Bronze age dating of timber from the salt

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
www.elsevier.de/dendro
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Bronze age dating of timber from the salt-mine at Hallstatt, Austria
Michael Grabnera,, Andrea Kleina, Daniela Geihofera, Hans Reschreiterb,
Fritz E. Barthb, Trivun Sormazc, Rupert Wimmera
a
BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna. Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
Natural History Museum Vienna, Prehistoric Department, Burgring 7, A-1010 Vienna, Austria
c
Labor für Dendrochronologie, Amt für Städtebau, Denkmalpflege und Archäologie, Seefeldstrasse 317, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland
b
Received 10 December 2005; accepted 3 April 2006
Abstract
The prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt together with its burial ground is one of the most prominent archaeological
sites in Austria, which has also given name for the ‘‘Hallstatt period’’ of human civilisation (800–400 BC). Due to the
perfect conservation in rock salt a great number of organic materials have been found, among mostly wooden
artefacts. Currently, the major archaeological focus is on the Bronze Age salt mining activities with excavations taking
place at the historic Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen mine.
Chronology building started at the Dachstein plateau, in the vicinity of Hallstatt, where tree-trunks were discovered
in an alpine lake (Schwarzer See) and after recovery a spruce-larch chronology was compiled that dates back to 1475
BC. In addition, at the bog Karmoos, very close to the mining place of Hallstatt, preserved trees were intensively
sampled resulting in a spruce chronology reaching even 1523 BC.
Over 500 samples were taken at the Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen. They also included samples from
the recently discovered world’s oldest wooden staircase. The spectrum of wooden species encompassed Norway spruce,
Silver fir, beech, European larch and maple. We were able to synchronize 128 samples, ending in a 282-year long
floating chronology. While the staircase dated back to 1344 BC, the end year of the floating chronology dated even to
1245 BC. Tree felling dates showed clusters within the chronology, providing evidence for archaeologists to find
construction phases and usage periods.
The Dachstein–Hallstatt spruce chronology currently holds 840 synchronized series, and includes samples from the
lake at the Dachstein, from the Karmoos bog at Hallstatt, from the prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine, and from historical
buildings, as well as living trees. The chronology covers the period between 1523 BC through 2004 AD.
r 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Historical dating; Dendrochronology; Hallstatt; Bronze age; Salt mine
Introduction
The prehistoric salt mine Hallstatt together with its
burial ground is one of the most prominent archaeCorresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 47654 4268;
fax: +43 1 47654 4295.
E-mail address: michael.grabner@boku.ac.at (M. Grabner).
1125-7865/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.dendro.2006.10.008
ological sites in Austria, which has given also name for
the ‘‘Hallstatt period’’ (800–400 BC). Currently, the
major archaeological focus lays at the Bronze Age salt
mining activities. Intensive excavations have taken place
for the past 14 years at the Christian von Tusch-Werk,
Alter Grubenoffen discovered during mining activities in
18th century. Due to the perfect preservation in rock
salt, materials and human artefacts of organic origin like
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M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
leather, fur, textiles, ropes made of lime-bast fibres, and
numerous wooden artefacts have been found (Barth and
Lobisser, 2002). Wooden findings refer to mining
timbers, illumination chips, tool handles, bowls and
cups and partially buildings at the surface.
First dendrochronological activities at Hallstatt go
back to Hollstein (1974). He took four samples from the
Hallstatt period mining place Kilb-Werk. It was possible
to synchronize two fir samples (Abies alba Mill.) with
the Villingen fir chronology (Hollstein, 1973), presenting
the end date of 682 BC. Another spruce sample (Picea
abies (L.) Karst.) ended at 686 BC, while an ash wood
sample (Fraxinus excelsior L.) did not crossdate. Six
years later Hollstein corrected the ending dates of his fir
samples to 656 BC (Hollstein, 1980). Twenty years later
Ruoff and Sormaz (1998, 2000) continued sampling.
They took 189 samples across all available periods
(Bronze Age, Hallstatt period and Latène period) and
came up with crossdatings against the Villingen–Magdalenenberg chronology (Billamboz and Neyses, 1999)
at 724 and 695 BC. Also, a number of floating
chronologies were established.
The forest sites around Hallstatt built the source for
all wood-logs used in prehistoric salt mining and they
are located between 900 and 1500 m asl. Most currently
existing Bronze Age chronologies were established either
at lower elevations, e.g. at lake settlements (Becker et al.,
1985; Mäder and Sormaz, 2000; Billamboz, 2003); or at
much higher elevations (Nicolussi and Lumassegger,
1998; Büntgen et al., 2004; Dellinger et al., 2004). The
most promising already available reference chronology
for dating timber of the salt mine originate from the
Dachstein plateau (Grabner et al., 2001), close to
Hallstatt, and this composite chronology, which dates
back to 1474 BC, includes spruce and larch (Larix
decidua Mill.) series that are highly climate-sensitive.
This paper is dealing with setting up a Dachstein–Hallstatt chronology and the dating of wooden
samples that originate from the Christian von TuschWerk, Alter Grubenoffen Bronze Age salt mines at
Hallstatt. The chronology building is shown in chronological order by presenting data from the major
sampling sites.
Fig. 1. Map of Austria and the region of Hallstatt, indicating
the two main sites: Dachstein–Schwarzer See and Hallstatt.
Material and methods
Dachstein–Schwarzer See
The Dachstein group is a triassic limestone formation
of the northern rim of the alps, with strong karst
topology, high elevations (highest peak 2995 m a.s.l.)
and plateau characteristics. The distance to Hallstatt is
about 15 km. The small crater-like lake Schwarzer See
(47N31, 13E49; 1450 m a.s.l.; see Fig. 1) is surrounded
by steep rocky slopes and cliffs. Dead and broken trees
Fig. 2. Sampling at Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws; A) and
Hallstatt Karmoos (Hkm, B).
have dropped-off and slid downwards into the water of
the lake where they became instantly preserved. During
a 2 weeks campaign in summer 1999 a team of
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M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
63
professional divers recruited through the Austrian
military and dendrochronologists were lifting trees
(Fig. 2A) from underwater to cut off disks, and return
the trees back into the water after sampling. In total, 211
trees were successfully lifted and sampled. The disks
were dried carefully afterwards. In addition, 80 living
trees (two cores per tree, spruce and larch) were cored at
breast height.
Hallstatt–Karmoos
Hallstatt is located within the northern limestone-alps
(Fig. 1), which are characterized by heavy rainfalls and
cold temperatures (Böhm, 1992; Auer, 1993). Due to the
forest ecotype in the montane region (900–1400 m a.s.l.)
at Hallstatt the dominating species are spruce, fir and
beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) (Kilian et al., 1994). The
subalpine region (above 1400 m a.s.l.) is dominated by
spruce with patches of larch.
In summer 2004 eight small cavities (1 2 m, down to
the clay level) were dug (Fig. 2B) at the Karmoos
bog (47N33, 13E38; 1390 m a.s.l.). The bog is bordered
by steep slopes, which ensured that trees broken
down by wind or snow did fall into the bog. The
trunks became instantly preserved in the humid milieu.
It was possible to extract more than 300 logs from
different soil depths, with diameters ranging between 5
and 50 cm. Disks were cut off and immersed in a rocksalt (NaCl) saturated solution for five weeks. Afterwards, the disks were slowly dried. Fifteen living spruce
trees were also sampled by taking two cores per tree at
breast height.
Hallstatt–Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter
Grubenoffen (Tusch)
The Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen site
is situated within the plane of the main tunnel Kaiserin
Christina Stollen with the access entrance at 930 m a.s.l.
The prehistoric salt mining site can be reached by
walking 600 m horizontally into this tunnel. The
archaeological excavations that have been taking place,
about 100 m below the actual surface, started in the year
1992. More than 500 cores from mining timbers were
taken by using a regular dry-wood-corer and a powerdrilling machine. The wet cores were glued onto wooden
sticks and dried carefully.
Most of the timbers used in the mines have
broken into pieces as soon – in prehistoric time –
surface material, i.e. mostly clay, has filled up the
mine. However, a recent discovery (Reschreiter
and Barth, 2005) has revealed a complete wooden
staircase that is according to current knowledge
supposed to be the world’s oldest wooden staircase
(see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. The oldest wooden staircase located at the Christian
von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen at Hallstatt, Austria.
Hallstatt-recent living trees (Rec)
Living trees of the species spruce, fir and beech were
sampled at four different sites by taking two cores per
tree at breast height, with at least 13 trees per site. These
four sites were located between 900 and 1450 m a.s.l.
Hallstatt-historical samples (His)
More than 200 wood samples from historic buildings
and mines were taken around the salt mining sites at
Hallstatt. Since it was not possible to access this site
through roads or ox-paths prior the 1960s, all largesized prehistoric and historic timbers originate from
closeby forest sites.
Measurements and data treatment
Dry disks and mounted cores were sanded until
individual tracheids became visible. Wood species
were identified by microscopic analysis (Wagenführ,
1989) and the tree-rings were measured to the nearest
0.01 mm using the LINTAB measuring device
(www.rinntech.de). All ring-width series of living trees
were cross-dated (Stokes and Smiley, 1996; Swetnam
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws), Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm), Hallstatt–Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch), composite chronology of Sws and Hkm; composite chronology of Sws,
Hkm, Tusch (excluding beech and maple), Hallstatt-historical samples (His) and Hallstatt-living trees (Rec); and the monospecific spruce chronology (Sws, Hkm, Tusch, His, Rec). (PA ¼ spruce,
LD ¼ larch, AA ¼ fir, FS ¼ beech, AS ¼ maple; m. segm. length ¼ mean segment length, m. series intercorr. ¼ mean series intercorrelation, av. m. sens. ¼ average mean sensitivity, S. Germany
Fir ¼ southern Germany fir chronology (820–1985 AD) r University Stuttgart Hohenheim, Villingen Fir ¼ Villingen fir chronology (811–593 BC) rLandesamt für Denkmalpflege Hemmenhofen,
M. Europe Oak ¼ middle European oak chronology (5100 BC–1996 AD) r Labor für Dendrochronologie Zürich and University Stuttgart Hohenheim; Ovl ¼ overlap, Glk ¼ Gleichläufigkeit,
TvH ¼ t-value according to Hollstein).
3.8
—
—
—
4.3
4.5
54
—
—
—
53
53
3472
3520
282
3520
3523
3520
5.7
—
—
5.5
5.5
5.7
57
—
—
60
60
62
219
219
0
219
219
219
—
5.3
—
—
4.5
9.8
Glk TvH Ovl Glk TvH Ovl
—
58
—
—
52
60
1166
1166
0
1166
1166
1166
0.201
0.203
0.227
0.201
0.198
0.184
0.570
0.511
0.460
0.515
0.471
0.508
202
103
62
159
140
134
395
302
128
697
1051
840
LD
1475
2003 3479
LD
1523
2004 3528
AA, LD, FS, AS 1526 1245 282
AA, LD
1523
2004 3528
AA, LD
1526
2004 3531
1523
2004 3528
Species
Main statistics of the chronologies
Table 1.
In total, 211 trees were successfully lifted and
sampled. In the samples, 66% of them were spruce,
21% larch and 13% belonged to stone pine (Pinus
cembra L.), which reflects approximately the today’s
composition of species in that area (Kilian et al., 1994).
Due to poor crossdating stone pine had to be removed
from further consideration. It was possible to crossdate
most of the spruce and larch samples resulting into a
composite chronology dating back to 1475 BC (Table 1).
The mean age of the trees was 202 years; the maximum
number of tree-rings was 528 in spruce and 718 in larch.
The composite chronology was then compared and
cross-correlated with regional standards for larch and
stone pine of Tyrol and the Swiss Alps (Nicolussi and
Lumassegger, 1998), which resulted in a 3474-year long
spruce/larch chronology (Table 1, Fig. 4). Statistics
for the Dachstein–Schwarzer See (Sws) chronology
(Table 1) show that the spruce and larch trees correlate
First
year
Dachstein–Schwarzer See
Sws
PA,
Hkm
PA,
Tusch
PA,
Sws, Hkm
PA,
Sws, Hkm, Tusch, His, Rec PA,
Sws, Hkm, Tusch, His, Rec PA
Last
year
Results and discussion
Ovl
Time No. of m. segm. m. series av. m. Dating with
span series length
intercorr. sens.
S. Germany
Fir
Villingen
Fir
M. Europe
Oak
et al., 1985) and checked for dating and measurement
errors using COFECHA (Holmes, 1983), and by visual
synchronization.
Ring series were standardized to remove low-frequency variability that included age-related trends,
stand development and local disturbances (Cook et al.,
1990). A cubic smoothing spline with 50% cut-off at 30year wavelength was applied to each series and the
original measured values divided by the fitted curve
values (Cook and Peters, 1981).
Tree-ring series of the prehistoric samples were dated
using t-values and the Gleichläufigkeit computed by the
TSAP software (www.rinntech.de), supplemented by
visual checking of the plots. The first step was to
crossdate the unknown samples against each other,
following Baillie (1995). These floating series were
checked against existing chronologies (East-Austrian
fir, -spruce and -larch chronologies r BOKU Vienna
(Wimmer and Grabner, 1998; Grabner and Wimmer,
2006); Southern Germany fir chronology (820–1985
AD) r University Stuttgart Hohenheim; VillingenMagdalenenberg fir chronology (811–593 BC) r Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Hemmenhofen (Billamboz
and Neyses, 1999); and the middle European oak
chronology (5100 BC–1996 AD) r Labor für Dendrochronologie Zürich and University Stuttgart Hohenheim (Becker et al., 1985).
Chronologies were compiled by calculating mean
values of dated and indexed tree-ring series, and
compared then with existing chronologies using TSAP
(www.rinntech.de). Dating quality was also checked by
running the COFECHA software (Holmes, 1983).
Glk TvH
M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
Chronology
64
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60
high series intercorrelations and average mean sensitivity (Table 1).
The stem accumulation varied over time (Fig. 4):
several phases had much higher numbers of samples, i.e.
900–750 BC, 250–480 AD, 800–1050 AD and 1180–1280
AD. For most of these periods showing higher sample
depth in the bog of Hkm, sample depth was also higher
at Sws (i.e. 250–480, 800–1050 and 1180–1280 AD),
which suggests that common reasons like heavy snow
falls or higher storm frequencies might be behind this
coincidence.
Dachstein-Schwarzer See (Sws)
20
30
Hallstatt-Karmoos (Hkm)
number of series
10
Hallstatt-Tuschwerk (Tusch)
40
20
80
Sws + Hkm
Hallstatt–Christian von Tuschwerk–Alter
Grubenoffen (Tusch)
40
200
65
Sws + Hkm + Tusch + His + Rec
100
–1600
–1100
–600
–100
400
900
1400
1900
Fig. 4. Number of series for each chronology: Dachstein–
Schwarzer See (Sws) including larch and spruce samples;
Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm) including spruce and larch samples;
Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch) including
spruce, fir, larch, beech and maple samples; composite of Sws
and Hkm; composite of Sws, Hkm, Tusch (without beech and
maple), Hallstatt-historical samples (His) and Hallstatt-living
trees (Rec). (spruce ¼ light grey; larch ¼ dark grey; fir ¼
black; beech and maple ¼ white).
well (mean series intercorrelation ¼ 0.57) both exhibiting a high mean sensitivity (0.201) which is due to the
strong influence of summer temperatures on tree growth
(Gindl et al., 1998). Sample depth in segments before 70
AD of this chronology was poor (Fig. 4), and dominated
by larch wood.
Hallstatt–Karmoos
It was possible to extract 313 tree trunks out of the
bog. The variation of wood-species was dominated by
spruce (94%), followed by fir (3%) and larch (3%). The
tree-ring series indicate impacts coming from forest
stand development and competition. Successful synchronization was possible by detrending tree-ring series,
poor correlations were found on the raw data. Crossdating was done by internal synchronization and by
checking the dates against the Sws chronology. In total,
302 tree-ring series were synchronized and with inclusion of the living trees a chronology reaching back to
1523 BC resulted (Table1, Fig. 4). Statistics of the
Hallstatt–Karmoos (Hkm) chronology show good
synchronization (Table 1). After adding Sws and Hkm
data, possible dating errors were checked with COFECHA, resulting in a 3528 year long chronology with
Sampling activities have yielded so far cores from
over 500 mining timbers, including the world’s oldest
wooden staircase (Fig. 3). The spectrum of the wooden
species comprises 47% spruce, 43% fir, 8% beech and
1% for larch and maple (Acer spp.) each. The main
wood species used in recent mining are spruce and fir
(Sell, 1989; Bosshard, 1974). Fewer samples were found
for the species beech, maple and larch. When compared
with the forest ecotype (Kilian et al., 1994) suggested for
that time, a far high proportion of beech-wood could be
expected. However, we hypothesize that beech wood
was mostly used as fire wood. The small number of larch
found in the mine indicates that most larches were used
for housing constructions, as supported by the few
findings of buildings (Blockbauten, Barth and Lobisser,
2002).
It was possible to compile a 282-year long floating
chronology by synchronizing 128 samples, including the
cores from the wooden staircase. This floating chronology includes spruce, fir, larch, beech and maple samples.
The clustering of mining timbers with the same felling
date is an important source of information for archaeologists about construction phases and time-spans of
using the mining cavities. Statistics for the floating
chronology showed good overall synchronization (mean
series intercorrelation ¼ 0.46), even though the mean
segment length was short (62 tree-rings) with five wood
species included (Table 1).
The mine timber floating chronology (Tusch; Table 1,
Fig. 4) was crossdated in various ways. The crossdating
with the Sws chronology led to the ending date of 1245
BC. The key figures for this dating were (computed by
TSAP): Overlap ¼ 232 years; Gleichläufigkeit ¼ 63%;
t-value (Hollstein) ¼ 4.8; t-value (Bailie–Pilcher) ¼ 4.7.
According to Eckstein and Bauch (1969) due to the
length of the series (overlap is 232 years) the dating is
highly significant with po0.001. Billamboz (2005)
mentioned three quality classes of dating (A, B and C)
and the Tusch chronology would comply with class A.
At this stage it was not possible to synchronize the
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M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
Tusch chronology with other major standard chronologies such as the middle European oak chronology. The
dating with the Hkm chronology showed no significant
result, while dating with the composite chronology of
Sws and Hkm presented weak results for 1245 BC. To
confirm the ending date of the Tusch chronology, the
data sets of Sws were pooled with Hkm, Tusch (with
exclusion of beech and maple samples), the historical
samples and the living trees from Hallstatt (His and
Rec). The dates of the Tusch samples were confirmed by
COFECHA (Table 1). There were no exclusions of
mining timbers due to wrong dating, or due to weak
series intercorrelations. The Dachstein–Hallstatt chronology (in total 1051 series) that has mainly spruce
samples and small numbers of larch and fir series
included showed good interseries correlation (0.471) at a
mean segment length of 140 tree-rings. The chronology
is 3531 years long, is spanning from 1526 BC through
2004 AD, and connects with the southern German fir
chronology (Glk ¼ 52; TvH ¼ 4.5), the Villingen Fir
chronology (Glk ¼ 60; TvH ¼ 5.5), as well as the
middle European oak chronology (Glk ¼ 53;
TvH ¼ 4.3) (Table 1). The monospecific spruce chronology (1523 BC to 2004 AD) showed better internal
statistics (interseries correlation ¼ 0.508) and higher
correlations to the southern German fir chronology
(Glk ¼ 60; TvH ¼ 9.8), the Villingen Fir chronology
(Glk ¼ 62; TvH ¼ 5.7), as well as the middle European
oak chronology (Glk ¼ 53; TvH ¼ 4.5) than the composite chronology (Table 1).
The dating of the 128 samples from the Christian von
Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen resulted in a variety of
end dates between 1458 and 1245 BC (Fig. 5). There
were several phases with many samples dating to the
same year: 1382, 1366, 1344 and 1343, 1277 and 1245
BC. These phases might be attributed to intensive
prehistoric salt-mining. All samples dated to 1344 and
1343 BC belonged to the well preserved world’s oldest
wooden staircase (Mielke, 1993; Reschreiter and Barth,
2005; Figs. 3 and 5). The staircase is split into two parts;
the lower part built 1343 BC, and upper one in 1344 BC.
All wood components of the staircase presented waney
edges dating to the same year, making it clear that the
staircase was manufactured at once. This staircase is a
masterpiece of prehistoric handicraft (Reschreiter and
Barth, 2005). The steps itself can be adjusted to the slope
of the whole staircase by a simple turning and fixing
process. Steps and inlay-boards are alternating mounted
in the groove at the stringers. Due to the rectangular
tenon at both ends of the steps, the angle between the
stringer and the step can be adjusted. The orientation of
the step is fixed by the following inlay-board. The
stringers are fixed together by small tree trunks acting as
a bolt. The steps and the boards in between are split of
small tree trunks (spruce and fir). Also the stringers and
the bolt were made of spruce and fir wood, only one
Fig. 5. Grid graphs of all 128 synchronized samples from the
Christian von Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen (Tusch); the world’s
oldest wooden staircase is indicated. (spruce ¼ light grey;
larch ¼ dark grey; fir ¼ black; beech and maple ¼ white).
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M. Grabner et al. / Dendrochronologia 24 (2007) 61–68
fixing element is of maple. The staircase was probably
pre-produced outside and assembled according to the
current situation in the mine, i.e. adjusting the slope
(Reschreiter and Barth, 2005).
Conclusions and future perspective
Intensive sampling of living trees, prehistoric and
historic wooden constructions took place in the region
of Hallstatt. Sub fossil tree trunks preserved in the water
of an alpine lake and from a high elevation bog were
lifted and sampled. It was possible to synchronize these
samples and to combine to a long chronology, bridging
from 1526 BC to 2004 AD. Using the new chronology, it
was for the first time possible to date Bronze Age
samples from Hallstatt. Out of more than 500 samples
128 cores were dated. The recently found world’s oldest
wooden staircase was dated to 1344 BC.
Since all the trees are well defined in terms of their
growing site a high potential for long-term climate
reconstructions is anticipated. Therefore more samples
in bogs of Hallstatt should be lifted an analysed.
The archaeological excavations in the Christian von
Tusch-Werk, Alter Grubenoffen will be continued. A lot
of samples out of this excavation are expected for the
next years. These wooden artefacts will be sampled and
dendrochronological dated. Due to the long history of
excavations in Hallstatt a lot of wooden samples from
all periods (Bronze Age to Latenè-period) are existing.
All these samples will be dendrochronological dated
using the new Hallstatt–Dachstein chronology.
Acknowledgements
We thank Andre Billamboz (Hemmenhofen, Germany) for providing the Villingen chronology. Setting
up the Dachstein–Schwarzer See chronology was funded
by the Austrian Science Foundation (FWF 9200-GEO),
the excavations at the Hallstatt–Karmoos bog were
partially founded by the EU-project ‘‘ALP-IMP’’
(EVK2-CT-2002-00148), and the dating of the prehistoric samples was supported by the Hochschuljubiläumsstiftung of the City of Vienna and the government
of Upper Austria (Kulturabteilung).
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