Vol 38 Number 1, April 2015 Model Baru.indd - LEMIGAS

Transcription

Cover:
Tools Name: EOR Laboratory
ISSN : 2089-3361
Volume 38, No. 1, April 2015
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS is a media for the dissemination of information on
research activities, technology engineering development and testing in oil and gas field.
Insured Editor
: Dr. Ir. Bambang Widarsono, M.Sc. (Petroleum Engineering, LEMIGAS)
Chief Editor
: Prof. Dr. Maizar Rahman (Chemical Engineering, Scientific Board - LEMIGAS)
Managing Editor
: Ir. Daru Siswanto (Chemical Engineering, LEMIGAS)
Ass. Managing Editor : Drs. Heribertus Joko Kristadi, M.Si. (Geophysic, LEMIGAS)
Language Editor
: 1. David Lloyd Hickman, M.M. Lc. (Economic Management - Australia)
2. Ferry Imanuddin Sadikin, S.T., M.E. (Electrical Engineering, LIPI)
3. Wiwin Winarsih, S.H., M.H. (Economic and Technology Law/Bussiness Law LEMIGAS)
Copy Editor
: Bagus Aribowo, S.Kom.
Lay Outer
: Rasikin, Nurhadi Setiawan, A.Md.
Secretariat
: Budi Mulia, Dulhamidin
Publisher
: LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology
Afilliation and Publication Division
Printed by
: Grafika LEMIGAS
Address:
LEMIGAS Research and Development Division for Afilliation and Publication, Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir,
Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA, STT: No. 348/SK/DITJEN PPG/
STT/1987/May 12, 1977, Phone: 7394422 - Ext. 1222, 1223, Fax : 62 - 21 - 7246150,
e-mail: redaksiSCOG@lemigas.esdm.go.id
LEMIGAS Scientific Contributions (LSC) published since 1977 which has been renamed Scientific Contributions Oil
& Gas (SCOG) published 3 times a year in April, August, and December. The editor accepts the scientific paper,
the results of research, which is closely related to oil and gas research.
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas is published by “LEMIGAS” Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology. Insured editor: Dr. Ir. Bambang Widarsono, M.Sc. Managing Editor: Ir. Daru Siswanto.
i
ISSN : 2089-3361
Volume 38, No. 1, April 2015
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS is a media for the dissemination of information on
research activities, technology engineering development and testing in oil and gas field.
Editorial Boards
: 1. Dr. Mudjito (Petroleum Geology, Scientific Board - LEMIGAS)
2. Prof. M. Udiharto (Biology, Scientific Board - LEMIGAS)
3. Prof. Dr. E. Suhardono (Industrial Chemistry, Scientific Board - LEMIGAS)
4. Dr. Adiwar (Separation Process, Scientific Board - LEMIGAS)
5. Dr. Oberlin Sidjabat (Chemical Engineering and Catalyst, LEMIGAS)
Scientific Editors
: 1. Dr. Ir. Usman, M.Eng. (Petroleum Engineering, LEMIGAS)
2. Ir. Sugeng Riyono, M.Phil. (Petroleum Engineering, LEMIGAS)
3. Dr. Ir. Eko Budi Lelono (Palynologist, LEMIGAS)
4. Ir. Bambang Wicaksono T.M., M.Sc. (Petroleum Geology, LEMIGAS)
5. Drs. Chairil Anwar, M.Si. (Industrial Chemistry, LEMIGAS)
6. Abdul Haris, S.Si., M.Si. (Chemistry and Environment, LEMIGAS)
7. Ratu Ulfiati, S.Si., M.Eng. (Chemical Engineering, LEMIGAS)
Peer Reviewer
: 1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Septoratno Siregar (Petroleum Engineering, ITB - Indonesia)
2. Prof. Dr. R.P. Koesoemadinata (Geological Engineering, ITB - Indonesia)
3. Prof. Dr. Ir. M. Kholil, M.Kom. (Management of Environment, USAHID/
IPB - Indonesia)
4. Ir. Bagas Pujilaksono, M.Sc., Lic.Eng., PhD. (Physics Chemistry Engineering,
UGM - Indonesia)
5. Prof. Dr. Renanto, M.Sc., PhD. (Chemical Engineering, ITS - Indonesia)
6. John G. Kaldi, M.Sc., PhD. (Petroleum - Australia)
7. Dr. Robert John Morley (Palinology and Stratigrapher - Inggris)
8. Dr Ulrike Schacht (Marine Geo Chemistry - Germany)
ii
ISSN : 2089-3361
Volume 38, Number 1, April 2015
CONTENTS
Page
CONTENTS
iii
PREFACE
v
ABSTRACTS
vii
PALYNOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE JAMBI SUB-BASIN,
SOUTH SUMATRA
Christina Ani Setyaningsih, Eko Budi Lelono, and Iskandar Firdaus
1 - 12
HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF TOLO BAY MOROWALI
REGENCY: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Suliantara and Trimuji Susantoro
13 - 24
INVESTIGATION OF THE RISKS OF INTRODUCING PRODUCED
WATER INTO FRESHWATER INJECTION SYSTEM
Usman
25 - 37
THE INFLUENCE OF BIODIESEL BLENDS (UP TO B-20)
FOR PARTS OF DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
BY IMMERSION TEST
Riesta Anggarani, Cahyo S.Wibowo, and Emi Yuliarita
39 - 45
EFFECT OF ACTIVATION TEMPERATURE AND ZnCl2
CONCENTRATION FOR MERCURY ADSORPTION IN NATURAL
GAS BY ACTIVATED COCONUT CARBONS
Lisna Rosmayati
47 - 52
iii
iv
PREFACE
Dear Readers,
As part of our ongoing effort to become the only publication that discusses upstream, downstream
and inter-sectoral oil and gas activities in Indonesia and to be published internationally, Scientific
Contributions on Oil and Gas provides the latest research results, which are based on laboratory analysis
activities, as well as in site and survey activities in the oil and gas field. Research and development of oil
and gas technology is a series of sustainable activities which are linked to various branches of science.
In this edition, we present several articles based on Palynology analysis, which provides results in
the form of sedimentary rock age and depositional environment interpretation of outcrops that were
exposed at the Sungai Merangin, Muara Jernih and Mengupeh. Meanwhile, the further research in
the article Hydrocarbons Potential of Tolo Bay, Morowali Regency: Qualitative Analysis has proposed
using the latest seismic data which has been conducted by PT TGS-NOPEC and PT ECI-PGS, in order
to reduce the risk of the presence of source rock and the posible reservoir as well.
The research entitled Investigation of the Risk of Introducing Produced Water into Fresh Water
System is about finding a method to reduce the risk of loss oil recovery. It found that using an injection
of a mixture of 50% of fresh water with 50% produced water will result in a decrease in oil recovery
of up to 16 %, when compared to using only fresh water which resulted in oil recovery of 46.1%.
In relation to government policies that require the use of substitute fuel oil to diesel fuel with a
presentation of a minimum of 20% bio diesel, the research in the article The Influence of Biodiesel
Blend (Up to 20%) for Parts of Diesel Engine Fuel System by Immersion Test was conducted in order
to identify the components of non-metallic materials with test FTIR, DSC and XRD and XRF test for
metal components of vehicles.
In this issue we are also presenting the results of research into mercury element contained in natural
gas, which has become a serious environmental concern due to its high volatility and toxicity content.
This research is outlined in the article Effect of Activation Temperature and ZnCl2 Concentration for
Mercury Absorption in Natural Gas by Activated Coconut Carbons.
The Editorial Board and the Council Publisher would like to thank the reviewer, editor and all the
authors who have contributed the results of their research to this latest edition of Scientific Contributions
Oil and Gas (1st edition April 2015). It is hoped that this publication will be useful not only for the
readers but that it also makes a positive contribution to science and technology, both in Indonesia and
internationally, especially in the field of oil and gas technology.
Jakarta, April 2015
Best regads,
Editorial Board
v
vi
ABSTRACTS
The descriptions given are free terms. This abstract sheet may be reproduced without permission or charge
UDC: 550.8+553.9
Christina Ani Setyaningsih, Eko Budi Lelono and
Iskandar Firdaus, “LEMIGAS” R & D Centre for
Oil and Gas Technology. Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav.
109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/
JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA. Tromol
Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 6221-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150. E-mail:
christina@lemigas.esdm.go.id, id, E-mail: ekobl@
lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: iskandarf@lemigas.
esdm.go.id.
PALYNOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE JAMBI
SUB-BASIN, SOUTH SUMATRA
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, April 2015,
Volume 38, Number 1, p. 1-12
ABSTRAK
Studi palinologi di Sub-cekungan Jambi,
Sumatera Selatan dilakukan untuk menyusun
biostratigrafi formasi batuan terpilih yang telah
diidentifikasi. Analisis palinologi ini memberikan
hasil berupa umur batuan sedimen serta interpretasi
lingkungan pengendapan. Penelitian dilakukan pada
percontoh permukaan (outcrops) yang tersingkap
di Sungai Merangin, daerah Muara Jernih dan
Mengupeh. Umur sedimen daerah penelitian
berkisar antara Miosen Awal sampai Miosen
Tengah. Batas atas umur Miosen Tengah ditandai
oleh kemunculan polen Florschuetzia levipoli dan
Florschuetzia meridionalis, sementara batas bawah
umur Miosen Awal dicirikan oleh kemunculan
nanoplangton Sphenolithus compactust. Batuan
sedimen di Sungai Merangin dan daerah Muara
Jernih yang diperkirakan sebagai Formasi Talang
Akar, diendapkan di lingkungan lower delta plain
sampai delta front selama umur Miosen Awal. Di
daerah Mengupeh, lingkungan pengendapan Formasi
Talang Akar ini bergeser ke arah darat menjadi upper
delta plain sampai lower delta plain pada umur
Miosen Tengah.
Kata Kunci: sub-cekungan Jambi, formasi Talang
Akar, palinologi
ABSTRACT
The palynological study of the Jambi Subbasin, South Sumatera is carried out to construct
biostratigraphy of the identified formation. The
palynological analysis provides an age interpretation
as well as environment of depositional interpretation.
The study uses outcrop samples which were collected
from Merangin River, Muara Jernih and Mengupeh
areas. The age of the studied sediment ranges from
Early to Middle Miocene. The top Middle Miocene age
is identified by the occurrence of pollen Florschuetzia
levipoli and Florschuetzia meridionalis, whilst the
base of Early Miocene is marked by the appearance
of nannoplankton Sphenolithus compactust. The
studied sediment cropping out at the Merangin River
and Muara Jernih area interpreted as Talang Akar
Formation was deposited in a lower delta plain to
delta front during Early Miocene. In the Mengupeh
area, this sediment shifted landward into upper
delta plain to lower delta plain environment during
Middle Miocene.
(Author)
Keywords: Jambi sub-basin, Talang Akar Formation,
Palynology
UDC: 528.4+622.1
Suliantara and Trimuji Susantoro, “LEMIGAS” R
& D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology. Jl. Ciledug
Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box
1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA.
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone:
62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150. e-mail:
suliantara@lemigas.esdm.go.id., e-mail:trimujis@
lemigas.esdm.go.id.
HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF TOLO
BAY MOROWALI REGENCY: QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
vii
ABSTRAK
Teluk Tolo terletak diantara Lengan Timur
dengan Lengan Tenggara Sulawesi, kedalaman
mencapai 3500 meter di bawah permukaan laut.
Secara regional daerah ini termasuk dalam Cekungan
Banggai yang terdapat beberapa lapangan migas yang
telah berproduksi. Lapangan yang terdekat adalah
lapangan Minyak Tiaka yang berjarak sekitar 125
km di sebelah Barat Laut daerah kajian. Kaji ulang
geo-science dilakukan untuk mengetahui potensi
keberadaan migas di daerah kajian. Berdasarkan data
penelitian terdahulu, makalah ilmiah dan data bawah
permukaan yang diperloleh dari Direktorat Minyak
dan Gas Bumi, blok ini terletak pada kawasan
benturan Lempeng Mikro Banggai – Sula dengan
Sulawesi. Benturan ini diperkirakan terjadi pada
Akhir Kapur dan Miosen Tengah. Pada fase drifting
terjadi proses sedimentasi pada muka Lempeng
Mikro Banggai-Sula, dengan kondisi sama dengan
passive margin. Sedimen ini berpotensi sebagai
batuan induk dan batuan reservoir. Sementara
wilayah kajian pada fase ini diduga terletak di sisi
Selatan Lempeng Mikro Banggai-Sula. Perbedaan
lokasi tektonik ini akan mempengaruhi terbentuknya
jenis batuan sedimen sehingga keberadaan batuan
induk dan batuan reservoir di bagian ini tidak jelas.
Akibat keberadaan batuan induk dan reservoir yang
tidak jelas maka kegiatan eksplorasi migas di blok ini
mempunyai resiko yang sangat tinggi. Dalam rangka
mengurangi tingkat resiko eksplorasi maka diusulkan
untuk melakukan studi geologi dan geofisika dengan
menggunakan data seismik terbaru yang proses
surveinya dilakukan ole PT. TGS- NOPEC dan PT
ECI-PGS.
Kata Kunci: morowali, banggai, resiko eksplorasi,
drifting, benturan
ABSTRACT
Tolo Bay is located between East Arm and
Southeast Arm Sulawesi, reaching a water depth
of up to 3500 meters below sea level. Regionally,
this block is situated within Banggai Basin where
some gas and oil fields are already in production.
The closest field is Tiaka Oil Field located about
125 kilometers northwest of the study area. A geoscience review has been conducted to clarify the
potential existence of hydrocarbon in this block.
Based on previous reports, papers, and subsurface
viii
data from the Directorate General of Oil and
Gas, the study area is located within the collision
area between Banggai-Sula Microcontinent and
Sulawesi. This collision occurred during Late
Creataceous and Middle Miocene periods. During
drifting phase a sedimentation process occurred at
the front of the Banggai-Sula Microcontinent.. This
sediment is potentially source rock and reservoir
rock. Meanwhile, during the drifting phase the study
area is interpreted as located at the southern part of
Banggai-Sula Microcontinent. This different tectonic
setting will impact on the type of sedimentary rock,
hence source rock and reservoir rock occurrence in
the study area is still unclear. As source rock and
reservoir rock within the study area are unclear,
hydrocarbon explorations will be very risky. In order
to reduce exploration risk, it is proposed to conduct
geological and geophysical studies using the latest
seismic data that was surveyed by PT. TGS – NOPEC
and PT. ECI – PGS.
(Author)
Keywords: morowali, banggai, risk exploration,
drifting, collision
UDC: 549.8+543.2
Usman, “LEMIGAS” R & D Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology. Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir,
Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta
Selatan 12230 INDONESIA. Tromol Pos: 6022/
KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422,
Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150. E-mail: upasarai@
lemigas.esdm.go.id
I N V E S TIGATION OF THE RISKS OF
INTRODUCING PRODUCED WATER INTO
FRESHWATER INJECTION SYSTEM
ABSTRAK
Penggunaan air injeksi dari berbagai sumber
potensial memperburuk resiko kerusakan formasi
dan dapat berdampak pada perolehan minyak.
Sebuah studi kasus bagaimana menilai resiko
tersebut dibahas dalam makalah ini. Studi berdasarkan
pada percobaan laboratorium. Material, metode, dan
prosedur uji yang tepat untuk mendapatkan kualitas
data sebagai acuan teknis interpretasi potensi resiko
diuraikan secara detail. Telah diidentifikasi resiko
p e nElemen
y u m b amerkuri
t a n , pyang
e n g terkandung
e n d a p a n , dalam
p e n ugas
r ubumi
nan
permeabilitas,
dan
kehilangan
perolehan
minyak
telah menjadi perhatian serius dari sisi lingkungan
disebabkan
penggunaan
air terproduksi.
Penyumbatan
karena
sifat
volatilitas
dan toksisitasnya
yang
disebabkan
keberadaan
bakteri
dan
partikel
padatan
tinggi. Penyerapan dengan carbon yang teraktivasi
dalam air terproduksi.
bakteri
merupakan
suatu metodePertumbuhan
mengontrol merkuri
tergolong
tinggi.
Konsentrasi
padatan
juga
yang
efektif.
Kandungan
merkuri
dalam
gastinggi
bumi
dengan
diameter
rata-rata
lebih
besar
dibandingkan
harus dihilangkan untuk mencegah terjadinya
diameter partikel
yang
dianggap
tidak merusak.
kerusakan
peralatan
dalam
plan pengolahan
gas
Pengendapan
CaCO
potensi
terjadi
pada
temperatur
dan sistem jaringan3 pipa transmisi. Penelitian
ini
dalam
air
reservoir
akibat
konsentrasi
HCO
menggambarkan proses eliminasi 3 m e r k u r i
terproduksi
tinggi.dalam
Penggunaan
air dterproduksi
yang
terkandung
gas bumi
e n g a n
bersama air tawar
penurunan
menggunakan
karbon menyebabkan
aktif dari tempurung
kelapa
permeabilitas
secara signifi
kan.
Untuk
komposisi
yang
diimpregnasi
dengan
ZnCl
.
Temperatur
2
25% air terproduksi
dan 75%
air ZnCl
tawar, merupakan
penurunan
aktivasi
dan konsentrasi
larutan
2
permeabilitas
berkisar
dari permeabilitas
awal.
variable
yang
dapat80%
mempengaruhi
kapasitas
Penambahanmerkuri.
2000 ppm
biosidatemperatur
dan penggunaan
penyerapan
Pengaruh
aktivasi
kertas
saring 11 mikron
kualitas
terhadap penyerapan
dan
konsentrasi
larutandapat
ZnClmeningkatkan
2
air
terproduksi.
Dengan
komposisi
air
injeksi
yang
merkuri oleh adsorben menunjukkan bahwa
sama,
permeabilitas
hanya turun
47%. Analisa
kemampuan
adsorpsi adsorben
telah dipengaruhi
oleh
ukuran
diameter
pori
batuan
dan
partikel
padatan
temperature aktivasi hingga mencapai temperature
ikutan
dalam700
airoC.menunjukan
penggunaan
optimumnya
Kemampuanperlu
adsorpsi
meningkat
saringan
kurang dari 11konsentrasi
mikron untuk
mencegah
dengan meningkatnya
larutan
ZnCl2
penurunan
permeabilitas
akibat
penyumbatan
dan
penyerapan
optimum pada
konsentrasi
ZnCl2
partikel
padatan.
Percobaan
dengan
injeksi
air
tawar
7%. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa penyerapan merkuri
menunjukan
minyak
46.1%. Bila
oleh
carbon perolehan
teraktivasi
yang sebesar
terimpregnasi
klor
menggunakan
campuran
air terproduksi
dan
sangat
signifikan
dan 50%
diperoleh
temperature
50%
air
tawar,
terjadi
penurunan
perolehan
minyak
aktivasi optimumnya. Kesimpulan akhir diperoleh
o
sebesar 16%aktivasi
dibandingkan
hasil
air
temperature
optimum
700injeksi
C dan hanya
7% ZnCl
2
tawar. Potensi
kehilangan
perolehan
tersebut
sebagai
konsentrasi
impregnasi
yangminyak
dapat menyerap
merepresentasikan
efek kuantitatif kerusakan
merkuri
secara maksimal.
formasi
terhadap
produksi
minyak. Informasi
ini
Kata Kunci: aktivasi, penyerapan
merkuri, gas
sangatkarbon
bermanfaat
untukkelapa
evaluasi
keekonomian
bumi,
tempurung
teraktivasi
pengembangan lapangan.
ABSTRACT
Kata kunci: Air terproduksi, air tawar, kerusakan
formasi,
penyumbatan,
pengendapan,
penurunan
Elemental
mercury from
natural gas has
become
permeabilitas,
perolehan
an
increasingly kehilangan
environmental
concernminyak
due to its high
volatility and toxicity. Activated carbon adsorption
ABSTRACT
is an effective mercury-control method. Mercury
Mixing
watersgas
from
different
sources
may
content
in theofnatural
should
be removed
to avoid
exacerbate
the
risk
of
formation
damage
and
equipment damage in the gas processing plant orcan
the
pipeline transmission system. This research is dealing
with the process of mercury removal from natural
gas
by oil
coconut
active
carbon
with
impact
recovery.
A filed
case impregnated
study is presented
.
Activation
temperature
and
ZnCl
solution
ZnCl
to demonstrate
how
to
assess
these
risks.
The
study
2
2
concentration
are significant variables
can effect
relies on a laboratory-based
work. that
Appropriate
mercury
adsorption
The effecttoofassure
activation
materials,
methods,capacity.
and procedures
the
temperature
concentration
forvalid
mercury
quality of testand
dataZnCl
and 2derive
technically
risks
adsorption
on adsorbentareshowed
thatThe
adsorption
potential interpretations
discussed.
risks for
ability
of plugging,
adsorbentscaling,
had beenpermeability
affected by increasing
potential
reduction,
activation
temperature
up to
temperature
and oil recovery
loss caused
byoptimum
introducing
produced
o
is
700are
C. identifi
Abilityed.ofPlugging
adsorption
wasbyincreased
water
induced
bacterial
with
increasing
concentration
and
mercury
growth
and solid ZnCl
particles
present
in
produced
water.
2
adsorption
was optimum
at 7% concentration
of
Bacterial growth
is categorized
high. Solids
ZnCl
.
The
results
indicated
that
the
adsorption
Concentration
is
also
high
with
its
mean
diameter
2
capacity
of mercury
in natural particle
gas by activated
larger than
the non-damaging
size. The
carbon-impregnated
at reservoir
and optimum
temperature
activation
due
CaCO3 scale is likelychlor
temperature
to high concentration
was the greatest.
of HCO 3- Conclusion
in the produced
of this
paper
optimum
activation temperature
700oC
water.was
Mixing
of untreated
produced water
and7%
treated
impregnated
caused
on adsorbent
significantly
canreduction
improve
and
ZnClfreshwater
2
the
mercury adsorption
natural
gas.75% FW mix,
in permanently.
For the in
25%
PW and
(Author)
the permeability decreases by about 80% of its
initial
permeability.
Adding
2000
ppm
of
biocide
and
Keywords: Activation, mercury adsorption, natural
filtered
using coconut
11 micron
filter paper improved the
gas,
activated
carbon
quality of produced water. For the same mixing
fraction, the permeability decreases only 47%.
Analyzed of pore throat size in conjunction with
particle size of water samples suggests the need for
using a filter less than 11 micron to avoid permeability
decline imposed by solid particles. Waterflood
experiments showed an ultimate recovery factor of
46.1% of original oil in place obtained from
freshwater injection. Introducing 50% of produced
water caused an oil recovery loss by 16% compared
to freshwater injection alone. This lost oil recovery
representing a quantitative effect of formation
damage on oil production and may valuable from
the economic viewpoint.
(Author)
Keywords: Produced water, freshwater, formation
damage, plugging, scaling, permeability reduction,
oil recovery loss
ix
UDC: 549.8:66.07+662.7
Riesta Anggarani, Cahyo S.Wibowo, and Emi
Yuliarita, “LEMIGAS” R & D Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology. Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran
Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA.
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-217394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150. E-mail: riesta@lemigas.
esdm.go.id, E-mail: riesta.anggarani@gmail.com, E-mail:
cahyow@lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: emiy@lemigas.esdm.
go.id,
THE INFLUENCE OF BIODIESEL BLENDS
(UP TO B-20) FOR PARTS OF DIESEL ENGINE
FUEL SYSTEM BY IMMERSION TEST
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, April 2015,
ABSTRAK
Pemerintah Indonesia akan menerapkan
kebijakan kewajiban penggunaan campuran Bahan
Bakar Minyak jenis Minyak Solar dan Biodiesel
dengan persentase minimum 20% (B-20) dimulai
pada tahun 2016. Dari sudut pandang teknis,
masalah kompatibilitas komponen menjadi salah satu
perhatian industri otomotif. Karakteristik biodiesel
sebagai pelarut dikhawatirkan akan menjadikannya
bereaksi dengan komponen sistem bahan bakar
kendaraan mesin diesel, terutama elastomer.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi
material penyusun komponen sistem bahan bakar,
meliputi komponen logam dan non logam, dengan
kompatibilitas yang baik terhadap B-20. Identifikasi
material penyusun komponen non logam dilakukan
dengan uji FTIR dan DSC,dan uji XRD dan XRF
untuk komponen logam. Uji perendaman selama
2500 jam dilakukan untuk membandingkan pengaruh
5 (lima) campuran bahan bakar (B-0, B-5, B-10,
B-15 dan B-20) terhadap perubahan sifat fisika
komponen logam dan non logam sistem bahan bakar
kendaraan mesin diesel. Sifat fisika yang diamati
adalah berat spesimen komponen uji. Hasil yang
diperoleh menunjukkan bahwa perubahan berat
komponen logam diperoleh pada rentang 0.007%
hingga 0.595%. Perubahan berat yang lebih besar
diperoleh pada komponen non logam antara 0.001%
to 13.85%. Perubahan berat yang lebih rendah terlihat
pada komponen logam jenis material CuO, Al2O3 dan
SiO, sedang untuk komponen non logam perubahan
x
terendah diperoleh dari polimer jenis fluoroviton
A. Pengamatan terhadap komposisi bahan bakar
sebelum dan sesudah uji perendaman komponen
dengan FTIR menunjukkan tidak ada perubahan yang
signifikan dan efek dari sifat pelarut bahan bakar
campuran ini dapat diabaikan.
Kata Kunci: kompatibilitas, logam, non logam,
biodiesel, material
ABSTRACT
The Government of Indonesia will implement
the mandatory policy on the use of Diesel Fuel and
Biodiesel mixture with minimum 20% volume of
biodiesel (B-20) start from 2016. From technical
point of view, compatibility issue becomes one of the
problems to be considered by automotive industries.
The concern relate with solvent characteristic of
biodiesel, which cause the biodiesel and its blends
react with the parts of fuel system, especially the
elastomers. This work is aimed to identify the material
constructed the fuel system parts, including metal
and non-metal parts, which has good compatibility
to biodiesel blends up to B-20. Identification of the
parts material was done by FTIR and DSC for nonmetal parts and by XRD and XRF for metal parts.
The immersion test is used to compare the effect of
five biodiesel-diesel fuel blends (B-0, B-5, B-10,
B-15, and B-20) to the physical change of metal and
non-metal parts of diesel fuel system in a 2500 hours
test period. The physical change being checked is
the weight of the parts. The result obtained that for
immersed metal parts, the change of weight occurred
in the range of 0.007% to 0.595%. The higher weight
change obtained by non-metal parts in the range of
0.001% to 13.85%. The lowest change was shown
by metal parts consists of an alloy of CuO, Al2O3
and SiO, whether for non-metal parts was shown
by a polymer type of Fluoroviton A. Through FTIR
analysis we also observed that fuels composition
before and after immersed with the tested parts
were not change significantly means that effect of
solvent characteristic of biodiesel in the fuel mixture
is negligible.
(Author)
Keywords: compatibility; metal; non-metal;
biodiesel; material
UDC: 662.7+662.8
Lisna Rosmayati, “LEMIGAS” R & D Centre for Oil and
Gas Technology. Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran
Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA.
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-217394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150. E-mail: lisnar@lemigas.
esdm.go.id,
EFFECT OF ACTIVATION TEMPERATURE
A N D Z n C l 2 C O N C E N T R AT I O N F O R
MERCURY ADSORPTION IN NATURAL GAS
BY ACTIVATED COCONUT CARBONS
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, April 2015,
ABSTRAK
Elemen merkuri yang terkandung dalam gas bumi
telah menjadi perhatian serius dari sisi lingkungan
karena sifat volatilitas dan toksisitasnya yang
tinggi. Penyerapan dengan carbon yang teraktivasi
merupakan suatu metode mengontrol merkuri yang
efektif. Kandungan merkuri dalam gas bumi harus
dihilangkan untuk mencegah terjadinya kerusakan
peralatan dalam plan pengolahan gas dan sistem
jaringan pipa transmisi. Penelitian ini menggambarkan
proses eliminasi merkuri yang terkandung dalam
gas bumi dengan menggunakan karbon aktif dari
tempurung kelapa yang diimpregnasi dengan ZnCl2.
Temperatur aktivasi dan konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2
merupakan variable yang dapat mempengaruhi
kapasitas penyerapan merkuri. Karbon aktif dibuat
dari kulit tempurung kelapa dan diaktivasi pada
temperature 600, 700 and 800 oC dalam aliran
konstan nitrogen. Pengaruh temperatur aktivasi
dan konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2 terhadap penyerapan
merkuri oleh adsorben menunjukkan bahwa
kemampuan adsorpsi adsorben telah dipengaruhi oleh
temperature aktivasi hingga mencapai temperature
optimumnya 700oC. Kemampuan adsorpsi meningkat
dengan meningkatnya konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2 dan
penyerapan optimum pada konsentrasi ZnCl27%
Hasil menunjukkan bahwa penyerapan merkuri
.
oleh carbon teraktivasi yang terimpregnasi klor
sangat signifikan dan diperoleh temperature
aktivasi optimumnya. Kesimpulan akhir diperoleh
temperature aktivasi optimum 700 oC dan 7%
ZnCl2 sebagai konsentrasi impregnasi yang dapat
menyerap merkuri secara maksimal.
Kata Kunci: aktivasi, penyerapan merkuri, gas
bumi, karbon tempurung kelapa teraktivasi
ABSTRACT
Elemental mercury from natural gas has
increasingly become an environmental concern due
to its high volatility and toxicity. Activated carbon
adsorption is an effective mercury control method.
Mercury content in natural gas should be removed
to avoid equipment damage in the gas processing
plant or the pipeline transmission system. This
research describes the process of mercury removal
from natural gas by coconut active carbon
impregnated with ZnCl2. Activation temperature
and ZnCl2 solution concentration are significant
affect the mercury adsorption capacity. Charcoal
was prepared from coconut shell and activated at
500, 700 and 900oC in constant flow of nitrogen.
The effect of activation temperature and ZnCl2
concentration for mercury adsorption on adsorbent
show that the adsorption ability of adsorbent is
affected by increasing activation temperature up
to an optimum temperature of 700oC. Ability
of adsorption increases with increasing ZnCl2
concentration and mercury adsorption was optimum
at 7% concentration of ZnCl2. The results indicated
that the adsorption capacity of mercury in natural
gas by activated carbon-impregnated chlor is very
significant. The conclusion of this paper is that
optimum activation temperature 700oC and 7%
ZnCl2 impregnated on adsorbent can improve the
mercury adsorption in natural gas.
Keywords: activation, mercury adsorption,
natural gas, activated coconut carbon
xi
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL AND GAS
Vol. 38, Number 1, April 2015: 1 of 5
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE FOR OIL & GAS TECHNOLOGY
LEMIGAS
Journal Homepage:http://www.journal.lemigas.esdm.go.id
PALYNOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE JAMBI
SUB-BASIN, SOUTH SUMATRA
STUDI PALINOLOGI SUB-CEKUNGAN JAMBI,
SUMATRA SELATAN
Christina Ani Setyaningsih, Eko Budi Lelono, and Iskandar Firdaus
“LEMIGAS” R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology
Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150
E-mail: christina@lemigas.esdm.go.id, id, E-mail: ekobl@lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: iskandarf@lemigas.esdm.go.id
First Registered on December 12nd 2014; Received after Correction on March 31th 2015
Publication Approval on: April 30th 2015
ABSTRAK
Studi palinologi di Sub-cekungan Jambi, Sumatera Selatan dilakukan untuk menyusun biostratigrafi
formasi batuan terpilih yang telah diidentifikasi. Analisis palinologi ini memberikan hasil berupa umur
batuan sedimen serta interpretasi lingkungan pengendapan. Penelitian dilakukan pada percontoh permukaan
(outcrops) yang tersingkap di Sungai Merangin, daerah Muara Jernih dan Mengupeh. Umur sedimen daerah
penelitian berkisar antara Miosen Awal sampai Miosen Tengah. Batas atas umur Miosen Tengah ditandai
oleh kemunculan polen Florschuetzia levipoli dan Florschuetzia meridionalis, sementara batas bawah umur
Miosen Awal dicirikan oleh kemunculan nanoplangton Sphenolithus compactust. Batuan sedimen di Sungai
Merangin dan daerah Muara Jernih yang diperkirakan sebagai Formasi Talang Akar, diendapkan di lingkungan lower delta plain sampai delta front selama umur Miosen Awal. Di daerah Mengupeh, lingkungan
pengendapan Formasi Talang Akar ini bergeser ke arah darat menjadi upper delta plain sampai lower delta
plain pada umur Miosen Tengah.
Kata Kunci: sub-cekungan Jambi, formasi Talang Akar, palinologi
ABSTRACT
The palynological study of the Jambi Sub-basin, South Sumatera is carried out to construct biostratigraphy
of the identified formation. The palynological analysis provides an age interpretation as well as environment of depositional interpretation. The study uses outcrop samples which were collected from Merangin
River, Muara Jernih and Mengupeh areas. The age of the studied sediment ranges from Early to Middle
Miocene. The top Middle Miocene age is identified by the occurrence of pollen Florschuetzia levipoli and
Florschuetzia meridionalis, whilst the base of Early Miocene is marked by the appearance of nannoplankton Sphenolithus compactust. The studied sediment cropping out at the Merangin River and Muara Jernih
area interpreted as Talang Akar Formation was deposited in a lower delta plain to delta front during Early
Miocene. In the Mengupeh area, this sediment shifted landward into upper delta plain to lower delta plain
environment during Middle Miocene.
Keywords: Jambi sub-basin, Talang Akar Formation, Palynology
I. INTRODUCTION
It has been known that most hydrocarbons
trapped into the Tertiary reservoir rocks in the South
Sumatera Basin were mainly expelled from terrestrial
to fluvio-deltaic shales and coals of Talang Akar
Formation, where the sandstones of this formation are
acting as reservoir rocks. On the other hand, in some
areas, based on geochemical and geological data,
shales of Miocene Gumai Formation also display
characteristics and capability of both potential and
generating source rocks.
1
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, Vol. 38. No. 1, April 2015: 1 - 12
Geological survey of hydrocarbon potential in
the Jambi Sub-basin has been done by LEMIGAS
Stratigraphy Group to collect the sedimentary
outcropped samples which are predicted as potential
source rock for generating hydrocarbon, for
determining age and depositional environment
of sedimentary rock series of the selected rocks.
Meanwhile, the occurrence of older formation in
this basin such as shales and coals of the Permian
Mengkarang Formation can be considered as other
possible source rock.
The study area is located at the Muara Bungo –
Bangko which is administratively situated in Bungo
and Merangin Regency, Jambi Province (Figure 1).
This area is geologically included into Jambi subBasin which is located in the northern part of South
Sumatera Basin.
MuaraBungo
This study has been undertaken to understand
the stratigraphy of the Muara Bungo – Bangko area
of the Jambi Sub-basin, South Sumatra. The purpose
of this study is to determine biostratigraphy of the
identified formations especially those which are
predicted as potential source rocks. The palynological
analysis will provide a zonal subdivision to determine
age of the sediment and also the depositional of
environment interpretation. The result of this analysis
is cross-checked by the foraminiferal and calcareous
nannoplankton analyses and integrated with the
previous works done by LEMIGAS with the target
of Talang Akar Formation.
Target locations are located in the northern and
southern parts of the studied area. Muara Bungo area
is a southern target, whilst Merangin/Mengkarang
River and Muara Jernih area are the northern targets.
The type of analysed sample is outcrop sample. All
MuaraTebo
3
Jambi
2
1
Bangko
Sarolangun
Figure 1
The study area is spanning from Muara Bungo to Bangko
(Number 1 represents sample location of MJ and MRG sections.
Number 2 shows sample location of MGP and BT sections.
Number 3 indicates sample location of Mengupeh-Bukit Kerendo section
(secondary data obtained from LEMIGAS Stratigraphy Group during the period 1993-1995).
2
1. Palynological Study of the Jambi Sub-Basin, South Sumatra
(Cristina Ani Setyaningsih, Eko Budi Lelono, and Iskandar Firdaus)
Figure 2
Locality map of the South Sumatra Basin (de Coster 1974).
samples were processed using standard palynological
preparation technique applied in the Stratigraphy
Laboratory of LEMIGAS, Jakarta.
Geology of the Jambi Sub-basin
The South Sumatra basin is located in the
southern part of Sumatra Island, which is regarded as
a back-arc basin bounded by the Barisan Mountains
in the southwest and by the Pre-Tertiary Sunda Shelf
to the northeast (de Coster 1974).
The South Sumatra Basin is separated from the
Central Sumatra Basin by the Tigapuluh High. To the
east the Lampung High separates it from the Sunda
Basin at the Java Sea (Figure 2). The basin was
formed by the extension of “pre-Tertiary basement”
rocks on “pre-existing faults” and the subsiding
graben in the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene (Barber
and Crow 2003). In Williams et al. (1995), the
South Sumatra Basin has been divided into five subbasins as follows: Jambi, North Palembang, Central
Palembang, South Palembang and Bandar Jaya.
In contrast, Clure (1991) divided South Sumatera
Basin into two sub-basins including Palembang
and the Jambi. Three tectonic events have formed
the South Sumatra Basin. Firstly, the Paleocene to
Early Miocene extension grabens, which trend in a
north direction and were later filled with sediments
of Eocene to early Miocene. Secondly, the inactive
Late Miocene to Early Pliocene normal fault. Thirdly,
3
the Pliocene to Present compression of the basement
rocks with the inversion of basin and reverse normal
faults that formed anticline related oil traps.
Generally, the South Sumatra Basin consists of
“semi-connected NNW-SSE trending synrift basins”
(i.e. the Jambi Sub-basin and the Palembang Subbasin). Figure 3 shows the Jambi Sub-basin and the
Palembang Sub-basin with the basement faults and
anticlines. This region has also being divided according
to the stacking patterns “tectonostratigraphy”
(the pre-rift, the horst and graben stage and the
transgression and regression stage) of the Tertiary
sediment that filled the basins (Barber 2000).
The Jambi Sub-basin is oriented in a NE – SW
direction. It is smaller and more proximal to the
source than the Palembang Sub-basin (Doust and
Noble 2008). It has an area of many faults that are
closely spaced (fault zones) called the Tembesi Fault
(Figure 3). The Tembesi fault trends in a southwest
to northeast direction and also forms the northwest
edge of the Jambi Trough (Hutchison 1996).
Stratigraphy
The general stratigraphy of the South Sumatera
Basin is shown in Figure 4. basement of the South
Sumatra Basin is pre-Tertiary rocks, comprising
various igneous and low grade meta-sediments. It is
overlain unconformably by the Eocene-Oligocene
Figure 3
The structural features of the South Sumatra Basin: the Jambi Sub-basin,
the Palembang Sub-basins and the Tembesi Fault. (Hutchison 1996).
4
Alluvial
Pliocene
Kasai
Muaraenim
Miocene
Middle
Airbenakat
Gumai
Early
Baturaja
Talangakar
Oligocene
Lahat/Kikim
Eocene
Source+
Seal+ Reservoir
ReservoirRock
ReservoirRock
Rock
Late
PALEONTOLOGY
GEOLOGICALHISTORY/
FORAM NANNO
TECTONIC
N12
NN9
N11
N10
N9
NN8
NN7
NN6
N8
N7
NN5
NN4
CompressionandUplift
SagBasin
N6
NN2Ͳ3
N5
NN2
N12
N4(7)
NN1
Indeterminated
Quartenary
LITHOLOGY
Indeterminated
FORMATION
Seal
AGE
MARKER
GrabenFill
Paleocene
PreͲTertiary
Basement
Figure 4
The stratigraphy of rock successions in the South Sumatra Basin
(taken from Tarazona et al.1999 in Hermiyanto et al. 2009).
Lahat (Kikim) Formation consisting of purple green
and red brown tuff, tuffaceous clays, andesite, breccia
and conglomerate.
In turn, the Lahat Formation is unconformably
overlain by the Oligocene-Miocene Talang Akar
Formation, composed of medium to coarse grained
sandstones and coal seams in the lower part; and
calcareous grey shale and sandstone with coal
seams in the upper part. Thickness of the Talang
Akar Formation is approximately (up to) 900 m.
Locally, the Talang Akar Formation was deposited
in a terrestrial to paralic environment, resting
unconformably on top of the pre-Tertiary basement.
The Talang Akar Formation is conformably overlain
by the shallow marine calcareous shale and limestone
of the Baturaja Formation. Moreover, the Baturaja
Formation is conformably underlain by the Gumai
Formation composed of marl, claystone, shale, and
silty shale, with occasionally thin limestone and
sandstone intercalations. The Gumai sediments were
deposited in a deeper open marine environment. In
turn, the Gumai Formation is conformably overlain
by the littoral to shallow marine Air Benakat
Formation comprising sandy and marly claystone,
5
with intercalations of glauconitic sometimes
calcareous sandstone. The deposition of Talang Akar
Formation up to Air Benakat Formation occurred
during Oligo-Miocene time.
Subsequently, the Late Miocene-Pliocene Muaraenim Formation conformably overlying the Air
Benakat Formation which is divided into Member
a (interstratified sandstone and brownish claystone
with principal coal seams) and Member b (greenish
blue claystone with numerous ligniteous coal seams)
deposited in a brackish environment (Suwarna 2006).
The youngest unit is the Kasai Formation,
consisting of gravel, tuffaceous sands and clays,
volcanic concretion, pumice, and tuff. This formation
conformably to unconformably overlies the MioPliocene Muaraenim Formation. The deposition of
the Kasai Formation coincided with volcanic and
magmatic activity occurring in the area. This activity
formed some igneous intrusives intruding the coal
layers such as found in the Bukit Asam coal mine.
II. METHODOLOGY
The study area is situated within the Geological
Maps of Muara Bungo Sheet (Suwarna et al. 1992) and
Sarolangun Sheet (Simanjuntak et al. 1994). These
maps are used for basic reference in knowing the
distribution of the Permian Mengkarang Formation,
Talang Akar Formation, Gumai Formation, Air
Benakat Formation, and Muaraenim Formation. The
study focuses on the sedimentary rocks series which
represent the target formations including Mengkarang
and Talang Akar Formations. These formations are
predicted to be potential source rocks. However,
a view sample was collected from the younger
sequences of the Air Benakat Formation in order
to validate the palynological analysis of the target
formations. Eventually, each formation was selected
for a representative section, which was followed
by collecting rock samples for laboratory analysis
purposes. Systematic sampling was performed to
obtain reliable analysis. For palynological analysis,
it is preferable to have a fine grain sample with dark
colour such as shale and coal.
A total of 21 samples were collected for this
study consisting of 7 samples from Mengkarang
Formation, 11 samples of Talang Akar Formation and
3 samples representing Air Benakat Formation. All
samples were processed using standard palynological
6
preparation technique in the Stratigraphy Laboratory
of LEMIGAS including HCl, HF and HNO 3
macerations, which were employed to get sufficient
recovery of plant micro-fossils for palynological
analysis. These acid treatments were followed
by the alkali treatment using 10% KOH to clear
up the residue. Sieving using 5 microns sieve
was conducted to collect more palynomorphs by
separating them from debris materials. Finally,
residue was mounted on the slides using polyvinyl
alcohol and canada balsam. The fossil examination
was taken under the transmitted light microscope
with an oil immersion objective and X 12. 5 eye
piece. The result of examination is recorded in the
determination sheets and used for the analyses. As
this study applies quantitative analysis, it is required
to count 250 palynomorphs in each sample. The
percentage abundance of palynomorphs from every
sample was plotted onto a chart to illustrate temporal
abundance fluctuations of each palynomorph type,
using astatistically viable population (=count
number) of palynomorphs in every sample. All
analysed samples are integrated into a chart according
to their stratigraphic position defined on the basis
of field observation. Age interpretation is based
on palynological zonations which were proposed
by Rahardjo et al. in 1994. On the other hand, the
environmental classification used in this paper refers
to the deltaic environment modified by Winantris et
al. (2014).
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In general, the studied sections provide low
to moderate pollen assemblages with moderate
preservation. Palynomorphs occurring in these
sections derived from various vegetations including
mangrove, backmangrove, riparian, peat swamp,
and freshwater. Some selected palynomorphs which
significantly appear in these sections are Zonocostites
ramonae (mangrove pollen), Florschuetzia trilobata
(back-mangrove pollen), Marginipollis concinus
(riparian pollen), Sapotaceoidaepollenites type
(peatswamp pollen) and Callophyllum type
(freshwater pollen) (Figure 5). The significant
occurrence of fresh water pollen indicates the
development of freshwater vegetation under
wet climate condition. In addition, considerable
appearance of peatswamp pollen strongly supports
wet climate indication.
Figure 5
Quantitative palynological distribution chart occurring in the studied area.
A. Age Interpretation
Palynological zonation of the studied area is
assigned to Early to Middle Miocene age. The sedimentary rocks taken from the Merangin River and
the Muara Jernih area can be dated as not younger
than Early Miocene as indicated by the appearance of
biomarker Florschuetzia trilobata along the samples
MRG-4c, MRG-2b, MRG-2a and MJ-12 and MJ-15
(see Figure 1 for sample location). Moreover, the
sediment crouping out in the Mengupeh area also
represents Early to Middle Miocene age as marked by
the presence of index pollen Florschuetzia trilobata,
F. levipoli and F. Meridionalis in samples MGP-1,
MGP-4 and MGP-7 (see Figure 1 for sample location).
Most studied samples show lack of nannoplankton
assemblage. However, some index nannoplankton
occur to indicate the age of the analised samples.
Basically, nannoplankton analysis confirms the age
interpretation based on palynomorphs as suggested by
the occurrence of Sphenolithus compactus in sample
MJ-15 of the Muara Jernih area. It is supported by
7
the existence of Sphenolithus moriformis at sample
MGP-3 of the Mengupeh area suggesting zone NN9
to zone NN12 which equals to Early Miocene age
(Bown 2012).
The foraminiferal assemblage yields poor recovery along the analysed sections. However, the
presence of Globigerinoides subquadratus in the
Mengupeh area indicates the top Early Miocene
(BouDagher-Fadel 2012).
In light of the above discussion, it is concluded
that the sediment situated in the studied intervals is
assigned to Early to Middle Miocene.
Figure 6
Biostratigraphic data summary log of the studied area.
8
Figure 7
Quantitative palynological distribution chart of the Mengupeh – Bukit Kerendo section
(see Figure 1 for sample location).
B. Paleoenvironment Analysis
The study shows that the analysed sediment
was formed in various deltaic environments ranging
from upper delta plain to delta front (Figure 6).
The sequences found in the Merangin River and
the Muara Jernih area considered as Talang Akar
Formation were possibly deposited in upper delta
plain to lower delta plain (littoral). Meanwhile,
the sediment of the Talang Akar Formation in the
Mengupeh area was formed in lower delta plain to
delta front (littoral-inner neritic).
High abundance of brackish pollen Zonocostites
ramonae appears in Early Miocene indicating
the influence of marine environment during
sedimentation (Figure 5). The studied sections are
marked by significant occurrence of some freshwater
pollen produced by peatswamp and freshwater
swamp vegetation such as Cephalomappa type,
Campnospermae type and Sapotaceoidaepollenites
spp. Riparian elements regularly appear as shown
by Marginipollis concinus and Myrtaecidites spp.
Review Of Previous Works
The secondary data used in this study is part of the
result of South Sumatra Basin research, which was
done by LEMIGAS Stratigraphy Group, Exploration
Division in 1993–1995. The data was generated
mainly from the field samples along some measure
sections in the Mengupeh – Bukit Kerendo area,
Jambi which are close to the study area (see Figure
1 for location).
The palynological analysis of the Talang Akar
Formation obtained from the Mengupeh – Bukit
Kerendo sections exhibits low to moderate pollen
9
Figure 8
Biostratigraphic data summary log of the Mengupeh – Bukit Kerendo section
(see Figure 1 for sample location).
10
assemblage. It is dominated by fresh water pollen
including Pometia sp., Marginipollis robustus
(riparian), Durio type and Garcinia cuspidata
(peatswamp) (Figure 7). In this area, the Talang Akar
formation is predicted to have an age of not younger
than Early Miocene. This is based on the occurrence
of pollen index Florschuetzia trilobata along the
sample MK24 to sample MK26.
Foraminiferal investigation shows that most of
the analysed samples are barren. Referring to the
appearance of some index of planktonic foraminifer,
the sediment of the Mengupeh-Bukit Kerendo sections
possesses the age ranging from Early to Late Miocene
as indicated by the occurrence of Globorotalia
birnageae, Globigerinoides bispaericus, Globigerina
leroyi and Globorotalia acostaensis. The Early to
Middle Miocene sediment is marked by the last
occurrence of Globorotalia birnageae at the top
suggesting the existence of the Gumai Formation. In
addition, the presence of Globorotalia acostaensis in
the upper section suggests that the sediment within
the upper section is attributed to the Late Miocene
age (Figure 8).
Similar to foraminiferal analysis, most studied
sediment is barren of nannoplankton assemblage.
Calcareous nannoplankton mostly distributed
within the lower part of the studied section. The last
occurrence of Helicosphaera ampliaperta and the
occurrence of Sphenolithus heteromorphus indicate
zone NN5 which is equivalent to Middle Miocene
age. Meanwhile, the occurrence of Helicosphaera
ampliaperta at the lower part of this section defines
the age of not older than zone NN2 (Early Miocene)
as seen in Figure 8.
By using data integration of their benthonic
foraminiferal and palynological assemblages,
paleoenvironment of the studied sediment is
reconstructed. In addition, this reconstruction also
considers the presence of planktonic foraminifera,
calcareous nannoplankton, other fossils and
the existing lithology (inferred from cutting).
Paleoenvironment of the studied area occurs in
littoral which gradually shifts seaward into inner
neritic and continuing to shallow middle neritic.
Littoral environment is characterised by barren
foraminifer. Litologically, it contains sandstones,
clay with intercalations lignit and coal, and sediments
structure of laminations and cross bedding. Inner
neritic environment is represented by benthic forms
of Haplopragmoides and Bolivina (Adisaputra et
al. 2010). Meanwhile, the shallow middle neritic
environment is indicated by the appearance of
Bolivina, Planulina, Pseudorotalia, Ammonia and
Cancris sp. supported by common foraminifer and
calcareous nannoplankton.
After all, it can be concluded that the previous
works conducted by LEMIGAS Stratigraphy Group
suggest the age of Early Miocene for the Talang
Akar Formation. This formation shows transgressive
sucession as indicated by gradual change from
transition (littoral) into shallow marine (inner neritic
to shallow middle neritic). Due to the locations
being close to the study area, this result is useful for
reference of the current study.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
This study shows that the studied sediment
mostly provides low to moderate pollen assemblages
with moderate preservation. Palynomorphs are
assumed to derive from various vegetations including
mangrove, backmangrove, riparian, peat swamp
and freshwater. The studied sediment has an age of
Early to Middle Miocene which may be attributed
to the Talang Akar Formation. Top Early Miocene is
defined by the first occurrence of pollen Florschuetzia
levipoli and the occurrence of F. trilobata supported
by the occurrence of planktonic foraminiferal species
Globigerinoides subquadratus. Meanwhile, the
Middle Miocene age is indicated by the occurrence
of pollen F. levipoli and F. meridionalis.
Paleoenvironment of the studied sediment
initially occur in upper delta plain to lower delta
plain (littoral) during Early Miocene at the Merangin
River and Muara Jernih area. It subsequently shifts
into lower delta plain to delta front (littoral to
inner neritic) at the Mengupeh area during Middle
Miocene. This interpretation is supported by the
previous study done by LEMIGAS Stratigraphy
Group during 1993 to 1995.
REFERENCES
Adisaputra, M. K., Hendrizan, M. & Kholiq, A. 2010.
Katalog Foraminifera Perairan Indonesia. Puslitbang
Geologi Kelautan, Balitbang ESDM, Kementerian
ESDM, p. 198.
Barber, A. J. & Crow, M. J. 2003. Evaluation of Plate
Tectonic Model for the Development of Sumatra.
Gondwana Research, 20, pp. 1–28.
11
Barber, A. J. 2000. The Origin of the Woyla Terranes
in Sumatra and the Late Mesozoic Evolution of the
Sundaland Margin. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,
18, pp. 713–738.
Bown, P. R. 2012. Calcareous Nannoplankton
Biostratigraphy. Kluwer Academic Publisher, London.
BouDagher-Fadel, M, K. 2012. Biostratigraphic and
Geological Significance of Planktonic Foraminifera.
Elsevier, p. 289.
Clure, J. 1991. Spreading Centers and their Effect on
Oil Generation in the Sunda Region. Proceedings of
the 20th Annual Convention, Indonesian Petroleum
Association , Vol. 1, pp. 37–48
De Coster, G. G. 1974. The geology of the Central and
South Sumatra Basins. Proceedings of the 3th Annual
Convention, Indonesian Petroleum Association, Vol.
1, pp. 77–110.
Doust, H. & Noble, R.A. 2008. Petroleum systems of
Indonesia. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 25, pp.
103–129.
Hermiyanto, M. H. & Ningrum, N. S. 2009. Organic
Petrology and Rock-Eval Characteristics in Selected
Surficial Samples of the Tertiary Formation, South
Sumatra Basin. Jurnal Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 4, pp.
215-227.
12
Hutchison, C. S. 1996. South-East Asian Oil, Gas, Coal
and Mineral Deposits. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Simanjuntak, T. O., Budhitrisna, T., Surono, Gafour,
S. & Amin, T. C. 1994. Peta Geologi Lembar Muara
Bungo, Sumatra. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Geologi, Bandung.
Suwarna, N. 2006. Permian Mengkarang Coal Facies
and Environment, Based on Organic Petrology Study.
Jurnal Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 1, pp. 1-8.
Suwarna, N., Suharso, Gafour, S., Amin, T. C.,
Kuswara & Hermanto, B. 1992. Peta Geologi
Lembar Sarolangun, Sumatra. Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Geologi, Bandung.
Rahardjo, A. T., Polhaupessy, A. A., Wiyono, S.,
Nugrahaningsih, L. & Lelono, E. B. 1994. Zonasi
Polen Tersier Pulau Jawa. Makalah PIT IAGI, ke 23,
Jakarta.
Williams, H. H., Fowler, M. & Eubank, R. T.
1995. Characteristics of Selected Palaeogene and
Cretaceous Lacustrine Source Basins of Southeast
Asia. In: Lambiase, J. J. (ed.) Hydrocarbon Habitat
in Rift Basins. Geological Society of London, Special
Publication, 80
Winantris, Sudradjat, A., Syafri, I. & Rahardjo, A. T.
2014. Diversitas Polen Palmae Pada Endapan Delta
Mahakam Resen. Makalah PIT IAGI, ke 43, Jakarta.
LEMIGAS
HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF TOLO BAY
MOROWALI REGENCY: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
POTENSI MIGAS TELUK TOLO KABUPATEN MOROWALI:
ANALISIS KWALITATIF
Suliantara and Trimuji Susantoro
e-mail: suliantara@lemigas.esdm.go.id., e-mail:trimujis@lemigas.esdm.go.id.
First Registered on December 12nd 2014; Received after Corection on April 15th 2015
ABSTRAK
Teluk Tolo terletak diantara Lengan Timur dengan Lengan Tenggara Sulawesi, kedalaman mencapai
3500 meter di bawah permukaan laut. Secara regional daerah ini termasuk dalam Cekungan Banggai yang
terdapat beberapa lapangan migas yang telah berproduksi. Lapangan yang terdekat adalah lapangan Minyak
Tiaka yang berjarak sekitar 125 km di sebelah Barat Laut daerah kajian. Kaji ulang geo-science dilakukan
untuk mengetahui potensi keberadaan migas di daerah kajian. Berdasarkan data penelitian terdahulu, makalah
ilmiah dan data bawah permukaan yang diperoleh dari Direktorat Minyak dan Gas Bumi, blok ini terletak
pada kawasan benturan Lempeng Mikro Banggai – Sula dengan Sulawesi. Benturan ini diperkirakan terjadi
pada Akhir Kapur dan Miosen Tengah. Pada fase drifting terjadi proses sedimentasi pada muka Lempeng
Mikro Banggai-Sula, dengan kondisi sama dengan passive margin. Sedimen ini berpotensi sebagai batuan
induk dan batuan reservoir. Sementara wilayah kajian pada fase ini diduga terletak di sisi Selatan Lempeng
Mikro Banggai-Sula. Perbedaan lokasi tektonik ini akan mempengaruhi terbentuknya jenis batuan sedimen
sehingga keberadaan batuan induk dan batuan reservoir di bagian ini tidak jelas. Akibat keberadaan batuan
induk dan reservoir yang tidak jelas maka kegiatan eksplorasi migas di blok ini mempunyai resiko yang
sangat tinggi. Dalam rangka mengurangi tingkat resiko eksplorasi maka diusulkan untuk melakukan studi
geologi dan geofisika dengan menggunakan data seismik terbaru yang proses surveinya dilakukan ole PT.
TGS- NOPEC dan PT ECI-PGS.
Kata Kunci: morowali, banggai, resiko eksplorasi, drifting, benturan
ABSTRACT
Tolo Bay is located between East Arm and Southeast Arm Sulawesi, reaching a water depth of up to
3500 meters below sea level. Regionally, this block is situated within Banggai Basin where some gas and oil
fields are already in production. The closest field is Tiaka Oil Field located about 125 kilometers northwest
of the study area. A geo-science review has been conducted to clarify the potential existence of hydrocarbon in this block. Based on previous reports, papers, and subsurface data from the Directorate General of
Oil and Gas, the study area is located within the collision area between Banggai-Sula Microcontinent and
Sulawesi. This collision occurred during Late Creataceous and Middle Miocene periods. During drifting
phase a sedimentation process occurred at the front of the Banggai-Sula Microcontinent. This sediment is
potentially source rock and reservoir rock. Meanwhile, during the drifting phase the study area is interpreted
as located at the southern part of Banggai-Sula Microcontinent. This different tectonic setting will impact
on the type of sedimentary rock, hence source rock and reservoir rock occurrence in the study area is still
unclear. As source rock and reservoir rock within the study area are unclear, hydrocarbon explorations
13
will be very risky. In order to reduce exploration risk, it is proposed to conduct geological and geophysical
studies using the latest seismic data that was surveyed by PT. TGS – NOPEC and PT. ECI – PGS.
Keywords: morowali, banggai, risk exploration, drifting, collision
I. INTRODUCTION
In Indonesia energy consumption trends increase
in line with economic growth. That energy is
dominated by oil and gas energy, therefore its
resources and reserves must be preserved. In order
to substitute oil and gas reserves, exploration activity
must be conducted continuously, so production and
discovery are in balance. Unfortunately during the
last ten years, a reduction in available blocks has
led to a reduction in oil and gas discovery. In early
2011, the oil and gas sector of the Energy and Mineral
Resources Ministry held a meeting with an agenda to
increase investor interest in hydrocarbon exploration
in new working areas. This meeting decided on a few
strategies to improve the situation. One decision was
to assign LEMIGAS to conduct a geo-science review
over selected available blocks.
The study area is located offshore of Southeast
Sulawesi Arm, at Tolo Bay with water depth up to
3500 meters below sea level. This area is included
within Banggai Basin, where some gas fields are
already in production. The closest field is Tiaka Oil
Field located about 125 km North West of the interest
area (Figure 1).
This review will evaluate hydrocarbon occurrence
within the interested area by considering petroleum
system elements based on available data. Several
in-house research reports from LEMIGAS and
a scientific paper from the Indonesia Petroleum
Association were used as the main information.
Fifteen seismic lines from Petra Nusa Data can’t
be used as they are of poor quality. Well reports on
#Dongkala-1 and #Tolo-1 show limited information.
Regional maps i.e.: free air gravity, heat-flow unit,
bathymetry, sedimentary thickness, seepages and
field maps are considered as support data. Qualitative
assessment of each petroleum system elements are a
guide to the probability of hydrocarbon occurrence.
Figure 1
Situation Map Showing Study Area.
14
2. Hydrocarbon Potential of Tolo bay Morowali Regency: Qualitative Analysis
(Suliantara and Trimuji Susantoro)
Figure 2
Tectonic Elements of Banggai-Sula (Rudyawan A. & Hall R. 2012).
Tectonic Setting
The study area is situated within Banggai Basin
where it is believed to be controlled by three major
plates, i.e. western side is Eurasia, eastern side is
Indo-Australia, and north-eastern side is Pacific
(Figure 2).
There are some models that have been suggested
by researchers. Audley-Charles et al. (1972) in
Rudyawan and Hall (2012) linked the Banggai-Sula
block with Misool Island which is located 300
km east. Hamilton (1979) and Norvick (1979) in
Rudyawan and Hall (2012) suggested that BanggaiSula sliced from the Bird’s Head Papua, meanwhile
Pigram et al. (1984) and Garrard et al. (1988) in
Rudyawan and Hall (2012) suggested that this block
had traveled from Central Papua. All interpretation
is based on stratigraphic similarities.
Hall et al. (2009) and Spakman & Hall (2010)
suggested that Banggai-Sula was not from New
Guinea, but was part of Sula Spur which collided
with the Sulawesi North Arm in Early Miocene
and has fragmented by extension since the Middle
Miocene due to subduction rollback into the Banda
embayment.
The study area is separated by South Sula Fault
into northern and southern parts. The northern
part lies on the microcontinent terrain, whereas
the southern part lies on an offshore extension of
the microcontinent terrain. Some major structures
occurred in the surrounding area i.e.: Batui-Balatak
fold and thrust belt, Tolo Thrust, Palu-Koro Fault,
Kolaka Fault, Lawanopo Fault, Hamilton Fault, and
Matano Fault (Figure 3).
Satyana A.H. (2006) applied the docking
and post-docking tectonic escape theory in the
15
Banggai-Sula Area. This theory explains the effect
of collision between two plates and earth lateral
motion after collision. Early Cretaceous – Early
Tertiary (70-50) ma, South Sulawesi is part of Sunda
Platform, as island arc and melange as a result
of oceanic plate subduction over the continental
plate. Early Eocene – Middle Miocene (50 – 10)
ma, stress from east continued and rifting occurred
in Makassar Strait, Bone Gulf, Gorontalo Gulf,
subduction to continent plate occurred several times
and revealed magmatism and volcanic forms in
West Sulawesi. During Middle Miocene – Pliocene
(15 – 5) ma, significant tectonic events occurred,
Banggai-Sula collided with Sulawesi East Arm,
and Buton-Tukangbesi collided with Sulawesi from
the southeast. This collision revealed that Sulawesi
Southeast Arm rotated in an anticlockwise direction,
hence wider bone basin, Sulawesi North Arm rotated
clockwise, and hence produced Gorontalo Basin.
Recent (0-5) ma, at the finalization stage, after collision of the Banggai-Sula and Buton-Tukangbesi to
Sulawesi, tectonic escape occurred, such as the major
transform fault which caused Sulawesi to become
cracked and slide. In general, sliding is eastward to
Figure 3
Regional Structure Banggai-Sula Based on Stratigraphic Similarity (modified from Satyana 2006).
16
Gambar 4
Regional Structure of Banggai-Sula Based on Seismic and Multy-Beam Data
(modified from Rudyawan & Hall 2012).
free oceanic edge. These faults include Palu-Koro,
Matano, Lawanopo, Kolaka, and Balatak. This
tectonic activity also manifested in Banggai-Sula
and in the Buton-Tukangbesi area.
According to Rudyawan and Hall (2012),
the Banggai-Sula area is divided into five zones,
Continental-Oceanic Transition, Oceanic Crust,
Sorong Fault, Extensional, and Gravitational
Structure. The northern part of the study area is
included within Extensional and Continent-Oceanic
Transition; meanwhile the southern part of this block
is a part of Gravitational – Structure (Figure 4).
Stratigraphy
Ferdian (2010) defined stratigraphic of the
Banggai-Sula Island from older to younger as
follows: Metamorphic/basement, Mangole Volcanic,
Banggai Granit, Bobong Formation, Buya Formation,
Tanamu Formation, Salodik Formation, Pancoran
Formation, and Peleng Formation. (Figure 5).
The oldest rock is metamorphic rock of
Carbonaceous or greater age, intruded by Permo-
Triassic granites associated with acid volcanic rock of
similar age. This rock unit is equal with “A” seismic
unit. Bobong Formation is equivalent with Kabauw
Formation (Triassic – Middle Jura), unconformity
above basement, and it is suggested it consists of
continental canalized red bed and coarse sedimentary
rocks. This rock unit is interpreted as equal with “B1”
seismic unit. Buya Formation (Middle Jura – Lower
Cretaceous), unconformity above Bobong Formation/
Kabauw Formation, consists of marine sediments
including quartz-rich sandstones, shales and
limestone. This rock unit is considered equivalent
to “B2” seismic unit.
Tanamu Formation (Upper Creataceous –
Paleocene) was unconformably deposited above
Buya Formation, and this rock unit is interpreted
to be deposited at a deeper marine environment,
and interpreted as equal with “B3” seismic unit.
Salodik Formation (Eocene – Miocene), which is
unconformity above Tanamu Formation, consists
of carbonate platform, marls, and locally reef that
are based by siliciclastic rocks. Salodik Formation
17
Figure 5
Regional Stratigraphy of Banggai Basin (modified from Ferdian et al. 2010).
18
Figure 6
Free Air Gravity Map of Sulawesi and Surrounding Area.
is considered equal with “C1” and C2” seismic
units. Pancoran (Middle Miocene – Pliocene),
is interfingered with Salodik Formation and
lithologically similar. Pancoran Formation is
suggested to be equal with “C2” seimic unit. Peleng
Formation/Luwuk Formation(Pliocene – Recent), is
unconformity above Pancoran/Salodik Formation,
consists of conglomerate with coral fragments,
molluscs, algae, and foraminifera.
Petroleum System
In Banggai Basin it is suggested that potential
source rock occur in several stratigraphy intervals,
such as coal and marine clay of Triassic and Jurrasic
age; claystone and limestone of Paleogene age;
and limestone, coal, and marine clay of Early to
Middle Miocene age. Geochemical analyses from
seepages and wells show high sulfur percentage and
biomarker related with Miocene age (LEMIGAS,
2007). Reservoir rock also suggested they come
from several stratigraphic levels, such as clastic
sediment and reef limestone of Middle Jurassic to
Upper Jurassic age and limestone and sandstone of
Eocene to Miocene age. Cap rock suggested at fine
grained sedimentary rock of Middle Jurassic – Upper
Jurassic, fine sedimentary rock of Late Cretaceous
age, and sedimentary rock of Pliocene age. Trapping,
it is suggested, occurred as stratigraphic traps (pinchout and reef) and structure trap (anticline), and
migration through fault plane that connected source
rock to reservoir rock.
II. METHODOLOGY
These qualitative analyses for hydrocarbon
potential in Tolo Trough applied several data sources,
such as bathymetry, air gravity anomaly, heat-flow
map, seismic section, well data, scientific papers,
and reports from previous study. According to Smith
and Sandwell (1977), the bathymetry map is created
based on satellite remote sensing data of Geosat
and ERS-1 (http://marine.csiro.au/). The air gravity
anomaly can be downloaded at http://topex.ucsd.
edu/cgi-nin/get. The cgi data is recorded by remote
sensing satellite of Geosat (http://marine.csiro.au/).
The Heat-Flow map sources are from PPPTMGB
LEMIGAS Database, and seismic data and well data
19
source are from Petra Nusa Data and the Directorate
of Oil and Gas. Because the processed seismic data
is not able to show a layer of rock, the subsurface
mapping cannot be conducted. Interpretation is
conducted based on the published information in
scientific publications.
Data processing of the bathymetry shows
sea depth within the study area, hence support to
identified technical risk during drilling. The air
gravity anomaly processing shows the depth of the
basement rock, hence sedimentary thickness can be
interpreted for identification of the potential source
rock location. Processing of the Heat-Flow shows
heat-flow distribution trend, and it can be a guide to
identify statues of hydrocarbon maturity.
A comprehensive analysis is conducted
simultaneously over the gathered data and supported
by petroleum geology knowledge hence reveal
petroleum system statues of the study area.
IV. DISCUSSION
The study area on the Topography and Bathymetry
map is located at offshore area with water depth of up
to 3500 meters below sea level, the deepest located
in the eastern area. The air gravity anomaly value
varies between (-100) mgal to (+100) mgal, hence a
low area is located in the western area. A low area is
usually potentially a kitchen area (Figure 6).
Based on a regional Heat-Flow map, the study
area located on the Q HFU value varies from 1.0 to
2.0, where the high value lies on the western part
(figure 7). This medium Q HFU value shows a source
rock likely to be mature for hydrocarbon generation.
According to Pertamina and Unocal (1977), sedimentary thickness in Banggai Basin is up to 4000 meters.
Sedimentary thickness and its distribution is shown
at figure 8. Hydrocarbon seepages are not identified
within the Study area, but along eastern Sulawesi located about 50 kilometer west of study area some gas
and seepages have been already mapped (Figure 9).
Overlying analyses over gravity map, heat-flow
map, and sedimentary thickness map shows the
western part of the study area as low area, thick
sedimentary up to 4000 meters, and high Q HFU
value up to 2.0. That condition supports hydrocarbon
generation from existing source rock.
Figure 7
Heat-Flow Unit Map of Sulawesi and Surrounding Area.
20
Figure 8
Sedimentary Rock Map of Eastern Indonesia (modified from Livsey et al. 1992).
Figure 9
Existing Hydrocarbon Field and Seepages of Eastern Indonesia (modified Livsey et al. 1992).
21
The study area is located within the collision
between Banggai-Sula and Sulawesi, hence
exploration will refer to existing oil and gas field
within the collision area (figure 10). Sedimentary
rock that was deposited in front of the microcontinent
possibly act as source and reservoir rock, and
subduction of source rock will improve rock maturity
and then be covered by molasses sediment (figure
11). During the drifting phase, environmentally in
front of the microcontinent equivalent with passive
margin, hence sedimentation produce intercalation
coarse grain and fine grain.
The northern part of the study area is included
within Extensional and Continent-Oceanic Transition,
meanwhile the southern part is included within
Gravitational – Structure. A thrust fault seen on the
east edge, with basement rock overlaid oceanic plate
and sediment thickness around 1.5 second only. There
is a gravitational collapse structure identified within
basement and between “A” and “B” (Figure 12).
Hence, considering the sediment thickness and heatflow unit, the probability of hydrocarbon occurrence
in northern parts is higher compared to the southern
parts. These seismic sections show thick Mesozoic
sedimentary rock, therefore these sections can be an
s exploration target for the near future.
Tectonic setting between the Study area with
existing oil and gas field, such as Tiaka Oil Field,
Mentawa Gas Field, Minahaki Gas Field, and Senoro
Field is deferent. All existing oil and gas fields
located in front of Banggai-Sula Microcontinent
during drifting and collision phases, while the
study area is located at the southern area. Hence,
source rock and reservoir rock occurrence is
unclear. Structure trap and cap rock from Sulawesi
molasses may have occurred in the study area.
Since two element petroleum system in this block
at unclear statues, hence exploration will be risky.
Before deposited Salodik Formation a regional
unconformity is identified, it means uplift occurred,
Figure 10
Play Model at Collision Area
22
Figure 11
Collision Model in East Sulawesi (Satyana 2010)
Figure 12
Seismic line and its interpretation (modifield from Rudyawan & Hall 2012)
23
so if hydrocarbons already mature at this time will
migrate and no hydrocarbon is trapped. This condition increases exploration risk.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The hydrocarbon potential analyses of the study
area that were conducted are based on scientific
publications, LEMIGAS internal studies, and seismic
and wells data from the Directorate General of Oil
and Gas. Based on references studied, the study
area is located within the collision area between
Banggai-Sula Microcontinent and Sulawesi at Late
Cretaceous and Middle Miocene. Regionally the
study area is an interesting area for exploration, as
some oil and gas fields are already productive and
some oil seepages are found just west of this block.
Unfortunately, this area during collision and drifting
is on the south side of the microcontinent, different
to the Matindok, Minahaki, and Tiaka areas that are
located in front of the Banggai-Sula Microcontinent.
Therefore, source rock and reservoir rock within the
study area are still unclear. New seismic data shows
better quality compared to the old data. These data
penetrate more than 6 seconds and show sediment
rock that is interpreted as from the Mesozoic age.
Hence, the Mesozoic sedimentary rock may be an
exploration target in this study area. In order to reevaluate the petroleum system element of the study
area, it is suggested that a geology and geophysical
study be conducted by applying the latest seismic
data that was surveyed by PT. TGS - NOPEC and by
PT. ECI – PGS.
REFERENCES
Ferdian F., 2010, Evolution and Hydrocarbon Prospect
of The North Banggai-Sula Area : Application of
Sea Seeps TM The Technology For Hydrocarbone
Exploration in Unexplored Areas, , Proc. Indon. Petrol.
Assoc., 34th Annual Convention & Exhibition, Jakarta.
Ferdian F., Hall R., & Watkinson I., 2010, A Structural
Re-Evaluation Of The North Banggai-Sula Area,
24
Eastern Indonesia,, Proc. Indon. Petrol.Assoc., 34th
Annual Convention & Exhibition, Jakarta.
Garrard R.A., Supandjono J.B., & Surono, 1988, The
Geology of The Banggai-Sula Microcontinent, Eastern
Indonesia, Proc. Indon. Petrol.Assoc., 17th Annual
Convention & Exhibition, Jakarta.
Hamilton, W., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian Region,
United States Geological Survey Professional Paper,
1078.
http://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi
http://www.marine.csiro.au/eez_data/doc/bathy/gebco_08.pdf
LEMIGAS, 2007, Kuantifikasi Sumberdaya Hidrokarbon Indonesia, Riset Internal LEMIGAS, Jakarta.
Livsey A.R., Duxbury N. & Richard F., 1992, The Geochemistry of Tertiary and Pre-Tertiary Source Rocks
and Associated Oil in Eastern Indonesia, Proc. Indon.
Petrol. Assoc., 21st Annual Convention & Exhibition,
Jakarta
Pertamina – Unocal Indonesia Company, 1997. Total
Sedimen Thickness Map of The Indonesia Region.
Jakarta
Pigram C. J. dan Panggabean H., 1984, Rifting of the
northern margin of the Australian continent and the
origin of some microcontinents in eastern Indonesia.
Tectonophysics 107, pp.331-353. see also Pigram C.
J., Discussion, in Tectonophysics 121, pp.345-350
Rudyawan A. & Hall R., 2012, Structural Reassessment
of The South Banggai-Sula Area : No Sorong Fault
Zone, Proc. Indon. Petrol.Assoc., 36th Annual Convention & Exhibition, Jakarta.
Satyana A.H., 2006, Docking and Post-Docking Tectonic
Escape of Eastern Sulawesi : Collisional Convergence
and Their Implication to Petroleum Habitat, Proc.
Indon. Petrol.Assoc., 34th Annual Convention &
Exhibition, Jakarta.
Smith, W. H. F., & D. T. Sandwell, 1997. Global seafloor
topography from satellite altimetry and ship depth
soundings, Science, v. 277, pp. 1957-1962.
LEMIGAS
INVESTIGATION OF THE RISKS OF INTRODUCING
PRODUCED WATER INTO FRESHWATER
INJECTION SYSTEM
INVESTIGASI RESIKO PENAMBAHAN AIR
TERPRODUKSI KE SISTEM INJEKSI AIR TAWAR
Usman
E-mail: upasarai@lemigas.esdm.go.id
First Registered on April 1st 2015; Received after Corection on April 24th 2015
ABSTRAK
Penggunaan air injeksi dari berbagai sumber potensial memperburuk resiko kerusakan formasi dan
dapat berdampak pada perolehan minyak. Sebuah studi kasus bagaimana menilai resiko tersebut dibahas
dalam makalah ini. Studi berdasarkan pada percobaan laboratorium. Material, metode, dan prosedur uji
yang tepat untuk mendapatkan kualitas data sebagai acuan teknis interpretasi potensi resiko diuraikan secara
detail. Telah diidentifikasi resiko penyumbatan, pengendapan, penurunan permeabilitas, dan kehilangan
perolehan minyak disebabkan penggunaan air terproduksi. Penyumbatan disebabkan keberadaan bakteri
dan partikel padatan dalam air terproduksi. Pertumbuhan bakteri tergolong tinggi. Konsentrasi padatan
juga tinggi dengan diameter rata-rata lebih besar dibandingkan diameter partikel yang dianggap tidak
merusak. Pengendapan CaCO3 potensi terjadi pada temperatur reservoir akibat konsentrasi HCO 3
dalam air terproduksi tinggi. Penggunaan air terproduksi bersama air tawar menyebabkan penurunan
permeabilitas secara signifikan. Untuk komposisi 25% air terproduksi dan 75% air tawar, penurunan
permeabilitas berkisar 80% dari permeabilitas awal. Penambahan 2000 ppm biosida dan penggunaan kertas
saring 11 mikron dapat meningkatkan kualitas air terproduksi. Dengan komposisi air injeksi yang sama,
permeabilitas hanya turun 47%. Analisa ukuran diameter pori batuan dan partikel padatan ikutan dalam air
menunjukan perlu penggunaan saringan kurang dari 11 mikron untuk mencegah penurunan permeabilitas
akibat penyumbatan partikel padatan. Percobaan dengan injeksi air tawar menunjukan perolehan minyak
sebesar 46.1%. Bila menggunakan campuran 50% air terproduksi dan 50% air tawar, terjadi penurunan
perolehan minyak sebesar 16% dibandingkan hasil injeksi hanya air tawar. Potensi kehilangan perolehan
minyak tersebut merepresentasikan efek kuantitatif kerusakan formasi terhadap produksi minyak. Informasi
ini sangat bermanfaat untuk evaluasi keekonomian pengembangan lapangan.
Kata Kunci: Air terproduksi, air tawar, kerusakan formasi, penyumbatan, pengendapan, penurunan permeabilitas, kehilangan perolehan minyak
ABSTRACT
Mixing of waters from different sources may exacerbate the risk of formation damage and can impact
on oil recovery. A case study is presented to demonstrate how to assess these risks. The study relies on
laboratory-based work. Appropriate materials, methods, and procedures to assure the quality of test data
and derive technically valid risks potential interpretations are discussed. The risks for potential plugging,
25
scaling, permeability reduction, and oil recovery loss caused by introducing produced water are identified. Plugging is caused by bacterial growth and solid particles present in produced water. Bacterial
growth is categorized as high. Solids Concentration is also high with its mean diameter larger than the
non-damaging particle size. The CaCO3 scale is likely at reservoir temperature due to high concentration
of HCO 3 in the produced water. Mixing of untreated produced water and treated freshwater caused
significantly reduction in permeability. For the 25% PW and 75% FW mix, the permeability decreases
by about 80% of its initial permeability. Adding 2000 ppm of biocide and filtered using 11 micron filter
paper improved the quality of produced water. For the same mixing fraction, the permeability decreases
only 47%. Analysis of pore throat size in conjunction with particle size of water samples suggests the
need for using a filter less than 11 micron to avoid permeability decline imposed by solid particles. Waterflood experiments showed an ultimate recovery factor of 46.1% of original oil in place obtained from
freshwater injection. Introducing 50% of produced water caused an oil recovery loss of 16% compared
to freshwater injection alone. This lost oil recovery represents a quantitative effect of formation damage
on oil production and may be valuable from the economic viewpoint.
Keywords: Produced water, freshwater, formation damage, plugging, scaling, permeability reduction, oil
recovery loss
I. INTRODUCTION
Injection of water for pressure maintenance and
sweeping oil towards production wells is a common
practice in the oil industry. The main reason behind
using this technique has been that it offers high
efficiency in displacing light to medium gravity crude
oils, ease of injection into oil-bearing formations,
availability and affordability of water, and lower
capital and operating costs, leading to a favorable
economic outcome compared to other improved oil
recovery methods. The possible sources of injected
water are produced water from a reservoir that is
brought to the surface along with oil production and
a suitable source from an external reservoir. External
sources range from seawater, lake water, river water,
to shallow aquifer freshwater. A successful water
injection project can increase oil recovery from 5%
to 25% normally seen under primary recovery, up
to typically a 45% recovery of original oil in place.
At the start of a water injection project, all the
injected water is sourced from an external reservoir.
As oil production continues, the volume of water
produced by a well and a field will increase. Then,
the percentage of produced water reinjected is also
increased. This does come without risks because both
surface and produced waters are usually different in
composition. Mixing of waters from different sources
may exacerbate the risk of formation damage and can
impact oil recovery. Evans (1994) provides a good
description of the different activities required during produced water reinjection project to avoid any
risk associated with the project. They are produced
26
water characterization, plugging, scaling, souring
studies, microbiology, corrosion, coreflooding tests,
and injectivity evaluation.
Most of the recent studies of mixing produced
water with surface water concern the formation
damage caused by plugging, scaling, souring, and
permeability reduction. Ba-Taweel et al. (2006)
investigated the risks of injectivity decline in
water injectors caused by mixing produced water
with seawater using core samples from Arab-D.
Experimental results showed that introducing
different ratios of produced water to the seawater
resulted in permeability loss in core samples.
Bedrikovetsky et al. (2006) has shown that mixing
of cation-rich produced water and seawater with
sulfate anions resulted in a significant decrease in
injectivity even for barium levels at decimal fraction
of parts per million (ppm). Mackay (2007) studied the
scaling risks at production wells due to injection of
mixture of seawater and produced water. The scaling
tendency at the production well through precipitation
of barium and sulphate was investigated using the
STARS reactive transport finite difference reservoir
simulator. Zuluaga et al. (2011) studied the risk
of both scaling and souring when produced water
reinjection is supplemented by seawater in a field
scale. Mahmoud (2014) investigated the damage
caused by deposition of calcium sulfate precipitation
by use of the material-balance method. Core flood
experiments were performed to assess the damage
and a computed-tomography scan used to locate the
damage inside the core. The results of experimental
3. Investigation of the Risks of Introducing Produced Water into Freshwater Injection System
(Usman)
data showed reduction of permeability of 20% from
its initial value after seawater injection, caused by
calcium sulfate precipitation.
Plugging risk is controlled by bacterial growth,
oil content, and solid material in the water injected.
Bacteria can plug rock pores by liberating H2S,
which causes precipitation of iron sulfide flocs,
and by creation of bacterial slimes (Lappan and
Fogler, 1995). The severity of plugging by oil will
depend on oil droplet size and concentration. Large
oil droplets can plug the pore throats. Increased oil
saturation around the wellbore results in lowering the
relative permeability to water and reduces injectivity
(Ba-Taweel et al. 2006). Factors which control the
plugging by suspended solid particles are particle size
and solid concentration (Ochi et al. 2007). Suspended
solids with large size will create an external filter
cake and cause face plugging. The accumulation of
the deposited particles inside the core reduces the
pore sizes, blocks thin pore throats, and leads to
permeability reduction.
Scaling may be induced by incompatible fluids.
Two waters are called incompatible if they are
mixed and interact chemically to form a solid that
precipitates minerals. Mineral scales can be both
calcium carbonate and or iron sulphide formation
arising from produced water itself and sulfate scales
arising from the comingling of barium, strontium, and
calcium contained in produced water with freshwater
(Zuluaga et al. 2011). Another mechanism of scaling
is induced by pressure or temperature changes.
Decrease in pressure and or increase in temperature
of water leads to a reduction in the salt solubility,
leading to precipitation of carbonate.
Proper mitigation of formation damage requires
knowing the type of damage occurred, since treatment
is damage-specific. A case study is presented to
demonstrate how the potential risks of plugging,
scaling, permeability reduction, and oil recovery loss
caused by mixing produced water with freshwater
are assessed. Loss in oil recovery is provided to get
insight into how the damage affects economic field
life. The field is a sandstone reservoir with current
production supported mainly by freshwater injected
into main zone reservoir for pressure maintenance
and reservoir sweeping. The freshwater is taken from
shallow aquifer formations in the same structure of
the oil reservoir through several dedicated water
producer wells. Currently, the produced water is
disposed in the river after being treated to reduce
oil content below the maximum allowable by the
government requirement. Having high produced
water disposed in the river, replacing freshwater with
produced water for water injection has emerged from
the water management strategy viewpoint.
II. METHODOLOGY
This work relies on a laboratory-based study.
Appropriate materials, methods, and to procedures
are needed to assure the quality of test data and to
derive technically valid risks potential interpretations.
Details of these issues are described in the following
subsections.
A. Experimental Materials
Water Properties. Water samples representing
both freshwater and produced water were collected
from different sampling points. Freshwater samples
were taken from three points: one at the gathering
network and two samples collected at freshwater
producer wellheads. Produced water samples were
collected at the Oily Water Treatment Unit (OWTU)
outlet flotator. Sampling was conducted daily for ten
days at different times, namely morning, afternoon,
and evening. There was no sampling on the seventh
day owing to rain. The samples were stored in a lab
fridge to prevent bacterial growth over time.
Reconciliation of water properties were obtained
by averaging over the geochemical analysis of
samples taken during ten consecutive days. Table 1
gives the average value and corresponding properties
for each type of water. Produced water is warmer
and contains higher concentration of total dissolved
solids (TDS) compared to freshwater. Given TDS of
1,644 and 2,920 mg/L for freshwater and produced
water, both waters are classified as brackish slightly
saline water.
Cores Selection and Preparation. Four
tubes of full diameter cores were obtained from a
sandstone reservoir. Different laboratory tests were
performed to select consistent core samples in terms
of petrophysical properties as well as homogeneity.
These include full diameter core X-ray computerized
tomography (CT) scan, core plug CT scan, and
routine core analysis. The analysis of X-ray CT
scanning was performed on the well-site core tube
27
to provide an initial non-destructive control over
internal geological features before further analysis.
The full diameter cores were scanned at 0o and 90o
to help in selecting core-plug samples that have
sedimentary bedding planes parallel to the flow
direction.
Ten horizontal core plugs have been cut from
full diameter cores based on the results of full
diameter CT scan. Core plug dimensions are 1.5
inch in diameter and 3 inch in length. The core
plugs were then CT scanned to screen out any core
with fractures or permeability barriers. Routine core
analysis includes porosity, air permeability, and
grain density determinations were carried out for
the selected cores at 4292 psig of confining pressure
and temperature of 80oC. Brief lithology descriptions
were also provided. Porosity was measured using
helium gas porosimeter. Permeability was determined
through the use of nitrogen gas permeameter. Table
2 lists the porosity permeability measurements and
lithology description of the selected cores. Core plugs
are grouped according to their porosity permeability
and lithology characteristics for further coreflooding
experiments. The first group consists of core plugs
#1 and #2 will be used to assess the risk of injected
water on reservoir permeability. The second group of
core plugs #3, #4, and #5 are for an oil recovery study.
Mineral composition of rock samples were
also investigated with the help of X-ray diffraction
(XRD). XRD chipped samples were taken at the end
site of core plugs #1 and #2. The sample materials
are composed of approximately 81% quartz, 9%
kaolinite, 3% illite, 3% siderite, and less than 5%
for other minerals such as plagioclase, pyrite, and
gypsum.
Table 1
Geochemical analysis and corresponding
properties for sources of water
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B. Methods and Procedures
Methods and procedures of laboratory testing to
investigate any risks associated with water injection
scenarios are described below.
Plugging. Formation plugging can be impaired
over time by injecting produced water with higher
population of bacteria, oil content, and solid mineral.
All of these can increase the risk of plugging pore
throat in the near-well region where the injected water
first enters the formation.
Bacterial growth was determined using most
probable number (MPN) method by distributing
and separating the microorganisms in liquid dilution
tubes. The MPN for injection water is based on
the API RP-38 method. Optimal growth medium,
incubation temperature, and period are required to
allow any single viable cell to grow and become
quantifiable. Bacteria identification was carried out
by means of purifying monocultures isolates from
bacterial colonies within a dish containing nutrient
agar and then observed using Bergey’s manual. Oil
content in produced water was determined utilizing
the Concawe – 1/72 method. Total suspended solid
(TSS) was measured by use of membrane filter
according to NACE TM-01-73. The sample is pressed
through the filter of 0.45 m at constant pressure
until a certain volume has passed the filter or for a
set time. Test involves determination of the value of
membrane filter test slope number (MTSN).
Degree of plugging potential is expressed by
relative plugging index (RPI) with the following
relationship:
RPI = TSS - MSTN
(1)
As MTSN always has a negative value, then the
RPI is the sum generated from TSS with MTSN.
A guide developed by AMOCO Production Co.
Research Center is used to relate RPI with degree of
plugging as presented in Table 3.
Scaling. Laboratory experimental was carried
out for produced water sample to see the scale risk
if produced water is introduced in the freshwater
injection system. The risk for potential scale
precipitation was investigated at ambient and
reservoir temperatures of 74oF and 94oF, respectively.
Scaling risks induced by calcium sulfate (CaSO4),
barium sulfate (BaSO 4), and strontium sulfate
(SrSO4) are based on solubility calculation using
Table 3
Water quality rating guide by AMOCO
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the following equation, providing values of Ksp are
known for each compound:
6 u ª ; . VS
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Here S is solubility expressed in milliequivalents/
Liter (meq/L), Ksp is the solubility product, and X is
excess ion concentration in moles/L. The S is related
to scale formation as follows:
- S > the actual concentration, water is undersaturated
with CaSO4, BaSO4, or SrSO4 and scale is unlikely.
- S = the actual concentration, water is saturated or
in equilibrium with CaSO4, BaSO4, or SrSO4. Scale
layer is neither precipitated nor dissolved.
- S < the actual concentration, water is supersaturated
with CaSO4, BaSO4, or SrSO4 and scale is likely.
where the actual concentration of sulfate compound
in solution is equal to the smaller of the Ca2+ / Ba2+ /
Sr2+ or SO42- concentrations in the water of interest.
The risks posed by calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
scales were investigated by the Stiff Davis Method.
Scaling risk indicated by scaling index (SI) as
follows:
SI = pH (measured) - pHs
(3)
with the pHs is the condition at which water is
saturated in calcium carbonate. Interpretation of SI is:
- For SI > 0, water is supersaturated and tends to
precipitate a scale layer of CaCO3.
- For SI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium)
with CaCO3. A scale layer of CaCO3 is neither
precipitated nor dissolved.
- For SI < 0, water is undersaturated and tends to
dissolve solid CaCO3.
Different ratios of produced water to the
freshwater were tested for compatibility assessment
29
using the hot rolling method. Water samples are
first filtered through a 0.45 m filter paper. Put
the samples into the 500 cc sized of stainless steel
cell. Place the cell in a hot roll oven for 24 hours at
reservoir temperature with rotational speed of 50
rpm. After being cooled sample are re-filtered: then
compare TSS formed from the testing of mixed water
with TSS of 100% freshwater and 100% produced
water. If the weight of precipitate minerals of mixed
water is less or equal to the comparator, then the
mixed water is considered compatible and vice versa.
Permeability Reduction. Core plugs #1, #2,
and #3 were used to research the risk of permeability
reduction resulting from injecting the mixed
produced water with freshwater at various volume
ratios. Two tests were undertaken. First, the produced
water without any biocide treatment and filtration
was used with freshwater for the water injection
system. The experiment was done using core plug #1.
Second, the produced water was treated by adding
biocide and filtered using 11 micron filter paper
before being mixed with the freshwater and injected
into the core plugs #2 and #3. All experiments were
performed under reservoir pressure and temperature
conditions, which are 3600 psi and 60 oC respectively.
The experimental procedures include:
- Load a freshwater saturated core plug into core
holder and put it in the 60 oC oven and applying
confining pressure of 4100 psi.
- Inject freshwater that has been filtered using 11
micron filter paper at pressure of 3600 psi up
to several pore volume (PV) to get stabilized
differential pressure (dP) between inlet and outlet
of injection fluid.
- Inject mix of 25% of freshwater with 75% of
production water up to several PVs and investigate
the reduction trend of both differential pressures.
- If the permeability damage is not severe, then
inject mix of 50% of freshwater with 50% of
production water, 75% of freshwater with 25% of
production water, and finally 100% of production
water.
- Perform a post freshwater injection to see whether
the permeability damage could be recovered back
to its original.
Oil Recovery Loss. Quantitative effect of risks
related formation damage caused by commingling
produced water with freshwater to oil production is
30
expressed by loss of oil recovery. Three waterflood
experiments were conducted to assess the risks.
They are 100% freshwater, 50% freshwater and
50% produced water mix, and 100% produced water
injections. Core plugs #4, #5, and #6 were used in
those experiments. The experimental procedure is
described below:
- Inject freshwater of 3 PV and heat the cell and core
at reservoir temperature of 60oC.
- Measure initial permeability to water, kw@Soi.
- Inject Marcol 52 until the pressure drops across
the core plug is stabilized and no more water
production.
- Measure initial permeability to oil at irreducible
water saturation, ko1@Swi.
- Measure the displaced water volume accurately,
- Inject toluene of 1 PV.
- Inject filtered crude oil of 5 PV and measure initial
permeability to oil at irreducible water saturation,
ko2@Swi.
- Shut-in the cell with pressure and temperature to
restore rock and fluids wettability for one week.
- Perform core waterflooding and calculate the oil
recovery factor versus water injection volume.
Risks which arise when introducing produced
water into the freshwater injection system for
pressure maintenance and sweeping oil in a sandstone
oil field studied are discussed below.
A. Plugging
Table 4 gives the average RPI values for
freshwater and produced water measured during the
ten consecutive days both onsite and in the laboratory.
Test results shown that produced water rated poorly in
term of RPI, indicating faster plugging of the filter. It
means that a high potential plugging may arise when
produced water is introduced into the freshwater
water injection system without any treatments. The
RPI becomes more severe when it tested again in the
laboratory due to the increase in value of MTSN and
TSS as seen in Figure 1. Meanwhile the fresh water
in general rated as excellent with a few having a
quality rating good to fair. MTSN and TSS measured
in laboratory and onsite are relatively unchanged as
depicted in Figure 2.
(Usman)
be less than 1.0-1.4 m using the 1/10th – 1/7th rule. Table 6
provides particle size distribution and solid concentration on
four water samples. The mean diameter of solids in produced
water and freshwater are 5.4 and 5.5 m, respectively, which
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MTSN and TSS values of produced water obtained
from laboratory and onsite tests
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The variation of MTSN and TSS is
controlled by bacterial growth, oil content,
and solid particles material. Microbiological
analysis indicated that both produced water
and freshwater generally contain insignificant
anaerobic bacteria with population less than
10 cell/mg. Specific anaerobic bacteria include
sulfate-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) and sulfatereduction bacteria (SRB) were also found in
an insignificant number. But aerobic bacteria
in the produced water were generally found
to be high density of 10,000 – 99,999 cell/
ml. Oil content in produced water measured
during the ten consecutive days ranged from
0.5 up to 5.0 mg/L with the average value is
1.9 mg/L, a very low level compared with
the standard dischargeable value of less than
30 mg/L (Arthur et al. 2005). Bacteria can
produce biofilm. Oil and solids particles
entrained in produced water may be trapped by
the developing bacterial biofilm. This explains
higher MTSN value from the laboratory tests
compared with the onsite tests. The increasing
of TSS was triggered by the bacterial content
since they add the actual weight of filter paper.
Another source of plugging comes from
the particle size and solids concentration on
waters related to the pore throat distribution.
Non-damaging particle size distribution should
not be larger than 1/10th – 1/7th of pore throat
size (Ba-Taweel et al. 2006). Table 5 gives a
summary of pore size distribution measured
from four core samples. It showed that pore
aperture diameter of 10-30 m around 39%
and 1-10 m about 25%. For an average (D50)
pore throat size of 10 m, the non-damaging
diameter for the invading particle has to
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MTSN and TSS values of freshwater obtained
from laboratory and onsite tests
Table 4
RPI analysis of water samples
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31
is larger than the non-damaging particle size. Solid
concentration in produced water is also much higher
than freshwater. The increase in solid concentration
will increase the risk of plugging.
The above results indicate that plugging risk
will increase by injecting produced water into the
freshwater injection system, but levels are expected
to be manageable through the use of suitable biocide and filters. Appropriate biocide with optimal
concentration is generally effective in reducing the
number of bacterial cells. Waters should be screened
using filter below 10 m to ensure removal of fine
particles greater than 5 m in order to reduce the
risk of plugging.
Table 5
Pore size distribution from core samples
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Scaling index tendency calculations for produced water
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Table 7 presents the average values
of scaling index tendency calculations
from 27 produced water samples that were
taken three times a day for nine days. The
highlighted cell indicates a condition that
is interpreted high risk for potential scale
precipitation. Precipitation of CaSO 4 ,
BaSO4, and SrSO4 are not likely because
the produced water is under saturated with
those sulfate mineral scales. The S values
calculated for CaSO4, BaSO4, and SrSO4
are higher than actual concentration both
at the ambient and reservoir temperatures.
Cation and anion levels present in the
produced water are found not sensitive to the
temperature change in forming precipitation
of sulfate mineral scales.
The risk for potential sulfate mineral
scales is further investigated through
compatibility test. Different ratios of
produced water to freshwater are tested.
Table 8 presents the results for the mixing
fraction that were used in the compatibility
test. PW refers to produced water, while
FW refers to freshwater. The results show
that the weight of precipitation formed after
mixing according the scenarios is below the
average weight of proportional precipitate.
It means that no precipitation from the
mixing of two waters is expected. Scaling
index calculations and compatibility tests
are found consistent with the geochemical
analysis reported in Table 1. Less amounts of sulfate mineral
scale-associated ions in the produced water leads to a low risk
for potential scale precipitation.
The laboratory testing of 27 water samples indicated that there
is a tendency for CaCO3 to precipitate at ambient temperature,
although unlikely on average. At reservoir temperature, the
tendency for CaCO3 scale is likely. In other words, CaCO3 scaling
risk increases with temperature. Increases in temperature leads
to a reduction in the solubility of the salt. Decreasing solubility
caused the compounds precipitate from solution as solids. Level
of dissolved bicarbonate HCO 3- concentration which appeared
in the produced water samples is likely sensitive to the
temperature change in forming CaCO3 scale. Cooling the injected
water temperature by increasing fraction of freshwater may
NP'
B. Scaling
39
Figure 3
Differential pressure and permeability profile as a function
of PV injected for mixture of untreated produced
water and filtered freshwater
Table 8
Compatibility of produced water (PW) versus freshwater (FW)
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decrease the risk of CaCO 3 scale.
Mitigation through scale inhibitor
squeeze treatments can also be performed
to remove accumulations of this type of
scale.
After finishing freshwater injection,
the mixed of 25% produced water and
75% freshwater began to be introduced
into the core. Results are shown by
green lines in Figure 3. The differential
pressure is inversely proportional
to the permeability. Sharp increases
of differential pressure up to 5 PV
injected resulted in sharp decline in
core permeability. Average permeability
decreases quickly and sharply from 125
mD to 72 mD after 5 PV of injection.
This suggested a fast damaging rate in
the core. Then, the differential pressure
decline is proportional to the cumulative
34
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Test 1: Untreated production water
39
Figure 4
Differential pressure and permeability profile as a function
of PV injected for mixture of treated produced
water and filtered freshwater
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Core plug #1 was used in this
experiment. The base permeability was
first established using filtered freshwater.
Then, the mixed produced water and
freshwater were injected into the core
sample. A post freshwater injection was
performed at the end of the experiment.
Figure 3 reveals the differential pressure
and permeability profile as a function
of PV injected for various mixing of
fraction produced water to freshwater
(PW/FW). The injection of freshwater
did not cause any damage to the core
permeability. The water permeability is
relatively constant with an average of
116 mD after 27 PV freshwater being
injected. A stabilized pressure drop of
around 4 psi was observed during the
injection also indicating there is no any
damage to the flow system along the
core.
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C. Permeability Reduction
Two tests were conducted to assess
permeability loss of core samples when
introducing produced water into the
freshwater injection system. Results of
each experiment are detailed below.
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Figure 5
Permeability reduction after injecting 17 PV of various
mixtures of treated produced water and filtered freshwater
volume injected and permeability reduction decreases gradually to
finally stabilize at around 25 mD after 27.4 PV of injection. It means
that the core loses 80% of its initial permeability. This severe reduction
in permeability is probably caused by high bacterial counts and TDS
present in the produced water. Since the core suffered substantial
permeability reduction, injection with mix of water containing more
than 25% of produced water was not further evaluated.
A post freshwater injection was carried out to further evaluate
the damage characteristic. Results are depicted by blue lines in
Figure 3. No improvement is observed after injecting 8.5 PV of
freshwater shown by relatively constant differential pressure and
permeability. Average permeability of around 20 mD suggested that
the permeability losses cannot be recovered. Untreated produced
(Usman)
water caused permanently permeability impairment,
which is attributed to the entrainment of bacteria
and solid particles with high concentration in the
produced water. The in-situ secretion of bacterial
slimes can be a cause of substantial permeability
impairment.
Test 2: Treated production water
Produced water was treated by adding 2000
ppm of biocide and filtered using 11 micron filter
paper. Figure 4 depicts the differential pressure and
permeability profile as a function of PV injected
for mixture of treated produced water and filtered
freshwater using core plug #2. Increasing differential
pressure resulted in decreasing permeability.
Results of freshwater injection show a similar
trend observed in Figure 3. Both differential pressure
and permeability are relatively constant during
the injection. An average permeability is around
135 mD after 22 PV freshwater being injected.
However, a different trend was observed for the
mixed water injection. Introducing produced water
caused a gradual decline in core permeability and the
decline is linear to the PV injected. The permeability
impairment is significantly improved using treated
produced water. Mixing 25% volume of produced
water with freshwater resulted in the improvement of
core permeability losses from 80% for the untreated
to 47% for the treated produced waters after injecting
the same PV of mixed water. This improvement
is attributed to the effectiveness of biocide in
suppressing the bacterial growth. The observation for
28 days shows that there was no bacterial growth in
the produced water after added 2000 ppm of biocide.
Figure 5 shows the reduction in permeability
which resulted from mixing freshwater with different
fraction of produced water after injecting 17 PV.
Increasing the fraction of produced water causes an
increase in the severity of permeability reduction.
However, the permeability reduction was observed to
reach a saturated value when the fraction of produced
water increased more than 50% of PV. A higher
permeability reduction of 55% was reached when
50% of produced water was injected. The severity of
permeability reduction decreased when the volume
of produced water increased more than 50% volume.
For example, 75% and 100% volume of produced
water caused reduction in core permeability by 44%
and 40%, respectively. Post freshwater injection at
the end of the experiment did not show significant
improvement in permeability. After 17 PV mixed
water was injected, the permeability is relatively
constant at 80 mD or corresponding to 42% in permeability loss.
The major source of permeability impairment for
this test 2 was induced by the solid particles. The solid
particles passed the 11 micron filter paper migrate and
block mechanically within the pore throats, which
have the size less than 11 m. The mean diameter of
solids in produced water and freshwater are 5.4 and
5.5 m, respectively. Therefore, there is a high risk
for the potential bridging of solids within the core
and caused permeability reduction. In addition, high
concentration of TDS in produced water resulted
in more severe permeability reduction imposed by
mixing waters compared to the freshwater alone.
The severity of permeability reduction observed
in both tests can be related to the fraction of pore
throats having a diameter of less than 11 m. When
the fraction becomes larger, the water permeability
tends to decrease. This is supported by the results
obtained from the freshwater injection into the core
plugs #1 and #2. Even though the core plug #1 has
higher absolute permeability, its average water
permeability is less compared to the core plug #2.
Table 9
Basic data for oil recovery determination
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D. Oil Recovery Loss
The risk of oil recovery loss induced
by mixing produced water with freshwater
presented was evaluated through three
waterflood experiments performed on
core plugs # 3, 4, and 5. The basic data
for those experiments derived during
coreflooding are given in Table 9. The
permeability varied from 808 to 2270 mD
representing the reservoir heterogeneity.
Produced water and freshwater were
treated the same as that used in test 2 of
the permeability measurement.
Figure 6 depicts the oil recovery
factor which resulted from the waterflood
experiments. The results show a higher
ultimate recovery factor of 46.1% of
original oil in place obtained from
freshwater injection as expected. When
the 50% PW/50% FW mix is considered,
the ultimate recovery factor decreases to
38.7%. The recovery factor of produced
water injection reaches 30.6%. Contrary
to permeability reduction, the 50%
PW / 50% FW mix gives a good result
compared to the 100% produced water.
This is probably due to the fact that
permeability of core plug #4 used in
the 50% PW / 50% FW mix experiment
is significantly higher compared to
permeability of core plug #5 used in the
100% produced water. Knowing that
the average permeability used in the
freshwater injection is approximately 836
36
mD, the waterflood result that consider the permeability of 2270 is
very conservative in terms of oil recovery loss. An important result
from this experiment is to demonstrate the quantitative effect of risks
related formation damage to oil production caused by introducing
produced water into the freshwater injection system. Introducing
50% of produced water caused oil recovery loss of 16% compared
to freshwater injection alone. This reduction of oil recovery is
consistent with the previous experiment results.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Risks which arise when introducing produced water into the
freshwater injection system were investigated through laboratory
experiments. The field case study demonstrated that there is a risk
for potential plugging, scaling, permeability reduction, and oil
recovery loss. Plugging is caused by bacterial growth and solid
particles present in produced water. Bacterial growth is categorized
high. Solids Concentration is also high with its mean diameter larger
than the non-damaging particle size. The CaCO3 scale is likely
at reservoir temperature due to high concentration of HCO 3- in
the produced water. Plugging and scale resulted in permeability
reduction as well as oil recovery loss, even though that scale plug
was considerably less due to the fact both waters are compatible.
Mixing of untreated produced water and treated freshwater caused
significant reduction in permeability. For the 25% PW and 75%
FW mix, the permeability decreases by about 80% of its initial
permeability. Adding 2000 ppm of biocide and filtered using 11
micron filter paper improved the quality of produced water. For
the same mixing fraction, the permeability decreases only 47%.
This improvement attributed to the effectiveness of biocide in
suppressing the bacterial growth. The permeability decline is
triggered by high concentration of solids with particle size greater
than non-damaging particles size. Analysis of pore throat size in
conjunction with particle size of water samples suggests the need
5)22,3
This is due to the fact that the core plug
#1 contains pore throat size of 1-10 m
about 27.4% of PV, while the core plug #2
has only 21.4%, as revealed in Table 5. It
means that with the same concentration of
solid particles less than 11 m, reduction
in permeability for core plug #1 tends to
be higher than core plug #2. Using a 5
micron filter paper is expected to reduce
permeability reduction induced by solids
particles. Unfortunately, no injection
of freshwater that has been filtered by
filter paper of less than 11 micron was
performed on both tests.
):
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39
Figure 6
Oil recovery factor obtained from injecting different waters
(Usman)
for using a filter paper less than 11 micron to avoid
permeability decline imposed by solid particles.
Risk of using produced water on the oil production
is assessed through waterflood experiments. The
results show an ultimate recovery factor of 46.1%
of original oil in place obtained from freshwater
injection. Introducing 50% of produced water caused
an oil recovery loss of 16% compared to freshwater
injection alone. This loss of oil recovery represents
a quantitative effect of formation damage on oil
production and may be valuable from the economic
viewpoint.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges the support received
from Research and Development Centre for Oil and
Gas Technology “LEMIGAS” laboratories. Drilling
Laboratory is thanked for help in water sampling
and analysis. Core Laboratory is acknowledged
for core analysis. Biotechnology Laboratory is
thanked for conducting microbiological analysis.
EOR Laboratory is acknowledged for coreflooding
experiments. And also I would like to extend
my deepest thanks to Sugihardjo for his fruitful
discussion and scientific support.
REFERENCES
Arthur, J.D., Langhus, B.G., and Patel, C., 2005.
“Technical Summary of Oil & Gas Produced Water
Treatment Technologies”, All Consulting, LLC, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, USA.
Ba-Taweel, M.A., Al-Anazi, H.A., Al-Otaibi, M., Abitrabi Balian, A.N., and Hilab, V.V., 2006. “Core
Flood Study of Injectivity Decline by Mixing Produced
Oily Water with Seawater in Arab-D Reservoir”, The
SPE Technical Symposium of Saudi Arabia Section –
106356, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Bedrikovetsky, P., Mackay, E., Monteiro, R.P., Patricio,
F., and Rosario, F.F., 2006. “Injectivity Impairment
due to Sulfate Scaling during PWRI: Analytical
Model”, The SPE International Oilfield Scale
Symposium - 100512, Aberdeen, Canada.
Evans, R.C., 1994. “Developments in Environmental
Protection Related to Produced Water Treatments
and Disposal (Produced Water Re-Injection)”, The
SPE Health, Safety, and Environmental in Oil and
Gas Exploration and Production Conference - 27179,
Jakarta, Indonesia.
Lappan, R.E. and Fogler, H.S., 1996. “Reduction of
Porous Media Permeability from In Situ Leuconostoc
Mesenteroides Groeth and Dextran Production”,
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Volume 50 (1996),
pp. 6-15.
Mackay, E.J., 2007. “Limiting Scale Risk at Production
Wells by Management of PWRI Wells”, The SPE
International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry –
96741, Houston, Texas, USA.
Mahmoud, M.A., 2014. “Evaluating the Damage Caused
by Calcium Sulfate Scale Precipitation During
Low- and High-Salinity-Water Injection”, Journal of
Canadian Petroleum Technology, Volume 53, No. 3,
pp. 141-150.
Ochi, J., Rivet, P., Benquet, J.C., and Detienne, L.D.,
2007. “Internal Formation Damage Properties and
Oil-Deposition Profile within Reservoir during PWRI
Operations”, The European Formation Damage
Conference – 108010, Scheveningen Netherlands.
Zuluaga, E., Evans, P., Nesom, P., Spratt, T., and
Daniels, E., 2011. “Technical Evaluations to Support
the Decision to Reinject Produced Water”, SPE
Production and Operation, Volume 26, No. 2, pp.
128-139.
37
38
LEMIGAS
THE INFLUENCE OF BIODIESEL BLENDS (UP TO B-20)
FOR PARTS OF DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
BY IMMERSION TEST
KOMPATIBILITAS KOMPONEN SISTEM BAHAN BAKAR
MESIN DIESEL TERHADAP B-20 MELALUI UJI PERENDAMAN
Riesta Anggarani, Cahyo S.Wibowo, and Emi Yuliarita
E-mail: riesta@lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: riesta.anggarani@gmail.com,
E-mail: cahyow@lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: emiy@lemigas.esdm.go.id,
First Registered on April 2nd 2015; Received after Corection on April 23th 2015
ABSTRAK
Pemerintah Indonesia akan menerapkan kebijakan kewajiban penggunaan campuran Bahan Bakar Minyak
jenis Minyak Solar dan Biodiesel dengan persentase minimum 20% (B-20) dimulai pada tahun 2016. Dari
sudut pandang teknis, masalah kompatibilitas komponen menjadi salah satu perhatian industri otomotif.
Karakteristik biodiesel sebagai pelarut dikhawatirkan akan menjadikannya bereaksi dengan komponen sistem
bahan bakar kendaraan mesin diesel, terutama elastomer. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi
material penyusun komponen sistem bahan bakar, meliputi komponen logam dan non logam, dengan
kompatibilitas yang baik terhadap B-20. Identifikasi material penyusun komponen non logam dilakukan
dengan uji FTIR dan DSC,dan uji XRD dan XRF untuk komponen logam. Uji perendaman selama 2500
jam dilakukan untuk membandingkan pengaruh 5 (lima) campuran bahan bakar (B-0, B-5, B-10, B-15 dan
B-20) terhadap perubahan sifat fisika komponen logam dan non logam sistem bahan bakar kendaraan mesin
diesel. Sifat fisika yang diamati adalah berat spesimen komponen uji. Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan
bahwa perubahan berat komponen logam diperoleh pada rentang 0.007% hingga 0.595%. Perubahan berat
yang lebih besar diperoleh pada komponen non logam antara 0.001% to 13.85%. Perubahan berat yang
lebih rendah terlihat pada komponen logam jenis material CuO, Al2O3 dan SiO, sedang untuk komponen
non logam perubahan terendah diperoleh dari polimer jenis fluoroviton A. Pengamatan terhadap komposisi
bahan bakar sebelum dan sesudah uji perendaman komponen dengan FTIR menunjukkan tidak ada perubahan
yang signifikan dan efek dari sifat pelarut bahan bakar campuran ini dapat diabaikan.
Kata Kunci: kompatibilitas, logam, non logam, biodiesel, material
ABSTRACT
The Government of Indonesia will implement the mandatory policy on the use of Diesel Fuel and
Biodiesel mixture with minimum 20% volume of biodiesel (B-20) start from 2016. From technical point of
view, compatibility issue becomes one of the problems to be considered by automotive industries. The concern
relate with solvent characteristic of biodiesel, which cause the biodiesel and its blends react with the parts
of fuel system, especially the elastomers. This work is aimed to identify the material constructed the fuel
system parts, including metal and non-metal parts, which has good compatibility to biodiesel blends up to
B-20. Identification of the parts material was done by FTIR and DSC for non-metal parts and by XRD and
XRF for metal parts. The immersion test is used to compare the effect of five biodiesel-diesel fuel blends (B0, B-5, B-10, B-15, and B-20) to the physical change of metal and non-metal parts of diesel fuel system in
39
a 2500 hours test period. The physical change being checked is the weight of the parts. The result obtained
that for immersed metal parts, the change of weight occurred in the range of 0.007% to 0.595%. The higher
weight change obtained by non-metal parts in the range of 0.001% to 13.85%. The lowest change was shown
by metal parts consists of an alloy of CuO, Al2O3 and SiO, whether for non-metal parts was shown by a
polymer type of Fluoroviton A. Through FTIR analysis we also observed that fuels composition before and
after immersed with the tested parts were not change significantly means that effect of solvent characteristic
of biodiesel in the fuel mixture is negligible.
Keywords: compatibility; metal; non-metal; biodiesel; material
I. INTRODUCTION
Application of the mixture of diesel fuel and
biodiesel known as B-XX (where XX represent
percent volume of biodiesel) for transportation sector
now become a common policy taken by countries to
solve their dependence on fossil fuel. Combined with
another benefits such as carbon emission reduction,
cleaner gas emission, increasing added value of
some non-productive plants, and decreasing of fossil
fuel imports, the use of biodiesel to substitute diesel
fuel will be accelerated to the contents of 20% from
national demand start from 2016 by Government of
Indonesia (DEMR No/2014). The policy of using
the mixture of diesel fuel and biodiesel becomes a
mandatory since end of 2013 by implementing B-10.
Now, in the next 2 years the content of biodiesel usage
will be doubled to B-20.
Currently, the usage of biodiesel mixture for
automotive still limited to low percentage in the
countries worldwide. In ASEAN countries, Malaysia
has just implement B-10, Thailand reached B-7 and
Philippines use B-5. From the automobile makers
point of view, the recommended blending for diesel
vehicles even lower which only B-5, as stated in the
document of World Wide Fuel Charter (WWFC)
2012 edition. It is because some limitation that the
producers of automobile considered biodiesel will
affect engine performance in some ways. Biodiesel
is observed to provide slightly lower power and
torque, and higher fuel consumption (Demirbas
2007). Distinction between diesel fuel and biodiesel
that being attributed to their difference in chemical
nature may becomes the root cause in the technical
problems. Besides the major fatty ester components,
minor constituents of biodiesel include intermediary
mono-and di-glycerides and residual triglycerides
resulting from the transesterification reaction,
methanol, free fatty acids, sterols etc (Knothe 2010).
Due to its unsaturated molecules and compositional
40
effects, it is oxidative and causes enhanced corrosion
and material degradation (Jain & Sharma 2010).
(Fazal et al. 2010) concluded on their paper that
auto-oxidation, higroscopic nature, higher electrical
conductivity, polarity and solvency properties of
biodiesel cause enhanced corrosion of metal and
degradation of polimers.
In relation with non-metal parts compatibility,
(Bessee & Fey 1997) investigated the effect of
methyl soy ester and diesel blends on the tensile
strength, elongation, hardness, and swelling of
several common elastomers. They showed that nitrile
rubber, nylon 6/6, and high density polypropylene
exhibited changes in physical properties while
Teflon ®, Viton® 401-C and Viton® GFLT were
unaffected. Another study by (Haseeb et al. 2011)
conduct a static immersion test for 500 hours of
three different elastomer materials; nitrile rubber
(NBR), polychlorophrene, and fluoro-viton A in
B-0 (diesel fuel), B-10 (blend sof 10% vol. palm
biodiesel and diesel fuel) and B-100 (biodiesel). At
the end of immersion, degradation behavior of the
tested materials was characterized by measuring
changes in mass, volume, hardness, tensile strength
and elongation. On the conclusion, from these
three materials they assure consumer confidence on
using fluoro-viton for biodiesel use. They explained
that less dissolving elastomer has less possibility
to exhibit swelling or cracking. This reveals that
it is important to find such a material having low
solubility in biodiesel or its blends.
Another research focusing on material
compatibility to biodiesel and its blends work on
metal part compatibility. Copper, mild carbon steel,
aluminium and stainless steel are four important
metals widely used in diesel engines. (Enzhu Hu et
al. 2012) immersed four metal strips: copper, carbon
steel, aluminium and stainless steel for two months in
B-0 and B-100 from rapeseed methyl ester (RME).
4. The Influence of Biodiesel Blends (up to B-20) for Parts of Diesel Engine Fuel System by Immersion Test
(Riesta Anggarani, Cahyo S. Wibowo, and Emi Yuliarita)
Characterization of the metal surface were done
using scanning electron microscopy with energy
dispersive X-Ray analysis (SEM/EDS) and an X-Ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). After the study
they conclude that corrosion effects of biodiesel on
copper and carbon steel are more severe than those
on aluminium and stainless steel. Another experiment
was done by (Fazal et al. 2010) where copper,
aluminium, and 316 stainless steel were immersed
in diesel and palm biodiesel for 600 hours and 1200
hours. They found that biodiesel is more corrosive for
copper and aluminium and that copper acts as strong
catalyst to oxidize palm biodiesel. The differences
between research results exist because they conduct
different test conditions and also different fuels.
From the published papers focusing on material
compatibility to biodiesel, the materials used are
specific sheet or strips prepared for the immersion
test, not from the existing fuel system of a vehicle.
A research by (Reza Sukaraharja et al. 2011) conduct
an immersion test using specimen from existing fuel
system parts, both for metal and non-metal parts, on
a diesel (B-0) and B-10 exhibit a swelling behavior
for some non-metal parts. It is not identified on that
research the type of the material that being swollen
or corroded more than the others.
In order to provide useful information for
automotive industries and identification of the current
existing parts material having better compatibilities to
blends of diesel fuel and biodiesel up to 20% volume
(B-20), we conduct an immersion test of the current
fuel system parts. The difference between this work
and other available work on compatibility to biodiesel
is we use the current parts inside fuel system of diesel
vehicles in Indonesia and identify the constituent
components of the parts to select the more compatible
materials than others to B-20. For both metal and nonmetal parts, we cut the specimen into a particular size
in order to facilitate each specimen to be immersed
in tested fuels inside 1 litre HDPE bottle. By doing
this work we expect to provide recommendation for
the government, industries and also public consumers
about the materials compatible to B-20.
II. METHODOLOGY
Before immersion test, fuel samples to be tested
were prepared by blending diesel fuel and biodiesel.
Five fuels consist of pure diesel fuel (B-0) and the
blends B-5, B-10, B-15 and B-20 are used as tested
fuels. Some physical and chemical parameters of
the tested fuels were compared to the diesel fuel
specification in Indonesia. The fuel system part
specimens from 3 types of diesel vehicles marketed
in Indonesia, two from the conventional diesel
engine and one from the common rail vehicle were
prepared for the immersion test. Both metal and nonmetal parts were cut into a particular size in order
to facilitate each specimen to be immersed in tested
fuels inside 1 litre HDPE bottle. The measurements
of the specimen weight were taken before the
immersion. Elemental analysis was conducted using
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) to identify
material elements of non-metal specimens and X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
to identify material elements of metal specimens.
The weight of each specimens were observed before
immersed and 2500 hours at the end of the immersion
test. Before taking the weight data, the remain tested
fuels that attached on the surface of the test specimens
were dissolved by using acetone for 2-3 minutes then
put it on a dry cloth to dry it. Soon after the specimen
dry then the weight data was taken directly.
The following results were presented: the
physical and chemical properties of the tested fuels,
elemental analysis of the material constructed the test
specimens and the weight change of the immersed
specimens during 2500 hours of test period.
A. Physical and chemical analysis of the tested
fuels
All of the tested fuels are checked for its physical
and chemical properties in order to ensure its quality
referring to the diesel fuel specification in Indonesia
(called Minyak Solar 48 specification). Table 1 below
shows us the result of all fuel quality testing
From Table 1, all of the tested fuels fulfill the
specification of Minyak Solar 48, except for the limit
of FAME content. This is understandable that in this
study the FAME content for the fuels are varied to
understand the effect of biodiesel content to material
degradation during immersion test. The compliance
between the results and the specification ensure us
that the tested fuels are having good quality.
41
Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of the tested fuels
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Table 2
Result of XRD and XRF for elemental analysis of metal parts
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B. Elemental analysis of metal and non-metal
parts
Different test are conducted to identify the
elements constructing the test specimens that are
grouped to; the metal parts using XRD and XRF
analysis whether the non-metal parts using FTIR
and DSC analysis. Table 2 shows us the result of
42
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elemental analysis for metal parts and Table 3 shows
the result of non-metal parts.
From Table 2 we can observe that for parts in
pump section, material constructing the parts mainly
consist of ferrous alloy in majority or more than 80%
in mass concentration. Other constituents belong to
zinc alloy and aluminum alloy. For fuel injection
pump parts, the materials dominated by
copper alloy followed by aluminum alloy
as the constituent.
The result of FTIR and DSC for
identification of polymer type constructing
the non-metal parts reveals that common
polymer used in the fuel system parts
belong to Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR)
groups, and other polymer identified is the
group of Fluorocarbon type V (Viton A).
By identifying the elements for the test
specimens, we can observe the type of
material that is suitable for biodiesel blends
up to 20% use.
C. Dimension change during Immersion Test
From previous study done in Lemigas by Sukaraharja, we
noted that the effect of biodiesel use to polymeric materials in fuel
Table 3
Result of FTIR and DSC for elemental
analysis of non-metal parts
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Figure 1
Weight change of metal parts : (a) parts of injection pump, (b) parts of injection pipe,
(c) parts of fuel injection tube
43
compatible material for B-20. The lowest change of
the metal parts immersed in B-20 is belong to parts
of injection pump with the change only 0.048%.
Tracing back to Table 2, it is observed that parts of
fuel injection pump are constructed from the alloy
of CuO and Al2O3 and other elements in smaller
concentration. This observation lead us to choose the
more compatible parts in contact with B-20 is made
from the alloy of CuO, Al2O3 and SiO.
Figure 2 shows the weight change of non-metal
parts during 2500 hours of immersion test. Similar
with the result show on Figure 1, the positive value
in Figure 2 indicate weight increasing of the test
specimens. Higher weight change of the non-metal
line system is observed from the weight increasing
of the test specimen (Reza Sukaraharja et al. 2011).
Graph of weight change as presented in Figure 1
(a), (b), and (c) shows us that after 2500 hours being
immersed in the tested fuels, the change of the metal
specimens weight ranging from 0.007% for the parts
of injection pump immersed in B-0 to 0.595% for
parts of fuel injection tube immersed in B-20. The
positive values of the result show that the weight of
all test specimens increased. Deeper observation over
these 3 figures reveals that weight change happened
in all tested fuels including B-0 or the diesel fuel.
Further observation focusing on the change of parts
immersed in B-20 as our goals is finding the most
D
EF
Figure 2
Weight change of non-metal parts : (a) parts of injection pump,
(b) parts of fuel filter, (c) parts of fuel injection pump
44
parts compared to the metal parts can be observed
from Figure 2, where the range of weight change
is from 0.001% for parts of fuel injection pump
immersed in B-0 to 13.85% for parts of injection
pump immersed in B-5. The effect of biodiesel blends
to non-metal parts is higher than metal because
swelling phenomenon occur in non-metal parts.
Swelling occur because the interaction between
biodiesel and polymer constructing the non-metal
parts caused absorption of the biodiesel liquid take
part into the polymer bodies. This liquid absorption
increasing the volume and also affected the weight of
the non-metal parts immersed in biodiesel blends. The
weight change occured for all tested fuels, even in
B-0 swelling also occured. Focusing our observation
to B-20, we could find the lowest weight change is
belong to parts of fuel injection pump. Tracing back
to Table 3, we can find that there are 2 types of fuel
injection pump parts used in this research. From the
identification number of related part, we conclude
that the part with lowest change is the one constructed
from Fluorocarbon rubber (Viton A).
IV. CONCLUSION
Evaluation on the results of present work
focusing on the identification of current fuel system
parts that having better compatibility to B-20 lead us
to conclude the following points:
1. Higher compatibility in the matter of weight
change to the application of B-20 is shown by
metal parts of injection pump constructed from
alloy of CuO, Al2O3 and SiO.
2. For non-metal parts, higher compatibility in the
matter of weight change on the application of
B-20 is shown by parts of fuel injection pump
made from Fluorocarbon rubber (Viton A).
REFERENCES
Bessee G.B., Fey J.P., 1997, Society of Automotive
Engineering technical paper no 971690.
Decree of Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources
Republic of Indonesia No. 20, 2014.
Demirbas A., 2007, “Progress and recent trends in
biofuels”, Prog Energy Combust Sci. 33:1-18.
Fazal M.A., Haseeb A.S.M.A., Masjuki H.H., 2011,
“Biodiesel Feasibility Study: An evaluation of material
compatibility; performance; esmission and engine
durability”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews. 15: 1314-1324.
Fazal M.A., Haseeb A.S.M.A., Masjuki H.H., 2010,
“Comparative corrosive characteristics of petroleum
diesel and palm biodiesel for automotive materials”,
Fuel Processing Technology. 2010; 91: 1308-1315.
Haseeb A.S.M.A., Jun T.S., Fazal M.A., Masjuki H.H.,
2011, “Degradation of physical properties of different
elastomers upon exposure to palm biodiesel”, Energy.
36: 1814-1819.
Hu E., Xu Y., Hu X., Pan L., Jiang S., 2012, “Corrosion
behaviors of metals in biodiesel from rapeseed oil and
methanol”, Renewable Energy. 2012; 37: 371-378.
Jain S., Sharma M.P., 2010, “Stability of biodiesel and its
blends : review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 14: 667-678.
Knothe G., 2010, “Biodiesel and renewable diesel : a
comparison”, Prog Energy Combust Sci. 2010; 36:
364-373.
Reza Sukaraharja et al., 2011, ”Final reports of study
on biodiesel effects on hardness and dimension change
of diesel engine non-metal parts”, a research project
report prepared for LEMIGAS.
45
46
LEMIGAS
EFFECT OF ACTIVATION TEMPERATURE AND ZnCl2
CONCENTRATION FOR MERCURY ADSORPTION IN
NATURAL GAS BY ACTIVATED COCONUT CARBONS
PENGARUH TEMPERATUR AKTIVASI DAN KONSENTRASI ZnCl2
TERHADAP PENYERAPAN MERKURI DALAM GAS BUMI
OLEH KARBON TEMPURUNG KELAPA YANG TERAKTIVASI
Lisna Rosmayati
E-mail: lisnar@lemigas.esdm.go.id, E-mail: riesta.anggarani@gmail.com
First Registered on March 25th 2015; Received after Corection on April 22nd 2015
ABSTRAK
Elemen merkuri yang terkandung dalam gas bumi telah menjadi perhatian serius dari sisi lingkungan
karena sifat volatilitas dan toksisitasnya yang tinggi. Penyerapan dengan carbon yang teraktivasi merupakan
suatu metode mengontrol merkuri yang efektif. Kandungan merkuri dalam gas bumi harus dihilangkan
untuk mencegah terjadinya kerusakan peralatan dalam plan pengolahan gas dan sistem jaringan pipa
transmisi. Penelitian ini menggambarkan proses eliminasi merkuri yang terkandung dalam gas bumi
dengan menggunakan karbon aktif dari tempurung kelapa yang diimpregnasi dengan ZnCl2. Temperatur
aktivasi dan konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2 merupakan variable yang dapat mempengaruhi kapasitas penyerapan
merkuri. Karbon aktif dibuat dari kulit tempurung kelapa dan diaktivasi pada temperature 600, 700 and
800oC dalam aliran konstan nitrogen. Pengaruh temperatur aktivasi dan konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2 terhadap
penyerapan merkuri oleh adsorben menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan adsorpsi adsorben telah dipengaruhi
oleh temperature aktivasi hingga mencapai temperature optimumnya 700oC. Kemampuan adsorpsi meningkat
dengan meningkatnya konsentrasi larutan ZnCl2 dan penyerapan optimum pada konsentrasi ZnCl27% . Hasil
menunjukkan bahwa penyerapan merkuri oleh carbon teraktivasi yang terimpregnasi klor sangat signifikan
dan diperoleh temperature aktivasi optimumnya. Kesimpulan akhir diperoleh temperature aktivasi optimum
700oC dan 7% ZnCl2 sebagai konsentrasi impregnasi yang dapat menyerap merkuri secara maksimal.
Kata Kunci: aktivasi, penyerapan merkuri, gas bumi, karbon tempurung kelapa teraktivasi
ABSTRACT
Elemental mercury from natural gas has increasingly become an environmental concern due to its high
volatility and toxicity. Activated carbon adsorption is an effective mercury control method. Mercury content
in natural gas should be removed to avoid equipment damage in the gas processing plant or the pipeline
transmission system. This research describes the process of mercury removal from natural gas by coconut
active carbon impregnated with ZnCl2. Activation temperature and ZnCl2 solution concentration are significant affect the mercury adsorption capacity. Charcoal was prepared from coconut shell and activated at 500,
700 and 900oC in constant flow of nitrogen. The effect of activation temperature and ZnCl2 concentration
for mercury adsorption on adsorbent show that the adsorption ability of adsorbent is affected by increasing activation temperature up to an optimum temperature of 700oC. Ability of adsorption increases with
increasing ZnCl2 concentration and mercury adsorption was optimum at 7% concentration of ZnCl2. The
results indicated that the adsorption capacity of mercury in natural gas by activated carbon-impregnated
47
chlor is very significant. The conclusion of this paper is that optimum activation temperature 700oC and
7% ZnCl2 impregnated on adsorbent can improve the mercury adsorption in natural gas.
Keywords: activation, mercury adsorption, natural gas, activated coconut carbon
I. INTRODUCTION
Mercury (Hg2+) is heavy metal in environmental.
Mercury content is found in natural gas as a trace
element. The increased concern by environmentalist
and government on the effect of heavy metals and
attempt to protect public health gave rise to a lot of
research in the development of advance technology
to remove heavy metals from the natural gas as fuels.
The metal adsorption is development of advance
technology to remove of mercury in natural gas
and the adsorption ability of a powdered activated
carbon (PAC) is derived from coconut shell. It was
a more economic and effective adsorbent for the
control of Hg(II) ion in the natural gas industry
(Zabihi & Ahmadpour 2009). Mercury can be
removed from the natural gas through activated
carbons. Activated carbon adsorption is an effective
mercury control method but there are cost limits.
Coconut charcoal may act as a low-cost sorbent used
for controlling mercury levels. In the natural gas
processing industry, activated carbon is frequently
employed for the removal of mercury to protect
aluminum heat exchangers and for a safe working
environment at the plant. Various types of activated
carbons were developed from organic sewage sludge
(SS) using H2SO4, H3PO4 and ZnCl2 as chemical
activation reagents, and the removal of Hg(II) from
aqueous solution by these carbons was effectively
demonstrated (Zhang et al. 2005). Mercury in water
can be removed by using adsorption processes such
as activated carbon that is impregnated with zinc
chloride (ZnCl2), which has been done by Zeng at
al in 2003. That experiment showed that chloride
impregnation with ZnCl 2 solution significantly
enhanced the adsorptive capacity for mercury.
Ademiluyi and David in 2012 had done research
of heavy metals adsorption about the effect of
chemical activation on the adsorption of metals ions
Cr2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ using bamboo, coconut
shell and palm kernel shell was investigated. Bamboo,
coconut shell and palm kernel shell activated at 800oC
using six activating agents. The highest metal ions
adsorbed were obtained from bamboo activated
with HNO3 (Ademiluyi et al. 2010). Similarly, in the
work of Ramírez Zamora et al., petroleum coke was
activated with ZnCl2 and preparation of activated
48
carbon from Neem Husk by chemical activation with
ZnCl2 has investigated by Alau K et al. The degree of
physicochemical alteration was significantly different
for the three carbons obtained after activation
with three chemicals. Activated carbon activated
with H3PO4 being the strongest was able to adsorb
mercury.
Mercury content in the natural gas should be
removed to avoid damaging equipment in the gas
processing plant or the pipeline transmission system
from mercury amalgamation and embrittlement of
aluminium (Crippen & Chao1997). Mercury can be
removed by using adsorption processes such as
activated carbon impregnated with chlor (Yan &
Ling 2003), iodine or sulfur (John & Radisav 1997,
Behrooz & Robert 2002). Activated carbons can be
made from a wide variety of products and are made
from 100% natural products such as hardwoods,
coconut shells, and bamboo. In this paper, activated
carbons were made from coconut shells. Furthermore,
the coconut shells beenwas modified by physical
and chemical treatment. Surface modification of
a carbon adsorbent with a strong oxidizing agent,
generates more adsorption sites on its solid surface
for metal adsorption (Sandhya & Tonni 2004).
The adsorbents are made up of coconut shell (Cocos
nucifera L.), an agricultural waste from local coconut
industries. Surface modifications of it with activator
agents, such as Zinc Chloride respectively, are also
conducted to improve removal performance. Physical
and chemical properties of coconut active carbon
and modified activated carbon were analyzed to
investigate the effect of adsorbate properties and
temperature activation on activated carbon adsorption
performance (Li et al. 2012). Mercury adsorption
was tested by zinc chloride impregnated activated
carbon, which used ZnCl2 solution. In order to
increase the utilization of activated carbon, many
efforts have been made to increase these functional
groups by modifying with compounds of chlorine (
Hu et al. 2009). The effects of activation temperature
and ZnCl2 activator concentration on adsorbent were
studied.
II. METHODOLOGY
In this paper, the adsorptive potential of a
modified activated carbon using ZnCl2 for mercury
5. Effect of Activation Temperature and ZnCl2 Concentration for Mercury Adsorption in Natural Gas by Activated Coconut
Carbons (Lisna Rosmayati)
vapor was investigated both in a laboratory and in the
gas demonstration. Their pore structure and surface
chemical properties were characterized by Iodine
number, BET and SEM-ADX (Tan et al. 2011). Textural characteristics of samples were determined by
nitrogen (N2) adsorption with an accelerated surface
area was calculated from the isotherms by using the
Brunauer - Emmett-Teller (BET) equation (Brunauer
et al. 1938). The pore volume was found from the
amount of N2 adsorbed at a relative pressure of 0.99.
The average pore diameter was calculated from three
times of the pore volume over the BET surface area.
The experiment was carried out in the Physical
Chemistry Laboratory and The Gas Demonstration
System Plant of Gas Technology Unit, PPPTMGB
”LEMIGAS” Jakarta.
A. Sample Preparation
Activated coconut carbon that has 70 mesh
size was prepared from coconut shell by physical
activation in a stainless steel reactor with temperature
range of 500 – 900 oC. Nitrogen was passs through a
preheater at the temperature 250-300oC. The products
were washed sequentially with 0.5 N HCl, hot water
and finally cold distilled water to remove residual
organic and mineral matters. Activated coconut
carbons were treated by impregnation with activator
agent of ZnCl2 solution in the a concentration range
of 0, 3, 5 and 7 % (w/v) for 24 hours. Impregnated
activated coconut carbons were dried in an oven at
90oC, cooled down to room temperature and then
stored in desiccators for future use.
B. Sample Characterisation
Characterization of the activated
carbons includes Iodine Number with
standard method of ASTM D 4607-94,
BET surface area was calculated based
on N2 adsorption isotherm by using the
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) equation
(Brunauer et al. 1938). The average
BET surface area, pore diameter and
total volume pore was calculated three
times (triple calculations). The textural
characteristics of the untreated and
ZnCl2-impregnated activated carbons
was analyzed by SEM-ADX. The
analysis of this data is provided in
Figure 4.
3. Mercury Vapor Adsorption in Natural Gas
The experiment of mercury vapor adsorption
in natural gas is described in a schematic diagram
shown in Fig 1. The working principle of this
mercury removal equipment is to pass the natural gas
containing mercury vapor at known concentration
through an adsorbent. An amount of mercury is
adsorbed and the remaining mercury in the natural
gas will be adsorbed by KMnO 4 solution. The
solution is then analyzed by a Lumex mercury
analyzer. The volume of the flowing gas is measured
by wet test meter equipment. Measurement of
Table 1
Natural Gas Composition
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Schematic diagram of Mercury Adsorption
49
standard mercury and mercury sample is made in
an Outlet Adsorber (AWWA 1975). The natural
gas is flown through mercury stainless steel
reactor adsorber at a temperature of 32oC. The
gas from the outlet of the mercury cylinder is
put into a mercury solution (KMnO4 + H2SO4),
and the mercury concentration is in the solution
is analyzed by a Mercury Analyzer (Lumex 91),
measured in μg/m3.
The experiment of Mercury adsorption was
carried out by using 40 kg activated coconut
carbons. The natural gas as a sample and the
operation conditions were natural gas pressure
of 100 psig, temperature 32oC, and flow 50 Cuft/
hour. Mercury standard solution was known
14570 μg/m3. The natural gas concentration that
was used on performance test was dry gas. It had
flown to the system via a vessel/cylinder that
contained standard mercury. The characteristics
of natural gas is showed in Table 1.
Natural gas composition above was resulted
from analysis of the natural gas sample by
using a gas chromatography instrument with
series number GC-NGA HP 6890 with a TCD
detector. The composition analysis was done by
GPA 2261-00 methods and the heating value
calculated with GPA 2172:2009. The mercury
concentration was analyzed by using ISO 6978
standard and mercury analyzer.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This paper discusses the results of this
research on mercury adsorbent characteristics.
The experiment has data on the effect of
temperature activation and ZnCl2 concentration.
The laboratory testing of the adsorbent involved
iodine number, BET surface area and optimum
adsorption of mercury.
The iodine number is the most fundamental
parameter used in characterizing activated carbon.
It is a measure of activity level and the micropore
content of the activated carbon (higher number
indicates higher degree of activation (Activated
carbon 2012). This result showes that ability of
the activated coconut carbons is different at the
low (500oC) and the high temperature (700oC).
Furthermore, the difference in the iodine number
in the temperature range due the existence of the
suitable temperature for the mercury adsorption.
Iodine number is the ability of the adsorbent to
50
adsorp the adsorbat. When the activation temperature is
at 700°C, the adsorption reached the highest level, due to
the increasing physical adsorption ability, as a result of
increasing the surface area and total volume pore on the
adsorbent. At 900°C, mercury adsorption was lower than
that at 700°C due to desorption making physical adsorption
decrease, so that the total adsorption decreased (Figure
2). Decreasing of iodine number related with decreasing
of mercury adsorption and its reverse. That is indicating
a typical physisorption mechanism due to van der waals
forces between the adsorbate and the adsorbent. Heating
of adsorbent will produce some new pore and increasing
of its surface area.
Impregnation with ZnCl2 concentration 3% up to 7%
showes that the iodine number of adsorbent significantly
increased (Figure 3). That means ZnCl2 impregnation
actually decreased both the BET surface area and the
total pore volume of the activated carbons samples due to
the blockage of internal porosity by incorporated ZnCl2
molecules. Impregnation at a higher temperature promotes
a more uniform distribution of Chlor on the adsorbent pore
structure.
The iodine number result for untreated ZnCl2 was
lower than impregnated ZnCl2. The average pore size of the
activated carbon also increased when increasing the ZnCl2
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Iodine Number and Activation Temperature
Figure 3
Effect of ZnCl2 Concentration (%) for Iodine Number
5. Effect of Activation Temperature and ZnCl2 Concentration for Mercury Adsorption in Natural Gas by Activated Coconut
Carbons (Lisna Rosmayati)
solution concentration. That means the adsorbent is
blocking micropores, resulting in a drop in specific
surface area and total pore volume. The iodine
number result for non activator and with activator is
shown in Table 2.
Table 3 indicates that BET surface area and the
total pore volume of the activated carbons samples
without activator were higher than activator agent
with concentration 7%. Activated carbon morphology
is shown at Figure 4.
The experiment testing result of mercury
adsorption onto activated coconut carbons indicated
that performance of pilot plant adsorber mercury
adsorption was satisfied. Mercury concentration was
decreasing after the natural gas was flowing to the
equipment system of adsorption mercury and was
able to adsorb mercury vapor with efficiency 99,97%
with natural gas pressure gas 100 psia, temperature
37oC and natural gas flow 50 Cuft/jam.
The mechanism of chemisorption of mercury onto
the Cl-impregnated activated carbons with reaction
ZnCl2 + CnHxOy  Zn + [Cl2-CnHxOy] where
functional group Cl is very important to the process.
Cl atoms which are created by ZnCl2 impregnation,
are involved by probably forming various complexes,
for example [HgCl]+, [HgCl2] and if more of the Cl
concentration, the reaction result [HgCl4] 2-. The
results suggested that Cl-active carbon had excellent
adsorption potential for elemental mercury even at a
relative higher temperature, and the enhancing-effect
was more obvious with increasing Cl content (Lau et
al. 2012). There was an optimum ZnCl2 concentration
for impregnation. The increase of performance
of adsorbent is probably due to the increase of
active sites for mercury adsorption. The kind of Cl
functional groups on the original and ZnCl2-modified
active carbon was found to be different, the latter is of
the active site for mercury adsorption and oxidation,
and for the former it is negligible. There is an
optimum Cl content on the ZnCl2-modified adsorbent
carbon for mercury removal that could be formed
during mercury sorption. These results demonstrate
significant enhancement of activated coconut carbon
reactivity with minimal treatment and are applicable
to mercury removal in natural gas plant facilities.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The effect of adsorbent activation temperature
for adsorption of the mercury vapor from natural gas
Table 2
Iodine Number Result
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BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) Result
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Figure 4
Morfology of activated coconut
carbons surface area
with activated coconut carbon is now much clearer.
Adsorption by activated carbons, particularly those
impregnated with chloride (Cl) is a technology that
offers great potential for the removal of Hgo from the
natural gas. Chloride impregnation with 7% ZnCl2
solution actually decreased both the BET surface area
and the total pore volume of the activated carbons
samples due to the blockage of micropores by
incorporated chemicals. Zinc Chloride-impregnated
activated coconut carbon showed that it significantly
enhanced the adsorptive capacity for mercury.
The experiment of activation temperature
variation can explain how temperature affects
mercury adsorption performance. The treatment
51
with ZnCl2 impregnation on activated carbon have
been effectively reducing the mercury content in
natural gas.
Physical activation with optimum temperature
o
700 C of adsorbent will produce some new pore
and increase of its surface area until reaching the
optimum temperature. A decrease in the iodine
number results in a decrease in mercury adsorption.
Mercury adsorption in natural gas involves both
physisorption and chemisorptions,
ACKNOWLEDMENT
My very great appreciation is to PPPTMGB
“LEMIGAS” for the research fund, facilities and
opportunity. Also special thanks to Mrs. Dra. Yayun
Andriani, M.Si and Mr. Ir. Bambang Wicaksono,
M.Sc. for their advice given and help in this research.
I would like to thank the following for their help:
1. Team work at Gas Analysis Technology, 2. PT.
Aimtopindo, 3. PT. Detmark
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“Activated carbon,” 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
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Alau K.K., Gimba C.E., Kagbu J,A., 2010. Preparation
of activated carbon from NeemHusk by Chemical
Activation with H3PO4, KOH and ZnCl2, Applied
Science Research, 2010, 2(5): 451-455.
ASTM D 4607-94, Standard Test Method for Determination
of Iodine Number of Activated Carbon.
AWWA.”Standard Methods for the examination of water
and waste water”, 14th ed.American Public Health
Association: Washington DC, 1975, p 466.
Brunauer S, Emmet PH, Teller E, 1938. Adsorption
of Gases in Multimolecul Layers. J.Am.Chem.
Soc.,1938,60(2), pp 309-319.
Changxing Hu, J. Zhou, S. He, Z Luo, K. Cen, 2009.
Effect of chemical activation of an activated carbon
using zinc chloride on elemental mercury adsorption.
Fuel Processing Technology, Volume 90, Issue 6, June
2009, pages 812-817.
Crippen,K., and S. Chao, 1997. Mercury in natural
gas and current measurement technology: 1997 Gas
Quality And Energy Measurement Symposium,
February 3-5, Orlando Florida, pp. 1-16.
F. T. Ademiluyi, A. C. Ogbonna, and O. Braide, 2010.
“Effectiveness of Nigerian bamboo activated with
different activating agents on the adsorption of BTX,”
in Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of
52
Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers, pp. 199–209,
2010.
Hancai Zeng, Feng J, 2003. Removal of elemental
mercury from coal combustion flue gas by chlorideimpregnated activated carbon. Science Direct, Revised
13 May.
John A.K and Radisav D.V., 1997. Effect of Sulfurimpregnation method on Activated Carbon Uptake of
Gas –Phase Mercury, Environ.Sci.Technol.,1997,31(8)
pp 2319-2325.
Lau R.L, Wei C.C, Chung S.Y, 2012. Enhancing the
adsorption of vapor-phase mercury chloride with an
innovative composite sulfur-impregnated activated
carbon. Journal of hazardous materials 2012; 217218:43-50. DOI: 10.1016
Li qing Li, Xin Li, JooX, L, Tim C, 2012. The Effect of
Surface Properties in Activated Carbon on Mercury
Adsorption. Ind.Eng. Chem.Res., 2012, 51 (26) pp
9136-9144.
R.M. Ramírez Zamora, R. Schouwenaars, A.Durean
Moreno, and G. Buitron, 2000. Production of
Activated Carbon Petroleum Coke and its Aplication in
water treatment for the removal of Metals and Phenol,
Water Screen and Technology, Volume 42 No.5-6 pp
119-126, 2000.
Rong Yan; Yuen Ling Ng, 2003. Bench-Scale Experimental
Study on The Effect of Flue gas Composition on
Mercury Removal by Activated carbon Adsorption.
Energy & Fuels 2003, 17, 1528 – 1535.
Sandhya B, Tonni AK, 2004. Cr(VI) removal from synthetic wastewater using coconut shell charcoal and
commercial activated carbon modified with oxidizing
agents and/or chitosan, Elsevier Vol. 54, Issue 7, pages
951-967.
S. Behrooz G and Robert M.K, 2002. Development of
a Cl-Impregnated Activated Carbon for EntrainedFlow Capture of Elemental Mercury, Environ.Sci.
Technol.,2002,36(20) pp 4454-4459.
Tan Z, Qiu J, Xiang J, Sun L, Liu Z, Zhang S, 2011.
“Performance and mechanism for elemental mercury
removal by bamboo charcoal modified by ZnCl2”,
CIESC Journal, Huazhong University of Science and
Technology Hubei, China.
Zabihi M, Ahmadpour A, Asl AH, 2009. “Removal of
mercury from water by carbonaceous sorbents derived
from walnut shell”, Journal of Hazardous Materials
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Zhang FS, Nriagu JO, Itoh H, 2005. Mercury removal
from water using activated carbons derived from
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389-395.
SUBJECT INDEX
A
K
Air terproduksi 25
Kerusakan formasi 25
Air tawar 25
Kehilangan perolehan minyak 25
Aktivasi 47
Kompatibilitas 39
Activation 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Karbon tempurung kelapa teraktivasi 47
Activated coconut carbon 47, 48, 49, 50, 51
L
B
Logam 39
Banggai 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24
Benturan 13
M
Banggai 13, 14, 15. 16. 17, 19, 20, 22, 24
Morowali 13
Biodiesel 39, 40, 41, 43, 45
Material 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45
C
Metal 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45
Mercury adsorption 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Corrosion 139, 140, 141, 142, 145
Collision 13, 14, 16, 22, 24
N
Compatibility 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45
Non logam 39
D
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Natural gas 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Drifting 13, 14, 22, 24
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Formasi Talang Akar 1
Freshwater 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,
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Penyumbatan 25
Pengendapan 25
Gas bumi 47
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Jambi sub-basin 1, 2, 3, 4
Plugging 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 36
53
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Penyerapan merkuri 47
R
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Scaling 26, 27, 29, 33, 36, 37
Resiko eksplorasi 13
Risk exploration 14
T
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