Who Speaks for Islam - American Muslims for Constructive

Books-in-Brief
Books-in-Brief
AMCE’s Book Digest Project summarizes carefully
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the United States Government on issues of national interest.
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BOOKS-IN-BRIEF
John L. Esposito and Dalia Mogahed’s
Who Speaks for Islam?
What A Billion Muslims Really Think
Series Editor: Alison Lake
AMCE Book Digest Project
© American Muslims for Constructive Engagement, 2008
American Muslims for Constructive Engagement
P.O. Box 669, Herndon, VA 20172, USA
URL: www.amceweb.net / E-mail: amce@amceweb.net
This book summarizes the original book. The views and opinions
expressed are the author's and not necessarily those of AMCE.
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of the publisher(s).
Original
Book:
“Who
Speaks
for
Islam?
What
A
Billion
Muslims
Really
Think”
Author(s):
John
L.
Esposito
and
Dalia
Mogahed
Publisher:
Gallup
Press,
New
York,
NY
Year:
2007
ISBN
(HB):
978‐1‐59562‐017‐0
Price:
$22.95
Book
Number
in
this
Series:
1
INTRODUCTION
Many Americans believe the religion of Islam has produced
a culture of anti-Western terrorists. Indeed, Al-Qaeda and other
terrorists profess to kill in the name of Islam. Around the world,
their actions have caused a far-reaching disservice to Muslims
by creating a climate of fear. Worse still, hundreds of thousands
of people have been murdered since September 11, 2001, most
of them civilians. Yet these actions of such fanatics are not an
accurate representation of Islam. Instead, the diverse majority of
1.3 billion Muslims worldwide represent the truth about Islam—a
peace-seeking religion that condemns terrorism of any kind.
A comprehensive survey conducted by the Gallup World Poll
has uncovered truths about the world’s Muslims and their
views—truths not seen in the media, addressed by many
governments, or by Western foreign policy. These Muslims, until
now, have been a silenced majority. Up until recently, a nuanced
understanding of Muslims, outside of Muslim communities, has
not existed for the most part. The majority of hardworking Muslim
citizens have been overshadowed by the actions of a minority, a
group that publicly demonizes the West as the enemy of Islam
and holds it responsible for all social and economic problems in
Muslim countries.
Terrorists are not the only people responsible for the
misunderstanding of Islam across the West, in Europe, and the
Americas. In many ways, miscommunication on both sides,
among governments and the media, has created an “us and
them” divide and a monolithic view of Islam. The monolithic
perception is both incorrect and simplistic, as Gallup’s World Poll
has discovered.
Muslims embody a diverse and vibrant population. The
Quran and the faith of Islam do not condone terrorism,
persecution of the West, autocracy, or oppression of anyone,
particularly women. Across the Middle East, Asia, and Africa,
government policies and actions are not usually indicative of true
Muslim beliefs or the interests of mainstream Muslims. After all,
the word “Islam” shares the same Arabic root as the word for
peace, or salaam.
Based on Gallup’s surveys, a “clash of civilizations” is not
inevitable between the West and Muslims. Islam’s image
problem now stems from a monolithic stereotype of the religion—
the West, particularly America, judges Muslims and Islam on the
actions of an extremist minority not necessarily representative of
pious, practicing Muslims. Instead, terrorists act from a militant
theology borne of political radicalization of religion.
Questions Asked
The Gallup World Poll posed the following questions as a
way to uncover true characteristics of the world’s Muslim
population.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What is the root of anti-Americanism in the Muslim world?
What explains the West’s impression of Islam and Muslims?
What type of government do Muslims want—theocracy or
democracy—and what is the preferred role of sharia in law?
Do Muslim women, on the whole, feel oppressed?
How do extreme radicals differ from the Muslim mainstream,
which happens to be the majority?
Who are Muslims?
What solutions are there to change erroneous perceptions?
Counterintuitive Discoveries
Exhaustive and detailed responses from thousands of
Muslims worldwide revealed very surprising conclusions that
counter Western stereotypes of Muslims.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Muslims do not have a monolithic view of the West. Instead,
they criticize individual countries and their politics, not
necessarily their religion.
Muslims’ dreams for the future focus on better economic
times and jobs, not on fighting in a jihad.
Muslims are as likely as Americans to reject radicals and
their attacks on civilians. Those who condone terrorism are
in a minority.
Muslims most admire the West’s technology and democracy,
the same top responses given by Americans to the same
question.
Muslims least admire the West’s moral decay and
breakdown of traditional values, also the same responses
given by Americans.
Muslim women want equal rights and also want religion to be
a part of society.
Muslims worldwide think the West can improve relations with
Muslims by moderating its views and showing respect to
Muslims and Islam.
Like Americans, the majority of Muslims do not want
religious leaders to craft a constitution, but they do favor
religious law as a source of legislation.
Methodology
Gallup gathered evidence from extensive surveys conducted
between 2001 and 2007. Samples taken around the world
represent 90 percent of the world’s 1.3 billion Muslims in more
than 35 countries with predominantly Muslim or substantial
Muslim populations. Gallup interviewed at least one thousand
people in each country. The interviews were hour-long in person
or 30 minutes on the telephone.
Of the 1,000-plus people surveyed in each country,
respondents were randomly chosen from urban and rural
settings, as well as all ages, backgrounds, and literacy levels.
Gallup gathered a representative sampling of Muslims from all
disparate regions of countries to avoid a disproportionate focus
on the cities. The data from these surveys are the basis of the
book, which allows the statistics to determine the answers. In
Gallup’s tradition of representative polling, these findings
accurately represent the world’s Muslim population.
Gallup’s World Poll helps to paint a more comprehensive
and detailed picture of the world’s Muslims, beyond the
stereotypes and misunderstandings. The data show what
Muslims think about a range of issues, from daily life to the role
of government and how religion can and should influence law.
CHAPTER 1: WHO ARE MUSLIMS?
Despite the negative shadow cast on Muslims on and after
9/11, Americans still know very little about Islam and Muslims.
When asked in 2005 what they most admire about Muslim
societies, 57 percent of Americans answered, “I don’t know,” or
“nothing.” In contrast, Gallup’s poll uncovered many specific
details about what Muslims believe and value. This survey
probed into the daily lives of Muslims and their innermost
thoughts about the role of Islam in life, as well as Muslims’
expectations of society and their home countries.
The World’s Muslims
Because Muslims are indeed such a diverse and farreaching population, a survey of this scope best presents an
accurate picture of who they are. Also crucial to a holistic
understanding of the world’s Muslims is to leave behind
sensational headlines and violent images in the media that often
influence perceptions of Islam.
The majority of the world’s Muslims live in Asia and Africa,
not in Arab countries. The largest communities are in Nigeria,
Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. Therefore, a
widespread perception that Islam is a religion solely of the Arabs
is erroneous. Muslims believe that the Arab people were chosen
as the first recipients of Islam, but that Islam is a universal
religion to be embraced by all peoples.
Muslims around the world are as diverse as the countries
they represent, in their culture, piety, adherence to Muslim
tradition, language, ways of life, and more. Because Muslims live
as a majority in 57 different countries, the local environment and
countries’ pre-Islamic histories color the behaviors and practices
of Islam’s followers.
Like Christians and Jews, Muslims vary widely in their
lifestyle and degree of piety. Sunnis and Shia alike may be
observant or non-observant, conservative, fundamentalist,
reformist, secular, mainstream, or extremist.
Eighty-five percent of Muslims are Sunni. Sunni Muslims
believe that after Prophet Muhammad died, the most qualified
person should be chosen as his successor. Sunnis follow
sunnah, or the ways of the Prophet Muhammad’s life. They also
try to emulate the behaviors of the Prophet’s inner circle, the
“first generation” of Muslims.
Conversely, Shia Muslims represent 15 percent of Muslims
worldwide and predominate in Iran, Iraq (among Iraqi Arabs),
and Bahrain. They, on the other hand, believe that Prophet
Mohammad designated his cousin Ali to be leader (imam). Shia
imams are not just religious leaders as they are in Sunni
practice, but also exert significant political and spiritual
leadership in society.
Like the practice of Islam itself, the diversity among Muslim
women is also as varied as the 57 countries where the majority
of the world’s Muslims live. Whereas some countries prohibit
women from driving or voting, many other countries are
hospitable to women in positions of leadership. For example,
women are in the majority at universities in Iran and the United
Arab Emirates. Women have headed governments in Turkey,
Indonesia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and hold positions in
parliaments and cabinets in many countries.
Similarly, broad conclusions cannot be made about the
economic, political, and social development of Muslim-majority
countries. These conditions are also extremely varied—oil-rich
countries are at the opposite end of underdeveloped countries
such as Yemen. Characteristics of political and religious radicals
also come in many stripes and exert varying degrees and types
of influence in each country. Members and former members of
Islamic organizations serve in cabinets and as prime ministers
and presidents of countries.
The Importance of Faith
The realities of political and economic life in Muslim-majority
countries do not appear to dampen faith for most Muslims.
Despite oppressive legislation that restricts behavior in the name
of Islam, 90 percent of Muslims say that religion is an important
part of their daily lives and marker of identity. In addition,
majorities of Muslims would like some form of sharia-inspired
legislation to be present in their governments. For many
Muslims, their religion provides a spiritual mental map that offers
meaning and guidance, and sharia is an extension of this.
Muslims are attached to their traditions and customs
associated with Islam—a majority in Muslim-majority countries
and between 87 and 96 percent in Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia,
and Jordan. That religion plays a central role in the lives of most
Muslims is supported by the data: vast majority of residents in
Muslim countries say their lives have an important purpose,
including 90 percent of Egyptians and 91 percent of Saudis.
Basic Beliefs and Practices
Knowledge of Islam’s tenets and history helps us to
understand Islam and Muslims today. Islam shares a long
tradition with Christianity and Judaism. Followers of all three
religions worship the God of Abraham. Muslims believe that the
Quran and Islam continued the series of revelations embodied in
the Torah and the Bible. The Quran and Islam connect with the
prophetic history of Christianity and Judaism and major events
such as the sins of Adam and Eve, the flood of Noah, and God’s
Ten Commandments.
Muslims recognize all major prophets seen in these religious
texts—Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, for example—and believe
that all prophets as seen in the Torah, Bible, and Quran were
Muslims, united in their belief in one unique God. In essence,
Islam means “strong commitment to God.”
There is a common misperception that Jesus has no place in
Islam, and that Muslims reject the Jesus of Christianity. In truth,
Muslims revere Jesus as a prophet and predecessor of Prophet
Muhammad, “the messenger of God.” In Islam, Jesus is also son
of the Virgin Mary (Meryem), but is not the Son of God or the
savior of mankind. Muslims know him as a remarkable human
being who played an exemplary role for followers of God. Jesus’
mother Meryem is mentioned more times in the Quran than in
the Bible, and is also seen as the role model for mothers and
women around the world.
The Quran mentions that diversity in human beings is a
creation of God’s wisdom. Muslims today take great pride in
what they regard as Islam’s egalitarian ideals. Islam does not
differentiate among ethnicity or nationality. Egalitarianism stems
from the belief that nothing and no one are worthy of worship
except God. Therefore, all humans are unified by a shared faith,
regardless of ethnicity, language, nationality, or tribe.
To declare oneself Muslim, no system of approval is
required. One must only utter the words, “There is no god but
God and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Worship of any
other god, material objects, or other philosophy is considered
heresy. Oneness of God is the heart of Islam. Prophet
Muhammad’s role as the “messenger of God” is a model for
Muslims’ way of life, much as Christians strive to emulate the life
of Jesus.
Muslims regard the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran—
God’s messenger and message—as a perfect and complete
revelation. Muslims study and become familiar with the minute
details of Muhammad’s life, relations, and achievements. His
behavior reflected his role as God’s messenger, and Muslims
follow hadith, which are volumes of stories about the Prophet’s
life. Prophet Muhammad, an illiterate man of modest means, is
respected for his multiple occupations as political and military
leader, merchant, judge, and diplomat, as well as the ideal
husband, father, and friend.
Pillars of Islam
The five pillars of Islam are cornerstones of the faith. These
are required of believers and are expected to ensure eventual
entrance to heaven. The first pillar, discussed above, is shahada,
or declaration of faith. Prayer is the second pillar. The majority of
respondents in seven predominantly Muslim countries noted
prayer’s role in soothing their worries. Five prayers a day (salat)
are times to put aside material concerns and honor and thank
God. A large majority of Muslims in seven predominantly Muslim
countries stated that prayer helps them feel closer to God.
The frequency of prayer is justified by its view as
nourishment for the physical and spiritual being, just like food
and rest. Friday prayer, jum’a, is congregational. Practicing
Muslims worldwide follow prayer times publicized in newspapers
and on the internet, and heralded by the call of the muezzin from
the mosque or in-home clocks. At these times, Muslims stop
what they are doing and face Mecca to worship God.
Further indication of Islam’s discard of material concerns is
the requirement of fasting during the month of Ramadan. At this
time, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk and attend prayers in the
evenings. This practice is viewed as a further submission to God
and a way to experience the hunger and want of those in
poverty. Ramadan is also a time to spend with family and share
a meal after dusk. The month concludes with a feast called Eid
al-Fitr, or breaking of the fast. There are two Eids, which are the
most important Muslim holidays and joyful celebrations.
Muslims have a strong tradition of almsgiving that
encourages reaching beyond one’s own life to assist others
outside the family. A sense of social responsibility is pervasive in
Islam. Similar to charity, zakat, or “purification,” is essential to the
faith as an act of devotion to God. All Muslims are required to
give a portion of their wealth to the poor, and regularly give to the
less fortunate within their own communities and families. Islamic
organizations play a host of supportive roles in inner cities,
providing social services and education to impoverished citizens.
Assisting the poor is a way to improve their lot in life, because
Muslims do not see poverty as a condition willed by God.
Next, all able Muslims are expected to make a pilgrimage
to Mecca (hajj) at least once in their lifetimes. Each year, more
than 2 million pilgrims travel to Mecca, where Prophet
Muhammad was born and where the Quran was believed to
have begun to be revealed. Men and women pray together in the
open air facing Mecca. Concluding hajj is Eid al-Adha, the
festival of sacrifice commemorating Abraham’s willingness to
sacrifice his son to God.
There is another Islamic practice sometimes referred to as
the sixth pillar. Jihad, an often-misinterpreted word, is a concept
that is confusing and misunderstood by non-Muslims. Jihad is
not instigative warfare but is defined more broadly as a general
“struggle” for God. It manifests in the drive to wear the headscarf
in universities and schools; the raising of money to spread the
word of Islam; and even in efforts to clarify what Islam means
and defy stereotypes. Muslims engage in jihad as they strive to
live in accordance with all pillars of Islam. The Quran only
sanctions warfare in self-defense. Suicide bombers, terrorism,
murder of innocent people, and assassination of leaders do not
fulfill jihad and are not legitimated by Islam.
When questioned on the meaning of jihad, respondents in
the Middle East and in non-Arab countries responded with: “duty
toward God,” “a commitment to hard work,” and “promoting
peace, harmony, or cooperation and assisting others.” Minorities
in Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey, and a majority in Indonesia did
respond that “fighting against the opponents of Islam” is an
appropriate fulfillment of jihad. Again, this would be fitting in the
context of self-defense, or could be interpreted not as killing but
striving to counter anti-Islamic attitudes. Those who justify
offensive, not defensive, violence are not following the true
tenets of Islam.
As seen above, Islam does not equate jihad with suicide
bombers and terrorists. It has only positive connotations for
Muslims. In order to establish a true comprehension of Muslims,
non-Muslims must understand the word’s actual meaning.
Equating acts of terrorism with jihad not only offends many
Muslims, but in turn can justify the actions of those who misuse
the word.
Nonetheless, the word has been used widely to describe
movements in Afghanistan during Soviet occupation, and in most
Muslim struggles of resistance and liberation. It has also been
used to justify extremism and terrorism. Jihadist movements
have existed in Bosnia, Kosovo, Chechnya, Kashmir, Gaza,
Lebanon, and Bali. Many Muslims agree that “holy war” is unIslamic, and do not equate the term as such. Rather, jihad is best
understood as a sacrifice or struggle, which only becomes
violent if one is attacked, and in which case retaliation must not
target civilians.
Family and Culture
An often-cited example of the importance of family in Islam is
the Prophet Muhammad’s assertion that mothers are more
worthy of honor than anyone else, three degrees more important
than fathers. Motherhood’s high status conveys the role of
mothers as bearers of culture and the force for moral order in the
family.
The vast majority of Muslims polled in nine Muslimpredominant countries considered being married and having
children to be extremely important. Muslims say they most
admire the presence of family bonds in Muslim societies. Most
respondents shared that they experience “a lot of love in their
life.”
Family law is viewed as the heart of sharia, which literally
means “path to water” but is interpreted as “path to God”—
Muslims’ “moral compass.” Sharia will be discussed in more
detail later in the book, but is a central component of Islamic
faith.
Islam’s Glorious Past
For generations in the Western world, history books focused
disproportionately on accounts of Europe and the Americas. Yet,
a mere century following the death of Prophet Muhammad,
Muslims had created an empire even larger than Rome’s,
spanning from North Africa to India. The Islamic empire shone
th
th
from the 7 to the 18 centuries. This formidable civilization
produced a repository of great Western and Eastern knowledge,
such as research in medicine and science, and numerous
translations from major world languages. Muslim thinkers made
important contributions to philosophy, medicine, mathematics,
astronomy, and architecture, among many others.
Islam’s civilization helped to lift Europe from its Dark Ages
with its translations and centers of learning. Muslims are proud of
their history that preceded foreign colonization. Not just a side
note in history, Islamic civilization exerted a pivotal role in the
West’s intellectual ascendance and existed in its own right as an
empire. Many Muslims look back to Islamic empires and
sultanates with positive thoughts of a time that validated the
message of Islam. In the view of many Muslims, social and
economic problems began when foreign powers overtook Muslim
regions.
Today, Muslims hope for a situation where religion and
society and government can co-exist and harmonize. The
struggle is ongoing to reconcile a religious tradition with a
modern and secular world.
CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRACY OR THEOCRACY?
Where democracy is concerned, many Muslims value
democratic principles despite the rarity of democracies in Muslim
countries. They usually believe democracy can be compatible
with Islamic values. The most popular goal is a hybrid
government with the coexistence of democratic and religious
values.
There are few democracies in the Middle East, so the Gallup
World Poll evaluated whether Islam is incompatible with
democracy. Western thought and research have conveyed the
opposite. This investigation dovetails the question of whether
Muslims prefer theocracy to democracy. Finally, Gallup surveyed
Muslims worldwide to determine their thoughts on American
foreign policy
countries.
to
promote
democracy
in
Muslim-majority
These days, only one in four governments of Muslimmajority countries is democratically-elected. Many so-called
democratic elections are typically rigged so incumbents such as
Hosni Mubarak in Egypt win between 90 and 100 percent of the
vote. Furthermore, these governments usually limit or outlaw
opposition and free speech, and are hostile to other political
parties and any non-governmental organizations working there.
Reasons for lack of democracy in Muslim-majority countries
are not all internal. The current setup of countries and borders—
not always nations—are largely a creation of European colonial
rule and post-World War II governments. America and Europe
took centuries, even a millennium, to move from monarchies to
modern democratic states with wars and revolutions in between,
in the process. In contrast, many Muslim-majority countries
th
became nation-states in the mid-20 century. Colonial powers
often selected and approved their borders and unelected rulers.
Western observers should know that borders in the Middle
East and India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh were in many cases
set independently of the inhabitants of these countries. These
borders produced weak nation-states with non-democratic,
authoritarian governments. Within the borders is a patchwork of
ethnicities and tribes dating back centuries. Here are some facts
about individual countries and the political instability that ensued.
•
•
Britain set the current borders between Pakistan and India,
creating the disputed area of Kashmir. Migration and warfare
between Muslims and Hindus followed, subsequently leading
to the creation of Bangladesh.
France created modern Lebanon’s borders.
•
•
•
Britain set borders for Kuwait and Iraq and divided Palestine
and Jordan.
Jordan’s 1950 annexation of the West Bank led to Jordanian
rule over a majority Palestinian population.
After monarchs in this region were overthrown in the 1950s
and 1960s, military rulers replaced them in Egypt, Libya, and
Iraq.
In a nutshell, since World War II, most Middle Eastern
governments (as well as Pakistan, Indonesia, and Bangladesh)
have continually been ruled by military juntas, dictators, and
monarchs, with no political stability in-between. Political
instability leads to economic and social instability, and this has
been the climate in these countries, with the exception of rich oil
monarchies in the Persian Gulf.
Where Iran is concerned, outside countries have exerted
heavy influence over its governments post-World War II, causing
instability there as well. Britain, Russia, and the U.S. have all at
times backed different rulers in Iran with disastrous results. The
U.S.-backed coup in 1953 led to an autocracy under the shah.
Anti-American sentiments followed during Iran’s 1979
Revolution, causing a dramatic polarization of Western and
autocratic values in Iran during this time.
On the whole, governments’ political, military, and economic
failures caused widespread disillusionment among populations,
especially because some countries became dependent on the
West. This situation robbed Muslims of their source of identity
and values, and thus their unity and strength. Nonetheless,
religious and cultural identity has remained strong.
This situation creates a conundrum where U.S. foreign policy
is concerned. The intent to create democracy around the world is
a fundamental tenet of U.S. policy. However, the U.S. has not
been successful in exporting democracy and those citizens
wanting democracy are not always supported by their own
governments. U.S. policy sends mixed messages, by supporting
and aligning with autocratic Middle East governments vis à vis oil
and Iran, and through its wholesale support of Israel. And where
American policy has been well-intentioned, it has not always
been well-informed. As a result, citizens in many Muslim-majority
countries are disenchanted with the U.S., even outright hateful of
its foreign policy. Countries whose societies have become
somewhat Westernized are ambivalent about the West.
What Muslims Really Want: Democracy and Sharia
Still, the Gallup poll finds that political freedom and liberty, a
fair judicial system, and freedom of speech are what
respondents admire most about Western societies. A majority of
respondents surveyed in the World Poll indicated they would like
some form of representative government, as well as such
freedoms the West enjoys: freedom of speech, economic growth,
relative stability in politics, and the resulting public safety.
Substantial majorities in all nations surveyed say that freedom of
speech should be guaranteed by constitution. This is surprising
to those with the common view that the Muslim world is
incompatible with democracy.
Undemocratic trends do not indicate a rejection of
democracy. They lead to the question: what role should religion
play in governments of Muslim-majority countries? Islam has
been very present in politics in North Africa, Southeast Asia, and
the Middle East. Large majorities “cite the equal importance of
Islam and democracy as essential to the quality of their lives and
to the future progress of the Muslim world.” In many countries,
Islamically-oriented candidates have won in local and national
elections.
Many Muslims would like Islamic-based law, or sharia, to be
a source of government policy. Important to clarify is that sharia
itself is not a system of laws. Sharia is described as a fixed moral
compass for the map of Islamic law, or fiqh. Sharia is not about
oppression and severing of limbs but about a collective sense of
responsibility and moral basis for legislation. Many Muslims
believe that cases such as a Nigerian woman who was
sentenced to death by stoning for pregnancy out of wedlock to
be a departure from the true spirit of sharia.
Surprising data reveal that close to equal numbers of men
and women, and usually a majority, desire sharia as a source of
legislation. This is the case in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, and
Indonesia. According to another Gallup poll, America, famously
more religious than its Western counterparts, has a 40 percent
showing of citizens who say the Bible should be a source of
legislation, and 42 percent want religious leaders to have a direct
role in writing a constitution. This is an important contextual
comparison.
Conversely, majorities of respondents in most countries
surveyed believe women should have the same legal rights as
men—Iran: 85 percent; 90 percent in Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Turkey, and Lebanon; 77 percent in Pakistan, and 61 percent in
Saudi Arabia. Respondents who believe women have the right to
hold any job for which they are qualified follow. Majorities also
believe that women have the right to hold leadership positions in
cabinet and national council levels:
Malaysia, Mauritania, Lebanon
90%
Egypt
85%
Turkey
86%
Morocco
82%
Iran
79%
Bangladesh
75%
The poll determined that women tend to have a more
nuanced view of sharia, viewing it as compatible with their
aspirations for empowerment. Since sharia is an extension of
Muslim values, it would make sense that women would feel
empowered to play a strong role both in society and at home.
Role of the West
While Muslim interpretations of what democracy means may
differ somewhat from democratic traditions in America and
Europe, they are also just as varied as is seen in the West.
Important to consider is that democracy in Muslim-majority
countries has to account for cultural differences and religious
expectations.
Clearly, work is needed to counter these attitudes. How do
Muslims want Western governments to participate in this
change? The Gallup World Poll reflects great skepticism and
criticism of U.S. foreign policies in Muslim-majority countries.
With the exception of 10 countries surveyed, majorities disagree
that the U.S. is serious about encouraging the development of
democracy. Furthermore, respondents see a double standard of
U.S. policy of supporting authoritarian regimes and “a failure to
promote democracy in the Muslim world.” This cynicism extends
to Iraq, where it is believed that creating democracy became a
rationale for the U.S. after weapons of mass destruction were not
found.
Just as Westerners react to singular events such as the
attacks of September 11 and suicide bombings and widespread
acts of terrorism in the Middle East and in parts of Asia, Muslims
react to images and stories of human rights abuses in
Guantanamo and Abu Ghraib, the war in Iraq, and the complete
rejection of the Hamas government by the U.S. Such news is
potent and incites strong feelings on both sides.
As a point of comparison, American views of Muslims and
Islam were included in the World Poll results. These views are a
direct result of Islam’s portrayal in the Western media; the
worldwide acts of terrorists in the name of Islam; and a lack of
education about true Islam and the Muslim-majority on the
Western side. Forty-four percent of Americans say Muslims are
too extreme in their religious beliefs.
When asked what they admire least about the West, top
responses from Muslims worldwide included “hatred or
degradation of Islam and Muslims.” Large majorities in Morocco,
Indonesia, Egypt, and Pakistan stated that the U.S. wants to
“weaken and divide the Islamic world.”
Noteworthy here is the wide exposure of Muslims to various
news outlets due to mass communications. Opinions formed
may not be based in truth at all times but not for lack of
information. In the Muslim world, there are now many
alternatives to CNN and the BBC, such as al-Jazeera, AlArabiyya, MBC, and more, as well as print newspapers. Gallup
identified Saudi Arabia in particular as extremely well-informed
by international television. Seventy-five percent of Saudis watch
al-Jazeera regularly.
From the perspective of African countries, the West has a
positive concern for these populations. But the perspective from
Muslim Asian and Middle Eastern countries is quite different. A
majority perceive a lack of Western concern in Egypt, Turkey,
and Kuwait. A large portion of the West’s misunderstanding of
Muslims can be attributed to its perception of the role of radicals
in Muslim society.
CHAPTER 3: WHAT MAKES A RADICAL?
How much public support is there for terrorism, and how do
political radicals differ from the mainstream Muslim-majority?
And, are there connections between terrorism and Islam? What
is the role of jihad? Gallup’s World Poll found that mainstream
Muslims’ views differed greatly from those of radicals.
Data demonstrate that most Muslims do not equate terrorism
with Islam. Large majorities in Muslim-majority nations such as
Indonesia say terrorist attacks are never justified—74 percent
there; 86 percent in Pakistan, 81 percent in Bangladesh, 80
percent in Iran. Nine out of ten Muslims are politically moderate,
and the majority of respondents in predominantly Muslim
countries condemn the attacks of September 11. Terrorists
erroneously use Islam as justification for their actions.
Who Are the Radicals?
Currently, Muslim activists play a significant role in many
countries, where they serve as leaders and parliamentary
representatives. While an Islamic approach may not be the
primary force in governments, it has been formidable in countries
such as Turkey, Kuwait, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, Iran, Egypt,
Pakistan, Sudan, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Furthermore, in these
countries as well as in Algeria and Yemen, such activists form an
“elite” class in mainstream society. In the 1980s and 1990s,
governments held limited and state-controlled elections, with a
surprising emergence of the Islamic opposition. The ascendance
of Hamas in Palestinian territories is a case in point.
The tide has shifted in recent years. Since 9/11, government
leaders have been using the threat of Al-Qaeda and global
terrorism to brand any and all opposition as extremist, and
therefore to exert greater control over legislation and citizens.
Since terrorism has unfortunately come to define Islam for
many people outside the Muslim world, the definition of what
makes a religious and/or political radical is important. In reality,
radicals are the minority and not representative of the Muslim
mainstream. It should also be noted that radicals come from
different backgrounds and many are not religious by any
stretch—the September 11 hijackers were heavy drinkers and
consumers of pornography. On the other hand, not all radicals
subscribe to terrorist ideologies. They may desire a greater role
of religion in public life.
Link Between Poverty and Terrorism?
Gallup’s surveys probed the question of a possible link
between poverty and terrorism. The common view that
extremism develops from economic discontent was not the case.
Instead, political radicals tend to draw from the spectrum
between highly educated and upper class parts of society down
to the working class, coming from both rural and urban
backgrounds. Radicals do not tend to be impoverished.
Commonalities do exist among radicals: almost 50 percent
of extremists polled were aged 18 to 29, and 62 percent male.
Some 67 percent of the “politically radicalized” have a secondary
or higher education. They are not more economically
disadvantaged, than moderates, either—65 percent have
average to above-average incomes. Rate of employment and
standard of living did not tend to be worse among the radicalized
population.
Religion and Radicals
Throughout history, religion and politics have been linked. In
Judaism, conquest and settlement of Israel took place in the
name of God. Monarchs through the centuries have ruled by
“divine right” and religion has adopted a central role in controlling
all aspects of life. Crusaders fought a holy war and imperial
expansion took place in the name of God’s will. Colonialism was
often the outcome of policy driven by religion.
Gallup uncovered some interesting facts about Islam and
radicals that did not always connect religion with fanaticism.
Mosque attendance was no different from the moderate
population. The majority of people who condemned terrorism in
Indonesia used the Quran as justification that one should not kill.
Yet because Islam is the prevalent ideology in the Arab and
Muslim world, it is by default used today to justify extremism and
terrorism. Other religions, such as Christianity, have used
religion to justify violence in the past.
Radicals come in all shades in the Muslim world. However,
most of the politically radicalized desire implementation of
Islamic law—not to create a theocracy, but for another reason
shared by many in the mainstream. Many respondents want to
limit the power of autocratic rulers and regimes and view them as
corrupt and un-Islamic. A majority of both radicals and
moderates emphasize that they do not want religious leaders to
be directly in charge. They prefer such leaders to play an
advisory role.
As discussed above regarding jihad, mainstream Muslims do
not use their religion to justify militant and religious radicalism.
Yet, mainstream Muslims as well as radicals value their religion
equally, on the whole. Therefore, the extent of religion’s role in
politics and society is what differs—whether religion can justify
warfare, suicide bombing, and military action, or political
oppression. Mainstream Muslims would say no.
Do radicals hate the West? Not necessarily. Like Muslim
moderates, radicals on the whole value the West’s contributions
to the field of technology, and appreciate the West’s fair political
systems, rule of law, and work ethic. When polled, at least 50
percent of radicals stated that moving toward greater democracy
would benefit the Muslim world, an even greater number than
moderates. Furthermore, more of the politically radicalized (58
percent) were eager to have better relationships with the West;
only 44 percent of moderates stated the same.
However, Western ways of life tended to draw greater
criticism from radicals, but criticism was differentiated by country
and individual political leaders. Most disagree that America is
serious about exporting democracy in the region. Eighty-one
percent of radicals saw the U.S. as aggressive, along with 67
percent of moderate Muslims. Much of radicals’ dissatisfaction
with the West harks back to their states’ recent colonial history
and the chaos that ensued with unstable governments, Western
intervention, the rise of Arab nationalism, and the Arab defeat in
the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Nationalism raised hopes for a better
life and then created disillusionment, which survives today
among radicals.
Radicals and moderates answered the following question,
producing some of the most revealing data in the study: What if
someone from the U.S. government were to ask you in private
what was the most important thing the U.S. could do to improve
the quality of life of people like you in this country? The most
common responses among both groups:
•
•
•
•
•
Reduce unemployment and improve the economic
infrastructure.
Stop interfering in the internal affairs of Arab/Islamic states.
Stop imposing your beliefs and policies.
Respect our political rights and stop controlling us.
Give us our own freedom.
The Muslim world likes more about the West than we may
realize. Three frequent responses appeared when respondents
were asked what they admire most about the West: technology;
the West’s values of hard work, self-reliance, cooperation, and
rule of law; and fair political systems, democracy, freedom of
speech, and respect for human rights.
Most Muslims say the best way to fight global terrorism is to
form partnerships between Muslims and world governments and
forge a greater mutual understanding of Muslims and nonMuslims. Without such efforts, stereotypes and violence will
prevail.
Across the polls, respondents were quite specific about how
the West can improve relations with Muslim-majority countries.
Most responses called for more respect of Muslim cultures; an
avoidance of condescension toward these countries; and
demonstrating a greater understanding of and respect for Islam.
CHAPTER 4: WHAT DO WOMEN WANT?
Through the Gallup World Poll, the world’s diverse group of
women spoke on subjects such as equality, work, economic and
social conditions, religion, and empowerment.
Often, when Western media and individuals cite evidence
that Islam is a bad, oppressive religion, they mention the plight of
women. Many assume women are subjugated, abused, and
made to sit at home at the beck and call of their husbands. This
viewpoint is simplistic and in many cases wrong, and does not
account for women’s choice in the matter. In truth, many women
choose to live according to Islamic ideals. Islam’s egalitarianism
extends to the relationship between men and women. True Islam
views men and women as equal partners each with their own
strengths and roles in life.
On the other hand, literacy among women still lags in
countries such as Yemen and Pakistan, but these statistics are
not the norm in all the countries surveyed. In countries where
women are not allowed to drive or move about unaccompanied
by a man, female respondents were usually more concerned
with other issues. In many cases, political and economic
conditions and a desire to improve them overrode a desire
among women to change their social situation.
Populations in Muslim-majority countries possess a strong a
sense of what characterizes moral behavior in women and
between the sexes. Many respondents oppose what they see as
the breakdown of family in Western societies and a lack of moral
system. There is a clear understanding in Muslim-majority
countries about the defined roles of men and women in families.
When asked what they resent most about the West, the most
frequent response of both men and women across all countries
was “sexual and cultural promiscuity” and “ethical and moral
corruption.”
According to Islam, the separation of men and women at
certain times and social situations does not indicate inferiority of
women. Rather than denigrate women, separate prayer areas,
for example, give all Muslims, not just women, the opportunity to
pray without distraction by the opposite sex. In society, the intent
behind segregation is to protect women’s honor and decrease
the chance of inappropriate behavior between the sexes. In
practice, this is not always the case, when women are treated as
inferior citizens and subjugated by men in their families.
This subject of separate prayer areas came up when the
Mecca Governorate and other organizations proposed shifting
the prayer area for women away from overcrowding and
television cameras, as a way to provide greater safety and space
to the women. The proposal would have moved women away
from the main prayer area entirely. Women mobilized against
this proposal because in Islam, both sexes are equal when it
comes to performing religious duties, and are not banned from
mosques. Opponents stated this arrangement would oppose
Islamic tradition. Women were passionate on this subject and
successfully blocked the measure using sharia.
Where sharia is concerned, just as governments and people
may use Islam to justify cultural actions, sharia has been used to
validate such practices as female circumcision. The World
Health Organization estimates some 100 to 140 million girls are
circumcised yearly, in Muslim societies and elsewhere. UNICEF
states that 90 percent of girls are circumcised in Egypt, Mali,
Guinea, and Sudan, while none are circumcised in Saudi Arabia,
Iran, and Iraq. Muslim scholars and theologians have agreed that
according to sharia, female circumcision is unnecessary and
unjustified, as are honor killings.
One aspect of female empowerment present in Islam that
may be unfamiliar to many Western observers is the ‘break’ on
women financially. Although in many countries women are able
to work, and in most countries Muslim women want the freedom
to work, they are not financially responsible for supporting
anyone. She should never be obligated to work. This frees her to
care for the family, children, and household. Also, any money
she earns on her own remains in her name and is not viewed as
communal property.
This sense of empowerment is not always evident to
Western observers, who are more likely to perceive women in a
position of inferior status in Muslim countries, and who see the
headscarf (hijab) as a tool of oppression by men and
governments. The reality is that around the world, countless
women choose to cover their heads and bodies and are not
forced to do so. In fact, Islam forbids compulsion in religion. To
many Muslim women, the hijab is a tool of empowerment that
allows them to focus on matters of family, work, and faith rather
than material concerns. The rejection of the West’s sexual
promiscuity by both sexes in the polls reflects a great concern for
female modesty and respect for women in many cases. A
majority of respondents in Egypt, Jordan, and Pakistan do not
believe women are respected in Western societies.
As a result, Muslim women are not eager to be ‘liberated’ by
the West. Muslim women admire many attributes of the West,
such as freedom of speech and political freedom, as well as
gender equality. Along with men, they are eager for a better
relationship with the Western world. They also wish for
Americans to reach out to them and understand their situation.
However, the majority do not wish to become like women in the
West—stating that adopting Western values will not help their
own progress.
As noted above in earlier chapters, most Muslim women
would like some form of sharia law to be incorporated into
government or at least used as a resource. A majority of Muslim
women in Muslim-majority countries, who value their religion and
its role in their daily lives, also favor sharia. Majorities also favor
their rights to vote, work, and serve in government.
The feelings of Muslim men on the roles of women were also
investigated. In many countries, with the exception of Saudi
Arabia and Iran, roughly equal numbers of men and women
favored a woman’s right to vote. Majorities of men believed
women should have the freedom to work.
Muslim women would like to see Westerners engage in a
more detailed understanding of their priorities, rather than
impose what they think should be addressed. Political and
economic stability are core concerns for Muslim women and
usually should be the first issues to consider when formulating
policy. As with the remainder of the Muslim population,
awareness of the role of faith in Islam is essential for
understanding what Muslim women need and want.
On the whole, the data and opinions collected by the World
Poll indicate that women share many of the same concerns as
men—overall, a desire to improve their political and economic
situation and to be viewed in a more positive light by the West.
CHAPTER 5: CLASH OR COEXISTENCE?
In the tradition of anti-Semitism, Muslims need not be viewed
as the ‘culprits’ of global terrorism and creators of an
“Islamophobia.” The thoughts and actions of 1.3 billion people
cannot be realistically pigeonholed, nor can they wholeheartedly
accept blame for terrorism.
Blaming Islam and Muslims has become a convenient way
to explain problems in the Muslim world and terrorism there and
elsewhere. Prominent American Christians and evangelicals, as
well as political commentators, have been quick to generalize
about Muslims and make slanderous comments. “Islamophobia”
has increased its presence in Europe, a place where Muslim
immigrants continue to pour in from around the world. Right-wing
political parties in France, Denmark, Norway and elsewhere
have demonstrated this attitude. Others have expressed a fear
that Europe will become “Eurabia,” a kind of repeat of the AustroHungarian Empire. This fear has been evident in the debate over
Turkey’s entrance into the European Union.
As seen, by contrast, Muslims on the whole do not hate the
West because of our relative freedoms. Many admire these
social advantages. Muslims do perceive the above attitudes and
prejudices and certainly feel resentment towards those who
misunderstand them.
The furor and violence created by a Danish newspaper’s
publication of cartoons that disrespected Prophet Muhammad
demonstrated the need for a better understanding of Muslim
values and culture. Another instance was telling: Pope Benedict
XVI’s address that cited a 14-century Byzantine emperor’s
remarks that Prophet Muhammad brought only evil and inhuman
practices to the world. This mention caused great opposition
among countries and on the streets of Muslim countries.
CONCLUSION:
“Winning minds and hearts” via public diplomacy is the most
direct and effective way to overcome miscommunications
between Western and Muslim countries. Religion is not the
primary problem, and making religion the problem is a mistake
that weakens the positive power of religion and culture and
obscures common values and concerns. This fear of Islam leads
to the belief in a monolithic threat. Instead, Islam is an important
and pervasive element of societies and definer of cultural and
national identity. It should not be feared, but better understood.