
has undergone great change, the idea itself is not new. The library has been seen as the
‘pivot’ or ‘center’ of the school for several hundred years, over time increasing in size and
sophistication of organization and administration (Clyde 1981).
A major shift in the fabric of possibilities for school libraries in Australia took place in the latter
part of the 20th century, commencing in 1968 for secondary schools, and 1973 for primary
schools. Through to the mid-1980s school libraries were provided for by the Commonwealth
Government, with funding for the necessary buildings, equipment, trained teacher-librarians,
centralized services, books and other resources (Reynolds & Carroll 2012). In another wave
of funding, the Australian Government’s Building Education Revolution stimulus funding
resulted in as many as 3017 library projects by 2010, of which 2,650 were new library
facilities (DEEWR 2011).
Learning takes place across the life spaces of home, school and community and includes
physical and virtual spaces transformed through technology. This results in a learning
ecology in each school that is an expression of a set of contexts comprised of a unique
configuration of activities, material resources, technology fluencies, and the interactions that
emerge from them (Barron, 2006). The goal of any school library, big or small, regional or
city, is to respond to these needs and provide the school with a collection that meets the
leisure, learning and teaching requirements of its community, within the limits of fiscal and
organizational constraints.
The role of the teacher librarian is to promote books, reading and research in old and new
ways (Gordon, 2010); to nurture a learning ecology that supports all literacies relevant to
reading, writing, interaction and culture both past and present (Gogan & Marcus, 2013); and,
in so doing respond to an information renaissance that is rewiring tacit and explicit
knowledge and embedding a new culture of learning (Thomas & Brown, 2011). School
libraries that adapt to the digital needs of their community not only continue to build a reading
culture in the school, but facilitate divergence and convergence in media. This supports the
motivation, differentiation, variation in platforms, collaboration and connections necessary for
the new learning ecology (Lamb & Johnson, 2010; Hay & Foley, 2009; Gogan & Marcus,
2013; Marcoux & Loertscher, 2009).The fundamental process of learning at the heart of our
school libraries is as complex and changeable as the spaces, formats and pedagogies that
are the essence of education today.
The Centre for International Scholarship in School Libraries <http://cissl.rutgers.edu/>
provides a summary of the extensive body of international research which substantiates that
school libraries and teacher librarians help young people learn, and also notes the
considerable body of research that has explored how dimensions of reading are enhanced
when school librarians provide access to reading materials, promote reading, and integrate
literacy with instruction (Todd and Gordon 2010). School libraries are therefore important in
357
helping to deliver quality education in Australia by igniting the passion for reading and
research.
School Library Collections
Collections have to remain responsive to the learning and teaching needs within the school.
Educationally contextualized social and learning needs help to shape decisions in response
to cultural diversity, including age, gender, disability, family context, sexual preference, and
socio-economic status, in a genuine and non-tokenistic way (Strick, 2013). In keeping with
collection development principles as outlined by Johnson (2014, p. 3), school library staff
take responsibility for selecting materials in all formats for acquisition and access, reviewing
devices, and negotiating contracts to acquire or access eresources. However, the changing
impact and formational influence of technology, online media, formats and media devices is
part of the story of change. Now school libraries can embrace a range of ‘eproducts’ in the
quest to provide a timely means to guide research, curriculum needs, reading and literacy
experiences in schools.
Reading in digital environments
A fundamental requirement of learning is to be able to read. But what does ‘read’ mean in a
21st century paradigm? Lamb (2011) argues that reading goes beyond interpreting text to
also include graphics, sound, motion, and other kinds of symbols in addition to or instead of
text. This interpretation is supported by the Australian Curriculum: English which states that
students ‘listen to, read, view, speak, write, create and reflect on increasingly complex and
sophisticated spoken, written and multimodal texts across a growing range of contexts with
accuracy, fluency and purpose’ (ACARA, 2014, par. 1). If Australian schools are to address
this national directive then it is imperative that ebooks are incorporated into the reading and
literature programs of schools as well as being available for students’ personal reading
choices. How well school libraries are addressing this challenge is influenced by a number of
factors.
After years of conjecture and a variety of failed products, Amazon's Kindle introduced in 2007
was the first popular dedicated ebook reader. Now a reader can buy and download a book
from their internet-enabled device with just a few clicks, and be reading immediately. Ebooks
are on dedicated devices, smartphones, laptops, and it is possible to immediately share our
opinions with social networks such as Goodreads. With Amazon reporting ebook sales
outstripping print for the first time in 2011 (Rapaport, 2011), authors and publishers are
seeking to move beyond the traditional print-style format of books and are experimenting with
new forms of digital literature, with varying degrees of success.
With all these changes teacher librarians and library staff have begun to question and
experiment with making ebooks and ebook readers available to the school community.
“How teacher librarians select, promote, maintain, and evaluate e-book collections,
especially in the face of a constantly changing market, waxing and waning publisher
restrictions on e-publication use, a staggering number of e-book file formats, and an
evolving e-reader market, remains a huge challenge. But most of us see that the future
of the book is digital, and we need to figure this out or get left behind (Johnson, 2013,
p. 31)”.
358
Texts have moved from the single form of print to multiforms of text.
“Electronic texts have the potential to reduce educational expenses because they can
be produced and stored at less cost than print texts. Additionally, portable, accessible
libraries provide students with opportunities to read and to study in diverse locations at
any time. Electronic texts can be found in increasing numbers of school libraries and
classrooms where they are not only enhancing teaching and learning; they are also
profoundly changing the signature pedagogy of reading literacy instruction (Felvegi &
Matthew, 2012, p. 40)”.
In responding to pedagogical goals, teachers need to clearly identify what the digital
experience can offer that print does not. Research on successful reading practice conducted
prior to digitization remains relevant when the focus is on engagement with texts.
Rosenblatt’s (1995) research into reader-response theory, first published in the 1930s,
continues to underpin current literacy teaching. Rosenblatt differentiates between efferent
reading (for literal and factual meaning) and aesthetic reading, where the reader’s attention
turns inwards to focus on literary enjoyment, engagement and involvement with the text.
Enhanced ebooks are ideally suited to aesthetic reading as they encourage multiple
perspectives, interpretations and levels of engagement to more fully immerse the reader.
Ebooks can encourage deep reader response for both individual reading and classroom
teaching. Vandergrift (1996) argues for the power of a community of readers to develop into
an interpretive community. These principles continue to be relevant and enhanced by the
fusion of technology – interactive whiteboards and electronic multimodal texts – in the
classroom to support teaching strategies such as interactive read-alouds
What is an ebook?
Lamb (2011) and Larson (2009) have examined the multiple forms in which ebooks can be
accessed and the following definitions have been informed by their work. These differences
in multimodal texts each contribute in unique ways to the digital reading environment. The
term ‘ebook’ has layers of meaning beyond the more traditional construct of an ebook as an
electronic version of a print book with a linear structure that can be read or listened to on an
ereader, tablet or on a computer, and may require software to make it accessible. Other
forms of ebooks include:
● etextbooks as electronic versions of print textbooks. It may include images, maps and
exercises with added tools for bookmarking and note-taking. Etextbooks may be
available in an online format with embedded multimedia elements, links to related
internet sites, quizzes and tests.
● enhanced ebooks, including
○ interactive storybooks that maintain a linear story structure with the addition of
interactive features such as audio, video and glossary functionality. Related
activities and games may be included.
○ hypertexts and interactive ebooks in nonfiction and fiction genres that o may
include images, maps, audio, and video elements and links to related
websites and games to extend the reading experience.
○ transmedia ebooks are multimodal, multimedia, non-linear stories that
encourage active participation through a range of connected resources (e.g
playing cards, websites, maps or online clues). (O’Connell, Bales & Mitchell, in
press)
359
Each of these ebook formats has relevance for students as the progress along the
learning continuum from when they start school through to completion of their secondary
education.
National survey on ebooks in Australian schools
In 2014, members of the Australian education community contributed to a survey on ebooks,
titled 50:50 by 2020 Ebook Trends in Australian Schools, to collect data about current use of
digital book content in schools. The survey sought schools’ opinions on trends for the next 5
years, in order to gain a school library perspective on the Australian Library and Information
Association’s (2013) statement that library and print ebook collections would establish a
50:50 equilibrium by 20:20. To facilitate the collection of useful comparative data, the survey
was framed to incorporate questions that aligned with, and expanded upon, the 2013 Survey
of Ebook Usage in U.S. School (K-12) Libraries (School Library Journal, 2014) and the
Australian School Library Survey (Softlink, 2014a). The survey was made available online,
and was open to all Australian schools from all states and territories, across government,
Catholic and independent sectors. The survey ran for three weeks commencing mid October
2014, providing a total of 450 responses.
School library e-futures
Public media have reported instances around the world where a school library space has
been closed in a policy of ‘gone digital’. Media hype does not include any research or
positive evidence that this move has merit - perhaps the opposite. Rather, research has
shown that online access and the internet has a crucial role to play in education, and that the
role of the school library becomes more important. A well-resourced library becomes a ‘hub
for learning’ and integral to the school. A telling example was reported from New Zealand:
“In 2003, Cambridge High School dismantled its library in favor of a $1.5m cyber cafe.
The move was short-lived. The cafe never opened and two years later, under a new
principal, the library was restored. e-books and the internet complement rather than
replace printed books and present no more of a challenge than audio books, video and
the internet have – other than the cost”. (Neale, 2011)
The Softlink (2014b) Australian School Library Survey (which received 1380 responses)
provided a useful snapshot of ebook trends. Key findings showed that
●
●
●
●
49% of schools with eBooks started their collection in the last year
In 2013 15% of school library collections indicated that eBooks accounted for more
than 5% of their collection. In 2014, this number has risen to 20%
53% of respondents said that it is ‘Very Important’ or ‘Important’ for them to
implement an eBook strategy for their library in 2015
54% of school libraries are planning on buying eBooks in 2015
Responses from the 50:50 in 20:20 survey showed a similar trend, with 18.6% respondents
in 2014 with a collection consisting of ebooks (of any kind). Of these 93.75% were fiction
resources, 76.79% were non-fiction resources, 42.86% were reference resources and 47.32
were teacher resources. This growth trend is reflected by increased percentage allocation to
360
ebooks in the school library resource purchasing budget, with 2.6% allocating more than a
quarter of the budget in 2013, 5.9% in 2014 and 11.79% in 2015.
In other words, ebook resourcing demonstrates an important emerging trend, particularly in
relation to collection size. Australian school library collections reported in the 50:50 by 2020
survey showed only 34% school libraries to have collections of 10,000-14,999 total
resources, and 66% with 15,000-30,000 total resources in the library collection.
However, it is important to note that the number, and even proportion of ebooks available in
a school, is sometimes hidden by the fact that access is not limited to individual 'borrowers',
and is not a one-to-one association. Whole classes can engage with the same ebook in the
classroom as a part of their language and learning area curriculum, or small sections of a
digital text may be incorporated into a lesson. From a school’s perspective, the priority for an
ebook collection is the quality of the collection and its alignment with teaching methodology,
rather than on how many ebooks are available in a collection.
Some school libraries have preferred to invest in audio versions of texts which offer an
additional multimedia format. Cahill and Richey (2014) report that while there is limited
research into the value of audiobooks to literacy development and content knowledge of
listeners, there is evidence from publishers that audiobooks are popular in the 18-24 year old
market. The 50:50 by 2020 Survey showed that only 20% of schools with ebooks included
audiobooks in their collection, and for only 3% of these did the audiobook component make
up more than 10% of their digital collection. Most of these schools with audiobooks had
enrolments of 750-999 students.
Another aspect of school library ebook collections is highlighted by the 16% of respondents
who indicated that student or staff-created ebooks were a feature of their collection. Reid
(2013) explores the educational values of student-created ebooks in the primary school and
McAllan (2013) outlines how secondary students create nonfiction ebooks to demonstrate
their learning on a topic. However, the potential to create targeted, customized resources
internally that support student and teacher self-publishing brings additional responsibilities for
management of access and authority control within the library catalogue or digital delivery
systems
Textbooks associated with traditional teaching styles require many students to have
simultaneous, long-term access to the same content. The trend found in Australian schools
was for students to access etextbooks online or through an app provided by the publisher or
textbook aggregator service, usually on an annual subscription basis. Digital textbooks were
in use in 60% of surveyed secondary schools and 67% of combined primary/secondary
schools, with 2% of these being totally digital in terms of textbooks. See Figure 1.
361
Figure 1. Implementation of etextbooks in Australian schools by level of schooling
In a quarter of secondary and combined primary/secondary schools, parents were
responsible for purchasing etextbooks. In the remainder, either the school library or subject
departments took responsibility for acquiring and managing school-owned etextbooks. This
was a marked point of difference with primary schools, where less than 10% of schools were
using etextbooks, and where parents paid for the content in only 6% of cases.
While the transition to etextbooks challenged existing models of acquisition and management
for schools, there was less educational change involved for teachers in the textbook model of
one book to one student. Some students reported a preference for access to both physical
and digital formats of their textbooks, recognizing benefits specific to each format. Enhanced
ebooks, on the other hand, with their media-rich interactivity, support both a ‘one book to
many students’ model of teaching, or a model where one student device contains many
ebooks or apps.
Figure 2 reveals there was limited evidence of teachers harnessing this form of enhanced
ebook content in teaching, with only 21% of this sample accessing book apps or online
literature collections despite the fact that many of these are free. The availability of online
literature subscription services provides teachers with an opportunity to use traditional printbased literacy practices with a whole class (one to many) as a scaffold for a later introduction
to digital reading experiences for independent readers.
362
Figure 2. Use of enhanced ebooks or apps according to level of school
Impact of technology
Many students come to school with a wealth of experience in the use of a range of digital
technologies for personal entertainment, learning and social interaction (Bain and Weston,
2012, p. 3). Students from Kindergarten through to Year 12 have grown up with technology
and see it a standard aspect of life. Yet, on entering the school gates, these devices may be
banned, have limited access or be non-existent. In this scenario, ‘today’s education system
faces irrelevance unless we bridge the gap between how students live and how they learn’
(Partnership for 21 Century Skills, 2002, p. 4). Vockley (2007, p. 15) argues that schools that
provide networked education enable personalized and equitable learning opportunities for
students. When students experience a seamless digital ecology that transcends boundaries
there are increased opportunities for authentic and meaningful learning to occur.
Perhaps because of the desire to emphasize digital experiences, some schools have taken a
radical response to technology. Just over 5% of survey respondents predicted that ebooks
would make up 80% or more of their school collection, with 2 schools predicting 100% digital
collection by 2020 due to “school wishing to go totally digital and paperless” (QLD F-12
Independent), and “the deputy principal pushing digital resources and insisting on culling
huge numbers of books” (NSW Independent Primary). Besides school management pushing
for ebooks (5), schools referenced their existing strong digital collection (3), ease of use and
management (2) and user preference (3). Others in this band refer to trends in technology
and publishing (6) reporting “circulation of hard copy non-fiction is crashing” (QLD
independent F-12) and “rapid growth and establishment of infrastructure, clients also
becoming more familiar with the format” (Vic Catholic secondary).
However, the growth in technology in both the home and school environments provides
increased opportunities for students and educators to interconnect their learning through the
‘third space’ as a place where different cultures meet. Millard (2003) argues that students’
home and social interests, brought to classroom literacy learning, are influenced by access to
363
new technologies and engagement with popular culture. One strategy to make connections
between home and school experiences is through the use of technology for reading – for
both recreational and academic purposes.
Complexities around the range of ebooks are further complicated when you factor in the
reading purposes ranging from teaching literacy skills, supporting curriculum programs
(factual and class literature) and personal reading. A particular issue revealed in the 50:50 by
2020 survey was the management of digital textbooks. The trend in Australia is for students
to have a direct log in to access these online, although the format may range from a digital
book that is read online, a downloadable pdf that students save to their hardware, or a
CDROM.
Free ebooks are attractive as they may be read online or downloaded and the sites may be
catalogued with a direct link provided or made accessible as a link on the school or library’s
learning management system. Purchased PDF ebooks need to be managed within the
school’s network and the school needs to ensure that digital rights protocols are in place or
limit purchases to ebooks that have a campus license. Enhanced books available as apps
require downloading to individual devices, often with regular updates, and management
through an account with the provider. Management of enhanced ebook apps is restrained by
provider protocols and often require individual management on each device. Regardless of
the systems adopted, the library needs to facilitate home access and establish methods to
promote ebooks in new and exciting ways, harnessing technology to do so. Questions arise
as to how schools manage these for home access.
Technology, and the school’s stance on the use of personal devices in the school, also
impacts on collection development decisions. Equipment includes personal computers,
laptops, tablets, ereaders and smart phones, and their operating systems., Some ebooks are
platform specific and some operate across different platforms (Cavenaugh, 2005, p. 56).
Uniform standards for ebooks are still developing and enhanced books with media rich
features add further complexities.
It is important that ebook collections address popular culture reading material as well as
subject content and etextbook resources. Access to high-interest digital fiction that is
portable between and across devices encourages students to read recreationally and bring
alternative and personal literary experiences to the classroom. However, publishers are
currently dictating the market and individual feedback from the survey indicates that lack of
access to popular titles impinges on students’ interests in, and take-up of, ereading for
recreational purposes. Open access is helping schools meet these challenges with 36% of
the respondents to the 50:50 in 2020 survey reporting that they use Project Gutenberg as an
ebook provider, which was higher than all but one commercial provider out of a list of 19
options. A learning ecology that supports learners in multiple environments requires the
capability to download ebooks to both school equipment and home devices through a library
management system that is accessible 24/7. So ‘free and flexible’ from Project Gutenberg
provides any school library the option to make a start in the use of digital ebook resources.
School library collection development presents some unique circumstances and challenges
that encompass national curriculum requirements through to specific community needs
(Sheehan 2013, p. 81). Customizing collections requires meeting departmental standards,
364
providing curriculum relevant content for the breadth of age and ability in the school cohort,
responding to the recreational interests of students, supporting the teaching and professional
learning requirements of teachers and addressing unique local community aspects. Ebooks
are not necessarily available to address this breadth in collection development. Added to
this, are issues on ebook publishing formats, digital rights management and the subsequent
borrowing restrictions that do not adequately address the way schools and students interact
with and use texts.
Conclusion
The digital future of school libraries presents a vision of rich, diverse and multimodal
collections, where eresources contribute to new cultures of reading and learning. The
feedback received from Australian schools via the 50:50 by 2020 survey indicates that for
most schools there is some way to go before the breadth of this vision is realized.
What is encouraging is the evidence that teacher librarians are responding to the ereading
challenges, and adapting library collections. Nevertheless, while the survey shows a steady
increase in the implementation of ebooks over the past two years, the qualitative responses
reveal schools grappling with significant issues related to collection building, collection
management and use of digital resources. There are also glimpses of libraries that are
making headway with these issues as they immerse themselves in the digital space. A
challenge for the school library sector is to respond to these findings and promote
opportunities for school library staff to share what works, and to learn from each other’s
experience.
Given the pace at which technology changes progress, it is essential that school libraries
keep abreast of the changes and developments taking place and ensure that collections
remain responsive to needs for literature in digital environments. While there is no way to
predict the technologies of the future, it is important to consider the ways that students will
read in the future; the changes that need to be made to incorporate literature into curriculum
and learning experiences; and how the library collection can support and create engaging,
innovative experiences for students. Australian school libraries are travelling towards exciting
new futures for library collections - yet in many ways the journey has just begun!
References
ACARA (Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority) (2014). Australian Curriculum V7.2
English: Aims. Retrieved from
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/english/aims.
Australian Library and Information Association (2013). 50:50 by 2020. Retrieved from
http://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/about/ALIA-5050-by2020_2.pdf.
Bain, A., & Weston, M. (2012). The learning edge: What technology can do to educate all
children. New York: Teachers College Press.
Barron, B. (2006). Interest and self-sustained learning as catalysts of development: A
learning ecology perspective. Human Development, 49, 193-224.
365
Cahill, M., & Richey, J. (2014, August). Do you hear what I hear? Questioning the legitimacy
of audiobooks as ‘reading’ material. Paper presented at IFLA Satellite Conference:
Libraries For Children And Youth And School Libraries Section, Lyon, France.
Retrieved from http://www.reseau-canope.fr/ifla-seminairebnf/pdf/cahill_article.pdf.
Cavenaugh, T. (2005). The Digital reader: Using e-books in K-12 education. Eugene, OR:
ISTE.
Clyde, L. A. (1981). The magic casements: A survey of school library history from the eighth
to the twentieth century (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). James Cook
University, Townsville. Retrieved from
http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/2051/1/01front.pdf.
DEEWR (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations). (2014). Chapter
2 Impact of Recent Commonwealth Government Policies and Investments on
School Libraries. Submission 344.1. p. 2 to the inquiry of the House of
Representative Committee on school libraries and teacher librarians in 21st
century Australia. Retrieved from
http://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representati
ves_committees?url=ee/schoollibraries/report/chapter2.htm.
Felvegi, E., & Matthew, K. I. (2012). Ebooks and literacy in K-12 schools. Computers in the
Schools, 29, 40-52. doi: 10.1080/07380569.2012.651421.
Gogan, B., & Marcus, A. (2013). Lost in transliteracy. Knowledge Quest, 41(5), 40–45.
Gordon, C. (2010). The culture of inquiry in school libraries. School Libraries Worldwide,
16(1), 73-88.
Hay, L., & Foley, C. (2009). School libraries building capacity for student learning in 21C.
Scan, 28(2), 17-26.
Johnson D. (2013). Top ten school library game changers of the past twenty-five years.
Teacher Librarian, 40(4), 28-31.
Johnson, P. (2014). Fundamentals of collection development and management 3rd ed..
Chicago: American Library Association.
Lamb, A. (2011). Reading redefined for a transmedia universe. Learning & Leading with
Technology. 39(3), 12-17.
Lamb, A., & Johnson, L. (2010). Divergent convergence Part 2: Teaching and learning in a
transmedia world. Teacher Librarian, 38, 64-9.
Larson, L. (2009). E-reading and e-responding: New tools for the next generation of readers.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(30), 255-258. doi:10.1598/JAAL.53.3.7.
Marcoux, E., & Loertscher, D. (2009). The role of a school library in a school's reading
program. Teacher Librarian, 37, 8-14.
366
McAllan, T. (2013). Snapshots of learning in the library and classroom: E-books in a history
unit - a case study. In J. Bales (Ed.), E-books in learning: A beginners guide (pp.
29-31). Sydney, NSW: Australian School Library Association.
Millard, E. (2003). Towards a literacy of fusion: New times, new teaching and learning?
Reading, 37, 3–8. doi: 10.1111/1467-9345.3701002.
Neale, I. (2001). School libraries the poor relation. Education Stuff NZ. Retrieved from
http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/5602314/School-libraries-the-poorrelation.
O’Connell, J., Bales, J. & Mitchell, P. (in press). [R]Evolution in reading cultures: 2020 vision
for school libraries. Australian Library Journal.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2002). Learning for the 21st century: A report and mile
guide for 21st century skills. Washington, DC: Partnership for 21st Century Skills.
Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/P21_Report.pdf.
Pinnell, G., & Fountas, I. (2007). The continuum of literacy learning, Grades K-8: Behaviors
and understanding to notice, teach and support. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Rapaport, L. (2011). Amazon.com says Kindle e-book sales surpass printed books.
Bloomberg Business, 19 May. Retrieved from
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-05-19/amazon-com-says-kindleelectronic-book-sales-surpass-printed-format.
Reid, K. (2013). Creating e-books in the classroom. In J. Bales (Ed.), E-books in learning: A
beginners guide (pp. 37-43). Sydney, NSW: Australian School Library Association.
Reynolds, S., & Carroll, M. (2012). Collaborators or competitors? The roles of school
libraries, classroom libraries, teachers and teacher librarians in literacy
development. Synergy, 10(1). Retrieved from
http://www.slav.vic.edu.au/synergy/volume-10-number-1-2012/research/235collaborators-or-competitors-the-roles-of-school-libraries-classroom-librariesteachers-and-teacher-librarians-in-literacy-development.html.
Rosenblatt, L. (1995). Literature as exploration (5th ed.). New York: Modern Language
Association.
School Library Journal. (2014). Survey of ebook usage in U.S. school libraries: Fifth annual
survey. Retrieved from http://www.thedigitalshift.com/research/ebook-usage-u-sschool-k-12-libraries-2014-report.
Sheehan, K. (2013). The ebook revolution: A primer for librarians on the front lines. Santa
Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
367
Softlink. (2014a). 2013 Australian school library survey. Softlink. Retrieved from
http://www.softlinkint.com/2013-australian-school-library-survey-schools.
Softlink. (2014b). The 2014 Australian school library survey summary. Softlink. Retrieved
from http://www.softlinkint.com.
Strick, A. (2013). Is everybody in? Part 2. Making our school library collection truly inclusive.
School Librarian, 61(4), 198-99.
Thomas, D., & Brown, J. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a
world of constant change. Lexington, Ky: Create Space.
Todd, R. & Gordon, C. (2010. School libraries, now more than ever: a position paper of the
center for international scholarship in school libraries. Center for International
Scholarship in School Libraries, Rutgers University. Retrieved from
http://njasl.info/wp-content/NJ_study/Oct2012_CISSL.pdf
Vandergrift, K. (1996). Vandergrift's reader response criticism and resources. Retrieved from
http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/professional-development/childlit/readerresponse.html.
Vockley, M. (2007). Maximizing the impact: The pivotal role of technology in a 21st century
education system. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. Retrieved from
http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/p21setdaistepaper.pdf.
Biographical notes
Judy O’Connell has worked as lecturer and Courses (programs) Director at Charles Sturt
University since 2011. From 2008-2010 she was Head of Library and Information Services at
St Joseph’s College, Hunters Hill, Sydney. In 2006-2007 she was an Education Consultant in
Library and Web 2.0 developments for 80 primary and secondary schools in the Western
Region of Sydney. Her professional leadership spans school and tertiary education, with a
focus on libraries, learning spaces, online learning design, innovation, social media and
technology for learning and teaching. In 2014 she received a Charles Sturt University Faculty
of Education Award for Academic Excellence.
Dr Jennie Bales has worked as an adjunct lecturer in the School of Information Studies at
Charles Sturt University since 2014. Prior to that a long career as a teacher librarian for the
Department of Education Tasmania has included school leadership in the primary and
secondary sectors, predominantly around the integration of ICT into teaching and learning.
Her professional and research interests revolve around online and digital learning, curriculum
resourcing and children's literature with several action research investigations conducted
within schools.
Pru Mitchell is Manager of Information Services at the Australian Council for Educational
Research in Melbourne and an adjunct lecturer, School of Information Studies at Charles
Sturt University in Wagga Wagga. Her professional and research interests include metadata,
education librarianship, collection management and professional learning. After working as a
teacher librarian across K-12, Pru spent twelve years managing national online education
368
projects including the Schools Catalogue Information Service. In 2010 she received the
Australian School Library Association Citation.
369
How the image drawing method can
act as an alternative barometer of
librarian instruction
Daisuke Okada
Akashi National College of Technology
679-3 Nishioka, Uozumi-cho, Akashi, Hyogo 674-8501
Japan
yansenmu@gmail.com
Abstract
Previously, I examined changes in pictures of school libraries drawn over time by
university students in a teacher training program taking a course on the
importance of school libraries. The results revealed an increased tendency to
depict librarians; even so, librarians featured in only 12 of 32 pictures. This study
compares my results with those for similar teacher and teacher librarian courses
by other teachers and (in most cases) at other universities. Besides my course,
only 1 of 15 other courses revealed an increased tendency to draw a librarian,
with no significant differences in proportion of students who depicted librarians
among the courses, revealing that my lectures successfully communicated the
importance of school librarians. Also, 4 of 11 courses that focused on information
media revealed an increased to draw PC(s). These results show that the image
drawing method may suffice as an alternative barometer for librarian instruction.
Keywords: perception of school libraries, image drawing method (IDM), teacher
training, librarian training
Aim
Okada (2014) examines changes in the pictures that university students in a teacher training
program drew of their school library over time (Figure 1) (an approach called the image
drawing method [IDM]) while taking a course I taught on “The Planning of a School Library”
in the 2013 autumn term. The course explained the importance of school libraries and in
particular school librarians to future teachers (excluding school librarians). It was expected
that if the lecture objectives had been achieved, while even students who understood the
importance of a school librarian would not necessarily in all cases draw a librarian, but that
the number of students who drew a librarian would increase compared with drawings done
by the same students prior to taking part in the course.
370
ex. 1. Librarian is not applicable
ex. 2. Librarian is applicable
ex. 3. Librarian is applicable
ex. 4. PC(s) is applicable
Figure 1: Example pictures
While the results revealed an increased tendency to depict librarians after the related
lectures, librarians featured in only 12 of the total of 32 pictures drawn by students (Okada
2014).
As such, this study has two purposes: (1) to determine whether 12 out of 32 can be
considered “high” or “low,” and, relatedly, whether or not improvements to the curriculum are
needed, and (2) to consider whether IDM can act as an alternative barometer for librarian
instruction.
The present study is an extension of Okada (2015) that in contrast to that study, which
analyzed only 2014 spring term data, also considers a wider range, including 2014 autumn
term data as well.
371
Method
Target
There are not many lectures with similar objectives to those found in my class—geared
toward future classroom teachers—in other universities in Japan. Thus, in this study, my
course is compared to the same course taught the next year by another teacher (since I
transferred to a different institution) and to teacher librarian courses at other universities. In
Japan, the teacher librarian program is composed of the following five courses, credit in
which, along with a teacher’s license, is required for a “teacher librarian license.”
 School Library and School Management
 Building and Organization of School Library Media
 Teaching and School Library
 Character Development Through Reading
 Information Media and Their Use
In general, teacher librarian course students are of course expected to understand the
importance of librarians.
The data collection for these course was held in 2014 (either the spring or the autumn term).
IDM in this study
In the present study, the Okada (2014) method is used, with a few modifications. The pretest
was held at the time of the initial lectures in the course, and the posttest at the time of the
final lecture. The questionnaire has two questions: “1. Please draw a picture of your image of
the school library. (3 minutes)” and “2. Please explain in writing why you drew the picture
above. (2 minutes).”
The pictures produced by the students reflected various elements of the school library:
“Librarian,” “Bookshelves,” “Desks for users,” “PC(s),” “Student(s),” “Sofas,” and “Class in
session.” It was not easy to determine whether a given human figure in a picture was a
librarian or student by Okada (2014, section 2.2.3) criteria; question 2 answers were used only
when this was difficult to determine.
In Okada (2014), the pictures were evaluated by me and three graduate students in
psychology; as the concordance rate was 94%, in the present study, pictures were evaluated
by me only.
Results
The materials for analysis were 604 drawings produced by 302 students attending 15
teacher and teacher librarian training courses at 12 universities. This study focused on
increases in representations of “Librarian” and “PC(s).”
Fluctuation of appearance of the depicted “librarian”
From the 15 lectures, 1 revealed an increasing tendency to draw a librarian, 1 had a
decreasing tendency, and the others (including the next year’s course by another teacher)
had no significant differences (Table 1).
Univ./
Course
Year and
Stu-
372
Applicable
Not
McNemar’s
campus
A/i
A / ii
B
The Planning of a
School Library (my
class)
The Planning of a
School Library
(another teacher)
Building and
Organization of
School Library
Media
G
H
I
J
Information Media
and Their Use
L
Character
Development
Through Reading
E
Teaching and
School Library
C
D/i
D / ii
F
K
term
dents
not
applicable

applicable
test
2013
Autumn
32
2
8
+(p = 0.0578)
2014
Autumn
14
3
5
n.s
12
1
3
0
1
1
n.s
n.s
83
11
10
n.s
14
5
7
12
1
3
1
1
2
0
1
2
n.s
+(p = 0.0833)
n.s
n.s
5
1
1
n.s
6
0
3
+(p = 0.0833)
16
26
2
3
3
3
n.s
n.s
12
1
3
n.s
60
9
13
n.s
29
3
5
n.s
2014
Spring
2014
Spring
(Intensive)
Building and
Organization of
School Library
Media
Teaching and
School Library
Information Media
and Its Use
2014
Autumn
Table 1: Appearance of Librarian in Pictures by Course
(
applicable; +p<.1, *p<.05, **p<.01)
373
Ratio of depiction of librarian
The ratio of students who depicted librarians in the results for my original class was
compared with the same ratio for the new students in the teacher librarian course (Table 2).
“The Planning
of a School
Library”
Teacher
librarian
course
students
2013
(my class)
2014
(another
teacher)
2014
Total
2014
Spring
2014
Autumn
Pre-test
Applicable :
Significance
not applicable
of difference
(depicted ratio) compared to
my class
6 : 26
(18.8%)
4 : 10
(28.6%)
n.s.
83 : 205
(28.8%)
33 : 112
(22.8%)
50 : 93
(35.0%)
Post-test
Applicable :
Significance
not applicable
of difference
(depicted ratio) compared to
my class
12 : 20
(37.5%)
6:8
(42.9%)
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
+(p = 0.0755)
92 : 196
(31.9%)
33 : 112
(22.8%)
59 : 84
(41.3%)
n.s.
+(p = 0.0830)
n.s.
Table 2: Ratio of Depicted Librarians by Term
There were no significant differences between my class (2013) and the same class taught by
another teacher (2014) or between my class and the overall teacher librarian course results
(2014).
For the spring 2014 teacher librarian courses, in the pre-test, there were no significant
differences between the two groups, but in the post-test, the ratio for my class was higher
than that for the teacher librarian courses (p = 0.0830). For the autumn 2014 teacher librarian
courses, in the pre-test, the ratio of my class was lower than that for the teacher librarian
courses (p = 0.0755), but in the post-test, there were no significant differences. From this
viewpoint, it seems that my students were able to catch up with the teacher librarian
students’ level of awareness of the importance of a librarian in the school library.
Fluctuation of appearance of depicted “PC(s)”
Generally, PCs may be required by school libraries for online catalog search or for inquirybased learning, but they were not considered in my course due to insufficient time.
Therefore, it was expected that changes in representations of them would be smaller than
those in representations of the librarian in my course. In fact, there was no significant change
in representations of PC(s).
In contrast, in the lectures on the importance of IT media, such as “Building and Organization
of School Library Media” and “Information Media and Their Use,” an increase was expected.
In fact, of the 15 lectures, 5 revealed an increased to draw PC(s) and 1 revealed an
increasing tendency to draw PC(s) (Table 3).
374
Univ./
campus
A/i
A / ii
B
G
H
I
J
Course
The Planning of a
School Library (my
class)
The Planning of a
School Library
(another teacher)
Building and
Organization of
School Library Media
Information Media
and Their Use
L
Character
Development
Through Reading
E
Teaching and School
Library
C
D/i
D / ii
F
K
Building and
Organization of
School Library Media
Teaching and School
Library
Information Media
and Their Use
Year and
term
Students
Applicable
not
Not
applicable

applicable
McNemar’s
test
2013
Autumn
32
3
2
n.s
2014
Autumn
14
0
3
+(p = 0.0833)
12
1
83
14
5
7
12
1
0
8
0
1
0
0
1
1
5
2
0
2
7
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
**(p = 0.0082)
5
0
2
n.s
6
1
0
n.s
16
26
12
0
4
0
7
3
5
**(p = 0.0082)
n.s
*(p = 0.0254)
60
3
12
*(p = 0.0201)
29
1
10
**(p = 0.0067)
2014
Spring
2014
Spring
(Intensive)
2014
Autumn
Table 3: Appearance of PC(s) by Course
Conclusion
My original students showed an increased tendency to draw a librarian, but with the
exception of one other course only, students in the other 14 courses had no significant
differences or showed a decreased tendency (3.1); the ratio of my students who depicted
librarians was at the same level as that of the students in the teacher librarian courses (3.2),
revealing that my original lectures were successful in communicating the importance of
school librarians.
In addition, 4 of 11 courses that focused on information media revealed an increased to draw
PC(s). Thus, the study findings suggest that IDM can be used not only as a barometer for
measuring perceptions of the importance of librarians, but also for investigations into the
effectiveness of other aspects of librarian and teacher instruction.
375
Future directions
To investigate the following issues, we need collaborators; please get in touch if you are
interested in participating in a trial. A larger sample is still needed for better statistical validity
and to identify regional differences.
Is it optimal for all students to draw a librarian? Probably not.
Many students drew general library maps or scenes, while some drew a picture like the
following (Figure 2).
 Point out the present condition of the library (e.g., ex. 5)
 Abstract drawing (e.g., ex. 6, flowers and mountains, the sun, a cube)
 Explanatory diagram (e.g., ex. 7, the relationship between the library and children)
ex. 5. Point out the present condition of the
library
ex. 6. Abstract drawing
ex. 7. Explanatory diagram
Figure 2: Librarian is not applicable
It cannot be said with certainty that these students did not understand the importance of the
school librarian, but since they did not depict a librarian, I placed them in the “not applicable”
group automatically. However, I did not formulate criteria to distinguish between the
implications of pictures using a map or scene style versus the above-described style. Future
research could take up this goal.
376
Can IDM serve as a barometer of understanding the importance of the librarian?
Teacher librarian students are expected to understand the importance of librarians, and the
ratio of these students who drew a librarian showed about 20% to 40%. But this study was
answered by students. It is still necessary to investigate the rate of librarians in pictures
drawn by in-service teachers, who sometimes teach with school librarians in the field (and
teachers, who rarely teach alongside school librarians).
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the students who drew the pictures and gave permission for them to be
used, as well as the teachers who conducted IDM in their courses.
References
Okada, D. (2014). Using the image drawing method to examine students’ perceptions of
school libraries. In Proceedings of the International Association for School
Librarians Annual Conference, 205–212, August, 2014. Cosmos Hotel, Moscow.
Okada, D. (2015). The course evaluation questionnaire by the image drawing method:
Whether students draw the objective of the class in the picture (in Japanese). In
Proceedings of Kyoto University Conference on Higher Education, 21, 298–299,
March 2015. Kyoto University, Kyoto.
Biographical note
Mr. Daisuke Okada has worked as an Assistant Professor at Akashi National College of
Technology in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, since December 2014. From 2007 to 2010, he
served as a teacher librarian at a private junior high school. He currently offers faculty
development activities for the teachers and staff at the college and lectures in information
literacy classes in the liberal arts. Since April 2015, he has been a part-time lecturer in a
librarian program at Bukkyo university.
His research interests include the educational effects of the (school or university) library,
lesson planning in the library, and training in inquiry-based learning for schoolteachers. He is
the author of Ask essential questions: Handbook for inquiry-based learning beginners (in
Japanese).
377
Understanding teacher-librarian
collaboration: the contribution of
Patricia Montiel-Overall’s studies and
of TLC model
Gleice Pereira
Department of Library Science, Federal University of Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, Brazil
Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514
29075-910 Vitória,
Brazil
gleiceufes@gmail.com
Bernadete Campello
School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais – UFMG, Belo Horizonte,
Brazil
31270-901 Belo Horizonte,
Brazil
bscampello@gmail.com
Abstract
Montiel-Overall’s TLC model has been used as a basis for several studies on teacherlibrarian collaboration. In Brazil, research on the subject has showed to be superficial,
although there is evidence that collaboration with teachers is a crucial factor if the
library is to contribute to improve students’ reading. This study sought to understand
how Montiel-Overall’s TLC model was designed and validated, and to analyze studies
that applied TLC, trying to verify its consequent benefits. Methodology was textual
analysis of articles by Montiel-Overall and colleagues from 2005 to 2013, which
describe TLC and further attempts to its validation, plus five studies that used the
model. Results show that the work of Montiel-Overall and colleagues brings a useful
contribution that can help in improving research on this topic in Brazil.
Keywords: Teacher-librarian collaboration; School librarianship; School library
research; Brazil
Introduction
Collaboration is a theme present in North-American library literature since the 1940s. Mary
Peacock Douglas, one of the pioneers of the school librarianship in the US, emphasized at
that time the need for teachers and librarians to work together in the development of
378
curricular activities and reading (Miller, 2003, p. 46). Currently, when many studies show the
influence of teacher-librarian collaboration in academic achievement (Lonsdale, 2003), the
question has been a matter of concern in other countries (Ash-Argyle & Shoham, 2012;
Kimmel, 2012; Chu & Chow, 2011; McCluskey, 2011; Freire 2007; Mokhtar & Majid, 2006).
IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto consolidated the issue stating that “It has been
demonstrated that, when librarians and teachers work together, students achieve higher
levels of literacy, reading, learning, problem-solving and information and communication
technology skills” (IFLA/UNESCO, 1999).
Emphasis on the educational role of the librarian and the emergence of the concept of
information literacy increased the debate. Teacher-librarian collaboration was highlighted in
Information Power: Building partnerships for learning (AASL/AECT, 1998), which describes it
as the involvement of librarians with teachers in planning, implementation and evaluation of
activities related to the library. The librarian is seen as a catalyst of this collaboration, starting
relationship, not only with individual teachers, but seeking to create a culture of collaboration
in school. A more recent AASL document, Empowering Learners: Guidelines for school
library media programs (AASL, 2009), continues to highlight teacher-librarian collaboration.
Problem statement
In Brazil, "library integration in school life", "interaction of the librarian with the teaching staff"
and other similar expressions have been present for a long time in the discourse of library
practitioners (Oliveira, 1979; Silva, 1984; Alves, 1992). However, the issue of teacherlibrarian collaboration has been treated superficially (Campello et al, 2013), and usually
related to a typical librarian feature: a preference for working alone. The practitioners’
discourse presents often an admonishing tone to change this situation, trying to persuade
librarians to be participatory and to interact more with teachers and the school staff.
However, the factors involved in this process are not detailed, failing in presenting the issue
in all its complexity.
The few Brazilian studies on teacher-librarian collaboration (Silva, 1984; Alves, 1992; Bessa,
2011) have been limited to emphasize the importance of the teacher’s participation in library
activities, drawing attention to the small number of integrated work with the librarian. The
reasons are mainly the lack of training of librarians and teachers to work together, in addition
to poor working conditions (two shifts for teachers, librarian’s multiple assignments, lack of
time, ignorance of librarian’s functions, etc.). Brazilian studies analyzed teacher-librarian
collaboration mainly pointing out how each perceives the other's work and how both work (or
have the potential to work) together when teachers understand the educational function of
the school library. The studies are guided by flimsy theoretical framework, and terms such as
integration, constant involvement, communion, union, team work and collaboration are used
with little precision to name the phenomenon, bringing as consequence a fragile and weak
analysis (Alves, 1992, p. 67).
In a study that examined the librarian educational role in Brazilian school libraries, Campello
(2009) used for the first time in Brazil the Teacher Librarian Collaboration Model – TLC,
developed by the North American researcher Patricia Montiel-Overall, trying to verify, among
other things, if - and how – a sample of librarians performed collaborative work. The
conclusion was that collaborative practices occurred in three of the four levels identified by
Montiel-Overall: coordination, cooperation and integrated instruction. “Although there were
379
projects integrated with the academic planning, it would not be adequate to characterize
them as integrated curriculum since they did not consist in a complete information literacy
program as characterized in the model” (Campello, 2009, p. 11).
In a preliminary study for a master's thesis, Moreira & Duarte (2013) applied TLC (MontielOverall, 2005b) to study teacher-librarian collaboration based on the analysis of 20 reading
projects implemented in four public schools of basic education in a Brazilian city. The result
was similar to that of Campello (2009): collaboration occurred in the three lowest levels: the
prevailing level found in all activities was coordination; cooperation was found in eight
activities and integrated instruction in only three.
In these studies TLC was efficient to present teacher-librarian collaboration in a more specific
way. However, a detailed examination of the model and of its application would be necessary
to allow assessment of its usefulness to the Brazilian context. The present study sought to
understand how TLC was designed and validated by the author; and to understand how
the model was applied, trying to verify its consequent benefits.
Methodology was textual analysis of nine articles authored by Montiel-Overall and
colleagues, published from 2005 to 2013, describing TLC and subsequent attempts to its
validation plus five reports of studies that used the model in two countries (Portugal and
Israel). These documents were identified by means of Portal Capes2 and Google Scholar.
Each text has been analyzed to reveal how the model was applied and the results obtained.
Teacher Librarian Collaboration Model - TLC
Montiel-Overall firstly formulated TLC in two theoretical studies (Montiel-Overall, 2005a,
2005b), based on the assumption that the factors that made teacher-librarian collaboration
effective were not yet clearly identified because there was a disorder in the use of terms
representing the way these two groups of professionals work together. The author argued
that to fully understand the meaning of collaboration and its relationship with student
academic performance, it would be necessary to build a theory of collaboration.
Based on Loertscher’s taxonomy, originally published in 1988 (See a synthesis of the
taxonomy in Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p 9) and in the review of literature on collaboration,
Montiel-Overall proposed TLC and produced a definition for teacher-librarian collaboration,
which is widely cited by LIS authors:
Collaboration is a trusting, working relationship between two or more equal participants
involved in shared thinking, shared planning, and shared creation of innovative integrated
instruction. Through a shared vision and shared objectives, student learning opportunities
are created that integrate subject content and library curriculum by co-planning, coimplementing, and co-evaluating students’ progress throughout the instructional process in
order to improve student learning in all areas of instruction (Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p. 5).
2
Portal Capes is a virtual library that provides access to Brazilian and international scientific literature by means of
36,000 full text journals and research papers, 137 databases, besides books, encyclopedias and reference works,
technical standards, statistics and audiovisual content.
380
Montiel-Overall (2005a, 2005b) refined Loertscher’s taxonomy, proposing a model - TLC composed of four facets: A coordination; B cooperation; C integrated instruction and D
integrated curriculum3 that identifies the level of interaction and communication that occurs
between librarians and teachers and that consists in a continuum from a relatively low level
of involvement among collaborators to a deep intellectual commitment.
Coordination involves simple collaborative practices as setting schedules for activities in the
library and making the necessary adjustments to avoid overlapping activities, requiring a
minimal amount of involvement. Focus is more on efficiency than on student learning.
Cooperation implies a higher level of intentionality requiring more than commitment to
efficiency. It’s about two or more people working together, guided by a similar purpose, for
example, when librarians and teachers share responsibility in projects undertaken by
students. There is a predominance of the role of a partner, the librarian being a support for
the teacher, for example, when he/she selects material for a class to be taught by the
teacher.
In integrated instruction, librarians and teachers are jointly engaged in the planning and
implementation of learning activities that include both curriculum content and information
skills. They are equal partners whose skills complement each other and are integrated to
provide meaningful learning experiences for students. In many cases, the librarian is also a
teacher. Both are aware of the capacities of each other and have common ideas on how to
accomplish the task.
Integrated curriculum occurs when librarians and teachers, working together, reach full
articulation of the syllabus with library activities. The librarian works regularly in conjunction
with each teacher to plan, implement and evaluate curriculum activities that integrate subject
content with library activities. The director has an important role to provide opportunities for
collaboration, facilitating the establishment of flexible hours, providing opportunities for
training of staff and encouraging librarians to collaborate in teaching. He/she recognizes the
librarian at the same level of teachers, as a professional able to plan and develop activities
with students.
In summary, coordination and cooperation “describe low-end collaboration where there is
minimal shared thinking and shared planning and little interaction between teacher and
librarian”. Integrated instruction and integrated curriculum “describe high-end collaboration
where teachers and librarians are fully engaged in jointly creating, teaching, and evaluating
activities” (Montiel-Overall, 2007, p. 280).
TLC validation
Since the design of TLC in 2005, Montiel-Overall carried out several empirical studies in
order to validate her theory. Table 1 shows some characteristics of these studies.
Publication year/
title
2007
Research on
3
Participants
Schools/level
Data collection instrument
Data analysis
64 teachers, seven
librarians,
Seven public
schools
Two questionnaires (Loertscher
survey and - TLC survey) five-point
Exploratory factor
analysis
The facets were originally called models.
381
Publication year/
title
teacher and
librarian
collaboration: An
examination of
underlying
structures of
models
Participants
Schools/level
Data collection instrument
six principals, and
one vice principal
purposely selected
(kindergarten
through middle
school)
Likert-type scale
2008
Teacher and
librarian
collaboration: A
qualitative study
18 teachers and
librarians
Three public
schools
(Pre-K, 1–2,
elementary (K–5),
and middle school)
Interviews, observation of
collaborative planning activities and
field notes
Qualitative data
analysis by
categories
2009
Teachers'
perceptions of
teacher and
librarian
collaboration:
Instrumentation
development and
validation
2011
Teacher and
school librarian
collaboration: A
preliminary report
of teachers’
perceptions about
frequency and
importance to
student learning
2010 1st phase
Further
understanding of
collaboration: A
case study with
teachers and
librarians.
194 teachers and 11
librarians
11 elementary
schools
Questionnaire TLC II (16
statements)
four-point Likert-type scale
Exploratory factor
analysis
Same as 2009
Same as 2009
Same as 2009
SAS 9.1.3
Descriptive
statistics
Three 3 teachers and
three librarians
3 elementary
schools
Intervention workshops
Observations, interviews (pre- and
post-workshops) and participant
diaries
Qualitative data
analysis by
categories
2013 2nd phase
Teachers and
librarians
collaborating on
inquiry-based
science
instruction: A
longitudinal study
18 teachers and
librarians
6 elementary
schools
(four hours monthly sessions)
Observations registered in field
diaries, interviews, participant diaries
Qualitative data
analysis by
categories
2012
The effect of
professional
development on
teacher and
librarian
collaboration:
Preliminary
findings using a
revised
instrument, TLC-III
30 teachers and six
librarians
Six elementary
schools (thirdgrade and fourthgrade)
24-item questionnaire (TLC-III) 4point Likert-type scale, used preand post-workshops
Quantitative data
analysis
Table 1: Characteristics of Montiel-Overall studies
382
Data analysis
In the first study (Montiel-Overall, 2007), two surveys (one based on Loertscher’s taxonomy
and the other on TLC) were used to gather empirical data, enabling to better understand
teacher-librarian collaboration and the extent to which theory and practice were integrated.
Besides revealing a complementary relationship between the two models, the study started
to operationalize specific collaboration practices present in LIS literature. It seems that the
major contribution of the 2007 study was to point out the need for research that would reveal
ways in which librarians work successfully with teachers and how limitations for collaboration
are overcome. The author suggested qualitative studies to better understand the conditions
required to develop and facilitate strong relationships leading to high end collaboration and
showed concern on the need to prove the connection between teacher-librarian collaboration
and student academic achievement.
After that, Montiel-Overal (2008) sought to examine practices of highly collaborative teachers
and librarians in which instruction in information literacy and subject content were fully
integrated in order to identify facilitating elements. Communication, management and
motivation proved to be essential elements of successful collaboration; school culture and
positive attributes of collaborators were considered prerequisites. The study participants
were introduced to - and discussed TLC, leading to its validation and review, presented in a
schematic illustration that included the several trodden paths in collaborative activities (See
the diagram in Montiel-Overall, 2008, p. 148).
The following study (Montiel-Overall, 2009; Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011) tried to
understand two central aspects of collaboration: the frequency it occurred and its importance
to student learning, as perceived by teachers. A first report (Montiel-Overall, 20094)
described the procedures for validation of the data collection instrument, a questionnaire
named TLC II5 (See example in Montiel-Overall, 2009, p. 190). According to the author, the
instrument rating was positive and the factors identified were similar to the four TLC facets,
which needed to be more detailed and some items renamed. She advised librarians to focus
efforts towards high collaborative practices (C and D TLC facets) that, according to her, have
theoretically the greatest potential to enhance learning. Thus, she recognized that TLC II is
unable to show practical evidence of the impact of collaboration on learning.
The research results were analyzed in another article (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011), which
reported other limitation of the study: the fact that TLC II was developed by librarians whose
perspective may differ from the teachers’ (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011, p. 57). Data
revealed that teachers perceived all collaborative practices as important to student learning,
although they were more engaged with traditional types of collaborative activities, as shown
by previous studies. These traditional collaborative activities included school librarians
helping teachers find library material and gathering resources for lessons taught by teachers.
4
Presented earlier with the title Assessing Teacher and Librarian Collaboration, as juried paper at the
37th International Association of School Librarians Conference (IASL 2008,) Berkeley, California.
Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://www.kzneducation.gov.za/Portals/0/ELITS%20website%20Homepage/IASL%202008/research%20f
orum/overallrf.pdf
5
TLC II was based on TLC survey, a questionnaire developed previously for the 2007 study.
383
The study confirmed the function of this lower level of collaboration as a step for the
development of trust that can lead towards a higher level of collaboration. Another significant
result was that teachers’ perception did not match with what was recommended on
collaboration in LIS literature, which promotes the librarian ‘increasingly working with
teachers in a teaching capacity’ (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011, p. 69).
Following a longitudinal case study was developed, which lasted three years. (MontielOverall, 2010; Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013). A real situation was created for teachers and
librarians to work together and, from there, data were collected through observations,
interviews and participant diaries.
In the first year (Montiel-Overall, 2010), teachers and librarians (identified as peer mentors)
worked together, planning a course to be delivered later to other librarians and teachers in
order to prepare them to develop inquiry learning strategies to be applied in Science
activities with Latino students of elementary education. Participants were instructed by
experts (identified as advisors) on inquiry learning, information literacy, Latin culture and on
the TLC itself. Results obtained through interviews, observations and participant diaries were
analyzed on the basis of TLC and revealed enablers for collaboration in more detail: shared
knowledge, building relationships (communication and qualities), deep thinking around ideas
(accommodation and consensus) and environment. A conceptualization of a collaborative
process was proposed (See the process scheme in Montiel-Overall, 2010, p. 47), which was
composed of three phases that reflect the empirical evidence for the advancement of
teacher-librarian collaboration theory: initial phase, marked by interest, motivation and
commitment; phase of relationship building, characterized by the need to know each other;
productive phase, featuring group cohesion. The study showed the complexity of
collaboration, and increased the understanding of the factors involved in it, previously
described in the literature, added to the understanding of their relations, complementing
facets of TLC.
In the second phase of the study (Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013), which lasted two years,
the course planned was given to teachers and librarians by means of long term professional
development workshops, covering the following topics: teacher-librarian collaboration (TLC),
information literacy, inquiry-based science instruction, language and culture, in order to
prepare participants to develop inquiry based learning projects (See the contents of the
modules in Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013, p. 44). Five categories of analysis were
established a priori based on TLC: building relationships, sharing curriculum, making
connections, changing perceptions, and changing teaching. Revised categories included
knowledge and understanding of TLC, experience with inquiry-based science content,
information literacy, instructional strategies, changed perceptions, and changed pedagogy.
Major themes emerged from the categories: preparation, experience, transformation/change
over time and motivation.
In this study, the complexity of the collaboration process and the difficulties associated with
high level collaboration were evidenced. Results showed that since teachers demonstrated
to have no awareness of librarians' role as instructional partners, working together needs to
be learned. The study confirmed elements of collaboration already identified in previous
studies and added others specifically related to the fact that collaboration needs to be
384
learned: peer mentoring and professional development. Peer mentors were considered
integral to the professional development workshops, modeling best practices of TLC.
Although in earlier studies Montiel-Overall and colleagues have collected data from teachers
(2007, 2008, 2009, 2011), it was in the 2013 study that she was able to show more clearly
how they react to a collaborative situation. The intervention methodology used attested that
collaboration can be learned but takes time and experience. In the conclusion, the text
displays an especially exhortative tone, suggesting that “A national initiative is desperately
needed to improve librarians' participation in education, as well as to ensure full support of
educators in teacher and librarian collaboration, as described in LIS literature” (MontielOverall, 2013, p. 48). The authors urge librarians to become more active, helping educators
to change their perception about them, librarians, by raising their awareness of the existence
of information literacy standards and of the importance of collaboration in higher levels, as a
way to improve student achievement6.
In collaboration with Anthony C. R. Hernandez, Montiel-Overall developed a study to revise
and test TLC II (Montiel-Overall & Hernández, 2012). The revised questionnaire increased
from 16 to 24 statements, which have been rewritten for greater clarity, and called TLC III
(see TLC III in Montiel-Overall & Hernandez, 2012, p. 21). The study was conducted similarly
to the 2013 study (Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013), with teachers and librarians participating
in training workshops. The difference was that there was a group of control that did not
participate in the workshops. Only two aspects of teacher-librarian collaboration were
investigated: frequency of collaborative practices and their importance to student learning.
Findings confirmed the influence of professional development intervention workshops, that
contributed to changes in teachers’ and librarians’ collaborative behaviors related to how
frequently they collaborate, and their perceptions about the importance of collaboration to
student academic success, although perceptions differed slightly from each group on these
two aspects.
Model Applications
Three studies in Portugal and two in Israel examined teacher-librarian collaboration using
TLC. Table 2 depicts some characteristics of these studies.
Publication
year/
authors
2007
Freire, A. C.
2008
Dotan, G. &
Aharony, N.
2010
Rodrigues,
M. C. G. D.
6
Title
Participant
s
Schools/Level
Data Collection
Instrument
Data
Analysis
School library and
classroom: Intersection of
two realities through
collaborative work
(translated from
Portuguese)
Information literacy roles of
library media specialists in
high schools: Israeli
perspectives
Strategies to demonstrate
the value of the school
library and obtain
15 teachers
One high school in
Portugal
Qualitative
data
analysis
138 school
librarians
Junior high and
high schools in
Israel
Theoretical intervention+
implementation of
collaborative activities,
questionnaire, interview,
observations registered in
field diaries
Questionnaire
five-point Likert-type scale
Theoretical intervention+
implementation of
collaborative activities,
Qualitative
data
analysis
One high school in
Portugal
Quantitative
data
analysis:
This article was selected in 2013 by the American Library Association Library Instruction Round Table (LIRT), as one of the
LIRT’s Top Twenty. http://www.ala.org/lirt/sites/ala.org.lirt/files/content/archive/2014jun.pdf (p. 10)
385
Publication
year/
authors
2010
Santos, M.
L. M.
2012
Ash-Argyle,
R. &
Shoham, S.
Title
Participant
s
collaboration
(translated from
Portuguese)
School libraries: What
cooperation? The
collaborative work between
the teacher- librarian and
teachers
(translated from
Portuguese)
Librarians' leadership
efficacy, training, and
school involvement:
Collaboration between
teachers and school
librarians in Israel
Schools/Level
Three
teacherlibrarians
Three schools in
Portugal
170
teachers,
88 school
librarians
and 33
principals
Secondary and
elementary
schools in Israel
Data Collection
Instrument
questionnaire, interview,
observations registered in
field diaries
Multiple case studies,
Interviews, observation of
collaborative activities and
fieldnotes
Questionnaire
Data
Analysis
Qualitative
data
analysis
Quantitative
data
analysis
Table 2: Characteristics of studies that used TLC
Freire (2007) sought to understand how teachers integrated the library in their teaching
practices and the degree of collaboration with the teacher-librarian, investigating initially their
perceptions about collaborative work. Being an action research, which was meant to change
a reality, the study sought then to stimulate teachers to reflect about collaboration through a
theoretical intervention that consisted of discussions of collaboration theories and models
using David Loertscher, Patricia Montiel-Overall and Carol Doll’s works. After the theoretical
discussion Freire (2007) investigated if there were changes in teachers’ perceptions. Finally
there was the implementation of collaborative activities, involving teachers in the sample who
were willing to voluntarily work with the teacher-librarian.
The study found that collaboration between teachers and the library already existed involving
mainly extracurricular activities usually occurring at the coordination level. Teachers had a
limited view of what collaboration was, and the process of reflection and the theoretical
discussion expanded perceptions in eight of the fifteen participants, mainly because they
highlighted the partner role of the teacher-librarian, which was unknown to many of them. For
Freire (2007), the presentation of the models and the respective levels acted as pedagogical
innovation opportunities and a goal to be reached. The study, she said, may have been the
beginning of change in school culture characterized by isolation.
Starting from Freire’s perspective (2007) affirming that the theoretical intervention performed
had had a positive effect in changing the teachers’ perceptions and practices on
collaboration, Rodrigues (2010) also sought to create and manage opportunities for them to
reflect and change their attitudes and behavior in the context of an information literacy
project. Collaborative practices were categorized according to Loertscher’s taxonomy and
TLC and results confirmed the low levels of collaboration found by Freire (2007), which were
limited to coordination and cooperation in extracurricular activities, and occasionally, in
curricular activities. Rodrigues (2010) concluded that the experience of working together with
the teacher-librarian, even in the two observed cases that started in a "constrained" mode,
was very well accepted by teachers. This success contributed to a qualitative improvement in
the school library work, which took on new meaning and importance.
386
Santos (2010) investigated concepts and types of collaboration of three teacher-librarians,
their role in collaborative practices and enablers and inhibiting factors of collaboration.
Results showed that collaboration conceptions of one stood at integrated curriculum level
and of the other two in the cooperation level. In the first case, there was a concern to relate
collaboration with student learning. In the other, the concept of collaboration was related with
what participants called availability, an understanding that to collaborate in the library's
perspective meant to provide resources for curricular activities, not considering that they
should have significant involvement in those activities. Learning practices in the three cases
revealed a low level of collaboration, even so participants seemed concerned about student
learning success.
An Israeli study (Dotan and Aharony, 2008) aimed to establish if teacher-librarian
collaboration correlated with a higher involvement in the provision of information literacy
programs to students. Results showed that an ongoing relation with teachers, particularly in
providing them with information resources, is highly correlated with teaching information
literacy to students. They also revealed that librarians working in libraries equipped with
advanced technological resources and facilities cooperate more frequently with teachers,
and at a higher level, suggesting that the use of technology enables the expansion of their
teaching roles.
Ash-Argyle and Shoham (2012) examined the correlation between the kind of training
received by librarians in Israel, the degree of leadership they showed (as perceived by
themselves, teachers and directors), their involvement in school life with patterns of teacherlibrarian collaboration. The perceived collaboration level was lower among librarians who do
not have a teaching license. Those with a teaching license (teacher librarians) were
perceived to have the highest level of pedagogical and social involvement. Analysis showed
that leadership capability denoted a high level of collaboration. The researchers called
attention to the need to prepare librarians with educational skills, suggesting a change in the
current tendency of training librarians as information scientists.
Discussion
This analysis has shown the breadth and consistency of knowledge on teacher-librarian
collaboration produced by the studies of Montiel-Overall, which started with a broad
theoretical framework and evolved to a more applied research. Studies using TLC support
hers and her colleagues’ findings. Limitations of the studies have been well explained.
Employing different methodological approaches, the studies used TLC to:
 Determine practices of teacher-librarian collaboration;
 determine the level of collaboration;
 identify factors that affect the process of collaboration;
 identify correlations between factors related to collaboration.
TLC was based on Loertscher’s taxonomy (1988), which was perhaps the first work to clearly
disclose the complexity and ambiguity of collaboration, showing different possibilities for
teachers and librarians to act in partnership. Montiel-Overall’s studies reinforced these
characteristics and went further, demonstrating the difficulties in implementing a collaboration
process, especially due to differences in the perceptions of teachers and librarians on the
387
matter. Montiel-Overall sought to integrate knowledge about collaboration from different
areas (Hara et al., 2003; Mattisech and Monsey, 1992), which seems to make TLC an open
and widely understandable model.
Although no model is able to capture the full complexity of a phenomenon because it is a
simplified representation of reality, it enables the comparison of research results. This
analysis suggests that TLC is useful to capture characteristics of cultures and to understand
the differences between collaborative practices of diverse schools in different countries.
Accordingly, the consolidation of terminology is a positive aspect brought about by TLC,
allowing to identify and to name objectively the degree of collaboration.
TLC materializes the notion of collaboration, already present in the perception of teachers,
featuring in more detail the collaborative practices. Levels of collaboration identified in TLC
make more visible the pedagogical function of the librarian, which has been considered
generally only as an element that supports the teacher in activities related to the use of the
library collection and not as a partner in learning. These levels may represent goals to be
achieved, since there is an understanding by teachers that collaborative work may foster
educational innovations.
The model’s general structure and tools developed for validation, especially the
questionnaires used in the study of 2009 (TLC II) and 2012 (TLC III) are useful to
systematize issues to be investigated in other studies.
Application of TLC to comprehend collaborative practices can reveal issues that need to be
improved, as shown by Dotan & Aharony (2008), which identified little cooperation in the
aspect of planning and by Freire (2007), in assessing students learning.
Although the graphical representations of the model suggest that collaboration has a positive
effect on student learning (Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p 10, 16, 18;. 2008, p 148;. 2009, p 190;.
2012, p 21; 2013, p 47), this was not really tested in the studies. Most of the studies showed
the perception of the different participants and it is necessary to understand these narratives
as linguistic constructs that did not directly mirror practices, even if they provided the
possibility to say something about these practices. Nevertheless, by enabling a more realistic
understanding of teacher-librarian collaboration, TLC helps overcome the stage of simple
apology of the issue, displaying possibilities and challenges for its practice.
Interestingly, research in the two countries where the TLC was applied has peculiar
characteristics: in Portugal it seems to exist a concern in developing collaborative actions
(two of the three studies used action research with intervention of the researchers), based on
the fact that it has been increasingly valued in the context of educational policies and in the
discourse of leaders in the country. In Israel, it can be observed a will to know factors related
to collaboration, measuring the correlation of these factors by means of statistical
techniques. These researches open interesting perspectives for further studies.
Conclusion
Incipient research on teacher-librarian collaboration in Brazil points to the need for further
studies, since partnership with teachers proved essential to the library intervention in reading
projects in Brazilian schools (Moreira, 2014). In other words, collaboration must be seen not
388
only as a factor to improve learning outcomes, but as an imperative for the librarian to
become part of the effort to improve reading skills of Brazilian students, whose rates are at
low levels (55th place in the world ranking in 20127), pointing to the need to put into action all
available resources at the schools.
Analysis revealed that teacher-librarian collaboration research can be deepened and that
using TLC can help better understand the collaborative process from the perspective of the
school culture of particular schools, revealing specific issues that need to be addressed. This
type of research highlights the librarian pedagogical function, giving greater clarity to her/his
role in the teaching process.
References
American Association of School Librarians/Association for Educational Communications and
Technology. (1998). Information power: Building partnerships for learning.
Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
school library media programs. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
Alves, M. C. (1992). A integração entre bibliotecário-professor no Brasil: O estado da arte.
Master thesis. Campinas, SP: Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas.
Ash-Argyle, R. & Shoham, S. (2012). Librarians' leadership efficacy, training, and school
involvement: Collaboration between teachers and school librarians in Israel.
School Libraries Worldwide, 18 (1), p.1-17.
Bessa, A. Q. (2011). A interação entre bibliotecários e professores de escolas públicas
estaduais em Manaus, Amazonas, na biblioteca escolar. Master thesis.
Florianópolis: Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência da Informação,
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.
Campello, B. (2009). Information literacy practices in Brazilian school libraries: Librarian
collaboration with teachers. In: Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of
the International Association of School Librarianship, & 13th International
Forum on Research in School Librarianship. Abano Terme: IASL. Retrieved
February 20, 2015 from
http://www.kzneducation.gov.za/Portals/0/ELITS%20website%20Homepage/IASL
%202009/campello[1].pdf
Campello, B. et al. (2013). Pesquisas sobre biblioteca escolar no Brasil: O estado da arte.
Encontros Bibli: Revista Eletrônica de Biblioteconomia e Ciência da Informação,
18 (37), 123-156. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
https://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/eb/article/viewFile/15182924.2013v18n37p123/25335
7
http://educacao.uol.com.br/noticias/2013/12/03/pisa-desempenho-do-brasil-piora-em-leitura-e-empaca-em-ciencias.htm
389
Chu, S. K. W. & Chow, K. (2011). Using collaborative teaching and inquiry project-based
learning to help primary school students develop information literacy and
information skills. Library & Information Science Research, 33, 132–143.
Dotan, G. & Aharony, N. (2008) Information literacy roles of library media specialists in high
schools: Israeli perspectives. Journal of Information Literacy, 2 (1). Retrieved
February 20, 2015 from http://jil.lboro.ac.uk/ojs/index.php/JIL/article/view/RA-V2I1-2008-2/136
Freire, A. C. (2007). Biblioteca escolar e sala de aula. Intersecção de duas realidades
através do trabalho colaborativo: Estudo numa escola secundária. Master thesis.
Lisboa: Departamento de Ciências da Educação e Ensino a Distância,
Universidade Aberta. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/577/1/LC264.pdf
Kimmel, Sue C. (2012). Collaboration as school reform: Are there patterns in the chaos of
planning with teachers? School Library Research, 15. Retrieved February 20, 2015
from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ978844.pdf
Hara, N., Solomon, P., Seung-Lye, K., & Sonnewald, D. (2003). An emerging view of
scientific collaboration: Scientists' perspectives on collaboration and factors that
impact collaboration. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 54, 952−965.
IFLA/UNESCO. (1999). School Library Manifesto. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/libraries/manifestos/school_manifesto.html
Lonsdale, M. (2003). Impact of school libraries on student achievement: A review of the
research. Camberwell, Victoria: Australian School Library Association. Retrieved
February 20, 2015 from
http://www.asla.org.au/site/defaultsite/filesystem/documents/research.pdf
Loertscher, D. V. (1988). Taxonomies of the school library media program. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unlimited.
Mattissech, P. W., & Monsey, B. R. (1992). Collaboration: What makes it work. St. Paul, MN:
Wilder Foundation.
McCluskey, C. (2011). Creating information literacy partnerships in Higher Education. Library
and Information Research, 35 (111), 59-72.
Miller, M. L. (2003). Pioneers and leaders in library services to youth: A biographical
dictionary. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Mokhtar, I. A. & Majid , S. (2006). An exploratory study of the collaborative relationship
between teachers and librarians in Singapore primary and secondary schools.
Library & Information Science Research, 28, 265–280.
390
Montiel-Overall, P. (2005a). Toward a theory of collaboration for teachers and librarians.
School Library Media Research, 8. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://www.ala.org/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/slmrb/slmrcontents/volume82005/theo
ry.
Montiel-Overall, P. (2005b). A theoretical understanding of teacher and librarian collaboration
(TLC). School Libraries Worldwide, 11 (2), 24-48, July. Retrieved February 20,
2015 from http://murraylib604.org/TheoreticalUnderstanding.pdf.
Montiel-Overall, P. (2007). Research on teacher and librarian collaboration: An examination
of underlying structures of models. Library and Information Science Research, 29
(2), 277-292.
Montiel-Overall, P. (2008). Teacher and librarian collaboration: A qualitative study. Library
and Information Science Research, 30 (2), 145-155.
Montiel-Overall, P. (2009). Teachers' perceptions of teacher and librarian collaboration:
Instrumentation development and validation. Library and Information Science
Research, 31 (3), 182-191.
Montiel-Overall, P. (2010). Further understanding of collaboration: A case study with
teachers and librarians. School Libraries Worldwide, 16 (2), p. 31-54.
Montiel-Overall, P. & Jones, P. (2011). Teacher and school librarian collaboration: A
preliminary report of teachers’ perceptions about frequency and importance to
student learning. Canadian Journal of Information Science Research, 35 (1), 4976.
Montiel-Overall, P. & Hernandez, A. (2012). The effect of professional development on
teacher and librarian collaboration: Preliminary findings using a revised instrument,
TLC-III. School Library Research, 15. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ994326.pdf
Montiel-Overall, P. & Grimes, K. (2013). Teachers and librarians collaborating on inquirybased science instruction: A longitudinal study. Library and Information Science
Research, 35 (1), 41-53.
Moreira, J. A. & Duarte, A. B. S. (2013). Práticas educativas bibliotecárias de formação de
leitores: Uma análise inicial de projetos da Rede Municipal de Educação de Belo
Horizonte a partir de modelos de trabalho colaborativo entre bibliotecários e
professores. In: Anais do 25º Congresso Brasileiro de Biblioteconomia,
Documentação e Ciência da Informação. Florianópolis, SC, Brasil, FEBAB.
Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://portal.febab.org.br/anais/article/view/1258/1259
Moreira, J. A. (2014). Práticas educativas bibliotecárias de formação de leitores: Um
mapeamento de suas iniciativas e articulações na Rede Municipal de Ensino de
Belo Horizonte – RME- BH. Master thesis. Belo Horizonte, Escola de Ciência da
391
Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Retrieved February 20, 2015
from http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/BUOS9RQGWB/disserta__o_moreira__juliana_alves.pdf?sequence=1
Oliveira, T. S. F. (1979). A biblioteca escolar no regimento comum das escolas de 1º e 2º
graus do Estado de São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Biblioteconomia e
Documentação, 2 (3/4), 230-277. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from
http://www.brapci.ufpr.br/documento.php?dd0=0000002068&dd1=bb614
Rodrigues, M. C. G. D. (2010). Estratégias para demonstrar o valor da biblioteca escolar e
obter colaboração: Um estudo numa Escola Secundária com 3º Ciclo. Master
thesis. Lisboa: Departamento de Ciências da Educação e Ensino a Distância,
http://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/1706/1/ceu_rodrigues_dm_k.pdf
Santos, M. L. M. (2010). Bibliotecas escolares: Que colaboração? O trabalho colaborativo
entre o professor bibliotecário e os professores; estudo de caso. Master thesis.
Lisboa: Departamento de Ciências da Educação e Ensino a Distância,
https://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/1574/1/BEsColabora%C3%A7%
C3%A3oLSantosVol.I.pdf
Silva, V. A. P. (1984). Proposta de interação entre educadores e bibliotecário nas escolas de
1º e 2º graus. Master thesis. Campinas, SP: Pontifícia Universidade Católica de
Campinas.
Biographical notes
Gleice PEREIRA has worked as an assistant professor at the Department of Library Science,
Federal University of Espírito Santo - UFES, in Vitória, Brazil since 2010. Her main research
topic is school library and learning. Currently she is pursuing a doctorate degree in
Information Science at the School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas
Gerais – UFMG and her dissertation subject is teacher-librarian collaboration.
Bernadete Santos CAMPELLO is a full professor at the School of Information Science at
Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, where she
coordinates the Research Group on School Libraries since 1998. Her main research topic is
school library and learning. She coordinated the Portuguese translation and adaptation of
Carol Kuhlthau’s books School Librarian’s Grade by Grade Activities Program: A Complete
Sequential Skills Plan for Grades K-8 and Teaching the Library Research Process.
Title in Portuguese: Compreendendo a colaboração professor-bibliotecário: a contribuição
do trabalho de Patricia Montiel-Overall e do modelo TLC
Abstract in Portuguese
O modelo de Patricia Montiel-Overall (TLC) tem sido usado como base para vários estudos
sobre a colaboração do professor-bibliotecário. No Brasil, a pesquisa sobre o assunto se
mostrou superficial, embora haja evidências de que a colaboração com os professores é um
fator crucial para que a biblioteca possa contribuir para melhorar a aprendizagem da leitura.
392
Este estudo buscou compreender como o TLC foi desenvolvido e validado, e analisar os
estudos que o utilizaram, tentando verificar os benefícios da sua utilização. A metodologia
empregada foi a análise textual dos artigos de Montiel-Overall e colaboradores, de 2005 a
2013, que descrevem o TLC e as tentativas para a sua validação, além de cinco estudos
que utilizaram o modelo. Os resultados mostram que o trabalho de Montiel-Overall e
colaboradores traz uma contribuição útil que pode ajudar a melhorar a pesquisa sobre o
tema no Brasil.
Acknowledgment
The presentation of this work in the IASL 44th Annual Conference & 17th
International Forum on Research in School Librarianship (2015) was made possible by a
grant from CAPES, Brazil.
393
The School Library as a Bridge to
Literacy: A Garden of Words
Yvonne Perriel
Principal of Goshen All Age,
St. Elizabeth,
Jamaica
Y_perriel@yahoo.com
Abstract
Administrators and teachers have the expertise to utilize theoretical and practical
experiences in dealing with students but are unaware of the vital role of parental
involvement in students’ academic achievement. The purpose of this research was to
explore whether the impact of the implementation of a literacy garden could improve
reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside All Age School. Data was obtained
using the quasi experimental design. Fifty-three students from two classes grade four
at Northside All Age were used. The study was done after a survey was conducted
among children in grade four. Data were analyzed using charts and descriptive
statistics. . Some of the findings revealed that the implementation of literacy garden
has a positive effect of literacy at grade four. The reading level of the boys increases as
their self-esteem increases. It was recommended, based on the findings that parents
should be more involved in their child’s life at school. That both teachers and parents
should motivate slow readers and also that teachers use teaching strategies that will
help children who are slow readers
Keywords: School libraries, Literacy, Parents’ involvement, Boys, Reading
Introduction
Excellence or any level of success on the part of students depends heavily on parental
involvement. Jesse (1997) confirmed that parental involvement in education significantly
“increases students’ achievement and also creates a positive school environment.” Fullan
(2004) also asserted that “parental involvement is a high predictor of school success,"p.16.
Hester (1989), adding another dimension, made it clear that the home and school
relationship must be supported because education is a shared responsibility. Therefore,
schools must reach out to parents to establish partnerships because the full potential of
children will not be realized unless parents are actively involved. The literature and available
research are consistent in showing that meaningful parent involvement results in gainful
prospects in student achievement.
The Ministry of Education also placed parental involvement as a high priority level with their
platforms. It is quite evident in this slogan from the Ministry of Education which states, “Every
child can learn and every child must learn,” (Henry-Wilson, 2005). Since 70% of a student’s
394
waking hours including weekends and vacations are spent outside the school setting (Clark,
1993), it is imperative that parents are involved in their child’s education for success.
Children, in a special way, still need to be guided through assignments and use of study
time. As academic and other activities progress through any given scholastic period, the
parents’ role is to act as vigils, motivators, and guards of what should be their key interest—
the holistic development of their young ones.
If schools are going to survive in the 21st century, then educators must begin to give
significant attention to building and strengthening the relationship among teachers, parents
and principals. Parents can no longer be used as sales agents for tickets, fund-raisers, or
called in only when the child is in trouble. Parents need to embrace the education process
and be encouraged to play an active role in the day -to day life of the school.
Background of the Problem
It can be said that literacy is the cornerstone of school achievement. Thus, improving school
outcomes requires that we focus on raising literacy achievement. "Children may fail to
develop adequate reading skills because of their environment, abnormal brain structure, or
both," postulates Mark A. Eckert, Ph.D., of the McKnight Brain Institute of the University of
Florida.
Poor reading is a major issue that warrants close attention. Educators such as Chall,
Jacobs, & Baldwin, (1990) have noted that boys’ reading levels are cause for concern. Boys
have been lagging behind girls in reading on the National Assessment Program in our
Jamaican schools and this gap seems to be getting wider every year as evidenced in the
Grade four literacy results. Boys seem to have a lack of interest when it comes on to reading
and as a result of this, it affects them all subject areas.
At Northside All Age School where this research was conducted, there are more boys than
girls in most classes. The researcher has seen two grade four classes with 25 boys and 28
girls. They are all given the same opportunity yet the girls seem to be reading and performing
above the boys’ level. The yearly grade four literacy examinations, which capture the data of
students’ performance, reveal that boys score ridiculously lower than their counterparts both
at the national and regional levels.
Keywords in the Research Process
The meanings of certain terms used in this are best clarified:
Mastery: the required standard of 80% in the three areas of literacy to include word
recognition, reading comprehension and writing tasks, set by the Ministry of Education for
fourth grade level.
Parental involvement: refers to the participation or inclusion of parents or guardians in their
children’s education by partnership in and contribution to various at home at home.
Parent: is used to refer to mother, step-mother, foster-mother, adopted mother, father, foster
father, step- father and adopted father.
Positive parent involvement: refers to the establishment of productive relationships between
the school and the home to enhance communication, promote understanding, and provide
opportunities for children to interact with people, places and things in their immediate
environment and beyond.
Slossons: refers to a standardized reading test used to assess students’ reading level from
non-starter, to grade nine levels approved by the ministry of education in Jamaica.
395
Literature review
In this chapter the researcher outlined other researchers’ views on stimulation on reading
and the impact parental involvement have on improving reading.
The prime importance of being able to read has long been recognized: “Reading makes a full
person” as mentioned by Beacon, 1596 as stated by Pumfrey (1996) alluded to this and
stated, “Reading is also an amplifier of human abilities. Not to be able to read is to be
marginalized and impoverished, both culturally and economically” (p. 17). Society recognizes
that literacy skills are essential to both the current well-being and the future of the individual
and society, and expects that schools should ensure reading standards are safeguarded and
raised. Therefore, a teacher should make the teaching of reading a major priority for those
reasons.
Concerns about reading standards are not a new phenomenon and these concerns are still
with us according to Beard (1993). There is no obvious collective view of what has happened
to our national reading standards in recent years but they are decreasing according to
Gleaner (2006).
“When parents are involved in their children’s education at home, they do better in school.
And when parents are involved in school, children are further motivated to the school and the
school to which they go progress” (Colker, 2000, p. 3). This quote suggests that it is a wellestablished fact that parental involvement is linked to children’s success at school.
Epstein(1992) also agreed with statement.
Colker (2000) stated that the positive result of parental involvement in their children’s
schooling include improved achievement, reduced absenteeism, improved behavior, and
restored parental confidence. She further added that the earlier this involvement begins, the
more profound the results and the longer lasting the effects. When families are involved in
their children’s education in positive ways, children achieve higher grades and test scores,
complete more homework assignments, demonstrate attitudes and behavior that are more
positive, graduate at a higher rate than others, and have greater enrollment in higher
education. Parental involvement with older children extends these benefits beyond schooling
into later life and career decisions.
Colker (2006) purported that of all academic subjects, reading has been found to be the most
sensitive to family influence. In 1994, the College Board established a correlation between
reading and family support for their children’s effort. Reading achievement is considered to
be more dependent on learning activities in the home than is either math or science.
Moreover, success in reading appears to be the gateway to success in other academic
areas. Lee and Croniger (1994) informed us that children’s success in school can be linked
to reading to children and listening to them read. Indeed, the single most important activity
for building the knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to
children. In addition, they added that parents can also take their children to the library, help
them get a library card, and help them find books on their areas of interest and hobbies. The
availability of reading material at the home, whether owned or borrowed from the library, is
directly associated with children’s achievement in reading comprehension.
It can be said that reading is an essential skill for functioning in society and is fundamental to
achievement and success. Yet, an alarming proportion of students have significant difficulties
396
with reading. Despite the efforts of teachers, parents and several national educational
programs and literacy initiatives over a number of decades (Calfee & Drum 1986; Steinberg
1996), many students continue to have reading abilities far below those expected at their
grade levels. In the Nation’s Report Card for Fourth Grade Reading for 2000, more than 68
% of the nation’s fourth graders scored below the recommended proficient level. That
number jumps to more than 85% of fourth graders in high-poverty schools. Poor reading
skills adversely affect a student’s other learning endeavors, often causing serious learning
difficulties and resulting in low academic achievement overall. Consequently, it is imperative
to find instructional methods and media to help poor readers develop and improve their
reading skills and achieve reading proficiency.
The Importance of Stimulated Activity in Reading
Snyder & Tan (2005) postulate that “in our great eagerness to teach our children we
studiously look for educational toys, games with built-in lessons and books with a message.
Often these tools are less interesting and stimulating than the child's natural curiosity and
playfulness”. Snyder further states “that play is by its very nature educational, and it should
be pleasurable. When the fun goes out of play, most often so does the learning”.
Making learning fun motivates students and helps them pay attention and stay focused on
the subject. Children will go out of their way to play games, even a single game, for hours, as
it captivates their interests.
Effects of Hands on Activity
According to Wierus and Wierus (1994), Games are designed to exist in relation to a broader
array of classroom activities. Games offer teachers enormous resources they can use to
make their subject matter come alive for their students, motivating learning, offering rich and
compelling problems, and enabling more sophisticated assessment mechanisms. Students
are motivated to play games; games make learning fun, so students would not even realize
that they are learning. Learning to read is hard work especially when one gets older, it must
be maintained over a long period of time. Wierus and Wierus (1994) also stated that games
help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work.
According to Ersoz (2000), games also help the teacher to create contexts in which reading
is useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part and in order to do so must
understand what others are reading and they must speak or write in order to express their
own point of view or give information.
Boys’ Attitudes toward School and Learning
Several early sociological studies investigated the behavior of specific groups of young men
without making 'masculinity' explicit or problematic. These early studies were focused on
delinquency and deviance from the 'norm'. In the 1960s and 1970s some researchers were
concerned with how socio-economic status affected boys' experiences in secondary schools
Hargreaves (1967). These researchers found that working class boys left school earlier and
achieved less.
Miller (1998) argues that male and female students perform differently in education because
of sex differences in maturation rates and learning styles. While males and females have
397
innate differences, influencing factors from children’s social environments likely have a more
profound impact on their life outcomes than do biological and cognitive differences.
Research Methodology
The purpose of this research was to ascertain if a literacy garden could be used to improve
Grade Four boys’ reading level. The sample size included twenty-five boys and twenty eight
girls from two Grade Four classes. In this chapter the researcher will outline the type of
research and design used to carry out this research.
Research Design
The researcher undertook a quasi-experiment; this is a type of quantitative research which is
used in educational research. Quantitative research, broadly defined, means "any kind of
research that produces findings arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means
of quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17). Where quantitative researchers seek
causal determination, prediction, and generalization of findings, qualitative researchers seek
instead illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations. A quasi
experimental design works in natural settings according to Schoenfeld, (2006).The
researcher used this design as the class setting would not be interrupted. Shavelson and
Towne (2002) cited that with the implementation of No Child Left Behind statue, educational
research put forth an agenda of scientifically based research.
The purpose of a quasi-experimental is focused on finding a solution to a problem and the
solution can be generalized setting. The purpose of this research was to investigate the
impact of a literacy garden on the reading level of grade four boys. Therefore, we addressed
the following questions in this study:
1. What was the reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside before treatment
intervention?
2. What factors affect the reading level of grade four boys at Northside All Age?
3. How has the implication of Literacy Garden and books from the school library
impacted the literacy level of grade four boys?
Method of Data Collection
Participants
This 12- week study was conducted in two 4th grade literacy classes (N=53 ) at Northside All
Age school with low –socioeconomic background with majority of the parents not completing
high school education and are unemployed. Twenty -five boys and twenty -eight girls were
tested for reading levels and follow up with parental involvement. They were given a
standardized Grade Four Literacy Test. Seventeen boys and sixteen girls were given
treatment with the instruction for the literacy garden that was administered by class teacher
for twelve weeks before the posttest was given to both the control and the treatment group.
The instruments that were used to collect data are, standardized reading test prepared by
the Ministry of Education (see Appendix A) with students, academic records that showed
progress before and after implementation of strategies. In addition a Slossons test (see
Appendix C) was used as a pretest and post test to determine the reading level of the boys.
398
Data Collection Instruments
Slossons
The Slosson test sheet was distributed to schools by the Ministry of Education for the teacher
to ascertain the reading level for the students. A Slosson test is a series of words that range
from Primer to High school words for the students to identify (see Appendix C). Each list
contains 20 words. The number of words that each students call correctly from each of the
word list will be tallied and divided by two for the administrator to know the grade level at
which the literacy test as stipulated by the Ministry of Education in word recognition, reading
comprehension, and writing. Strategies for literacy garden were implemented and words
were planted in garden and students rewarded from books read.
Data Analysis and Results
Data were analyzed using charts and descriptive statistics to explore the differences among
groups. The results showed that there was an increased in literacy performance with pretest
and post- test.
Research questions
This research took the form of a quasi- experimental. The researcher used a sample of 53
students from the Grade 4 class. Thirty-three students in the treatment group to ascertain if
the impact of literacy garden could improve their reading level.
This chapter considers the main findings from the data collected using the methods of a pretest and post -test, treatment group when the administration of the group. The following
research questions formed the basis of the analysis of the findings.
Research questions
1. What was the reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside All Age School before
the intervention?
2. What factors affect the reading level of Grade 4 boys at Northside All Age?
3. How has the implementation of Literacy Garden and books from the school library
impacted the reading level of grade 4 boys?
Research question 1: What are the reading levels of Grade 4 boys at Northside All
Age?
In response to this question the researcher gave a detailed description of the results of the
pre- test. The aim of which was to ascertain the reading level of the boys before the
administering and implementation of literacy garden.
Students were tested from the levels primer to grade 7. Each grade level had 20 words. The
number of words that each student called correctly from each of the word list was tallied and
divided by two to determine the grade level at which the child was reading.
Overall it was noted that majority was reading at their level or slightly above 53% these
students were reading at or above their grade level. The required level of each student is for
them to be reading at or above their grade level. I can therefore be said that only some
students were reading the required level when the pre-test was administered.
Between September 2014 and December 2014, a pre -test was carried out at Northside All
Age School in two grade 4 classes, to be completed by fifty-three students in order to
assess pupils’ reading levels. Table 1. presents the results for seventeen (17) male pupils
399
and sixteen (16) female pupils. The Slossons was used to ascertain these results as
recorded below in Table 1.
There were 8 (47%) students reading below or at level three, this was nearly half of the boys’
reading at this level. There were five students reading at grade three, which had (5) 29%
reading at this level .The lowest level that the students were reading from was pre-primer
which had (1) 6% . There were five (5) at grade four level and four at grade five level.
Table 1. Reading results from Slossons Treatment Group
GENDER
No of Students
Reading Levels for Sept 2014
M
2
Preprimer
M
2
Grade 1
M
1
Grade 2
M
3
Grade 3
M
5
Grade 4
M
4
Grade 5
F
2
Grade 2
F
3
Grade 3
F
4
Grade 4
F
5
Grade 5
The table below represents the control group reading results from the Slossons conducted in
September, 2014.The results showed that all the male students reading at grade three or
below grade three levels.
Table 2. Reading results from Slossons Control Group
Gender
M
M
F
F
F
F
No of Students
2
6
2
7
2
1
Results
Grade2
Grade 3
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 8
Grade 7
Table 3. Post Reading Results from Slossons Treatment Group, Dec 2014
Gender
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
No of Students
1
1
5
2
3
1
6
3
3
3
400
Grade Level
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 7
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Table 3. reflected that was an increased in the reading levels of boys, only two boys were
now reading below grade four reading level. There was a seventy-five percent increase in the
reading levels of the male students.
Table 4. Post Reading Results from Slossons Control Group Dec 2014
Gender
No. of Students
Results
M
2
Grade 2
M
5
Grade 3
M
1
Grade 4
F
2
Grade 3
F
7
Grade 4
F
2
Grade 5
F
1
Grade 7
Research question 2: What factors affect the reading level of Grade 4 boys at
Northside All Age?
The researcher used quasi-experiment research method using treatment of the literacy
garden to collect data to respond to this question.
Thirty-three students were given treatment. The researcher used the intact class so as to
obtain unbiased outcome at the fourth grade class at Northside All Age.
The information gathered from the treatment group with a semi –structured interview
instrument was sorted and was categorized in themes. Based on the information gathered,
the themes were used as factors affecting reading level of Grade 4 boys.
The factors affecting reading level of Grade 4 boys
1. Lack of Parental involvement
2. Demotivation
3. Teaching Strategies
Parental Support
The students’ views were mostly that their parents were not around and they are unable to
do homework as they have no help at home as a result of this about six reported that they
did not do any school work at home.
Some students felt embarrassed when parents tried to assist them as their parent often used
discouraging words while assisting them.
De-motivation
Students were asked if they liked school. Most reported that school was hard and as a result
of that they did not like school. Nine reported that they are often laughed at whenever they
said or did something wrong. One student reported that he was bored at school and just did
not want to participate in class. Others reported that they could not read well and as a result
they just stopped paying attention in class.
Teaching Strategies
Students were asked what it is that they did not understand when the teacher teaches, some
students reported that it was just too fast and they did not understand. Based on what the
401
students reported, the students seemed to be having difficulties with the teacher’s teaching
style. They complained that they liked when games are played in a lesson and when they
used objects in the lesson. Therefore these factors are affecting the students both
academically and emotionally.
Research question 3: How has the implementation of literacy garden and books from
the school library impacted the literacy level of grade 4 boys?
To collect data for research question three, six books from the school library in an effort to
these books and planting unfamiliar words in the garden were implemented. The result from
the pre-test mock literacy test is depicted in Table 4.5. Literacy Mock Examination was used
to answer research question three. The pretest literacy mock examination with treatment
group revealed that five male students were at non-mastery level in the examination while
two female students were at the near mastery level. Twelve male students gained mastery
and fourteen female students mastered.
Table 5. Results for Pretest Literacy Mock Exam for treatment Group
Gender
No of Students
Results
M
5
Non Mastery
M
12
Mastery
F
2
Near Mastery
F
14
Mastery
Table 6. This table revealed the results from the pretest Literacy Mock from the Control
Group. Two male students are at the near mastery and five female students were near
mastery level.
Table 6. Results for Pretest Literacy Mock from Control Group
M
2
Near Mastery
M
6
Mastery
F
5
Near Mastery
F
7
Mastery
Table 7. This table revealed the results from the post-test the treatment administered to the
treatment group. The treatment had a positive impact on students who sat the posttest. It
also revealed that no male student remained at the non- mastery level and three out of the
five male students whose scores were deemed at non- mastery now mastered. It therefore
can be said that 60% of the male students soared to mastery while the female students
increase was slightly lower.
Table 7. Results from Post-test for Treatment Group
Gender
No of Students
M
2
M
15
F
1
F
15
402
Results
Near Mastery
Mastery
Near Mastery
Mastery
Table 8. The table revealed the results from the post-test for the Literacy Mock Examination.
It was noted very little change in this group scores.
Table 8. Results from Post-test for Control Group
M
2
M
6
F
5
F
7
Near Mastery
Mastery
Near Mastery
Mastery
Literacy Pretest for Boys
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
88%
82%
70%
30%
Percentages
20%
10%
0%
Word Recognition
Reading
Comprehension
Writing Task
Literacy Pretest for Girls
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
94%
40%
94%
75%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Word Recognition
Reading
Comprehension
403
Writing Task
Percentages
Figure 1.
By comparing the pre-test and post -test literacy mock, it is evident that the reading level of
all the students had improved. In the pre -test 12 (70%) of the students were doing reading
comprehension at mastery level. In comparison to the post test, where 94% students or
sixteen of seventeen boys in the treatment group obtained mastery level in literacy mock
test. In the pre-test of the students word recognition was 88% reading at the mastery level.
While the post-test revealed that 17 (100%) of the male students mastered the word
recognition. In the pre-test 82% students mastered the writing task. However after the post
test was administered 94% were mastering writing task. Based on the findings it is evident
that there was a marked improvement in the literacy level of the Grade four boys’. All
students have improved at least one or more grade levels and 12%-24 % on literacy mock
post- test. It can therefore be said that there is a significant improvement in the reading levels
of the grade four boys after the implementation of the literacy garden and using books from
the school library. See Figure 2. below which shows the results from the Post-test.
Literacy Posttest for Boys
101%
100%
99%
98%
97%
96%
95%
100%
Percentages
94%
96%
93%
94%
92%
91%
Word Recognition
Reading
Comprehension
404
Writing Task
Literacy Posttest for Girls
101%
100%
99%
98%
97%
96%
95%
100%
Percentages
94%
93%
92%
94%
94%
Reading
Comprehension
Writing Task
91%
Word Recognition
Figure 2.
Summary, Implications and Conclusion
The researcher conducted quasi experimental research. The sample size of the research
was 17 boys and 16 girls from Grade 4. The purpose of this research was to find out the
impact of literacy garden with the use of school library on the reading level of Grade 4 boys.
The researcher found from the pre-test that the boys were reading below their grade level.
Based on the post test, it was found that planting words in the literacy assisted in improving
the boys’ reading level. In order for this to happen, six books were implemented to guide the
students in improving in their reading. They were challenged to read books from the school
library and planting words in the garden. These books got progressively more difficult while
they allowed the students to have fun while reading and learning. These books motivated
reading habit created by planting words in the literacy garden also addressed different areas
in literacy.
The boys all improved at least one or more grade level while 16 (96%) of the boys were
reading at the required level for grade four. It found that the factors that affected the boys
were Lack of Parental involvement, De-motivation and Teaching Strategy.
According to Miller (2003) reading attainment is positively affected by parental support. The
researcher found that parents were not actively involved in their children’s school life.
Pearson (1994) postulates that reading is an effortful activity that children often can choose
to do or not to do, it also requires motivation. The literature reveals that much of the work
relevant to readers’ motivation has been framed in terms of attitude towards reading.
Reading attitudes typically are defined as readers’ affect toward reading (McKenna, 1995).
The motivational consequences of reading attitudes are that children with more positive
attitudes are more motivated to read. However the researchers’ findings were that most of
the students felt de-motivated while at school. A substantial body of work also exists on
reading interest, defined as either a characteristic of the person or of the text (Schiefele,
1996). Learning strategies are plans which are followed in order to reach learning objectives
405
and are techniques that are improved by person to ensure that students understand task
when being taught (Derry, 1989).
Conclusion
Findings from the Slossons and pretest indicated that most the students were reading below
their reading level and were not mastering the grade four literacy test. However in
comparison with the post test, it was noted that all the students improved at reading level and
mastering the grade four mock examinations. Findings from the implementation of the
literacy garden and books from the school library were positive. Books that students like to
read will keep them involved and eager to learn. The finding could not be generalized
because of the sample size but it is noteworthy. The Ministry of Education states that “every
child can learn every child must”. However not all children learn in the same way and at the
same pace. In our society, we have children who are more advanced than others. Some are
good readers and others are poor readers. It is our duty as educators to continue to create
and implement activities which would foster the academic welfare and growth of these
students. This will help the students to become better readers for a brighter tomorrow.
Recommendations
Based on the overwhelming improvement in the reading level and mastering literacy there
are some recommendations that I would like to make. These are based on the three factors
that affected reading level and literacy levels in boys. I recommend that:
1. Parents should be more active in their child’s/children’s school life,
2. Schools should provide regular feedback on pupils’ progress and information about
ways for parents to support their children’s learning.
3. Teachers and parents should find ways to motivate children to read.
4. Teachers should use different teaching strategies with students and know their
learning styles so as to address reading issues.
5. Every school should be equipped with a variety of books in the school library that
targeted boys and girls.
6. Parents and teachers perceived support and encouragement as major areas of
parental involvement and these are important for students’ academic achievement.
References
Calfee, R.C. and Drum, P. 1986. Research on reading instruction. In M. Wittrock
(ed.)Handbook Research on Teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Rand McNally
Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V., & Baldwin, L.(1990). The reading crisis: Why poor children fall
behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Clark, R. (1993). Homework –focused parenting practices that positively affect student
achievement. In N.F Chavkin (Ed.). Families and Schools in Pluralistic Society,
New York:New : State University of New York Press.
Colker,L. J.(2006) Family involvement: A Key ingredient in children’s reading success.
Retrieved October 5, 2005, from
http://www.rif/parents/articlesFamInvolvement.mspx
406
Derry, S. J. (1989). Putting learning strategies to work. Educational Leadership, 46 (4), 2-7.
Epstein J.L. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
educational research,(Sixth Edition). New York: MacMillan.
Ersöz, Aydan (2000) Six Games for the EFL/ESL Classroom by The Internet TESL Journal,
Vol. VI, No. 6, June.
Fullan, M.2001 Leading in a culture of Change, San Francisco, CA: John Wiley.
Gilmore, T. Krantz, J & Ramirez, R.(1986). Action Based Modes of Inquiry and the HostResearcher Relationship. Consultation 5.3: 160-76
Hargreaves, D. (1967) Social Relations in a Secondary School. London: Routledge
Hester,H. (1989). Sart at home to improve home school relations. NASSP Bulletin, 73(513),
23-27.
Jesse, D.,(1997). Increasing parental involvement: A key to student academic success.
Lee, V.E. & Croninger, R.G.(1994).The relative importance of home environment in the
development of literacy skills for middle grade students. American of Education.
102 (3). 286-329.
McKenna, M.C., Kear, D.J., & Ellsworth, R.A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A
national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934–955.
Mehrens, W. A. & Lehmann, I. J. (1987). Using standardized tests in education. New York:
Longman.
Miller, E. (2003). The effect of parental involvement (Men at risk). Kingston Jamaica:
Jamaica Publishing House
Miller, E. (1998). Education Reform in Independent Jamaica: Themes in Education Reform in
the Populist Era. UWI, Mona
Muller, C., & Kerbow, D. (1993). Parent involvement in the home, school, and community. In
B. Schneider, and J.S. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and schools.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of
Education. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.
Pearson, P.D. (1994). Commentary on California’s new English-language arts assessment.
Authentic reading assessment: Practices and possibilities (pp. 218–227). Newark,
DE: International Reading Association.
407
Pumfrey,P. (2006). Reading and writing, Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education,
17(1), 38-40.
Schiefele, U. (1996). Topic interest, text representation, and quality of experience.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 3–18.
.
Snyder, T.D., & Tan, A.G. (2005, October). Digest of education statistics, 2004 (NCES
publication no. 2006-005). Washington, DC:
Steinberg, Laurence. (1996). Beyond the class-room: Why school reform has failed and what
parents need to do. New York: Simon & Schuster. (ERIC Document
No.ED398346)
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures
and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Wierus, and Wierus. 1994. Zagrag Razem a nami, Cze sc Jezyki abee w szkole, June : 218222.
Biographical note
Yvonne Perriel is a graduate of Guelph University Ontario, Canada, with a Bachelor of
Science Degree in Food Science. She received her Master of Arts Degree in Education from
Andrews University in 1998. She earned a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Educational
Administration in 2009 from Northern Caribbean University. She is a Master Teacher who
has worked in several schools in the Bahamas and Jamaica. She served as an Assistant
Professor at Northern Caribbean University for seven years, and now serves as an adjunct
professor in Graduate Studies at this institution. Currently, serves as Principal of Goshen All
Age, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica.
Dr. Perriel-Mapp has over thirty years working experience in Education.
Among her many awards are: Outstanding Service Award from South Andros, Teacher of
the Year for the San Salvador, Bahamas, 2001. Bahamas Union of Teachers- Master
Teacher award, 1998. Outstanding Service award in Seventh-day Adventist Service in the
Bahamas, Outstanding award 2005 from Teacher Education Department at the Northern
Caribbean University, Distinguished Faculty Award from Northern Caribbean University in
2007, Certified Professional in Home Economics in 2011 and Excellence in Teaching from
Jamaica Teaching Council in 2014.
Dr. Perriel –Mapp has co-authored one book Introduction to Educational Research. She has
presented papers at national, regional and international forums. She also authored four
articles in three separate journals.
Dr. Perriel-Mapp’s major objectives are to render quality service, to motivate and support
others in discovering their hidden potentials, and to empower individuals to make positive
changes. She is a motivator, a confidant, but most importantly, she is a Christian lady.
408
The School Library as a Sexual Health
Learning Environment
Jennifer Richey, Ph.D.
Texas Woman’s University
School of Library & Information Studies
Stoddard Hall, Room 404
P.O. Box 425438
Denton, TX 76204-5438
United States of America
Jrichey1@twu.edu
Abstract
In Northern Europe and the United States, approximately half of adolescents have
engaged in sexual activity by the age of 18 years, but attitudes, behaviors, and
outcomes among adolescents in the two geographic areas differ greatly. Although
multiple factors contribute to decision-making and although adolescents receive sexual
health information through myriad information channels, one commonality exists
between the two geographic areas: the school library. This paper presents the findings
of two studies exploring the role of high school librarians in Texas as sexual health
information providers and motivators and barriers to information provision, as perceived
by district-level library coordinators, high school principals, and high school librarians.
Results suggest the librarian potentially plays this role, and more motivators for
information provision exist than do barriers; as such, the school library potentially
serves as a sexual health learning environment.
Keywords: Adolescent sexual health; Sexual health information; School libraries;
Health information literacy
Introduction
Despite approximately the same percentage of Northern European and American
adolescents engaging in sexual activity by the age of 18 years, American adolescents
engage in riskier behaviors and express unhealthier attitudes than their Northern European
counterparts. Within the United States, Texas ranks among the highest in both adolescent
birth rates and adolescent pregnancies. Information sources as well as educational programs
can influence adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviors. Based on guidelines from the
International Association of School Librarians (IASL), the American Library Association
(ALA), and the American Association for School Librarians (AASL), the school library can
serve as a sexual health learning environment for adolescents, where adolescents can
receive current, accurate, reliable, and balanced sexual health information from certified
school librarians.
409
This paper shares the results of two studies exploring high school librarians as sexual health
information providers and concludes with a discussion about the school library as a sexual
health learning environment.
Literature Review
Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Europe, America, and Texas: A Comparison
The percentages of adolescents in Northern Europe and the United States of America
engaging in sexual intercourse are comparable, but the behaviors and outcomes vary
greatly. Exact years of comparison are not available for European countries, but Advocates
for Youth (2008) report that in varying years during the 2000’s, the rate of adolescent
pregnancies, birth rates, and HIV/STI rates in France, the Netherlands, and Germany were
considerably lower than those in the United States. Adolescents in these European countries
were more likely to use some form of birth control compared to their American counterparts.
Although approximately the same percentage of Texas adolescents have sex as do
adolescents across the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014a),
the outcomes also vary greatly. In 2010, out of 50 states, Texas ranked third in nation for
number of adolescent pregnancies at a rate of 73.0 per 1000 compared to the national rate
of 57.4 births per 1000. The same year, Texas ranked fourth in the nation for birth rates at a
rate of 52.0 per 1000 compared to the national rate of 34.4 births per 1000 (Kost & Henshaw,
2014). Additionally, 19.0% of Texas adolescents report not using any form of birth control
compared to the national average of 13.7% (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2014b).
Adolescent pregnancies in America have detrimental social, health, economic, and
educational repercussions for the mothers, their children, and society as a whole. For the
children, there are increased risks of health problems, learning disabilities, and becoming
victims of neglect or abuse. For the adolescent mothers, there are increased risks of health
problems, living in poverty, and not completing high school (Hoffman, Foster, & Furstenberg
1993; Moore, Morrison, & Greene 1997; Kirby 2007). Additionally, American adolescents
have reduced access to health care (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2001), potentially further
contributing to or exacerbating existing health problems. Nationally taxpayers spend
approximately $9.4 billion each year on costs related to adolescent pregnancy (National
Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2015a), and Texas taxpayers spend
approximately $1.1 billion annually (National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned
Pregnancy, 2015b).
Sexual Health Information Sources and Education
American adolescents typically are provided with sexual health information through both
formal and informal sources. Examples of formal sources include programs organized
through schools, churches, health agencies, etc., and examples of informal sources include
family members, peers, and various media formats like television, books, movies, and the
Web (Cornog & Perper, 1996; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2009).
A positive correlation exists between source type and sexual attitudes and behaviors: when
adolescents receive information from formal sources, they are less likely to engage in risky
410
behaviors and more likely to express cautious attitudes than when receiving information from
informal sources (Somers & Surmann 2005; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2009).
Additionally, providing adolescents with sexual health information early in the adolescent
stage also reduces an adolescent’s likelihood of engaging in risk-taking behaviors (Somers &
Surmann 2005).
Informal sources can vary in accuracy, reliability, and currency, thus promoting
misconceptions and/or misinforming the information receiver. Compared to adolescents
receiving information from formal sources, adolescents receiving information from informal
sources are more likely to engage in riskier sexual behaviors and express less cautious
attitudes and beliefs (Somers & Surmann 2005; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan,
2009).
When American schools choose to offer sexual education programs, they are of two primary
types: comprehensive programs and abstinence education programs. Comprehensive
programs teach "...a broad set of topics related to sexuality including human development,
relationships, decision making, abstinence, contraception, and disease prevention" (Sexuality
Information and Education Council of the United States, n.d.). A meta-analysis examining the
long-term effects of all sexual health education programs suggest comprehensive programs
have more positive effects on adolescent behaviors and attitudes than do abstinence
programs (Kirby, 2007).
The Social Security Administration branch of the United States government promotes
abstinence education, which is defined as “an educational or motivational program
which...teaches abstinence from sexual activity outside of marriage...[and] is the expected
standard of human sexual activity” (Social Security Administration, 2009). The type of sexual
health program varies by geographical region, state, and sometimes even within a state
(Landry, Darroch, Singh, & Higgins, 2003). Texas does not require schools to teach sexual
education, but if schools do provide sexual education, abstinence must be stressed (Alan
Guttmacher Institute, 2015).
In Northern Europe, comprehensive sexual education is standard (Boonstra, 2011).
Educational programs encourage adolescents to use information and critical thinking skills to
decide if, and, or when each individual is ready to enter into a sexual relationship, compared
to America where the overall goal is to prevent adolescents from engaging in sexual
behaviors for as long as possible, preferably until marriage (Santelli, Sandfort, & Orr, 2000;
Singh & Darroch, 2008).
Providing adolescents with accurate, current, reliable, and balanced sexual health
information promotes healthier sexual attitudes and behaviors compared to adolescents
receiving limited or no information. The school library can provide such information, and, in
turn, promote healthier attitudes and behaviors.
Why school libraries as a sexual health learning environment?
Libraries as sexual health learning environments date back at least to the 1800’s with the
“Enfer” (hell) collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, France. Since then, libraries in
general have met the sexual health information needs of their patrons of all ages, modifying
411
and updating collections to reflect changing social issues and health information needs
(Cornog & Perper, 1996).
The International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) identifies the school library as
an environment where students learn life-long literacy and technology skills transferable
beyond curricular needs, by which students are able “to locate and evaluate information to
answer educational and recreational needs and interests” (1993). School librarians teach
adolescent patrons life-long literacy skills, including how to locate, evaluate, and use
information from a range of sources answering curricular and personal needs and interests.
Personal needs include sexual health information. Materials and resources include both print
and digital, and access potentially includes 24/7 availability.
According to the American Library Association’s Bill of Rights (2015), all libraries should
provide resources and materials “for the interest, information, and enlightenment of all people
of the community the library serves…[and] should provide materials and information
presenting all points of view on current and historical issues” (ALA, 2015). Two goals of the
American Association for School Librarians (AASL), a division of ALA, identify the school
library as a place to "connect learners with ideas and information, and [to] prepare students
for life-long learning, informed decision-making" (AASL, 2015). American adolescents have
expressed a need for more information than they have received in existing programs (Hoff &
Greene, 2000). Depending on the school, curriculum may also include sexual health
information.
School libraries serve as a learning environment and school librarians serve as teachers
providing access to current, reliable, and balanced information. Sexual health information
falls within the parameters of the curricular and personal information needs of adolescents;
thus, the school library potentially serves as a sexual health learning environment, just as the
school librarian potentially serves as a sexual health information provider.
Research Questions
Through two separate studies conducted in Texas, a state in the southern part of the United
States of America, three groups of people, two who supervise school librarians and then
school librarians themselves, responded to the following research questions:
Study 1
Do district level library coordinators and campus level principals in Texas public school
districts perceive high school librarians as playing the role of sexual health information
providers?
What factors do these participants perceive as influencing librarians’ role as sexual health
information providers?
Study 2
Do high school librarians in Texas public school districts perceive themselves as playing the
role of sexual health information providers?
412
What factors do these participants perceive as influencing their role as sexual health
information providers?
Methods








The following definitions clarify terms frequently used in the methods section of this
article:
Public school - schools funded by state governments; all students, beginning at age 5
years and concluding at approximately the age of 18 years may attend public school
for free.
High school - schools serving students typically 14 - 18 years of age
School district - multiple schools within one town consolidate under a single
administrative entity
Campus - each individual school building within a school district
District-level library coordinator - a certified school librarian who serves as an
administrator for all librarians in the district; although district-level library coordinators
supervise all campus librarians, the campus librarians do not report directly to the
district-level library coordinator.
High school campus principal - the administrator of each campus who also serves as
liaison between the campus and the district-level administration; campus librarians
report directly to the principal
School librarian - a professional who must have a high school degree, a college
degree, two years of teaching experience in the state of Texas, a Master’s degree
with a School Library Certification in Texas, and who has passed a state-mandated
certification test. Depending on the school district, a school librarian may serve one or
more campuses.
Sample and site
The state of Texas was selected due to its high birth rates and pregnancy rates, as well as its
focus on abstinence education if and when sexual health education curriculum is taught.
For the first study, two participant groups were selected: high school campus principals and
district-level library coordinators. These two participant groups were selected because both
supervise and interact with campus librarians but potentially have different experiences with
multiple facets of the school library and librarians.
Texas is the second largest state in the United States. Due to its size, the study was webbased so representation from multiple geographical areas within Texas would be
represented. Participants received a link to each survey. The only identifying information
requested was the participant’s position (district-level library coordinator or principal). No
other identifying information was collected, including names, locations, or IP addresses.
413
Data Collection and Analysis
The Delphi method was used to collect data. With the Delphi method, data is generated over
multiple rounds, seeking a consensus among participants. In the first round participants
provide qualitative data by answering open-ended questions. The themes generated from
content analysis form the quantitative survey statements for subsequent rounds. The survey
items are grounded in participant responses instead of being prescribed by a pre-fabricated
instrument (Cline, 2000; Colton & Hatcher, 2004).
The second round introduces Likert scale statements based on themes from round one,
indicating a level of agreement which correspond to the numbers 5-0, respectively: Strongly
agree; Agree; Neither agree nor disagree; Disagree; Strongly disagree. As to not skew the
data, respondents having no experience with the statement’s theme are asked to select “Not
Applicable.” Upon analyzing the data, any question for which participants arrive at a
consensus is removed from the questionnaire. A new questionnaire is generated for a third
round, and the statements for which a consensus was not generated in round two are
reworded and submitted again. The survey concludes when either a consensus has been
reached or the data suggests a consensus will not be reached (Keeney, McKenna, &
Hasson, 2010).
For the first study, 13 high school principals participated in round one, and 10 participated in
rounds two and three. Sixteen district-level library coordinators participated in round one, and
15 participated in rounds two and three. For the second study, 24 high school librarians
participated in all three rounds.
Round one for both studies consisted of the same three open-ended questions asking
participants if they perceived the school librarians as playing the role of sexual health
information provider, to identify factors they perceive encourage sexual health information
provision, and to identify factors they perceive discourage sexual health information
provision. Participants provided narrative responses, and content analysis was used to
generate themes for the development of statements for round two.
The data collection and analysis methods in round two for both studies were the same. The
instrument’s statements were based on themes generated from the open-ended responses
in round one. Descriptive statistics were used to determine if a consensus had been reached:
a mean of 3.8 - 5.0 or a mean of 1.0 - 2.2 equaled a consensus (70.0% agreement or
disagreement). Depending on how the statement was written, statements for which
participants arrived at a consensus were listed as factors either encouraging or discouraging
sexual health information provision. The instruments for the first study and the second study
differed, however. In the first study, the themes generated from round one for both principals
and district-level library coordinators were merged into one instrument. For the second study,
the campus librarians responded to statements that were generated only from their
responses to round one.
For round three, surveys in both studies were revised to include only those statements where
consensus was not reached in round two. Each statement was rewritten. Two separate
instruments were required for round three in the first study, however. District-level library
coordinators received one instrument tailored to their responses in round two, and principals
received a different instrument tailored to their responses in round two because the
414
responses between the two groups varied greatly and because the majority of the principals
remained neutral on all statements. For the second study, participants again responded to
Likert scale statements specific to their responses in their round one. As with round two,
descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. To reach consensus, a statement’s
response must have a mean of 3.8-5.0 or 1.0-2.2, or 70.0%. For both studies, data collection
concluded with round three.
Findings
For both studies, participants were initially asked if they perceive high school librarians as
playing the role of sexual health information providers. The two participant groups working in
the library field overwhelmingly perceived high school librarians as playing this role
compared to high school principals, as shared in Table 1.
Response District-level
Library
Coordinators
Yes
13 (81.25%)
No
2 (12.50%)
Maybe
0 (0.00%)
Other
1 ( 6.25%)
High School
Principals
High School
Librarians
3 (23.10%)
7 (53.80%)
1 ( 7.70%)
2 (15.40%)
19 (79.17%)
1 ( 4.17%)
0 (0.00%)
4 (16.67%)
Table 1: Participants’ Perceptions of the School Librarian’s Role as a Sexual Health Information Provider
Participants identified a total of 19 motivators, or factors that encourage information
provision, and six barriers, or factors that discourage information provision. Table 2 is
arranged so that within the top portion of each column, commonalities between each group’s
responses are aligned. Below the dashed lines are responses unique to that participant
group.
Motivators
District-level Library
Coordinators
Adolescents’ lack of
knowledge
Confidentiality of
patron circulation
records
Job responsibility
Librarian-asinformation-provider
Patrons’ personal
information needs
Rapport between
librarian and patrons
Availability of time for
collection
development
Patrons’ curricular
information needs
High School
Principals
Availability of time for
collection
development
Patrons’ curricular
information needs
----------------------------
High School
Librarians
Adolescents’ lack of
knowledge
Confidentiality of
patron circulation
records
Job responsibility
Patrons’ personal
information needs
Rapport between
librarian and student
--------------------415
Barriers
District-level Library
Coordinators
---------------------------Access to information
Appropriateness of
content within
resources
Availability of
resources
Emotional maturity of
patrons
Emphasis on
promoting resources
Physiological maturity
of patrons
Professional
guidelines
High School
Principals
Librarians’ personal
beliefs
---------------------------Conflict avoidance
Political climate
Reconsideration
request concerns
Librarians’ personal
beliefs
---------------------------Legal Liability
High School
Librarians
Campus population
behaviors
Collection
development
knowledge
Librarians
understanding of
information needs
Willingness to assist
--------------------Internet filters
Table 2: Findings, Motivators and Barriers, by Participant Group
High school principals do not work in the library; thus, their knowledge of the librarian’s role
of a sexual health information provider, as well as the library as a sexual health learning
environment, could be limited based on myriad factors. District-level library coordinators
identified more motivators and barriers to information provision than did campus librarians.
While no data currently exists to explain why, one could only speculate that it is because this
participant group manages multiple campuses’ libraries and thus has more exposure to
possible motivators and barriers.
Discussion
All three participant groups identified more motivators for sexual health information provision
than barriers in Texas, but participant groups provided conflicting responses regarding the
role of the school librarian as a sexual health information provider. Because of such small
participant groups and because the participants only represented the population of Texas,
the results cannot be generalized to other states, to the United States, nor to any country
outside of the United States.
AASL’s Empowering Learners (2009) identifies school librarians as playing the roles of
leaders, teachers, information specialists, instructional partners, and program administrators.
Some of the responsibilities within these roles include (1) advocating for their adolescent
patrons’ information needs; (2) teaching students how to locate and evaluate high-quality,
416
accurate, and current information; (3) providing access to a variety of resources in a multiple
formats; (4) teaching curriculum-based lessons; and (5) meeting the personal and curricular
information needs of their adolescent patrons. Participants in this study identified motivators
to sexual health information provision within the library including personal information needs,
curricular information needs, the librarian as an information provider, access and availability
of resources, advocacy of resources, all of align within the five roles. As such, it is possible
that the school librarian can serve as a sexual health information provider.
According to IASL’s Policy Statement on School Libraries (1993), ALA’s Bill of Rights (2015),
and AASL’s Governing Documents (2015), the school library is a learning environment where
students may access resources and materials for both curricular and personal information
needs, providing accurate, reliable, and current information representing multiple
perspectives. Sexual health information is both a curricular and personal information need in
the United States. High school libraries provide the benefits of formal sources yet can
provide a variety of materials with the appeal of informal sources. Additionally, school library
collections, both print and digital, offer information found within comprehensive sexual
education programs. The school librarian is a teacher, and the school library is a campuswide classroom; thus, the school library can serve as a sexual health learning environment.
Further research, however, is needed.
Conclusion
Human sexuality is complex. Physiological, emotional, psychological, cultural, religious,
educational, and societal factors contribute to an adolescent’s sexual health attitudes and
behaviors. Despite its complexity, adolescents who receive current, accurate, reliable, and
balanced sexual health information are more likely to express healthier sexual attitudes and
engage in healthier sexual behaviors than adolescents receiving limited, inaccurate, or no
sexual health information. High school librarians as sexual health information providers and
high school libraries as sexual health learning environments can potentially promote healthy
decision-making among adolescents.
References
Advocates for Youth. (2008). Adolescent sexual health in Europe and the US. Retrieved from
http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/419?task=view.
Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2001). Can more progress be made? Teenage sexual and
reproductive behavior in developed countries. Retrieved from
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/summaries/euroteens_summ.pdf.
Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2015). State policies in brief: Sex and STI/HIV
Education. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_SE.pdf.
school library programs. Chicago: American Library Association.
American Association of School Librarians. (2015). AASL governing documents. Retrieved
from http://www.ala.org/aasl/about/governing-docs.
417
American Library Association. (2015). Library Bill of Rights. Retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill.
Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M. Fishbein, M., & Jordan, A. (2009). How sources of sexual
information relate to adolescents’ beliefs about sex. American Journal of Health
Behavior, 33(1), 37-48.
Boonstra, H. (2011). Advancing sexuality education in developing countries: Evidence and
implications. Retrieved from
https://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/14/3/gpr140317.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014a). Youth risk behavior surveillance—
United States, 2013, 63(4). Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/ss/ss6304.pdf.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Texas, high school youth risk behavior
survey, 2013. Youth Online. Retrieved from
http://nccd.cdc.gov/YouthOnline/App/Results.aspx?LID=TX.
Cline, A. (2000). Prioritization process using Delphi technique (White Paper). Carolla
Development. Retrieved from http://www.carolla.com/wp-delph.htm.
Colton, S. & Hatcher, T. (2004). The web-based Delphi technique as a method for content
validation in HRD and adult education research. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED492146.pdf.
Cornog, M. & Perper, T. (1996). For sex education, see librarian: A guide to issues and
resources. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Hoff, T., & Greene, T. (2000). Sex education in America: A series of national surveys of
students, parents, teachers, and principals. Retrieved from
https://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2000/09/3048-sex-education-inamerica-a-view-from-inside-the-nations-classrooms.pdf.
Hoffman, S., Foster, E., & Furstenberg, F. (1993). Reevaluating the costs of teenage childbearing. Demography, 30(1), 1-13.
International Association of School Librarianship. (1993). IASL policy statement on school
libraries. Retrieved from http://iaslonline.mlanet.org/about/organization/sl_policy.html.
Keeney, S., McKenna, H., & Hasson, F. (2010). The Delphi technique in nursing and health
research. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Kirby, D. (2007). Emerging answers 2007: Research findings on programs to reduce teen
pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Retrieved from
https://thenationalcampaign.org/sites/default/files/resource-primarydownload/EA2007_full_0.pdf.
418
Kost, K., and Henshaw, S. (2014). U.S. teenage pregnancies, births and abortions, 2010:
National and state trends by age, race and ethnicity. Retrieved from
https://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/USTPtrends10.pdf.
Landry, D., Darroch, J., Singh, S., & Higgins, J. (2003). Factors associated with the content
of sex education in U.S. public secondary schools. Perspectives on Sexual and
Reproductive Health, 35(6), 261-269.
Moore, K., Morrison, D., & Greene, A. (1997). Effects on the children born to adolescent
mothers. In R. Maynard (Ed.), Kids having kids: Economic costs and social
consequences of teen pregnancy (145-180). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. (2015a). Counting it up: The
public costs of teen childbearing. Retrieved from
https://thenationalcampaign.org/why-it-matters/public-cost.
National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. (2015b). Counting it up: The
public costs of teen childbearing in Texas in 2010. Retrieved from
https://thenationalcampaign.org/sites/default/files/resource-primary-download/factsheet-texas.pdf.
Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States. (n.d.) Fact sheet: What the
research says...comprehensive sex education. Retrieved from
http://www.siecus.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.ViewPage&PageID=1193.
Singh, S., & Darroch, J. (2000). Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing: Levels and trends in
developed countries. Family Planning Perspectives, 32(1),14–23.
Social Security Administration. (2009). Compilation of the Social Security Laws: Separate
program for abstinence education, Section 510. Retrieved from
http://www.ssa.gov/OP_Home/ssact/title05/0510.htm.
Somers, C. & Surmann, A. (2005). Sources and timing of sex education: Relations with
American adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviour. Educational Review, 57(1),
37-54.
Biographical note
Jennifer Richey has worked as an Assistant Professor at Texas Woman’s University’s School
of Library and Information Studies in Denton, Texas since 2011 where she teaches courses
focusing school library certification, young adult literature, and youth library programs. Her
primary research interest is on health information literacy of adolescents. Prior to that, she
was an elementary school librarian in the Austin, Texas area.
419
Using Your Outside Voice: action
research speaks for the school
librarian
Jennifer Robins, Professor
University of Central Missouri,
USA
jrobins@ucmo.edu
Abstract
Successful school library programs occur through careful planning and reflection.
School librarians who are reflective practitioners observe how learning occurs in the
library and the classroom and consider ways to improve it. They consult research and
collaborate with teachers so students are more successful. This reflective process is
improved when it is applied in a systematic way, through action research. With action
research, reflection is based on evidence, using data collected by the practitioner.
This study presents cumulative outcomes from 156 action research projects conducted
by 39 school librarians. It also includes results from a follow-up survey completed by
19 of the 39 school librarians that demonstrates how conducting action research affects
their sense of professional efficacy.
Keywords: School library programs, Action research, Professional efficacy
Action Research: Evidence of School Library Success
As the school library evolves to include learning commons, makerspaces, and other areas for
collaboration, discovery, and study, it is easy to lose track of which traditional library services
to preserve, the innovations that work, and those that need improving or abandoning. It is
even more difficult to make the case to onlookers that what is going on in the library, which
has become a noisier place, is progress (Palin, 2014). In a climate of school accountability,
evidence of successful practice is required. As reflective practitioners, school librarians have
a feel for what is successful in their libraries. Action research is a way for this reflection to be
systematic and evidence-based. Action research provides data that can be used for
decision-making and school library evaluation (Todd, 2015; Wideman, 2011). Action
research is a model for continuous quality improvement, a concept administrators and
politicians understand (Ballard, 2015). As this study shows, the concrete evidence collected
through action research speaks ‘out loud’ for school librarians, making the case for how the
changes taking place in the library improve student engagement and learning as well as
teacher productivity.
420
School librarians who are reflective practitioners observe how learning occurs in the library
and the classroom and consider ways to improve it (Todd, 2015). They consult research and
collaborate with teachers so that students are more successful. This reflective process is
much improved when it is applied in a systematic way, through action research. Action
research is a bridge between research and practice (Parsons & Brown, 2002). It is research
designed to improve local conditions. It differs from academic research which has stricter
standards for validity and reliability (Bruce, Flynn, & Stagg-Peterson, 2011). This is not to
say action research does not consider threats to the validity of data and conclusions. The
school librarian as an action researcher addresses threats as a matter of professionalism
and accountability to administrators, other teachers, and students. Decisions are made
according to the best approach to improve practice rather than to generate and confirm
theories. In addition to improving practice, action research in the school library provides a
way to demonstrate and justify library programs (Loerstcher & Woolls, 2001) and to highlight
how the librarian is a leader in school improvement (Howard & Eckhardt, 2005).
Action research is a “process of investigation based on development, execution, and
evaluation of experiments” that can be used to improve classroom practice (Wideman, 2011,
p. 52). Top down initiatives in education, such as the Common Core State Standards in the
United States and the standardized testing that accompanies it, garner public attention.
However progress toward student achievement occurs when the front line workers, the
teachers in classrooms and school libraries, put educational research into action (Hattie,
2012). With action research, teachers use research literature and research methods to
pursue innovations in their practice (Kuntz, et al., 2013; Parsons & Brown, 2002; Postholm,
2009; Wideman, 2011).
Though action research holds the promise of restoring professionalism to teaching and
improving student learning outcomes in the classroom and library (Brandt, 1993; Todd,
2015), it is not widely practiced by educators. Instruction in action research provided to preservice school librarians has limited impact because they do not have a classroom in which
to conduct research. They are not able to act on what they learn until they are in their own
libraries. In-service school librarians have a facility and often are familiar with action
research, but lack confidence and support. These librarians routinely alter their practice in
response to the needs of students. However they rarely collect data on their alterations,
might not conduct their evidence gathering in a systematic way, and do not have a venue for
sharing results and gaining feedback on these efforts. Collaborative partnerships between
librarians and university researchers can remedy these short comings (Bruce, Flynn, &
Stagg-Peterson, 2011).
University researchers can provide concepts and vocabulary related to conducting research.
They provide advice, encouragement, and confirmation as well as warn of potential threats to
librarians’ action research studies. The communication between partners builds
competence, while the school librarians maintain the agency to determine which practices to
develop and enhance (Postholm, 2009).
For school librarians new to action research, designing and conducting their first action
research studies can be a source of anxiety over the rigor required to effectively collect and
analyze data. A partnership with university researchers that provides opportunities for
multiple cycles of action research builds librarians’ expertise and confidence in their ability to
421
make judgments based on the demands of their particular situation (Bruce, Flynn, & StaggPeterson, 2011; Kuntz, et al. 2013; Postholm, 2009). They also gain experience evaluating
the success of their interventions.
The results presented here are of a collaborative partnership that required school librarians
to conduct four action research studies. School librarians proved to be ideal candidates for
these partnerships. They are likely to be more familiar with research studies, they encounter
students inside and outside of normal class periods, they interact with all teachers in the
school, and they have access to abundant resources. The objective of this study was to give
librarians sufficient experience so that the issues related to how to conduct an action
research study diminish, and the objectives of improving practice take the forefront. This
study involved having in-service school librarians select and conduct four action research
projects each in their own schools over one academic school year.
This study describes a collaborative partnership between a single university researcher and
39 school librarians who conducted a combined total of 156 action research projects.
Aggregate results from these action research projects are presented. This includes an
overview of the projects chosen by the school librarians, outcomes from these projects, and
specific examples of the types of studies completed. Along with this data, results from a
follow-up survey with the librarians will be included that probes how becoming action
researchers helped the librarians gain credibility in their schools, increase collaboration with
teachers, and gain prestige in the eyes of their administrators. In a time of rapid change, this
type of concrete evidence shouts out on behalf of the success of these innovative school
librarians.
Method
The study was designed to demonstrate a means for in-service school librarians to gain the
experience necessary to view themselves as action researchers. The goal of requiring 4
action research projects was to move recipients beyond the stage of familiarity with action
research to create a mindset where they identified themselves as action researchers. The
impacts of the action research projects on library services, student learning, and
collaboration with teachers are presented. This is a mixed methods study employing different
but complementary data, offering the potential to either merge or compare and contrast data
(Creswell & Clark, 2007). The method also employed a survey which probed the impact of
conducting action research on the librarians’ sense of professional efficacy. Several types of
data are tallied. Centrality measures were employed for the survey results. The study is
based on responses from a non-random, opt-in, sampling of librarians in rural schools.
Participants
The 39 school librarians who participated in this study are teachers who gained additional
certification to serve as school librarians by passing a PRAXIS II exam. The PRAXIS II
exam, developed by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), assesses content area
proficiency, measuring “knowledge of specific subjects that K–12 educators will teach” (ETS,
2011). This path to additional certification was adopted in some parts of the United States
as a way to address the shortage of school librarians. However since these 39 librarians
have not taken any formal coursework, they were aware that they were often
underperforming in their roles and leaving their schools and communities underserved.
Because many rural school districts are low income (U. S. Census Bureau, 2009), these
422
librarians lacked economic resources to pay for the coursework that would adequately
prepare them for the role of school librarian (Reeves, 2003). The 39 PRAXIS II certified
school librarians who produced the action research projects for this study received
scholarships through the Laura Bush 21st Century Librarian Program Grant from the Institute
of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). This $843,000 grant provided scholarships to these
school librarians, making it possible for all 39 of them to obtain master’s degrees in Library
Science and Information Services. These librarians reflected the gender and racial
characteristics of the population of rural teachers in the Midwest United States,
predominantly white and female.
Project Timeline
The librarians were divided into two graduate student cohorts. Nineteen students were in the
first cohort and 20 students were in the second. The two cohorts of practicing school
librarians conducted action research projects in their schools. The study period began in the
Spring, 2012 when the 19 librarians in the first cohort took an online course in action
research where they worked in groups to design their first study. In this course participants
studied evidence-based practice (Geitgey & Tepe, 2007; Todd, 2003) and action research
(Parsons & Brown, 2002). Then in Fall, 2012 and Spring, 2013 each school librarian in the
first cohort completed four action research projects. Seventy-six action research studies
were completed by cohort one. These students received their master’s degrees in Summer,
2013.
The 20 school librarians in the second cohort took their online course in action research in
Spring 2013 where they worked in groups to design their first study. Then in Fall, 2013 and
Spring, 2014 these school librarians completed four action

changes and emerging trends in Australian school

Transcription

Similar documents

Alison Brettle - CILIP Conference

The Venereal Game - Western Michigan University

STOKE CITY FC Carlo Nash - National Literacy Trust

Easy Tech - NC Wise Owl

The Ninja Librarians

Mobile School Health Information (MoSHI) Project

Cultural Images of Librarians

Student experience of the University of the Western Cape library

SR booklet 2016Revised2 - Norwood Public Schools