Symbolism and Design in Ancient Egyptian Gardens

The Garden History Society
Symbolism and Design in Ancient Egyptian Gardens
Author(s): Alix Wilkinson
Source: Garden History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1994), pp. 1-17
Published by: The Garden History Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1586999 .
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ALIX WILKINSON
SYMBOLISM AND DESIGN IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
GARDENS
with manyof thefeaturesknownnowfrom later
AncientEgyptiangardenswereconstructed
motivated
whichdictatedtheformof
But
the
were
byreligiousconsiderations
gardens.
designers
thegardensand whatplantswereusedin them.
MEANING,
FUNCTION
AND FORM
In the creationof gardens, as in the creationof language, three elements are involved:
meaning, function, and form. Form is universal:the designer of a garden has to take
accountof the extent and gradientsof the space chosen, and devise a layout. Function,
which is the use made of a garden, varieswith the status and needs of the owner. The
garden may be a place for growing particular plants, or it may be designed to
accommodategreatcrowds, or it may be a spacefor a few people, or even just one, to sit
and enjoy its sights and sounds. Meaningis the philosophy behind the creationof the
garden. It can be expressedin statuary,layout, inscriptions, and in the plants, which
have significancefor the people of the time. Form and function are constant in garden
making;meaningwas importantin earliercenturies. The Countessof Bedfordlaid out
her garden at TwickenhamPark in the form of the pre-Copernicanuniverse. Vicino
Orsiniin the sixteenthcenturyrepresentedhis autobiographyin statuaryin his gardenat
Bomarzo.2The seventeenth-centurylabyrinthat Versaillesheld its own secretmessage.3
Loudon, in the nineteenthcentury,believedthatlandscapegardenerscould improvethe
moralfeelings of the visitor.4Gardenswere createdwhich told a story, such as Bunyan's
Pilgrim'sProgress,sor the journey from birth to death.6 Plants,7 symbolic of various
humanqualitieswereused in the Medievaland Renaissanceperiods.8In the latterpartof
the twentieth centuryin the West, symbolism9has largelybeen absent,10except in the
work of such designers as Sir GeoffreyJellicoe,11or as a way of creatingatmosphere,
althoughrecently a series of essays has been devoted to the meaning of gardens.12
INTRODUCTION
TO MEANING,
FUNCTION,
AND FORM IN ANCIENT
EGYPTIAN
GARDENS
AncientEgyptiangardensweredesignedwith all threeelements, meaning,function, and
form in mind. Function, entwined with meaning, dictated form.
The differencebetween the ancient Egyptianand modern landscapistsis that the
Egyptians began from the mystical properties of a particularplace. Every spot they
7 TennielClose, London W2 3LE
2
ANCIENT
EGYPTIAN
GARDENS
selected for a sacred building was where a deity was believed to reside. They also
re-createdthe characteristicsof the placewheresome mythologicalevent had happened,
by addingarchitecturalandplantfeatureswhichwould be remindersof the myth. These
mythswereaboutthe creationof the world, the after-life,and aboutthe lives of the gods.
The Egyptians were not searching to impose meaning, in the manner of those who
createda park in Mexico City as a culturalreminderof the lost city of Tenochititlan.13
Nor were they like the English garden designers of the eighteenth century who used
classical mythology and their Gothic heritage as the language of their buildings and
statuary,as, for example, at Rousham. 4 Meaningwas alreadythere, and understood.
They were more in the spirit of Henry Hoare, who, at Stourhead,whether playfullyor
not, acknowledgedthe water deities of the site and compared the foundation of his
dynastichome with Aeneas'sfoundationof Rome, as interpretedby Virgil.15
In Egypt, the territory in which a garden was planted already had its own
significanceand residentdeities. Thus the goddess Hathorwas believed to dwell in the
mountainchainwhich ranfrom Deir el Baharito Deir el Medineh. Shrinesdedicatedto
herwerebuilt over the yearsat eachend of the range,northand south. At Karnak,across
the river,the gods, Mont, a falcon-headedwargod, and Amun, calledthe 'Hidden One',
alreadyinhabitedthe site on which the temples and gardenswere built.
A gardenmirroredthe featuresof a mythologicallandscape,and of the world of the
after-life.This landscapehad to be as permanentas possible, and sustainableby future
generations.It was a marvelwhich would impressthe priests and courtierswho would
understandthe symbolism,andamazethe generalpopulaceandforeignerswho would be
awedby the size and splendourof the buildingsand theirgrounds.The palacesin which
the kings lived were also sacredprecincts, because the king was himself a god. Palace
gardenswere the setting for the ceremonialreceptionof foreign ambassadorsas well as
for the entertainmentof the king and the court.
Tomb gardenswere intendedto be placeswherethe soul of the dead could find rest
and refreshment.The form which resulted from these requirementswas a courtyard
filled with trees, under which stood a basin of water for the soul, as bird or human, to
drink.
MEANING
Thesymbolismof templegardens
Meaningwas fundamentalto Egyptianarchitectureand garden design. The design of
temple gardensdependedon whetherthey were the cult temple, wherethe imagesof the
living gods resided, or were funerary,and were intended for occasionaluse. Gardens
were an integralpart of the cult shrine, which was itself a cosmos, representingboth
Egypt and the universe. 6 Temple gardensincorporatedwater, which representedthe
originalwaterwhich coveredthe earthat the beginningof time, and was the god called
Nun, and the vegetationwhich grew aroundand in it.
The plants grown in these gardens all had their own symbolism. The waterlilies
(Nymphaealotus,Nymphaeacaerulea)floatingon the lakes were remindersthat the sun
god had originallysprung from the waterlily,17and papyrus(Cyperuspapyrus)was the
home of Hathor,18the sky, and mother goddess, and was also the place where Isis had
hidden her son, Horus, after the murderof Osiris, her husband, by his brother, Seth.
Palms were sacred to the gods of the sun, moon, and fertility.19Date palms (Phoenix
dactylifera)were particularlyconnected with the sun god, doum palms (Hyphaene
ALIX WILKINSON
3
thebaica)with the scribe of the gods, Thoth, and with Min, the fertilitygod. Anotherof
Min's plants was the humble lettuce (Latucasativa).20
The symbolismof tombgardens
Tombs were based on the design of the tomb of the god, Osiris, who had been restored
from death to life. By imitativemagic, the humandead could enter eternallife by being
buried in a tomb like that of Osiris. This tomb consistedof a mound of earthwith trees
aroundit, enclosinga tomb chamber(Figure I). An actualrealizationof this conceptwas
made at Abydos by King Seti I. It is a temple-like structureon an island, with a tomb
beside it, buried under a great
mound of earth and sand. Around
the mound were planted conifers
and tamarisks in six, huge bricklined pits. A tamarisk was believed
to be the place where the soul of the
Figure I. Illustrationof the tomb of
j
J
thegodOsiriswithina mound.On
the
in Marseilles
c coffin of Petosiris
rV ie M ie
Source:JacquesVandier.Manuel
d'archeologieegyptienne(Picard,
Paris, I952-69), fig 319
god, Osiris, in the form of a bird, i
rested (Figure 2). It was also
believed to be where the king as the sun was reborn.21Accordingto the solarmyths, the
dead king becamethe sun, which the sky goddessswallowedeachnight and gave birthto
each dawn. King Mentuhotep (c. 20o-1960 B.C.) planted tamarisks(Tamarixarticuin frontof his tomb and funerarytemple at
lata) and sycomore-figtrees (Ficussycomorus)
Deir el Bahari(Figure 3). Sycomore-figtrees were the home of the sky-goddess, called
alternatively,Hathor, Nut, and Isis. On the easternhorizonof heaven, the sun emerged
between sycomore-figsof turquoise.22The sycomoretree had anotherrole, as nourisher
of the deceased(see Figure 8). In paintingsin courtiers'tombs, the sky-goddessappears
from the sycomore-fig tree at the corer of a pool, holding out bread and fruit and
pouringwater. Mentuhotepthus madesurethatthe two treessignificantfor his rebirthas
the sun were beside his tomb. Date palms representedthe sun, and had the practical
advantageof being able to withstand drought. Single palm trees and flowerbedswere
plantedin the open courtyardsof priests'and courtiers'tombs at Memphisand Thebes.
The meaning and messageof the gardenswas frequentlyin the sculpture, both in the
round and in relief, which representedthe owner in various guises and performing
various activities. The sculptures intimated things historical and mythological. The
things historical were the relation of the owner to his ancestors, and the things
mythologicalwere about the relationshipof the ownerto the gods. The owner appeared
in variousguises, and performedvariousactivities,both in sculpturein the roundand in
scenesof relief. In tomb gardens,a statuerepresentedthe ownerhimself. It was the living
presenceof the deceased, and had to receivethe attentionand respectdue to him. Over
life-sizefiguresof Mentuhotepstood in frontof the avenueat his funerarytemple at Deir
el Bahari.They were fixed into the rock by meansof deep pedestalswhich wereburiedin
the rock. Lion-bodiedsphinxes, with the face of QueenHatshepsut,lined the way across
the lowest terraceof her funerarytemple beside that of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari.
The status of the owner is demonstratedby the size of the gardenand its enclosure,
and by the size and splendour of the buildings and their decoration. Royal gardens
were much larger than those of anyone else: Mentuhotep's grove at Deir el Bahari
was about 50 m square: a garden at el-Amaranacovered an area of about a length of
96 m.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
4
Figure 2. The soul of Osiris in the
form of a bird perchedin a
tamarisk.In the temple of Hathor
at Dendera
Source:JacquesVandier,Manuel
d'arch6ologie
6gyptienne(Picard,
&t~
N
y~f?
~
8js,r/
~Paris,
treesin frontof Mentuhotep's
1?1Ir
*-4'ty._.n .!?
1952-69), fig. 319
"
d
~fitS
> M
1
o
V Kr
/~
5
X
Figure 3. Reconstruction of the
trees in front of Mentuhotep's
10 IS 20 2S*
The royal dominance over nature is demonstrated by bringing plants into the desert,
rather than by draining areas of marsh, as for example, at Versailles, or carving out a
clearing in a forest.
Summary
Temples were not, as in eighteenth-century Europe, 'trifles best seen by chance'.3 but
the main building, and raison d'etre of the garden. Statuary and sculpture were not just
decorative features. They were bearers of religious as well as political messages.
FUNCTION
The function of temple gardens was to produce the floral, vegetable, and fruit offerings
needed for the rituals of the gods, as well as for the perfumes used for anointing the
statues, and to provision the staff of priests and workpeople in the temple.24 Hatshepsut
and some of her successors tried to grow incense trees, Commiforamyrrha, and possibly
Boswelliasacra,in their gardens.25Hatshepsutsaid she brought 'greenannt trees from
Punt (Figure 4). 'Greenantenth
identifiedboth with myrrh26and with frankinhas
space provided
provided by
by gardens
gardens was used for processions within the temple
temple
cense. The space
ALIX WILKINSON
.WILKINS..O
S...ef,
r.
and , ?iA
had
to accommodate
enclosure,
'~?~~:~:~~nsu~
~
5
large gatherFigure 4. Incense trees broughtto
.Egypt from Punt
Th
open-air temple. It had a central lake, surrounded by temples and other buildings.
enclosure may have represented earth,Bahari
, east-west
Deir
(London
894oriented
is
the
8), route of
Amama there was a walled park-like area, called Maru-Aten, which may have been an
Kar
temple of
ak,
h Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were caied
by priests, accompanied by an
temple of Karnak, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were carried by priests, accompanied by an
and othe gods of KaThiak
excited throng, to the Luxor temple. At the Festival of the Valley,2s
sailed across thver,
so that the statues of the 'lving gods' could visit the 'dead gods' in
the funerary temples on the west bank of the Nile. In order to reach Hatshepsut's temple
formed
at Deir el Baharibetween temples
which asat
thewould
procession
go from her riverside Vafley Tempstivals,
probably also surrounded by trees,29 along a tree-lined canal to her funerary temple.
Menageries were included in gardens. Live animals in the royal gardens reflected
the king's ambition to collect the living world around him, and to have animals of
particular significance as his attendants. Lions, the royal animal par excellence, decorated
his throne and chariot. Lions were kept in cages at the entrance to royal gardens at
Karnak (see Figure 12), and antelopes, oryx, and ibex were kept at Karnak and Amarna.
Aviaries were probably part of the garden design at Amarna in the 'Northern Maru'.
Birds illustrated at Amarna, and presumably living in the gardens, included rock pigeon,
turtle dove, great spotted cuckoo, grey-lag goose, pied kingfishers, geese, and ducks.
Ducks and geese were ornaments as well as being edible, as were the fish. Animals were
bred at various temples. Some were the animals sacred to the deity of the temples, such as
rams at Mendes and Elephantine, bulls at Memphis, Bubastis, and Akhmim, and pigs at
Memphis. Others were needed for the offerings in the temple. During the Old Kingdom
(2600-2I50 B. C. ) birds were reared at the sun temple of Niuserre. Kings arranged for the
construction of fowl-yards in the temple of Amun at Karnak. Seti II said the temple was,
'filled with geese, cranes, ducks, doves and [otherkinds of fowl] to provide the divine
offerings for his father Amun'. In the later periods, they were reared so that pilgrims
could offer them as sacrificesto the deity of the temple. Mummifiedibises, have been
found in huge numbers at Saqqara, Hermopolis, Athribis, and Abydos, and cats, apes,
6
ANCIENT
EGYPTIAN
GARDENS
and crocodiles,at Tuna el Gebel, Mareotis,and in the Fayum. Shrinesof the crocodile
god, Sobek, are illustratedfrom the Old Kingdomup to the Ptolemaicperiod. Temples
of Sobek are known at several places including Kom Ombo, Edfu, and Hermonthis
(Armant),where the water-penfor the crocodileshad a movable hatch through which
they were fed.
The function of temple gardens was to provide floral, vegetable, and animal
offeringsand provisions,whereasthe functionof tomb gardenswas to be availableto the
spiritof the deceasedas a placeof shadeand refreshment,and to thatend they wereoften
illustratedon the walls inside the tomb. The externalgarden was the place to which
relativesand priests could bring waterand offeringsfor the spirit of the deceased.
FORM
Gardendesignin general
Since they areat the beginningof the storyof garden-making,and set the agendain form
for gardensthroughoutthe Near Eastand beyond, ancientEgyptiangardenshave many
of the features well known from later times. The glory of gardens depends on their
design, on the way they are laid out and structured, and on the decorative features,
skilfullyplacedto enhancea view or evoke ideas. Afterthese foundationshave been laid,
the plantingbringscolour, light, and shade, and variationsin height. Ancient Egyptian
gardenswere no exception.
Egyptiangardenswereformal.30They wereaxiallyplanned,as for example, Hatshepsut's funerary temple at Deir el Bahari which was approachedby a series of rising
courtyards.A building, whether tomb or shrine, was the focus and point of departure.
The unity of the buildingand the gardenswas usuallyevident. Straightlines predominated in the design and in the plantings. Symmetryis found in the repetitionof like with
like. For example, twin groves, twin trees, and twin pools. Geometryis exemplifiedin
the arrangementof rectangleswithin a garden. In the illustrationwhich survives of a
gardenat Karnak,the layoutconsistsof a rectangularwalledareain the centreof which is
a vineyard(Figure 5) surroundedby walled gardens, some of which are orchards,and
some of which have pools and a shrine. Identicaltrees were planted in avenues at the
funerarytemple of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,and on the approachto the temple of
Karnak,where there was an avenueof sycomore-figtrees, underplantedwith vines and
papyrus(Figure 6).
Elementsof thedesigns
Gardenswere laid out with a strong structure,makinguse of differentlevels linked by
terraces, and often centred around pools of water. Steps and stairways emphasized
changes in levels and viewpoint. Terraces, which 'can be the supreme expression of
gardenart',31had balustradessupportingthe steps linking the different levels, as, for
example, at Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. Trees were grown on the
lowest terrace.32At the bottomof the ramp, aroundthe papyruspools were about66 pits
cut in the rock, probablyfor flowerbeds,33ratherthanfor the incense treesbroughtfrom
Punt.34It is not certainwhere these were planted. The gardenof the 'King's House' at
Amarnawas terraced,35as is an estate at Karnak(see Figure 12).
Areas with their own individualitywere separatedby walls or trees. Within these
areas,arcadesand colonnadesprovideda varietyof texturesanda backgroundfor plants.
ALIX WILKINSON
Figure 5. The gardenillustratedin the tomb of SennuferTT 96. Paintingmade by
Dr Ricci for Henry Salt. Courtesyof the Trusteesof theBritishMuseum
Photo:author
Figure 6. The approachto the temple of Karnak.
Source:Normande GarisDavies,The Tombof Nefer-Hotepat Thebes(New York,I948)
7
8
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
Sunken atriumgardensinside buildings have been found in excavationsin four ceremonial areasat Amarna:in the 'centralpalace', inside gardenbuildings in the open air
temple, the Maru-Aten,in the 'NorthernMaru', and at the site to the south of the city,
calledKom el Nana. Courtswith pools andflowersaroundthem besidediningroomsand
bedroomsin the palaceat Amarnaare illustratedin severalofficials'tombs (Figure 9).
These floralrepresentationsmay be paintedpavements,actualexamplesof which were
found at Amarna.
Vistas were controlledby avenues, and concentratedthe eye on a particularview.
Fromthe funerarytempleson the west bankat Thebes, the vistasconvergedon the Nile,
andbeyondit on the templeof Karnak.Equally,a processionleavingKarnakwould have
its sights set on the temples at Deir el Bahari.
Constituentswithin a garden
Waterwas the centralfeatureof many gardens.The temple lake was not only the water
sourcefor the temple, but was the placewhereritualswereperformed,such as takingthe
statue of the deity out in a boat. On the pathwaybeside the lake, processionspassed on
variousfestivalssuch as for the Burialof Osirisat Karnak.36Sometemplelakeswerevery
large, the one at Karnakmeasured132 by 80 m. The lake in the Maru-Aten,at Amarna
was I20 m by 60 m. Othertemple-lakeswere smaller:33 m by 28 m at Dendera, or i8 m
by 20 m at the Eighteenth-Dynastytemple at Medinet Habu. The king was rowed on a
lake in a specialbargeas partof a religiousceremony,37and afterhis deathhis statuewas
rowed out on memorialdays.38Private gardens sometimes contained lakes. Officials
describedthe extensivelakes on their properties,39and a lake largeenough for a boat to
travelon is illustratedbesideDhutnufer'shouse (ThebanTomb 80). Peoplevaluedpools
as sourcesof refreshmentand coolness. In them they bred fish and birds for food. There
were also cisterns,which storedwaterfor supplyingthe plantsin the gardens.Pools were
stepped, so that the watercould be reachedwhen the pool was nearlydry (Figure 7). The
edges of some pools provided terraces for marsh plants. The shapes of pools were
rectangularand T-shaped. The T-shapewas the form in which the channelsin front of
temples were arrangedas landing areas. The T-shape also reflects the form of a place
whereofferingswere made(Figure 8). It is this meaningwhich explainsthe shapeof the
pools beside the rampsin the courtyardof Hatshepsut'stemple at Deir el Bahari.These
pools were filled with growingpapyrus,indicatingthe point where the goddess Hathor,
as a cow, appearedout of the mountain.
One of the featuresillustratedin the wall-paintingsis a ceremoniallandingplatform
surrounded by a low balustrade. An actual platform was found at the temple of
RamessesIII, at MedinetHabu, juttingout into the pool in front of the temple gateway.
These platformsforeshadowthe lakeside jetties still remainingin Moghul gardens.40
Bridges have not survived, but a long, stone-builtquay was found jutting out into the
lake at Amarna, in the Maru-Aten.41Such a jetty remains in the Shalamargarden at
Lahore.Waterwas broughtin canalsto feed the gardens,andwas a featurearoundwhich
a gardenwas created.A pond markeda focus of interest, sometimesa gardenkiosk was
set beside it (see Figure 5).
Buildings in gardens were the dwelling of gods, whether they were magnificent
stone temples covering several acres, like the temple of Amun at Karnak, or small,
stucco-coveredbrickshrinesin the gardensof privatehouses. Buildingscould simply be
bowersmadeout of papyrus,or pleasurepavilionsprovidingshadeand somewhereto sit,
__
ALIX WILKINSON
9
~
/
/-~
---_-
.
<...
i--, ;:
;"q
.....-..
...........
.
?>
.
..sides
A
.,
^F" ~- ^^^^^ '_
\d>
...0
. .'n
. f
....
, i:%tomb
X-
^.r_5U
y -^^' b |L_^!L ,
--h_
Figure 7. Cisternwith stepped
in an orchard.Relief in the
of Meryreat Amarna
: Source:Norman de Garis Davies,
The RockTombsof El Amarna
(London, 1903-08)
_
-
,
,
-
-
_I, , ..
_ _
_L
Figure 8. T-shaped pool paintedin the tomb of Tjanefer.Theban Tomb 158
Source:Keith Seele, The Tomb of Tjanefer (Chicago, 1959) pl. ii. Courtesyof the OrientalInstituteof the
Universityof Chicago
or make love,42 or give birth.43Such gardenpavilionssurvivedin Cairenegardensuntil
at least the time of Napoleon's expedition(Figure io). Shrinesalong the route between
the Karnakand Luxortempleson the eastbankof the Nile weresurroundedby their own
gardens. The route itself, by the time of the Thirtieth Dynasty, was 'a magnificent
avenueenclosed within walls plantedwith trees made dazzlingwith flowers'44and lined
with recumbentstone sphinxes. The pits for the trees, the canal and the sphinxes have
been found in excavation.45
Excavationsshow that gardenswere usually walled. High, plasteredwalls, sometimes with paintedor tile decoration,hid the participantstakingpartin processionsfrom
the staresof the vulgar.Paintedand tiled wallsin gardenscontinuedup to the eighteenth
-
IO
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
.
?I.!
:i.Figure
^:
^% |
__
~ y1!i::i _
t1* x y;
Eli
i 3 E(I
I w
A
j
~_
sYf
p,w3<ji~~~~~
......... ::: -'n
..:--7_
... .
t
9. The royalcouch beside
flowerbeds.Over the bed, the
the canopy. Relief in the tomb of
Parennefer
Source:Normande GarisDavies,The
RockTombsof El Amarna(London,
1903-o8)
'.i
century in Portugal.46Sometimes walls were serpentine (sinuous)47and may have
providedprotectivesurfacesfor growingfruit trees. Serpentinewalls have been found at
Karnak,48and at Hermopolis, where they lined the avenue in front of the temple.49
Trellisesand 'treillage'paintedon the walls supportedtemptingvines and pomegranates
mirroringthe real fruit growingin the gardenand providinga kind of trompel'oeil.
Pergolas were another way of dividing up the garden, and were also used to
surroundpools. Pergolasfor vines were the centralfeatureof severalgardenspaintedin
tombs (Figures 11, 12). A pergola consisting of square brick pillars close together
covered an area of about 70 m by I20 m south of the main ceremonialbuilding in the
centre of Amarna.This buildingwas calledthe 'CoronationHall' by the excavators,but
it is more likely to have been a vineyard.50The walls or floorswere decoratedwith inlaid
tiles with floralmotifs and aquaticscenes.
Monumental gates stood at the entrance to some gardens, as can be seen in
illustrationsin tombs, such as that of Sennufer(see Figure 5). Gatepostsof a garden,
which surrounded a lake within the precinct of the temple of Amun, and called the
'Libation of Amun', have been found at Karnak.51Gatehouseswere a feature of both
illustrated,and actualgardens.One of the most elaborateand extensive which has been
excavatedwas at Amarnaleadinginto the Maru-Aten.
A sacredtree, or grove of trees, was grown in its own enclosurein some temples,
such as at the temple of Hermopolisduringthe Middle Kingdom, or in Ptolemaictimes,
at Medamud.A specialtree was given prominencein others, as in the funerarytemple of
Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,where a particularsycomore-figshelteredan altarand a
statueof the king. There was a groveof sycomore-figtrees, sacredto the goddess Hathor,
at Deir el Medineh. Eachtreewas plantedin its own container,or in a pit, so that it could
be individuallywatered. At temples up and down the river, trees were broughtinto the
courtyards,enhancingthe stone-imitativeplantelementswith naturalvegetation.Inside
the courtof the Romantempleof Khnumat Elephantine,realpalmtreesgrewup in front
of stone imitationsof papyrus, lotus, and palms.52
The terrainin whichgardensweremade
In orderto createthese magnificentgardensthe Egyptiandesignershad to deal with two
potentiallyoverwhelmingelements:the desertand the river. In the desert there was too
II
ALIX WILKINSON
Figure o1. Pavilionin the gardenof
Elfy Bey
Source:Descriptionde l'Egypte,I
MichelSidhom,Paris,
(Reedition
1990).
Figure I . Vineyard in the garden
of the palace of the Queen of
~' .- "' Pharaoh Ay
i^I
^aF
;.S? 7\ S^^
~l
'
I, i
~
s
i2
^9'
1
8-a~
g
,
~:^
At
?'x~yE1
..~,.
,z,J,^^'^^^,
S
,
fc1
'5
~
,:
' .
Source:Normande GarisDavies,The
Tombof NeferHotepat Thebes(New
York, 1933)
'u
lions' cages, a gatehouse, a
^^Y ifSSg//
l
| ?^J^ 1
"iii'-'^H
trees and an animal
Xvineyard,
aA
_rt\
_Si7' QtO
(
{^S' -f
illustratedon a relief
,enclosure
yL
VYz~~ V
J^^S -^y?|A^!~
^^^^
1
Source:P. Anus,Bulletinde l'Institut
_S U riB^i
^
d'ArcheologieOrientale69
ii l e ^^^$w ^Francais
.~
DZ
:75?
j^r3..x
(1970)
little vegetation; and along the river bank there was too much. On the slopes of the
westernmountainat Thebes, the architectswere tryingto extend the riverbank into the
desert, and had to do it by artificially providing water. This mountain was the site of the
royal funerary temples and courtiers' tombs. Here the dead rested 'Upon the Crag of the
Lady who is the West of Thebes'.53 This was seen by the Egyptians as a hard, hilly
desert, scatteredwith the round-toppedmarkersof manytombs, with somewherea lush
I2
ANCIENT
EGYPTIAN
GARDENS
papyrusmarshwere poppiesalso grew, into which the sky goddess, as a cow, steppedto
welcome the dead, who were inside their tombs in the tall, pink rock beside these
markers.54
Landscapeof thewest bankat Thebes
The Egyptianscreatedbuildingsand gardenswhich were integratedwith the surrounding naturalscenery.The royalfunerarytempleswere rangedalongthe hillside with their
backsto the mountainandtheirgardensstretchingdowninto the plain. This layoutis the
same as that at the Taj Mahalwhich also has the tomb-pavilionat one end of the central
axis.55During the EighteenthDynasty, the gardensformedterracesof trees againstthe
desert mountainbackdrop.Sycomore-figand Mimusopslaurifoliagrew below Hatshepsut's greatfunerarytemple in deep pits cut in the rock. Date and doum palms stood in
individualcourtyardsof the privatetombs on the lower slopes of the hillside during the
Eighteenth and Twenty-Sixth Dynasties. The decorationon the walls of some of these
courts shows that trees and flowers were planted in the place to which offerings were
brought. Further south, in front of the same mountain range, this landscapingwas
continued. The funerarytemple of TuthmosisIII may have been approachedby a canal
endingin a rectangularpool in frontof a monumentalgateway.A canalled fromthe river
to Amenophis III's temple, in front of which was a great lake full of plants, and deep
enough for boatsto sail on, takingthe statuesof the dead king and queen on ceremonial
voyages. This lake would have spreadout in frontof the colossi of Memnon, which were
statuesrepresentingthe king, which stood in frontof the pylonicentranceto the temple.
Behind the temple of his royal master, was the funerarytemple of the royal architect,
Amenophisson of Hapu, one of the very few courtiersalloweda temple actuallyamong
those of the kings. On the lower terracein front of the temple, trees surroundedthe
pool.56Away acrossthe desertlay the huge lake of Birket Habu surroundedby profuse
vegetation; and the palace of Amenophis III which had its vineyards and orchards
aroundit.57
In the Nineteenth Dynasty the landscapebelow the mountainswas probablystill as
lush, althoughlater kings pillagedAmenophisIII's funerarytemple of its statuaryand
building material in order to create their own monuments.58 Ramesses II'S (I279-1213
B.C.) funerary temple, the Ramesseum, had an avenue in front of it and a garden
flankinga canal, inside, between the pylons, accordingto a possible interpretationof a
paintingin the tomb of the officialwho was Overseerof the Gardensof the Ramesseumin
the Estate of Amun, Nezemger.59This gardenmay have been inside the temple on the
southernside of the secondcourt. No evidenceof the canalhas been foundin excavation.
In front of Ramesses III's (1187-1156 B.C.) funerary temple, Medinet Habu, at the
southernend of the sweep of trees, lakes and funerarymonuments, were a canal, pool
andtrees. Insidethe templewereseveralgardensaroundpools. In succeedingyearssmall
funerary chapels were built behind Medinet Habu, with trees in the courts at the
entrances,imitatingthe plantingsin the greattemple. Somewhereon the mountainside,
and now lost, was the funerarytemple of Tuthmosis I where, during Ramessidetimes,
his memorialrites were celebratedon a tree-linedlake, accordingto a painting in the
tomb of Userhat.60The temples, with theirgardens,lakesand canals,were in living and
verdant contrast to the desert and rocky scarp of the mountain. They lastedcollectively,though not all at one time - fromthe reign of Hatshepsut,at least until the
death of RamessesIII; a period of more than 300 years, during which time they were
ALIX WILKINSON
I3
tended and visited by theirown priests, and by the priestsand courtiersfrom the temple
of Amun at Karnak,as well as by the generalpopulacewho took part in the festivals.
On the east bankof the riverthe landscapewas just as verdant.The maintemples of
Karnakand Luxor had gardensinside and out.
Landscapeof Amarna
At Amarna,the site sacredto the sun god, the desert plain was made green by parks at
either end; and temples, palacesand houses with their own gardensfilled the built-up
area.At the southernend was the vast open-airtemple, and at the northernend, another
more enclosed temple or palace,with a gardenin the centre. In between these parks, lay
clustersof buildingswith avenuesleadingup to them, and gardensaroundthem, some of
them with pools. In the suburbs, the gardens surroundinga few of the great houses
formedoasesbetweenthe whitewashedbuildings.The riverbank, whereships unloaded
in frontof the palace,was plantedwith treesand flowersin containers,and a flowerbed,
beside the naturallygrowingpapyrusand mandrake.61The effect fromthe landingstage
must have been of the river bank creepingtowardsthe easternmountain.
LandscapearoundMemphis
At Heliopolis, Ramesses III decreed that date and olive groves be established, and
orderedgardensand incense trees to be planted at Memphis.62
Whetherthe pyramidsat Gizahad any trees or gardensaroundthem is not known,
althoughthereis the suggestionof a gardenbetweenthe Step Pyramidand the Causeway
of Unas. At the riverend of the causewaystherewasplentyof vegetation,but thatwas not
contrivedby man.
Landscapeof theDelta
In the much more fertile Delta, a vast orchardand vineyardsurroundedthe palacesand
temple at Avaris (Tell Dabaa) and Pi-Ramesses.RamessesiII orderedthe planting of
orchardshere, and at many religious centres.
ANCIENT
DESIGNERS
AND CLASSIFICATIONS
OF GARDENS
GardenDesigners
Ancient Egyptiangardenswere made by architects,some of whom are known by name:
Senenmut,who advisedQueenHatshepsut,andAmenophis,son of Hapu, who designed
AmenophisIII's (1390-I353 B. C.) monuments,aretwo of the most famous. The names
of some individualworkersin the gardensare also known.
The ancientEgyptiansclassifiedtheirgardensby theirform, by whatthey grew, and
the
buildingsto which they were attached.Forms could be a piece of grounddivided
by
into squaresfor cultivation,an open terracedarea, a sunken or level peristyleor atrium
within a building, or a park,which might containa pool. Gardenscould alsobe described
by the plantswhich grewin them, such as vegetablegardens,olive groves, fruitorchards,
vineyards,groves of incense trees, and trees for use in carpentry.There were words for
describing the gardens of specific buildings: of tombs, palaces, and temples, and of
estates, both of the living, and of the dead.63Gardenshad individual names, just as
buildingshad names. The gardencreatedby Akhenaten(I353-1336 B. c.) at Amarnafor
the globe of the sun, the Aten, was called'The Seeing-Placeof the Aten'. And the shrines
2
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
14
with gardens on the route between the Karnak and Luxor temples had names like
'Hatshepsutis united with the perfectionof Amun'.
Summary
The sacredgardensof ancientEgyptat Thebes andAmarnaweredecoratedwith manyof
the garden features which survived through Roman and Islamic times, and became
fashionablein eighteenth-centuryEurope. The power and splendourof the ruler were
demonstratedin extensive gardensin front of their funerarytemples at Deir el Bahari,
and in and aroundthe temple of Amun at Karnak.At Amarna,in the Maru-Aten,there
was a large artificiallake, an ornamentedquay, temples, garden walks, avenues, a
gatehouse, and maybe even a banquetinghouse. Its companiongarden, the 'Northern
Maru', included a sunken atriumgardenand a menagerie,as well as a centralpool and
small shrines.
//
^TFigure
=~
-l.\ '::f
v /
/WV
< .,
Jv
^A-'''
C_W
--^ '?--Jf/
J
2
13. A gardenerpouring
waterfrom the bucket of the
shadufinto a runnel which leads
o^ i n ^ t into the brick containerholding
a date palm
/ t
5
0
.1 5Thebes
Source:Normande GarisDavies,
The Tombof NeferHotepat
(New York,I933)
AncientEgyptianlandscapegardenerscreatedlavishplantationsat templesand city
sites. Greatsweeps of desert, coveringover a mile at a time, were kept full of trees. The
Egyptians' main practicalproblem was connected with the control and provision of
water,which they managedto overcomeby creatingcanalsand pools inside, and in front
of, their buildings, and by the constantuse of the shaduf and bucket (Figure 13). The
gardeners'success was spectacular,and sustainedover many hundredsof years.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Researchfor this article was begun at Dumbarton
Oaks, in the Centerfor Studiesin LandscapeArchitecture. I should like to thank Dumbarton Oaks,
Trustees for Harvard University, for two Fellowships (Summerand an academicyear), which gave
me time and space for study, and the use of their
libraries. I am particularlygrateful to John Dixon
Hunt and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahnwho, as
Directors of Studies in Landscape Architecture,
gaveme greathelp andencouragement.I shouldalso
like to thankAnnie Thacherand LindaLott for their
patienceand kindnessto me.
REFERENCES
x. Roy Strong, The Renaissance Garden in
England (London, I979), p. I20.
2. Lynette M. F. Bosch, 'Bomarzo:A study in
personal imagery', Garden History IO:2 (I982),
p. 07.
3. Michel Conan, 'The conundrumof Le
Notre's Labyrinthe', in Garden History, Issues,
Approaches,Methodsedited by J. Dixon Hunt
(DumbartonOaks ResearchLibraryand Collection, Washington, D.C., I992) pp. II9-51.
4. JamesStevensCurl, 'JohnClaudiusLoudon
and the gardencemeterymovement',GardenHistory, II:2 (1983), p. I37; in the eighteenth century,
Henry Home, Elements of Criticism (1762), had
maintainedthat the 'artof gardening'was 'capable
of stimulatingmore widely divergingemotions
ALIX WILKINSON
than architecture',quoted by Lucia H. Albers,
'The perceptionof gardeningas art', GardenHistory19:2 (199I), p. 170; and WilliamChambers
believed with others in the latterpart of the
eighteenthcenturythat 'beautifulor sublimegardens should have an effect on the emotions', David
Jacques'On the supposedChinesenessof the
English LandscapeGarden'.GardenHistory I8:2
(I990), p. 185.
5. R. C. Turner, 'Mellor'sGardens',Garden
HistoryI5:2 (1987), pp. 157-66, at Hough-Hole
House, Rainers, Macclesfield,which was based on
ideas of Swedenborg(1688-1772) being a 'garden
of correspondencerelatingto things of this world
and scripturalhistory'. It originallycontained
plants mentionedin the Bible. Collectionsof plants
mentionedin the Bible have been made in this
country(and in Jerusalem)by Dr Nigel Hepper
and are to be found in severalgardensin the
United States.
6. John Colleran,and Eileen McCracken,'The
JapaneseGarden,Tully House, Kildare', Garden
I5
in GardenHistory,Issues,Approaches,Methods,
edited by J. Dixon Hunt (DumbartonOaks
ResearchLibraryand Collection,Washington,
D.C., 1992), p. I6o.
I5. Kenneth Woodbridge,TheStourheadLandscape,pp. 18-I9.
16. RainerStadelmann,'Swt-R'wals Kultstatte
des Sonnengottesim Neuen Reich', Metteilungen
desDeutschenArchaologischen
Instituts,Abteilung
Kairo25.2 (1969), p. 161: 'Der Tempel wird dabei
ein Abbild der Welt gedachtdie der Sonnengottin
Gestaltdes Amun-Retaglichiiberquert';Wolfgang
Helck, EberhardOtto, LexikonderAgyptologie,i
(Wiesbaden),p. 397. Architectur:'So ist der Tempel ein Weltmodell,ein 'Fahrplandes Kosmos'.
17. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder
Agyptologie,v (Wiesbaden),p. I58.
I8. PierreMontet, 'Hathoret les papyrus',Kemi
I4 (I957), p. Io8.
I9. IngridWallert,Die PalmenimAltenAgypten
(Berlin, 1962), pp. 97-I13.
20. RenateGermer,'Die Bedeutungdes Lat-
History 5:1 (1977), pp. 35-38.
7. ClaudiaLazzaro, TheItalian RenaissanceGardens(I991), reviewedby VanessaStephen, Garden
History20:I (199I), p. 9o: 'Plantswere woven into
the design', and formed 'partof the allegoricalcontent of the gardens'.
8. Roy Strong, TheRenaissanceGardenin
tichs als Pflanzedes Min', StudienzurAgyptischen
Kultur8 (I980), p. 87.
21. RaymondO. Faulkner,AncientEgyptian
CoffinTexts,II, p. 247, Spell 682, 'His motherNut
bore him in the Field of Tamariskwhich protected
the god in the nest'.
22. R. O. Faulkner, TheBook of theDead (New
England (London, 1979) p. 10: 'Each flower within
York, I972), ch. I09: 'I know those two trees of
a great gardenwas seen to mirrorone of her regal
virtues, while its overallcompositioncould proclaim Elizabethin her varyingroles as Spenser's
"most royall queen or empresse" . . . the garden
... became Gloriana's glass'; p. 47, Elizabeth I was
turquoisebetweenwhich Re goes forth'.
23. TheShell GardensBooks, edited by Peter
Hunt (London, 1962), p. I8o.
24. Offerings,floral:JamesHenry Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt (Chicago, I906-07), Iv,
pp. 244, 30I; vegetable: ibid. IV, p. 244; fruit: ibid.
IV, pp. 234, 294-45; incense: ibid. IV, p. 294; per-
the eglantinerose.
9. Being replacedby 'theme parks', such as the
fume: ibid. iv, p. 286.
Beatlesgardenin the Liverpoolgardenfestival,
Jane Brown, TheEnglishGardenin ourTime
25. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon
derAgyptologie,vI (Wiesbaden),Weihrauch,
(Woodbridge,I986) p. 222.
Io. The discussionsin English landscapegarpp. I 67-89; F. Nigel Hepper, Pharoah'sFlowers,
TheBotanicalTreasuresof Tutankhamun
(London,
dening circles from the late nineteenthcentury
onwardsare about form: 'formal'versus 'natural'
I990), p. 20.
(LaurenceWeaver,Housesand GardensbyE. Lutyens 26. By Nigel Groom,FrankincenseandMyrrh.A
(Woodbridge,I98I reprint),p. xviii, or 'modern'
studyof theArabianIncenseTrade(London, New
versus 'Englishgarden'(as exemplifiedin Jason
York, 1981), p. 25, who notes that antyw was used
Hill's Gardener'sCompanion,I936). JaneBrown,
in making an ointment, which he states had to
TheEnglishGardenin ourTime(I986) p. I29.
have been obtainedfrom myrrhwhich could be
I . Geoffreyand SusanJellicoe, TheLandscape mixed with balanosoil, whereasfrankincensecannot be used for makingperfume.
of Man (London, 1987) p. 386, Sutton Place,
Festdaten
Guildford,which was an allegoryof creation,and
27. SiegfriedSchott, Altagyptische
p. 389, the Moody Gardens,Galveston,Texas,
(Wiesbaden, I950), p. 71; Norman de Garis
which was designed to illustrate'the way in which
Davies, Journalof EgyptianArchaeologyI0 (1924),
civilizationshave assembled,nurturedand intepp. 12-13.
28. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder
gratedplants of all kinds into their variousforms
of gardensand landscapes'.
Agyptologie,vi (Wiesbaden),pp. 187-89. Talfest.
12. Mark Francis, RandolphT. Hester, The
SiegfriedSchott, Das SchoneFest vomWustental.
Meaningof Gardens:Idea, Place andAction(Cam(Wiesbaden, I952).
bridge, Mass., 1990).
29. TheodoreDavis, EdouardNaville, and
HowardCarter,Theodore
M. Davis Excavations,
13. SutherlandLyall, DesigningtheNew LandBiban el Moluk. The Tombof Hatshopsitu(London,
scape (London, 1991), pp. 60-63.
I4. John Dixon Hunt, 'Verbalversusvisual
1906), p. 59, state that there were gardensaround
meaningin gardenhistory:The case of Rousham', this temple. Referringto the relief of a gardenin
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS
the centralshrineof the funerarytemple of
Hatshepsut,the authorssay: 'The garden... must
have been in the wateredand cultivatedground
perhapsat the extremityof the little valley which
was the site of the avenueleadingto the temple,
where have been found remainsof a building'.
30. Criteriafor formalgardens:MarkLaird,
FormalGardens:Traditionsof Art andNature
4I. About 37 m long, I2 m of which projected
into the lake, Thomas E. Peet and C. Leonard
Woolley, TheCityof Akhenaten(London, I923), I,
p. I15, pi. xxIx.
42. UbaonerStory, Raymond0. Faulkner,
EdwardWente, WilliamKelly Simpson, The
Literatureof AncientEgypt(New Haven, London,
1972), p. 17.
(London, I992), p. 6.
31. Peter Hunt, TheBook of GardenOrnament
(London, 1974), p. 209.
32. EdouardNaville, The Templeof Deir el
43. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon
derAgyptologie,vi, pp. I282-84. 'Wochenlaube',
and referencesin Alan Schulman,Journalof the
AmericanResearchCenterin Egypt22 (1985), p. 99,
Bahari (London, 1908), vi, p. I. In front of the
note IO.
colonnadeon the lower terrace,i.e. the one with a
relief of the transportof obelisks: 'We found that
on both sides the open space was used as a kind of
garden. There were many small roundpits about
ten feet deep, filled with Nile mud in which trees
had been planted. The stumps of two palm trees
are still in situ, but there were other trees'.
33. D. Arnold, in WolfgangHelck, Eberhard
Otto, LexikonderAgyptologieI (Wiesbaden,I97586),.p. IoI9, says they are flowerbeds.
34. As Jean-ClaudeHugonot, LeJardin dans
44. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed,'Preliminary Reporton the Excavationscarriedout in the
Temple of Luxor, Seasons1958-59 and I959-60',
Annalesdu ServicedesAntiquitesde l'Egypte60
(I968), p. 267.
45. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed,Annalesdu
ServicedesAntiquitesde l'Egypte60 (1968),
35. John D. S. Pendlebury,TheCity of
Akhenaten,iii (London, I95I), pp. 86-87, plsi,
xlvi 'At the north end of the west side are two
terracesat a lower level, but a small flight leads
down to the lowest where there was evidentlyan
arbour.'
36. Paul Barguet,Le PapyrusLouvreN. 3176
Cardoso,PortugueseGardens(Woodbridge,1990),
p. 80. 'Tile work which was almostentirelyrestricted to religiousarchitecturein the first half of the
seventeenthcenturymakes its appearancein
gardens'.
47. Which requirea third of the numberof
bricksthat a straightwall needs becauseit is half as
thick as a normalwall, but could reacha height of
15 ft, Jean O'Neill, 'Wallsin half circles and ser-
l'Egypte ancienne (Frankfort-am-Main, 1989), p. 72.
(Cairo, I962), p. 42, says that a passage in the
Book of the Dead, ch. 125, refersto putting into
the coffin on the edge of the quay at night, the
sacredobjectswhich symbolizedthe body of Osiris
... Not only does the 'mystery' take place on the
banksof a lake but the text shows that Pharoahin
his role as Horus 'has wrappedhis fatherOsiris
and taken care of his tomb at the head of the
sacredlake' (which might be the shrineof Tuthmosis III at the westernend of the lake).
37. Sun cult at Amarna,BeatrixGessler-Lohr,
Die HeiligenSeen agyptischenTempel(Hildesheim,
1983), p. 213, Hathorcult, ElisabethStaehelin,
'Zur Hathorsymbolikin der agyptischenKleinfur AgyptischeSprache o05
kunst', Zeitschrift
(1978), pp. 76-77.
38. E.g., BeatrixGessler-Lohr,HeiligenSeen
dgyptischen
Tempel(Hildesheim, 1983), pp. 99-10o,
a statue of AmenophisIII being rowed on a lake.
Theban Tomb 277.
39. E.g., Meten, Hans Goedicke, 'Die Laufbahn
des Mtn', MitteilungendesDeutschenArchdologischenInstitutsAbteilungKairo21 (I966), pp. 64-65,
or the descriptionof the estate of Raia;Miriam
Lichtheim,AncientEgyptianLiterature,II (Berkeley, 1974), p. I73. 'The lapping of waves sounds
in one's sleep'.
40. E.g., Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akhbar, 1570,
or the Shalamargardens,Lahore,of ShahJahan,
1642, WilliamHowardAdams, NaturePerfected:
GardensthroughHistory,pp. 79, 82.
pp. 233-34, pl. lxxxvi, xcv.
46. Tiles in the Bishop'sGardenat Castelo
Branco.Photo: Tony Aruzza,Portugal.Insight
Guides(London, 1988), p. 243; Quintada Penha
Verde Sintra (I640-50);
Helder Carita and Homem
pentine walls', Garden History 8.3 (I980), p. 72,
their purposewas to grow fruit. Accordingto Stephen Switzer, 1742, the wall was 6-8 yd roundon
the inside; at Hermopolisit was about 2 m: Joachim Sliwa, 'On the meaningof the so-calledsinusoidalwalls in Egypt duringthe Middle Kingdom'
in Theintellectualheritageof Egyptedited by Ulrich
Luft, FestschriftL. Kakosy (Budapest,1992),
p. 523, which lists known examplesand suggests
savingof buildingmaterial,rapidconstructionand
resistanceto sand pressureas advantages.
48. Donald B. Redford,Journalof theAmerican
Research Center in Egypt 28 (1991), p. 9I, fig. I9.
49. GiintherRoeder, 'Berichtiiber die Ausgrabungen des Deutschen HermopolisExpedition
1935', MitteilungendesDeutschenInstitutsfur dgypti-
sche Altertumskundein Kairo 7 (1937), pp. IO-21.
50. ClaudeTraunecke,Bulletinde la Societe
de Geneve9-Io (I984-85), pp. 285d'Egyptologie
307.
5I. ShehataAdam and Farid el Shaboury,'Rep-
ort on the work at Karnakduringthe seasons
1954-55 and 1955-56', Annales du Service des Anti-
quitesde l'Egypte56 (I959), p. 39. pl. 5; CharlesC.
Van Siclen, Two ThebanMonuments
fromtheReign
ofAmenhotepII (San Antonio, Texas, 1982), p. I5.
52. WernerKaiser, 'Stadtund Tempel von Elephantine',MitteilungendesDeutschenArchdologi-
schen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 38 (1982), pp. 306-29.
ALIX WILKINSON
53. RicardoCaminos,LateEgyptianMiscellanies
(London, 1954), p. I43.
54. Theban Tomb 277, JeanneVandierd'Abbadie, Deux tombesthebainsa GournetMourrai(Cairo,
I954), pp. I4-I7, plsxii-xiii.
55. WilliamH. Adams, NaturePerfected:GardensThroughHistory,p. 83, commentson the position of the Taj Mahal (1632-54) being at one end
of the centralaxis, 'so that it can easily be seen
from the JumnaRiver below', and thus departing
from the chaharbaghpatternwhere the tombpavilionis in the centre.
56. ClementRobichonand AlexandreVarille,Le
Fils d'Hapou(I935).
Templed'Amenhotep,
57. Lectureat the BritishMuseum 10 November I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzian.
58. Lectureat the BritishMuseum o1 November I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzianon the re-useof
statuesof AmenophisIII by RamessesII at Luxor
temple, and by Merneptahin his funerarytemple
on the west bank at Thebes.
I7
59. MarcelleBaud, Le CaractereduDessinen
EgypteAncienne(Paris, I978), figure I6.
60. TT 5I. Normande GarisDavies, Two
RamessideTombsat Thebes,1927.
6I. Norman de GarisDavies, TheRock Tombsof
el Amarna, v (London, I903-08), pl. v.
62. JamesH. Breasted,AncientRecordsof Egypt,
5 vols (Chicago, I906-07), IV, 333: 'I planted
incense and myrrhtrees in thy greatand august
court in Ineb-Sebek,being those which my hands
broughtfrom the countryof God's Land'. Papyrus
Harris.RamessesiII.
63. Jean-ClaudeHugonot, LeJardin dans
l'Egyptedncienne(Frankfort-am-Main,I989),
pp. 9-20; Henry G. Fischer, 'An invocatoryoffering basin of the Old Kingdom',Mitteilungendes
DeutschenArchaologischen
InstitutsAbteilungKairo
47 (1991), PP. I27-33.
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