Classic Drag - yavanika.org
Transcription
Classic Drag - yavanika.org
Classic Drag: The Greek Creation of Female Parts Author(s): Sue-Ellen Case Source: Theatre Journal, Vol. 37, No. 3, Staging Gender (Oct., 1985), pp. 317-327 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3206851 . Accessed: 07/01/2015 14:15 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Classic Drag: The Greek Creation of Female Parts Sue-Ellen Case Froma feminist perspective,the initialobservationsabout the historyof theatre noted theabsencesof womenwithinthe tradition.Since traditionalscholarshiphas focused on evidence relatedto writtentexts,the absence of women playwrights becamecentralto earlyfeminist The factthattherewas no significant investigations. numberof extanttextswrittenby womenforthestageuntiltheseventeenth century ofthetheatre. produceda ratherastoundingsenseofabsencein theclassicaltraditions The silenceof women'svoices in thesetraditions led feminist historianswho wereinterestedin womenplaywrights to concentrate on periodsin whichtheydid emerge: theseventeenth primarily centuryin England,thenineteenth centuryin America,and the twentieth centuryin Europeand America.These studiesproduceda numberof new anthologiesof plays by women and biographiesof women playwrights that began to appear in theearlyseventies. Work on the classicalperiodsbecame possibleby studyingthe image of women withinplayswritten thebeginning to thistypeoftexby men.Many scholarsattribute tual discoveryto the popular book by Kate MillettentitledSexual Politics(1970). Millett'sbook illustrateda way to recognizeand interpret theimagesof womenin male literature as misogynistic. Sexual Politicsoffereda way to read againsttextsby thenobecomingaware oftheirgenderedbias and, as thetitlesuggests,to foreground tionthatartis notdistinct frompolitics.WhileMillett'sbook concentrated on describing the imagesof women,otherearlyworkssuch as JudithFetterly'sThe Resisting Readerarticulateda postureforresisting readingtextsby men as theywereconvenread. to outlined read tionally Fetterly ways againsttextsto discoverthe feminist subtextlatentin suchsubversions.Workson imagesofwomenstillpredominate in the feministcriticismof historicaltexts.Numerousre-visionsof Aeschylusand Shakeas beingone speareare currently beingproduced.The imagesare commonlyidentified of two basic types:positiveroles,whichdepictwomen as independent, intelligent, Sue-EllenCase is an AssistantProfessor Seattle.She has published ofDrama at theUniversity of Washington, and itsrelation anddramatic totheatre criticism. Case hasbeenselected as widelyonfeminist theory history Professor thenextCoeditor ofTheatre Journal. 317 This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 318 / TI,October1985 and evenheroicand a surplusofmisogynistic rolescommonlyidentified as theBitch, theWitch,theVamp,or theVirgin/Goddess. Theserolesreflect ofthe theperspective historians playwrightor of the theatricaltraditionon women. Originally,feminist used thesetheatrical imagesof womenas evidenceof thekindof livesactual women mighthave lived in theperiod. For example,what the charactersand situationsof Medea or Phaedramighttellus about thelivesofpowerfulwomenin Greece.Thisapproach was usefulbecause traditionalsocio-economichistoriestend to exhibitthe In theseventies,groundbreaking same absenceofwomenas does theliterature. work on womenin historywas done in bothrealms:thesocio-historical evidenceidentified in theatricaltexts,and thepublicationof newly-collated documentson laws, social on womenin history.Thisworkenabledfeminist practices,and economicrestrictions to producea newkindofculturalanalysis,whichis based on the criticsand historians interplayof culturalphenomena,suchas plays,theatrepractice,and socio-economic evidence,to discoverthenatureof women'slivesin theclassicalperiods. ofartwithpoliticalprojects,as wellas thecomYet thediscoveryofthecomplicity of traditional with the led to new discoverieswhichreverse patriarchy plicity history of thesedocuments.The feministcriticmay no longer the originalinterpretations believethattheportrayalofwomenin classicalplaysby menrelatesto thelivesofaccriticmayassumethattheimagesofwomenin these tualwomen.Instead,thefeminist fiction of constructed a women by thepatriarchy.This assumption plays represent in within classical thedivisionbetweenprivate a central cultures: originates practice and publiclife.The publiclifebecomesprivilegedin theclassicalplays and histories, invisible.The newfeminist whiletheprivateliferemainsrelatively analysesprovethat of the life is the thisdivisionis gender-specific, i.e., public property menand women are relegatedto the invisibleprivatesphere.The resultof the suppressionof actual of thegender womenin theclassicalworldcreatedtheinventionof a representation "Woman"withintheculture.This"Woman"appearedon thestage,in themyths,and the patriarchalvalues attachedto the genderof in the plastic arts, representing theexperiences, "Woman"whilesuppressing stories,feelings,and fantasiesof actual dividesthis"Woman"as to cultural fictions these women.' The newfeminist approach thatthereis littleconnection fictionfromhistoricalwomen,insisting a male-produced of this betweenthe two categories.Withintheatrepractice,the clearestillustration divisionis in thetraditionof theall-malestage."Woman"was playedby male actors in drag,whileactualwomenwerebannedfromthestage.The classicalactingpractice The classical ofthefictionalgendercreatedby thepatriarchy. revealstheconstruction in now allies can be as the conventions and theatrical projectof supregarded plays with of them the masks women and actual patriarchalproduction. replacing pressing asknownas theatreis traditionally The beginningof the activityand literature signedto theplays and practicesof theAthenianfestivalsof Dionysos in sixthand fifthcenturyB.C. Our notionsof plays, acting,physicaltheatrespace, costume, mask,and relationofplay to audiencebeginwiththeseAthenianfestivals.In thesixth cenin theseceremonies, but by thefifth century,bothwomenand menparticipated 1See Teresa de Lauretis,Alice Doesn't: Feminism,Semiotics,Cinema (Bloomington:Indiana UniversityPress,1984), fora thoroughdevelopmentof the conceptof "Woman." This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 319 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS tury,when theceremonieswere becomingwhat is knownas theatre,womendisappeared fromthe practice.Scholarsdo not recordany evidenceforspecificlaws or womento appearin thesongsand dances,noris thereany evidence codes forbidding forthespecificdate or occasionof thebeginningof theiromission.MargareteBieber, on thishistory,merelynotesthatitwas partof"Atticmorality" a recognizedauthority which"banishedwomenfrompubliclife."2This implies,then,thatthereasonforthis practicemust be soughtin the emergingculturalcodes of Athens,ratherthan in specificpoliticalor theatricalpractices.Three elementsof Athenianculturehelp to understandthe emergingtheatricalpractice:the new economicpractices,the new of all of these culturalprojectand thenew genealogyof thegods. The intersection in thetextof The Oresteia. elementswill be theatrically legitimatized Amongthenew economicpractices,theriseof thefamilyunitradicallyalteredthe role of women in Greekpubliclife.Ironically,theimportantrole womenbegan to assume withinthe familyunitwas the cause of theirremovalfrompubliclife.The of personalwealth. familyunitbecamethenew siteforthecreationand transmission With the rise of the polis, the large networkinherentin aristocraciesgave way to singlefamilies.The riseof metalsas commoditiesand the small-scalecultivationof land made itpossibleforindividualsto controltheirown wealth.Yetwhileownership becamemoreindividualand locatedwithinthefamilyunit,itwas limitedto themale to limitedconditionsof ownershipand exchange.For gender.Womenwererestricted in the absence of a into inheritance transactions women could enter only example, male and women were not allowed to barterfor propertyover one medimnos (bushel).Withinthisnew economy,womenbecamea mediumof exchangeand marof ownership.3In fact,the word formarriage,ekdosis, riagebecame an institution and in thecase of meantloan - womenwereloaned to theirhusbandsby theirfathers, a divorce,theywere returnedto theirfathers. Withthischangein the organizationof wealthcame a concomitantchangein the organizationof politicalunits.The oikos, or household,became thebasic unitfor Citizenshipwas dependentupon familylines- a son was grantedcitizencitizenship.* ship onlyifhis parentswerecitizens,but withouta son theparentscould not retain and theircitizenship.This new conditionfor citizenshipled to the strictdefinition assumeda new moral/legal regulationof thesex lifeof thewoman. The mother/wife dimensionfor the legitimacyand securityof heirs and, by extension,political in thepollis.Clear linesof reproduction werevital to thepolis, making membership At the adulterya crimeagainstsociety,ratherthana signof personaltransgression. same timethatthehouseholdbecame controlledby needs of thestate,its activities became totallyseparatefromthosewhichwereconsideredthebusinessof thestate, 2MargareteBieber, The Historyof the Greek and Roman Theatre(Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press, 1939), p. 9. in Women:Notes on the'PoliticalEconomy'ofSex,"in Towardan An3 See Gayle Rubin,"The Traffic thropologyof Women,ed. Rayna R. Reiter(New York: MonthlyReviewPress,1975) fora discussionof women as a mediumof exchangethroughthe institution of marriageand kinshiplaws. 4MarilynArthur,"'Liberated'Women: The Classical Era,"in BecomingVisible:Womenin European History,eds. RenateBridenthaland Claudia Koonz (Boston: HoughtonMifflin,1977), pp. 67-68. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 320 / TJ,October1985 themarkof thecitizen,or theactivitiesof publiclife.Nancy Hartsock,in herbook Money,Sex and Power,describesit thisway: theGreeksdefinedthehouseholdas a private,apoliticalspace fromthepublic,politicalspace ofthepolis. "The resultwas a of politicsand politicalpoweras activitiesthatoccurredin a masculine theorization or soul," arenacharacterized by freedomfromnecessarylabor,dominanceofintellect whilethedomesticspace was definedby necessarylabor and as a place wherebodily needsweredominant.-SinceAthenianwomenwereconfinedto thehouse (explicitly in thelaws of Solon), theywereremovedfromthepubliclifeof theintellectand the and concomitant sexsoul and confinedto theworldof domesticlabor,childbearing, ual activities.Actual womendisappearedfromthepubliclifeof thepolis, lost their economic and legal powers and became objects of exchange. Withinthe socioin theDionsyian thattheirparticipation economiclifeof thepolis,it is notsurprising in theireventualexclusionfrom to privatepractices,resulting festivalswas restricted thestage. Alongsidethesenew legal and economicpracticescame new culturalinstitutions. new religions,new myths,and the practiceof Athenscreatednew architecture, becameallied withthesuppressionof womenby theatre.These culturalinstitutions creatingthenew genderrole of "Woman"thatwould privilegethemasculinegender one. At base, thenewculturalcategoriesofgenderwereconand oppressthefeminine and polarity.6"Woman"appearedas theopposite structedas categoriesof difference of man. This move can bestbe seenin thenew mythsand architectural depictionsof theamazons.The imageofamazonsis centralto thefemalegenderconflatedwiththe fromthe Greek male citizen.The amazons, outsiderand with polar differences dangerousbut defeated,reversethe "natural"genderroles. They are warriorswho forcemen to do "women's"work,such as childrearing,whilethewomengo offto war.7The amazons also embodyothermythsof genderreversal- theykeep female babies and dispose of the male ones, while the customwas to dispose of female babies.8Moreover,theword"amazon"(no breast)tiessuchpracticesto a biological, of the specificto the female. The new architecture secondarysex characteristic Acropolis,theciviccenterof Athens,displaysthedownfallof theamazons and the riseofAthena.Centralto thenew politicalorder,then,is thedemiseof thesewomen who would defycorrectgenderassociationsand theriseof a womanwho would enforcethenewimageof"Woman"in thepolis.Thisdemiseoftheold imagesofwomen and theriseof Athenaare centralthemesin The Oresteia. contextforthiscreationof The genealogyofthegodsprovidesthemytho-historical thenew"Woman."The historyof thegods explainswhygendersare opposite,locked femaleone. The mythof and whythemale gendermustdefeattheformer in conflict, thefirstearth-mother-goddess, Gaia, is a storyofthedangersofherwomb- thestory 5Nancy Hartsock,Money, Sex and Power: Toward a FeministHistoricalMaterialism(New York: Longman,1983), p. 187. of MichiganPress,1982), p. 2. 6 Page duBois, Centaursand Amazons (Ann Arbor: University 7WilliamBlake Tyrell,Amazons: A Study in AthenianMythmaking(Baltimore:The JohnsHopkins UniversityPress, 1984), p. 47. sTyrell,p. 55. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 321 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS of herchildrenis one ofmurdersand castrations.It concludeswiththefinalconquest and by Zeus, who swallowshiswifeMetisin orderto gainherpowerofreproduction theend ofthedangersofthewomb,for thengivesbirthto Athena.Athenarepresents and female-identification), has no sexshe has no mother(breakingwithmatriarchal the allies herself with the remains a defeats amazons, reignofZeus uality(she virgin), and Apollo, and therebybringsorderto Athens.About thissame time,Dionysos,a new god, appears in Athensand usurpstherole of fertility and sexualitywhichthe earlierfemalegoddesseshad retained.This male usurpationof femalefertility will laterbe idealizedby Plato in hisfamousmidwifemetaphor,whiletheassimilationof femalesexualitywillbe usurpedby boys in thesocial practiceofmale homosexuality (also lateridealizedby Plato). The genealogyofthegods thusdividesfemalesexuality frompower, assimilatingfemalesexualityin the figureof Dionysos and isolating powerin theimageof themotherless virgin,Athena. The riseofdrama,withintheAthenianstatefestivalsdedicatedto thecelebration of of gender Dionysos, places theatresecurelywithinthisnew patriarchalinstitution wars. Theatremustbe gender-specific to themale and enactthesuppressionof actual of thenew "Woman."The maenads(thefemale womenas well as therepresentation celebrantsof theDionysianfestivals)mustdance intooblivion,whilethesatyrs(the male celebrants)mustbecome thefirstchorusesof thedrama. "The singerArion is said to have givento thesingersof thedithyramb. .. thecostumeofthesatyrs.The someoneotherthanoneselfgrewout of thisecstasyand led to practiceofrepresenting themimicart of theactors."9In otherwords,thepowerof representation was given - theactor only to themale celebrants.The inventionof actingwas gender-specific was the satyr.The gender-specific qualityof the actor in the satyrplay was even underscored by hiswearingof theleatherphallus.Yet in orderto dramatizethebattle of thegenders,thefemalemustsomehowbe represented: themale actorwould need to perform thefemalerole.Thoughscholarsand theatrehistorians nevermentionthis strangephenomenonin more than passingremarks,Bieberdoes note one specific ofwomen:on thevases, themaenads problemformale actorsin theirrepresentation seemto be in a stateofecstasy- to playmaenads,themaleactorsneededthecomprehensionof thereligiousemotionfeltby thesewomen.1'Yet a morecentralproblem emerges:how does one depicta woman? How does themale actor signalto theaudiencethathe is a woman7Alongwiththefemalecostumeof theshortertunicand the femalemask withlongerhair,he mighthave indicatedthroughgesture,movement, and vocal intonationthatthecharacterwas female.In considering thisportrayal,it is importantto rememberthatthenotionof thefemalederivedfromthemale pointof theperspectiveof her view, whichremainedalien to femaleexperienceand reflected genderedopposite.This vocabularyofgesturesinitiatedtheimageof"Woman"as she is seen on thestage- institutionalized throughpatriarchalcultureand represented by male-originated signsof herappropriategenderbehavior.Moreover,thepracticeof male actorsplayingwomenprobablyencouragedthecreationof femaleroleswhich lentthemselvesto generalization and stereotype.The depictionand developmentof femalecharactersin thewrittentextsmusthave accommodatedthepracticeof their 9Bieber,p. 1. 10Bieber,p. 9. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 322 / TJ,October1985 wereformalized and masked,thecrossrepresentation onstage.Thoughall characters gendercastingfor female charactersdistinguishedthem in kind from the male characters. A subtextualmessagewas deliveredaboutthenatureofthefemalegender, of themale. itsbehavior,appearance,and formaldistancefromtherepresentation The Atheniantheatrepracticecreateda politicaland aestheticarena forritualized The elevaand codifiedgenderbehavior,linkingit to civicprivilegesand restrictions. element tionofthisgenderprincipleto theterm"classic"canonizesitas a paradigmatic of thehistoryof theatre,connotingtheexpulsionof womenfromthecanon and the ideal. The etymologyof "classic,"connotingclass,indicatesthatthisexpulsionis also relatedto the economicand legal privilegesof the "firstclass"- a class to which womenweredeniedadmittance.The consonanceof aestheticcriteriawitheconomic ones becomes clear in the termitself.In each of the cultureswhichhas produced "classics"forthestage(not only theAthenian,but theRoman and theElizabethan) womenweredeniedaccess to thestageand to legal and economicenfranchisement. These same productionvalues are embeddedin the textsof theseperiods. Female charactersare derivedfromtheabsenceof actual womenon thestageand fromthe reasons for theirabsence. Each culturewhich valorizesthe reproductionof those in thesamepatriarchalsubtextwhichcreatedthose "classic"textsactivelyparticipates as "Woman."Thoughwe cannotexaminea productionoftheGreek femalecharacters classics,we can examineone of the"classic"textsproducedfortheDionysianfestivals within and reproducedin thehistoryof theatrical productions, history,and criticism culture.The trilogyof The Oresteiaexhibitsall of thethemes our own contemporary and practicesdiscussedabove. Moreover,itselevatedpositionin thecanon illustrates thedefeatof theold its lastingvalue. A feminist readingof The Oresteiaillustrates of "Woman" as on the nature matriarchal portrayed thestage,theriseof genealogy, of women. of actual the and the Athena, suppression legacy The Oresteia criticsand historianshave analyzedThe Oresteiaas a textcentralto Many feminist ofmisogyny.Simonede Beauvoirand Kate Millettdescribeitas the theformalization ofa patriarchaltakeover.NancyHartsockarguesthatitassociates mythicalrendering thefemalegenderwithsexualityand nature,thoseforcesthatmustbe tamedin outside activitiesand withinthe innerpersonforthe survivalof the polis. Hartsock describesThe Oresteiawithinthe dramaticfestivalsthatare themselvesassociated chariotrace,is a contest.It withmalegenderactivities.The drama,likethefour-horse formalizesagons (contests)and the notion of winnersand losers. The festivals associatetheheroicideal of valor in battlewiththepeacetimeideal of rhetoricaland The subjectofthedramais thesubjectofwar- themalewardramaticcompetition.'2 of gender,thedramaticdice riorhero.When thisagon is inscribedwiththeconflicts heroto win. The Oresteiaenactsthe"battleof are loaded forthesamegender-specific thesexes,"usingAthenianculturaland politicalcodes to prescribethatwomenmust lose thebattle. 11Hartsock, p. 192. 12Hartsock, p. 198. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 323 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS Earlyin thefirstplay of thetrilogy, Agamemnon,thechorusof old menexplicates within dramatic situation the perspectiveof male-female problems.The old men the describea promiscuouswoman (Helen) as the cause of the Trojan war in which Agamemnonis presently engagedand theytellof thewar fleetlaunchedby Agamemof non'ssacrificeofhisvirgin-daughter Iphigenia.The Trojanwar and therelationship in and with conflicts are embedded Agamemnon Clytemnestra alreadyfraught gender roles.ThenthechoruspreparestheaudiencefortheentranceofClytemnestra by linkof character.They suggestthatsteadyresolveand inggenderwithcertainattributes of of are whentheyreferto themale (inner)strength intensity purpose gender-specific this Within context a man. (line enters, Clytemnestra 10).13 Clytemnestra playedby Afters/he speaks,thechoruscongratulates likea man and dismisses herforthinking of theend of thewar as just"likea womanto takerapturebefore herannouncement fact"(line483). These linespresumecertaingenderroles regardingthejudgmentof evidenceand decision-making. Withinthetheatrepractice,theyalso play witha certain level of ironysince a man in drag plays a woman who "thinkslike a man." is themale. The notionof female,likethenotionof the Clearly,theprimaryreferent is introduced as a figureofthatdisrupamazon,disruptsthemaleorder.Clytemnestra tion.The absenceof themale kinghas providedherwith"unnatural" politicalpower. In his absence,she has takena male lover.By thisact, she disruptsthegendercode of femalesexuality,forthetradition was thatwomenwereto remainmonogamouseven liaisonas dangerous.Yetwhen duringtenyearwars.The chorustreatsClytemnestra's Agamemnonenterswithhis sexual war booty, Cassandra,theimplicationof social disruptionis not in the text. In fact, the dramaticpathos of the drama favors of womenas evidencedby his rape of Cassandra Agamemnon,despitehis treatment or his murderof Iphigenia. Cassandra providesthe Athenianimage of the woman in thepublic arena (even thoughshe is played by a man). She has certainprivilegesof belonging(she is the priestessof Apollo whichassuresher of sexualliaisonswithcitizensof ranksuch as Agamemnon),butshedoes nothave theprivilegeofeffective publicspeechbecauseof her priorrefusalto be violatedby Apollo. Cassandra'sentrance,as an outsider,as and expelledfromeffective Agamemnon'sbooty, mute to Clytemnestra dialogue, even portrayedby a male actor,projectsthestrength of themisogynyembeddedin the Athenianpatriarchalorder. What remainsin the play is only Clytemnestra's murderof Agamemnonand hercompletevilification. At theend, thechorusmourns as one who to had for a war a woman and thenbe killedby one Agamemnon fight (lines1453-1454). The thirdplay, The Eumenides,decidesthewinnerof thebattleof thesexeswithin the play, withinAthens,and withinthe genealogyof the gods. From a feminist perspective,it is ironic that this play dramatizesthe so-called beginningsof democracy.Moreover,withintheatrehistory,The Eumenidesis oftenmarkedas the ofreasonand play ofthenew orderofcivilizationwhichcreatedourwesterntradition fairplay. This may be an accuratedescription, forit does make thedecidinggender 13 All citationsof The Oresteia are fromAeschylus, The Oresteia in Complete Greek Tragedies, Aeschylus,eds. David Greene,RichmondLattimore(Chicago: Chicago UniversityPress,1960). This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 324 / TI, October1985 judgmentsof Atheniancultureand condemnswomen to theirsubservientrole in Westerncivilization.The play restsupon a new genealogyof thegods. It openswith the old order,the vile goddesses,the Eumenides.They createan ugly,frightening of theearlierCthonicfemalereligions.The maskscreatedforthem characterization werefamousfortheirdisgusting appearance.An extantremarkaboutthemstatesthat anecdote intomiscarriages" women Eumenides horrified 4 - an interesting "Aeschylus' foritsgenderand sexualconnotations.The Eumenideshave arrivedin Athens,while pursuingOrestesto revengehis murderof his mother.Theydescribetheirroleas the ofmatricide(line210). Orestesappealsto Apollo forhelpand Athenaappunishment a trial,exhibitingAthenianmethodsof to solve the problem.She institutes pears decision is to setOrestesfree.This conclufor his The to Orestes murder. justice, try of misogyny, forit restsupon for rationalization evidence the sion is damning public not but mother is the the line as male. The parent, thenurseof establishing parental the child. The parentis definedas he who mounts(lines 658-661). Athena is the supremeproofof thisfactbecauseshe had no motherand was begatby themale god Zeus (lines734-738). The Eumenidesare confinedto a cave and theirfunctionis no longerto revengematricide,but to presideover marriages.Thus, thetrilogywhich beganwiththeend of theTrojan war and proceededthroughthehouse of Agamemnon endswiththeinstitution of democracydecidingtheroleofgenderand thedefinitionofprocreation.This endingcan be seenas paradigmaticof futureplot structures in theWesternplaywriting tradition.A majorityofplayswillconcludevariouskinds of marriage.The of civic,historical,and psychologicalproblemswiththeinstitution in conclusion. this is inscribed for women propergenderrole The feminist readerof The Oresteiadiscoversthatshe mustread againstthetext, its internalsenseof pathos and conclusion,but also thehistorical not only resisting withintheatrehistory. and culturalcodes whichsurroundit, includingits treatment rather readerfeelsmay be forIphigeniaand Clytemnestra The pathos thefeminist woman in than for Agamemnon.She may perceiveAthena as a male-identified alliancewiththemale networkof powerratherthanas a hero of Athens.She definitelyfeelsexcludedfromtheconventionsof thestage,bewilderedby theconvention ofcross-gender castingwhichis onlypracticedin termsoffemalecharacters.Mimesis readerwill decide thatthefemaleroles is not possibleforher. Perhapsthefeminist havenothingto do withwomen,thattheserolesshouldbe playedby men,as fantasies ofa patriarchal of"Woman"as "Other"thanmen,disruptions societywhichillustrates readermightbecomeperitsfearand loathingofthefemaleparts.In fact,thefeminist Cassandraor Phaedra are suaded thattheAthenianroles of Medea, Clytemnestra, readermightconcludethatwomenneed properlyplayedas dragroles.The feminist withthem.Moreover,thefeminist notrelateto theserolesor evenattemptto identify about theexperience historianmightconcludethattheserolescontainno information scholarmustrecognize thefeminist ofrealwomenin theclassicalworld.Nevertheless, in thiskindofculturalclimateand thattheAthenianexperience thattheatreoriginated will continueto provide a certainparadigmof theatricalpracticefor the rest of 14Sir ArthurPickard-Cambridge, The DramaticFestivalsofAthens(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1968), p. 265. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 325 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS Westerntheatrical/cultural history.By linkingpractice,text,and culturalpracticein ofhow thehegemonicstructure of thisnew way, she mayenhanceherunderstanding in Athens. patriarchalpracticewas instituted Aristotle The legacyof theGreeksto theatrehistorydoes not end withthetheatrepractice and textsof Athens.The processknownas theatrewas firstand lastinglyarticulated by Aristotlein his Poetics.This textis stilltaughtin theatreclassesas thedefinitive sourceof thenatureof classicaltragedy.Based on theGreekpracticeas we have consideredit and on thekindoftextsproducedforit, ThePoeticsexpandsthepatriarchal prejudiceagainstwomento thenatureofthedramaticexperienceand to theroleofthe audience. on womencan be deducedfromseveralofhiscriteriaregardAristotle's perspective of dramatic characterin chapter15. The Goldentranslation reads:"First the nature ing and foremost, charactershouldbe good . . . goodnessis possibleforeach class ofindividuals.For,botha womanand a slavehave theirparticularvirtueseventhoughthe to a man, and thelatteris completelyignoble"(lines2-8).1formerof theseis inferior it in the "In connectionwiththecharacters... firstand as reads Else translation, Or, most important,thattheybe good . . . but goodnessexistsin each class of people: thereis in factsuch a thingas a good woman and such a thingas a good slave, and theother,as a class,is worthless" althoughno doubtone oftheseclassesis inferior for the tragiccharacterwith a his (lines 54a16-24).16Aristotlebegins prescription In to be moralimperative. order tragic,one mustbe good. The absenceof themale in his discussionillustratesthatthe male citizenis the standardof good, but thatthis qualitymay evenbe foundin others.Aristotlerelatesgoodnessto class,butmoreimportantly,he relatesclass to gender.Slaves, as a class, are comparableto women,a gender.The class hierarchy,as he suggestsit, puts themale citizenon top, women (citizens)on the nextinferiorlevel and slaves on the bottom.Althoughslaves are capable ofgoodness,theyare notthesubjectsof tragedybecausetheyare "ignoble"or FromthepracticeofGreektragedy,we knowthatitis theprovinceof the "worthless." royal houses. Women seem to inhabitan ambiguousstation.Though theymay be potentialsubjectsof the tragedy,Aristotleimpliesthattheywould be inferiorto a male subject. Goodness is only thefirstqualityof a dramaticcharacterwithinThe Poetics.Apactionsappropriate propriateactionis thesecond- thetragiccharactermustperform to his character.As Else notes in his commentary, is not reallya "Appropriateness separateprinciplebut a corollaryto Aristotle'shierarchicalview of goodness"(line 458). Thus, appropriatenessof action is a quality of the noble character,as is to the actionsof braveryand the goodness. Aristotlemakes thispoint in reference - actionsappropriateto thetragiccharacter.The Elsetranslafunctions ofintelligence tionreads:"forit is possibleforthecharacterto be brave (manly)but not fitting to a 15 All Golden citationsfromLeon Golden, Aristotle'sPoetics (EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice-Hall,1968). 16All Else citationsfromGerald F. Else, Aristotle'sPoetics: The Argument(Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 1963). This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 326 / TI, October1985 woman (not by virtueof being brave or clever) (lines 54a24-26). In the Golden "forit is possiblefora personto be manlyin termsof character,but it is translation: notappropriatefora womanto exhibiteitherthisqualityor theintellectual cleverness thatis associatedwithmen."Else translates"brave"and "manly"as interchangeable thatthemalegenderand braveryare one and thesame. Thattranslaterms,indicating tion also indicatesthat a characteris determinedby gender,and that the tragic characteris suitedto themale gender,whichconnotesbravery.It is not appropriate fora woman to be manly:to be brave and clever.The Golden translationdoes not cleverness."Clearly,clevernessis a mentionbravery,but does mention"intellectual for the but unavailableto women. character, necessary tragic gender-specific quality Manliness,whichconnotesbraveryto some, is anotherappropriatequalitywhich does not residein theclass of women.Aristotle'sassumptionsrestupon theintersecIn bothrealms,womenare theouttionof social realityand aestheticprescriptions. siders.They functiononly to providethe limitsof the male subject,whichhelp to fromhim, which highlighthis completehis outline,or theyillustratedifferences there no qualitiesascribedto them, invisible are Once women are more, qualities. thefocuson themale which the and theirinvisibility empty organizes provides space action In of insofar as theymighthelp this are only way, they subjects tragic subject. to definethemale character. of character,however,women'sexclusionfromintellecBeyondtherequirements tualclevernessmayalso excludethemfromtheentireexperienceof thedrama,art,or to thepleasureoflearnmimesis.In chapter4, Aristotlelinkstheact ofrepresentation ing,bothfortheartistand thosewho view theart:"helearnshisfirstlessonsthrough because in theirviewingthey imitation"and "peopleenjoyseeingthereproductions: what class each objectbelongsto" (lines48b15-17). findtheyare learning,inferring The pleasureofmimesisis didacticand learningis linkedto theenjoyment/reception to themale, the enjoymentof art of its product.Since clevernessis gender-specific withinhisprovince.Historiansare uncertainabout thecomposition maybe restricted to citizens,itis of theGreektheatreaudience.Some reasonthatsinceitwas restricted quitepossiblethatno womenwereincluded.OthersreasonthatsinceEuripidesjests evidenceof about womenin theaudiencein some of his plays, thesejestsconstitute women'spresence.Yet othersreasonthatEuripides'toneof ironyin all thathe wrote rules out any of his statementsas admissibleevidence.Judgingfromthe genderspecificqualityof Athenianpracticeand Aristotle'sthoughtson tragedy,it would seemappropriatethatwomenwerenotin theaudience.Or, in thecontextof chapter membersoftheaudience.In otherwords,notonlyis the 4, thattheywouldbe inferior he maybe theexclusiverecipmalethesubjectoftheatrepracticeand tragiccharacter, ientof thetheatricalexperience. in Aristotle's ofthought, Moreover,thefunction system,is to enablecorrectchoices is to teachaudiencesabout ofpity,fear,and recognition (lines50b5-13). The function correctchoicesand to stimulatetheirpleasurefromthe recognition.Not only are womenexcludedfromtheclevernessrequiredto perceivethesechoices,but theyare in Aristotle's This idea is clearlyarticulated excludedfromthepowersofdeliberation. Politics:"theslave has no deliberative facultyat all; thewomanhas, but it is without This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 327 / THE GREEKCREATIONOF FEMALEPARTS 17 It is possibleto conclude,then,thatwomenhave no needto learnabout authority." thedramahas no choices,sincetheyare withouttheauthorityof choice; therefore, functionforthemand theyare excludedfromthepleasureof watchingit. Moreover, dialoguewould also seemto be outsidetheirrealm- forwithoutauthority, speaking is inappropriate, as we see in thepassage whichfollowstheabove quotationin the Politics: "the courage of a man is shown in commanding,but of a woman in obeying. . . as thepoet says 'Silenceis a woman'sglory',but thisis not equally the gloryof a man."18Excludedfromthecategoriesof tragiccharacter,fromcleverness, fromtheauthorityof deliberation,and fromdialogue,womenseem to be excluded fromthedramaticexperience.The dramais notappropriateto theclass of thegender women." withtheclass called"women"findsherselfreading The feminist reader,identifying againstthistext.In fact,she discoversthatshe is not even intendedto be a readerof thistext.Whateverangershe mightfeelin readingAristotle'sinsultsor whateverpity withtheexcludedwomenin thisclassicalera seemsinapshe mightfeelin identifying finds of thistextualworld.At thispoint,thefeminist propriatewithintheexclusivity herselfto be definedas one withoutthenecessarycriteriaforthestudyor thepractice of the drama. The prominenceof The Poeticswithinthe historyof thedrama and withinthe studyof the historyof the drama, makes the exclusionof the feminist readereven morecomprehensive. The feminist readercan, however,discoverthemethodologyand assumptionsof patriarchalproduction.She can begin to comprehendthe alliance of theatrewith patriarchalprejudice.The studyof itsdevelopmentmay informthefeminist analysis of contemporarytheatre,providingit with choices forfutureaction which might make thefictionof "Woman"appear in thesetexts.The feminist theatrepractitioner how come to a new of to classic the Greekplays. For may understanding reproduce rather than text such as a as a example, considering Lysistrata good play forwomen, she mightview it as a male drag show, with burlesquejokes about breastsand directormaycasta man phallusesplayingwellwithinthedragtradition.The feminist in therole of Medea, underscoring thepatriarchalprejudicesof ownership/jealousy and childrenas male-identified concerns.The feminist actor may no longerregard theserolesas desirableforhercareer.Overall,thefeminist and scholars practitioners may decide thatsuchplays do not belongin thecanon- thattheyare not centralto thestudyand practiceof theatre. 17MaryLefkowitzand Maureen B. Fant, Women'sLife in Greece and Rome (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, 1982), p. 64. 18Lefkowitzand Fant,p. 64. This content downloaded from 64.50.95.85 on Wed, 7 Jan 2015 14:15:16 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions