course guide pos 214 - National Open University of Nigeria

Transcription

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: POS 214
COURSE TITLE: BASIC ELEMENTS OF CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION
COURSE
GUIDE
POS 214
BASIC ELEMENTS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Course Team
Ugbe, Agioliwhu Ugbe (Course Writer/Developer)
Cross River State College of Education,
Akamkpa
Dr. Robert O. Arop (Course Editor/Coordinator) NOUN
Godwin I. Akper (Programme Leader) – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
POS 214
National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2013
ISBN: 978-058-963-5
All Rights Reserved
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COURSE GUIDE
POS 214
COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction.....................................................................
What you will Learn in this Course................................
Course Aims....................................................................
Course Objectives............................................................
Course Requirement........................................................
Course Materials..............................................................
Study Units......................................................................
Textbooks and References..............................................
Assignment Files.............................................................
Assessment......................................................................
Tutor –Marked Assignment.............................................
Final Examination and Grading......................................
Course Marking Scheme.................................................
Course Overview.............................................................
Strategies for Studying the Course..................................
Tutors and Tutorials........................................................
Summary..........................................................................
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COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to POS 214: Basic Elements of Criminal Investigation. Basic
Elements of Criminal Investigation is a first semester course of threecredit units and is available for second year students of the police
science programme. The course examines the general procedures and
principles of criminal investigation applicable to police system and the
role of police interrogations in generating confessions, besides its
relevance to a legal system.
Basic Elements of Criminal Investigation consists of 21-study units.
The course guide introduces you to what the course is all about, course
materials you will require, and information on how you can work your
way through the material. It also highlights assignments (tutor- marked
assignment) as part of the requirement for the course.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
The study of basic elements of criminal investigation will enable you to
have insight to the police crime interrogations and confessions. It
combines the knowledge and techniques of criminal investigation, as
well as analysis of physical evidence obtainable in a typical crime scene.
You will also study and commit to memory definitions of crime and
criminal investigation as well as theories of crime. In addition, you will
acquaint yourself with the techniques of crime scene investigation.
You will know the role of police interrogations in generating
confessions, and the three types of false confessions. You will study the
nature, scope and extent, as well as the limits of statutory powers.
You will also learn the fundamentals of investigation as well as the
essence of the complaining party. The victim, searches, collection,
preservation and presentation of exhibits in a crime scene are also
discussed for your understanding. The use of scientific aids in analysing
and record-keeping is also highlighted.
You will study the treatment of information, Judges’ Rules, observation
and interviews.
Finally, you will discover through your reading and assignments, ways
and methods of testing information, how to follow-up actions,
generation of case files and report-writing.
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COURSE AIMS
This course encourages you to:
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study ways and procedures that directly or indirectly deal with
criminal investigation
study the techniques of criminal investigation
know the nature and scope of criminal investigation
discuss the goals and fundamentals of investigation
assess the crime scene in investigation
study the principles of preservation and presentation of exhibits
in a crime scene
know the role of police in interrogations and confessions
learn the techniques of interrogation and use of scientific aids
discover the importance of observation and interviews in the
treatment and testing of information during investigation
know the methods of generating case files and report-writing.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
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define the terms crime and criminal investigation
state the nature and scope of criminal investigation
explain statutory power and its application in criminal
investigation
state the fundamentals of investigation
analyse information in a crime scene
describe how to search, collect and preserve exhibits in a crime
scene
prepare case files and report-writing
describe the techniques of interrogation
state the use of observation and interviews in interrogation
organise, treat and test information in a crime scene
arrange follow-up actions in investigation
employ the use of scientific aids and records in storing
information
explain the application of Judges’ Rules in criminal investigation.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read
suggested books and other materials that will help you achieve the
objectives. Each unit contains selfassessment to test your knowledge.
There will be final examination at the end of the course. The course
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should take you a total of about 20 weeks to complete. Listed below are
the major components of the course.
COURSE MATERIALS
Course guide Study units
Recommended textbooks
Assignment file
STUDY UNITS
There are 21 study units in this course. Each unit should take you about
two hours to work through. The units are divided into five modules;
each module contains four units.
These are arranged as follows:
Modules1
Criminal Investigation
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Meaning of Crime and Criminal Investigation
Statutory Powers and Judges’ Rules in
Investigation
Techniques of Criminal Investigation
Qualities and Duties of a Criminal Investigator
Module 2
Fundamentals of Investigation
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Meaning and Scope of Investigation
The investigative Process
Methods of Investigation
Applying Investigative Strategies
Module 3
The Crime Scene
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Scene of Crime
Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation
Electronic Crime Scene Investigation
Types of Crime Scene and Powers of a Crime Scene
Investigator
Module 4
Interrogation and Confessions
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Interrogations
Confessions/Written Statements
Informants
Interviews
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COURSE GUIDE
Module 5
Report-Writing and Management of Criminal
Information
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Meaning of Criminal Information
Managing Crime/Criminal Information
Case File
Report-Writing and Note-Taking
Each unit contains a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives,
recommended textbooks and summaries of key issues and ideas. In
every unit, you will be provided with a number of exercises or selfassessment questions. These are to help you test yourself on the
materials you have just covered or to apply them in some way. The
value of these self-test is to help you assess your progress and to
reinforce your understanding of the material. At least one tutor-marked
assignment will be provided at the end of each unit. The exercise and the
tutor-marked assignment will help you in achieving the stated learning
objectives of the individual unit and of the course.
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
Iwara, I. & Christopher, E. (2008). A Practical Guide to Criminal
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar: Essttah & Press Services.
Member, C. F. L. (1990). Police and Law Enforcement. Ibadan: Intech
Printers Ltd.
Nweke, S. A. N. (2002). Principles of Crime Prevention and Detection
in Nigeria. Ebenezer Production. Nig Ltd.
Onashile, Y. (2004). Scientific Criminal Investigation, Detection and
Prosecution. Ibadan: Malijoe Soft-Print.
Swanson, C. R. (2003). Criminal Investigation. (8th ed.). Boston:
McGraw-Hill Press.
Sennewald, A. C. (1981). The Process of Investigation: Concepts and
Strategies for the Security Professional. Washington: Butterworth
Heinemann.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
All the details of the assignment you are to submit to your tutor for
marking will be found in this file. You must get a passing grade in these
assignments in order to pass this course. In the assignment file itself and
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in the section on assessment within this course guide, additional
information will be found.
There are 15 assignments in this course.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment in this course is divided into two.
These are:
•
•
tutor-marked assignment
final examination.
For you to do the assignments very well, it is expected of you to apply
information, knowledge and techniques obtained from the course. You
must endeavour to summit the assignments to your tutor for marking
before the deadlines given in the assignment file.
The assignments will count for 30% of the course mark, while the final
examination at the end of the course will count for 70% of your total
course mark. The examination will be for three hours.
TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT
This course consists of 20 tutor–marked assignments. The best three
assignments with the highest marks will be selected. You are
encouraged to submit all your assignments. Each assignment counts
10% towards your total course work.
In the assignment file, you will find all the assignment questions for all
units. To demonstrate your understanding of the course, do not depend
only on information obtained from the units to answer the question. Go
to the library, read and research very well to obtain more information on
the course.
After completing each assignment, send it to your tutor. Try your best to
get each assignment across to your tutor on or before the dates given in
the assignment file. However, if it becomes impossible for you to submit
any of these assignments on time, please let your tutor know before the
due date. After due consideration, you might be given an extension.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
To prepare for this examination, revise all the areas covered in this
course. Revision of all the exercises and the tutor-marked assignments
before the examination will also be of help to you. The revision should
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start after you have finished studying the last unit. This final
examination will be for three hours. It has a value of 70% of the total
course grade.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
This table shows the actual course marking scheme.
Assessment
Assignments
Final Examination
Total
Marks
Five assignments, best three marks of the five
counts for 30% of course marks.
70% of overall course marks.
100% of course marks.
COURSE OVERVIEW
The units, the number of weeks it would take you to complete them and
the assignments that follows them are outlined in the table below.
Unit/Module Title of Work
Assignment
Module 1
Unit 1
Duration
(Weeks)
Course Guide
1
Definition of crime and 1
criminal investigation
1
Techniques of criminal 1
investigation
Theories of crime
1
2
Meaning and scope of 1
investigation
The
investigative 1
process
Methods of criminal 1
investigation
4
The crime scene
Crime
scene
investigation
Applying investigation
strategies
Processing the scene
Completing
and
recording the crime
scene investigation
1
1
7
8
1
9
1
1
10
11
2
3
Module 2
1
2
3
Modules 3
1
2
3
4
5
3
5
6
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Module 4
1
2
3
Module 5
1
2
COURSE GUIDE
Meaning
of 1
interrogations
and
confessions
Interrogation
1
procedures
The use of informants 1
in interrogations
12
Report-writing
Note-taking
15
1
13
14
STRATEGIES FOR STUDYING THE COURSE
In the National Open University of Nigeria, where open and distance
learning system is fundamental in the development of course materials,
the study units replaces the university lecturer. Thus you can read the
course materials at your own pace, at anytime and anywhere. Exercises
to test your understanding of the materials are provided in each unit.
There is a common format for all the units. The first item is the
introduction which shows you how a particular unit is related to other
units and to the course as a whole.
After the introduction, you will see the objectives. The objectives
indicate what you are expected to achieve after studying the unit. So you
should keep it handy so as to constantly check or monitor yourself in
terms of achieving those objectives.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required readings
from other sources. Exercises, as was mentioned before are provided at
intervals throughout the materials. Don’t try to skip any of the exercises
while reading. This will help to do your tutor-marked assignments and
also to prepare you for examinations.
The following is a practical strategy for studying the reading materials if
you encounter any problem, contact your tutor and he/she will be
available to help you. Read this course guide thoroughly, provide a time
table for yourself and take note of the time you are required to spend on
each unit and always stick to the time table.
TUTORS AND TUTORIALS
There are 10 hours tutorials (eight hours) provided to support this
course. The dates, time and locations of these tutorials will be made
available to you, together with the name and address of your tutor.
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COURSE GUIDE
Your tutor will mark the assignments. Take note of the comments he
might make and remember to send your assignments before deadlines.
In case you will not meet the deadline; make sure you notify your tutor.
The tutor will return your assignment to you after he must have marked
them.
Try your best not to skip any of the tutorials. This is because that is the
only chance you have of meeting your tutor and your fellow students.
And your tutor will more easily solve problems encountered while
reading the course materials.
SUMMARY
POS 214: Basic Elements of Criminal Investigation intends to introduce
you to the fundamentals of investigation and also to the ways and
techniques of crime scene investigation. By the time you complete this
course, you would have known the basic rudiments of criminal
investigation and the role of the police in interrogation and confessions.
Therefore, the successful completion of this course will aid you to
answer the following questions without much difficulty:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
What is criminal investigation?
How is the general knowledge of investigation helpful in criminal
investigation?
How are police investigations and confessions conducted?
What is the difference between crime and criminalities?
How can you apply the general principles of investigation in a
crime scene?
How can you apply scientific aids as interrogation tools?
What are the methods of investigation?
How would you apply investigative strategies in a typical crime
scene?
What is the importance of preserving physical exhibits in a crime
scene?
We wish you success in the course and hope that you will find if both
rewarding and interesting.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS
PAGE
Modules1
Criminal Investigation............................
1
Unit 1
Meaning of Crime and Criminal
Investigation..............................................
Statutory Powers and Judges’ Rules in
Criminal Investigation...............................
Techniques of Criminal Investigation.......
Qualities and Duties of a Criminal
Investigator................................................
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
1
18
33
50
Module 2
Fundamentals of Investigation...............
71
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Meaning and Scope of Investigation.........
The investigative Process..........................
Methods of Investigation...........................
Applying Investigative Strategies.............
71
86
101
115
Module 3
The Crime Scene.......................................
131
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Scene of Crime...........................................
Electronic Crime Scene Investigation........
Types of Crime Scene and Powers of a
Crime Scene Investigator...........................
131
150
164
Module 4
Interrogation and Confessions................
199
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Interrogations............................................
Confessions/Written Statements...............
Informants.................................................
Interviews..................................................
199
217
230
244
Module 5
Report-Writing and Management of
Criminal Information..............................
259
Meaning of Criminal Information..............
Managing Crime/Criminal Information.....
Case File.....................................................
Report-Writing and Note-Taking...............
259
273
285
300
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
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MODULE 1
MODULE 1
Unit1
Unit 2
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Meaning of Crime and Criminal Investigation
Statutory Powers and Judges’ Rules in Criminal
Investigation
Techniques of Criminal Investigation
Qualities and Duties of a Criminal Investigator
Unit 3
Unit 4
UNIT 1
MEANING OF CRIME AND CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Definition of Crime
3.2
Types of Crime
3.3
Meaning of Criminal Investigation
3.4
Kinds of Criminal Investigation
3.5
Principles of Basic Criminal Investigations
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor-Marked Assignment
References/Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is all about criminal investigation? And who is an investigator?
Criminal investigation is the use of scientific methods to help identify
suspects, gather evidence and collect information, all of which are done
in an effort to convict offenders. On the other hand, an investigator is
someone who gathers documents, and evaluates evidences and pieces of
information about a particular incidence of crime committed or about to
be committed. Basically, an investigator must adopt the rules and laid
down principles to solve the riddles associated with crime. Besides, the
investigator must also learn to construct hypotheses and draw valid
conclusions relating to the problem of when and how the crime was
committed. The various issues that will be examined in this unit that will
introduce you to criminal investigation include definition of crime, types
of crime, definition of criminal investigation, types of criminal
investigation and basic principles of criminal investigation.
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2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
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define the concept “crime”
define criminal investigation
mention types of investigation
enumerate kinds of criminal investigation
describe the principles of basic criminal investigation
state the objectives of criminal investigations.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Definition of Crime
A crime is an intended action that is against the rules of law for a
community. In most communities, sexual assault, physical assault,
murder, theft, property damage and vandalism are all crimes. If a crime
is committed, investigators will work to determine what happened and
who is responsible. If the perpetrator is found, he/she may be brought to
court and prosecuted.
Crime is also the breach of rules or laws for which some governing
authority (viz mechanisms such as legal system) can ultimately prescribe
a conviction.
Individual human societies define crime and crimes
differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of
the law counts as a crime, for example breaches of contract and of other
civil law may rank as “infractions”.
When informal relationships and sanctions prove insufficient to
establish and maintain a desired social order, government or a sovereign
state may impose more formalised or stricter systems of social control.
With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the
state can compel population to conform to codes and can opt to punish
or to attempt to reform those who do not conform. Authorities employ
various mechanisms to regulate (encouraging or discouraging)
behaviours in general. Governing or administering agencies may for
example codify rules into laws, police citizens and visitors to ensure that
they comply with those laws and implement other polices and practices
designed to prevent crime. In addition, authorities provide remedies and
sanctions and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system.
Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity; they may include
incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict.
Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh
punishment, legal mutilation, capital punishment or life without parole.
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The label “crime” and the accompanying social stigma normally confine
their scope to those activities seen as injurious to the general population
or to the state including some that cause serious loss or damage to
individuals. Those who apply the labels of “criminal” intend to assert
the hegemony of a dominant population or to reflect a consensus of
condemnation for the identified behaviour and to justify any
punishments prescribed by the state (in the event that standard
processing tries and convicts an accused person of a crime). Often a
natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit
crimes.
A normative definition views crime as deviant behaviour that violates
prevailing norms- cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to
behave normally. This approach considers the complex realities
surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing
social, political psychological and economic conditions may affect
changing definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law
enforcement, and penal response made by society.
These structural realities remain fluid and often contentious. For
example, as cultures change and the political environment shifts,
societies may criminalise or decriminalise certain behaviours, which will
directly affect the statistical crime rates, influence the allocation of
resources for the enforcement of laws and (re-) influence the general
public opinion.
Similarly, changes in the collection and or calculation of data on crime
may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any given “crime
problem”. All such adjustments to crime statistics, allied with the
experience of people in their everyday lives shape attitudes on the extent
to which the state should use law or social engineering to enforce
/encourage any particular social norm. One can control/influence
behaviour in the criminal justice system.
Indeed, in those cases where no clear consensus exist on a given norm,
the drafting of criminal law by the group in power to prohibit the
behaviour of another group may seem to some observers an improper
limitation of the second group’s freedom, and the ordinary members of
society have less respect for the laws or laws in general-whether the
authorities actually enforce the disputed law or not.
Legislatures can pass laws (called mala prohibita) that define crimes
which violate social norm. These laws vary from time to time and from
place to place. Examples are: variations in gambling laws and the
prohibition or encouragement of duelling in history. Other crime called
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mala in se, count as outlawed in almost all societies e.g. murder, theft
and rape.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What is mala prohibita and mala in se with reference to crime? State and
discuss one definition of crime.
3.2
Types of Crime
Having attempted to define crime and explain the various definitions of
crime, the next issue to deal with is the various types of crime prevalent
in the society.
Religion and crime
Different religious traditions may promote distinct norms of behaviours,
and these in turn may clash or harmonise with the perceived interest of a
state. Socially accepted or imposed religious morality has influenced
secular jurisdictions on issues that may otherwise concern only an
individual’s conscience. Activities sometime criminalised on religious
grounds include (for example) alcohol consumption (prohibition),
abortion and stem-cell research. In various historical and present–day
societies institutionalised religions have established system of earthly
justice which punishes crimes against the divine will and against
specific devotional, organisation and other rules under specific codes,
such as Islamic Sharia or Roman Catholic Canon law.
Military jurisdictions and states of emergency
In the military sphere authorities can prosecute both regular crimes and
specific acts (such as mutiny or desertion) under martial law codes that
either supplant or extend civil codes in times of (example) war.
Many constitutions contain provisions to curtail freedoms and
criminalise otherwise tolerated behaviours under a state of emergency in
the event of war, natural disaster or civil unrest. Undesired activities at
such times may include assembly in the streets, violation of curfew, or
possession of firearms.
Employee crime
Two common types of employee crime exist, embezzlement and
sabotage. The complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help
criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the
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most costly scams include banks, brokerage house, insurance
companies, and other large financial institutions.
Most people guilty of embezzlement do not have criminal histories.
Embezzlers tend to have a gripe against their employer, have financial
problems, or simply an inability to resist the temptation of a loophole
they have found.
Screening and background checks on prospective employees can help in
prevention, however, many laws make some types of screening difficult
or even illegal. Fired or disgruntled employees sometimes sabotage their
company’s system as a form of “pay back” this sabotage may take the
form of a logic bomb, a computer virus or creating general havoc.
Some places of employment have developed measures in an attempt to
combat and prevent employee crime. Place of employment sometimes
implement security measure such as cameras, fingerprint records of
employees and background checks. Although privacy-advocates have
questioned such methods, they appear to serve the interests of the
organisations using them. Not only do these methods help prevent
employee crime, but they protect the company from punishment and/or
lawsuit for negligent hiring.
List the various types of crime you know, describe one of them.
3.3.
Meaning of Criminal Investigation
What is a criminal investigation? And why do I need a criminal
investigation?
One important aspect of police activities which help to boost morale of
both the general public as well as the police force consists in successes
achieved in bringing offenders to account for their wrong doings. These
successes also have salutary effect of strengthening the confidence of
the public in the police force.
The arrest and successful prosecution of offenders undoubtedly depends
on police investigation. It is therefore no gain saying that a badly
investigated case can never stand the test of judicial evidence and
examination, and stands to ruin the reputation of a police force generally
spotlighting its inefficiency, the need for good and thorough
investigation can never, therefore, be over-emphasised.
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A criminal investigator looks for clues and evidence to determine
whether a crime has taken place. If a crime has been committed, a
criminal investigator may look into the background of the accused and
may try to uncover who committed the crime. Police agencies and law
enforcement are committed to criminal investigations of every kind, but
a growing number of individuals are choosing to launch their own
criminal investigations with the help of professional investigators.
A criminal investigator is an official effort to uncover information about
a crime. There are generally three ways that a person can be brought to
justice for a criminal act. First and probably the least likely, the
individual will be driven by his conscience to immediately confess.
Second, an officer of the law can catch him in the act. Thirdly, and most
common, a criminal investigation can identify him as suspect, after
which he may confess or be convicted by trial.
In most cases, when a crime is committed, officials have two primary
concerns they want to know who committed the crime, and what the
motive was. The reason why a person breaks a law is called the motive.
The motive does not always come after indentifying the perpetration in a
criminal investigation. Sometime the motives are suspected or know and
used to catch the criminal. This is often true with crimes such as
kidnappings and murders. Notes or other forms of evidence may be left
that reveal why the crime has been committed.
Criminal investigations are usually conducted by police. There are other
officials that have the authority to investigate and launch criminal
charges. In Nigeria, these include criminal investigation department
(CID), while in the United State, it is the Federal Bureau of investigation
(FBI) and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).
Police and other officials may use a variety of methods to conduct
criminal investigations; sometimes they work with their canine coworkers. They may also use various scientific techniques such as
fingerprint and ballistics analysis.
A controversial investigation sometimes employed in Nigeria is the use
of informants. Many people disagree with this practice because these
individuals are generally criminals who are looking to get out of trouble
or to reduce their punishments. It is therefore argued that they can be
influenced to say or do whatever will please those investigating the case.
There are some parts of criminal investigations that police may not be
able to handle. Some cases require investigation techniques that demand
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specialised knowledge or training that the investigators or their
colleagues may not have. This is especially true with deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) testing, although this techniques is popular, it is often
performed by third parties.
A criminal investigation does not always yield results. Sometimes
suspects are accused only for it to be determined later that they are not
guilty. At other times an extensive criminal investigation may not
produce any suspects. This can mean that no one will be punished for the
crime that was committed.
Why do I need a criminal investigation?
Although in the past many people have allowed law enforcement agents
to conduct criminal investigation, but today, a growing awareness of the
problems with this method has pushed many people to seek independent
investigations. Most police forces are so overwhelmed with crime and so
understaffed that not all criminal investigation get the resources they
need. Police will often hunt for a criminal for a while and then designate
a case closed. A private investigator is not only exclusively dedicated to
solving a case, but he or she often does not have the limitations of
resources and jurisdiction that a law enforcement agency must contend
with.
Criminal investigations are conducted primarily for the prevention of
crimes when crime occur, law enforcement is responsible to the
community it serves and must discharge its duty by immediately
investigating such incidents. Ideally the investigations will cause the
violator to appear before a court so as to answer for his/her behaviour.
Ultimately and probably most important is the investigation, detection
and apprehension of the criminal, effectively serves to curtail recidivisms
thereby reducing overall crime.
There are several basic types of investigations that law enforcement
personnel may undertake in the routine discharged of their duties.
1)
2)
3)
Investigations of incidents which are violations of laws and/or
ordinances that include criminal acts (robbery, assaults larceny,
burglary, murder, illegal weapons, etc) and traffic accident
investigations (serious injuries, death and properly damage).
Personal investigations into the background, character and
suitability, of persons in an effort to determine their eligibility for
positions of public trust.
Investigations of illegal conditions or circumstance, which if left
unchecked would cause an increase in traditional crimes. These
conditions may include the following: Narcotics sales, illegal
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weapons, trafficking, vice-type crimes (prostitution, gambling),
street gang activity, organised crime, terrorist fraud activities,
frauds and con games, identity theft and computer crimes.
Although many of these conditions would dictate self-initiated
investigations bases upon intelligence rather that reacting to a
citizen crime compliant, there are however, times that
investigations will in fact result from such individual crime
complaints.
How reliable are criminal investigators?
Criminal investigators are highly trained and have the resources to a
wide variety of tools including forensics investigations, crime scene
investigations, networks of investigators, surveillance, records checks
and other sources that can help them solve crimes. Since investigators
take cues from you, they will generally continue to investigate until you
are satisfied so that the chances that you will get the answer you seek are
quite high.
Basically, the objectives of criminal investigation process are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
To establish that a crime was actually committed
To identify and apprehend the suspect(s)
To recover stolen and damaged property as the case may be
To recover items used in the commission of the crime
To assist in the prosecution of the person(s) charged with the
crime.
Explain the meaning of criminal investigation and its objectives.
3.4
Kind of Criminal Investigations
What are the various kinds of criminal investigations? There are many
kinds of criminal investigations, including fraud investigations, rape
investigations, and sexual crime investigations, theft investigations,
kidnapping
investigations,
assault
investigations,
homicide
investigations, and many others. There are specific investigations
techniques for almost every crime you could imagine.
1)
Fraud investigations
What is a fraud investigation? Fraud is considered to involve
misrepresentation with intent to deceive. If a company makes specific
promise about a product, for example, in order to sell that product, they
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may be guilty of fraud if they are aware that the product does not work
as advertised. Fraud is a very real and costly problem in today’s world,
and it causes not only loss of money but also loss of life and serious
injuries.
A fraud investigator tries to determine whether fraud has taken place
and tries to detect evidence if fraud has occurred.
Fraud costs the economy many billions of Naira a year. If you are the
victims of fraud, you may lose significant amount of money and in some
cases your good names. Stopping fraud is in everyone’s best interest.
Just as there are different types of fraud and fraud-related crimes, there
are different types of fraud investigations. Insurance fraud
investigations, for example try to overcome those who make false claims
to get insurance money. In some cases, these types of investigations also
uncover insurance companies who refuse to honour legitimate claims.
Workers compensation investigations, on the other hand, incover
employees who try to unrightfully claim compensation for injuries they
do not have. They also uncover companies who do not pay legitimately
injured employees. Co-operation investigations often try to uncover
fraud in companies while financial investigations and accounting
investigations often try to determine whether any financial fraud has
been committed. Identity theft investigations try to determine whether
some ones identity has been stolen and used to perpetrate fraud. General
fraud investigation covers all other areas of fraud. Fraud investigations
are particularly difficult because the perpetrators tend to be professional
criminals and/or insiders who possess intimate knowledge of their
organisation.
There is however the difference between fraud and lying. Fraud usually
involves lying for a specific gain that causes someone loos. While lying
does not always hurt, if for example, you take your car to an
unscrupulous mechanic, he may tell you that he makes one hundred
thousand naira a month. If this is a lie, it does not hurt you. However, if
your car does not need repairs but the mechanic convince you that your
car needs N50, 000 in body work, the mechanic has committed fraud
because he has twisted the truth in a way that means financial loss for
you.
What happens in fraud investigations?
Most fraud investigations begin with a meeting between the investigator
and the client. The person launching the investigation explains to their
investigators why that suspected fraud has taken place and hand over
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any evidence they have to the investigator. A good fraud investigator
will use the initial information to find more evidence and more facts. A
fraud investigator may use surveillance, asset searches, backgrounds,
and other type of methods to get to the bottom of a case.
In most cases, fraud investigations are investigations of white collar
crime, which involves surveillance and careful consideration of
complicated financial records.
What is most important in a fraud investigation?
Fraud investigation can be complicated and difficult for certain reasons.
First, criminals take great care to cover their tracks and escape
prosecution. Secondly, in order for an investigation to be useful in a
legal case, an investigator must be able to prove that fraud was intended.
Only a qualified investigator can successfully complete these facets of
fraud investigation.
2)
Rape investigation
Rape investigation is the procedure to gather facts about a suspected
rape, including forensic identification of a perpetrator, type of rape and
other details. The vast majority of rapes are committed by persons
known to the victim, with only two percent of assault being perpetrated
by a stranger, according to one survey of victims.
Therefore, the
initiation and process of a rape investigation depends much on the
victims’ willingness and ability to report and describe a rape.
Biological evidence such as semen, blood, vaginal secretions, saliva,
vaginal epithelial cells may be identified and genetically type by a crime
laboratory. The information derived from the analysis can often help
determine whether sexual contract occurred, provide information
regarding the
circumstances of the incident, and be compared to
reference samples collected from victims and suspects.
Medical personnel collect evidence for potential rape case by using rape
kits through the following methods – perpetrator identification, DNA
profiling etc.
A primary method used by crime labs for testing biological evidence is
DNA profiling. The most common form of DNA profiling used in crime
labs for identification is called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR
allows the analysis of evidence samples of limited and quality by
making millions of copies of very small amount of DNA. Using an
advanced form of PCR testing called short tender in repeats (STR), the
laboratory is able to generate a DNA profile, which can be compared to
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DNA from a suspect or a crime scene. Blood, buccal (linear check)
swabbing, or saliva should also be collected from victims for DNA
analysis to distinguish their DNA from that of suspects.
The value of DNA evidence has to be seen in light of the potential of
criminals to plant fake DNA samples at crime scene. In one case, a
criminal even planted fake DNA evidence in his own body. Dr. John
Scheeberger rape one of his sedated patients and left semen on her
underwear. Police drew what they believed to be Schneeberger’s blood
and compared its DNA against the crime scene semen DNA on three
occasions, never showing a match. It turned out that he had surgically
inserted a Penrose drain into his arm and filled it with foreign blood and
anticoagulants.
Circumstances and type of rape
Abrasions bruise and lacerations on the victim help in elucidating how a
rape was done. 8 to 45% of victims show evidence of external trauma.
The most common sites of extragenital trauma are the mouth, throat,
wrist, arms, breasts and thighs. According to an American study, trauma
to these sites comprise approximately two thirds of the injuries, while
trauma to the vaginal and perineum, account for approximately 20% of
the injuries.
A recent coitus can be determined by performing a vaginal wet-mouth
microscopy examination (or oral/and if indicated) for detection of motile
sperm. Motile sperm are seen on the slide if less than three hours after
ejaculation. However, absence of sperm does not exclude the possibility
of coitus because only one-third of sexual assault results in ejaculation
into a body orifice. Furthermore the illegal assistance may have had a
vasectomy or have experienced sexual dysfunction roughly 50% of
assistants suffer from importance or ejaculation dysfunction in addition,
acid phosphate levels in high concentrations is a good indicator of
recent coitus. Acid phosphate is found in prostatic secretions, and
activity decreases with time and is usually absent after 24 hours. If
undetermined amount of time has elapsed since the rape or if seminal
fluid is scare, prostrate-specific antigen (PSA) may still be detected
within a 48-hour period. The seminal fluid of vasectomised men also
contains a significant PSA level. Non-motile sperm may be
demonstrated even beyond 72 hour after intercourse, depending on
staining techniques.
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3)
Sexual assault investigation
What is it all about? Rape, next to cold-blooded murder, is the most
heinous of crimes. It is a vicious, brutal attack on woman that leaves
irreparable psychological scars long after the devastating experience.
And unfortunately, it is one of the most common crimes committed
today, possible numbering more than the offense of robbery. The
investigation of sex-crime case is extremely difficult and demanding,
requiring not only technical expertise and experience, but also
sensitivity towards the victim. The detective or prosecutor assigned to
investigate should always remain cognizant of the fact that the entire
criminal justice process, beginning with the initial
police interview
right through adjudication, posses an additional ordeal for the sex crime
victim and her family and loved ones.
The trauma of sexual attack leaves the victim at once hurt-physically
and emotionally angry, anxious, fearful, vengeful, confused, hate-filled
and distrustful. In many cases, the victim blames herself for the act,
thinking she contributed to the crime. If she was returning home late
from a party, she may tell herself she deserved what she got because of
her carelessness late at night or early in the morning. The investigating
officer(s) must reassure her that she did nothing wrong. The rapist or sex
offender is the one who committed the crime and the one deserving
punishment to the fullest extent of the law.
In, some cases, the investigators will find the victim to be
uncooperative, even hostile at the preliminary stages of the interview /
preliminary report. Sensitivity and understanding of the psychology of
rape and sexual assault are prerequisites in a successful sex crime
investigation.
The clothing worn by the victim at the time of the sex crime may offer a
wealth of evidence and should be secured as soon as possible without
embarrassing the victim. This clothing must be sent to the crime lab
immediately in order to prevent tainting through a number of mishaps.
You would be surprised at how much evidence is lost or loses its value
because of laxity on the part of the officer(s) transporting the evidence
to the lab. The technicians will examine the clothing for blood, seminal
stains, as well as hair and fibbers that may lead to the identification of
the rapist or confirm the victim’s allegation against someone she knew
prior to the crime.
The DNA identification process works best with seminal evidence,
because of the abundance of nucleic acid carry of several complex acids
found in all living cells. Rape and sexual assault are ugly, demeaning
crimes that have little regard for any social boundaries.
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4)
MODULE 1
Kidnapping investigation
In law, kidnapping is the taking away of person(s) by force, threat or
deceit, with intent to cause him to be detained against his will.
Kidnapping may be done for ransom or for political or other purposes. A
parent whose rights to custody of a child have been revoked can be
qiulty of the crime for taking the child. Consent of a kidnapped person is
a defence, unless given by one legally incompetent at the time (e.g.
minor or a mentally ill person). The crime differs from abduction, in that
the intent of sexual intercourse is not required and false imprisonment in
which there is no attempt to abduct.
Under common law, kidnapping was only a misdemeanour, but in most
states of the United States it is now punishable by death or life
imprisonment if there are extenuating circumstances. The kidnapping
and murder of the son of Charles A. Lindbergh in 1932 led to a Federal
Statute prescribing several penalties for transporting the victims of
kidnapping across state or national boundaries. The practice of
kidnapping in the wider and not strictly legal scene has been known
since the beginning of history. It was a common method for processing
slaves and it has also been employed by brigands and revolutionaries to
obtain money through ransom or to hold hostages whose safe release
was dependent on the freeing of political prisoners.
Undoubtedly one of the most traumatic experiences a family can face is
kidnapping. It also severally challenges the law enforcement agency
ability to successfully resolve the situation. In such difficult
circumstances, however, agencies can turn to an effective aid-crises
negotiation teams. These teams fill a unique and effective role that
ultimately benefits the one-scene commander, investigative personnel
and the victim family. The true value of a crises negotiation team’s
assistance however, often does not become apparent until the
kidnapping ends.
One of the crises negotiation team’s primary responsibility in any
critical situation is to support the overall investigative effort. In the case
of a kidnapping, the crises negotiation team works closely with the
victim family members. The team establishes a negotiation operation
centre, makes assessment of family members, and guides and supports
them through what is likely their darkest hour. The team, using its
negotiation training, develops strategies to reduce the subject’s
expectations to respond to threats and demands and, most important, to
seek the safe return of the victim.
The family members of a kidnap victim often become overwhelmed
with a wider range of emotions. Some family members may feel the
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need to “do something” while other are sad, angry, confused or
distraught. The fundamental aspect of the crises negotiator’s craft is
active listening. The team’s skill in indentifying and labelling these
wide-rouging emotions serves to comfort the family, demonstrates
empathy and establishes and builds rapport. From the growing and
developing relationship, the victim family becomes more at ease and
cooperative and most important, increasingly confident in the ability of
law enforcement to secure a successful outcome.
5)
Theft investigation
This keeps employees theft and other misconduct from eroding
profitability. Employee’s theft accounts for roughly 42% of all retail
inventory shrinkage losses. It is estimated that 20 to 25% of employees
engage in some form of theft. That is one reason reliable, trustworthy
employees are a major factor in the success and profitability of any
business.
List 3 kinds of criminal investigation and discuss one of them.
3.5
Principles of Basic Criminal Investigations
What are the guiding principles of a crime investigator? Crime scene
processing can be viewed as the “science” of investigative processes,
whereas criminal investigation can be viewed as the “art”. The following
are some of the steps the investigator must know in carrying out a
criminal investigation case.
Sources of information
Sources of information can generally be either documentary or human in
nature. Documentary sources of information include any sort of paper
or electronic sources, such as criminal and DMV histories, financial
documents, old case files, court files, court testimony, transcripts, mail
cover, trash pulls, medical or psychological records, licenses, cooperate
indices, telephone or utility records or other archival information.
Human source are by far among the most valuable sources of
information available to investigators. Human sources are known by
many different terms- informants, assets and cooperating witnesses.
Whatever their label, all human sources voluntarily provide specific
information of value for a particular case.
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This information provides the initial background information. The most
important consideration with regards to human sources is reliability. If a
source is unreliable, then everything he or she says does become
questionable and suspect, especially in court. Many cases have been lost
in court due to unreliability. One method of testing a source’s reliability
is to ask the source questions to which the investigator already knows
the answer or by verifying the veracity of the source’s information
through prior knowledge.
Human sources can be open or confidential. The investigator should
strive to protect the identity of all confidential human sources. This not
only protects the integrity of the investigation, but it provides safety to
the source as well. In most cases, numbers or pseudonyms are used in
place of the source’s true name in on reports and audio recordings, and
these identifiers are catalogued and kept confidential by only those who
have a need to know.
Introduction to physical evidence
The “evidence” coin consists of two sides. One side is physical evidence
and the other side is testimonial evidence. Physical evidence is
important because, unlike testimonial evidence, it alone can establish the
guilt of a person in a court of law. For example, a person cannot
unusually be convicted on the basis of an uncorroborated confession, as
there must be either direct o circumstantial evidence that raises an
inference of the essential facts of the confession; conversely, a person
can be convicted of crime without testimonial evidence as long as the
physical evidence is strong enough. There are two classifications of
physical evidence: direct and circumstantial. Direct evidence is evidence
that stand on its own in proving or refuting the facts at issue.
Circumstantial evidence is evidence that indirectly proves facts from
inference. Most forensic crime scene evidence can be useful in many
ways. Tool mark evidence may link a person who uses a certain tool
with the crime scene, for example, a tool mark from a crime scene can
be compared with a tool mark found on the property of a suspect.
Laundry marks may be left behind in violent crime scenes. Example
include laundry marks turn from a suspect’s clothing and left at the
crime scene or a victim being indentified through laundry marks found
on the streets soils, rocks and minerals from the crime scene are
valuable as sample comparisons when compared with like sample on the
suspect’s clothes.
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Processing and collecting evidence
The following general rules apply to processing and collecting evidence:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
4.0
Give first priority to fragile evidence that can be altered by time
or the element.
Collect items that could impede the search of the scene.
Have the investigator’s initial and the date and time of discovery
on each piece of evidence or container of evidence.
Example, photography, sketch, record, and collect major
evidence in the order that is most logical.
In death scene, process the evidence between the point of entry to
the scene and the body. Then make detailed search of the body
and remove it.
After processing major evidence, search for and collect trace
evidence.
Make elimination prints of investigators and others who had
access to the crime scene.
Respond to notification (record times, date, and location, identify
persons related to incident, learn who, what, when, where, how
and why of incident.
Take initial actions on arrival at scene (weather, security, decide
search method).
Scan the scene (view central items and their location, check for
injured person’s not fragile evidence.
CONCLUSION
We have defined crime as an intended action that is against the rules of
law for a community e.g. sexual assault, physical assault, murder, theft,
property damage and vandalism; while ciminal investigation is the use
of scientific methods to help identify suspects, gather evidence and
collect information, all of which are done in an effort to convict criminal
offenders. We also defined an investigator as someone who gathers
documents, and evaluates evidences and pieces of information about a
particular incidence of crime committed or about to be committed.
Types of criminal investigations discussed include: fraud investigations,
rape investigations, sexual crime investigations, theft investigations,
kidnapping investigations, assault investigations and homicide
investigations.
5.0
SUMMARY
Inthis unit, we have delt with the definition of criminal investigation. In
addition, we examined who a criminal investigator is. We went further
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to enumerate and discussed the types of criminal investigations and
finally highlighted the principle of criminal investigation.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
i.
ii.
iii.
What is a crime? List two types of crime you know.
List four types of criminal investigations and explain two of
them.
7.0
REFERENCES /FURTHER READING
Abbey, A.B., Clinton, R. & Mc Auslan, R. (2004). “Similarities and
Differences in Wormern Sexual Assault Experiences Based
on Traffic Used by the Perpetrator,” Psychology of Women
Quarterly. vol 18, Pp323-332.
Department of the Army (1985). Law Enforcement Investigations.
Washington DC.
Fisher, B. A. (2004). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. Boca,
Florida: CRC Press.
Holmes, W. D. (2002). Criminal Interrogation. A Modern Format for
Interrogating Criminal Suspects Based on the Intellectual
Approach. Illionas: Thomass publishers.
Iwara, I. & Effiong, C. (2008). A Pratical Guide to Criminal
Invetaigation and Prosecution. Calabar: Essttah Books &
Pree.
Lymann, M. D. (2008). Criminal Investigation. The Art and Science.
Upper Sadde River New Jersey: Prentice Hall Press.
Mine, R. & Bull, R. (1999). Investigative Interviewing. Psychology and
Practice. West English: John Wiley & Sons.
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UNIT 2
STATUTORY POWERS AND JUDGES’ RULES
IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Statutory Powers
3.2
Statutory Powers of Arrest: Extent and Limits
3.3
The Use of Statutory Powers In Investigations
3.4
Judges’ Rules: Interrogation, Statements and Reports
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is the significance of police statutory powers?
One important aspect of police activities which help to boost moral of
both the general public as well as the police force, consists in successes
achieved in bringing offenders to account for their wrong doings. These
successes also have salutory effect of strengthening the confidence of
the public in the police force.
Police have extensive powers of investigation. Some investigators may
not always consider it necessary to use statutory powers and may seek to
obtain the information voluntarily.
The arrest and successful prosecution of offenders undoubtedly depends
on police investigation. It is therefore no gain saying that a badly
investigated case can never stand the test of judicial evidence and
examination, and stands to ruin the reputation
of the police force
generally, spotlighting its inefficiency. The need for good and thorough
investigation can never, therefore, be over-emphasised. A badly
investigated case is dead before it gets to the prosecutor, who at that
stage, had to work miracles in order to prosecute the case successfully.
Bad investigation therefore, usually constitutes the greatest source of
embarrassment, not only to the prosecutor but the whole police force as
well as the justice ministry and sometime the magistrate or judge.
Imagine a situation in which a person known to have committed some
serious crime for which adequate punishment ought to have been
imposed, is discharged and acquitted by a judge or magistrate, much
against his conscience. For these reasons, it is absolutely necessary that
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every case reported should be thoroughly investigated by a criminal
investigator.
In summary, this unit will introduce you to the meaning of statutory
powers, statutory powers of arrest, extend and limits of statutory powers,
use of statutory powers of investigation; investigation and Judges’
Rules; statement and reports.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
define the concept statutory powers
state Judges’ Rules both former and new rules
explain judges’ power of arrest in criminal investigation
discuss powers of arrest
discuss the extent and limits of statutory powers
explain the use of statutory powers in investigations.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Statutory Powers
Statutory powers are powers enshrined in the state or country’s statute.
This statutory power empowers investigative or law enforcement
officers to carry out certain functions. Example is the power of the
police officers to carry out arrest or search without warrant of arrest.
Also a statutory power of attorney is a power attorney that copies the
language in a state statute. The provisions of the statutory power of
attorney are provided by the laws of the particular state or country. It
also includes an example of a form that may be use. For example, a
durable power of attorney may also be a statutory power of attorney if
it copies the language in the state durable power of attorney statute.
State laws vary, but the states that have adopted a statutory form of
power of attorney allow for other language to be used as long as it
complies with the state law.
SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Define the term statutory powers.
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3.2 Statutory Powers of Arrest
Extent and limits
Having explained the meaning of statutory powers, we will now discuss
statutory powers of arrest which comes under sections 110, 111 and
schedule 7 of the serious organised crime and police act 2005 that have
completely reshaped the basis of arrest power both for the police and
ordinary citizens.
The previous arrest framework
Prior to section 110 of the serious organised crime and police act 2005
coming into force, police arrest powers (and those relating to ordinary
citizens) were based largely on the concept of arrestable (and serious
arrestable) offences under section 24 and schedule 1A of PACE. The
police also had power of arrest under section 25 of PACE known as
‘general arrest conditions’. These enable them to make an arrest for
virtually any offence if certain conditions were present. A number of
police powers of arrest also stemmed from other statutory such as the
public order act 1986, the criminal justice and public order act 1994 and
the criminal justice and police act 2001, to name but a few. In addition
to statutory powers of arrest, there was (and still is), the common law
power to arrest on order to prevent or deal with a breach of the peace.
As far as ordinary citizens were concerned, they too could, and may still,
rely on this common law power as well as the police. Ordinary citizens
were also able to make a citizens arrest if an offence was categorised as
arrestable under PACE, but more restricted circumstances than the
police. Also, there were a few statutes that conferred a power of arrest
on any ‘person’ which applied to both the police and ordinary citizens.
The definition of arrestable offences under section 24 and schedule 1A
of PACE was very complex. First any offence for which the sentence
was fixed by law was classed as an arrestable offence (in practice this
now only applied to murder). Secondly, any offence that could bring a
term of imprisonment for 5 years or more was also automatically
arrestable. Thirdly, there were a large number of offences listed under
schedule 1A of PACE which were also arrestable, even though they fell
short of the five years imprisonment criteria. In addition to arrestable
offence, there were also a number of serious arrestable offences that
were defined under section 116 and schedule 5 of PACE. These
included some of the most serious crimes such as manslaughter,
robbery, hostage-taking, torture, drug trafficking, and rape as well as a
host of other serious sexual offences.
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The new arrest framework under socap
The Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (SOCAP) has,
among other things, made very significant changes to the structure of
other police power. Also in entry and search powers in relation to
premises are among those affected by SOCAP, as well as powers of
arrest. The earlier concept of arrestable (and serious arrestable) offences
under PACE, which was used as the main criteria in the exercise of
many police powers, has now been abolished by SOCAP. The new
criteria are now almost entirely based on whether an offence is
indicated. This legal term could be misunderstood as some may interpret
it as meaning offences that are triable only on indictment. These
offences are among the most serious crimes that can only be tried before
a jury in the crown court. However, the term ‘indictment’ within the
context of SOCAP not only means the most serious offences but also
includes offences that may be tried on indictment in the crown court.
This refers to crimes that are triable either way, meaning that they may
be tried either summarily before magistrate courts or on indictment in
the crown court. The term indictable offence therefore means any of
these categories of offences. SOCAP has also restructured section 24
PACE and created a more streamlined basis under which the police may
make arrests. It has also repealed nearly all the other statutory sources of
police powers of arrest, although the common law power to arrest to
prevent or deal with a breach of the peace has been preserved. Under the
new section 24, the police may make an arrest for any offence provided
certain conditions exist. With regard to ordinary citizens, a new section
(24A) has been inserted under PACE. This enable a citizen’s arrest to be
made provided the offence is indictable, as well as other conditions that
have to be met.
Limits
The 2005 act has limited these statutory powers of arrest to indictable
offences which significantly reduced the scope for making a citizen’s
arrest.
Statutory power to arrest without warrant
Section 24 of the police and criminal evidence act 1984 (amended by
section 110 of the serious organised crime and police act 2005)
stipulates the following powers:
1.
A constable may arrest without a warrant anyone:
•
who is about to commit an offence
•
is in the act of committing an offence
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•
2.
3.
whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be
about to commit an offence.
If a constable has reasonable grounds for suspecting that an
offence has been committed, he may arrest without a warrant
anyone whom he has reasonable grounds to suspect of being
guilty of it.
If an offence has been committed, a constable may arrest without
a warrant:
•
anyone who is guilty of the offence
•
anyone whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to
be guilty of it.
Limits
But the powers of summary arrest conferred by subsection (1), (2) or (3)
is exercisable only if the constable has reasonable grounds for believing
that for any of the reasons mentioned in subsection (5) it is necessary to
arrest the person in question
These reasons are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
To enable the name of the person in question to be ascertained (in
the case where the constable does not know, and cannot really
ascertain, the person’s name, or has reasonable grounds for
doubting whether a name given by the person as his name is his
real name).
To ascertain the person’s address.
To prevent the persons in question from:
•
causing physical injury to himself or any other person
•
suffering physical injury
•
causing loss or damage to property
•
committing an offence against public decency (subject to
subsection) (6) or
•
causing an unlawful obstruction of the highway.
To protect a child or other vulnerable person from the person in
question.
For allow the prompt and effective investigation of the offence or
of the conduct of the person in question.
To prevent any prosecution for the offence from being hindered
by the disappearance of the person in question.
Subsection (5) (c) (iv) applies only where members of the public going
about their normal business cannot reasonably be expected to avoid the
person in question.
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Ordinary citizens’ power of arrest without warrant
Section 24A of the police and criminal evidence act 1984 (inserted by
section 110 of the serious organised crime and police act 2005)
stipulates the following conditions:
(1)
(2)
A person other than a constable may arrest without a warrant:
•
anyone who is in the act of committing an indictable
offence
•
anyone whom he has reasonable ground for suspecting to
be committing an indictable offence.
Where an indictable offence has been committed, a person other
than a constable may arrest without a warrant:
•
anyone who is guilty of the offence
•
anyone whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to
be guilty of it.
Limits
But the power of summary arrest conferred by subsection (1) or (2) is
exercisable only if:
a)
b)
The person making the arrest has reasonable grounds for
believing that for any of the reasons mentioned in subsection (4)
it is necessary to arrest the person in question
It appears to the persons making the arrest that it is not
practicable for a constable to make it instead.
The reasons for such arrest are to prevent the person in questionfrom:
a)
b)
c)
Causing physical injury to himself or any other person
Causing loss of damage to property
Taking off before a constable can assume responsibility for his
arrest.
The term ‘indictable offence’ means an offence which is triable only on
indictment or an offence which may be tried on indictment (triable either
way).
There are several hundred indictable offences (see Blackstone’s criminal
practice and Archbold’s criminal pleading, evidence and practice.
However, many of them rarely come to light, if ever. Some examples of
the more well known indictable offences are listed below beginning with
indictable offence only followed by offences that are triable either way.
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Triable only on indictment
Murder, manslaughter, robbery, assault with intent to rob, rape,
kidnapping, riot, blackmail, hostage-taking, aggravated burglary,
wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent, administering
poison, aggravated criminal damage, aggravated arson, possession of
firearm with intent to endanger life or property, possession of firearm or
imitation firearm with intent to cause fear of violence, use of firearm or
imitation firearm to resist arrest, carrying firearm or imitation firearm
with intent to commit indictable offence, causing explosion likely to
endanger life or property, causing death by dangerous driving, causing
death by careless driving when under the influence of drink or drugs,
perjury in a judicial proceeding, perverting the course of justice.
Triable either way
Theft, violent disorder, affray or provocation of violence when racially
aggravated, intentionally causing harassment, alarm or distress when
racially or religiously aggravated, assault, dangerous intent to resist or
prevent arrest, dangerous driving, assault occasioning actual bodily
harm wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm, handling stolen
goods making off without payment, false accounting forgery, obtaining
property by deception, obtaining services by deception, burglary (most
forms), going equipped for stealing, money laundering offences, simple
criminal damage, simple arson, possession of an article to destroy or
damage property, and the vast majority of drug offences (this include
their unlawful possession, supply, possession with intent to supply, and
manufacture, as well as cultivating the cannabis plant, and allowing
certain drug activities on premises).
Limits
Section 25 of PACE (general arrest conditions case to exist or have
effect, the powers has now been subsumed under the new section 24 of
PACE). This means that arrest will now be subject to codes of practice.
Code of practice for the statutory power of arrest by police officers
The introduction of code G on 1st January 2006 constitute the first
occasion when codes of practice were published regarding arrest.
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MODULE 1
Limits of statutory power of arrest
The right to liberty is a key principle of the Human Right Act 1998. The
exercise of the power of arrest represents an obvious and significant
interference with that right.
The use of the power must be fully justified and officers exercising the
power should consider if the necessary objectives can be met by other,
less intrusive means. Arrest must never be used simply because it can
be used. Absence of justification for exercising the power of arrest may
lead to challenges should the case proceed to court. When the power of
arrest is exercised it is essential that it is exercised in the nondiscriminatory and proportionate manner.
Also it should be noted that a lawful arrest requires two elements: a
person’s involvement in the commission of a criminal offence and
reasonable grounds for believing that the person’s arrest is necessary.
Arresting officers are required to inform the person arrested that they
have been arrested, even if this fact is obvious, and of the relevant
circumstances of the arrest in relation to both elements and to inform the
officer of these on arrival at the police station.
The power of arrest is only exercisable if the constable has reasonable
grounds for believing that it is necessary to arrest the person. Extending
the power of arrest to all offences provides a constable with the ability to
use that power to deal with any situation. However, applying the
necessary criteria requires the constable to examine and justify the
reason or reasons why a person needs to be taken to a police station for
the custody officer to decide whether the person should be placed in
police detention.
The stated criteria under 5.110 of the serous organised crime and police
act 2005 that justify arrest are as follows: To allow the prompt and
effective investigation of the offence or of the conduct of the person in
question. This may include cases such as:
1.
2.
Where there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person:
i.
Has made statement
ii.
Has made statement which cannot be readily verified
iii.
Has presented false evidence
iv.
May make contact with co-suspects or conspirators
v.
May intimidate or threaten or make contact with witnesses
vi.
Where is necessary to obtain evidence by questioning.
When considering arrest in connection with an indictable offence,
there is need to enter, search any occupied or controlled by a
person:
25
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i.
ii.
iii.
Search the person
Prevent contact with others.
Take fingerprints, footwear impressions, samples or
photographs of the suspect.
State the statutory powers of arrest without warrant. What are the limits
to these powers?
3.3
The Use of Statutory Powers in Criminal Investigations
Having discussed statutory powers of arrest and its limitations, the next
issues to deal with is the use of these powers in criminal investigations.
We have extensive powers of investigation, including power to require
the production of documents and to require certain persons to attend
interviews, we say that investigators may not always consider it
necessary to use statutory powers and may seek to obtain the
information voluntarily.
The standard practice is generally to use statutory powers to require the
production of document or the answering of questions in interview. This
is for reasons of fairness, transparency and efficiency. It will sometimes
be appropriate to depart form this standard practice, for example; for
suspect or possible suspects in criminal or market abuse investigations
we may prefer to question that person on a case, the interviewee does
not have to answer but if he does, those answers may be used against
him in subsequent proceedings, including criminal or market abuse
proceedings.
In the case of third party with no professional connection with the
financial service industry, such as the victims of an illegal fraud or
misconduct we will usually seek information voluntarily.
The exercise of statutory power does not mean that we necessary
consider a person unco-operative or suspected of
something. The
exercise of such power is standard practice, even against those who are
merely witnesses.
Interviews
The type of interviews is a decision of the investigating officer. A
person required to attend an interview by the use of statutory power
cannot insist that the interview takes place voluntary. If someone does
not attend an interview required under the Financial Service and
26
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MODULE 1
Markets Act 2000 (the Act) then he can be dealt with by the court as if
he were in contempt (where the penalty can be a fine, imprisonment or
both). Similarly, a person asked to attend an interview on a purely
voluntary basis cannot insists on being compelled.
If someone chooses not to attend a voluntary interview, or refuses to
answer any question at such an interview, then this will not expose the
person to any kind of penalty however, if the interviewee chose to
provide answer to question at such an interview then this may mean that
he get credit for co-operation should he be convicted ultimately of a
criminal offences or be found to have committed market abuse or other
misconduct.
However, the use of those statutory powers requires sufficient
justification and appropriate authority.
Discuss the use of statutory powers in criminal investigations.
3.4
Judges’ Rules: Interrogation, Statements and Reports
What are judges’ rules in criminal investigations and interrogation?
Judges’ rules are set of rules laid down by judges of the Queen’s Bench
Division of the high court of England. They are also applicable in
Nigeria for the guidance of police officer in their investigations and
general conduct in criminal cases. The judges’ rules were nine in
number originally but have been compressed to five in their amended
form. Both the old rules and the amended form are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
When a police officer is endeavouring to discover the author of a
crime, there is no objection whatsoever to his putting questions in
respect thereof to any person or persons whether suspected or not
from whom he thinks useful information can be obtained.
Whenever a police officer has made up his mind to charge a
person with a crime, he should first caution such person before
asking any questions or further questions as the case may be.
Persons in custody should be questioned without the usual
caution being first administered.
If the prisoner wishes to volunteer any statement (evidence) the
caution should be administered.
The statement of caution reads: Do you wish to say anything in
answer to the charge: you are not obliged to say anything unless
you wish to do so, but whatever you say will be taken down in
writing and may be given in evidence.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
A statement made by a prisoner before there was time to caution
him is not rendered inadmissible in evidence merely by reason of
no caution having been administered, but in such case he should
be cautioned as soon as possible.
A prisoner making a voluntary statement must not be crossexamined and no question should be put to him about it except
for the purpose of removing ambiguity in what he has actually
said.
When two or more persons are charged with the same offence
and statements are taken separately from the persons charged, but
each of such persons should be served by the police with copies
of such statements and nothing should be said or done by the
police to invite a reply, provided that when the person charged is
an illiterate, the statement may be read over or interpreted to him
apart by some person other than the policeman. Anything said to
the reader by the person charged when the statement is read shall
not be admissible in evidence against him, but if after the
statement has been read, he shall be desirous of making a
statement to the police in reply, such statement shall be taken
only after the used caution had been administered. Copies of such
statement should be served on other accomplices only when the
other party or parties have implicated then in their statements
implicating one another. (2 WACA 118N).
Any statement made in accordance with the above rule should,
whenever possible be taken down in writing and signed by the
person making it after he has been invited to make any
connections he may wish.
New Rules
i.
ii.
28
The new rules which come into force in England on 27th January
1964, state that when a police officer is trying to discover
whether or by whom offence has been committed, he is entitled
or not, from whom he thinks that useful information may be
obtained. This is so whether or not the person in question has
been taken into custody, so long as he had not been charged with
the offence or informed that he may be prosecuted for it.
As soon as a police officer has evidence which would afford
reasonable grounds for suspecting that a person has committed an
offence, he shall caution that person or cause him to be cautioned
before putting to him any question or further questions, relating
to that offence.
POS 214
MODULE 1
The caution shall be in the following terms:
‘You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so, but what
you say may be put into writing and given in evidence.’
When after having been cautioned, a person is being questioned or elects
to make a statement, a record shall be kept of the time and place at
which any such questioning or statement began and ended and of the
persons present.
iii.
iv.
(a)
Where a person is charged with or informed that he may
be prosecuted for an offence, he shall be cautioned in the
following terms:
‘Do you wish to say anything? You are not obliged to say
anything unless you wish to do so, but whatever you say
will be taken down in writing and may be given in
evidence.
(b)
It is only in exceptional cases that questions relating to the
offence should be put to the accused person after he has
been charged or informed that he may be prosecuted. Such
questions may be put where they are necessary for the
purpose of preventing or minimising harm or loss to some
other person or to the public or for clearing up an
ambiguity in a previous answer or statement.
Before any such questions are put, the accused should be
cautioned in these terms ‘I wish to put some questions to
you about the offence with you have been charged (or
about the offence for which you may be prosecuted). You
are not obliged to answer any of these questions, but if you
do so, the question and answers will be taken down in
writing and may be given in evidence.
Any question put and answers given relating to the offence
must be contemporaneously recorded in full and the record
signed by interrogating officer.
(c)
If when such a person is being questioned he or she elects
to make a statement, a record should be kept of the time
and place at which any questioning or statement began and
ended and of persons present.
All written statements made after caution must be taken in the
following manner:
(a)
If a person says that he wants to make a statement, he must
be told that it is intended to make a written record of what
he says. He must always be asked whether he wishes to
write down himself what he wants to say; if he says that he
cannot write or that he would like someone to write it for
29
POS 214
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
30
him, a police officer may offer to write the statement for
him. If he accepts the offer the police offer must before
starting, ask the person making the statement to sign, or
make his mark to the following:
‘I ...... wish to make a statement. I want someone to write
down what I say and have been told that I need not say
anything unless I wish to do so and that whatever i say,
may be given in evidence.
Any person writing his own statement should be allowed
to do so without any prompting as distinct from indicating
to him what matters are considered material.
The person making the statement, if he is going to write
himself, must be asked to write to say, the following:
‘I make this statement out of my own freewill, I have been
told that I need not say anything unless I wish to do so and
that whatever I say may be given in evidence.
whenever a police officer writes the statement he must
take down the exact words spoken by the person making
the statement, without putting any questions other than
such as may be needed to make the statement coherent,
intelligible and relevant to the material matters; he shall
not prompt him.
When the writing of a statement by a police officer is
finished the persons giving the statement must be asked to
read it and to make any corrections, alterations or
additions he wishes. When he has finished reading it, he
must write and sign his name certificate at the end of the
statement:
‘I have read the above statement and I have been told that
I can correct, alter or add anything I wish. This statement
is true. I have made it of my own freewill’.
If the person who has made a statement refuses to read it
or to write the above mentioned certificate at the end or to
sign it, the senior police officer present will record on the
statement itself and in the presence of the person making it
what happened. If the person making the statement cannot
read, or refuse to read, the officer who has taken it down
must read it over to him and ask him whether he would
like to correct, alter or add anything and to put his
signature or make his mark at the end. The officer must
certify on the statement what he has done.
If at anytime after a person has been charged with, or has
been informed that he may be prosecuted for an offence, a
police officer wishes to bring to the notice by another
person, any written statement made by another person,
who in respect of the same offence, has also been charged
POS 214
MODULE 1
or informed that he may be prosecuted he must hand to
that person a true copy of such written statement, but
nothing should be said or done to invite any reply or
comment. If that person says that he would like to make a
statement in reply, or start to say anything, he must at once
be cautioned or further cautioned as prescribed by rule
(111).
The above new rules are recommended for use by crime investigators. In
addition to the following laid down rules, the officer must present a
good report. The purpose of writing a report on any incident which has
occurred during an officer’s duty or in the course of his investigations is
to convey to the superior officers all the facts which had been collected
during the inquiry.
This is the main reason why every effort must be made to write the
report in such a way that all relevant facts are contained in it. Having
stated all the facts as they are known, the officer should respectfully give
opinion and recommendations or suggestions, taking into consideration
the overall circumstance and the facts.
Contents of a good report
1,
2.
3.
4.
The report should bear the police station where the officer writing
is serving on the top right corner.
On the top left corner of the sheet should appear the name or
designation of the officer to whom the report is being addressed.
The title of the report and the subject matter or heading of the
report should be in the centre of the sheet (the paper). The
introduction to the report should come next; and then the body of
the report containing all the facts.
Recommendations or suggestion of the officer reporting follows
and then the closing address or salutation, and finally, the
signature and name with number (if applicable) of the officer
reporting at the bottom right corner.
State both the old and new Judges’ Rules. How can you apply them in
investigations?
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed statutory powers and Judges’ Rules as applicable in
criminal investigations. And we went further to state and explain the
former Judges’ Rules and the new forms of Judges’ Rules. We also note
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that thereare limitations in applying the statutory powers of arrest,
search etc by police officers carrying out investigations on a criminal
matter.
Ways of writing statements, reports and interrogations when conducting
investigation were also discussed and finally the use of statutory power
in criminal investigation was analysed with its attendant limitation.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the concept of statutory powers,
specifically statutory powers of arrest, its extent and limitations. Also
the use of these statutory powers in investigations and its meaning were
considered.
We also discussed Judges’ Rules, both the former and new set of
criminal investigations And finally a format of writing statements,
reports and carrying out interrogations during criminal investigation
were exhaustively discussed.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
Explain the meaning of statutory powers.
Discuss two limitations of these statutory powers.
State the new modifications of Judges’ Rules. How can you apply
them in criminal investigations?
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Justice Fakayode, E. O. (1985). The Nigerian Criminal Code
Companion. Nigeria: Ethiopia Publishing Corporation.
Law of Federation of Nigeria (1990).Criminal Code Act- CAP, 77.
Law of Federation of Nigeria (1990). Criminal Procedure Act-CAP, 80.
Member, C F. L. (1990). Police and Law Enforcement. Ibadan: Intec
Printer’s Limited.
Swanson, C.R. (2003). Criminal Investigations. ( 8th ed.). Boston: Mc
Graw-Hill.
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MODULE 1
UNIT 3
TECHNIQUES OF CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Profiling: Criminal Profiling
3.2
Hypnosis in Criminal Investigations
3.3
Psychological Autopsies in Criminal Investigations
3.4
The Polygraph Technique or Lie Detector in Criminal
Investigations
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
How are criminal investigations conducted? And what is a criminal
investigation?
In order to effectively conduct or perform criminal investigative
functions, one must understand the basic definition of investigation and
investigate. An investigation is an examination, a study, a survey and a
research of facts and or circumstances, situations, incidents and
sceneries, either related or not, for the purpose of rendering a conclusion
of proof. When one investigates, he/she makes a systematic inquiry,
closely analyses and inspects while dissecting and scrutinising
information. An investigation, therefore, is based upon a complete and
whole evaluation and not conjecture, speculation or supposition.
Criminal investigations are conducted primarily for the prevention of
crimes. When crimes occur, law enforcement is responsible to the
investigating such incidents. Ideally the investigation will cause the
Ultimately and probably most important, is that the investigation,
detection and apprehension of the criminal effectually serves to curtail
recidivism thereby reducing overall crime.
The criminal investigator must remain objective and open to different
perspectives when conducting an investigation. He/she must always look
beyond the obvious and seek the truth.Meanwhile, the various issues
that will be examined in this unit that will introduce you to techniques of
criminal investigations include: meaning of profiling as well as criminal
33
POS 214
profiling, hypnosis on criminal investigation, psychological autopsies
and lie detection in criminal investigation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain the meaning of profiling and criminal profiling
mention three techniques applicable in criminal investigation
analyse the methodology of psychological autopsy
describe various methods of lie detection
explain hypnosis, memory and behaviour in criminal
investigation
state the importance of criminal profiling in investigations.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Profiling and Criminal Profiling
This section introduces you to profiling and criminal profiling as a basis
of identification and investigation.
What is a profile?
A profile is a set of characteristics for an individual or group of
individuals that share some traits. For criminal identification, a profile
establishes the likely age, appearance, psychology or activities of
unknown suspect. “Racial profiling” refers to specifying a likely
perpetrator by race or ethnic background which may be a stereotype or
over generalisation. This is often criticised as illegal or unfair, even
where the available data would support such a profile.
Nowadays profiling rests uneasily between law enforcement and
psychology. As a science, it is still a relative new field with few set
boundaries or definitions.
The term “profiling” has caught on among the general public, largely
due to movie like “the silence of the lamb” and TV shows like
“profiler”. Despite the different names, all of these tactics share a
common goal: to help investigators examine evidence from crime scenes
and victim and witness reports to develop an offender description. The
description can include psychological variable such as personality traits,
psychopathologies and behaviour patterns, as well as demographic
variable such as age, race or geographic location. Investigation might
use profiling to narrow down a field of suspects or figure out to
interrogate a suspect already in custody.
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MODULE 1
Criminal Profiling
i.
ii.
iii.
You may want to ask yourself, why develop criminal profiles?
What do we mean by a criminal profile?
Crime is always a concern worldwide next to crime prevention;
crime detection is of the highest priority.
Some profilers emphasis the personality and motivations of the offender,
including characteristics ways of committing crimes and treating their
victims. But certainly physical characteristics are important – the
criminal’s age, gender, race, height, and weight. Whether the perpetrator
is left-handed is sometimes easily determined from an analysis of the
criminal act. Because these qualities plus other demographic data (e.g.
occupation, education are sought in addition to a personality sketch of
the criminal).
What then is criminal profiling?
The origins of criminal profiling are unclear, but for centuries, elements
of society have tried to pinpoint those physical or psychological
qualities linked to criminal or deviant behaviour (Pinizzotto, 1984).
Criminal profiling has been described as an educated attempt to provide
specific information about certain type of suspect, and as a biographical
sketch of behavioural patterns, trends, and tendencies (Geberth 1981).
The basic premises of criminal profiling is that the way a person thinks
directs the person’s behaviour, it is important to recognise that profiling
does not provide the specific identity of the offender, similarly, not all
types of crimes are susceptible to successful criminal profiling. Holmes
& Holmes, (1996) concluded that such crimes as check forgery, bank
robbery and kidnapping are not good candidates for profiling.
Criminal profiling consists of analysing a crime scene and using the
information to determine the identity of the perpetrators.
While this doesn’t directly give you the perpetrators’ name, it is very
helpful in narrowing down suspects. For example, profile based on the
crime scene provides information that may include the perpetrator’s
personality, sex, age ethnic background, and possible physical features
such as disfeaturement or height and weight. This information can then
be used to identify possible suspects depending on who fits the profile.
Personality is one of the most important parts of a criminal profile.
How does criminal profile works?
Personality profiles of criminal are based on the way in which a crime is
committed, also known as the “method of operation”. The method of
35
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operation includes the identity of the victims, what the victim(s) (in this
case of a serial offender) have in common, the weapon(s) used, the
degree of hostility, the existence (or lack) of any torture and or sexual
molestation and so on. Analysing these aspects of the crime scene, an
investigator (usually a trained forensic psychologist) can determine the
motives of the perpetrator, which leads to a description of the
perpetrator’s personality or the personality profile.
It may seem so far that criminal profiling depends on a lot speculation
on the parts of the forensic psychologist. While some speculation is
required personality profiling is actually the result of many years of
research.
Also criminal profiling is the act of developing a psychological profile
of an offender based on the state of the crime scene. Profiling is most
often done by a forensic psychologist – someone who has studied the
criminal mind. The profile can then be used by police departments, to
assist in apprehending the criminal.
A profile is a psychological sketch of an offender. Criminal profiling is
often used to help investigation catch psychopaths and serial killers that
may otherwise go free. It can also be used to help catch other types of
offender, such as arsonists and rapists. In criminal profiling, a crime
scène helps to label the perpetrators as organised, disorganised or mixed.
An organised offender, such as arsonists and rapists plan ahead, picking
out the victim ahead of time. Any tools needed are bought by the
offender. He is meticulous with details, and it is clear that the crime was
well thought out ahead of time.
Organised offenders tend to be high in the birth order of their family,
usually and oldest child. They are very intelligent, and usually have their
lives together, but a series of stressful situations caused them to act out.
Most of them have a live in partner, are socially adept, and will follow
the coverage of their crimes in the media very carefully.
A spontaneous offence is often the work of a disorganised offender will
often depersonalised the victim, make the crime less real and allowing
course of the crime. There is very little conversation, if any between the
offender and victim, and the crime scene random and sloppy feel to it.
Criminal profiling makes it possible to draw a lot of conclusion about
this offender too. Disorganised offenders are often of average or slightly
below average intelligence. They are younger children live alone, and
not as socially mature as an organized offender. They often live or work
near the scene of the crime, and have poor work history.
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MODULE 1
A mixed offender is harder to use criminal profiling for, but it is still
possible. The crime scene combines characteristics of both organised
and disorganised offenders, for example, the offender may have
provided his own tools, but picked a victim randomly.
The profile of a mixed offender may not be as accurate as other profiles,
giving police less to go on. Criminal profiling is used not only to find
potential offenders, but also to narrow down a list of offenders, that has
already been compiled by the police. Although it doesn’t work in every
case, criminal profiling has helped investigators to apprehend hundreds
of criminals. By assessing the pattern and motives of previous criminals,
profiling allows investigators to fairly accurately predict the
characteristics of current and future offenders, allowing killers and other
perpetrators to be caught before they can continue on other crimes.
Phases of profiling
How many phases of profiling do we have?
According to Gregg O. McCrery, the basic premise is that behaviour
reflects personality. In a homicide case for example crime profilers try
to collect the personality of the offender through questions about his or
her behaviour at four phases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Antecedent: what fantasy or plan, or both did the murdered have
in plan before the act? What triggered the murderer to act some
days and not others?
Method and manner: what type of victim or victim did the
murderer select? What was the method and manner of murder?
Shooting, stabling, strangulation or something else.
Body disposal: did the murder and body disposal take place all at
one scene, or multiple scenes.
Post- offense behaviour: is the murderer trying to inject himself
into the investigation by reacting to media report or contacting
investigations?
The criminal profile generating process
What procedures are followed in generating a criminal profile?
Investigators used criminal profiles infrequently until 1978, when FBI
established a psychological profiting programme within its behavioural
science unit. Since them investigator at this facility have developed a
criminal profile generation process with five main stages. Apprehension
of a suspect is the goal and the final step in the process. This criminal
profile generating process involves the following steps:
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•
•
•
•
•
a comprehensive study of the nature of the past
a detailed analysis of the crime scene
an in depth examination of the background and activities of the
victim or victims
a formulation of the possible motivating factors for all parties
involved
the development of a description of the perpetrator based on overt
characteristics from the crime scene and past criminal behaviour.
Initial information gathered in the crime investigation stage include
evidence from the crime scene, knowledge of the victim and specific
forensic evidence about the crime (cause of death, nature of wounds,
autopsy report etc). Photographs of the victim and crime scene are
included. Efforts are made to understand why this person in particular,
was the victim. Information about possible suspects is not included, so
as not to subconsciously prejudice the profilers.
The second stage emphases decision making, by organising and
arranging inputs into meaningful patterns. Classification are established,
for example, the crime may be a mass murder (defined as anything more
than three victims in one location and within one event). Two other
classifications are the spree murder (knowing at two or more location
with no motioned cooling-off period between homicides) and the serial
murder, involving three or more separate events with a cooling-off
period between the homicides.
The next step is to reconstruct the sequence of event and the behaviour
of both the perpetrators and the victim. One important distinction is that
between organised (or non social) and disorganised) or social criminals.
Plan their murders, target that control at the crime scene by leaving few
clues, and possibly act out a violent fantasy against the victim, including
dismemberment or torture. The disorganised murderer is “less apt to
plan his crime in detail or obtains victims by chance and behaves
haphazardly during ‘‘the crime”,
In summary, organised offenders are most apt to:
•
•
•
•
•
38
plan
use restraints
commit sexual acts with love victims
emphasise control over the victim byusing manipulative or
threathening techniques
use car or truck.
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On the other hand, disorganised offenders are more likely to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
have a weapon at the crime scene
reposition the dead body
perform sexual acts to the dead body
keep the dead body
try to depersonalise the body
avoid use of vehicle.
The final step usually is to generate a profile that follows a standard
format, including hypotheses about the perpetrators age, race,
educational level, mental status, habits, family characteristics and type
of vehicle, plus indications of psychopathology.
Differentiate between profiling and criminal profiling. Discuss the
importance of conducting criminal profile on a suspected offender.
3.2
Hypnosis in Criminal Investigations
The use of hypnosis by law enforcement officers grew rapidly during
1970’s partly facilitated by the rules in most states at that time, which
permitted wide admissibility of hypnotically induced memories.
Actually, hypnosis has been used by the legal system for more than 100
years, though shrouded with contours.
Even today, experts disagree about whether hypnosis is effective in
recovering memories and whether it is unduly suggestive.
Guidelines for the use of hypnosis
Given the concerns about the accuracy of hypnotically assisted memory,
a prime function of a forensic psychologist is to offer and encourage
guidelines for the use of hypnosis. For example, if memories produced
by hypnosis should not be used as evidence in court, can the police seek
them during the early stages of a crime investigation?
The following guidelines are suggested:
1.
Qualifications of the person using hypnosis- Traditionally, law
enforcement officers have conducted the hypnosis of witnesses,
but the society for clinical and experimental hypnosis has
proposed that only trained psychiatrists or psychology
inclependent of the police department should conduct a forensic
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
hypnosis and questioning. One benefit of the approach is a
possible reduction in the use of leading or suggestive questions.
Pre-hypnosis Records- It is important to keep separate what the
waitress knew before the hypnosis and what he or she
remembered as a result of it.
Electronic recording of hypnosis session- All the interactions
between the examiner and the subject should be recorded
electronically, preferrably on videotaped, If the latter is used,
focus should be on both the subject and the hypnosis to deter any
subtle influence in the interaction,
Measurement of hypnotisability- One guideline suggested by
Spiegel and Spiegel (1987) that proscribe limits, is that the level
of hypnotisability of the subjects should be determine by use of
one of the standardised hypnotisability scales in order to
document the subject’s degree of responsitivity, if any. These
scales include the hypnotic induction profile.
Pre- hypnosis briefing- The hypnotist should not give the subject
any indication that the subject will receive new information or the
memory of the relevant experience will be any clearer an effort
should be made to determine exactly what memories were held,
before hypnosis.
Management of the hypnotic session- The person conducting the
section should provide a setting in which the subject can
remember new facts if there are any but in none is introduced in
the questioning. The person should be allowed to review the
events as they occurred, with little prompting, prompting is best
done through no leading questions, such as “And, then what
happens”
Selective use- Forensic hypnosis should never be used as a
substitute for routine investigative procedures.
Recall that these are guidelines for the use of hypnosis during the crime
investigation stage. The inherent dangers in hypnotically assisted
memories mean that if law enforcement officers choose to hypnotise a
victim at this early stage, the authorities should exert great caution in
allowing this same person to testify at the trial, because of the
suggestibility involved in the procedure and the risk of producing false
memories.
List the steps involved when using hypnosis as a technique during
criminal investigation.
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3.3
MODULE 1
Psychological Autopsy in Criminal Investigations
You may want to ask yourself, what is psychological autopsies and why
the need for it?
Whereas a medical autopsy is essentially a physical examination of the
deceased, a psychological autopsy (P.A.) is essentially a mental state
examination of the decrease.
There are a number of reasons why it might be appropriate to undertake
a psychological autopsy. However, the most common is to assist in
determining nature of deaths. Estimates suggest that up to 20% of cases
presented to a medical examiner/coroner, the precise mode of death is
unclear. A psychological autopsy can help address this ambiguity and
establish whether death was as a result of natural causes, suicide,
accident or murder.
Quite often, the cause of a person’s death is a matter of forensic concern
even if no criminal act is assumed to be involved. Even when the cause
of death is certain, issues related to the mental state of the person prior
to his or her death lead to the application of a psychological analysis.
Golf & Otto (1993) suggest several types of situations.
The need to determine whether the person was competent to draw up a
will (called the decedent’s testamentary capacity).
In workers’ compensation cases, claims may be made that stressful
working conditions contributed to the person’s premature death.
In a criminal case, the defendant on trial for murder may claim that the
victim was a violent person who installed such fear in the defendant that
the act was truly one of defense.
The term psychological autopsy refers to the investigative method used
by psychologists or other social scientists to help determine the mode of
death. In equivocal cases, it is estimated that between 5% and 20% of all
deaths that need to be certified are equivocal deaths. The beginnings of
psychological autopsies grew out of the frustration of the then Los
Angeles country chief medical examiner and coroner. Dr Carpal in
1958 was faced with a number of drug- related deaths for which the
mode of death (how the death occurred) was uncertain.
The psychological autopsy technique is currently used to answer three
dishonour questions. Why did the individual do it? How and when did
the individual die (that is why at that particular time)? And what might
be the most probable mode of death?
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Section (1987) concludes that the most common inquiry in a
psychological autopsy concerns whether the death was an accuser or a
suicide. A basic job of medical examiners is to certify whether a death
could reliably be classified as natural, accidental, suicide etc.
Psychological autopsy methodology
Within the context of a forensic investigation a psychological autopsy is
employed as a data collection tool. The most common source being
interview data obtained from the family and friends of the deceased.
Obtaining the medical history of the deceased is also a central
component of the psychological autopsy. Interviewing the doctor of the
deceased and/or examining medical records is, therefore another
important data collection source.
The nature of the information collected would usually include the
following:
demographical information (age, marital status, occupation)
personal information (relationships, lifestyle, alcohol/drug use, sources
of stress) secondary information (family history, police records, diaries).
It is important to note that as with most data collection protocols
conducted within a psychological framework, different methodological
approaches exist. A useful way to think of this is in terms of means to an
end. The end is by and large the same i.e. it is hoped that collectively,
information obtained will describe result in a positive analysis yielding
an opinion giving a logical understanding of the relationship between
the deceased and the events and behaviours that preceded the death.
Of what importance is psychological autopsy to a deceased?
3.4
Lie Detector in Criminal Investigation
A significant aspect of law enforcement expertise is lie detection, and
perhaps the best known method of deception detection is the polygraph
technique, often inaccurately referred to as “Lie detector test”. Two
typical uses of the polygraph are to asses the honesty of exculpatory
statements given by criminal suspects and to review periodically the
status of employees whose work involves international security.
History of the polygraph technique
Lombroso, the founding father of criminology in 1895, was the first to
experiment with a machine measuring blood pressure and pulse to
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record the honesty of criminals. He called it a hydrosphygmograph. A
similar device was used by Harvard psychologist William Marston
during world war1 in espionage cases, who brought the technique into
American court systems. In 1921, John Larson added the items of
respiration rate, and by 1939, Leonard Iceeler, one of the founding
fathers of forensic science, added skin conductance and an amplifier,
thus signalling the birth of the “polygraph” as we know it today.
The polygraph is a sound and reliable technique for detecting deception.
The vast majority of studies into the reliability of polygraph testing
estimate it at about 90% or higher. Numerous research findings and
works in the field of medicine, have justified the connection between
involuntary (sympathetic nervous system) physiological change telling
and deception. Unfortunately, mostly through historical accident,
polygraph exams are not legally admissible unless there is a stimulated
agreement prior to trial. There is also some questionable validity (if
something measures what it purports to measure) in the use of polygraph
for non-criminal purposes, such as pre-employment screening, drug
testing, and so forth. Ironically, polygraphs are commonly found in these
non-criminal, civil law areas. Police departments, for example, make
extensive uses of them in their personal policies, and they are also
common with sensitive security jobs in government and business.
Uses of the polygraph in interrogation
When suspects are questioned by the police, they may be also asked to
complete a polygraph examination if they maintain their innocence.
Polygraph examiners assume that changes in physiological reactions in
response to incriminating questions are indications that the suspect is
lying (Bull, 1988). Police believes in the accuracy of the polygraph.
Unfortunately, the scientific conclusions about the polygraph do not
encourage its use. The British psychological society, the leading
organisation of research and applied psychologists in that country,
authorised a study of available research literature, it concluded that the
evidence supporting the use of the polygraph test was “very slender”, its
reliability and validity were in doubt, and a need existed for more
research on the topic, since much of the existing research were
inadequate.
More specifically, the report criticised the typical polygraph procedure
on the following grounds:
a.
b.
c.
It involved the use of non-standardised procedure.
Examiner often misled subjects about how accurate the test was.
Sometime efforts were made to create anxiety in subjects, in
order to encourage confessions.
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d.
The subject’s privacy could be violated. Very personal questions
about subjects such as sexual, political, or religious peferences
may be asked.
Polygraph procedure
In evaluating the polygraph procedure, two potential sources of
inaccuracy emerge. First, physiological measures do not directly
measure lying, their changes only reflect shift in emotional reactivity.
Thus any conclusion about lying is an inference, it is essential that
responses to the critical questions (e.g. “Did you steal the car?”) be
compared to responses to some other type of questions.
Two types of polygraph testing are normally used.
1.
The control question technique(CQT) - Typically consist of about
10 questions. Relevant questions deal with the issue at hand while
control questions deal with possible past behaviours that might
generate emotion on the subject’s part. An example, “Before the
age 24 did you ever try to hurt someone to get revenge?”
Note the crucial assumption: if the subject is guilty or is not telling the
truth, the questions on the issue at hand will generate more emotional
reactivity than will the control questions. The control questions provide
a baseline measure for that person’s level of reactivity. Those control
questions must be chosen with care and pre-tested with the individual
subject, it is essential that those questions chosen for the actual
examination will elicit lying by the subject and hence a physiological
response. The rationale behind the control question technique is that an
innocent person will respond as much to the control questions as to the
crime-related ones (or will react even more to the control questions), in
contrast, the guilty person will show more physiological response to the
crime-related questions than to the control questions. Any score that
emerges from this procedure is thus a difference score.
2.
44
The relevant – irrelevant test - This was the first widely used
polygraph test of deception. Here, the relevant questions are
similar in form and content to the relevant questions in the
control question procedure, but the irrelevant questions reflect a
different type. They are questions which are essentially
innocuous: “Are you sitting down”? or “Is your birthday in
April?” the basic assumption of the relevant- irrelevant test is that
a person who is deceptive in answering the relevant questions
will be concerned about being discovered, which will cause
involuntary autonomic reaction to occur with greatest strength in
response to questions that one answered deceptively. Thus guilty
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individuals are expected to show their strongest reactions to
relevant questions; whereas truthful subjects are expected to
show deference in their reaction to relevant and natural questions.
Therefore, the polygraph examiner looks for heightened
reactivity to the relevant questions, and the presence of such
patterns of reactions leads to the conclusion that the subject was
practicing deception on the relevant issues. If no difference on
reactions to relevant and neutral questions is observed, the
examiner concludes that the subject was truthful in answering the
relevant questions.
Most polygraph examiners have discarded this procedure, recognising
that “even an innocent person is much more likely to display more
physiological activity when responding to the relevant question than to
the irrelevant ones? That is why the preferred method, the control
question technique, employs as its unrelated questions those that will
generate emotion and lead to a response that denies culpability. A
second problem of polygraph examination deals with the task of
translating the physiological response (as operationalised by sweeping
waves of recordings) into qualified measures. The goal is to classify the
subject’s set of responses as “truthful” “deceptive”, a label of
“inconclusive’’ is reserved for case of uncertainty.
Lie detection
Lie detection is the art and science of trying to uncover instances of
deception in behaviour or speech. There are a wide range of methods
used to detect lies, although none are fool-proof and many have well
known techniques for being overcome. However, deception detectors
still have a variety of uses throughout the investigation industry and are
still widely practiced services in the legal realm today.
Methods of lie detection
Deception detectors are devices or methods which can sense the
anatomical subtle lies often associated with telling an untrue story. Most
often applied modalities include:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Polygraph testing
Electroencephalogram testing
FMRI scenes
Voice stress analysis
Drugs, such as sodium pentathol, scopolamine, and temazepam
TARA scans.
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Obviously, virtually all methods of deception detection require the
subject to willingly submit to the study. Accurate testing may be
impossible; since there are well publicised ways to cheat almost every
known method of popular lie detector test in use today. Deception testing
is rarely admissible in open court, but is sometimes included as anecdotal
evidence or ordered by a judge for the purposes of monitoring a person’s
behaviour, especially in the case of sex offenders, drug offenders and
repeat criminals.
Expert deception detectors provide value in the services they provide, but
also in the way that the tests are administered. An expert tester will
known how to prevent many instances of cheating and will use
psychology to distract and confuse subjects they feel are purposely trying
to alter their anatomical reactions to invalidate the test results.
How lie detection works
Lie detection methods have bean used for years by police interrogators.
Physiologically, when a suspect lies about their involvement in crime,
it’s fairly easy to notice a flushed face, throbbing of the carotid artery,
dryness of the mouth, Sundry other clues. Psychologically, verbally, and
nonverbally, there are clues and cues. The assumption behind all lie
detection methods is that there’s a natural interaction between mind and
body, and certain mental, emotional, and physical defence mechanism
that are dependent upon the amount of stress they are under or what
danger they perceive themselves to be into. Now, that’s a big assumption,
and the phrase “defence mechanisms” might be better called the
psychological set to rule out any idea that the technique is psychoanalytically grounded, which is not polygraph examinations that are
believed to offer individual, rather than class evidence because through
the years, a person develops set ways of reacting to stressful or
threatening situations. During a polygraph, an examiner is always paying
attention to these fundamental clues and cues, developmentally, a sense
of the suspect’s values, beliefs, motives, and attitudes.
The machine part of a polygraph examination is designed to pay attention
to the actions of the nervous system, particularly the autonomic nervous
system, and then certain sympathetic members of the autonomic system
which alert the body to stress or threatening situations. The machine has
components that measure the following:
1.
46
Respiration (Anemograph-pneumatic tubes, assisted by based
chains are fastened around the chest and abdomen of the person
electroctermal skin response (galvanometer-on two electrodes are
affixed to two fingers on the same hand, and an imperceptible
amount of electricity is on through them).
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2.
MODULE 1
Blood volume and pulse rate (cardiosphy mogarph - a blood
pressure cuff, of the type used by physicians, is fastened around
the upper arm).
The machine is not just operated. The examiner should be a person of
ability, experience, education, intelligence, and integrity who uses the
machine in a predetermined manner.
There are three phases of the test procedure:
1.
2.
3.
A Pretest Interview
Chart Recording, and
Diagnosis.
Before hand, the examiner is provided with all relevant information
regarding the case, such as the criminal charges against the person and
the statement of facts. They then spend some time alone preparing a
pool of test questions that are neither too broad nor too specific.
Anything calling for an opinion or belief that can change with time or
motivation is ruled out as a possible text questions, as is anything vague.
The pool of questions should focus on a single incident, the facts, and
narrowly defined issues of disputed action, not intention.
During the pretest interview, the examiner will condition the subject by
clarifying the purpose of the test, reassuring them about its objectivity,
and /or defining terms that will be used. Also, A control question is
unrelated to any legal issue, but it addressees a related behaviour. For
example, with a crime of violence, a control question might be “Have
you ever lost your question or done thing you regreted?” Relevant
questions are those that have a direct bearing on the case, and irrelevant
questions have no bearing whatsoever, but can only be answered
truthfully.
Generally, a series of nine to ten prepared questions are asked, allowing
about ten seconds following an irrelevant question and 15-20 seconds
following a relevant or control questions. It is also a standard practise to
go through all questions a minimum of three times before a diagnosis is
attempted.
Diagnosis is made by verifying other clues and cues with the chart. A
truthful subject’s chart will show that emotional attention was paid
toward the control questions and deflected away from the relevant
questions. A deceptive subject’s chart will show emotional attentions
directed toward relevant questions and away from control questions .The
following illustrations might be helpful.
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Insert diagram (1)
The top line is respiration and the second line blood pressure. Questions
H4 and H7 were irrelevant, and show the most reaction.
Insert diagram (2)
Question H4 was irrelevant and questions 6 was a control question, the
later showing the most reaction. The relevant questions, H3 and H5,
show emotional attention in their most common form, a steady increases
or decrease in the baseline.
Insert diagram (3)
In case where the suspect is trying to “breath” the polygraph or confuse
the examiner in some way, you need to also look at the third and fourth
lines, skin conductance and cordiovascular change. The relevant
question were H4 and H6, which show a response, but there’s lack of
response to control questions H5 and H7.
Insert diagram (4)
In case where the suspect is trying to mislead the examiner because they
are trying to feign amnesia, mental illness or other mental block
indicative of confusion, the pattern results are as above, with highranging plates. It is rare to get this kind of pattern from a truthful
subject.
How would you apply polygraph technique in criminal investigation?
What are the limitations of this technique?
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed the various technique of criminal investigation, and
went further to emphasis that a criminal investigation looks for clues and
evidence to determine whether a crime has taken place. We also note
that criminal profiling consist of analysing a crime scene and using the
information to track down the perpetrator. The importance of hypnosis
and psychological autopsy in criminal investigation were also
discussed.The limitation of polygraph or lie detector technique was also
treated.
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5.0
MODULE 1
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the techniques of criminal investigation
by looking at the meaning of profiling and criminal profiling, hypnosis
and psychological autopsy as techniques employed by criminal
investigators. Also the polygraph technique on lie detection and the
various methods of lie detection like polygraph testing,
electroencephalogram testing, FMRI scans among others were also
discussed.
6.0
i.
Define the term profiling and discuss the various phases of
profiling in criminal investigations.
List two techniques used in criminal investigation and explain
their applications in investigations.
ii.
7.0
REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING
Bennett, W. & Karen, M. (2000). Criminal Investigation. (6th ed.).
Belmont: CA Wadsworth.
Knee, K. B. (1994). Practical Investigation Techniques. Boca Raton:
FL. CRC.
Mac Donald, J. (1995). ‘‘Truth Serum”. Journal of Criminal Law &
Criminology. 46. Pp. 259-69.
Matte, J. (1996). Forensic Psychophysiology Using the Polygraph. NY:
JAM Publications.
Nardini, W. (1987). “The Polygraph Technique: An overview.” Journal
of Police Science and Administration, 15 pp 239-49.
Orne, M. (1984). “Hypnotically Induced Testimony.” In: E. loftus (Ed.).
Eyewitness testimony. NY: Free.
Tanner, D. &Tanner, M. (2004). Forensic Aspects of Speech Patterns.
NY: Lawyers and Judges Publishing Co.
Vriji, A. (2000). Detecting Lies and Deceit. NY: Wiley Publications.
Zulawski, D. F. & Wiklander, D. F. (1991). Practical Aspects of
Interview and Interrogation. Boca Raton: FL CRC.
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UNIT 4
QUALITIES AND DUTIES OF A CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATOR
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Who should be a Criminal Investigator?
3.2
Duties of a Criminal Investigator
3.3
Qualities and Characteristics of a Criminal Investigator
3.4
Criminal Investigation of Commonly Reported Cases
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What are the qualities of a good criminal investigator?
Nweke Esg (2007) in his principle of crime prevention and detection in
Nigeria lists the qualities of a good investigator as: intelligence, mental
and physical fitness, integrity, honesty, patience, courage, initiative,
good sense of observation and adaptability. Similarly, Swason et al
(2003) in their eight edition of criminal investigation, state that some
investigators have a reputation for being lucky, meaning that good
fortunes sometimes play a role in solving a case. But to them, a lucky
investigator is someone with strong professional training and solid
experience, who by carefully completing every appropriate step in an
investigation leaves nothing to chance. A successful investigator has a
strong degree of self-discipline, which is, getting things done without
the presence of a superior, use legally approved methods and is highly
ethical, includes in his final report all evidence that may point to the
innocence of the suspect, no matter how unsavory his or her character is.
Perseverance is the one overriding human trail or characteristic among
the many deemed necessary, or at least highly desirable, for
investigative work. What is the other?
One authority, Donald Schultz, lists 15 “desirable attributes of an
investigator”. Charles O’ brings it down to three: character, judgment,
and the ability to deal with people. The various issues that will be
examined in this unit that will introduce you to qualities and duties of a
criminal investigator include who should be a criminal investigator,
qualities of the investigator and criminal investigation of commonly
reported cases.
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2.0
MODULE 1
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
list the qualities of a criminal investigator
enumerate the qualities and characteristics of the investigator
describe the duties of a criminal investigator
analyse the procedures of investigating commonly reported cases
mention some hindrances to a successful investigation.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Who should be a Criminal Investigator?
This section introduces you to the salient qualities of an investigator.
Crimes are not solved by ingenious and clever superlatives only but by
hard working men and women who universally share one common
denominator: perseverance. In the words of Samuel Johnson, great
works are performed, not by strength, but by perseverance. This
investigative virtue is defined as “holding to a course of action, belief, or
purpose without giving up; steadfastness, continuing strength or
patience in dealing with something arduous. It particularly implies
standing difficulty or resistance in striving for a goal.
Suitability infers that the person so appointed or to be appointed to do
crime investigation shall not only be mentally and physically fit to face
the enormity of the task of crime investigation, but must also be
intellectually developed and capable. The pursuit of criminal
investigation demands not only physical exertion, but requires courage
and determination in order to overcome the arduous task involved in
pursing a criminal, resulting in eventual arrest. An investigator must
therefore have abundant energy. Sometimes life is threatened while in
pursuit of a criminal.
Courage is therefore a necessary quality of a criminal investigator. This
is important if intimidation and physical resistance or obstruction is to
be overcome. Fearful and nervous people could never be good
investigators.
Patience is another important attribute of a crime investigator. An officer
who cannot exercise patience may never be a successful investigator.
Clues may elude him but with determination and patience, the end must
be aimed at, efforts must be sustained and in a protracted inquiry,
success can only be achieved if the officer is patient in following up
every clue, dropping off any that has not proved fruitful, while picking
up new ones reasonably believed to be useful and relevant. For this, an
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investigator must have good judgment to discern what are likely to be
useful factors and discretion to decide what to discard and when to do
so. This instinct is usually inborn in some but with others it could be
acquired and developed through training and experience. This second
category of investigators must apply themselves to their job with
tenacity and determination, totally committed to their work.
A successful investigator must be one who has natural flare for crime
detection. The satisfaction the officer enjoy, when a crime has been
thoroughly investigated is an added incentive which makes up for the
time and energy expended as well as the pleasure denied or
inconveniences suffered in pursing a protracted investigation.
The most important factor to consider again is initiative. Officers who
have no initiative of their own should never be given responsibility of
investigating criminal cases because due to the very nature of the
assignment, it is impossible to fully supervise an investigator closely.
All that can be done, given a most favourable condition, is to give a
general directives and supervision, probably on points of law and on
major policy decisions about actions required to be taken, e.g. the stage
at which a formal arrest should be made or when and under what
conditions a suspect may be released. A crime investigator is on his own
most of the time and the situation therefore necessarily demands that the
officers concerned must be honest, reliable and dedicated.
Observation is another important factor to reckon with in crime
detection. With keen sense of observation, an investigator will be able
to note motor tracks, footmarks and prints, a recently disturbed scenee.g. grass, lawns, haystack, displaced or upset table covers, bedspreads,
chair seats and their covers, marks or injuries on tree trunks, pieces of
papers thrown about should be observed, picked up and examined,
observe broken glass, windows and doors open or shut in suspicious or
unusual manner. With such observation an investigator can easily pick
up clues of crimes committed, which if developed could eventually
provide answers to problems posed in his investigation. Follow up
action could then be decided upon easily.
Power of observation is however, acquired and developed more through
training, practice and experience. This can never be achieved in any case
if the investigator is not keen or interested in his job. Devotion and
dedication again are additional attributes. Every object, no matter how
insignificant must be examined as if this may eventually lead to the
cracking of a seemingly difficult, complicated and protracted but
sensational case that may spotlight the officer as an ace investigator.
Observing people closely could be rewarding. Investigators should
observe people closely and note their descriptions.
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The facial structure, their manner of walking, their heights, manner of
speech, hair style, colour of eyes, teeth formation, mode of dressing and
colour preferred, all will help at an opportune moment to connect a
crime with someone never thought about at all. Observation is closely
linked with vigilance.
A vigilant police officer or law enforcement officer will obviously make
a good investigator. Being vigilant invariably leads to curiosity. A good
crime investigator must necessarily be curious or ‘nosey’, listening to
every chanced conversation that comes his way. It pays off eventually to
listen to everything said; vigilance may lead to the observation of
people’s movements and their actions which may arouse suspicion.
Nothing should be neglected as unimportant.
Local knowledge is a vital asset to every law enforcement officer
particularly, any crime investigator. He must know the people in the
locality and their mode of living. This knowledge facilitates the
identification of strange persons, travelling criminals and locally
resident delinquents, and may connect them with any matter which is a
subject of police inquiry.
Tact is another attribute which an investigator must have. An
investigating officer who wants to get to the ‘bottom’ of a case must
employ both direct and indirect approach. The proper instance to apply
any one of the two is left to the officers’ judgment and discretion. The
investigator must know the most opportune moment to employ subtle
and tactful approach which should be more persuasive than being
coercive. In crime investigation, tact is indispensible. A good
investigator must be discrete and very tactful in his approach to the case.
A good knowledge of behaviour and reaction of the different personsman or woman- under different circumstances is very vital and should
serve as an asset in the officer’s career as crime investigator, because
even from the biggest fool, one can always learn something.
Finally, an investigator must devote himself completely and continually
to him task, working with every determination and might and where it
becomes necessary never pausing for rest.
In addition to experience, capability, zeal and readiness, the possession
of instinct is an indispensable asset to crime investigation. A man or
woman who has a penetrating mind will readily become a successful
investigator.
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Knowledge of the elements of the offence
In conducting investigation of any reported case, it is important that the
police investigator should have a good understanding and knowledge of
the elements constituting the crime. This will give the officer a proper
attitude and approach to any type of investigation. Without good
knowledge of the elements that constitute the crime, the officer will not
know what points to look for in order to ascertain and conclude whether
an offence has been committed or not. It is also necessary for a police
investigator or law enforcement officer to know the procedure required
in the conduct of any type of investigation. These again, will be acquired
by studying the laws as well. The criminal Procedure Code and Act, the
Evidence Act, the Police Act and the Criminal Code itself, all have
provisions to guide police officers concerned with criminal
investigations.
Who should be an investigator? And why is it necessary for an
investigator to have knowledge of the offence committed.
3.2
Duties of a Criminal Investigator
The investigator whose work is half done has accomplished nothing. He
has either to solve the problem and crack the nut of the case or nothing
has been achieved. The main duty of a crime investigator is to discover
who committed the crime and this should be achieved without noise or
sensational publicity. The first aim of the investigator is determination to
produce results that will lead to the proof of the case. It is a common
thing to hear of investigators say “it is not possible to go further”. This
is a defeatist attitude. There could always be another step further, and
several further steps could follow.
Preconceived opinion, theories or ideas
Is dangerous and misleading to have preconceived opinion or formulate
theories as to how a crime had been committed. This is a wrong attitude
and approach to the investigation of crimes. It must be avoided. An
investigator must keep an open mind and check on all possibilities.
While interrogating witnesses or suspects, it will be a rewarding practice
to make notes; particularly while visiting scenes of crime. An
investigator should make both mental as well as written notes (where
practicable) of his experience as to what was seen, as to the state of
things at the scene, persons who were there, persons who were spoken to
and who should be interviewed. Anything the investigator came across
in the course of his inquiry must be noted.
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Knowledge about people: An aid to investigation
A witness or suspect can make false and misleading statements to an
inexperienced and incompetent investigator and get away with it, while
that same witness will make a truthful and accurate statement to another
investigator who is experienced and knows how to handle people or
human beings. If a person becomes aware that the person he is dealing
with knows him well, that person is less likely to tell lies. One of the
most effective aids to be a successful investigator is to have a good
knowledge of the criminal records of all persons who often commit
offences within the community, particularly their modus operandi.
Criminals are prone to using the same method in their operation most, if
not all of the time, they plead the same alibi-putting the same or similar
excuses or defence. It must be borne in mind that, even with the same
style and defence, the old habitual criminal has acquired more
experience and has become cunning and cautious in defending himself.
The investigating officer must therefore be skilful in his handling of
such an accused in order to be able to get the truth out of such person.
The best approach should be to first study the records of previous
convictions and criminal activities of the suspect before interrogating
him. Armed with such background knowledge of the accused person’s
criminal life and more particularly the facts of the case under
investigation and the suspect’s involvement, the investigator could,
more often than not, get the truth out of the suspect or witness. When an
accused person is so confronted, and he becomes aware that so much is
known of him, he will in most cases be completely disarmed and will
most likely breakdown and speak the truth. This method usually throws
the accused person off-guard and disarms him of his preconceived alibis.
Caring for details
A good investigator must pay attention to details. Habit of making notes
should be cultivated, writing clearly and legibly everything said by the
suspects and witnesses, recording accurately everything that is noted or
experimented, in the course of the inquiry. Case files must be properly
completed, taking pains to complete all the relevant columns, making
sure they are properly filled. Diary of actions taken or case diaries
should be meticulously and truthfully written, showing all actions on the
inquiry carried out. An investigator has to ensure that exhibits are
promptly registered and secured in proper custody, clearly marked and
labelled. Exhibits must never be left lying about but stored in the
exhibits store and left in the custody of the exhibits’ keeper.
Any property, instrument or weapon found at the scene, or any person
alleged to have been seen at the scene of crime must be properly
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identified and such identification recorded as required by laid-down
procedure. Any person mentioned by a complainant, accused person or
other witnesses should be sorted out, interviewed/interrogated and
detailed statement obtained from such person or persons. Scene of crime
visit is a most important aspect of crime investigation. Observations
made of the state of things at the crime scene, should be carefully noted
and accurately recorded, leaving nothing to chance.
Careless or casual remarks or words uttered during chance conversations
should be carefully noted. It could lead to making a break-through in the
investigation. The contents of a case file must provide the answers to
such questions as: who, with what, with whom, how, where, when and
why?
Interrogation (questioning) of witnesses and accused persons
The purpose or objective of interrogation is to elicit from a witness or an
accused, through accurate and complete facts of the case under
investigation, to the extent of having a mastery of the circumstances and
situation as if the investigator was personally present at the scene of the
incident and actually witnessed or experienced the incident or event.
Witnesses and accused persons mentioned above must be thoroughly
interrogated extensively before written statements are obtained from
them where necessary, bearing in mind that every person mixed up
either remotely or immediately in an affair is necessarily and naturally
connected with it, whether directly or indirectly, actively or passively.
In a case of suspected armed robbery charge, police arrested a suspect
with the aid of some public spirited men who acted as vigilante squad.
No member of the squad was invited to make a statement or give
evidence. The accused was discharged and acquitted. One of the
grounds of his acquittal was that none of the men involved in the arrest
gave evidence and the conflict in evidence of arrest ended in oath
against oath between the investigating police officer and the suspect.
The case was resolved in favour of the accused.
The duties of an investigator in connection with the examining of
witnesses fall under two main needs:
i.
ii.
He must ensure that all the important points of facts of the case
are investigated.
He must also, whenever possible, make sure that the truth is
elicited from the witnesses.
In order to achieve these two objectives, the witnesses should be
interviewed or interrogated privately and separately one from the other.
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As soon as any witness makes a confession or disclosure incriminating
anyone, this should be recorded in writing. Confront the parties with
each other in respect of the incriminating statements. When the suspect
realises that the facts are known, particularly at a point when he has
been implicated, the suspect is most likely to speak the truth.
The statement and evidence of a witness is strictly confined to what he
has actually seen, heard directly or experienced in connection with the
case under inquiry. The drawing of inferences from circumstances
should be left to the investigator. A witness should hardly be required to
give an opinion, except if the witness is a competent person to give such
opinion for purposes of guiding the investigator in arriving at the right
conclusion. Opinions are however best left to the court to call for. In
collecting facts of evidence from a witness, care must be taken, bearing
in mind however, that the witness may have been agitated or even
excited and overwhelmed with fear at the moment of observing an
incident. He may still be in that same state of mind when narrating the
story. The witness’s ability to note exactly what happened and the exact
description of the suspects could be greatly impaired due to the facts that
his vision may have been distorted at the time he observed or noticed the
suspect. If witness is still agitated or excited at the time of narrating the
incidents or events, he is most likely to exaggerate the story on one hand
or on the other extreme, be unable to remember exactly what happened.
It is therefore the duty of an investigator to calm down the witness and
help witness to cast his mind back to the scene and gradually recalled all
what happened. An investigator should not hurriedly obtain statements
from witnesses or suspects without first interviewing or properly
interrogating them. There should be no objection to an investigator
questioning a witness just as he would be an accused or suspect.
Written statement
Having thoroughly interrogated the suspect or witness, the next step is to
obtain a written statement from her or him. A statement is the story of
how a particular incident occurred and all the circumstances surrounding
it.Statements are obtained for the following purposes:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
To elicit all the facts from the suspect or witness.
To convey all necessary information to the authorities such as the
court, the superior officers or prosecutors to help in determining
what action to take in respect of the particular case and what
charge or charges to prefer.
To facilitate the examination of witnesses or accused persons in
court and
To justify police action.
And to record all the facts in permanent form.
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Taking statements from suspects
The statement of an accused or suspect is slightly different from that of
the witnesses. The witnesses statement will not contain any words of
caution, whereas the accused statement is written after the cautionary
words have been written down and signed by him/her.
The principles governing this could be found in the judge’s Rules No
112. Before taking down a statement of a suspect the cautionary
statement must be written first and should be read over and explained to
the suspect who should be made to sign the caution. After this has been
done, the actual statement may then commence in the suspects own
language or in the language of the interpreter, if the suspect cannot
speak English language and the investigating officer does not understand
the language of the suspect.
Taking statements from a witness
Have fully interrogated a witness, the investigating officer can then
proceed to take a statement from him/her. The statement of witness
should not be taken under caution. This should be so even when the
officer suspects the witness to be an accomplice in the case. Until facts
have been collected and evidence adduced to show that the ‘so-called’
witness had actually taken part in the commission of the crime, he/she
should not be cautioned for two reasons.
i.
ii.
As soon as the witness is cautioned he/she may likely become
conscious of possible implication and may likely withhold certain
facts and information which would otherwise have been revealed
or disclosed.
If eventually the person is not charged, having found later that
he/she did not take part in the crime, it will then be difficult to
use such person as an unbiased witness.
Confessional statements
Confessional statements are statements made by suspects or accused
persons, confessing or admitting the commission of the offence alleged.
Confessional statements are usually always admissible in evidence
provided they were not obtained by threat, fraud, force or inducement. If
obtained by any of these means, it will not be admissible in evidence.
Confession must be free and voluntary.
A confessional statement alone may not convict the accused person in
court and other independent witnesses and evidence must be sought to
corroborate or support such evidence as contained in the confession.
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Outline the duties of criminal investigator. Discuss two of them.
3.3
Qualities of a Criminal Investigator
What are the qualities or characteristics that are necessary for an
effective investigator?
He must be:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
observant
resourceful
patient
people-oriented
knowledgable about human behaviour
knowledgeable about legal implications of the work
a skilled communication
receptive
possessed of a sense of well-being
dedicated to work
a self-starter
skeptical
intuitive
energetic
a good actor
capable of sound judgment
logical
intelligent
creatively imaginative
of good character
professional.
Invariable a successful investigator, man or woman, will posses, in
varying degrees, each of these traits, either as innate or learned qualities.
Powers of observation
Skill in observation does not come naturally. It must be learned, and it
must be practiced. It requires seeing as opposed to merely looking, and
after seeing, the ability to draw intelligent conclusions. An underlying
characteristic of a good observer is curiosity. If you are curious about a
person, the power of observation can reveal a great deal.
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Resourcefulness
The resourceful person is one who, when one path or strategy is blocked
or comes to a dead end, finds another. He thinks in terms of alternatives:
if this does not work, something else will. If the information is not
available at one source, he will turn to another. The person who lacks
resourcefulness has a tendency to give up when the initial plan or
strategy fails.
Patience
The quality of patience is not only a virtue in investigative work, it is
essential, particularly in surveillance assignments. It is not uncommon in
surveillance assignments for investigators to have to sit in a parked
automobile day after day, week after week. The average man would give
up, but patience pays off for the investigator.
Interaction with people
The criminal investigator must be people-oriented. He must be
comfortable around and with people. Our two key sources of
information are observation and people. People communicate, and there
is a direct relationship between the amount of raport between two people
and the amount of communication. The individual who likes and enjoys
others acts like a human magnet, he attracts people. Those who are
uncomfortable around others subconsciously avoid or shun them - and
that is perceived.
The investigator who enjoys people is usually very adaptable in
adjusting to a wide spectrum of different types of people. He is
comfortable with the dock worker as well as an executive, with a person
or welfare or resident of a main street flophouse as well as a political or
government official.
There is also something to be said for kindness and respect for others. It
pays off when the criminal investigator is seeking assistance and
information.
Understanding human behaviour
In addition to the human understanding involved in being people
oriented by nature, there is another aspect of understanding human
behaviour that is important for the investigator. It belongs in the area of
practical psychology; the investigator has to have a fine sense for what
makes most people “tick”.
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Understanding the legal implications
The investigator in the public sector today is very sensitive to the legal
implications of his actions. This is not always equally true in the private
sector. The investigator must therefore be sensitive to the gray areas of
the law, as well as clearly defined legal limitations on his actions.
Effective communication skills
Because report writing is such an integral part of criminal investigative
process, the investigator must have the ability to articulate his case
effectively, be it oral presentation of the status or findings of a case to
management or testifying in an administrative or judicial hearing. Cases
are lost and won by the manner in which witness reports, especially
verbally. Good delivery, in terms of enunciation, clarity, conviction and
choice of words, adds credibility to the facts of the case. Conversely,
mumbled, hesitant or hard-to-understand oral presentations, and
presentations filled with slang or other poor choices of words, tend to
discredit an otherwise good case.
Receptivity
Receptiveness means being open-minded. That includes an interest and
willingness to listen to other opinions, and even to ask for them.
Furthermore, it includes the willingness not only to listen but to
consider, weighing the merits of other ideas, suggestions and opinions
and, when appropriate, accept them.
The unreceptive person who rejects external sources, who has strong
tendencies to pursue an investigation in his or her own way, tends to
work in a trench, becoming blind to alternatives. The effective criminal
investigator must remain open for fresh inputs.
Sense of well-being
An investigator must feel good about himself, his skill, his ability to
perform the task at hand, and no matter how complex or difficult. This
includes experiencing the rewards of a job well done.
The sense of well-being also includes personal and professional security.
Dedication to work
A dedicated criminal investigator does not wear a watch to know when
to go home. He wears a watch to record in his notebook the time of an
event, interview, and receipt of information or action.
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Self-initiative
The demands of the criminal investigative process require an individual
with initiative, a self-starter working within the guidelines established
by the organisation; he or she accepts assignments and pursues them in a
uniquely unstructured fashion. The criminal investigator must be able to
act alone. The work should never require official or managerial prodding
or supervision.
Healthy scepticism
A healthy scepticism in criminal investigation means taking everything
in with “a pinch of salt”, not fully accepting anything with blind faith,
yet not necessarily rejecting anything because of the source. Everything
is listened to, everything is look at, nothing is sacred, and nothing is a
fact until it is proven or measures up to known and acceptable standards.
Healthy skepticism keeps investigator sharp and accurate.
Intuition
To be intuitive is no more or less than the familiar “gut feeling”. It is the
sense of knowing something without the use of rational process or
evidence provided by the pure physical sense. Intuition is commonly
manifested in the area of attempted deception.
Energy and stamina
Investigators are always on the move - looking, prosing, digging, asking,
comparing. Their work requires a person with a high energy level. It
demands impact on the mental as well as the physical reservoirs of
strength and stamina.
Acting skills
The criminal investigator must be able to assume a wide variety of roles,
and he must be able to change roles quickly and fittingly.
Good judgment
Good judgment simply means the ability to make the right decision at
the time. There are two elements involved in sound judgment. The first
is the willingness to make decisions and second the willing to
implement the decisions.
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The exercise of logic
A logical person is one capable of consistency in reasoning. In
investigative work, logic is necessary in drawing reasonable conclusions
based upon earlier events. A logical mind is able to see relationship
between events - past, present and future.
Intelligence
A criminal investigator must have higher-than-average intelligence. One
aspect of intelligence essential to the investigator is mental recall, or
memory. The ability to recall, remember small details, even those
seemingly unrelated to the present case, can help make logical
connections that aid in resolving the case at hand.
Creative imagination
The creative imagination is capable of transcending the reality of the
present or apparent.
Sense of professionalism
An investigator, in particular a criminal investigator is always “on stage”
on or off the job, what we do, how we do it, what we say and how we
say it reflects on the image of the profession. Like other professionals,
the investigator must maintain high standard of conduct.
State the characteristics of a criminal investigator. Explain in details,
five of the named characteristics.
3.4
Criminal investigation of commonly reported cases.
Assault,
robbery, homicide and stealing/breach of
thrust
Case 1- Assault
Offence of assault is common these days. This crime refers to the
striking, touching or moving or otherwise the application of force, of
any kind to the person of another, either directly or indirectly, without
his consent or with his consent if the consent is obtained by fraud, or
who by any bodily act or gesture attempts or threatens to apply force of
any kind to the person of another without his consent in such
circumstances that the person making the attempt or threat has actually
or apparently a present ability to effect the purpose. A glance through
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the criminal code in section 252 and 264 of the penal code gives an
investigating officer an insight into three vital elements in assault viz:
i.
ii.
iii.
Force
Movement
Alarm.
Force constitutes the application of head, light electrical force, gas,
odour or any substance of a thing that if applied in such a degree, is
capable of causing injury, apprehension or personal discomfort.
The element of movement is traceable to physical contact, whereas
alarm constitutes in the expression of dislike or discontentment by the
victim of assault.
The facts to be proved in this case are:
a.
b.
That the act was done without the consent of the victim.
That the act was unlawful due to lack of legal authority.
Though there are various kinds of assault like common assault, assault
with intent to commit unnatural offence, indecent assault on males,
assault on person protecting wrecks, assault occasioning harm, serious
assault, indecent assault on females, assault with intent to compel action
and assault with intent to steal. The investigating officer should confirm
the relevant sections in the criminal code.
Investigation of assault cases
Upon the commencement of investigation on any assault related case,
the investigating officer should bear in mind that the caption and entry
of the case referred from the charge room may not reveal the entire
matter as it was. He needs to be very natural and meticulous so as to
carry out a discreet investigation to establish:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Whether an offence was actually committed.
Who committed the offence?
What offence, what instrument and what were the consequences?
Why was the offence committed? Was he provoked?
Against who was the offence committed?
How was the offence committed?
An investigator worth his salt will be able to make important revelations
from his investigation and record statements from the assault victim
immediately. If the consequence of the assault is such that occasions
harm or is life threatening, give priority to life by rushing victim to
hospital for treatment and thereafter, obtain medical report. Establish if
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the accused acted in retaliation to an unprovoked assault. Could two or
more of them have fought in a public place to constitute affray?
Cause the complainant to identify the suspect for possible arrest. Take
suspect’s statements under caution and jurat (endorse) each statement
sheet upon conclusion. Contact and record statements from witnesses
mentioned in the case by both parties. Do not fail to visit the scene of
crime in company of both parties to ascertain alleged facts. Take charge
of exhibits found or brought, and register same with the exhibit keeper.
A copy of the medical report should be served the accused or his defense
counsel before case goes to court.
Tidy up your case and put up a comprehensive investigation report
making your recommendation based on your findings. Note that findings
may conform or vary with the caption of case referred for investigations.
If findings reveal serious assault instead of common assault as referred
in the entry, please go ahead and recommend the serious assault and
state your reasons. Conclude your report with your signature and name.
Case 2 - Stealing/criminal bread of trust/criminal misappropriation
This refers to the fraudulent taking away or fraudulent conversion of
anything capable of being stolen by any person for his own use or for
the use of any other person, without bonafide claim of right made in
good faith, but with intent to permanently deprive the owner of such
thing.
Fraudulent intention in stealing is revealed in any of the following
circumstances:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
An intention to permanently deprive the owner of his thing.
An intention to permanently deprive any person who has any
special property in the thing of such property.
An intention to use the thing as a pledge or security.
An intention to part with it on a condition as to return, which the
person taking or converting it may be unable to perform.
An intention to deal with it in such a manner that it cannot be
returned in the condition in which it was at the time of the taking
or conversion.
In case of money, an intenion to use it at the will of the person
who takes or converts it, although he may intend afterwards, to
repay the same amounts to the owner.
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Fraudulent conversion
An officer investigating a case of stealing should note that the taking or
conversion of a thing may be fraudulent although it is affected without
secrecy or attempt at concealment. In conversion, it is immaterial
whether the thing converted is taken for the purpose of conversion, or
whether it is in the possession of the person who converts it as at the
time of conversion. Equally, immaterial is that the person who converts
the property is in the disposition of it, or is otherwise authorised to
dispose off the property.
When a thing converted has been lost by the owner and found by the
person who converts it, the conversion is not deemed to be fraudulent
especially if at the time of the conversion, the person taking or
converting the thing does not know who is the owner, and believes on
reasonable grounds that the owner cannot be discovered.
Also, it should be noted that a person shall not be deemed to take a thing
unless he moves the thing or causes it to move.
There are certain requirements to establish stealing. So an officer
investigating an offence of stealing must look for the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
That the thing stolen has both usage and monetary value.
That the thing is the property of another person.
That the means of taking and conversion was not in good faith
hence fraudulent.
That there was intent to deprive the owner permanently of this
property.
That there was taking and carrying away- exportation.
Investigation of a case of stealing
A legal maxim postulates that a person in whose possession a stolen
item is found is deemed to be the thief or receiver. An officer
investigating this case should be able to discern between actual
possession and constructive possession while endeavouring to establish
ownership of the thing.
Record statement from the complainant and cause him to specifically
give the description and identity of the thing stolen, from where stolen,
cost price and identity of suspect if known.
Demand to see purchase receipt where practicable to avoid bogus
estimate of cost of the item stolen.
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Cause the complainant to identify the suspect, then mobilise men and go
for arrest. Do not delay in obtaining a signed warrant to search for house
and premises of the suspect for the recovery of the stolen item and or,
any item(s) that must have been previously stolen or unlawfully
obtained.
Proceed with your team to search, usually in company of both parties
and get the search warrant endorsed after the successful search, by
itemising property recovered for the parties and other witnesses to sign
the information endorsed. The endorsement could be in the following
term today ……………at…………time, search warrant executed in the
house and premises of …………(suspects name and address). During
the search, the following items were found named removed (1), (2),
(3)………………. During the search nothing was damaged. (If nothing
incriminating was found, you state that nothing was removed).You then
cause the witnesses including yourself to append signatures and date.
This document shall portray a serious evidential value in due course,
either for prosecution or against a petition. Note that section 7 and 8 of
the criminal procedure Act empowers you to break into a building where
entry to arrest or search is denied you or to break out if you are locked
in. In event where stolen items such as car, electronic, etc are not found,
raise a saving-gram and circulate to nearby police areas so that if such
items are found, the could link you to collect the items even with the
suspect if arrested.
CASE 3 - Breaking offences
The breaking and entering into the dwelling house of another by day
time, with intent to commit felony therein, or breaking out after
committing felony, amounts to house breaking, a felony with 14 years
jail term. When the same act is done in a dwelling house at night, it is
known as burglary: a felony punishable with life imprisonment.
When one breaks and enters a building other than a dwelling house e.g.
shop, store, office, super market, warehouse etc, whether at night or day
time the term burglary is not used. Breaking into a building or office
breaking, store breaking etc and the time of the offence does not affect
the term of imprisonment as this offence is always lit years jail term.
However, any attempt of this offence attracts seven years imprisonment.
Breaking in any part of the building constitute an opening, unlocking,
pulling, pushing, and lifting or by any other means giving passage from
one part of the building to another. It could be physical displacement of
any part of the building or constructive breaking. Investigating officers
should equally note that an offence of entering a building could suffice
without breaking as in event when any part of the suspect’s body or any
part of instrument used by him is within the building. Therefore,
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anybody who enters into the dwelling house of another with intent to
commit felony therein is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment
of seven years.
Investigation of breaking offences
The investigation officer in any breaking offence should be patient and
painstaking because in this case, offensive weapons or instruments are
involved. Proper record of statement from the victim noting time of
incident and items stolen is required.
Go to the scene of the crime with a photographer. Thoroughly examine
the breaking pattern, observing the possible inlet and outlet. Establish
whether the breaking is actual or constructive. An area investigating
officer who is conversant with the modus operandi of known burglars in
his jurisdiction is likely to link a criminal breaking pattern of corpus
delicti at the crime scene with a notorious syndicate. Effort should be
made to discover finger prints at the scene as these could be lifted for
analysis and their results could corroborate existing evidence.
Any suspect arrested in this case should be vigorously interrogated, as
he is not likely to succumb to the truth easily. His person and premises
should thoroughly search. Like stealing investigation, a signed search
warrant is needed for prompt execution. Most investigating officers
normally jump into conclusion that all burglary case has stealing intent.
But the law creating the offence looks for intent to commit felony and
not only stealing. Where more than one suspect are involved, the
investigating officer should endeavour to establish the element of
common-motive conspiracy. Where conspiracy is established, a warrant
of arrest is required for prosecution. It is immaterial that the warrant was
not available as at the time of arrest. You are advised to effect the arrest
but to get warrant for the arrest as quickly as possible.
Because of the gravity of punishment in burglary offence, investigating
officers should tactfully and expertly build up the case files because
such files are likely to be forwarded to the Directorate of Public
Prosecution (DPP) for further prosecution in the High Court.
CASE 4 - Robbery
Any person who steals anything and at or immediately before or
immediately after the time of stealing uses or threatens to use actual
violence to any person or property in order to obtain or retain the thing
stolen or prevent or overcome resistance to its being stolen or retained,
is said to be guilty of robbery. But if the offender is armed with any
offensive weapon or instrument, or is in company of one or more
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persons or if at or immediately after the time of robbery he wounds or
uses any other personal violence on any person, shall upon conviction,
be sentenced to death according to the nature of act.
Evidence in robbery case
An officer investigating a robbery incident should note that evidence
required is always with corroboration and in doing so, the following
points must be proved:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
That there was really a robbery incident.
That the offender was armed with fire arms or offensive weapon
or accompanied person(s) so armed.
That the thing stolen has value and is capable of being stolen.
That a person was wounded, killed or his life was threatened
immediately before or after the commission of the offence.
Robbery
a)
b)
c)
d)
That the accused took possession of the property.
That the accused instilled fear by threatening to use or actually
used violence on any person or property.
That the property was taken away against the owner’s consent.
That there was intent to steal the property.
What is assault? How would you investigate it?
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed criminal investigation of commonly reported cases.
We also went further to explain the meaning of assault, stealing,
conversion, robbery and breaking offences.
We also discussed the various ways to investigate this criminal case and
bring culprit to book.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the qualities and duties of a criminal
investigator, by looking at who should be a criminal investigator,
qualities and characteristics of criminal investigators.
We also discussed the criminal investigation of commonly reported
cases like assault, stealing, criminal breach of trust, misappropriation
and fraudulent conversion. We also discussed procedures on how to
investigate these cases.
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6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
What are the qualities of a criminal investigator.
Discuss the duties performed by criminal investigator.
What constitutes robbery? How would you investigate it?
7.0
REFERENCES/FUTHER READING
Iwara, I. & Effiong, C. (2008). A Practical Guide to Criminal
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar: Esshah Books and Press
Services.
Police and Law Enforcement (1990). Ibadan: Tee Printers Ltd.
Nweke, S.A.N. (2007). Principles of Crime Pretention and Detection in
Nigeria. Ebanger Production Nig Ltd.
Robbery and Firearms (2004). Special Provisions Act Cap. Rll.
Sennewald, C. A. (1981). The Process of Investigation: Concepts and
Strategies for the Security Professional. U.S.A: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Swanson, C.R. (2003). Criminal investigation. (8th ed.). Boston: Mc
Graw-Hitl Higher Education.
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MODULE 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF INVESTIGATION
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Meaning and Scope of Investigation
The Investigative Process
Methods of Investigation
Applying Investigative Strategies
UNIT 1
MEANING AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Investigation
3.2
Stages and Types of Investigation
3.3
Managing the Investigative Function
3.4
Essential Characteristics of a Good Investigator
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor – Market Assignment
References\Further Reading
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is an investigation? And who is an investigator? In order to
effectively conduct or perform investigative function, one must
understand the basic definition of investigation and investigate. An
investigation is an examination, a study, a survey and a research of facts
and / or circumstances, situation, incidents and scenarios, either related
or not for the purpose of reaching a conclusion of proof. When one
investigate, he/she makes a systematic inquiry, closely analyses and
inspects while dissecting and scrutinising information. Investigations
therefore are based upon a complete and whole evaluation and not on
conjecture, speculation nor supposition. The various issues that will be
examined in the unit that will introduce you to the meaning and scope of
investigation include: meaning of investigation, stages and types of
investigation, managing the investigative function and essential
characteristics of a good investigator.
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2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
define the term investigation
outline the stages of an investigative process
discuss the various type of investigation
state the qualities of a good investigator
mention the goals of an investigation unit in an organisation.
1.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Investigation
This section introduces you to what investigation is all about and who is
an investigator?
For you to effectively conduct investigative function, you must
understand the basic definition of investigation. An investigation is the
examination, study, searching, tracking and gathering of factual
information that answers question or solves problem. It is more of an art
than a science. When one investigates, he/she makes a systematic
inquiry, closely analyses and inspects while dissecting and scrutinising
information. An investigation therefore is based upon a complete and
whole evaluation and not conjecture, speculation or supposition.
Is it really that simple for the investigator? Is it so clearly defined or
black and white? Law enforcement is the entity charged with the
responsibility to accurately close the gap between fact and fiction; detect
and prevent criminal acts. And in doing so, are mandated to function
within strict administrative and legal parameters. For example crime
detection and investigation is an art and a science, a collaboration of
common sense, judgement, intellect, experience and an innate
intuitiveness along with a grasp of relative technical knowledge. The
investigator must continually apply those skills acquired through study
and experience, to the examination of essential social and physical
environments.
When the most basic of law enforcement functions: the preservation of
life, the protection of property and the maintenance of peace are not
substantially realised the investigative process must then be undertaken.
The aim of this process is twofold. First, the investigator will attempt to
identify and safely apprehend the violator and secondly, to produce
him/her before a proper court of law. Of course, there is much going on
behind the scenes, so to speak, while attempting to achieve these
difficult objectives of identification, apprehension and prosecution.
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Investigations generally are conducted primarily for the prevention of
crimes. When crimes occur law enforcement is responsible to the
investigating such incident. Ideally the investigator will cause the
Ultimately and probably most important, is that the investigation,
detection and apprehension of a criminal effectively serve to curtail
recidivism thereby reducing overall crime.
There are several types of investigation that law enforcement personnel
may undertake in the routine discharge of their duties.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Investigations of incidents, which are violations of laws and /or
ordinances that include criminal acts (robbery, assaults, larceny,
burglary, murder, illegal weapons etc.)
Traffic accident investigations (serious injuries, manslaughter,
property damage).
Personal investigations into the background, character and
suitability of persons in an effort to determine their eligibility for
position of public trust.
Investigations of illegal conditions or circumstances, which if left
unchecked would cause an increase in traditional crimes. These
conditions may include the following: narcotics sales, illegal
weapons trafficking, vice type crimes (prostitution, gambling)
street gang activity, organised crime, terrorist front activities,
fraud and con games, identity theft and computer crimes.
Although many of these conditions would dictate self-initiated
investigations base upon intelligence rather than reacting to a citizen
crime complain, there are however, sometimes that investigations will in
fact result from such individual crime complains.
What does the investigator attempt to obtain during his/her
investigation? The answer is information. What does the investigator
hope to develop as a result of obtaining or gathering this information?
The answer is evidence. All investigations regardless of purpose,
involve the task of gathering and evaluating information.
The investigative process should be viewed in terms of gathering
information rather than attempting to obtain evidence. This is not to say
that an investigator should overlook obvious items of evidence or items
that can potentially become evidentiary in nature. The process should be
conducted with the mindset that from information comes evidence. It is
important to point out that the information that forms the basis of
evidence that is ultimately presented during court proceedings represents
only a small fraction of the total information gathered during the
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investigative process. The information gathered is subjected to intense
scrutiny before it ever reaches a courtroom via examination, evaluation
and screening. This scrutiny entails review at the law enforcement stage,
usually by assigning supervisory ranks within the investigative
infrastructure and depending upon the seriousness or news worthiness of
the incident. This is in addition to the prosecution stage which includes
the initial writing of the complaint, the arraignment process through
grand jury proceeding and pre-trial hearings up to and during the actual
trial. Much of the evidence gathered by some law enforcement
investigators is not acceptable for presentation in court due to the rules
of evidence.
This however does not preclude these pieces of information from
assisting the investigator in guiding him/her towards what will be
acceptable evidence.
There are two primary sources of information: people and things. These
are so different that the process of gathering and evaluating each type
requires specific knowledge and skills. Basically, the investigator
engages the human element. The crime scene technician / investigator or
the laboratory based scientist deals with inanimate objects that are
unable to mislead, lie or fight. The tasks of the investigator and the
technician are closely related and somewhat dependent upon one another
in so far as the participant must have a fundamental appreciation of one
another’s duties and responsibilities. Nevertheless, they are different
from each other and thereby necessitate the capability of discreet skills,
disciplines and techniques.
The investigator must be cognizant of the limitation and capabilities of
the crime lab and its technicians, as well as accepted protocols problem,
in order to properly process potential evidence. The investigator while
submitting physical things to the crime lab for examination does not
forfeit the responsibility and duty of attaching an expertise in the
recognition, collection and preservation of physical evidence. The extent
and value of information obtained from the ability of the investigator at
a particular scene to recognise potential evidentiary matter. It should be
note that when comparing the value of information obtained from
physical items versus information derived from people, the courts have
historically established that information obtained from physical items
usually reflect a higher evidentiary value. The investigator should
always remember that physical evidentiary cannot lie, it is not affected
by emotions and it cannot be impeached.
The investigator must be aware of the “Theory of Transfer”: when two
objects meet, some effect of that meeting can be established and verified
at a later time. An awareness and understanding of the theory will help
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the investigator navigate the sometimes complex investigative process
and hopefully curtail and/or prevent the inadvertent destruction or the
failure to recognise and preserve evidentiary material. This contact
between object includes people, things, or a combination of such. For
instance, consider the following basic examples as a result of an
automobile collision and the transfer of paint, broken glass, metallic or
plastic particles, or rubber, to another automobile and a pedestrian or
vehicle passenger, as a result of assault, a weapon that makes physical
contact with a person transferring blood, hair, skin or clothing fibres to
the weapon and/or the perpetrator, or the shape (impression) or the
instrument used as a weapon, left on an object or person struck, the
possibilities are potentially endless and can be a simple crime scene.
When an object or person, an investigator, a victim, a perpetrator or a
witness enters a crime scene, something is brought into the scene and
something is removed or taken away from the scene. Since investigation
is the process by which one seeks and ultimately finds answer to the
questions; when, where, who, what, how, and why, knowing that
information is the key that unlocks those answers, it is incumbent upon
the investigator to recognise, develop and maintain current productive
source of information. The investigator must know where to locate
information that is needed to successfully conduct his/her investigation.
One of the most crucial and obvious sources of vital information is the
crime scene. One must understand that not all investigations involve or
include an actual crime scene. Although most criminal acts begins and
end at some point and some where, a crime scene in the traditional
investigative sense, does not exist or is not practical or material to
locate, identify, preserve and process in certain criminal circumstances.
The investigator must remain objective and open to different
perspectives when conducting an investigation. He/she should follow the
facts wherever the facts may lead them and not to fix certain facts
towards a predetermined conclusion. One must always look beyond the
obvious and seek the truth.
Define the term investigation and explain the importance of information
in an investigation process.
3.2
Stages and Types of Investigation
What are the various stages and types of investigation?
The investigation of any crime scene may be divided into three stages.
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1.
A preliminary investigation or analysis.
The preliminary investigation is the first investigation in any case
or criminal case. The investigating officer, who in most cases is
the respondents to the call for assistance, usually initiates this part
of the investigation. The preliminary investigation begins the
moment an investigating officer (or first responding officer)
arrives at the scene.
Each department has procedures to follow during the preliminary
investigation, there may be subtle differences, and however the
errors that can occur during the start of an investigation can have
far-reaching effects as well as the future follow-up investigation
and can have a negative effect on prosecution.
Errors in preliminary investigation:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
76
Investigators not having solid description of a suspect and
patrolling officers have no way of looking for such
suspect. This can happen if the investigator puts out a
description before getting enough of the facts.
Not interviewing all witnesses and not taking all the
statement. Information considered insignificant by an
investigator might turn out to be the key bit of information
needed to solve the case.
Rushing to make arrest for the crime. If more than one
person is arrested for a crime puts the prosecution into
jeopardy because the defence can sometimes bring all the
wrongly accused people in front of a jury.
Not getting the names and information of all witnesses. A
follow-up interview is easier when able to find the
witness.
Loss of witness statement in the preliminary investigation.
All witness statements are needed so that much of the “full
picture” of the crime can be seen by investigators.
Not securing the crime scene in a timely manner. Securing
the scene as quick as possible can protect a lot of the
evidence from being lost.
Not turning over the investigation to the correct
department in a timely manner. If the officer who handled
the preliminary investigation gives the wrong division in
the case, that case could be lost. In addition, if the officer
does not file his report in a timely manner that case will be
looked at when the case is near cold.
Being rude to the witnesses will shut down
communication fast.
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2.
MODULE 2
Follow – up investigation
Errors do not belong to the preliminary investigator alone. Often
the preliminary and the follow – up investigator would be the
same person. Errors made in the follow-up investigation can be
connected with errors made in the preliminary investigation or
ones made all on their own.
i.
Not reading all witness statements before moving forward
in the investigation. By reading the statements, an
investigator can detect whether one of the witness was
more than just a witness, but somehow involved. Did his
or her statement match the majority of the other
statements? This could mean this person is the only one
telling the truth. So, investigator needs to proceed with
caution and not jump to conclusion about the person’s
statement not matching others.
ii.
Jumping to conclusions about what happened at a scene,
suspecting something and acting on it are two different
things. An investigator should never assume something is
true without probing it.
iii.
Bias in investigation. Investigators should never believe
one witness over another just because they are familiar
with one witness more than the other. Racial bias also
should not be allowed to make an investigator believe one
person over the other.
iv.
Not working with other investigators in a respectful way.
If the follow-up investigator does not treat the preliminary
investigators with a fair amount of respect, communication
will break down. The defence can use this to show
communication breakdown in information and get his
client off prosecution.
It is human to commit errors, but in the criminal justice system, they can
mean the difference between a conviction and dismissal of the charges.
Investigation when done correctly can almost eliminate all errors, but
recognising errors early can be very vital to correcting the errors before
they become a huge problem.
The next stage is a preliminary study of the important facts,
corresponding to the preliminary survey of the scene or event being
investigated which maps out its course but does not attempt to cover all
the details. It should be possible at the conclusion of the stage to form a
final judgement as to the scene or event.
Finally comes a detailed investigation of the scene of event, and of
numerous other factors with a view to making certain that no hidden
weakness exists.
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Types of investigation
There are various types of investigations these are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Background investigations - These investigations include data
gathering and record searches from various public and private
sources including courthouse records, and on-line databases.
These investigations are for the purpose of:
i.
Tenant applications for commercial or residential property
ii.
Employment application for pre-employment and internal
employment problems
iii.
Locating missing persons, witnesses and relatives.
Civil and criminal investigations: These investigations include
obtaining statements from witnesses, scene investigations,
evidence gathering, securing, analysis and expert examination.
The purpose can be for:
i.
Fire investigation
ii.
Low velocity impact investigation (LVT)
iii.
Accident investigations and reconstruction
iv.
Criminal investigations including fraud, theft
v.
Insurance claim investigations
vi.
Trail preparation
Liability and subrogation investigation
vii.
viii. Death claim investigations.
Assets and financial status investigations. These include the
following:
a.
Locating real property and tangible assets
b.
Assist in the recovery of debt, child support, and
judgements
c.
Information for civil litigation matters.
Video surveillances.
i.
Workers compensation claims
ii.
Disability investigations
iii.
Activity and neighbourhood checks.
Discuss the various stages of an investigative process.
3.3
Managing the Investigative Function
There is a school of thought which support the concepts that a good
manager needs not possess the technical skills of those being managed.
Where that approach may be valid in some or even many areas of
management, the concept proves invalid when it comes to managing or,
more precisely supervising investigators. The reason is that the very
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nature of the work demands far more freedom of movement, more
alternatives and more creativity on the part of the investigator.
The manager of an investigation unit performs five different roles, each
of which requires investigative experience. Such a manager functions as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
An investigative counsellor
An investigative trainer
An investigative controller
An investigative motivator
An investigative evaluator
The Manager as a counsellor
The manager acts as an investigative counsellor because the
investigative process is not a pure science, the investigator on
assignment-including the experienced investigator - needs the active
counsel of a knowledgeable person about where he/ she has been in the
case, where he is now and where he should go next. This counselling
activity is an in-depth and open exchange of ideas. It is exploratory,
creative and thought-provoking. It involves bouncing ideas off one
another and “off the wall”. It means bringing together totality of
yesterday’s experiences that should throw light on the direction of
today’s investigation.
This counselling role should not be misconstrued as one in which the
manager sits as the oracle of wisdom. He functions, rather, as a
participant in the discussion, one who can make significant contribution
by virtue of his investigation skills and experience.
The key to effective counselling is the process itself. It should be a
process that creates a climate that could materially contribute to the
successful conclusion of a given case. The following exchange
exemplifies this kind of dialogue.
Investigator: “The guy has simply dropped out of sight. He’s not been
seen or heard for over a year”.
Supervisor: “What about the last known resident? No request for
forwarding mail or information about a moving or storage van?” “No he
was in a cheap hotel, lived out of a suitcase.”
“Check for address changes at the department of motor vehicles?”
“Yes nothing.”
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Is he an ex-GI?
“Yes.”
“Did you check with the veteran administrator to see if he carried
national service insurance code and if the premium payment could give
a lead?’’
“I checked that. He does have an old $ 5,000 life policy with them but
no payments have been received since last year.”
“Could he be locked up somewhere?”
“Checked that too I know for a fact he’s not incarcerated in a federal
institution or in any of the neighbouring states.”
“How about a monastery, like that Trappist place in Lagos”?
“I didn’t check that but I really doubt it. He was too much of a party guy
and boozer. Yes, that gives me an idea. He drank big. He could be in a
state mental institution. Never thought of that before..........................”
In the exchange the manager is not giving advice in the strict sense of
the term. He is stimulating the investigator with question that, in this
example, led the investigator to discover a logical step he had not taken.
In some circumstances the counselling process may be advisory in
nature. This is simply another dimension of the process. The investigator
who has doubts about the wisdom of interviewing a giving witness, for
example, can have the benefit of his manager’s feeling. The essence of
the process is dialogue, involving the exchange of ideas and agreement
on strategy.
The manager as a trainer
You cannot teach a student the art of calligraphy, how to fly an airplane,
or how to wrestle until you the teacher, have first mastered those skills.
The same is true in teaching investigative skills. In his role as trainer the
manager has a number of options and contributions of options. Ideally, a
combination of all available options would be use, including the job
training with an experience investigator.
Direct involvement -The manager may personally conduct an
investigation from beginning to end, with the trainee working alongside.
As the case unfolds, step by step, the manager explains the why’s and
wherefore’s and answers question. The student thus learns the logic or
rational of the investigative process, and with the manager as teacher, he
or she learns the business the right way from the start.
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On – the – job training with others- A second training option is to assign
the novice to work with an experienced investigator for so-called “on–
the-job training. Although this is the most popular method of training, it
does have its drawbacks.
Classroom experience - Another form of training is the formalised or
structured classroom experience. Here, there is a wide variation of
possibilities from instructions given by the manager to instructions by a
number of seasoned investigators, each teaching in areas where they
have peculiar expertise, and even utilising an outside training consultant.
The manager as a controller
In the manager’s role as a controller there are four areas of concern;
organization and span of control, record expenses and equipment.
The manager as a motivator
Because most individuals in investigative work are or should be highly
motivated, managerial expertise in this area will best be demonstration
by what he should not be -a de-motivator. What can cause a motivated
employee to lose dedication and enthusiasm? To a great extent, such demotivation is the result of managerial style or practices that restrict the
investigator’s decision-making opportunities, emphasis criticism rather
than praise, take credit when that credit rightfully belongs to the
investigator and strict the investigator’s freedom of movement.
The manager as an evaluator
There are two common managerial errors found in performance
evaluations in investigation function. The first is the attitude or belief
that evaluation should be an annual event, usually preparatory to salary
reviews. The second is the error of rating the person rather than that
person’s performance. The effective manager recognises that evaluation
of each investigator’s performance is an ongoing process base on case
after case, and one that should be reviewed at least monthly. Objectivity
in evaluation is essential. The manager cannot afford to rate
investigators as personalities. Each must be rated on the basis of what he
does or fails to do - on performance.
Describe the attributes of an investigative manager.
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3.4 Essential Characteristics of a Good Investigator
An investigator is someone who gathers, documents, and evaluates
evidence and pieces of information about a particular incidence or crime
committed or about to be committed.
Basically, an investigator must adopt the rules and laid down principles
to solve the riddles associated with crime. Besides, the investigator must
also learn to construct hypothesis and draw valid confusions relatives to
the problem of when and how the crime was committed.
However, the investigator carrying out an investigation about a
particular event must know the following facts:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
That the confession of the suspect is not sufficient to prove his
guilt beyond all reasonable doubt.
That he must prove the suspect’s guilt or involvement in the
crime beyond all reasonable doubt.
That statements proved to have been recorded under duress are
enough to throw away the case and discredit the law enforcement
officers.
That unless an offence is shown to exist, there is little or no basis
for carrying out the investigation.
That the final test of investigation is in the presentation of
evidence in courts.
That the suspect or accused person remains innocent until he is
proved guilty by a competent court. In other words, the abundant
facts gathered in the course of investigation are not enough to
conclude that the suspect is guilty.
That investigation is not all about effecting arrest beating and
deforming the suspect.
That if a criminal charge is sustained, the person may suffer any
of the penalties authorised by law. This means that investigators
must evaluate information accurately and use sound judgement in
making decision to avoid an innocent person suffering.
That a plea of alibi does not deter the investigator from
investigating further he must necessary cross-check it to a logical
conclusion.
That feedback to the vetting officer or actions taken or about to
be taken is an essential factor in carrying out a successful
investigation.
The characteristics of a good investigator according to Nweke (2007)
include intelligence, mental and physical
fitness, integrity, honesty,
patience, courage, initiative, good sense of observation and adaptability.
However Swanson (2003) states that some investigators have a
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reputation for being lucky; meaning that good fortunes sometimes play a
role in solving a case. But to them, a lucky investigator is someone with
strong professional training and solid experience, who by carefully
completing every appropriate step in an investigation leaves nothing to
chance.
A successfully investigator should have the following characteristics:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
Has a strong degree of self discipline that is getting things done
even without the presence of a supervisor.
A user of legally approved methods and is highly ethical.
Has the ability to win the confidence of people he interacts with.
These
include the parties, the vetting officer, other
investigators and any other person connected with the matter
under investigation.
Does not act out of malice or bias.
Learns something from every person with whom they come into
contact, knowing that the wider their understanding of different
life styles, occupations, vocabularies, views and other factors, the
more effective he will be.
Includes in his final report, all evidence that may point to the
innocence of the suspect, no matter how unsavoury his or her
character is.
Realises that successful investigation is not always achieved in
application of the appropriate steps and therefore complement the
investigation procedure with his initiative and resourcefulness.
Knows that investigation is a systematic method of inquiry that is
more science than art.
Has wide range of contacts across many occupations.
Is not reluctant to contact or consult experts from many different
fields to help move the investigation forward.
Uses both inductive and deductive reasoning to his advantage still
knowing that they may sometimes be distorted by unattainable
inferences, logical fallacies, and failure to consider all
alternatives and biases.
Has the sensitivity and compassion to do his job without causing
unnecessary anguish e.g. when interviewing a victim of rape.
Avoids becoming callous and cynical from his constant contact
with criminals, keeping n mind that the criminal element does not
represent everyone.
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Explain the characteristics that a good investigator must possess.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have defined and explain the meaning of investigation, and also
looked at the scope. The various stage of investigation are also discussed
Errors normally made in preliminary investigation were also
highlighted.
The various types of investigations are mentioned as background
investigations, civil and criminal investigations, assets and financial
status investigations as well as video surveillances. How to managing
the investigative function within an enterprise was also discussed.
Finally the various characteristics an investigator should possess were
also listed and discussed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning and scope of investigation
by looking at the following aspects: meaning of investigation, stages and
types of investigation, managing the investigative function and the
essential characteristics of a good investigator.
6.0
i.
ii.
Define the concept of investigation.
Discuss the errors normally made by investigators in both
preliminary and follow-up investigations.
Outline the characteristics of an efficient investigator carrying out
an investigation.
iii.
7.0
Alofano, C.M. (2006). Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation. NY:
Worldwide Law Enforcement Consulting Group.
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar: Esltah Books and Press
Service.
Nweke, S.N. (2002). Principles of Crime Prevention and Detection in
Nigeria. Ebenezer Production Nig. Ltd.
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Strategies for the Security Professional. USA: ButterworthHeinemann.
Swanson, C.R. (2003). Criminal Investigation. (8th ed.). Boston:
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
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UNIT 2
THE INVESTIGATIVE PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives.
Main Content
3.1
Meaning and Objective of Investigation Process
3.2
Stages in Investigative Process
3.3
Investigative Process in the Private and Public Sectors
3.4
Importance of Investigative Process in Selected
Establishments
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor-Market Assignment
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is an investigative process? As earlier stated, an investigation is an
examination, a study, a survey and a research of facts, circumstances,
situations, incidents and scenarios, either related or not for the purpose
of rendering a conclusion of proof. When one investigates, he/she makes
a systematic inquiry, closely analyses and inspects while dissecting and
scrutinising information. An investigation therefore, is based upon a
complete and whole evaluation of events or scenarios.
As it pertains to any set up, the investigative process is organisationally
oriented as opposed to being community oriented. Its objective is to seek
answer to the basic questions - what, who, where, when, how and why regarding any condition, incident or action deemed organisational
objectives. Internal dishonesty, for example is an organisationally
unacceptable activity. The background investigation of a prospective
new employee would meet one organisational objective.
Most of the investigative processes involve the collection of
information. This information gathering is based on interaction and
observation. The answers to the six basic investigation questions will
develop communication. That is, the written or spoken word or by
observation i.e. physical evidence that can be observed (whether by
human eye or microscope), touched or in any way quantitatively
measured.
The various issues that will be examined in this unit and introduce you
to the investigative process include: meaning and objective of
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investigative process, investigative stages in the investigative process
and importance of investigative process in selected establishments.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
outline the structure of the investigative process
explain elements involved in the investigation process
differentiate between investigation in the public and private
sectors
state the objectives of investigation in some named organisations
mention the importance of investigation in some named
organisations
describe the categories of investigations.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning and Objective of the Investigative Process
•
•
What are the objectives of investigation?
An investigation is the examination, study, searching, tracking and
gathering of factual information that answer question or solves
problems. It is more of an art than a science. Although the person
engaged in investigation is a gatherer of facts, he or she must develop
hypotheses and draw conclusion based on available information. An
investigative process is a comprehensive activity involving information
collection, application of logic and exercise of sound reasoning.
The end result of an investigation is the factual explanation of what
transpired, if the incident or issue is history, or what is occurring, if the
issue is of the present.
The investigative process is not limited to the criminal justice and
security fields, it is an activity found in virtually all areas of human
endeavour. Academics are investigators, supervisors faced with
disciplinary problems are investigators and medical doctors are
investigators, just to name a few. Sherlock items with deerstalker hat
and magnifying glass may be the arts most familiar image, but
investigation does not belong exclusively to the realm of cops and
robbers.
Just as the art of investigation belongs to no one province, so no one has
all the answers as to precisely how any investigation can lead to the
desired solution. Too many facts are involved in the process of
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information collection, application of logic and sound reasoning. Some
of such facts include initiation luck, mistakes and often touted “gut
feeling”. No single textbook of formulas is possible, no single book (or
another) can stand alone as the ultimate authority. Our purpose then is
an overview of investigative concepts, strategies, suggestion, guidelines,
hints and examples that can be useful to any investigator.
There are two categories of investigation - constructive and
reconstructive. Constructive investigations are covert in nature,
performed in secrecy. This type of inquiry occurs while the suspected
activity is taking place or anticipated. An example might be an
investigation into a complaint that a member of middle management
solicits sexual favours. The purpose of the constructive investigation is
to determine if the objectionable activity is on-going.
Reconstructive investigations are necessary when an event has taken
place and investigations must recreate what happened after the fact. This
type of investigation is usually overt in nature, carried out in the open.
There are certain flaws that usually accompany poor investigationeither the investigator plans his investigation in a hurry or haphazardly.
These flaws are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
The investigator does not know how to record statements from
the parties to a case.
The investigator does not know what to do at a crime scene.
The investigator is deficient on how, when and where to collect
and keep exhibits in a case.
The investigator is not conversant with the necessary forms to use
in the course of investigation e.g. coroner forms and summons.
The investigator is not familiar with the requirement of the law
over certain case. For instance, that the offender cannot be
arrested without warrant.
The investigator lacks the courage and boldness to give evidence
in court in the case he has investigated.
However, there are no normative criteria for judging the success or
failure of an investigation on that matter, nor does a conviction of the
accused person necessary means that the investigation was conducted in
an intelligent manner.
The basic objectives of investigation process are:
i.
ii.
iii.
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To identify and apprehend the suspect (s)
To recover stolen and damaged property as the case may be
To establish that a crime was actually committed
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iv.
v.
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To recover items used in the commission of the crime
To assist in the prosecution of the person(s) charged with the
crime.
As an investigator, what factors will guide you to have a successful
investigation. Also outline the objectives of an investigative process.
3.2
Stages in Investigative Process
1.
Communication: Communication includes information received
from informants, information developed through interview
process, and information obtained in intermigrations.
Consider a simple example. A home owner hearing the glass of his front
window breaking runs to the room and commences an immediate
inspection to determine the cause. He observes a baseball lying among
the piece of broken glass. Sticking his head out of the broken window,
ball in hand, he shouts to a silent group of youngsters in the street
“Okay, you boys, which one of you did it?” As he asks the question,
simultaneously he observes that a boy named John is holding a baseball
bat. Based on the facts so far gathered he forms a hypothesis that John
strict the ball with the bat, causing the ball to enter the home owner’s
living room through the window.
Up to the point the home owner, in a natural investigative role as a
victim has had only the benefit of his own powers of observation in
forming his hypothesis. But now a couple of the boys in unison say,
“John did it”. The investigative process has advanced through
communication from informants “did you do it, John?” asks the home
owner “yes, sir” answer John, dropping his head. The question and its
answer are two other basic elements of communication-interrogation
and admission.
Ideally, as in this example, the investigation work is simplified if given
some direction by an informants, if witnesses are available and willing
to cooperate, or if a suspect is known and can be interrogated. Such
simplification is not to suggest that all is easy in the communication
aspects of investigation. Quite the contrary, developing informants, or
developing a climate in which employees or non-employees will
voluntarily confide in you, is not easy, it takes talent. The ability to
extract painlessly all the information a witness may have requires
training and experience. Only a skilful interviewer can get the specialist
to explain the workflow of the finance unit so it is comprehensible and
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understandable. Finally the ability to interrogate, to obtain voluntary
admissions and confessions requires a high level of skill.
The point to be drawn is that, communication, although not necessary
easy to manage is often extremely helpful to the investigative process.
Unfortunately, it is not always available. In such circumstances the
investigator must rely totally on observation, at least during the initial
phase of his inquiry, as he seeks to know the what, who, where, how and
why of a situation.
2.
Observation: Scientific technology, in such areas as
fingerprinting,
infrared
photography,
motion
picture
photography, videotape and document analysis, to name but a
few, plays a vital role in the observatory process of modern
investigation. Though sometimes, too much emphasis are placed
on technology and too little on man’s power of observation.
This is not to suggest that because new cars are too complicated, we
should return to the horse and buggy. It is to emphasise that the common
denominator of both the buggy and the car is to take one from point A
to point B. Total reliance on the car could lead to immobility if it break
down or gas supplies run short. In an investigation we want to get from
point A to point B, and we should be able to work, ride a horse, drive a
buggy, ride a bicycle or use any other means of transportation available
to us.
A far wider range of important information is available to us through our
own power of observation than through the use of a laboratory. To see,
to touch, to smell and to hear are all forms of observation. Did you ever
touch the hood of an automobile to determine if it had recently been
driven as evidence by its warmth? Did you ever mark the label on a
bottle of liquor to determine later if someone was taking unauthorised
sips? Such uses of the power of observation are as natural and common
place as eating and breathing. Consider the example of a woman
shopper who returns to her new car, parked in a shopping centre’s lot,
only to find a scratch, dent or ding in her car door. It is predictable
(natural a common place) that this unskilled woman will promptly
inspect the adjacent automobile to determine if any part of that car
reveals, at a height corresponding to the damage to her, any evidence of
paint fragments that would prove culpability-colouration of victimised
vehicle on suspect vehicle, or vice versa.
If, in fact, the power of observation is natural and commonplace in
investigative answer and solving problems, why is it that those who are
professionally charge with conducting investigations fail to understand,
fully appreciate and maximise such power? The answer perhaps can be
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found in modern technologies, which militate against our need to finetune our own faculties.
Just a few decades ago people had to rely on their own resources. We
hardly tap our capabilities because we do not have to. In our advanced
and sophisticated society, there is relatively little need to be observant.
Take the weather as an example. Today we have televised reports on
tomorrow weather based on the sophisticated use of satellite
photography. Whatever the weather service predicts, we accept. Yes,
even now, there are men and woman who can predict the weather with
remarkable accuracy by observing nature in the raw-by observing cloud
formation, density, colouration, direction, temperature fluctuations, etc.
divers and fishermen will tell you that on a calm day when all the
seagulls sit in the water, bad weather is coming fast-and their predictions
are at least as accurate as official forecasts. In terms of his observatory
skill, man is only as resourceful as his needs.
Consider life and death. “Natural birth” is currently out of vogue. In the
not too distance past, most births were “natural”. As for death, how can
the urban man or woman know the natural phenomenon when we live in
society where loved ones usually die in a medical facility and is
wheeled away while the grieving survivors are ushered out, and the
“remains” are not seen again until present for lying –in –state?
A historical example.
To illustrate the point that the power of observation is indeed powerful
and natural to man, as well as to engage in a preliminary investigation
exercise, lets us look back at an incident occurring a century ago during
the settlement of the American west. The careful inspection of a scene of
devastation left by marauding Indians would reveal evidence as to the
tribe or nation of the attackers, the approximate time of attack, the
escape route and much other valuable information. Through observation,
and observation alone, plausible answers might be obtained to the six
basic questions that make up the ageless formula or strategy of an
investigator’s quest to recreate or reconstruct the incident in question.
The accompanying map tells us part of the story (figure 1-1). Examine it
carefully. The incident is reconstructed through the answers to the six
basic questions.
1.
What happened? Two struggling wagons with a party of three
men, two women and five children were attacked by Indians. All
were killed with the exception of a female child about ten years
old. She was taken by the attackers. Death for the others was
caused by gunshot, arrow and lance wounds. Two horses, all five
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2.
3.
4.
arms, and as unknown quantity of foodstuffs were taken only one
POW was taken.
Who did it? An Indian party of not more than 20 braves, as
evidence by the hoof tracks of their powers. Arrows found at the
scene were distinctively Sioux in terms of shaft and fin
construction.
Where did it happen? On the Oregon Trail. Two days by
horseback east of fort Laramie.
When did it happen? Around daybreak on August 28, 2007.
Discovery of the massacre was made just before noon by six riders from
the wagon train returning to check on the strategies. In one fire pit a few
small, hot coals were found at the centre and bottom of the pit. A full
kettle of water sat near the fire pit, as though about to be placed over the
fire.
All nine bodies evidenced post mortem lively (blood in the dead body
all flows, by the force of gravity, to the lowest part of the body causing
permanent dark discoloration there). Rigor mortis had set in, detectable
in the jaws and neck of one woman and one child (Rigor Mortis
Commences on the average of three – to – six hours after death. In the
uppermost part of the body and continues long down to the feel. The
upper half of the body is usually rigid within twelve hours and the whole
body within about eighteen hours. The rigidity leaves in the same way it
commences- in the neck and jaws- and completely disappears some
thirty six hours after the onset).
The adults were all dressed. The four boys were half-clothed. Fresh
coffee grounds were strewn about the ground between one wagon and
the fire pit. The oxen had not been hitched. The quantity, location and
age of horse chips found, along with the presence of two saddles,
indicated that two horses belonging to the emigrants had either run off
or more likely been taken. The discovery of a doll and a small girls
soiled clothing, and the absence of a female child’s body indicated that
the girl was carried away by the Sioux. An examination of articles left
behind verified that everyone else in the emigrant party was accounted
for nine dead and one missing.
Spent cartridges confirmed that some defensive shots were fired, but
there was no evidence that an attacker was hit, at least seriously enough
to bleed in any quantity. The disarray of food containers and the absence
of any defensive weapons suggested to the observers that the attackers
quickly searched for food, weapons and munitions, seized the two
horses and the girl, and left at a gallop, as though frightened away.
Failure of the attackers to slaughter the oxen or torch the wagons
remains a mystery. All these occurred at around 6.00 am.
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How did it happen? The marauding party moving in an easternly
direction parallel to the Oregon Trail happened upon the stragglers
sometime around midday the previous day. In all probability the Indians
had watched the main wagon train and opted not to attack because of its
apparent strength. They rode east, parallel to the trail, apparently looking
for more vulnerable potential victims. Upon sighting the stragglers, they
reversed direction and rode parallel to the two wagons, unseen, some
800 yards north of the main trail.
At nightfall the Indians slept in a ravine no fire was made. Before dawn
the Sioux at fish in a troop, walked their ponies to within 299yards of
the wagons. The attackers then spread out, mounted and formed a single
line. The early morning fire silhouetting the unwary travelers must have
encouraged the Indians to attack. They rode hard down on their hapless
victims, veering into a clockwise encirclement and killed the obviously
unskilled emigrants with the exception of the girl who was carried away.
The actions of the Indians prior to and during the attack could be
determined by following their own sign. The tracks left by the galloping
ponies leading away from the scene bisected the tracks of a
corresponding party running parallel to the main trail but eastbound trail
were crested on the surface with some monster insides, suggesting they
were about twenty-four hours old. Following the eastbound tracks led
camped during the night, as evidenced by ground disturbances showing
the bunching of the ponies, where man had urinated and absence of what
should normally have been observable is also informative. At this camp
site there was no fire, nor food scraps, the latter detail suggests one
possible explanation for the attacks.
Why did it happen? Certainly a contributing factor to the attack was the
apparent need for food. What happened to the party’s normally source of
food could not be determined other factors such as the treatment of the
Indians by some settlers and the military, the issue of territorial
intrusion, and the question of ethnic antipathy – all this was orchestrated
together to bring out this small party of Sioux on a mission that was to
end in the dead of nine settlers and captivity for one.
The creativity process in investigation.
The foregoing experience may appear to involve a considerable amount
of creative imagination. That does not make it inappropriate just the
opposite. Be it reconstructive or constructive, the development of
information by communication or by observation, the entire
investigative process is as creative in nature as is it scientific.
Investigation is an imaginative process. Despite all of the modern
technological assistance available to the investigator and regardless of
what marvellous things machines and computers can do, for the
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successful investigator there is no substitute for the God-giving gift of
imagination and creativity.
Differentiate between reconstructive and constructive investigation.
3.3
Investigative Processes in the Private and Public Sector
What is the major fundamental different between the investigative
processes in the private and public sector?
The fundamental difference between the investigative process in the
public and in the private sector is the objective. The primary objective of
investigations in the public sector is to serve the interest of society. If
those interest are bests served by removing or otherwise punishing those
who commit offences against the public good, then the reconstructive
method of investigation is used when the purpose of investigation is not
inhibit and suppress criminal activity-prostitution and gambling are two
examples- then constructive, covert techniques are employed.
The primary objective of the investigative process in the private sector is
to serve the interest of the organisation, not the society as a whole. If
that interest is best serve by removing or otherwise punishing those who
criminally attack the organisation, or whose performance in any way
defeats or impedes organisational goals, the reconstructive strategy is
used where the conduct is a matter of history. Where the conduct or
activity is ongoing, constructive, covert techniques must be applied.
It is interesting to note that what serves the best interest of the society
may not necessary serve the best interest of the organisation, and vice
versa. For example, the society’s interests are protected when an
embezzler is prosecuted and sentence to prison. There are occasions,
however when the embezzler, having banked all his loots would be
happy to return the stolen funds in order to avoid prosecution. Such an
agreement would be unacceptable in the public sector. A seasoned
private sector investigator, on the other hand, is not primarily concerned
with prosecution and sentencing. Recovery of the loot might be a more
important achievement, better serving the interest of the private
organisation.
More often than not, investigations in the private sector that deal with
criminal behaviour result in serving the public sector’s objective as well
as the organisation’s despite the fact that there is a fundamental
difference in the perception of the crime. Where in lies that perceptual
difference? It comes from differing view of the victim. The public
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investigator sees society as the victim; whereas the corporate
investigator sees the organisation as the victim.
More specifically, forgery detectives in a metropolitan police force
consider forgers to be a general menace to the community. Investigators
of a banking institution or credit-granting company regard the forger
whose target is their organisation as a very real, immediate threat to the
financial stability of the organisation. From the viewpoint of the private
investigator, forger must be stopped not because he is breaking the law,
but because he is damaging or victimising the organisation.
Different perceptions and different objectives have a direct impact upon
the strategies and the character of the investigative process in the two
sectors. Public investigators are usually armed, while private
investigators are unarmed. Other interesting differences that invite
compassion require more examination.
Source of authority and funding: The public investigator represents the
sovereignty of government, whose authority is vested in constitutional
and statutory law. Its efforts are financed by public funds, replenished
through taxation. The private investigator represents management, with
some authority derived from statutory and case laws. The same authority
is offered to any citizen such as the power to make arrest under certain
conditions, although that power and authority are unknown to most
private citizens. In addition, it may be delegated authority from
company management.
Source of information: In the public sector, there are relatively few
limitations to such information as criminal records, government records
and files at municipal, county, state and federal levels. On the other
hand, there are accelerated limitations to private access to public
records.
Job security: Most investigators in the public sector are in the civil
service system with clearly defined job security, and a growing number
joining the ranks of organised labour as well. The private investigator
has reasonable job security (as opposed to the unreasonableness of some
civil service and labour contracts) provided by the organisation’s person
policies normally, part of a labour bargaining entity.
Scope of unit: Public investigators tend to specialised in specific areas of
concentration, depending on the agency, department or assignment.
They are burglary detective, forgery detectives, chemical detectives,
state or federal narcotic investigator, immigration investigators etc.
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Private investigators tend to be “generalists” although some specialise in
such areas as forgery or fraud when employed by finance and credit
companies. They are generalist not only in the sense of working across
broad spectrum of business and commercial interest, but also in the
attendant need for wide ranging information and intelligence.
Image:
Public investigators can command immediate respect and
attention based on the colour of authority, generally supported by
impressive credentials, such as badges. Although inherited, such
authority must continue to be earned to maintain that favourable image.
Although many in private outfits have attempted to copy their public
cousin’s credential, an ever-growing number recognise that respect and
attention are rightfully based on demonstrated intelligence, effective
interpersonal skills, and a genuine concern and respect for others.
Civil liability: Public investigators are relatively free from civil actions
that result from day-in and day-out activities. Civil action filings, if they
occur at all, usually follow only extremely aggravated incidents. In this
respect government agencies are not as tempting a target as, for example
utility company.
In the private sector, investigators are relatively vulnerable to civil
actions as a result of exposure in their daily work, irrespective of
culpability. An investigator who interrogates an employee on
documented evidence of dishonesty can easily expose the company to an
unfairly labour practise suit slander or libel suit, or to charges of false
imprisonment or malicious prosecution.
Once on the job, the public investigator attends publicly funded schools,
classes, or academics, saucily or high quality, from basic in-service
traversing to advanced and specialised courses, depending on the area of
specialisation. Just a few short years ago, investigators in the private
sector invariably came from governmental agencies. The public sector
was the training ground. College curriculums rarely included courses in
investigation. This situation has been changing of rapidly.
Technical resources: Officials in the public sector are able to call upon
an extensive arsenal of such technical resources as questioned document
examiners, company laboratory facilities and fingerprint classification
specialists, to name jus a few. Within the private sector, the investigator
has limited access, if any at all, to such publicly supported resources. He
must seek out and assume the cost for any such services. The fractional
effect of this difference is that the private investigator simply cannot
assess the same resources freely.
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Professionalism: such agencies as the Criminal Investigation
Department, the Federal Bureau of Investigation have attain a high level
of professionalism, both in fact and in profile, by virtue of their
reputation, known standard and visibility through the media (both in
fractional entertainment and news reporting). To a lesser extent this is
true of other law enforcement agencies at the state and local level.
Perhaps the epitome of investigative professionalism is the homicide
detective in a modern metropolitan police force. In general, the premises
that criminal investigators in the public sector are indeed professional, in
every sense of the words, goes relatively unchanged- and rightfully so.
The same is not as universally true in the private sector. Investigators in
the area are too often thought of in terms of private eyes and
commercially available detectives who handle skip- tracing cases or
develop evidences for divorcé hearings. The general public and, for that
matter, many investigators in the public sector have little awareness of
appreciation for the corporate investigator.
Career path; In the public sector investigative agency- the FBI, for
example- the entry level position would certainly include pure
invectively responsibilities. In a generalised agency, such as a police
department, the position of investigator is a promotional and relatively
low in organisation structure, at the rank equivalent to sergeant; from
detective or investigator then to a management level position. This
means as an investigation officer there is room for promotion. In the
private sector, there is a more pronounced trend towards moving talent
up into the investigative position as a part of the individual development
and growth.
The goal is usually administrative as opposed to
investigative, although some individuals may choose to make a career of
investigative work consequently, high-ranking position in the private
sector are normally filled by men and woman with investigative
experience. In contrast, high ranking positions in a police department are
often filled by men and women who have never worked exclusively as
an investigator.
Assistances: Few investigators, public or private, develop a vacuum.
The very nature of the investigative process involved calling others for
information or assistance.
In the public sector, irrespective of departmental and jurisdictional
rivalries (which do not exists), the exchange and flow of information is
really, if ever denied the investigator. It is an unwritten rule that one
investigator will share information and assist another if such assistances
is sought.
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With regards to the assistance provided by informants, it has often been
said that success of any detective in large measure rests upon him or her
sources of information. Tips are provided by those seeking favour or
tolerance – prostitutes and drug addicts, for example – by spurred or
jealous lovers seeking revenge, and by a lot of other sources, anonymous
and otherwise, acting from a variety of motives, all desirous of seeing a
culprit caught. To a lesser extent, monetary rewards also generate
information.
The use of informants in the private sector is another matter. It is
unusual for employees to inform on their fellow workers. Few people
wish to become involved. More often than not, a customer shopping in a
store who witnesses a theft will not report that theft, the typical reaction
is to look the other way. Nor does the private investigator have the same
“leverage” that a police officer can use to encourage informants to talk.
Personal achievement: Without question, all investigators experience a
real sense of achievement when a criminal is taken into custody at the
successful resolution of a case, especially if the investigation has been
lengthy and difficult bearing in mind however that the real objective of
criminal prosecution in the public sector is the successful prosecution of
the offender. It must be recognised that there is high (and rising) level of
frustration for investigators in this area.
The work of the investigator can bring little lasting satisfaction when, as
happens all too frequently in the present climate, trial court decision are
reversed in the appellate courts. And if the appellate reversals based on
liberal interpretations of the law do not bring frustration, wrist slapping
sentences handed down by the court will do it. The reward of
satisfaction for the professional investigators must be found in the
investigative process being the means and not the end. To bring a case to
a conclusion, identifying the suspect and causing his incarceration- even
if only temporally brings a sense of personal achievement (and helps to
preserve sanity), even if the final result fails to accomplished the
ultimate objective.
Because the stated objective of the investigator in the private sector lies
in the protection and general welfare of the organisation, such downthe-line possibilities as unsuccessful prosecution, light sentencing,
appellate reversals or even failure to indict, although certainly
disappointment to some degree, do not bring anything like the level of
frustration commonly experienced in the public sector why the mere
exposure and eradication of a gang counterfeiting corporate instruments,
for example and the destruction or seizure of their means of continuing
production, genuinely satisfy their goals.
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Discuss the differences between private and public sector investigative
process.
3.4
Importance of
Establishment
Investigative
Process
in
Selected
Investigative process plays a major role in the comprehensive survey of
assets. In today’s competitive business world, both individual and
commercial entities are faced with variety of challenges or difficulties.
For instance, research on the competitors in your industry can help you
out-performing the competition and makes a correct and advantageous
decision.
Investigative process helps in background checks. Background checks is
one of the most important steps to take, it is suitable for inquiring about
the status of an individual or commercial entity. It is usually needed
when hiring senior employees or better understanding the background of
a prospective partner, a thorough and targeted check can definitely assist
you in making important strategic arrangements.
Investigative process helps in intellectual property rights protection.
Counterfeiting problem is becoming rampant and there is a huge
demand for intellectual properly rights protection around the world.
Infringement of copyright, patents and trademarks not only causes
significant material loss to the corporation also badly damage the
corporation’s reputation. The damage is dramatic and inmeasurable.
Mention the importance of the investigative process.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed the meaning and objectives of the investigative
process, as well as its definition. We went further to describe the various
stages of the investigative process and it implications.
Differences in the investigation process in both private and public
sectors were also mentioned. Finally the importance or relevance of
investigations in some establishment was also highlighted.
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5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning and objectives of
investigative process, stages in the investigation process, as well as
investigation in the private and public sectors. The importance of
investigative process was also outlined.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
What is an investigation process?
Discuss the stages of an investigative process.
Outlined the differences between public and private sector
investigative process.
7.0
REFERNCES\FURTHER READING
Brandstatter, A. F. & Allen, A. (2000). Fundamentals of Law forcement.
Gene, B. (1990). The Private Investigator. Los Angeles: Security World
Publishing Co. Inc.
James, G. O. (1980). Criminal Investigator. Ohio: Merrill Publishing
Co.
Kinee, K.B. (1994). Practical Investigation Techniques. Florida: CRC
Publishers.
Moenssens, A. J. & Strarrs, C. (1995). Scientific Evidence in Civil and
Criminal Investigation. Westbury. N.Y.: Foundation Press.
Sennewell, C .A. (1998). Effective Security Management. Los Angeles:
Security World Publishing Co. Inc.
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UNIT 3
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Undercover Investigation
3.2
Surveillance Investigation
3.3
Background Investigation
3.4
Discovering Covert Crimes Method of Investigation
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor- Marked Assignment
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What are the various methods of carrying out an investigation? There
are several methods of gathering information and usually all or a
combination of the methods is used. An investigation therefore is based
upon a complete and whole evaluation of event or scenarios. These
investigative skills and method are essential to a potential investigator.
The various issues that will be dealt with in this unit, so as to introduce
you to the various method of investigation are the undercover method of
investigation, surveillance method, background method and discovering
covert crimes method.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
list the various methods of carrying out investigation
explain the methods of investigation
enumerate the importance of surveillance in investigation
differentiate between the various methods of investigation
apply various techniques of investigation within a crime case.
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3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Undercover Method of Investigation
What are undercover investigations?
Undercover investigations are essentially intelligence or “spy” operation
within any given area or unit of a corporation. As such, the investigation
is definitely covert in its nature and operation. Effectively, no one
should know an investigation is in progress other than those directly
responsible. The obvious advantage of an undercover operation is that it
gives management an accurate picture of what is happening in detail on
a day-to-day basis in the organisation. As a rule, management does not
really know what is going on in line units. It relies on supervision to
keep superior officers apprised. Obviously, dishonest supervisors will
not report on themselves or their subordinates.
Another invaluable aspect of this covert activity is that the undercover
investigator is in the position not only to observe dishonesty but also to
participate in it, along with all other employees who have chosen to
become involved.
Undercover investigations may be conducted on a random basis or they
may be undertaken with specific targets. Example is when there is
information or suspicion of dishonesty in a given area like in a shipping
company. Random assignments are simply tests of work areas. If
dishonestly exists in that area, it will be discovered.
The objectives of constructive or undercover investigations in the
private sector are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
To discover internal dishonesty.
To identify all parties involved in the dishonesty activity.
To identify the organisational, operational or physical failure that
contributed to or permitted the dishonesty to occur.
To purge the organisation of all guilty employees.
It should be clear that undercover investigations in the private
sector focus on internal operations involving employee’s conduct
and performance.
Techniques and methods
1.
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Penetrating for job placement: A very important aspect of the
undercover operation is the need for the investigator, agent or
operative to assume a false identity in the work force. To all
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2.
3.
4.
MODULE 2
intents and purposes, the agent is an impostor, posing as a janitor,
assembler, stock man, etc.
Reporting: An undercover investigation should submit a
handwritten report for each shift worked. Typewritten reports are
not satisfactory and handwriting provides some protection against
forged, altered or fictitiously prepared reports. Each report should
be signed and dated.
Concluding the case: The duration of a typical undercover
investigation is usually measured in terms of weeks, and the
undercover agent’s effectiveness at a successful conclusion of the
case.
The issue of entrapment:
Undercover investigations and
entrapment are two processes closely intertwined in the minds of
most people, so linked that separation is quite difficult, if not
impossible, for some to perceive. But entrapment is easy to
understand when one reflects on the process of planting seeds in a
garden. Entrapment is the process where one person plants the
seed of an idea to do wrong in another person’s mind. For
example, two warehouse dock employees Charlie and Roy are
working on a Saturday with their supervisor, Mr. Morgan.
Charlie is an undercover investigator. The facility is normally
closed on Saturday. This is an overtime assignment for the three;
all the other employees are off duty. At which time Morgan
decides that he would like fried chicken and French fries. He asks
the others if they would take the same and volunteers to go get
their hunches from a nearby fast-food franchise. Charlie and Roy
agree. Rather than walk through the building and leave by the
authorise door, Morgan decides to take a shortcut to the parking
lot. He jumps off the dock, unlocks the gate that is part of
security enclosure around the receiving area, and leaves that gate
open for his return.
Charlie watches Morgan’s car disappear down the street, he then jumps
and approaches Roy and says, “Morgan won’t be back for another
twenty minutes. Why don’t you pull your van over here and we’ll both
get ourselves a colour TV set no one will ever know the difference’?
Roy thinks the idea is a good one and the theft of two TV set occurs.
Here Roy was the victim of entrapment. Charlie the undercover agent
planted the seed of crime in Roy’s mind by suggesting the idea. Roy’s
“garden” or mind was devoid of the idea of stealing.
SELF –ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the principle behind undercover investigation.
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3.2
Surveillance Method of Investigation
Surveillance is an integral part of the investigative process. It is the
visual monitoring of a location or individual to determine what activities
or conduct are occurring. This visual monitoring is accompanied by a
log or a diary –record of what is occurring within the surveillance
picture. The log provides a documented chronology of what was
observed.
The surveillance may be stationary, moving or a combination of both. It
may also be covert or overt, with an objective of detecting the
commission of a crime or serious policy
violation, gathering
intelligence, preventing a crime, or all three. And surveillances may be
conducted by the human eye or by means of electronic and mechanical
hardware.
Covert vs overt surveillance
There is a useful rule of thumb in determining the difference between
covert and overt surveillance. Covert surveillances are normally
detection-oriented whereas overt surveillances are usually prevention.
Surveillance by human eye
Wherever practicable and possible, surveillance should be conducted by
the human eye, without the use of any device or hardware save
binoculars. There is no substitute for the total comprehension afforded
for observer-in terms of detail, clarity and dimension (depth of field) –
when he or she personally view the scene of an unfolding event. In
addition, there is the interpretative value of the human mind where the
observers directly witness an act or event. Most surveillance
films
cannot stand alone. They require some interpretation.
Visual surveillance devices
Despite their limitations, surveillance cameras, in particular video
cameras with time-lapse recorder are unaffordable in a number of
situations, not the least those kinds of cases where it is impossible to
conceal an investigator to conduct the surveillance. Another advantage
of cameras is that they allow a multi-location coverage with one
operator monitoring all locations, either simultaneously or in any
sequencing pattern of switching from one location to another.
The camera’s eye is effective in providing general information – who is
entering a given door, who is receiving, goods through a dock door, who
is within a security – controlled work area etc. For very specific or
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detailed information the camera has short coming. In one investigation
of thefts from a payment processing unit in which employees opened
customer’s envelopes containing statement heads and payments (not
always in the form of bank checks), the camera was unable to detect the
actual theft. It did however; indicate to the investigator which employee
was stealing by showing her suspicious behaviour and funny movement,
which eventually led to her capture. The camera’s deficiency in recalling
specific details, in this particular case included such puzzle as this: Did
the subject put a customer’s white envelope into the pocket of her work
smock, or was that a white handkerchief or a note.
The surveillance log
The recording of what a surveillance observes can be by voice on a tape
recorder or handwritten. If it is taped, the notes must be transcribed at a
later date. One advantage of the handwritten notes is that they are
immediately available. There is nothing fanciful or special about the log,
its purpose is no more than to record briefly what is observed and when.
The stationary surveillance
Stationary surveillance position may be fixed on permanent short term,
or very temporary.
Fixed surveillance- Fixed or permanent surveillance positions are design
or constructed into a building or any structure, allowing for the visual
monitoring of a given location within that building according to need.
Example, fixed positions over the back office of a cash counting room.
The fixed positions themselves may be designed or so unconstructed
that only very alert or trained eye would defect them, or they may be
conspicuously obvious.
Short term surveillance- Short term surveillance is for specific
problems-solving situation. Position selected might include rented
houses, apartments or rooms affording a view of targeted position.
Very temporary surveillance-Very temporary surveillances can last
anywhere from one half -hour to two weeks (at the outside), depending
on the circumstances. They must be conducted, for example, from
adjacent building rooftops or office windows, with the owner’s
knowledge and permission, often on the basis of reciprocity should the
need arise.
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Hardware used in stationary surveillance
Hardware that can assist in stationary surveillance work includes:
telephones specifically installed for the case, two way radios, 35mm
cameras with telephoto lenses, 8mm or 16mm motion picture cameras,
video cameras with record (regular speed time-lapses) binoculars,
tripod-mounted telephones, and “Jeri rigs” or improvised device limited
only by the imagination.
Improvisation can be an important part of the investigation’s art, as two
examples may suggest one is a trigger device activated by a string
attached to the sliding door of a boxcar. When the boxcar is entered at
right, the string is pulled, turning on a small, unobstructive light. The
thieves are unable to see that light, which signals that a crime is in
progress.
The moving surveillance
Moving surveillance are by far the most difficult to achieve and the most
vulnerable to discover. The objective of a moving surveillance is usually
that of determining an unknown location-where the subject lives, works,
plays, conduct affairs, disposes of stolen goods, meets others, etc. Once
the location is known, then, other strategies, including stationary
surveillance can be used to get other details connected with that
location.
Moving surveillance can be accomplished on foot (especially in
crowded urban areas) or by means of bicycle, motor bike, motorcycle,
automobile, public transportation. Any means that is available and
practicable can be used, as long as it enables the investigators to follow
the subject to a location the knowledge of which is germane to the
investigation.
There is risk in the moving surveillance, as in any covert surveillance its discovery by the person or persons being followed. Such discovery
called “burning” can have disastrous consequences for the investigation.
It may cause the subject to destroy or otherwise dispose of evidence, to
discontinue criminal activities before the case can be fully developed, or
to suspend those activities temporarily only to resume them with a
whole new set of strategies. The trick then is to avoid discovery. The
following are some suggestions to minimise the risk:
i.
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On foot surveillance, keep several people between yourself and
the subject being watched. Watch the subject from the waist
down, especially the legs and feet.
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
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With public conveyance surveillance, never sit directly behind
the subject. Sit several seats ahead of the subject, on the same
side of the vehicle, as long as there is no way for him to exit
behind you unobserved. Absolutely avoid eye contact with the
subject.
In auto surveillance, whenever possible, have two or more
vehicles involved in the surveillance, with voice (radio contact
capability).
Use female investigators as drivers as well as riders.
Follow as far back as distance, traffic, road design and express
way existing in a less reactive manner.
Do not follow in the same lane in which a subject is driving, that
lane tend to be more “blind”. With multiple vehicle surveillance,
a decoy vehicle can follow the target relatively closely. When the
subject make a change on direction, turning left or right, the
decoy should continue straight ahead. The intent of this
manoeuvre is to cause the subject, if he is at all suspicious of a
tail, to enjoy a false sense of confidence that he is not being
followed.
Moving and stationary surveillance
When the decision is made to place an individual or group under
combined moving and stationary surveillance, such a determination
obviously indicates the need for a very intensive and comprehensive
investigation during which every move of the subject must be recorded.
This in turn suggests 24-hours-a-day surveillance, the jargon for which
is “put ‘em to bed and get ‘em up”.
Those recommendations made for moving and stationary surveillance
separately apply as well when the two methods are used concurrently.
Different personnel however should be assigned to each type of
surveillance.
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe the various techniques used in surveillance method of
investigation.
3.3
Background Method of Investigation
Why is it necessary to have background investigations in many
establishments?
No investigative function serves the best interest of any corporate
organisation more than the employee screening process- the background
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investigation. Cases demanding investigative expertise come and go day
in and day out. But despite the importance or magnitude of any given
case, the humble background investigation remains pre-eminent in its
overall importance.
Screening applicants through the pre-hire investigation, and new
employees by means of post-hire investigation, is loss prevention in the
purest sense. Loss prevention begins internally with the subject.
Pre-hire investigations: Ideally all background investigations should
be conducted prior to the project in question, example job offer. As a
practical realty, however, there are a number of conditions that militate
against the ideal. A prompt or timely job offer many times captures
highly desirable candidates (those who appear on the surface, at least, to
be highly desirable)
The heart of an effective pre-hire investigative procedure would be
creation, maintenance of and referral to a master alpha indices (index)
file. This is a negative base reference source, containing the names of
dishonest or otherwise undesirable individual known to the organisation
conducting the investigation. Past experience verification is major
component of pre-hire investigations, which is the screening process.
A primary component of the entire screening process is the verification
of past experiences for example employment profile. Key questions that
must be answered are the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Was the applicant in fact employed by the organisation claimed?
If so, was the applicant employed for the period of time claimed?
Was the applicant employed in the capacity claimed? For
example, if the applicant claims supervisorial responsibilities,
was he indeed a supervisor?
Did the applicant leave the organisation for the reason stated?
Is the applicant eligible for re-hire? If not, why?
Were the applicant’s earnings as claimed?
In pre-hire investigations, the above questions can usually be answered
by a telephone conversation with a responsible official of the past
employer, such as a personnel representative. If the applicant is known
to the organisation – that is, not in the negative indices file – previous
employment has been verified, and the applicant has been recommended
as eligible for re-hire, the chances are that the applicant is not a high
risk.
Other areas that can usefully be explored in the pre-hire (or post-hire)
investigation include, but are not limited to the following:
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Does the applicant have a criminal record?
Does the applicant have the skill or education claimed?
Is the applicant financially responsible?
Does the applicant have a general reputation for honestly and
good moral behaviour?
Does the applicant have good health, or the health that he or she
claims?
The expanded dialogue or discussion would include such questions as:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
What was the original criminal charge?
Was the offence involving moral turpitude?
Does the crime have any relations to, or in any way impact on the
position being sought by the applicant?
The ultimate hiring decision would be based on the merits and
circumstances of the individual case.
The neighbourhood check
Neighbours and landlords often know a great deal more about a person
that might be suspected. They are familiar with an individual’s comings
and goings, his sensitivity to others, his predilection for noisy parties,
his drinking habits, his morality, his standards of home maintenance,
care for the yard or for automobile, and so on.
How does the investigator overcome this kind of problem? By giving
the interviewee away is to provide an option. The investigator should
avoid boxing the person in by requiring for example, a “yes” or “no”
answer to question. “Would you recommend John for a position with
our firm?” instead the question should provide option. The investigator
might say “we are considering John for one of two positions. One is
highly sensitive, with a great deal of responsibility which of the two
would you recommend John for”? This gives the interviewee a palatable
way, of saying that John is not a good candidate or he is a good
candidate.
Post-hiring screening
Once the applicant is an employee, the post-hire screening activities
must be finalised as quickly as possible within the organisation’s
probationary period. Irrespective of how thorough the pre-hire
investigation have been, two important steps are still required. The first
is the careful inspection of the bond or bonding form for content. The
second and most productive is the comparison of the bond form to the
application form.
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SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
State the importance of background investigations to an organisation.
3.4
Discovering covert crimes method of investigation
You may want to ask yourself what are covert crimes in investigations?
Criminal conduct, in most cases, is all too apparent. The corporate
victim, like the individual who is attacked is usually aware of the crime
and its consequences.
The list of overt crimes is endless, common among them are burglary of
a warehouse, an extortion attempt involving threats of life, a fire
purposefully set in the workplace, the rape of an employee departing late
in the parking facility, the robbery of a cashier etc. Even when
accomplished in stealth, such crimes are quickly known. They call for a
reconstructive investigation as a response to an historical event. There
are also a great many criminal act, most of a larcenous nature, and other
forms of unacceptable behaviour that are so subtle and surreptitious in
nature that the crime or offense often goes undetected, and its
consequences are not immediately apparent. Some, in fact are never
known with any degree of certainty.
Such covert crimes have a number of characteristics that set them apart
from overt crimes against the organisation. Those characteristics are:
a.
b.
c.
They are committed by persons considered trustworthy.
The acts tend to be ongoing in nature as opposed to a single,
spectacular incident.
Some of the acts tend to be shrouded in uncertainty i.e. was it
intentional or was it an error? This last characteristic is one of the
chief problems with covert crimes. For example, consider the
case of a retailer who buys 100 bottles of perfume. After an
inventory he determines that he has ten bottles left in the stock.
Sales records however show that he sold eighty-five bottles. Five
cannot be accounted for, were they stolen? Did a crime occur?
What happened to the missing bottles?
There are a number of possible explanations for this single common
place situation.
i.
ii.
iii.
110
The shipment was short in the first place.
Sales people opened some bottles as samples for customers to
smell.
Someone broke bottles in an accident but was afraid to report the
loss.
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
MODULE 2
The bottles were shoplifted by customers.
They were stolen by employees.
They were overlooked in a multiple item as sold.
They were given away by sales persons as commission who was
trying to please known customers in the hope of after sales. They
were intentionally given by sales persons to friends or relatives.
When this range of possibilities is extended over the activity of the
entire organisation, it becomes clear that the problem of exposing and
properly identifying covert crimes is enormously complex. Obviously, a
number of investigative strategies must be practiced in order to surface
covert activity. Because of the range and diversity of activities in the
private sector, it is impossible for any list of strategies to be all-inclusive
or even notably comprehensive. The strategies discussed should serve as
a sound basic list. They may also serve as stimulant to the more
enterprising investigator, prompting his adaptations and creative
variations. These fundamental strategies include the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
Deployment of undercover agents in the work force.
Taking physical inventories
Refund letter circulation programme
Daily audit of sales registers
Checking continuity of register transaction numbers
Integrity testing
Bank cheek reconciliation programme
Cash counts
Exit interviewing
Cheeking for “ghost” employees
Vendor verification
Intelligence surveillance
Physical inspections
Use of suggestion box or award programme
Odometer checks
Shoplifting surveillance.
Deployment of undercover agents: Undercover investigation by covert
agents can always be done through internal intelligence-especially
through undercover investigation.
Physical inventories: There are essentially three types of inventories;
the first is the annual or semi-annual inventory, which should be a
normal operating practice in any organisation. It involves taking stock of
supplies, materials, equipment or goods on hand. The second type is
physical inventory of goods, such as narcotics in a health service or
hospital environment. Any variation, shortage or overage should arouse
suspicion. The third kind of inventory is clandestine, where specific
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items are secretly counted and, after a designated period of time, again
subjected to a secret verifying count.
Refund letter circularisation programme: In those organisations
where customers are given refunds, a document must be generated by an
employee that reflects the amount, date, reason for the refund, and full
name and address of the person receiving the refund. A letter
circularisation programme is an ongoing strategy designed to verify
refunds.
Daily audit of cash registers: Among other things, a cash register is an
adding machine that totals the day’s receipt-all receipts both cash and
charge. Unless registers are audited daily, thefts may go undetected. The
proper audit process requires that the cash be counted by someone other
than the person working. Independent auditor adds the charges and
compares this to the total sales. The sum of the charges and the
independently counted cash receipts should be equal to the register tape
total.
Cheeking register transaction numbers: Most cash registers are
designed to imprint transaction numbers chronologically, usually in
terms of up to 4 digits. In other words, the register tape imprints the
number of the transaction each time the register is activated, 1 to 9, 999
in sequence. Missing numbers will immediately suggest manipulation
and dishonesty.
Integrity
testing: The most common and hard-to-detect method of
theft from the cash register is for the dishonest employee simply to
accept money from customers and fail to record it on the register. One
way to detect this type of theft is integrity testing, commonly known as
“shopping”. Investigators hired for this purpose pose as regular
customers making normal purchases. At the same time they are able to
observe cash register practices.
Cash counts: There are three types of cash counts, all of which are
necessary parts of an effective accountability procedure. The first and
most commonly used count is one in which the responsible party is
obliged to count regularly and record the amounts of funds under his
control. The second is the surprise count, usually an internal audit type
of activity. The last and the one that interests us most is the secret count.
Exit interviews: The right kind of exit interview may surface
dishonesty or other conditions unknown to the organisation. What is
referred to here is not the customary final interview usually conducted
by a personnel employee, but rather a multiple page from that asks a
number of questions about supervision, working conditions, treatment
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on the job, what needs correcting etc. such an interview has the potential
of identifying such problems as favouritism, time-clock violations,
spurious accidents, safety hazards, even dishonesty. The trick is to get
the departing employee to be frank.
Checking for “ghost” employees:Ghost employee is simply a nonexisting employee for whom payroll checks are issued and cashed. A
number of ghosts can haunt an organisation. One might be a fictitious
name and identity.
There are two ways to cheek for this type of fraud. One is to have an
independent person, such as an internal auditor accompanied by
someone from security, intercept the checks at the point of generation.
The auditor then distributes the checks to each employee in person,
perhaps even requiring signatures of the recipients.
Physical inspectors: Physical inspections constitute a potential gold
mine of investigation. The power of observation for the investigative
process can reveal discrepancies that are criminal in nature.
Suggestion box and award systems: Suggestion box and award
programmes can be a valuable source of information for the potential
investigator. Employees generally know a great deal about what is going
on within the organisation including illicit activity. A variety of such
programmes have proved effective in exposing dishonesty by providing
a structured vertical communication system. Such programmes should
provide assurance of confidentiality or, if necessary anonymity for the
informant.
Shoplifting surveillance: As shoplifting is a covert crime, the action of
the sneak thief, so is its detection a covert strategy. It is a very difficult
strategy to learn and practice. Good shoplifting investigators, more
commonly referred to as either detectives or operatives are hard to find.
In shoplifting surveillance, knowledge of techniques used by the
shoplifters is as important as the detective’s own strategies. Some
detection strategies are as follows:
i.
ii.
iii.
During the continuous surveillance of a suspect, the detective
must see the selection of the item to be stolen.
After the shoplifted item has been selected, the detective must
know exactly where it is.
The investigator must ensure that the stolen article is not disposed
off before an arrest can be made. This is the most difficult post of
the detective’s job.
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iv.
Covert pursuit
interruption.
and
surveillance
must
continue
without
What are covert crimes? How can they be investigated?
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have death with methods of investigation. The various investigative
methods have been listed and discussed as undercover investigations,
surveillance investigations, and background investigations.
We went further to discuss the various techniques in this method and
their applications in discovering crimes. Finally some covert crimes
were listed and discussed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed what investigative methods are,
undercover investigations, surveillance investigation, background
investigation and covert crimes investigation. Their various investigative
techniques were also highlighted.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
Mention four investigative methods.
Discuss two investigative methods of detecting crimes,
Outline some covert crimes prevalent in the society.
7.0
Alifano, C.M. (2006). Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation. NY:
Worldwide Law Enforcement Consulting Group. Inc.
Nweke, S.N. (2002). Principles of Crime Prevention and Detection in
Nigeria. Ebenezer Production Nig. ltd.
Kiinee, K. B. (1994). Practical Investigation Techniques. Boca Roton,
Florida: CRC Publishers.
Swanson, C. R. (2003). Criminal Investigation. (8th ed.). Boston: Mc
Graw–Hill Higher Education.
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MODULE 2
UNIT 4
APPLYING INVESTIGATIVE STRATEGIES
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Identifying Suspects: The “Who” Of Investigation
3.2
Finding Information: The:”Where” of Investigation
3.3
The Time Factor: The “When” of Investigation
3.4
Crime and Solution: The “How” of Investigation
3.5
Establishing Motive: The “Why” of Investigation
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
One important aspect of police activities which helps to boost morale of
both the general public as well as law enforcement agents is success
achieved in bringing offenders to account for their wrong doings
through the application of various investigative strategies.
The arrest and successful prosecution of offenders undoubtedly depend
on thorough investigations. Therefore, the need for good and thorough
investigation cannot be over-emphasised. A badly investigation case is
“dead” before it get to the prosecutor, who at that stage, had to work
miracle in order to prosecute the case to a successful conclusion.
The various issues that will be examined in this unit will introduce you
to the application of investigative strategies. These include the “who” of
investigation, the “where” of investigation, the “when” of investigation,
the “how” of investigation and finally the “why” of investigation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
define investigation strategies
outline various types of investigative strategies known to you
explain the, who ,where, how, when and why of investigation
apply investigative strategies in finding information and
identifying suspects
mention the importance of investigative interview.
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3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Identifying Suspects: The Who of Investigation
How do you start an investigation?
This section introduces you to the “who” of investigation. Investigation
is a very inexact science which we must nonetheless approach as a
science.
The first of the basic questions in investigation is directed at establishing
who is responsible for a given act. It should be understood that there are
many other questions of identification that might be asked in any
investigation.
Who can be trusted to keep the inquiry secret if confidentiality is need?
Who can provide technical information or assistance? Whom should the
investigation be assigned to? Who might know who did it and be
willing to inform? Considering the type of investigation, who might be
the most effective interrogator after the responsible party is caught?
But the most important and popular question asks, who is the
responsible person, or culprit? After determining what happened, which
is usually (though not always) apparent, all minds immediately
commence the speculative process designed to discover who could have
done it. In identifying suspects through the who investigation, the
following process are followed:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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The process of elimination - If it is a murder case, the first step is
designed to eliminate who did it. This process of elimination is
applied until only a few of suspects- or preferably one- is left.
Reading the physical evidence- In some cases, either through
chance or circumstance, the elimination process is not necessary.
A proper reading of the physical evidence will point the
investigation toward the offender.
Finding the physical is always the first part of the investigator’s
challenge. He must also be able to interpret the significance of
what he finds.
The investigative interview - Often the available physical
evidence alone is insufficient to point to the “whom” of an
incident. In such case, the investigator track down every possible
detail that might be relevant. One of his tools is the careful and
thorough questioning of any person or persons affected, whether
victim or witness, as the following case illustrate.
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A case of kidnap and rape
Late one evening investigator x received a call from a house mother, the
resident manager of one of the girls dormitories at Government College.
When the investigator arrived, there was a campus police unit as well as
a local city police unit in front of the dormitory. Both units advised x
that a campus unit had been requested and the city unit had acted as a
backup. When they reached the scene, they were informed by the house
mother that a girl had been raped, but the manager had refused their
admittance into the dormitory.
One inside the building had a brief conversation with the reported victim
about what had happened. Although she seemed to be in a state of shock
or near-hysteria, he told me that she had gone to the basement of the
building where one washer and dryer were located to do one load of
washing. When she pushed through the double swinging doors of the
washroom, she was startled to see a young man standing there
brandishing a knife.
According to the girl’s story, the attacker forced her to crawl out of the
basement through an open transom window. He followed her out. After
climbing over the wall that surrounding the area of the dormitory, she
was forced into the back seat of a four-door bus. There she was trussed
up, lying on her stomach while wrists and ankle were bound behind her
back. With the girl helpless on the floor of the car, the man drove up to a
nearby mountain, there he raped her.
After the attack, he drove back to town, releasing the girl at the
intersection closest to the dormitory. She could not get in because it was
past lockout time.
Immediately after this initial interview, x had the girl transported to the
hospital for:
i.
ii.
iii.
A vaginal smear for evidence of semen
A medical douche
Medication to calm her.
Before she left x told her that they would meet again in the morning
with the local police to talk more.
After the girl left, investigator x examined the scene of the alleged
attack, carefully inspecting the basement area, flying on the floor just
inside the double swinging doors we a box of detergent, some of which
had spilled on the floor, two quarters, and a few items of intimate
apparel. Nearby was an open transom window, beneath it was a bench.
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While standing on the bench, x was peeped outside and saw footprints
on the flower bed.
At the hospital the following morning, a representative of the police and
x sat with the girl to get more details about her experience, the report of
the doctor had confirmed that there was a seminal deposit. The girl
described her attacker. During the course of the questioning a number of
details were gone over carefully. She had been wearing a “baby doll”
nightgown when she went to the basement, a sheer, loose, short-sleeve
pullover top with matching briefs. She did not attempt to run, even
though she was out of the building first through the transom, because
she was afraid. She scaled a six-foot wall although she probably could
not do it again. She had no idea what kind of car was involved. She did
not fight or resist the man because he threatened her. While up in the
mountains, the attacker at first had tied her wrists to separate trees, her
arms stretched out in a spread-eagle position. Later he had untied her,
and she admitted that during the drive back to town, he had left her
untied and sitting up on the front seat of the car.
It became apparent that the police representative was sceptical of her
story. He became aggressive in his questioning. To my question she
admitted that she was not a virgin. On my part I continued the interview
with the belief that she was telling the truth. In interviewing a victim or
witness, it is important to get every detail possible. In searching question
about the suspected rapist, x asked the girl to recall everything she
remembers. When the investigator left the girl at last he had a
considerable amount of information about the “who” of the case.
The search in this case was complicated by the fact that the police were
of the opinion that no crime had in fact been committed. They believe
that the girl had been out having fun and was caught by the dormitory’s
lockout policy. So, to protect herself against any disciplinary action, she
contrived the kidnap and rape story.
Later, on continuous investigation, John was picked out of a police line
up as the assailant by the victim of his attack. Before the day was out,
John admitted the abduction and rape of the girl. He was convicted for
his crimes and sentenced accordingly.
In seeking to identify the “who” of a case, remember to:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
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Eliminate those who could not have played a part in the incident.
Collect and analyse all available evidence.
Look for relationships between evidence and possible suspects
Where possible, obtain the assistance of law enforcement.
Make full use of available information sources.
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(6)
(7)
(8)
MODULE 2
Do not jump to conclusion or pre-judge the case
Make full use of the investigative interview
Persist, persist, and persist.
Outline the steps to be taken in order to identify the “who” of an
incident.
3.2
Finding Information: The “Where” of Investigation
In attempting to determine who was involved in a crime or incident
under investigation, the emphasis is on the search for identity. When
attention turns to the question of “where” in an investigation, the
emphasis is one of discovery. The question of “who” is people-oriented.
The question of “where” is location-oriented.
As with the first question, there can be a number of location questions
that might be relevant to a given case. Where is the offender? Where is
the evidence? Where are the fruits of the crime? And where can
information be found that will assist in the investigative process?
Locating individuals, physical evidence or stolen goods, when they
cannot be discovered through the routine of physical search is often a
matter of knowing where to look for the right information.
The investigator knows where to find information he needs, just as an
effective lawyer knows where to search for case law. Sources of
information are all around us, some may be so conspicuous and familiar
that their potentials are not realised.
Sources of information in the private sector investigation
There are various sources of information in the private sector
investigation.
In seeking to discover the “where” of an investigation, the investigator
will familiarise himself with the wealth of files and records in nongovernmental sources containing information pertaining to persons and
companies. Personal records are equally accessible, but a great deal of
information is available.
1.
Banks: Saving account can provide information regarding the
balance in the account dates of deposits, whether deposits were
made in cash or by check, and amount of deposits. Amount and
dates of withdrawals are also on record. Checking account
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contains the same information regarding deposit plus check
activity, including the number of checks written during a given
period, to whom and for what amounts.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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Loan companies: Loan application reflect employment data,
primary income and other sources of income, property owned and
its location , state of indebtedness in terms of amount and to
whom owned, and variety of personal and family data.
Other utility companies: Application for water, power and gas
services will reveal some personal information on subscribers, as
well as where they had previous services, when services
commenced and a history of usage. Most utility companies
maintain records by address, so occupants of a given address can
be identified except for rental property where the landlord pays
the utility bills.
Real estate offices: The records of realtors will include the asking
and selling prices of a given property, names of seller and
purchasers, amount paid, name of the mortgage company holding
the first real trust and description of the property.
Hospital: Hospital records contain patient information, including
their treatment and medical histories with that particular facility
as well as insurances data and other personal information.
Schools: Schools records include the name and address of every
student, with date of birth and place of birth, personal data on
each student will include name and address of each parent, the
parent’s occupation and place of employment, whom to call in
the event of emergency, family doctor’s name and number.
Colleges and universities: In addition to personal data found in
schools, college and university records may provide such
information as extracurricular or off-campus affiliations and
activities, academic objectives, grade points average, major field
of study, financial status of the student, work history while
attending school and yearbook with student photographs.
Information sources in local government: Government agencies
at every level often seem to be in the business of collecting and
maintaining files and record of every description. While privacy
limitation may restrict access to some personal information, most
matter of public record are available to anyone. Municipal and
records useful to the investigator include the following sources:
tax collector, building department country recording welfare
department etc.
Information source in state government: Various state
departments maintain voluminous files on individuals and
corporations. Many are either open to inquiries by ordinary
citizens or will provide information for a small fee. In addition to
the specific officers and department noted here, most states have
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a regulatory relationship over vocations such as doctor, dentists,
athletes, pharmacists, barbers, optometrists, veterinarians,
chiropractors, embalmers and nurses. Personal data would be
available in these and other vocational files.
Other department that may supply information include secretary of state,
controller, department of agriculture, motor vehicle, etc.
i.
ii.
Why is information necessary to an investigator?
Enumerate sources of information an investigator can use.
3.3
The Time Factor: The “When” of Investigation
The “when” of investigation process is obviously time-oriented. The
question seeks to isolate and identify a significant time factor, be it a
time before or after known event, a span of time between known events,
or specific time.
Known time can eliminate possibilities e.g. a bus could not make it from
the east side of town to the west side in ten minutes. It can also eliminate
suspect e.g., when the fire started Joseph was on his day off.
Furthermore, the determination of when an offence occurred or is
occurring gives direction to the detection strategy. If money is being
pilfered from a given location regularly, for example it simplifies the
investigation to determine that the pilferage must be occurring between
5.00 a.m and 7.30 a.m.
With regard to criminal offenses, the entire issues of the statute of
limitations revolved around the time factor. The perpetrators of the time
be identified and moved against within one year after the commission of
the offence (the general rule for petty or misdemeanour offence) or
within three years (the general rule for major or felony offences).
Consequently, if the discovery of crime takes place months or years
after its commission, the task is to prove that the offense occurred within
the period specified under the statute of limitation.
In citing examples and case histories, both actual and hypothetical, there
have been number of references to the time factor. In many of these
examples, the times determined are only approximate.
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1
Placing the hand on the Reveals the car has recently been driven
hood of a car
if hood is still warm.
2
Horse chips
The degree of hardness tells when
horses passed this way.
3
4
Coals in centre of fire
Post mortem lividity
Reveals when the fire was last fed.
Reveals time of death.
5
6
Rigor mortis
Sap in tree
Helps determined time of death.
Suggest when the branch was broken.
7
8
Damp side of stone
Shows when stone was disturbed.
Dry clothing of suspect Reveals amount of time suspect has
when is raining
been inside the store.
9
Cash register
chart”
“plot Established when employees could not
have committed thefts, based on the
time factor.
Just as much energy and imagination may be expended to determine the
significant time factor in an investigation same also are devoted to
determining who did it. And again, as in other aspects of the
investigative process, much can be achieved through the application of
common sense and the power of observation.
Methods of establishing time
1.
2.
3.
122
Self- evident time: Perhaps a classic example of establishing the
precise point in time when an incident occurred is the case of the
smashed watch on the wrist of the dead driver of a vehicle which
careened off a mountain road, an accident unobserved. More
often than not there is no way to determine the precise time.
Surprisingly, there are what might be called self-evident time
indicators. The evidence speaks for itself.
Significant time variations: Relevant considerations of time can
frequently be determined by noting a variation in an established
process or pattern of activity. Theft of money is a typical problem
in the work environment, whether the victim is the company, an
employee or just a client or customer. Usually, the discovering of
a loss requires an immediate assessment of when the theft could
have occurred. Determining the factor is usually a key to
identifying possible suspects.
Determining time by incidental documents: The time determined
by an examination of incidental documents.
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4.
Determining time by events: Many events play an important role
in our lives. These events tend to be time benchmarks. They may
be daily events, if the focus is on recent time, or they may be an
annual nature, such as Christmas or one’s birthday. The effective
investigator is able to use event to help establish the time factor
when it is relevant.
5.
How to pre-establish time: A number of steps can be taken prior
to the occurrence of any incident that will help to establish the
time factor when something does take place that requires
investigation.
In any alarm receiving hardware, or in any access control
programme, add or modify the system so as to receive hard
copies showing the time of breaks or passages.
Use sealing devices to secure objects like envelops, packages,
entry ways, vehicle compartments or storage areas. Inspector of
the seal when the items is sent and again when it is received
should show the seal intact. If it is damage you know the damage
occurred enroute.
6.
7.
Why is time factor necessary in investigator?
3.4
Crime and Solution: The “How” of Investigation
There are two primary questions of “how” in the investigative process:
how was the crime or act accomplished and how can the crime be solved
or the culprit be caught? Both questions deal with strategy; the strategy
of commission on the part of the criminal and the strategy of solution or
correction adopted by the investigator.
To some extent, the detection strategy is often dependent on the strategy
of commission, that is to say, you cannot catch an embezzler until you
know how the embezzler is diverting funds. It does not automatically
follow, conversely, that once you know how the crime was committed
you will know how to solve it. The crime and solution remain separate
issues, despite the fact that one must follow the other.
How was it accomplished? (commission strategy)
The investigative effort to determine how some act was achieved is
either exploratory in nature, such as exploration by trial and error,
seeking to physically re-create the crime or action, or it is inspectional in
nature. The latter approach may involve an examination of all steps or
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processes, looking for loopholes that could logically explain or prove
how the deed was accomplished.
In general, the investigative effort at this stage is reconstructive.
However, it may be necessary to use convert or construction means.
Developing the “how” by exploratory means just what the word
suggests: systematically searching, probing, looking, tracking down
every piece of evidence and following up every lead to see where it
takes you. It means trying to put yourself in the criminal’s shoesliterally following in his footsteps.
The case of the locked house
A fellow employee and executive of the company, though not connected
with security organisation was the victim of a residential burglary. Over
the weekend his home had been entered and quantities of his personal
property were removed. There was no evidence of forcible entry, police
came to the house, examined the premises and make their official report.
Along with victim, the police theorised that one of the two doors to the
house must have been inadvertently left unlocked. Two weeks later the
executive, who lived alone, returned to his house after spending the
night with friends, only to find that the place had been burgled again.
This time more property had been stolen. Again, there was no evidence
of forcible entry.
Since there was question about a door being left unlocked after the first
experience official theory this time was that the burglar must have let
himself in with a key. Considerable time and effort was expended in
tracking former residents of the house, two single girls, and it was
discovered that they had lent the key to the house to one or more
boyfriends. While this possibility was being investigated, the executive
called in a locksmith and had both door locks changed, shortly
thereafter, the house was burgled once more, this time while the owner
was out of town on a business trip.
By now the executive was alarmed. He began to suspect that close
friends might be making imprints of his keys in wax, clay or even on
paper and knowing his schedule, were letting themselves into the house
with a newly cut key made from the impression. He was becoming that
desperate. The issue, of course was more into the home than who was
doing it.
Although the matter was under police jurisdiction, I wanted to help a
company executive if I could. The problem was affecting his work; I
wanted to see if I could get in by slipping the locks, by climbing a tree
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MODULE 2
and entering an attic vent, or in any other way gaining entrance, other
than force or causing visible damage.
I started at the front door, attempting to slip a pliable plastic card
between the edge of the door and the strike plate to push on the edge of
the door, thus disengaging the lock. I could not slip the lock. The door’s
hinge pins were on the inside and not exposed. Had they been
accessible, I would have looked for evidence of their removal, which
would have allowed the door to be opened from its hinged side.
I worked my way counter-clockwise around the house I noted dirt
smudges on the stucco siding below the kitchen window. The only
logical explanation for dirt to be ground into the stucco was that
someone had his shoes against the side of the house. The kitchen
window was of the louvered kind, horizontal slates of glass that fit into
metal sleeves. The panes or slats can be rotated outward to a horizontal
plane to allow ventilation, or closed to a near-vertical plane. Close
examination of the glass louvers revealed fingerprint smudges on every
one.
I removed the slats from the sleeves of the frames and by placing my
foot on the exterior of the house, at the same height as the dirt smudge I
had seen; I was able to hoist myself up and through the window.
Satisfied, I left the house the same way I had entered. I replaced each
slat and rotated or pressed them down to the original closed or vertical
position.
I told my amazed associate, “That is how our burglar friend comes and
goes.” He said he had wondered why, following one of the burglaries, a
house plant next to the kitchen sink and the louvered window had been
tipped over; now we know how the crime was being committed. That
knowledge offered direction for the next step, which could have been to
stake out the home from the inside in order to apprehend the burglar or
to correct the weakness in the physical barrier of the home.
Developing the “how” by inspectional means
In attempting to discover how a crime was committed, it is often
possible to use inspectional analysis. The investigator must examine
internal procedures and practices of the company’s operations,
examining them for any weakness that the criminal might have taken
advantage.
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How can the crime be solved? (Solution strategy)
In many cases the strategy of commission suggests the strategy of
solution. There is this concept of allowing the strategy of the crime’s
commission to suggest the strategy of solution. In assessing these and
the various other possible strategies that would apply to a given case, the
investigator should consider the following factors:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
If a given solution strategy fails, would it expose the investigative
efforts?
Which solution strategy would put the suspect at the greatest
disadvantage once caught?
Which strategy is the simplest in terms of manpower
requirements, technology, and the need for solicited equipment?
Which strategy would take the least time to implement?
Which would be the least expensive?
The question of “how” in its twin aspects-the strategies of commission
and solution-obviously plays an important role in the investigative
process. The way an investigator answers this fundamental questions
will be a direct reflection of his overall performance and investigative
skills.
Discuss the strategy of commission and solution in solving a crime
situation.
3.5
Establishing Motive: The “Why” of Investigation
In dealing with the question of “why” in the investigative process, we
find ourselves in the intriguing as well as controversial area of motive.
Motive is the logic or reasoning which constitutes the very cause of a
criminal act or misconduct. Investigator must have better than average
sight into human behaviour and motivation. However, there is a point
beyond which the investigator should not attempt to tread. As an
example, one easily understood motive is the narcotic addict’s need for
money to support his or her habits, resulting in the theft of company
funds. That is an apparent or implied motive. Why the person uses
narcotics to begin with, involves a much deeper examination of
motivation by psychologist or psychiatrist than the investigator.
Another dimension to the consideration of motive can also be
troublesome. That is the ultimate value of motive to the investigation.
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In Fundamentals of Law Enforcement, Brandstatter and Hyman state, “It
is almost always necessary to determine the motive for a crime for a
successful prosecution. In addition, determining the motive can be an
effective first step in discovering the identity of the criminal or
innocence of a suspect”
The emphasis on motive is particularly questionable as it pertains to the
crime of theft. We have talked to hundreds of people who have
committed theft, including trusted personnel and almost all of them have
offered a satisfactory explanation of why they did it. Too much weight
can be attributed to motive. It is desirable to know why an employee
stole property. It can make the whole investigation more
comprehensible, perhaps it could very well be helpful in preventing
similar thefts in the future – but it is not essential.
Determining the motive can be an effective first step in discovering the
identity of the culprit. Answers to “why” can lead to ‘who”. Brandstatter
and Hyman also state, “Motives are often uncovered by determining
who benefited from the crime”. That is to say, “who” can leads to
“why”. Again, there can be both interest and importance for the
investigator to know the motive. We have some troubles with the degree
of importance attached to know why when we already know who,
particularly in the private sector where there is administrative bottleneck
as well as judicial. It is nice, even helpful to know why, but better to
know who.
Motivation and detection strategy
There is a clear and important value to the investigator in the private
sector in understanding motive as well as knowing who committed a
crime when the motive can be used in the detection or apprehension
strategy.
Motives for theft
Psychologist cites three factors that commonly motivate individuals to
become dishonest: need or desire, rationalisation and opportunity.
1.
Need or desire as motive: Motivation that come under the
category of a perceived need or desire may originate in a problem
the individual sees as unshakeable or unsolvable. The problem
may be financial, stemming from gambling indebtedness, a drug
dependency, living beyond one’s means or an extraordinary
expense for the family such as cancer treatment. It may be a
personal problem such as an extra-marital affair, an unwanted
pregnancy or alcoholism.
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The need may be more purely psychological, prompted by such
problems as kleptomaniac or menopause disorientation. Some thieves
steal from a need to appear successful, or even out of worthy motives
with no desire for personal gain, such as a need to help others. The
desire finally may simply be the result of a calculated choice to take
rather than to earn.
2.
Rationalised motives: The thief who rationalises his actions
manages to convince himself that stealing is not really wrong.
Common rationalisation includes the following:
i.
It’s all right to steal because what he takes was going to be
thrown away.
ii.
It’s all right because he is only borrowing what he takes.
iii.
It’s all right because he is underpaid and deserves what he
is stealing.
iv.
It’s all right because others are doing it successfully and it
would be stupid not to engage in the same thing.
v.
It’s all right because the owner (organisation) is so big that
what is taken will never be missed.
vi.
It’s all right because the boss steals-and if he can do it then
so can the little man.
There is, of course no real limit to the number of excuses that can be
found to justify an action, however wrong.
3.
Opportunity as motive: opportunity does not of and by itself
constitute a motive to be dishonest, or to steal. Many people have
countless opportunities but never steal. Rather, opportunity is a
necessary element in theft and must exist in conjunction with one
or more of the impulses categorised here under need or desire or
rationalisation.
Hidden motives
The real motivation for an incident can be different from what appears
to be the obvious. The terrorist’s desire for publicity may mean more
than the need to cause damage or reap monetary gain. Even an action
that appears to be an open-and-shut case of robbery may result from
more obscure and complex motives.
Motive and response
Sometimes the “why’ of an incident can help the company or
organisation or individual targeted to react or response more effectively.
Bomb threat, an all too common hazard faced by states and institutions
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today, are a good example. The extent of the response to the threat bears
a direct correction to the perception of the motive for it.
The process of investigation essentially involves information collection
and, through the application of sound reasoning, analysing that
information to answer questions or solve problems that bring loss to the
organisation.
Through such basic techniques as undercover investigation,
surveillance, background and the variety of internal strategy that may
expose convert crimes, the investigation focuses on specific acts or
individuals. Additional procedures are used to build a case, including
interviewing suspects and witnesses, the analysis of physical evidence,
obtaining statements of confessions and information gained from
clandestine sources such as informants.
All these efforts are directed toward answering the fundamental
investigation questions - the who, where, when, how and why of a crime
or incident. The investigator will ferret out and follow up every
conceivable piece of information that might be useful in identifying who
was responsible for an incident. To do that successfully he must know
where to look-where to find information. He will seek to narrow the
scope of his inquiries by limiting and defining the time factor. In solving
a crime, his investigative strategy is often dependent on finding out how
the crime was committed. Again quite often learning who was
responsible for a given action requires an understanding of human
motivation, determining why the crime was committed.
In accomplishing this, the investigator must be imaginative and
resourceful. He must be tireless and determined. He must understand
people, and he must be able to apply logical reasoning. The work is time
is time-consuming and frequently tedious-but it is also a challenging
work of deep personal satisfaction to those rare men and women who
bring to it the resources of skill, effort and character that make a
successful investigator.
Enumerate some motives behind a criminal act. Discuss two of them.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have dealt with the application of investigative strategies or
investigative skills. We also discussed and answered the fundamental
investigative question as the “who” “where”, “when”, “how” and “why”
of a crime or incident. The investigator will follow-up every conceivable
piece of information that might be useful in identifying who was
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responsible an incident. To do this successfully, he must know where to
look-where to find information. He will narrow the scope of his
inquiries by limiting and defining the time factor. Quite often, looking
for who was responsible for a given action requires an understanding of
human motivation - determining why the crime was committed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the application of investigative strategies
by looking at the following aspects, identifying suspects i.e. the ‘who”
of investigation, finding information, i.e. the “where” of investigation,
the time factor, i.e. the “when” of investigation, also crime and solution,
i.e. the “how” of investigation and finally establishing motive, i.e. the
“Why” of investigation.
6.0
i.
Explain the following terms in relation to conduct of an
investigation:
•
The “what”
•
The “who”
•
The “why”
•
The “where”
•
The “when”
•
The “how”
What is the importance of an investigative interview? Illustrate with a
given case.
7.0
Charles, E. O. (2001). Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation. U.S.A:
Springfield Thomas Publisher.
Donald, O.S. (1999). Criminal Investigation Techniques. UK: Gulf
Publishing Co.
Ewoh, U. R. (2000). Introduction to Criminal Investigation. Port
Harcourt: Minson Publishers.
Iwara & Christopher, E. (2008). A Practical Guide to Criminal
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar: Essttah Books and Press
Services.
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MODULE 3
MODULE 3
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
THE CRIME SCENE
Scene of Crime
Electronic Crime Scene Investigation
Types of Crime Scene and Powers of a Crime Scene
Investigator
UNIT 1
SCENE OF CRIME
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Crime in Relation to the Scene
3.2
Component of Criminal Investigation Activities in the
Crime Scene
3.3
The Scene of Crime
3.4
Crime Scene Photography
Conclusion
Summary
INTRODUCTION
What activities surround the scene of crime?
Scene of crime is about the first place a crime investigator would visit
on the receipt of a report of the commission of crime. Evidence is
always present at the scene of any crime or offence. Whether or not the
evidence is found is another matter entirely.
If the evidence is not found, that may be due to poor investigation,
ignorance, careless or inadequate search, faulty or improper protection
of the scene.
One of the most important aspects of securing the crime scene is to
preserve the scene with minimal contamination and
disturbance of
physical evidence. The initial response to an incident shall be
expeditious and methodical. Upon arrival, the officers(s) shall assess the
scene and treat the incident a crime scene. The initial responding
officer(s) shall promptly, yet cautiously, approach and enter crime
scene, very vigilant of any persons, vehicles, event, potential evidence
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and environmental condition. The initial responding officer(s) should
note or log dispatch information (e.g. address/location, time, date, type
of call, parties involved.)
The various issues that will be examined in this unit that will introduce
you to crime scene includes the meaning of crime in relation to the
scene, components of criminal
investigation activities, crime scene
photography and the scene of crime.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define a crime scene
explain the activities surrounding a crime scene
describe the principles of crime scene photography
explain the components of criminal activities in a crime scene
state the duties of a crime investigator at a crime scene
outline the characteristics of a good crime scene
state the importance of note-taking at the crime scene.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Crime in Relation to the Scene
This section introduces you to the meaning of crime in relation to the
scene, as well as what constitutes a crime.
When mention is made of the term “crime” what really comes to mind
is an ill or wrong within the society. It could be an act of commission or
an omission. However, different authors render different definition of
what crime is. A notable scholar in Nigeria defines crime as a wrong
which affects the interest of the community as a whole, and for which
the offender is punished.
Crimes consist of the commission of act which is forbidden by law, or
an omission of an act where the law prescribes a duty. Chamelin and
Evans (1987), defines crime as a public wrong. They further define it as
“an act or omission forbidden by law for which the state prescribes a
punishment in its own name.”
As indicated in the forgoing definitions, a crime could be committed by
an individual or group of individuals, but the society is at loss with
crime, the state finds it obligatory to prescribe punishment against such
acts or omission that is considered as crime. For an act to constitute a
crime, there must be an element of independent decision or voluntary
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MODULE 3
action and intention. This brings us to the next definition of crime.
Pursley (1977), defines crime as “a voluntary and intentional violation
by a legally competent person of a legal duty that commands or
prohibits an act for the protection of society. Point to note in this
definition is “voluntary” and “intentional” violation of a forbidden act,
for the welfare of society and the person concerned. Not everybody has
the capacity to commit crime. For a person to be qualified to commit a
crime, he or she must be competent: at least he must be within the limit
of law. For example, boy of five years cannot be said to be competent.
Furthermore the Dictionary defines crime as “offence which is
punishable by law”. And the question may be asked: what is an offence?
Offence is defined by the criminal code as any act or omission which
renders the person doing the act or making the omission liable to
punishment under the criminal code (law).
In conclusion, we may sum up our definition of crime in relation to the
scene of crime, as a wrong which by its own nature affects the interest of
the state, of which the state being aware of this prescribes punitive
measures against it. Such wrong that constitutes a crime could be in the
form of acts of omission or utterances that is likely to injure another.
Crime is the major subject that attracts the attention of everybody in this
chain or segment of criminal investigations process. Crime provides
relief as well as pains. To the criminal, it provides relief, because
through it he or she actualised the dream of doing something or
possessing an object of interest.
To the victim, it is painful, for through it, he or she is deprived or
injured and to the police or investigator, it provides a source of duty
because after a crime the police go about looking for its actors and why
or how they did it.
Define “crime” in relation to the scene of crime.
3.2
Components of Criminal Investigation at the Crime
Scene
The main factor at the scene of a crime is the crime itself. It is the main
factor that attracts all others. The remaining three segments revolve
around it. It has a direct relationship with each segment of the process.
First, it has full and direct bearing with criminal because he or she
initiates it. Secondly it reaches the complainant or victim as pain and
disasters, so that through it the criminal relates with the victims and the
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victim with the police or investigator. This is so because there must be a
crime before people go to the police. And still, the police linked with the
criminal through the crime being the initiator and executor of any crime.
The police are always out there to look for criminals. When arrested,
they are dealt with as stipulated by the law, so that through the police or
investigators, crime, its initiators/executors and its victim are linked to
the judicial process for justice.
A careful and detailed analysis is as follows.
Criminal
Suspect
Accused
Convict
Criminal
Justice
Process
Crime
Victim
Complainant
Investigator
or
Police
The criminal
Behind every crime, there is a human being and that human being is the
criminal. A criminal is the person who is guilty of having committed a
crime. It is the criminal who invites the crime, in terms of thinking out
ideas, and initiating actions aimed at executing the crime. The act of the
criminal brings injury into the complainant who promptly goes to the
police. Discovering who the criminal is, where he is, and how he
carried out his nefarious act is the object of criminal investigation,
otherwise known here as crime scene investigation. There are some
terms that have to do (relates) with the crime scene. These are suspect
accused and convict.
a)
134
Suspect: A criminal could be a suspect if facts concerning his or
her involvement in a crime are not certain or not yet available.
Therefore a suspect is a person who is thought to be guilty of a
crime. A suspect could be the criminal or may turn out to be
innocent of the crime. It is the duty of investigator to establish
which is applicable. The very moment the certainty of a suspect’s
involvement in a crime has been established, he become the
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b)
c)
d)
e)
MODULE 3
criminal, and where it is not established, he is deemed innocent,
and so discharged.
Accused: An accused is a person who is charged with a crime. A
suspect faces a charged the very moment police or investigators
are able to established facts linking him or her with the crime.
However, a suspect or an accused person is presumed innocent
until proved guilty of the crime in a court of law. The distinction
rest on the simple fact that a suspect is accosted with the
allegation of the crime, but facts or evidences that he did it is or
are not certain. On the other hand, the accused person already has
the burden of the crime. He has been charge with the crime.
Before one is placed on charge, there must be reasonable clues
that suggest that the suspect committed the offence.
Convict: A convict is a person who has been found guilty of a
crime by a court of competent jurisdiction and so sentenced to a
term of imprisonment. In other words, a convict is an accused
whom the police or any law enforcement agent has been able to
prove guilty of the crime. By this, the punishment prescribed by
the law establishing the crime is therefore invoked, so that he/ she
is punish for the wrong he committed against the state or society.
The complainant: This is the victim of the crime. The crime was
perpetuated against him or her so that the pain or effect of the
wrong is borne by him or her. The state acted by looking for and,
where possible prosecuting and punishing the criminal to protect
him against future experience of such or similar pains. While the
criminal directly and negatively relates to complainant, the
complainant or victim himself relates positively to the
investigation he or she brings the knowledge of the existences of
the crime to the law enforcers.
The investigator/police: The police is a legally recognised body
responsible for the protection of life and property, and the
enforcement of law and order in the society. As provided the
police act, the duties of the police in Nigeria, includes among
others, the prevention and detection of crime, preservation of law
and order, etc, by the provisions of the same law, the police are
also the legally recognised crime investigators.
This is so because, having detected the crime, evidence must be gathered
and preserved before prosecution is initiated. Because of these functions,
the laws confers on the police the power to arrest (with or without a
warrant) any person found or suspected to have committed a crime. Also
to assist in the effective performance of their duties especially with
respect to detection and investigation of crime, the law also grant them,
(the police) power to search and seize where necessary, stolen or illgotten properties. The relationship between the police and the other
segments of the criminal investigation process is that the police link
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victim with the criminal. The victim/ complainant experienced the crime
and ran to the police who by virtue of their duties traced the criminal (if
known) and get him or her arrested for possible prosecution. So, it is the
police that link the other segments to the criminal justice system.
Explain the meaning of the following terms in the crime scene:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Complainant
Accused
Convict and Suspect.
3.3
The Scene of Crime
Scene of crime is about the first place a crime investigator would visit
on the receipt of a report of the commission of crime.
Evidence is always present at the scene of any crime or offence.
Whether or not the evidence is found is another matter entirely. If the
evidence is not found, that may be due to poor investigation, ignorance,
careless or inadequate search, faulty or improper protection of the scene.
It is important that all police officers or investigating officers should
acquaint themselves with, and learn about how to preserve scenes in
crime investigations in order to know what to do. This is because it is
the general duties officer who arrives first at the scene of crime or
incident before the criminal investigation department officer. It is
therefore the responsibility of the earliest officer at the scene to provide
protection and keep the scene intact and this may determine to a large
extent the outcome of subsequent investigation.
It has been claimed that hardly is there any criminal who does not leave
loop-holes, clues and traces of his action after committing a crime. No
person should therefore be allowed to wander about the scene before it
has been:
(1)
(2)
Photographed or sketched
Searched
A good scene of crime could vividly tell what really occurred there and
should give the investigator a guide for a good start on his assignment. It
is necessary that only one person should be in charge of a scene of
crime, to direct its protection and preservation. The officer in charge of
the scene must ensure that, until the arrival of the investigating officer,
nothing is touched, picked or moved. It is always necessary to
photography the scene or to sketch particularly horrified cases, cases of
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MODULE 3
rape, burglary or house breaking. Bottles, receptacles, drugs and food
remnant must be preserved, removed and analysed, in all cases of
suicide or suspected suicide, murder etc. At all crime scenes fingerprint
impressions are also factors to be searched for and picked.
A good investigator must have the ability to note the state of a crime
scene immediately on arriving there and should be able to describe it
properly and in detail thereafter. It is therefore important that there
should be no delay whatsoever in visiting the scene of crime
immediately a case is reported, in order to pick up clues and gather
evidence before the scène is disturbed. This is because the actual
solution to the inquiry is invariably at the scene of the crime.
Spent bullets cannot be found anywhere else other than at the scene of
the shooting. In cases of motor accidents, fatal or serious, the scene tells
more of the story to the investigator than probably even the drivers.
Broken windscreens, light shades, mud and sand thrown from the
vehicles, pieces of broken glass, all tell more vividly the exact point of
impact. Skid marks and tyro impressions could indicate the rate, speed
and the side of the road the vehicle was travelling.
It is therefore very important that an investigator should arrive at the
scene early, before it is disturbed. More important is the ability of the
investigating officer to search the scene diligently and be able to identity
clues and pick them up. There lies, once again the solution to a case
under investigation.
On arrival at a scene of crime, an investigating officer should maintain
absolute calmness and orderliness and endeavour to examine the scene
systematically and thoroughly. He should not set to work aimlessly but
should take pains in identifying the witnesses who should be questioned
only when necessary. Useless, unnecessary, irrelevant and
indiscriminate questioning should not be carried out.
It is absolutely necessary for investigator to make a mental picture of the
outline of the case before setting out to the scene of crime. Sorting out
fact, seek and identify persons best able to give true and accurate
account or information regarding the incidences. Such witness(es)
should therefore be questioned to elicit the facts from them while their
experience of the incident is still fresh in their memory. An investigating
police officer must proceed in his inquiry step by step, noting all facts
and points that came his way, forgetting nothing of importance.
Suggestions and inferences or suppositions from witnesses and
complainants should not be mistaken for the actual facts as they really
are. These should be sifted and separated from the real facts of the case.
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An investigator must never allow himself to be misdirected or misled by
such suggestions or opinions given by sometimes prejudiced individuals
and witnesses. An example of such misdirected suggestions is a case in
which a caretaker of a premises in Warri, Delta State was burnt to death
by unknown assailants. Two men, who were also night guards on the
premises, heard the shout of the deceased for help as he ran out from a
nearby bush. They carried him to hospital where he later died. They had
earlier taken him to the landlord who was their employer. Suggestions
were made to the investigator to the effect that these men were
responsible for the death of the man. It was suggested that the deceased
was held down, soaked with petrol and set ablaze. Substances found at a
burnt-out spot were suggested to be the burnt skin of the deceased. The
two night guards were arrested and charged with murder. The
deceased’s body was not viewed to confirm the condition of his skin, if
indeed it was burnt off. The substance was not subjected to pathological
examination to ascertain what it actually was. The hands of the suspects
were not burnt by fire and which suggested otherwise that the man may
not have been held down while he was burning, even if the suspects
were really responsible for the act. The investigator should have
considered other factors attendant to the case to confirm or rebut the
suggestions made by the witnesses and complainant.
At the scene of crime or incident, nothing should be taken for granted.
There was another case in which an investigator arrived at the scene and
found a corpse and concluded the posture at which the corpse was found
was the original posture and position, consequently he drew a very
impressive sketch, took photographs and allowed himself to be so
misdirected in his report it was later known that the corpse had been
moved and turned over several times before his arrival. Hasty
conclusions are very dangerous and frustrate investigation. In yet
another case, a coat was found on a fatal road accident victim, it was
concluded to be connected with the death of the deceased. This (exhibit)
was later identified to have been donated by a Good Samaritan to cover
the crushed skull of the accident victim. An intelligent and careful
questioning of reliable witness immediately after an incident would help
to eliminate irrelevant and misleading facts. This will help to paint a true
picture of the case. All necessary prudence should be employed to
establish what should not and does not form part of the subject matter of
the case.
The scene and all the exhibits (if any) must be properly preserved and
described. The golden rule is: never alter the position of, pick up, or
even touch any object before it has been minutely described in an
official personal notebook, and a photograph taken. At the early stage of
investigation, nothing should be considered too trivial. A small
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MODULE 3
fingerprint or footprint, a little splash of dust or stain on an object, must
all be meticulously noted as they may turn out to be vital.
The accurate note-taking at the scene will provide material for a good
report subsequently.
Injured person on the scene
if an injured person is on the scene of crime, no matter what is on the
importance of the clues sought, consideration must first be given to the
saving of life. The officer protecting the scene must discard all rules and
render or provide first- aid to the injured person, no matter what clues
may be unavoidably destroyed in the process.
The officer must however make a quick mental note of the position and
condition of the victim in relation to the scene and should be able
describe or sketch it later.
When medical aid arrives, the officer should be able to advise and direct
them how to get onto the scene without unnecessarily disturbing it or
destroying evidence. Anything moved in the process before the arrival
of the investigation officer should be noted.
Dead person on the scene
If there is a dead person on the crime scene, it is important that the body
must not be touched or moved before the arrival of an investigating
officer and a photograph is taken or the scene sketched. In case of
sudden and unnatural death (S.U.D), the coroner must be sent for and
the body viewed in addition to the photographing and sketching, before
moving the corpse.
Suspect on the scene of crime
This usually poses a serious problem to the police officer who first
arrives at the scene. Sometimes the suspect is not noticed or detected
immediately. Occasionally, he or she is pointed out by witnesses and on
other times the police notice him or her by chance or intuition, or by
interrogating persons found at the scene. In any case, it is usually a
problem as to what to do with such suspect.
The best action is to quickly put a few questions and note what he or she
says. The police officer must use his or her own judgment to do the most
important thing first under the circumstance. Nevertheless, the suspect
must be removed from the scene quickly for two main reasons:
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(a)
(b)
To prevent him or her from creating more clues or destroying
existing ones, in order to divert and distract police investigations.
To secure the arrest of the suspect who could escape while the
attention of the police officer is directed to protect and preserving
the scene and providing aid to the injured.
Action of police at scene of crime
In summary, the police officer who was the first to arrive on the scene
should do the following while waiting for the arrival of the investigating
officer:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Question or interview people around and establish the basic facts.
This will assist the investigator. Lengthy or detailed interrogation
is not advisable. He should leave that to the investigating police
officer (I.P.O).
Write down names and addresses of witnesses and other persons
who are at the scene.
Keep suspects and witnesses separated, if possible.
Instruct witnesses not to discuss the incident with other persons
until the I.P.O has seen them. Do not discuss the crime with
bystanders or reporters, but listen attentively to whatever is being
said.
Endeavour to protect evidence available from being destroyed.
Fingerprints in crime scene
Fingerprints impressions are often one of the things to be looked for at
scenes of crime, the identification of which is often of great assistance in
crime detection. The identification of casual finger imprints left at scene
of crimes are undoubtedly of great importance and value, and should not
be neglected in all criminal investigation. These imprints are often left
on smooth and non-absorbent surfaces such as electric light bulbs,
mirrors, smooth polished woods and furniture, window glass, silverware
celluloid substances and products, polished leather, papers and cheques,
bottles, safes, car bodies and glass screens.
Describe the activities of the investigator at the crime scene.
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3.4
MODULE 3
Crime Scene Photography
What is crime scene photograph?
In detective movies or television shows like “CSI” photographers swarm
in and take countless pictures of a crime scene. They twist and turn their
cameras haphazardly as agents discuss leads over the background hum
of the photographs’ flash explosions. But how does crime scene
photography really go down? Since its purpose is to record evidence that
will be admissible in court, it is hardly a haphazard operation.
Crime scene photography also called forensic photography has been
around almost as long as the camera itself. Criminology quickly realised
that such technology could freeze time- creating a supposedly
incontestable record of a crime scene. The 19th century French
photographer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to approach a crime scene
with the systematic methods of an investigator. He’d capture images at
various distances and take both ground level and overhead shots.
Today, forensic photographs are essential for investigating and
prosecuting a crime. This is because most evidence is transitory.
Fingerprints must be lifted, bodies must be taken away. Photographs
help preserve not only the most fleeting evidence examined. Homes or
businesses must be returned to normal- like the shape of a blood stern
that will soon be mopped up- but also the placement of items in a room
and the relation of evidence to other aspects. Such images can prove
vital to investigators along after the crime scene is gone.
The first pieces of evidence viewed by jurors are oftentimes the
photographs taken by the crime scene investigators. Professional and
accurate photographic documentation is critical for creating lasting first
impressions in the minds of a jury. Advanced crime scene photography
assists investigators in creating photographic evidence that is engaging,
interesting and informative, giving them greater credibility when
testifying in court.
Types of crime scene photos
Crime scene photographers must be methodical in their work. They
can’t afford to leave out an important piece of evidence or produce
photographs that could be considered misleading in court. But they also
have the pressure of the entire operation behind them. Before other
crime scene investigators (CSIS) can touch, or move any of the evidence
and even before the medical examiner can remove the body, the forensic
or crime scene photographer must document the scene.
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There are three classifications of forensic or crime scene photosoverviews, mid-range and close-ups.
If the crime took place inside a building, its entrance and exist as well as
images that place the building in relation to its surroundings and photos
of spectators at the scene can later help locate witness or suspect.
Overviews also include images of all rooms, taken from overhead and
from each corner.
The forensic photograph then hones in on the key pieces of evidences
and captures images of them in the context. These mid-range photos
might picture a piece of evidence, like a knife to show its relation to
furniture, a blood stain or the rest of the rooms. Mid- range images
establish the distance of object from surrounding objects.
Finally, the photographer thoroughly documents evidence with close-up
images. Close-ups include indentifying marks like scars on a corps or
serial numbers on a bloodied piece of electronic equipment. A
photographer will often include a ruler in the short to establish scale but
always takes a duplicate image without the measuring device. In court,
the defense would claim the device covered something important.
And of course, pictures are of no value unless they’re in context. A
forensic or crime scene photographer keeps a photo log that includes
every relevant detail, the photo number, any filters applied, the time and
date and the location and a description of the object. The advent of
digital photography has helped to make some aspects of recording the
time and date simpler and more verifiable.
Crime scene photography equipment
Early detectives used to sketch the scene of a crime. Photography
introduced a way to produce images that were more true-to-life and
credible than drawings. And while an honest and technically sound
photograph can record the original state of a crime scene, it’s simple
enough to manipulate a photograph or record an image that’s drastically
different from reality.
A good photograph of a crime scene must meet certain technical
specifications: correct exposure, sharp focus and maximum depth of
field, the portion of the photograph that appears sharp. The image must
also be free from distortion. Such technical standards produce photos
that will actually aid agents in their investigation of a crime.
But there are additional qualities that make a photo admissible in court.
The image pictured cannot alter the scene or evidence say through
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MODULE 3
strategic blocking with a measuring device or an intentionally shallow
depth of field. The image must also be relevant to the case and should be
taken with technical precision in mind, not emotional appeal.
Photographers might vary their kit based on personal preferences or the
type of crime scene but must carry certain basics: a camera, perhaps
multiple cameras, filters electronic flashes, various lenses for wideangle, mid-range, and close-ups shots, a tripod, a measuring device, a
gray card, which when combined with a light metre helps produce
correctly exposed photographs, and a way to protect equipment from
rain or extreme heat or cold.
Crime scene photographers usually use colour images although black
and white can be useful when documenting evidence that relies more on
texture than colour like latent fingerprints.
Purpose of crime scene photography
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
To record the original scene and related areas.
To record the initial appearance of physical evidence.
To provide investigators and others with permanent visual record
of the scene for later use.
Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings.
Admissibility of photographic evidence
There are three major points of qualification of a photograph in court.
i.
ii.
iii.
Object pictured must be material or relevant to the issue in court.
The photograph must appeal to the emotions or tend to prejudice
the court or jury.
The photograph must be free from distortion and not misrepresent
the scene or the object it purports to reproduce.
You do not need to be an expert in photography to take crime scene
photographs or testify about them.
It should be noted that Photographs are just one way to record a crime
scene. Other means are:
i.
ii.
iii.
Field notes
Photographs
Sketches.
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The following are steps in recording crime scene:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Secure the scene
Take preliminary notes
Take overview photographs
Make a basic sketch
Record each item of evidence.
Other things to note in crime scene photography are stated below:
a)
a)
b)
c)
d)
144
Taking overview photographs
i.
To show the scene exactly as it was when you first saw it.
ii.
If something was moved before you arrived, don’t try to
reconstruct the scene as it was.
iii.
The photographs should show the scene as you found it.
Major crime photography
i.
First discuss the crime evidence and photographs needed
with other investigators at the scene.
ii.
Be careful not to destroy any evidence while taking the
photographs.
Outside the Scene.
i.
Exterior of the building where the crime occurred and in
some cases the whole location.
ii.
Aerial photographs of the scene and the surrounding area
can be useful in some types of cases.
iii.
Original series of photographs should also show all doors,
widows and other means of entrance or exit.
Inside the scene
i.
A view of the entrance.
ii.
Then photograph the scene as it appears when you first
step into the room.
iii.
Next, move around the room to get photographs of all the
walls.
iv.
These photographs should also show the positions of any
potential items of evidence.
v.
Include photographs of other room connected with the
actual case scene.
Using video to record the case scene
i.
Record valuable to show an overview of the scene.
ii.
Photographs to record items of evidence.
iii.
One should be an orientation (midrange) shot to show how
the item is related to surrounding items.
iv.
The second photograph should be a close-up to bring out
the details of the object inside.
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e)
f)
MODULE 3
Measuring and marking devices
i.
Take two photographs if a marking or measuring device is
used.
ii.
One photograph without the device, the other with the
device.
iii.
So that the defence can’t claim that the scene was altered
or that the device was concealing anything important.
Photographing specific crime scenes
Note; each of the crime scene has unique characteristics and the type of
photographs needed will be determined at the scene by the investigation
familiar with the crime.
Homicide
i.
ii.
Use colour film.
photographs (example: homicide inside a residence):
a.
Exterior of the building
b.
Evidence outside the building
c.
Entrance into the scene
d. Room in which the body was found
e. Close-up of body wounds
f. Weapons
g. Trace evidence
h. Sign of acting prior to the homicide
i. Evidence of a struggle
j. View from positions witnesses stood at time of the crime
k. Uses a normal lens
l. Autopsy.
Suicide
If there is any doubt photograph the scene as a homicide.
Burglaries
Photographs (residential or commercial burglaries):
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
I.
Exterior of building
point of entry
Entrance into scene
Interior views
Area from which valuable articles were removed
Damage to locks, safe, doors, tool marks
Articles or tools left at the scene by the suspect
Trace evidence
Other physical evidence.
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Assault, injuries:
1.
2.
3.
Photograph adjoining rooms, hallways, stairwells
Photograph injuries:
i.
Face of victim
ii.
Bruises
iii.
Bile marks
Photograph body from five:
i.
Orientation shot
ii.
Close-up at 90’ angle to avoid distortion
iii.
Ruler in same plane as bite mark
iv.
Focus exposures
v.
Bracket exposures.
vi.
Equipment
(a)
Always use colour film and no fitter.
(b)
Use colour chart and rulers.
(c)
Flash unit with diffused lighting.
Traffic accidents and hit and run cases:
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Where the vehicles came to rest and what portion. Photograph
should show the relationship of each other.
Damage to vehicles
(1)
Technical photographs of damage to a vehicle.
Do not take any oblique or corner photographs to show damage
for reconstruction purposes because they are not aligned with the
axles of the vehicle. They tend to concern the amount and
direction of the damage.
Take six photographs. Two from each side in line with the axles.
Take one of each of the vehicle, straight on. If possible take one
more overhead.
Use electronic flash to fill in shadows within the damage.
Debris or marks on the reading.
View each driver had approaching the key point of the accident.
View from the point a witness observed.
Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles.
Fingerprint
When to photograph fingerprints
(a)
(b)
(c)
146
Before lifting on major case or if the latent may be destroyed
when lifting.
35 cameras with macro or close-up lens attachments.
Gray card available light exposures.
Impression
POS 214
MODULE 3
1.
Footprint and tire tracts
(a)
Procedure
(b)
Take orientation photography to show where in the scene
the impression is located.
2.
Take a close-up for detail
(a)
Use a scale on the same plane as the impression
(b)
Keep the film plane parallel to the plane of the impression
(c)
Block out ambient light and use a strong light source at
different angle to find the light angle, which shows the
best detail in the impression then at that angle for the
photograph.
Bloodstain
1.
Use colour film
2.
Orientation photograph to show locations of bloodstain evidence
at the scene
3.
Close-up photograph to show detail
i.
Use a scale of the same plane as the bloodstain
ii.
Keep the film parallel to the plane of the bloodstain
iii.
Use a low oblique light angle
Tools marks
i.
Serial numbers
ii.
Small items, copying etc.
iii.
Close-up lenses and devices
iv.
Lifting
Basic crime scene and evidence photograph kit
The following are basic crime scene photograph kits that can be used by
crime scene investigators:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Camera
Normal lens (a 50mm lens is considered a normal lens for a 35
camera)
Wide angle lens (28mm or similar for a 35mm camera)
Close-up lenses or accessories (e.g. macro lenses, 1.1 adapter,
extension tubes, bellow, reviewing ring, or close up filters)
Filters (red, orange, yellow, blue and green)
Electronic flash
Remote electronic flash (to operate flash when not mounted on
camera)
Extra camera and flash batteries
Locking cable release
Tripod
Film (colour and black and whole print film)
Notebook and pen
Owner’s manual for camera and flash
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14.
15.
16.
Gray card (to getting accurate exposures)
Index cards and felt pen
Flashing light.
Other equipment that should be considered, are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Telephone lenses (133mm, telephone 20mm lens for surveillance
photograph)
Supplementary light metre for low light card readings
Small tool for emergency camera repairs
Blocks of wood, clothespins and other devices for position
evidence for close-up photograph
White handkerchief or other flash diffusion material
Levels
Tape measure
Colour chart or colour patches (injury photograph)
ABFO #2 scale (injury photograph).
What is crime scene photography?
List ten basic components of crime scene photograph kit.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have described and explained the scene of crime which is the first
place a crime investigator would visit on the receipt of a report of the
commission of crime. We also defined crime in relation to the scene of
crime as the commission of act which is forbidden by law.
The components of criminal investigation activities were also described
as consisting of the victim or complainant, suspects, accused and
convicts, the investigator or police and finally the criminal justice
process.
Crime scene or forensic photograph was also discussed as an important
aspect of the investigation process. Because it is the crime scene
photograph that documents evidence in the crime scene including the
trace evidence. Basic crime scene photographic equipment was also
enumerated in relation to specific crime scenes.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the scene of crime by looking at the
meaning of crime in relation to the scene, components of criminal
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investigation activities, the scene of crime in its proper perfective and
finally crime scene photography.
6.0
TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT
i.
ii.
iii.
Discuss the major components of investigation activities.
What is a crime scene?
Why is crime scene photography necessary?
7.0
Aobertis, E. K. (2004). “Light and Crime Scene Photography”. In:
Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions and
Discoveries. U.K: Greenwood Publishing Company.
Harcourt: Manson Publisher.
Member, C.F.L. (2007). Police and Law Enforcement. Ibadan: Intec
Printers Ltd.
Onashile, Y. (2004). Scientific Criminal Investigation Detection and
Prosecution. Ibadan: Molijoe Soft-Print.
Rhode, R. R. (2000). ‘Crime Photography.’ PSA Journal. pp 38 – 45.
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UNIT 2
TECHNIQUES OF CRIME SCENE
INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
General Elements of Crime in Relation to the Scene of
Crime
3.2
3.2.1 Initial Response/Prioritisation of Efforts
3.2.2 Preliminary Documentation and Evaluation of the
Scene
3.2.3 Processing of the Scene
3.2.4
Completing and Recording the Crime Scene
Investigation
3.2.5 Crime Scene Equipment
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor – Marked Assignment
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is the relationship between crime scene investigation and forensic
investigation?
Directly related to forensic investigation though, not quite the same is
crime scene investigation (CSI).
The primary function of a crime scene investigator is to collect, identify,
document and preserve physical evidence left at the scene of crime, with
the ultimate goal of presenting a court with evidence to identify and
apprehend the perpetrator. Crime scene investigation combines the
knowledge and techniques of several disciplines, including science,
mathematics, logic and law.
The primary difference between CSI and forensic is that CSI involves
on-site investigation (field forensic) of the physical scene of crime,
whereas standard forensic takes place in a controlled-environment
(laboratory setting). The various aspects that will be discussed in this
unit, that will introduce you to techniques of crime scene investigation
includes, general element of crime in relation to the scene of crime,
initial response/prioritisation of efforts, preliminary documentation and
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evaluation of the scene, processing the scene, completing and recording
the crime scene and finally crime scene equipment.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
describe general elements of crime
identify the various steps involved in crime scene investigation
employ the techniques of forensic science in crime scene
investigation
record evidence in a crime scene
explain the relationship between forensic and crime investigation
describe the various steps involved in preliminary investigation
and evaluation of the scene
list crime scene equipment and their uses.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
General Elements of Crime
•
•
•
What are the elements of a crime in a typical crime scene?
Thes are the features that combine together to constitute a crime. For a
charge of crime to be proved against any one, all the elements of the
crime must be sufficiently proved.
There are principally two elements of a crime. These are:
(a)
(b)
Mens rea or guilty, malicious intent.
Actus rea or the overt crime.
However, Parsley (1977) identifies five elements of a crime which are
simply:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The Acts
The intent
The concurrence of act and intent
The causation and
The result
Men’s rea is a Latin word interpreted to mean criminal, malicious or
guilty intent. The concept of mens rea implies the guilty or blameable
state of mind of an offender. Here, the law considers that the offender
possessed the necessary intent expressed by his or her action which is
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unlawful at the time of the act. It implies that a man who commits a
crime did so voluntary and actually intended to do so.
The concept of mens rea further presupposes that by the criminal’s
action and our common experience, the crime committed voluntary and
intentionally and that the act was committed knowingly. The basic
factors in proving the elements of mens rea are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Action of the person(s)
Mankind’s common experience
Voluntariness (free will)
Knowledge
Intent.
There are two forms of intent - specific intent and general intent.
i.
ii.
Specific intent: It is the basis of most crime. It indicates that
before an individual commits an act that constitutes a crime, he or
she must have planned to carry out the act. This exists as an
element in all crimes. For example, in a case of stealing, the
specific intent is to take something of value from somebody in
order to deprive the owner permanently of the ownership.
General intent: This is considered to be present in one’s decision
to commit an act when that act may expose members of the
society (the public) at large to harm without specific intent as to
the consequences of such act or conduct. Any conduct which
does not conform to legal conduct is assumed to intend harmful
consequences whether one perpetrate it, actually intends harmful
consequence or not. An example of general intent could be seen
from a case where one drives a vehicle recklessly and
dangerously by over speeding in a build-up area as a result
knocked down and killed a pedestrian. Here, the person does not
intend the consequence of his or her act. But in principle of
general intend such person stand charged for manslaughter. His
criminal intent is therefore based on the legal presumption that he
voluntarily over-sped in a build-up area, which exposed other to
harm. Secondly, there was foreseeable knowledge based on
experience that the voluntary state of over speeding in such area
could result in an accident and possibly death of another person.
Actus rea or overt act: Actus rea interpreted to mean overt act is another
of the two principal elements in a crime, the other being mens rea. Actus
Reus or overt act is that criminal act done for the purpose of furthering a
guilty intent (mens rea). In other words, actus rea is the actualisation of
mens rea. Mens rea is quiet hidden and about to execute that intention. It
is that actus rea that exposes the act. Hence it is also referred to as open
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act. In most crimes, the mere intent may not be enough to prove the
offence, but as soon as this has been capped with the overt act, that
offence is completed.
Summarily, mens rea plus actus rea result to an offence or a crime.
However, there are other elements, which Pursley considers relevent in
proving a crime. Apart from the act and intent are the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
The concurrence of act and intent
The causation
The result.
The concurrence of act and intent: This means that the act in question
resulted from that intent in other words if there is no intent, there can
never be the act.
The causation: This implies that the act and the intent caused something
to occur that was offensive to the law.
The result: The result of these factors is some harm to the society and
that is the crime.
In conclusion, it is necessary to sum up that the element in a crime
includes:
mens rea (guilty or malicious intent), actus rea (overt act), concurrence
of act and intent, causation of act and intent and the result of these.
These are the fundamental element an investigator must look out for
while investigating an incident in a crime scene.
List five elements that constitute a crime, and describe three of them.
3.2
One of the most important aspects of securing the crime scene is to
preserve the scene with minimal contamination and disturbance of
physical evidence. The initial response to an accident shall be
expeditious and methodical. Upon arrival, the officers shall assess the
scene and treat the incident as a crime scene.
The earliest responding officers shall promptly yet cautiously approach
and enter crime scene, vigilant of any persons, vehicles, event, potential
evidence and environmental conditions. The officers should:
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Note or log dispatch information (e.g address/ location, time
.date, type of call, parties involved).
Be aware of any persons or vehicles leaving the crime scene.
Approach the scene cautiously, scan the entire area to thoroughly
assess the scene, and note any possible secondary crimes scenes.
Beware of any persons and vehicle in the vicinity that may be
related to the crime.
Make initial observations (looks, listen, and smell) to assess the
scene and ensure officer safety before proceeding.
Remain alert and attentive. Assume the crime is ongoing until
proved to be otherwise.
Treat the location as a crime scene until assessed and proved to
be otherwise.
List the essential steps a responding officer should take in a crime scene
situation.
3.3
Initial Response / Prioritisation of Efforts
You may want to know the initial steps to be taken by a responding
officer towards a crime scene situation. They are as follows:
i.
ii.
Initial response / receipt of information. It is important for the
initial responding officers to be observant when approaching,
entering and exiting a crime scene.
Safety procedures: The safety and physical well-being of officers
and other individuals in and around the crime scene are the initial
responding officer priority.
On arrival at the scene he shall identify and control any dangerous
situations or persons. Ensure that there is no immediate threat to other
responders. Scan area for sight sounds and smells that may present
danger to personnel (e.g. hazardous material such as gasoline, natural
gas). Surveys the scene for dangerous persons and control the situation.
i.
Emergency care: After controlling any dangerous situation or
person he should ensure that medical attention is provided for
injured persons while minimising contamination of the scene.
If the victim or suspect is transported to a medical facility, send a law
enforcement official with the victim or suspect to document any
comment made and preserved evidence, point out potential physical
evidence to medical personnel, instruct them to minimise contact with
such evidence (e.g. ensure that medical personnel preserve all clothing
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and personal effects without cutting through bullet holes, knife tears)
and document movement of persons or items by medical personnel.
Ensure medical personnel do not “clean up” the scene and to avoid
removal or alterations of items originating from the scene. If there is
chance the victim may die, attempt to obtain “dying declaration”.
Document any statements/comments made by victims, suspects, or
witnesses at the scene.
Secure and control persons at the scene: controlling, identifying and
removing person’s at the crime scene and limiting the number of persons
who enter crime scene and the movement of such persons is an
important function of the initial responding officers in protecting the
crime scene. He should control all individuals at the scene.
Prevent individuals from altering/destroying physical evidence by
restricting movement, location and activity while ensuring and
maintaining safety at the scene.
ii.
Boundaries: Defining and controlling boundaries provide a means
for protecting and securing the crime scene(s). The number of
crime scenes and their boundaries are determined by their
location(s) and the type of crime. Boundaries shall be established
beyond the initial scope of the crime scene(s) with the
understanding that the boundaries can be reduced in size if
necessary but cannot be as easily expanded. He shall conduct an
initial assessment to establish and control the crime scene(s) and
its boundaries. Establish boundaries of the scene(s) starting at the
focal point and extending outward to include where the crime
occurred. Potential points and paths of exit and entry of suspects
and witnesses places where the victim/evidence may have been
removed, (be aware of trace and impression evidence while
assessing the scene).
Set up physical barriers (e.g. ropes, cones, crime scene barrier tape,
available vehicles, personnel, other equipment. Document the entry/exit
of all people entering and leaving the scene to maintain integrity of the
scene. Effect measures to preserve/protect evidence that may be lost or
compromised. (E.g. protect from the elements (rain, snow, wind and
from footsteps, tire tracks, sprinklers). Document the original location of
the victim or objects that you observe being moved, consider search and
seizure issues to determine the necessity of obtaining consent to search
and/or obtaining a search warrant.
The officer(s) shall brief the investigator(s) taking charge, assist in
controlling the scene and remain at the scene until relived of duty.
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Document Actions and observations.
All activities conducted and observations made at the crime scene must
be documented as soon as possible after the event to preserve
information. Documentation must be maintained as a permanent record.
The initial responding officer(s) at the crime scene must produce clear,
concise documented information encompassing his or her observations
and actions. This documentation is vital in providing information to
substantiate investigative considerations.
Enumerate the steps you will take in presenting evidence in a crime
scene.
3.3.3 Preliminary Documentation and Evaluation of the Scene
Assessment of the scene by the investigators in charge allows for the
determination of the type of incident to be investigated and the level of
investigation to be conducted. The investigators in charge shall identify
specific responsibilities, share preliminary information, and develop
investigative plans in accordance with departmental policy and local,
state and federal laws.
The investigator(s) in charge should converse with the first responding
officer(s) over the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Evaluate safety issues that may affect all personnel entering the
scene(s).
Evaluate search and seizure issue to determine the necessity of
obtaining consent to search and/or obtaining a search warrant.
Evaluate and establish a path of entry/exit to the scene to be
utilised by authorised personnel.
Evaluate initial scene boundaries.
Determine the number/size of scene(s) and prioritise.
Establish a secure area within close proximity to the scene(s) for
the purpose of consultation and equipment staging.
If multiple scenes exist, establish and maintain communication
with personnel at those locations.
Establish a secure area for temporary evidence storage in
accordance with rules of evidence/chain of custody.
In addition the investigator(s) shall perform the following functions:
i.
156
Conduct scene assessment: Scene assessment allows for the
development of a plan for the coordinated identification,
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ii.
iii.
iv.
MODULE 3
collection and preservation of physical evidence and
identification of witnesses. It also allows for the exchange of
information among law enforcement personnel and the
development of investigation strategies.
Conduct scene “walk through” and initial documentation: The
scene “walk through” provides an overview of the entire scene,
identifying any threats to scene integrity and ensures protection
of physical evidence. Written and photographic documentation
provides a permanent record.
Determine team composition: Based on the type of incident and
complexity of the scene, the investigator(s) shall determine team
composition.
Trained personnel shall perform scene processing: Assess
forensic needs and call forensic specialists to the scene for
expertise and/or equipment. Ensure that scene security and the
entry/exit documentation is carried out.
Discuss the importance of evaluating the crime scene(s) by an
investigator.
3.3.4 Processing the Scene
The essence of scene processing is to have contamination control and
prevent cross contamination at single or multiple scenes. In addition, it
is to ensure the safety of personnel and the integrity of evidence.
Other respondents and/or team members should limit scene access to
people directly involved in scene processing follow established
entry/exit routes at the scene, clean/sanitise or dispose of
tools/equipment and personnel protective equipment between evidence
collections and/or scenes.
Documentation: An assessment of the scene determines what kind of
documentation is needed (e.g. photography, video, sketches,
measurements, notes).. Co-ordinate photographs, video, measurements
and notes. Prepare preliminary sketch(es) and measure immediate area
of the scene, noting case identities and indicating north on the sketch. A
well documented scene ensures the integrity of the investigation and
provides a permanent record for future evaluation.
Prioritise collection of evidence: The investigator(s) shall prioritise the
collection of evidence to prevent loss, destruction or contamination.
Conduct a careful and methodical evaluation considering all physical
evidence possibilities (e.g. biological fluids, latent prints, and trace
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evidence). Select a systematic search pattern for evidence collection
based on the size and location of the scene. Select a progression or
processing/collection methods so that initial techniques do not
compromise subsequent processing/collection methods. Concentrate on
the most transient evidence and work to the least transient forms of
physical evidence.
Continually assess environmental and other factor that may affect the
evidence. Beware of multiple scene(s) (e.g. victims, suspects, vehicles,
location). In fact prioritisation provides for timely and methodical
preservation and collection of evidence.
1.
Collect, preserve, inventory, package, transport and submit
evidence.
i.
Maintain scene security scene security throughout
processing and until the scene is released.
ii.
Document the collection of evidence by recording its
location at the scene, date collection and who collected it.
iii.
Identify and secure evidence on containers (e.g. label,
date, initial container) at the crime scene. Different types
of evidence require different containers (e.g. porous, nonporous crushproof).
iv.
Package items to avoid contamination and crosscontamination.
v.
Maintain evidence at the scene in a manner designed to
diminish degradation or loss.
In summary evidence at crime scene that is in the process of
documentation, collection, preservation, or packaging should be handled
with caution to ensure integrity and protection from contamination or
deleterious change. During the processing of the scene, and following
documentation, evidence should be appropriately packaged, labeled and
maintained in a secure but temporary manner until final packaging and
submission to a secured evidence storage facility or the crime
laboratory.
Establish crime scene debriefing team: The crime scene debriefing
enables law enforcement personnel regarding particular scene findings
prior to release the scene. It provides an opportunity for input regarding
follow up investigation, special requests for assistance, and the
establishment of post-scene responsibilities.
The team should include the investigator(s) and evidence collection
personnel (e.g. photographers, evidence techniques, latent print
personnel, specialised personnel and initial responding officer(s) if still
present.
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Determine what evidence was collected and discuss potential technical
forensic testing and the sequence of test to be performed.
Initiate any action(s) identified in discussion that are required to
complete the crime scene investigation.
List some measures you will adopt to avoid contamination of evidence
at the crime scene.
3.3.5 Completing and
Investigation
Recording
the
Crime
Scene
Field survey of the crime scene ensures that evidence has been collected
and the scene has been processed prior to release. In addition, a
systematic review of the scene ensures that evidence, equipment or
materials generated by the investigation are dangerous materials or
conditions have been reported and addressed.
The investigator in charge shall direct a walkthrough at the conclusion
of the scene of investigation and ensure that the scene investigation is
complete. He shall note the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Each area identified as part of the crime scene is visually
inspected.
All evidence collected at the scene is accounted for.
All equipments and materials generated by the investigation are
removed.
Any dangerous materials or conditions are reported and
addressed.
The crime scene is released in accordance with jurisdictional
requirements.
Documentation of the crime scene: Reports and other documentation
pertaining to the crime scene investigation shall be compiled into a “case
file” by the investigator(s) in charge of the crime scene. This file shall
be a record of the actions taken and evidence collected at the scene. This
documentation shall allow for independent review of the work
conducted.
The investigator(s) in charge should obtain the following for the crime
scene case file:
i.
ii.
Initial responding officer(s) documentation
Emergency medical personnel documents
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iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
Entry/exit documentation
Photographs/video
Crime scene sketches/diagrams
Evidence documentation
Other respondents’ documentation
Record of consent form or search warrant
Reports such as forensic/technical reports should be added to this
file when available
Establish crime debriefing team
Brief person(s) in charge upon completion of assigned crime
scene case
Establish post-scene responsibilities for law enforcement
personnel and other respondents.
The crime scene debriefing is the best opportunity for law enforcement
personnel and other respondents to ensure that the crime scene
investigation is complete.
Discuss the importance of a debriefing team in crime scene
investigation.
3.3.6 Crime Scene Equipment
We are going to discuss the equipment used in a crime scene
investigation under the following subheads:
i.
ii.
Initial responding officer(s)
Crime scene investigator/evidence technician
The essential ones are as follows:
Bindle paper
Biohazard bags
Body fluid collection kit
Camera (35mm) with flash/film/tripod
Casting materials
Consent/search forms
Crime scene barricade tape
First-aid kit
Flares
Flashlight and extra batteries
Paper bags
Personal protective equipment
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These items should be in police vehicles or readily available to the
initial responding officers.
Evidence collection kits e.g.
Blood collection
Bindle
Coin envelops
Disposable scalpels
Distilled water
Ethanol
Evidence identifiers
Latex gloves
Photographic ruler (ABFO scales)
Presumptive chemicals
Sterile gauze
Sterile swabs
Test tubes/test tube rack
Bloodstain Pattern Documentation
ABFO scales
Calculator
Laser pointer
Permanent markers
Protractor
String Tape
Excavation
Cones/makers
Metal detectors
Paint brushes
Shovels/trowels
Sifting screens
Strings
Weights
Wooden/metal stakes
Fingerprints
Black and white film
Brushes
Chemical enhancement supplies
Cyanoacrylate (super glue) wand/packets
Flashlight
Forensic source
Lift cards
Lift tape
Measurement scales
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One-to-one camera
Powders
Impression
Bowls/mixing containers
Boxes
Dental stone (die stone)
Measurement scales
Permanent markers
Snow print wax
Water
Pattern Print Lifter
Chemical enhancement supplies
Electrostatic dust lifters
Gel lifter
Wide format loft tape
Tool marks
Casting materials
Trace Evidence Collection
Acetate sheet protectors
Bindle paper
Clear tape/adhesive lift
Flashlight (oblique lighting)
Forceps/tweezers
Glass vials
Slides and slide markers
Trace evidence vacuum with disposable collection filters
Trajectory
Calculator
Cannel smoke
Dummy
Laser
Mirror
Protractor
String
Trajectory rods
Enumerate the essential requirements for a crime scene investigator.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have explained the general elements of crime, and how it manifests
in a crime scene. We also note that crime scene investigation combines
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the knowledge and techniques of several different disciplines, including
science, mathematics, logic and law. One of the most important aspects
in securing the crime scene is to preserve the scene with minimal
contamination and disturbance of physical evidence.
We also discussed the initial steps an investigator will take in the
preliminary documentation and evaluation of the scene. A list of crime
scene equipment is also mentioned.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed techniques of crime scene investigation
by looking at the following areas; general elements of crime, techniques
of crime scene investigation, vs.-a-via the initial response prioritisation
of effort,
preliminary documentation and evaluation of the scene,
processing the scene, completing and recording the crime scene and
crime scene equipment.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
What are the general elements of crime?
Discuss the steps an investigator much undertakes in a crime
scene situation.
List and discuss the steps involved in processing a crime scene.
7.0
Bevel, T. & Gardener, R. (1977). Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide
for Law Enforcement. U. K.: Belton Publishers.
Bedzin, W .J. (1998). Footwear Impression Evidence.
Elsevier Science Pub. Co.
N.Y. U.S.A.:
Ewoh, U. R. (2000). Introduction to Criminal Investigation. PortHarcourt: Manson Publishers.
Fisher, B.A.J. (1993). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. (5th
ed.). Florida USA: CRC Press Inc.
Fox, R. & Carl, L. C. (1973). Crime Scene Search and Physical
Evidence Handbook. Washington DC.
Geberth, U. J. (1996). Practical Homicide Investigation Checklist and
Field Guide. New York: CRC Press.
Kirk, P. L. (2000). Crime Investigation. New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
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UNIT 3
ELECTRONIC CRIME SCENE
INVESTIGATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Electronic Devices, Types, Description and Potential
Evidence in Crime Scenes
3.2
Investigative Tools and Equipment
3.3
Securing and Evaluating the Scene
3.4
Documenting the Scene
3.5
Evidence Collection at the Scene
3.6
Packaging, Transportation and Storage of Digital Evidence
3.7
Electronic Crime and Digital Evidence Consideration by
Crime Category
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Computers and other electronic devices are integral parts of modern life.
Sometimes ago, a single computer filled an entire room. But today, a
computer can be held in the palm of your hand. The same technological
development that has helped law enforcement is being exploited by
criminals. Computers can be used to commit crime, can contain
evidence of crime, and can even be targets of crime. Understanding the
role and nature of electronic evidence that might be found, how to
process a crime scene containing potential electronic evidence, and how
an investigator might respond to such situations are crucial issues.
The law enforcement response to electronic evidence requires that
officers, investigators, forensic examiners, and managers play a role. A
first responder may be responsible for the recognition, collection,
preservation, transportation, and/or storage of electronic evidence. In
today’s world, this can include almost everyone in the law enforcement
profession. Officers may encounter electronic device in their day-to-day
duties. Investigators may direct the collection of electronic evidence, or
may perform the collection themselves. Forensic examiners may provide
assistance at crime scenes and perform examinations on the evidence.
The various issues that will be discussed in this unit that will introduce
you to electronic crime scene investigation includes electronic device,
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types, description and potential evidence, investigative tools and
equipment, securing and evaluating the scene, documenting the scene,
evidence collection, packaging, transportation and storage of digital
evidence, electronic crime and digital evidence consideration by crime
category.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
define electronic evidence
describe the latent nature of electronic evidence
describe the nature of electronic devices
state simple investigative tools and equipment
explain the principles of securing, evaluating and documenting
the crime scene
state how electronic evidence is handled at the crime scene
explain the packaging, transportation and storage of digital
evidence.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Electronic Devices, Types, Description and Potential
Evidence in Crime Scenes
This section introduces you to electronic devices, their various types and
description and how they can be applied in detecting crime in crime
scenes.
Internally attached computer hard drives, external drives and other
electronic devices at crime scene may contain information that can be
useful as evidence in a criminal investigation or prosecution. The
devices themselves and the information they contain may be used as
digital evidence. Some devices require internal or external power to
maintain stored information. For these devices, the power must be
maintained to preserve the information stored.
Computer systems
A computer system consists of hardware and software that process data
and is likely to include:
i.
ii.
A case that contains circuit boards, microprocessors, hard drives,
memory, and interface connections.
A monitor or video display device
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iii.
iv.
v.
A keyboard
A mouse
Peripheral or
components
externally
connected
drives,
devices
and
Computer system can take many forms such as laptops, desktops, tower
computer, rack mounted systems, minicomputers and mainframe
computers. Additional components and peripheral devices include
modems, routers, printers, scanners and docking status.
Storage devices
Storage devices vary in size and the manner in which they store and
retain data. Investigators must understand that, regardless of their size or
type, these devices may contain information that is valuable to an
investigation or prosecution. The following storage devices may be
digital evidence:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Hard drives: Hard drives are storage devices that consist of an
external circuit board, external data and power connections. And
internal magnetically charged glass, ceramic, or metal platters
that store data. Investigators may also find hard drives at the
scene that are not connected or installed on a computer. These
loose hard drives may still contain valuable evidence.
Removable media: Removable media are cartridges and diskbased data storage devices. They are typically used to store
archive, transfer and transport data and other information. These
devices help users share data, information applications and
utilities among different computers and other devices.
Thumb drives: Thumb drives are small, lightweight removable
data storage devices with USB connections. These devices also
referred to as flash drives are easy to conceal and transport. They
can be found as part of, or disguised as a wristwatch, a pocket
size multi- tool such as a Swiss Army knife, a keychain fob, or
any number of common and unique devices.
Memory cards: Memory cards are small data storage devices
commonly used with digital cameras, computers, mobile phones,
digital music players, personal digital assistants (PDAS), video
game consoles and other hand-held electronic devices.
Potential evidence
Storage devices such as hard drives, external hard drives, removable
media, thumb drives and memory cards may contain information such as
e-mail messages, Internet browsing history, Internet chart logs and
buddy lists photographs, image files, data buses, financial records and
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events logs that can be valuable evidence in an investigation or
prosecution.
Handheld devices
Handheld devices are portable data storage device that provide
communications, digital photography, navigation system, entertainment,
data storage and personal information management.
It is important note that:
i.
ii.
iii.
Data or digital evidence may be lost if power is not maintained.
Data or digital evidence on some devices such as mobile or smart
phones can be over written or deleted while the device remains
activated.
Software is available for mobile and smart phones that can be
activated remotely to render the device unusable and make the
data it contains inaccessible if the phone is lost or stolen. This
software can produce similar results if activated on a device
seized by law enforcement. Investigators should take precautions
to prevent the loss of data on devices they seize as evidence.
Peripheral devices
Peripheral devices are equipment that can be connected to a computer
system to enhance access and expand the computer’s functions.
The devices themselves and the functions they perform or facilitate are
all potential evidence. Information stored on the device regarding its use
also is evidence, such as incoming and outgoing phone and fax numbers,
recently scammed, faxed or printed documents, and information about
the purpose for or use of the device. In addition, these devices can be
sources of fingerprints, DNA and other identifiers.
Computer networks
A computer network consists of two or more wireless connections that
share or are capable of sharing resources and data. A computer network
often includes printers, other peripheral devices, and data routing
devices such as hubs, switches and routers.
Potential evidence: the networked computers and connected devices
themselves may be evidence that is useful to an investigation or
prosecution. The data they contain may also be valuable evidence and
may include software documents, photos, image files, e-mail messages
and attachments, databases, financial information, internet browsing
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history, log files, event and chat logs, buddy lists and data stored on
external devices. The device functions, capabilities and any identifying
information associated with the computer system components and
connections, including Internet protocol and local area network (LAN)
addresses associated with the computers and devices broadcast settings
and media access card (MAC) addresses may all be useful as evidence.
List some electronic devices and their evidential value in investigation.
3.2
Investigative Tools and Equipment
In most cases, items or devices containing digital evidence can be
collected using standard seizure tools and materials. Investigators must
use caution when collecting, packaging or storing digital evidence.
Avoid using any tools or materials that may produce or emit stator
electrify or a magnetron field as these may damage or destroy the
evidence.
Special tools and equipment may be required to collect electronic
evidence. Experience has shown that advances in technology may
dictate changes in the tools and equipment required. There should be
access to the tools and equipment necessary to document, disconnect,
remove, package and transport electronic evidence.
The needed tools and equipment are dictated by each aspect of the
process documentation, collection, packaging and transportation.
Toolkit
Departments in charge of investigation should have general crime scene
processing tools (e.g. cameras, notepads, sketchpads, evidence forms,
crime scene tape, and markers).
The following are additional items that may be useful at an electronic
crime scene:
i.
ii.
iii.
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Documentation tools: Cable tags, indelible felt tip markers, stickon labels.
Dissemble and removal tools: A variety of non magnetic sizes
and types of flat bladed and Philips type screwdrivers, hex nut
drivers, needle nose pliers, secure bit drivers, small tweezers,
specialised screw drivers, standard pliers, startup drivers and wire
cutters.
Package and transport supplies: Antistatic bags, antistatic bubble
wrap, cable ties, evidence bags, evidence tape, packaging
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materials (avoid materials that can produce static electricity such
as Styrofoam or Styrofoam peanuts), packaging tape and sturdy
boxes of various sizes.
Tools and materials for collecting digital evidence.
In addition to tools for processing crime scenes in general, investigators
should have the following items in their digital evidence collection
toolkit.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Cameras (photo and video)
Cardboard boxes
Note pads
Gloves
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Evidence inventing logs
Evidence tape
Evidence stickers, labels, or tags
Crime scene tape
Antistatic bags
Permanent markers
Non-magnetic tools.
Investigators should also have radio frequency shielding materials such
as faraday isolation bags or aluminum foil to wrap cell phones, smart
phones and other mobile communication devices after they have been
seized. Wrapping the phones in radio-frequency shielding material
prevents the phones from receiving a call, text message, or other
communications signal that may alter the evidence.
List ten tools that can be used in collecting evidence in a crime scene.
3.4
Securing and Evaluating the Scene
The investigating officer should take steps to ensure the safety of all
persons at the scene and to protect the integrity of all evidence, both
traditional and electronic.
After securing the scene and all persons at the scene, the investigator
should visually identify all potential evidence and ensure that the
integrity of both the digital and traditional evidence is preserved. Digital
evidence on computers and other electronic devices can be easily
altered, deleted or destroyed. Investigator should document, photograph
and secure digital evidence as soon as possible at the scene.
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When securing and evaluating the scene, the investigating officer should
note the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Follow the normal procedure for securing crime scenes.
Immediately secure all electronic devices, including personal or
portable devices.
Ensure that no unauthorised person has access to any electronic
devices at the crime scene.
Refuse offers of help or technical assistance from any
unauthorised persons.
Remove all persons from the crime scene or the immediate area
from which evidence is to be collected.
Ensure that the condition of any electronic device is not altered.
Leave a computer or electronic device off if it is already turned
off.
Computer components such as keyboard, mouse, removable storage
media, and other items may hold latent evidence such as fingerprints,
DNA or other physical evidence that should be preserved. Investigating
officer should take the appropriate steps to ensure that physical evidence
is not compromised during documentation.
If a computer is on or the power state cannot be determined, the
investing officer should look and listen for indications that the computer
is powered on. Listen for the sound of fans running, drives spinning or
check to see if light emitting devices (LEDS) are on.
Check the display screen for sings that digital evidence is being
destroyed. Words to look out for include “delete,” “format,” “remove,”
“copy,” “move,” “cut,” or “wipe.”
Look for indications that the computer is being accessed from a remote
computer or device.
Look for signs of active or ongoing communications with other
computers or users such as instant messaging windows or chat rooms.
Take note of all cameras or web cameras (web cams) and determine if
they are active.
Developments in technology and the convergence of communications
capabilities have linked even the most conventional devices and services
to each other, to computers and to the Internet. This rapidly changing
environment makes it essential for the investigator to be aware of the
potential digital evidence in telephones, digital video recorders, other
household appliances, and motor vehicles.
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Preliminary interviews
The investigator should separate and identify all adult persons of
interest at the crime scene and record their location at the time of entry
onto the scene. No one should be allowed access to any computer or
electronic device. The investigating officer should obtain information
such as:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
Name of all users of the computers and devices
All computer and Internet users’ information
All login names and user account names
Purpose and uses of computers and devices
All passwords
Any automated applications in use
Type of Internet access
Any offsite storage
Internet service provider.
Installed software documentation
All e-mail accounts
Security provisions in use
Web mail account information
Data access restrictions in place
All instant message screen names
All destructive devices or software in use
My face, Facebook or other online social networking website
account information
Any other radiant information.
Outline the steps you will adopt in securing a crime scene.
3.5
Documenting the Scene
Why is it necessary to document a scene?
Documentation of a crime scene creates a record for the investigation. It
is important to accurately record the location of the scene, the scene
itself, the state, power status, and condition of computers, storage media,
wireless network devices, mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs, and
other data storage devices, Internet and network access and other
electronic devices. Investigators should be aware that not all digital
evidence may be in close proximity to the computer or other devices.
Officials may need to move a computer or another electronic device to
find its serial numbers or other identifiers. Moving a computer or
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another electronic device while it is on may damage it or the digital
evidence it contains. Computer and other electronic devices should not
be moved unit they are powered off. Additional documentation of the
system and devices may be performed during the collection phase.
The initial documentation of the scene should include a detailed record
using video photography, and notes and sketches to help recreate or
convey the details of the scene later. All activity and processes on
display screens should be fully documented.
Documentation of the scene should include the entire location, the type,
location and position of computers, their components and peripheral
equipment and other electronic devices. The scene may expand to
multiple locations; investigators should document all physical
connections to and from the computers and other devices.
Record any network and wireless access points that may be present and
capable of linking computers and other device to each other and the
Internet. The existence of network and wireless access points may
indicate that additional evidence exists beyond the initial scene.
Some circumstances may not permit investigator to collect all electronic
devices or components at a scene or location, however these devices
should be included in the investigation documentation of the scene.
As an investigator, describe how you will document a crime scene.
3.6
Evidence Collection at the Scene
The search for and collection of evidence at an electronic crime scene
may require a search warrant.
Computer or digital evidence, like all other evidence must be handled
carefully and in a manner that preserves its evidentiary value.
This relates not just to the physical integrity of an item or device, but
also to the electronic data it contains. Certain types of computer
evidence therefore require special collection, packaging and
transportation.
Consideration should be given to protect data that may be susceptible to
damage or alteration from electromagnetic field such as those generated
by static electricity, magnets, radio transmitters, and other devices.
Communication devices such as mobile phone, smart phones, PDAs and
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pagers should be secured and prevented from receiving or transmitting
data once they are identified and collected as evidence.
Note that other types of evidence such as trace, biological or latent prints
may exist. Destructive techniques (use of fingerprint processing
chemicals) should be postponed until after electronic evidence is done.
Recovery of non-electronic evidence can be crucial in the investigation
of electronic crime. Proper care should be taken to ensure that evidence
is recovered and preserved. Item relevant to subsequent examination of
electronic evidence existing in other forms - blank pads of paper with
indented writing, hardware and software manual, calendars, literature,
text or graphical computer print outs and photographs)- should be
secured and preserved for further analysis.
To prevent the alteration of digital evidence during collection,
investigating officer should first document any activity on the
computer, components or devices.
Confirm the power state of the computer, check for flashing lights,
running fans and other sounds that indicate the computer power state
cannot be determined from these indicators, observe the monitor to
determine if it is on, off, or in sleep mode.
Situation assessment
After indentifying the computers power status, follow the steps listed
below to take evidence in accordance with the respective situation.
Situation 1: The monitor is on. It display a programme, application,
work product, picture, e-mail or Internet site on the screen.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Photograph the screen and record the information displayed.
Proceed to “if the computer is on”.
Situation 2: The monitor is on; however, the display is blank as
the monitor is off.
Move the mouse slightly without depressing any buttons or
rotating the wheel. The display will change from a blank screen
to a login screen, work product, or other visible display. Note the
change in the display.
Photograph the screen and record the information displayed.
Proceed to “If the computer is on”.
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Situation 3a: The monitor is powered off. The display is blank.
i.
ii.
iii.
If the monitor’s powers which is in the off position, turns the
monitor on, the display changes from a blank screen to a login
screen, work product, or other visible display. Note that the
charger is on display.
Photograph the screen and the information displayed.
Proceed to “if the computer is on”.
Situation 3b: The monitor is powered off. The display is blank.
i.
ii.
iii.
If the monitor’s power switch is in the off position, turn the
monitor on. The display does not change, it remains blank. Note
that no change in the display occurs.
Photograph the blank screen.
Proceed to “if the computer is off”.
Situation 4: The monitor is on, the display blank.
i.
ii.
iii.
Move the mouse slightly without depressing any buttons or
rotating the wheel; wait for a response.
If the display does not change and the screen remains blank,
confirm that power is being supplied to the monitor. If the display
remains blank, check the computer case for active lights, listen
for the fans spinning or other indications that the computer is on.
If the screen remains blank and the computer case gives an
indication that the computer is off”.
Other form of evidence
Be alert to the crime scene environment look, out for pieces of paper
with possible password, handwritten notes, blank pads of paper with
impressions from prior writings, hardware software manuals, calendars,
hardware and text or graphic material printed from the computer that
may reveal information relevant to the investigation. These forms of
evidence also should be documented and preserved.
Electronic devices such as those listed below may contain information
of evidentiary value to an investigation. Except in emergency situation,
such devices should not be operated and the information they might
contain should not be accessed directly. If a situation warrant accessing
theses devices and the information they contain immediately, all actions
taken should be thoroughly documented.
Data may be lost if a device is not properly handled or its data properly
accessed.
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The following are examples of electronic devices, components, and
peripherals that investigator may need to collect as digital evidence.
Audio recorders, GPS accessories, answering machines, computer chips,
pagers, cordless landline telephones, copy machines, cellular telephones,
hard disk, facsimile (fax machines), printers, multifunction machines
(printer, scanner and copier) wireless access point, laptop power
supplies and accessories, smart cards, videocassettes (VCRs), scanners,
telephone caller ID units, personal computer memory card, international
association ( PCMCIA) cards, PDAs, etc.
What is electronic evidence? Why is it necessary to preserve electronic
evidence?
3.7
Packaging, Transportation and Storage of Digital
Evidence
Digital evidence, the computer and electronic devices on which it is
stored are fragile. They are also sensitive to extreme temperature,
humidity, physical shock, static electricity and magnetic fields.
Investigators should therefore take precautions when documenting,
photographing, packaging, transporting and storing digital evidence to
avoid altering, damaging or destroying the data.
Packaging procedures
All actions related to the identification, collection, packaging, and
transportation and storage of digital evidence should be thoroughly
document when packing digital evidence for transportation, the
investigator should ensure that all digital evidence collected, is properly,
documented, labeled, marked, photographed, video-recorded or scotched
and inventoried before it is packaged. All connections and connected
devices should be labeled for easy reconfiguration of the system later.
Remember that digital evidence may also contain latent, trace or
biological evidence so take appropriate steps to preserve it.
Digital evidence imaging should be done before latent, trace or
biological evidence processes are conducted on the evidence.
Pack all digital evidence in antistatic packaging. Only paper bags and
envelopes, cardboard should be used for packaging digital evidence.
Plastic materials should not be used because plastic can produce or
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convey static electricity and allow humidity and condensation to
develop, which may damage or destroy the evidence.
Ensure that all digital evidence is packaged in a manner that will prevent
it from being bent, scratched or otherwise deformed. Label all containers
used to package and store digital evidence clearly and properly. Leave
cellular mobile or smart phone in the power state (on or off) in which
they were found.
Package mobile or smart phone(s) in signal-blocking material such as
faraday isolation bags, radon frequency, shredding material, or
aluminum foil to prevent data messages from being sent or received by
the devices. Investigators should be aware that if inappropriately
packaged or removed from shielded packaging, the device may send and
receive data messages if in the range of communion signal.
Collect all power supplies and adapters for all electronic devices seized.
Transportation procedures
When transporting digital evidence, investigators should keep digital
evidence away from magnetic fields such as those produce by radio
transmitters, speaker magnets and magnetic mount emergency lights.
Other potential hazards that the investigator should beware include seat
heats and any device or material that can produce static electricity.
Avoid keeping digital evidence in a vehicle for prolonged periods of
time. Heat, cold, and humidity can damage or destroy digital evidence.
Ensure that computers and electronic devices are packaged and secured
during transportation to prevent damage from shock and vibration.
Document the transportation of the digital evidence and maintain the
chain of custody on all evidence transported.
Storage procedures
When storing digital evidence, the investigator should:
i.
ii.
iii.
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Ensure that the digital evidence is inventoried.
Ensure that the digital evidence is stored in a secure, climatecontrolled environment or a location that is not subject to extreme
temperature or humidity
Ensure that the digital evidence is not exposed to magnetic fields,
moisture, dust, vibration or any other elements that may damage
or destroy it.
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iv.
v.
MODULE 3
Note that potentially valuable digital evidence including dates,
times and system configuration settings may be lost due to
prolonged storage if the batteries or power source that preserves
the information fails. Where applicable, inform the evidence
custodian and the forensic examiner that electronic devices are
battery powered and require prompt attention to preserve the data
stored in them.
Also, if more than one computer is seized as evidence, all
computers, cables and devices connected to them should be
properly labeled to facilitate reassembly when need arises. In this
example, a computer is designated as computer A. All
connections and cables are marked “A” and a unique number.
Subsequently seized computers can be labeled in alphabetical
order. The corresponding connections and cables can be labeled
with the later number designated for the computer and a unique
number to ensure proper reassembly.
How will you package and store digital evidence collected?
3.8
Electronic Crime and Digital Evidence Consideration by
Crime Category
The list of electronic crime and digital evidence consideration as
presented below are not exhaustive, but are intended to assist an
investigator identify sources of potentially valuable digital evidence by
crime category. Depending on the complexity of the scene and the
situation the investigator may need to request more advanced technical
assistance.
In some circumstance, trace, latent or biological evidence such as
fingerprints or DNA that may be important to the investigation may be
present on computer and their components or on other electronic
devices.
To assist in the forensic examination, the investigator should document
the following information when possible:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
A summary of the case
Passwords to digital evidence seized
Investigation point- of –contact information
Preliminary reports and documents
Keyword lists
Suspected criminal activity
Suspected information including nicknames
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Child abuse or exploitation
Potential digital evidence in child abuse or child exploitation
investigations includes computers, scanners, mobile communication
devices, video, cameras, calendars or journals, digital camera software,
Internet activity records, photo editing and viewing software, printed email, notes, letters or records of chat sessions, web cameras and
microphones, computer games, printers and copiers, information
regarding stenography, removable media, external data storage devices
and videotapes.
Computer intrusion
Potential digital evidence in computer intrusion investigation includes:
computer network devices, antennas, removable media, external data
storage devices, web cameras, wireless network equipment, list of
contacts and address books, lists of Internet protocol address, list or
records of computer intrusion software, records of Internet chart
sessions, printed e-mail, notes and letters, printed computer programme
code, executable programme list of computer accessed, notes or record.
Counterfeiting
Potential digital evidence in counterfeiting investigations includes:
computer, handheld mobile devices, PDAs or address books,
information regarding Internet activities information regarding cheeks,
currency and money orders, removable media and external data storage
devices, credit card, magnetic strip reader, online banking software,
calendars, reproduction of signatures, false identification, false financial
transaction forms and information regarding financial records.
Death investigation
Potential digital evidence in the death investigations includes: computer,
Internet service bills, removable media records, personal writings and
diaries, medical records, printed e- mail, notes and letters, financial or
asset records, recently printed material information regarding legal
documents and will-making software or references.
Domestic violence, threats and extortion
Potential digital evidence in domestic violence, threats and extortion
investigations includes computers, removable media, user names and
accounts, external data storage devices, mobile communication devices,
telephone records, PDAs or address books, financial records or asset
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records, personal writing and diaries, legal documents and caller ID
units.
Gambling
Potential digital evidence in gambling investigations includes:
computers, removable media, PDA, gambling investigation address
books or contact list, external data storage devices, customer databases
and better records, electronic money transfers, online banking software,
calendars, sports betting statistic, financial asset records, printed e-mail,
notes and letters and references to online gambling sites.
Narcotics
Potential digital evidence in narcotic investigations includes: computer,
handheld mobile devices, removable media, PDAs address books,
contacts information, forged identification databases, drug receipts,
blank prescription forms, printed e-mail, notes and letters, financial asset
records and GPS devices.
Online or economic fraud
Potential digital evidence in online or economic fraud investigations
includes: computer, handheld mobile devices, removable media,
external data storage devices, address books and client lists, customer
database or records, calendars or databases, forged identification,
information regarding Internet activities, financial asset records and
printed e- mail, notes and letters.
Software piracy
Potential digital evidence in software piracy investigations includes:
computer, handheld mobile devices, removable media, external data
storage devices, information regarding chart sessions, information on
cracking software, printed e- mails, notes and letters, references to
copyrighted software, forged certificates, lists of software activation
codes, information regarding Internet activity and software duplication.
Telecommunication fraud
Potential digital evidence in telecommunication fraud investigation
includes: computer, handheld mobile devices, removable media,
external data storage devices, phone programming software and cables,
multiple mobile phones, subscriber identity, module (SIM) card reader,
hacker boxes and cables, lists of customer, database records, stolen
telephones, printed e- mail, notes and letters, financial asset records,
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information regarding Internet activity, telephone programming,
manuals and erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)
burner.
Terrorism (homeland security)
Potential digital evidence in terrorism investigations includes: computer,
handheld mobile devices, removable media, external data storage
devices, communication devices, voice over Internet, protocol routers
and switches, GPS equipment, information regarding Internet activity,
information regarding stenography and printed e- mail, notes and letters.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have explained that computers can be use to commit crime, and can
contain evidence of crime. Understanding the role and nature of
electronic evidence greatly helps in managing a crime scene containing
potential electronic evidence. We also learnt that an investigator may be
responsible for the recognition, collection, preservation, transportation
and or storage of electronic evidence. We have also explained that
electronic evidence is, by its very nature, fragile because it can be
altered, damaged, or destroyed by improper handling or improper
examination. So special precautions should be taken to document,
collect, preserve and examine this type of evidence.
We also know that the investigation of electronic crime scene requires
that officers, investigators and forensic examiners all play a vital role.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have examined electronic crime scene investigation by
looking at the following aspects, electronic devices types, description
and potential evidence in crime scene, investigative tools and
equipment, securing and evaluating the scene, documenting the scene,
evidence collection at the scene, evidence transportation and storage of
digital evidence as well as electronic crime and digital evidence
consideration by crime category.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
180
What are electronic devices? Describe two types and sources of
potential evidence.
Describe how you will package and store your digital evidence.
What is the significance of securing a crime scene?
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7.0
MODULE 3
Casey, A. & Eoghan, S. (2000). Digital Evidence and Computer Crime:
Forensic Science, Computers and the Internet. San Diego:
Academic Press.
Davis, W. S. (1991). Computing Fundamentals: Concepts. (3rd ed.).
Boston: Addison-Wetly Publishing Co.
National Institute of Justice (2000). Crime Scene Investigation. A Guide
for Law Enforcement. Washington, D.C.
National White Colour Crime Centre (1999). Using the Internet as an
Investigative Tool. West Virgina, USA: White Colour Crime
Center Press.
Rosenblatt, K. S. (1996). High-Technology Crime: Investigating Cases
Involving Computers. California: KSK Publications.
US Department of Justice. Computer Crime and Intellectual Properly
Section.
2001. Searching and Seizing Computers and Obtaining Electronic
Evidence in Criminal Investigations. USA: Starch Press.
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UNIT 4
TYPES OF CRIME SCENE AND POWERS OF
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATORS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Definition of Crime Scene Investigation
3.2
Types of Crime Scene
3.3
Types of Evidence at the Crime Scene
3.4
Types of Crime Scene Investigators
3.5
Powers of Crime Scene Investigators
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What are the various types of crime scenes? And what powers can crime
scene investigators exercise?
The crime scene is offen the only place that holds the answers to the
events that surround a crime. The crime scene must be searched
meticulously and every observation must be documented. The various
issues that will be examined in this unit that will introduce you to types
of crime scene and powers of crime scene investigators includes,
definition of crime scene investigation, types of crime scene, types of
crime scene investigators and powers of crime scene investigators.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
182
list the various types of crime scene
explain types of crime in relation to the scene
analyse types of crime scene investigators
state the powers of crime scene investigators
enumerate the characteristics of various crime scenes.
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3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Definition of Crime Scene Investigation
What is crime scene investigation?
A lot of things will happen during a crime scene investigation, but first
is the collection of physical evidence. The process of what transpires at a
crime scene is very complex. It involves a number of different searches
and collections that help to solve the crime. The crime scene is often the
only place that holds the answers to the events that surround a crime.
The crime scene must be searched meticulously and every observation
must be documented.
The use of physical evidence at the scene of the crime and the use of
deductive and inductive reasoning to gain knowledge of the events
surrounding the crime is very important. Crime scene investigation is
multidisciplinary and involves a systematic search of the crime scene,
meticulous observation and documentation of the scene, photography
and sketching of the scene, the identification, processing and collection
of physical evidence such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, hairs,
fibers, biological fluids and materials for DNA analysis and perhaps
most important, the application of careful reasoning of the facts.
Crime scene investigation has the following characteristics:
Collection of evidence: Quite a bit of photography and crime scene
sketching takes place at the crime scene. Physical evidence is collected
for identification such as hairs, fibbers, fingerprints and DNA.
Prevention/solution: Sealed-off crime scene so that there is no chance
of contaminating the area surrounding the scene. This is why the area is
sealed off with the yellow “crime scene” tape.
Goals: No crime is the same, but the goal of collecting any evidence that
might reveal what happen and who did it is always the same. Witnesses
are questioned and this has to be accomplished as soon possible.
Expert insight: The professional at a crime scene usually conduct
themselves in a manner different from the average person. Nothing is
touched without gloves and places and items
that may have been
overlooked are examined e.g. mouthpiece of a phone or a fiber of a hair
that is entwined in a garment.
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Laboratory: Everything that is harvested from the crime scene is
protected and taken to the forensics for further analysis. All of the
evidence will go through a series of tests that will lead investigators
closer to solving the crime.
Describe the main characteristics of a crime scene.
3.2
Types of Crime Scenes
There are several types of crime scenes. These are:
Organised (non-social) crime scene. Here the killer shows planning,
premeditation and an effort to avoid detection. An individual is well
aware of what he is doing and makes every effort to avoid incriminating
evidence police could use to catch him. Organised murderers are those
who plan their murders, target their victims (who are usually strangers),
show self control at the crime scene by leaving few clues, and possibly
act out a violent fantasy against the victim, including dismemberment or
torture. The main characteristics of organised crime scene are as
follows:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Planned offense
Transports body
Body hidden
Controlled conversation
Missing weapon or evidence
Victim is a targeted stranger
personalises victim
Crime scene reflects control
Restraints used
Aggressive acts done before death.
Disorganised crime scene: The disorganised murderer does not plan his
crime in details, obtains victim by chance, and behave haphazardly
during the crime. In this type of crime scene, there are spontaneous
actions and frenzied assaults. Victim selected at random and crime scene
is usually where the encounter took place. The offender uses materials at
hand. Hurried or blitz-style attack, and crime scene is disarrayed. The
main characteristics of disorganised crime scene are as follows:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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Body left at death scene
Spontaneous offense
Evidence or weapon present at scene
Victim or location known
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
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Body left in view
Depersonalises victim
Sexual acts after death
Minimal conversation
Minimal use of restraints
Crime scene sloppy
Sudden violence to victim.
Mixed crime scene: The mixed crime scene shows characteristics from
both organised and disorganise crime scene. It could indicate the
presence of two offenders, or that the offenders planned the crime and
were interrupted during the act. Also the offenders may have staged the
scene.
A classical crime scene: Crime scene that can’t be classified by the data
available. Decomposed remains fall under this type. The police or
profiteers may have to take other thing into consideration when faced
with this crime scene. They may look into crime database to see if
anything at the scène matches other previous crime scenes.
The outdoor crime scene: The outdoor crime scene is the most
vulnerable to lose contamination, and deleterious change of physical
evidence in a relatively short period of time individuals with access to
the scene can potentially alter, destroy or contaminate evidence.
The risk is greatest when crime scene investigators fail to secure the
crime scene properly. Destruction or deterioration of evidence due to
environmental conditions such as heat, cold, rain, snow and wind are
problems associated with outdoor scene.
Evidence that cannot be protected under these conditions should be
collected expeditiously without compromising its integrity. Investigators
who encounter a combination of an indoor scene should give priority to
processing the outdoor component.
Night time outdoor crime scenes are particularly problematic.
Regardless of the quality of the light source used to illuminate the
scenes, the lack of sunlight can lead to investigators inadvertently
missing or destroying evidence. Whenever possible, outdoor crime
scenes should be held and secured until daylight for processing.
The indoor crime scene: Evidence at an indoor scene is generally less
susceptible to loss, contamination and deleterious change. Indoor crime
scenes are usually easier to secure and protect and securing such a scene
can be as simple as closing a door. The methods used by forensic
laboratories have evolved so that very small amounts of biological
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material can produce a usable DNA profile. This however means that
the potential for DNA traces deposited by contamination at detecting
crime scene become a factor.
Contamination of any crime scene can easily occur if proper precaution,
such as limiting the number of people inside the scene, is not taken. For
example, first responders, emergency medical personnel, patrol
supervisors, crime scene investigators, and medical examiners are all
potential sources of contamination and/ or loss of evidence.
The conveyance crime scene: Conveyance is defined as “something
that serves as a means of transportation. Types of crimes committed in
conveyances include, but are not limited to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Vehicle burglary
Grand theft
Car hijacking
Sexual battery
Homicide
It is important that the crime scene investigator recognises that physical
evidence recovered from this scene may extend well beyond the
conveyance itself. The flight path of the perpetrator may reveal evidence
important to the investigation. For example, impression evidence, such
as shoe or footprints on the ground may be found leading away from the
scene, and property removed from the conveyance may be deposited or
dropped as the perpetrator flees the scene.
Cigarette butts are something found in and around the conveyance. The
nature of the crime may give the investigator an idea of the type of
evidence present. To protect the scene against inclement weather and
other factor that may contribute to evidence loss and/or destruction, a
conveyance such as vehicle may be transported to the laboratory after
proper documentation has been completed.
SELF-ASSEMENT EXERCISE
List four types of crime scenes you know and describe two of them.
3.3
Types of Evidence at a Crime Scene
The key to any successful criminal investigation and prosecution is the
quality of evidence obtained at the crime scene. The more evidence
collected, the greater the likelihood of a conviction. Crime scene
investigators are highly skilled in the investigation and collection of
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evidence, and they often have to be on the lookout for numerous types
of evidence.
The following are some of basic evidence that may be found at a crime
scene:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Physical evidence: Physical evidence is one of the most common
types of evidence found at a crime scene. Physical evidence
consists of the actual physical objects found at the scene such as
damaged cars, broken glass or smashed doors. It also includes
items that are minuscule in size, such as hair or clothing fibers.
An investigator may also collect weapons such as knives or guns,
or fired bullets and sprint casings. Depending on the scene,
physical impressions may also be found, including tire tracks or
footprints. Suspected burglary may lead the investigator to look
for tool marks on the doors or windows. Finally, physical
evidence also includes fingerprints and lipstick impression left on
glasses or cigarettes. If it can be touched, picked up or moved it
constitutes physical evidence.
Trace evidence: Trace evidence is a subset of physical evidence
consisting of evidence so small it may not be readily apparent but
is still found in a sufficient quantity but to be measured. Often a
microscope or ultraviolet light may be needed to see the trace
evidence. Trace evidence can consist of trace amounts of blood
on a will or on a knife blade. It may also include wood splinters
from bullet holes, minute amounts of dirt on a pair of shoes.
Biological evidence: Biological evidenced is any bodily fluid or
other bodily tissue. Technological advances in the last 30years
have placed an increased emphasis on the collection of biological
evidence at crime scenes. Through DNA testing, biological
evidence can provide for a near-positive identification of the
donor. Biological evidence may consist of blood, semen, bone
fragments, skin, saliva or hair.
Drug evidence: While drug evidence is technically physical
evidence, it is usually classified by itself. Drug evidence consists
of any legal or illegal substance construed by law. The evidence
may consist of large quantities of the drug, or trace amounts such
as powder on a spoon or resin in a pipe. It also includes evidence
of the use, ingestion, manufactures or distribution of controlled
substances. Consequently, syringes, scales, pipes and plastic bags
are considered drug evidence if they appear to have been used to
ingest, manufactured or distributed.
Other evidence: There are a variety of other types of evidence
found or collected at a crime scene that may not fit into the listed
categories. Toxicology reports are used to determine what
substances were in a person at the time of the crime. Crime scene
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reconstructions are performed at the scene to try and determine
bullet trajectories or blood spatter. Interviews with witnesses,
suspects and victims also constitute evidence, and most initial
interviews occur at the crime scene.
Evidence collection at a crime scene
A crime scene needs to be kept clean, so that all evidence, like
fingerprint ballistics and fibers collected can be submitted in court
successfully. Criminal prosecutions rely on evidence presented in the
court of law. This means that correctly collected, well preserved and
uncontaminated evidence is vital to a successful outcome.
Crime scene yellow tape is a familiar sight. Crime scenes are
immediately sealed off, not only to prevent the public from seeing a
gory sight, but also to prevent anyone, including police officers and
other investigators from trampling the crime scene and contaminating
the evidence.
In order to preserve the integrity of the evidence of a crime scene,
human contact should be avoided since even one or a few cells from
skin can compromise the results. It is very important to keep careful
track of the chain of custody of each sample—the chain of custody is a
list of date and times and location of people who have handled the crime
scene evidence.
There are different types of evidence that can be collected at a crime
scene and to exclude or include people the investigators are interested in
fingerprints and physical evidence like bodily fluids i.e. blood, saliva
and semen. There is also eyewitness testimony and impression evidence
like tire tracks, tool marks and bits marks soil samples and insects can
also be used if a body is found. When involved in evidence collection,
investigating officer usually put down number markers to indicate where
any shell casings or bullets are located as well as any blood spatter
evidence or other items that need to be photographed in position at the
crime scene.
Other types of evidence that can be collected or preserved at a crime
scene include the following:
i. The most vulnerable evidence is collected first like hair, which could
be blown away by the wind.
ii. Fibers are collected with tweeters and put into separate holding
packets and labeled.
iii.
In interior locations, carpets are vacuumed for trace evidence.
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iv.
v.
vi.
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Tire tracks are photographed and sometimes casts or molds are
made.
Swabs are collected of blood, tissue and other matter of DNA.
Latent prints are taken where they are at the crime scene and
other items are removed to be fingerprinted in the lab.
How are trace evidence detected?
Ultraviolet and infra red lights are often used to find trace evidence at
crime scene but no matter how basic or sophisticated the evidence
collection techniques are, all criminal investigations technicians or
crime scene specialists need to ensure at all times that they maintain a
clean crime scene and keep the evidence uncontaminated.
Discuss three types of evidence found in a crime scene.
3.4
Types of Crime Scene Investigators
Crime scene investigators help law enforcement solve cases by
documenting a crime scene and collecting evidence. The kinds of
investigators that assist in solving crimes are leaders, videographers,
photographers, sketch assist and evidence collectors. Once the evidence
has been collected, it is sent to forensic scientist who analyses the
evidence to help law enforcement personnel interpret it.
i.
ii.
iii.
Leader: The leader at a crime scene is responsible for ensuring
that everything runs smoothly and that every member of the team
works together in an efficient manner. The duties of the leader at
a crime scene include assigning tasks to other members of the
team, overseeing the flow of information to everyone working at
the scene and communicating developments to law enforcement
personnel.
Videographers: Crime scene videographers help to produce a
record of the location along with the videos of crime scene. These
investigators must tell the story of the scene without any bias there should be no narration in the video or backgrounds
discussion caught on tape. Videographers capture all of the items
at the scene through wide angles and close-up shots.
Photographers: Crime scene photographers generally begin
working after videographers have finished recording. These
professionals take photos of major pieces of evidence such as the
victim and latent fingerprints before they are removed from the
scene. When making these records, they will generally take
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iv.
v.
vi.
photos at eye level in order to effect how they would have been
seen by the victim or perpetrator of the crime.
Sketch artists: Like videographers and photographers, crime
scene sketch artists are responsible for making a record of a scene
that will be used by law enforcement and prosecutors until a case
has been resolved. They are responsible for drawing major pieces
of evidence at the scene which is done by using either an
overhead view or a side view perspective. In addition, crime
scene sketch artists also document information about when they
made the sketch including the dates and time, the weather and
lighting condition at the scene and the specific location where the
evidence was found.
Evidence collectors: At each crime scene, the leader assign the
duty of evidence collection to one crime scene investigator - a
practice that is designed to ensure that no evidence is over looked
or compromised during the collection process. Evidence
collectors gather items and prepare them to be sent to forensic
scientists for analysis by packaging and sealing them in bags.
Forensic scientist: Forensic scientist analyses evidence collected
at the scene. The type of forensic scientist who will examine
evidence depends on what is found. For example, a forensic
odontologist may identify an unknown victim based on dental
records, and a forensic toxicologist can determine if a victim was
poisoned or drugged.
List types of crime scene investigators and discuss their roles at the
scene of crime.
3.5
Powers of Crime Scene Investigators
The power of investigators under the law would be seen in the light of
the powers of authority conferred on the police by the law. Some of
these powers are conferred in order to protect the police officer in his
attempt to enforce the law of the state. Others are given to ensure the
actual performance of the functions given the police, for without such
powers no work could be done as far as enforcement of law is
concerned. The powers of criminal investigators are as follows:
(a)
Powers of arrest
Police or investigators powers of arrest arise from section 4 of Police
Act. This section inter alia, states that
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“The police shall be employed for the prevention and detection of crime,
the apprehension of offenders, the preservation of law and order, the
protection of property and the due enforcement of all laws and
regulations with which they are directly charged and shall perform such
military duties within or outside Nigeria as may be required of them by,
or under the authority of the governor general (president).”
This section confers on the police the power of arrest - be it civil, traffic
or criminal. Sections 20, 21, 39 etc of the Police Act; sections 10, 29,
55, of the Criminal Procedure Act (CPA); sections 26, and 61 of the
Criminal Procedure Code (CPC) and so on, provides the power for the
investigators or police to arrest in the course of their duties. The
investigators or police power of arrest are classified into three groups.
They are as follows:
i.
Arrest with warrant: A warrant is defined as “a written authority
signed by a magistrate or judge directing the person or persons to
whom it is addressed usually police officers to perform certain
acts specified therein.” A police officer and indeed a criminal
investigator must seek an authority to arrest when the occasion
arises. The proper person to go to when the need arises as
provided by law is a magistrate or a judge, a justice of peace.
Certain categories of police officers are also empowered to issue
warrant.
There are certain offences which the offender needs to be arrested only
on warrant. An example of such offenses are, defilement, obtaining
money or goods under false pretences, forgery, treason, etc. It is the duty
of an officer investigating a crime of this nature to obtain a warrant from
the appropriate authority before he or she arrests a person or persons
connected with such crimes.
ii.
Powers of arrest without holding warrant:
The law empowers a police officer or investigating officer to arrest any
person to whom a warrant of arrest has been issued against, even
without having such warrant in his possession. This power is provided in
sections 21 of the Act, 29 of Criminal Procedure Act and 61 of the
Criminal Procedure Code. This section says “Any warrant lawfully
issued by a court for apprehending any persons(s) charged with any
offence may be executed by any police officer at any time
notwithstanding that the warrant is not in his possession at that time, but
warrant shall, on the demand of the person apprehended be shown to
him as soon as practicable after his arrest.”
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The provision of this section presupposes that an investigator or any
police officer should not allow a criminal whom warrant of arrest has
been issued against, to wander away, merely because he or she (the
police officer) did not possess the warrant for such arrest. Instead, the
arrest should be effected and afterward, the warrant be should to such
arrested person on his demand.
(iii).
Power of arrest without a warrant: The law also conferred on the
police or investigator the power to arrest without a warrant. This
is contained in sections 20, 21, 41, of the Police Act, section 10
of the Criminal Procedure Act, section 26, of Criminal Procedure
Code etc.
In addition to the powers of arrest without warrant conferred upon a
police officer by section 10 of the Criminal Procedure Code, it shall be
lawful for any police officer or investigator to arrest without warrant in
the following cases:
i.
ii.
(b)
Any person whom he finds committing any felony misdemeanor
or simple offence or whom he reasonably suspects of having
committed or of being about to commit any felony, misdemeanor
or breach of the peace.
Any person who any other person suspects of having committed a
felony or misdemeanor, or charges with having committed a
simple offense if such other person is willing to accompany the
police officer to the police station and to enter into a
recognizance to prosecute the charge.
Power to prosecute
The police and indeed investigators are conferred with the authority to
prosecute most criminal cases before any court. This power is stipulates
that
“Any police officer may conduct in person all prosecutions before any
court whether the information or complaint be laid in his name or not.”
However, the provision of this section has been amended by Decree No
35 of 1969.
This amendment provides that “subject to the power of the Federal
Attorney-General or the Attorney-General of a state to institute,
continue or discontinue criminal proceedings against any person in any
court, any police officer may conduct in person all prosecutions before
any court whether or not the information or complaint is laid in his
name”.
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When a crime is committed and arrest made, the police do not take the
criminals to their houses or just lock them up in their cell, the law
provides punishment for all offences committed, so prosecution is a
process to make criminals face punishment of their criminal acts.
The power to prosecute is also contained in section 223 (2) and (3) of
the Criminal Procedure Act. Prosecuting a case is not just carrying an
accused to court. It involves bringing to bare the guilt of the offender
before the court, who will in turn prescribe appropriate punishment for
such action or inaction. With powers to prosecute, investigators/police
help in punishing offenders and hence prevent crime by deterring others
from committing same or similar crime.
(c)
Power to hold in custody and to release on bail
Section 20, 21 and 41 of Police Act and other related section in CPA
and provides police with powers to arrest without warrant. However,
section 23 of the police act and section 18 of the Criminal Procedure Act
(CPA) empowers the police to release persons they arrest and taken into
custody on bail, if such arrested person cannot be taken before a court of
law as soon as possible.
Simply, the section provides that when a person is arrested, he or she
should not be detained for a prolonged time, and instead he or she
should be taken before a court where such arrested person could be dealt
with, according to the law. However, there are certain categories of
crimes for which the offenders may not be released on bail by the police.
This is categorised as “serious or capital offenders”. Examples of such
offences are murder, robbery, or any other crime of which punishment
on conviction is imprisonment for life or death. Under such situation,
police has power to hold such arrested person in custody until
investigation is completed.
Section 25 of the Police Act empowers police to detain (hold in custody)
and search any person whom they found or reasonably suspects to have
in his possession any stolen property. Police also has power to hold
person in protective custody who either as a complainant or suspect in
any case under investigation, they think is exposed to danger or person
whose presence they consider might endanger the security of the state.
This is enshrined in Decree No 2 of 1987.
(d)
Power to stop and search
The power to stop, detain and search is also derived from section 25 of
the Police act. It is interpreted to mean that the police can search any
suspected person along the way or anywhere, provided such suspicion is
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reasonable. By this, an officer applying this power must be prepared to
show why his action is necessary, especially when it is proved that the
person is in lawful possession of the property or where it is found that
there is nothing incriminating on the person.
Investigating police officers could apply this power mostly at scene of
crimes especially in cases such as stealing, burglary and houses
breaking, robbery etc. It should be borne in mind that if a person is
searched and items found on him are proved to be lawfully possessed, or
nothing incriminating found on him or her, and is not suspected of any
other offence, such person should be allowed to go.
(e)
Power to search and seize
The police or investigators has power under the law to enter and search
any house, shop, building, warehouse, or other premises for stolen
property, and to seize and secure any property he has reason to believe
has been stolen or unlawfully obtained.
The power of the police here rest on the issue of a search warrant by a
magistrate or judge of a superior police officer.
Search warrants are mostly issued by magistrate or judges, but section
24 of the Police Act empowers a superior police officer to sign an
authority for a police officer to enter any house, shop or building or
other premises, to search for stolen property, seize and secure any
property believe to have been stolen.
This section states that “A superior police officer may by authority
under his hand authorise any police officer to enter any house, shop,
warehouse, or other premises in search of stolen property, and search
therein and seize and secure any property he may believe to do, if he had
search warrant and the property seize if any correspond to the property
described in such search warrant.”
It is the duty of an investigating officer who has reason to believe that
any stolen property is concealed in a house, premises or building to seek
authority or an order from a superior police officer or a search warrant
from a magistrate or judge. To obtain a search warrant, a police officer
must go before a magistrate or judge and file information on oath,
indicating the particulars of his suspicious and place to be searched and
things to be seized if seen.
Officers should avoid searching place other than that described in the
warrant. However, they can seize items that are not listed in the warrant
as long as they have reason to believe they are offensive to the law.
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When executing a search anywhere, an investigating officer should
ensure that he is fully assisted by another police officer who may play
the role of a witness. The complainant of which case the officer is
investigating may be there too for the purpose of identification. And
inventories of items seized are noted at the back of the warrant or order.
There is another form of search and seizure. This has to do with the
search of arrested persons before taking them into custody. The
authority to search an arrested person is derived from sections 6 (1) of
the Criminal Procedure Act.
(f)
Power of ingress
Power of ingress means the act of or right and power to enter into a
place. The police or investigators have power under section 7 and 8 of
the Criminal Procedure Act, and 34 of Criminal Procedure Code to
break into a building or room while in pursuit of a criminal offender,
who has escaped into or is suspected to be in such building or room, and
break out to secure his freedom if by his/her action he/she is detained
therein. Section 7(1) states that “If any person, investigator or police
officer acting under a warrant of arrest or otherwise having authority to
arrest, has reason to believe that the person to be arrested has entered
into or is within any place, the person residing in or being in charge of
such place, shall on demand of such person as aforesaid or such police
officer allow him free ingress thereto and afford all reasonable activities
to search for the person sought to be arrested.”
This section imposes an obligation on persons whom a felon may run to
after committing an offence. Such person is requested to grant free
access (ingress) to any police officer or such investigators who has a
warrant to arrest such offender, to enter his room, store or building etc
wherein such offender is.
Should ingress be denied?
Section 7(2) provides the next line of action. “If ingress to such place
cannot be obtained under section 7(1), any such person therein for the
person to be arrested, effect an entrance into such place, may break open
any outer or inner door or window of any house or place, whether that of
the person to be arrested or of any other person or otherwise, effect entry
into such house or place, if after notification of his authority and purpose
and demand of admittance duty made, he cannot otherwise obtain
admittance”.
This section is in fact an extension of police power to arrest. If an officer
is endeavouring to arrest an offender and the person to be arrested ran or
escaped or concealed him or herself in a house or a building or a store.
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This section empowers the investigator or officer to break into the place
if he is by whatever means prevented from gaining free access into that
place, to execute his/her lawful purpose. The investigating officer in the
same vein has the power to break out, to free himself, should he suffer
any form of imprisonment in that process.
“Any police officer or investigator authorised to make an arrest may
break out of any house or place in order to liberate himself or any other
person who having lawfully entered for the purpose of making an arrest
is detained therein.”
It should be borne in mind that the fundamental arm of this provision is
to aid investigating officers or police officers to make arrest. While
invoking the provision of this section, officers should make sure that the
underlying reasons for breaking into and out of the house, is to make an
arrest, or search for person to be arrested and nothing more.
The section doses not empower police officers to break into and out of a
house with the aim of searching for stolen properties. Where this is
necessary a search warrant from a magistrate should be obtained to do
this. Again, the section is also interpreted as an act of force toward
refusal or resistance by a house owner or keeper, to allow a police
officer or investigator with warrant of arrest, free access to search for,
and arrest whom a warrant of arrest has been issued against. The
implication of this is that, where there is no refusal to grant ingress,
there should no need to break in.
The power to break-in and out should be applied with almost discretion.
An investigating officer should consider his safety first before breaking
into any house or store in pursuit of a felon and he should also consider
the nature of the offence.
People often misrepresent the provisions of these sections of the law to
include the power to break into a house and search for stolen or
incriminating property. This is not true. While a law like this exists, it is
not the same as power to break in and out. An investigation could only
apply the power of ingress (break in and out) to enter and search for
stolen or any incriminating property, only when armed with a search
warrants, and is prevented from entering the place to be searched. Under
this situation, he has the power to break in and search for the stolen or
incriminating property. This power is derived from section 2 of Decree
No. 24 of 1967.
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(g)
MODULE 3
Power to question (interrogate) people
Police officers and indeed investigators have power to conduct enquires
into crime incidents reported to them. To do this effectively, they are
vested with the power to interrogate or question people whether
suspected or not, with a view of discovering the author of a crime. The
authority to do this is derived from Judges Rule 1. This rule states that
“When a police officer is seeks to discover the author of a crime, there is
no objection to his putting questions in respect thereof to any person or
persons whether suspected or not, from whom he thinks useful
information can be obtained.”
However, Judges Rules which are number 1-9 are not law per se. They
are set of rules and drawn by judges of Queen Bench Division in
England. Though not law, they attract the force of law because of
regular citation and application.
The totality of the work of an investigator lies on this power, because
through questioning, an investigating police officer (IPO) can discover
facts of a case under investigation. The secret of a successful
investigator lies on the judicious and efficient use of the power of
interrogation.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have explained that crime scene is often the only place that holds the
answers to the events that surround a crime. We also discussed special
precautions to be taken when arriving at a crime scene. Various types of
crime scenes were also mentioned and discussed. These include
organised, disorgainsed and mixed crime scenes. Also outdoor, indoor,
and conveyance crime scene were all discussed. We also noted that
crime scene investigators have power to effect an arrest, search,
interrogate, seize and ingress (“break in and out”).
Various crime scene evidence like physical, trace, biological, and drug
evidence were highlighted. Finally crime scene investigators such as
leader, videographer, photographer, sketch artist, evidence collectors,
and forensic scientists were discussed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed and examined meaning of crime scene
investigation, types of crime scene, types of crime evidence, types of
crime scene investigators and power of crime scene investigators.
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6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
7.0
Enumerate five powers of crime scene investigators and discuss
them.
List four types of evidence that may be found at a crime scene
and discuss three of them.
Write short note on the following:
a.
Indoor crime scene
b.
Outdoor crime scene
c.
Orgainsed crime scene.
REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING
Ewoh, U.R. (2000). Introduction to Crime Investigation. Port Harcourt:
Manson Publishers.
Fisher, B. A. J. (1993). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. (5th
ed.). Florida: CRC Press Inc.
Fox, R. H. & Carl, I. (1973). Crime Scene Search and Physical Evidence
Handbook. U.S.A: National Institute of Physical.
Geberth, U. J. (1996). Crime Scene and Evidence Collection Handbook.
CRC Press.
Kirch, G. A. (1998). Crime Scene Search and Physical Evidence
Management. Student Training Manual. U.S.A: American
Institute for Police Science.
Kirk, P .L. (1974). Crime Investigation. (2nd ed.). NY: John Wiley and
Sons.
Swanson, C. R. (2003). Criminal Investigation (8th ed.). Boston:
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MODULE 4
MODULE 4
INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Interrogations
Confessions/Written Statements
Informants
Interviews
UNIT 1
INTERROGATIONS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Interrogation
3.2
Goals of Interrogation
3.3
Interrogation Process/Procedures
3.4
Techniques of Interrogation
3.5
General Rules Governing the Interrogation of Suspect and
Witnesses
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is interrogation? And how is it related to criminal investigation?
Interrogation is an aspect of crime investigation that has to do with
asking questions. It refers to the formal questioning of a person involved
in a crime or suspected to be involved in a crime by a police or crime
investigator, with a view of establishing if he actually committed the
crime or not; and if he does, the reason behind the action, and or where
he did it. Interrogation often precedes statement taking. The essence of
interrogating a suspect before taking down his or her statement is to
enable such a detective to have full knowledge of the matter at hand.
This may enable him to spot digression or deliberate distortion of fact in
the suspect’s statement. Interrogation could be done by one or more
investigators or detectives. It depends on the type of investigation being
undertaken or the nature of crime under investigation. In serious crimes
like robbery, murder, rape, treasonable felony etc interrogation is done
by a group of investigators. It also depends on the organisation or the
investigation bureau/department. Some bureaus assign cases for
investigation to group of investigators refer to as “team”. Three or more
persons may make up a team and each team is headed by the most
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experienced or senior in rank. Under this form of organisation of
investigations, interrogation is by the group of persons that make up that
team.
you to the concept of interrogation include meaning of interrogation,
goals of interrogation, process/procedures and techniques of
interrogation.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain the meaning of interrogation
analyse the various techniques of interrogation
state the importance or goals of interrogation
describe the procedures/process of interrogation
enumerate police interrogation techniques
explain the general rules governing the interrogation of suspect
and witnesses.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Interrogation
The term interrogation can be viewed from several angles all pointing to
the same thing. Interrogation could mean a sentence of inquiry that asks
for a reply. It could also mean a transmission that will trigger an
answering transmission from a responder. The act of interrogation or
questioning, examination by questions: inquiry.
Interrogation is an asymmetrical form of dialogue, such that the goals
and methods used by one side are different from those used by the other
side. The interrogation seeks to acquire information from the respondent
that is needed for some purpose, such as action to discover “who did it”.
The goal of the respondent is to achieve his or her own interests,
significantly including self protection and possibly to achieve wider
social goals (particularly if they are a witness or are innocent).
There are three types of interrogation:
i.
ii.
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Interrogation that seeks information that the respondent will
freely give, for example of a witness to a crime.
Interrogation that seeks information that the respondent does not
want to divulge, for example in questioning friends of a suspected
criminal.
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iii.
MODULE 4
Interrogation that seeks confession, an admission to a particular
act, for example in questioning a suspected criminal.
In criminal or military interrogation, the questioner is often an officer of
some kind who is trained in many interrogation techniques. The person
being questioned may be a suspect or a witness, and techniques used
may thus vary quite significantly. For example:
A military interrogator causes complete emotional collapses of a
captive suspected of terrorism, who then reveals names, dates and
targets.
A police officer questions a witness at the scene of an accident.
A parent questions a child about what happened at the party last night.
While interrogation is not directly about persuasion, it includes many
persuasive elements. The main goals of interrogation are usually
acquisition of information and the most significant persuasion in this is
to get the other person to collaborate. Because the respondent may well
be motivated not to reveal all or tell other than the truth, the interrogator
may need to use various tricks to achieve their goals. A significant trap
in interrogations is that the person being questioned will give answers
simply to get away from the interrogator or otherwise give false
information about what is being sought (such as a witness ‘being
helpful’). It is thus important for the interrogator not to take simple
answers at face value, but to find ways of corroborating them, for
example by asking related questions at a later date or checking up on
what they are told. If evidence is to stand up in open court, it must be
virtually bullet-proof.
The process of interrogation is often constrained by law in some way. In
particular, if police use excessive pressure on a suspect, then in court
such confession or evidence may be consider unsafe. An interrogation is
also the direct questioning of a person under conditions which are partly
or fully controlled by the questioner. A police interrogation involves
persuasion, influence and trickery with the goal being to obtain a
confession or at least an admission of anything that would implicate the
suspect in criminal behaviour. Interrogation can occur at the police
station, in jail or at the scene of a crime. There are two types of police
interrogation:
1.
Custodial interrogation: A custodial interrogation is an
interrogation of a person in custody who is reasonably suspected
of being directly involved in or responsible for an offense. The
person being interrogated is not free to leave police custody.
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2.
Once a person is in police custody, the suspect must be read his
Miranda rights if the police want to question him and to use the
answers as evidence at trial.
Non-custodial interrogation (also called an interview): A noncustodial interrogation is the gathering of information by police
from a person that is not yet officially being investigated. An
interviewee is not in police custody and is free to leave at
anytime. A non-custodial interview does not require the police to
read to the suspect his Miranda rights.
How do you end a police interrogation?
A non custodian interrogation can be ended by leaving. If the police do
not allow the person to leave, then the interrogation has changed from a
non-custodial interrogation to a custodial interrogation. A custodial
interrogation may be stopped by:
i.
ii.
A clear request for an attorney
A clear request to remain silent.
But after either request, if the suspect initiates conversation, then any
statement made may be used against the suspect as evidence at trial.
Information that is voluntarily disclosed to the police is generally
admissible at trial. To elicit voluntary statements, the police may:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Use psychological ploys like lying or selectively revealing
important facts
Use verbal trickery
Use other non-violent and non-coercive deception.
In trying to elicit information from a suspect, the police are not
allowed to:
Use physical force such as torture
Mental coercion such as mental torture, brainwashing, or
drugging
Threats or insults
Exposure to unpleasant and inhumane treatment
Use inducements, such as the promise of bail or of nonprosecution.
Evidence obtained directly as a result of an illegal interrogation cannot
be used in court as evidence against a defendant. In addition, evidence
that would not have been obtained but for the illegal interrogation is also
inadmissible at trial.
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MODULE 4
Define the concept interrogation and its implications.
3.2
Goals of Interrogation
What are the various goals of interrogation?
Police questions suspects for two reasons, to get more information about
the case and to induce suspects to confess. Contrary to the stereotype
held by some, police handbooks state that the main goal for the
interrogation of suspects by the police is to gain information that
furthers the investigation. O’ Hara and O’ Hara (1980) state that
interrogation is not simply a means of inducing an admission of guilt,
but includes a number of other specific goals such as the location of
physical evidence, the identity of accomplice, and details of other crimes
in which the suspect participated. Also, the real objective of
interrogation is the exploration and resolution of issues, not necessarily
the gaining of a written or oral confession.
As earlier stated, interrogation is the questioning of a person suspected
of having committed a crime. It is designed to match acquired
information to a particular suspect in order to secure a confession. The
goals of interrogation therefore include:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
To learn the truth of the crime and how it happened
To obtain an admission of guilt from the suspect
To obtain all the facts to determine the method of operation and
the circumstance of the crime in question
To gather information that enables investigators to arrive at
logical conclusions
To provide information for use by the prosecutor in possible
court action
What is legal during interrogations? The following is a list of examples
of interrogation tactics that are allowed while pursuing the goals of
interrogation.
1.
Misrepresentation of the facts of the case.
a.
Falsely telling the suspect that another suspect has named
him as the prime suspect.
b.
Falsely telling the suspect that his wife has confessed to
possessing and committing the act.
c.
Subjecting the suspect to a staged identification procedure
in which he is picked out as the culprit.
d.
Misleading a murder suspect into believing that the victim
is still alive.
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2.
3.
Use of techniques that take undue advantage of the emotions,
beliefs or medical condition of the defendant.
a.
Telling the suspect that if he does not confess, the police
officer might lose his job and his family with or sympathy
or concern for the suspect.
b.
Misrepresenting the reason for professional assistance to
an ill suspect.
c.
Disguising informers as fellow prisoners.
d.
Using fellow prisoners to trap the accused.
e.
Playing on the superstitions of the accused promising
secrecy.
Failure to inform the suspect of some important facts or
circumstances that might make the suspect less likely to confess.
a.
Failing to inform the suspect that an attorney has called
(on his behalf) inquiring if the suspect is to be questioned.
b.
Pretending that evidence favourable to the defendant is
non-existent.
State the goals of police interrogations.
3.3
Interrogation Process/Procedures
How will you initiate an interrogative process?
Interrogation is used with statements for the purpose of obtaining an
admission of guilt. The interrogation should be concluded in a nonsupportive environment this means the person should be put in a
situation where they are away from their normal surroundings. The
interrogation room should be quiet, private and free of any distractions
or noises. The chairs in the room should be facing each other about 4.5
to 5ft apart.
The following nine steps are involved in the process of interrogation:
i.
ii.
iii.
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Positive accusation of the crime mainly to get the suspects
attention and to let them know that you know they committed the
crime.
Theme development – psychological justification (not a legal
justification but a moral justification).
Handling denials: Avoid a person talking and saying “I didn’t do
it”. The more times they say it the less likely you are to get a
confession. Look for key phrases like “can I say one thing or
“hold on one minute”. Interrogation of a truthful person will end
here.
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iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
MODULE 4
Overcoming objection.
Procurement of attention: Moving closer to the person to invade
their personal space to regain and keep their attention.
The passive will pass themselves off as not caring or being
withdrawn from the situation completely.
Alternative question: An alternative question that gets the suspect
to admit their guilt could be: “did you plan this out or was it on
the spur of the moment?” “Did you do this thing yourself or did
somebody talk you into it?”
Oral confession: Once the subject accepts the alternative
question, it is the first admission of guilt. Continue with short
answer questions to further give us details of the crime.
Written confession: The written confession could be written by
suspect, written by investigator and signed by suspect, tape
recorded or video recorded. Either way, that oral confession
needs to be documented into the written confession, and signed
by the individual admitting his/her guilt.
Note: steps five and seven are most important in the process in order to
obtain confession.
Essentially, the modern practice of in-custody interrogation is (now)
psychologically rather than physically oriented but that the degree of
coerciveness inherent in the situation had not diminished. The court’s
majority opinion in Miranda, written by Chief Justice Earl Warren in
1966, noted “the use of physical brutality and violence is not,
unfortunately, related to the past”.
It is also noted that some strategies can be used during the process of
interrogation in order to elicit valuable information from initially
recalcitrant suspects.
1.
Minimisation: Minimisation is reflected in the “soft sell” process
in which the interrogator offers sympathy, face-saving excuses,
or moral justification. Thus, the detective reconceptualises for the
suspect the attributional implications of his or her crime by
seemingly belittling its seriousness (e.g “it’s not all that unusual”
or “I’ve seen thousands of others in the same situation”) or by
providing a face-saving external attribution of blame (e.g. “on the
spur of the moment you did this”). The interrogator might for
example, suggest to the suspect that there were extenuating
circumstances in his/her particular case, providing such excusing
conditions as self-defence, passion or simple negligence. Or the
blame might be shifted onto a specific person, such as the victim
or an accomplice. Often the suspect is asked if the act was victimprecipitated.
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2.
3.
Maximisation: From an entirely different angle, an alternative
strategy is to use “scare” tactics to frighten the suspect into
confessing. One way to accomplish maximisation is by
exaggerating the seriousness of the offence and the magnitude of
the charges. In theft or embezzlement cases, interrogator
presumes to have a firm belief about the suspect’s culpability
based on independent, supposedly factual evidence. A variation
of this procedure or approach is to falsify the magnitude of the
crime with the hope of obtaining a denial that would implicate the
suspect - for example, accusing the suspect of stealing N80,000
when only N20,000 was stolen.
Knowledge-bluff: Police manuals are replete with specific
suggestions about how to use what is referred to as the
“knowledge-bluff” trick. Using this technique, the interrogator
could pretend to have strong circumstantial evidence such as the
suspects’ fingerprints at the crime scenes, the interrogator might
even have a police officer pose as an eyewitness and identify the
suspect in a rigged line up. Another technique in the process is to
focus the suspect on his or her physiological and non-verbal
indicators of an apparent guilty conscience, such as dryness of the
mouth sweating, fidgety body movement, or downcast eyes.
“Baiting questions” are sometimes employed if this approach is
chosen. Such questions are not necessarily accusatory in nature
but still convey to suspects that some evidence exists that links
them to the crime for example, the detective may ask, “Jim, is
there any reason you can think of why one of Mary’s neighbours
would say that your car was seen parked in front of her home that
night?” Without waiting for an answer, the investigator would
them say, “Now I’m not accusing you of anything maybe you just
stopped by to see if Mary was at home”. Sometimes baiting
questions carry the strong implication that the answer is already
known to the police when in fact it is not.
Rapport-building: The third type of approach or procedure is based on
the development of personal rapport with the suspect. Referring to such
rapport-building as the emotional appeal, police manual advises
interrogator’s sympathy, understanding and respect through flattery and
such gestures as the offer of a drink. Having established an amicable
relationship, the interrogator might then try to persuade the suspect that
confessing is in his/her own best interest. In a more elaborate version of
this strategy or procedure, two detectives enact a “Mutt and Jeff” (or
good –cop, bad –cop) tactic in which one comes across a hostile and
relentless, while the other gains the suspects confidence by being
protective and supportive.
A good interrogator must bear the following in mind:
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
MODULE 4
The motivation of the witness.
Knowledge of the elements of the crime or points to prove.
To collect accurate information on the date, time, place method
of the crime, items involved and description of the crime scene.
Background of the persons interrogated and his attitude towards
the investigation. In case of the suspect, his aliases, date, and
place of birth, education, marital status, occupation, financial
background, prior offences, relation to the victim, crime scene,
possible motive etc.
Determine whether the suspect has the capability and opportunity
to commit the offence and should confirm or disprove an alibi.
That many times cases have died naturally due to poor
interrogation.
We all know that interrogation is a conversational process of
information gathering. The aim of the interrogation is to control an
individual so that he or she will either willingly supply the requested
information or if someone is unwilling to participate in the process to
make the person submit to the demands for information. On the
interrogation process, there’s a person involved called interrogator
whereby he seeks to acquire information from the respondent. The
respondent is the one who knows about the situation and was being ask
or force to give any related information.
There are different types or approaches of information gathering that are
being used in crimes, and these include: direct, incentive, emotional,
fear, pride and ego.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Direct approach is about questioning a source without having to
use any approach. The interrogator talks to him/her anywhere like
a normal conservation.
Incentive approach is the most successful approach you get to
bribe the respondent with a cash reward for the information.
Emotional approach is a technique which overrides the
respondent’s rationale for resisting. It’s like putting yourself on
the position of the respondents, you empathise with them, and the
other is telling them things like “you had probably not meant to
do that” “you are just sad” etc. Sometimes the respondent will
feel that the interrogator feels what he/she is going through.
Fear approach is basically telling the respondents what the
consequences are or what might happen to them if they fail to
give the information. You also tell the respondent that you really
need this information or else their loved ones might not take his
medication or any kind of reason that they are afraid of.
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v.
vi.
The pride and ego approach is to constantly flatter the
respondents into providing certain information. You arouse their
sense of self-importance that you wouldn’t solve the problem if
they are not going to help you. Then “we all know” approach is
basically interrogator telling the respondents something that may
or may not be true. For example: “We have the lab result and we
know that you’re the one.” Or “We got your telephone records
we know that you called.” It can be successfully done on sources
or respondents who are in a state of shock, or fear.
Silence approach is just sitting in the room with them
(respondents) the without asking any question. The interrogator
must be patient when using this technique. It will usually succeed
when given a chance. The interrogator will also use body
language such as looking in the eyes very patiently. In either
situation your evaluation will allow you to gather more facts and
evidence to support your investigation.
Interrogation is a bit different from interview. Interview is accomplished
with someone who is ready, willing and able to track. An interrogation
is conducted on someone who is not ready or willing to talk. For this
reason, interrogations involve direct questioning although the steps and
techniques are unique. They are discussed below.
Provide an introduction - The introduction to an interrogation is similar
to that for an interview. You give your name, position and credentials.
When interrogating a suspect or accused person, you state the nature of
the offense under investigation. Tell the interviewee that he is a suspect
or has been accused of that offence, or advise the suspect of his rights. If
the suspect or accused has made incrimination statements or has
questions concerning the crime before being advised of his rights, you
must tell him that the statement cannot be used against him. You must
also say that the statements do not obligate him to answer further
questions.
Suppose a suspect begins to talk before you have advised him of his
right, but after he knows who you are, stop him, read to him his right,
and inform him that his previous statements cannot be used against him.
If the suspect makes a spontaneous exclamation, the statement may be
used as evidence in court.
Ensure that the suspect acknowledges that he understands his right. You
are then ready to fill out the waiver certificate. Once a waiver certificate
has been completed, you then have proof that the suspect either waiver
(gave up) his rights to lawyer or to keep silent, did not waive his right
and wants a lawyer, or does not want to talk.
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MODULE 4
List the steps involved in the process of interrogation. And write short
notes on the following term, as they relate to interrogation.
i.
ii.
iii.
Maximisation
Minimisation
Rapport building.
3.4
Techniques of Interrogation
What techniques would you use during interrogation of a suspect?
Interrogation of a witness as well as a suspect to obtain relevant
information to a crime is an art, and so it has many techniques. The
following are various techniques of interrogation which any investigator
could adopt. These are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Persuasive
Charismatic
Coercive
Intimidating
Bluffing
Deception
Affective techniques.
(A)
Persuasive interrogation: As the name denotes, persuasive
interrogation involve persuasion to a great extent. The
interrogator attempts to persuade the suspect to tell how the
incident happened. No amount of force or threat of force is used.
The approach is that the investigator becomes very friendly and
persuasive. He or she gives the suspect the cause to rely on him
or her with a view of extracting the needed information. This
techniques is very reliable as far as interrogation of suspect is
concerned, with this system, any information gathered from the
suspect is highly reliable, because the suspect or witness releases
them freely and voluntary.
Charismatic interrogation: With this technique, the
interrogator makes use of his or her personal charisma to question
the suspect. The interrogator is able to extract the fact from the
suspect through his personal charm and personality. The quality
the interrogator exudes influences the person being interrogated
and makes him believe that the interrogator could be of help to
him/her. This is a quality every investigator must possess.
Because through it he/she is able to sell his ability to both the
complainant/crime victim as well as the suspect at the first
(B)
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(C)
instance. Information got through charismatic form of
interrogation is very reliable, because just as persuasive it comes
freely and voluntarily without the use of force or intimidation.
Coercive form of interrogation: This is a crude form of
interrogation. It involves force, as well as threat on the part of the
interrogator to the person being interrogated. It is called coercive
because the pattern of interrogation lacks any form of
friendliness, grace and sensitivity towards the suspect or accused.
It is in entirety rough and crude so that the suspect considers the
hostile, crude and the unfriendly environment with the behaviour
of the interrogators, and thus releases freely the hidden secrets or
information he would hitherto not cede to anybody. Often than
not, where the suspects co-operation is not forthcoming, the
interrogators resort to torture and any other form of force. This
system is most valuable in interrogating suspects involved in
serious violent crimes such as armed robbery, terrorism, rape,
murder, etc. especially when the suspect has confessed an aspect
of the crime.
But in recent time, the growth of human rights groups has tried to put
this system of interrogation in check. It is claimed that most innocent
persons admit getting involved in crimes they know nothing about to
stop further pain and harm to their body. The system is not a very
popular one, even the law condemns it, so that if an accused is able to
prove in court that his statement to the police was extracted from him
through the use of force or duress. Such statements remain inadmissible
in law.
(D)
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Deceptive interrogation: This is another form of interrogation
that tends to induce a criminal to confess a crime. However, it is
an improvement over coercive technique where the use of force
and duress make a suspect to release vital information to
interrogators. Here, no amount of force is used, rather the suspect
is deceived in one way or the other to make him talk, confessing
the crime. For instance, in 1993 at Port Harcourt, there was a
theft in a business office involving a huge sum of money. The
money in question was removed by one of the clerks Mr. B in the
office, and given to his younger sister, Miss B2 who visited him
that day. When the crime was discovered Mr B as well as other
employees in that office was picked up by the police for
interrogation. Miss B2 was also picked later when it was
discovered that she visited the office on the day of the theft. She
denied having anything to do with the theft initially. Later she
confessed being with the money when deceived that her brother
told the police that she was with the money, and since then, he
has been trying to reach her without success. She was also made
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MODULE 4
to believe that part of the money belong to her brother, but only
through mistake he (her brother) collected that of his manager
and so if she could bring the money, nothing would be done
against Mr. B. Not knowing that it was a deceit she agreed and
led policemen to her uncle’s house where the whole money was
recovered.
Unlike confession gotten through the use of duress confession obtained
through the use of this form of deceit is not rendered irrelevant or
inadmissible in law. This form of interrogation works best with amateur
criminals. Or one who went into crime by accident.
(E)
Intimidating interrogation: Intimidating interrogation is another
sub-normal form of interrogation. Here interrogators frighten the
person being interrogated by unleashing different forms of
threats, or using intimidating languages. For instance words like
“Look, if you don’t tell me the truth, I will have you shot”, or
“Sergeant, come and take this man to the cell, he is not telling me the
truth” etc.
Other forms of intimidators during interrogation abounds, depending on
the maturity of the interrogator and the suspect, e.g
consider the
following dialogue:
Investigating officer: Tell me where you were
By 6pm on Monday
Suspect: I was at my brother’s house when
Investigating officer: (cut in) shut up your mouth
Suspect: I do not know anything about this case
Investigating Officer: Who told you?
Do you know whom you are talking to?
Suspect: sir, please I....
Investigating Officer: I will S – slap you (he stood up to, but did not
slap).
Before an investigator applies intimidation on any suspect during
questioning, he should consider both the physical and intellectual
maturity of the person under interrogation, else he may not succeed in
this endeavour. This form of interrogation can be very rewarding
sometimes when applying it, the interrogator should assume and make it
known to his suspect that he had full knowledge of all that happened and
so is in a position to know when the suspect is telling lies. Intimidating
form of interrogation is classified with coercive as being crude and
outdated and is being condemned by human right groups.
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(F)
(G)
Bluffing interrogation: Bluffing form of interrogation involves a
war of wit between the interrogator and the person being
interrogated. During the chat, the interrogator assumes that he has
all the keys to knowing the truth. Just like one may claim that “he
or she hold the four ace” he threatens the interrogated to go ahead
and say whatever he or she likes but reminds him/her to be
mindful of his story and the information he is passing on to him
(the interrogator), so that whether he tell the truth or not, he the
interrogator will certainly get at the truth. In it the interrogator
pretends that he has a network of information sources around the
suspect. This form of interrogation cannot be too effective
without combining it with other techniques such as coercive or
deceptive types.
Affectionate interrogation: This is also called a “Gentle-man”
interrogation. Because there is a show of gentility and politeness.
In this form of questioning, the interrogator shows a lot of
affection to the suspect. Either sincerely or otherwise, he show or
expresses problem or trouble he or she got involved in. He
reasoned out with him possible ways of help and advice
intermittently in between their discussion, he, the interrogator
allow the suspect reasonable access to whatever habit he need to
satisfy e.g smoking or drinking and in some cases using his
money to buy them for him in the absence of any money with the
suspect. With this show of affection, the suspect conclude within
his mind, “Oh, here comes the Messiah” with this, he open up,
probably hoping to receive further help from the investigating
officer in resolving the matter, but then the truth and evidence
have been gotten. An important caution here, is that an
interrogator wearing a generous look should endeavour to be
consistent with this mode of behaviour at least to the end or
completion of his interrogation and investigation, because if the
suspect understands that the interrogator is pretending to be kind
with a view of getting the truth from him, he may black out with
further necessary information.
Generally, there is no single technique that is best for all investigation
cases. The choice of technique depends on a number of factors, such as
the nature of the case under investigation, the nature of the suspect -is he
hardened, a first, second or third class criminal, or is he an illiterate or a
literate? And also the nature of the investigating officer. Before an
investigating officer uses any of these techniques of interrogation, he
should consider very well these underlying factors and should bear in
mind that the ultimate of every investigation activities is to uncover the
secret behind a committed crime.
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MODULE 4
Discuss some techniques you will adopt when interrogating a suspect.
3.5
General Rules Governing the Interrogation of Suspects
and Witnesses
It should be borne in mind that interrogation is not limited to suspects. A
witness as well as a complainant can be questioned in connection with
what he/she knows (not necessarily their role) about a crime. When this
is done, the investigating officer should show as much courtesy as
possible. However there are recognised rules that may direct or guide an
investigating officer while interrogating a suspect or witness. The
following are some of the identified rules:
(a)
Interrogation should begin with a short introduction and by
telling the person (whether suspect or witness) about the case you
are investigating and why it is necessary for him or her to answer
the question you are putting before him. For example.
“I am Sgt. Uwuna David, my colleagues and I are investigating a case of
murder involving one late Miss A5 and Mr B1........ we are made to
understand that this incident took place on 16/2/2000 inside your parlour
in your presence. Can you please tell us what happened?
(b)
The answers received from any question should be carefully
noted on a paper pocket notebook, or where possible, be
memorised. This is a measure in gathering information and
building evidence for any case you are investigating e.g from the
above example,
“Yes it is true the murder incidence took place in my presence, at my
parlour. What happened is that I returned home from work at about 3pm
on the date in question, Miss A5 came to welcome me. That was when
Mr. B1 returned from farm. He had a matched in his hand......
The salient points on the above response are the ones underlined. This
should be noted down or memorise.
When a police officer or an investigator is questioning a suspect, he
should not try to obtain a confession of guilt. The reason is that
confession of guilt is terminal and leads the investigator to no where in
furthering his activities. For instance
“Oga, yes na me do am. Na me thief the bag of money; I am sorry, I no
go do am again.”
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This is terminal. It leads you to nowhere. Rather than obtain a
confession of guilt, try as much as possible to get information, which
will assist you to continue enquiries and obtain witnesses, and real
evidence that will be useful in the court. This is by far, preferable to a
confession under duress. Consider the following.
Investigator: You stole the money?
Suspect: No sir, no be me.
Investigator: Where were you by 1:00 p.m. on 20/8/003?
Suspect: I dey for market.
Investigator: To do what?
Suspect: To sell something for my brother.
Investigator: But you said you are a student. Did
you not go to school that day?
Suspect: Yes
Investigator: What time do your school normally close?
Suspect: By 1:00 p.m.
Investigator: Then how do you reach market by the same 1:00 p.m.
Suspect: Oga em, em.................
Investigator: You carried a bag towards the market that day, and it was
not your bag.
Suspect: Yes, it was my friend’s bag.
Investigator: What was inside that bag?
Suspect: I do not know, he gave it to me to take to his sister in the
markets.
Investigator: What is the name of your friend, and that of his sister?
Suspect: His name is Peter Oko, and his sister is Mercy Oko; their store
is at line B, No. 52 Mile 1 market etc.
With the above illustration, a lot of information has been obtained. This
will foster further inquiries, which may assist in roping the suspect and
others yet at large. This is preferable to a forced confession that may be
thrown out in the court of law.
Note that it is useless to begin an interrogation by becoming a bully. The
right move under any circumstance is to begin by being polite and
friendly. This is very essential for a successful and result- oriented
interrogation.
An investigation officer should not show any bias while questioning a
person. It is likely that an investigation officer may meet a known
person (either as suspect or witness). Such familiarity should be
divorced from the interrogation. That does not mean that you may not
exchange greetings afterward. However where it is extremely impossible
for you to hide you bias in a case which you are interrogating known
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person, it is more honourable to withdraw or dissociate yourself from
the investigation or interrogation.
The stage at which a suspect should be questioned is a matter for the
interrogator to decide. Avoid being teleguided and your questions
should be objective enough.
An investigating officer should ask questions about the facts he already
possessed, making use of his knowledge and experience to follow the
suspect’s reasoning.
Facts established during questioning should be recorded down in the
form of statement for the suspect or witness to sign.
Outline the rules you will follow in interrogating a case of theft.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed the concept interrogation as seeking to acquire
information from the respondent that is needed for some purposes, such
as action to discover who did it. The goal of the respondent is to achieve
his or her own interest significantly including self protection and
possibly to achieve wider social goals. We also discussed techniques of
interrogation like persuasive, charismatic, intimidating, bluffing,
deceptive and affective interrogation. The general rules of interrogation
of a suspect were also outlined as beginning with a short introduction,
noting down answers from questions posed to the suspect and not to
bully the suspects.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the concept of interrogation by looking
at the following aspects, meaning, goals, process/procedures of
interrogation techniques of interrogation and general rules governing the
interrogation of suspects and witnesses.
6.0
i.
Discuss the goals of interrogation. Outline the general rules
governing interrogation of a suspect.
Describe the techniques you will employ during an interrogation
process.
List types of interview you know and describe two of them.
ii.
iii.
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7.0
Charles, E.O. & Gregory, L.O. (1988). Fundamentals of Criminal
Investigation. Illinois, U.S.A.: Springfield Publishers.
Charles, R. S. & Neil. C. (1990). Criminal Investigation. NY: Random
House Publishers.
John, J. H. (1979). Criminal Investigation. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
John, E. R. & Fred, E. I. (2001). Criminal Interrogation and
Confession. Baltimore UK: Williams and Wilkins.
James, C. C. & James, N. B. (1994). Abnormal Psychology and Modern
Life. Illinois: Scotch Foreman and Company.
Renoud, W. E. (2001). Criminal Investigation Digest. USA: Springfield.
Strategies for the Security Professional. Washington, USA:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
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MODULE 4
UNIT 2
WRITTEN STATMENTS AND CONFESSIONS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Confessions
3.2
Psychology of False Confessions
3.3
Why Suspects Confess
3.4
Written Confession
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor–Marked Assignment
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Why do people confess to crimes?
There is no doubt that an admission of guilt or a full confession, when
reduced to writing and signed, is impressive evidence. In most cases,
that single piece of evidence is always the deciding factor. Conversely
its absence has undoubtedly served the culprits best interests in both
public and private investigations.
As a matter of fact, the admission (with no reference to intent) and the
confession (a comprehensive written one) with detail of the offense,
including intent and sometimes motive, are so potent in terms of their
damning impact on the accused.
Police tend to believe that almost all suspects are guilty and that they
confess only if force. Thus, interrogator may extract confessions that are
false without realising it. Psychologist needs to introduce to police the
concept of coerced-internalised false confession. Police needs to be
sensitive to the fact that some suspects are subject to interrogative
suggestibility, this is because they are anxious or lack a strong selfconcept or for other reason, they actually come to believe what the
police are telling them. Confessional statements are statements made by
suspects or accused persons confessing or admitting the commission of
the offence alleged.
you to written statement and confessions include meaning of
confessions, psychology of false confessions, why suspects confess and
written confession or statements.
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2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
state the meaning of confession
explain why suspects confess
define confessional statements
describe types of false confession
analyse a typical written confession.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Confession
A confession by a defendant- an admission of guilt is the most damaging
evidence that can be presented at the defendant trial.
Because of its impressive impact, courts need to be wary about the
circumstances under which a confession was obtained. Example on a
minority opinion, supreme court Justice William Brennan voided his
distrust about relying on confessions because of their decisive leverage:
he wrote “No either class of evidence is so profoundly prejudicial....
trials of fact accord confessions such heavy weight in their
determinations that the introduction of a trial in court superfluous, and
the real trial for all practical purposes occurs when the confession is
obtained.”
The quest for a confession from a suspect by police and prosecutors is
fierce and, on occasion even frenzied. In their zeal to obtain an
admission of quilt, police may intimidate innocent suspect. In addition,
we know now that the very techniques that are designed for and taught
to police officer in order to elicit confession work too well- there are e
true confessions, but also false ones. Not all confessions represent the
truth and one of the tasks of the forensic psychologist-one of the most
difficult ones we will have - is to convince law enforcement authorities
to re-examine their interrogation procedures.
When people confess crime, sometimes questions persist about the
accuracy of the confession, false confessions occur for a number of
reasons. Perhaps the suspect was overly suggestible or simply too
fatigued or anxious; perhaps excessive pressure was placed on the
suspect to confess. And we must realise that it is not always easy to
separate false confession from authentic ones.
As earlier stated, confession are statement made by suspects or accused
persons, confessing or admitting the commission of the offence alleged.
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Confessional statements are usually always admissible in evidence
provided they were not obtained by threat, fraud, folic or inducement.
If obtained by any of these means, it will not be admissible in evidence.
A confessional statement alone may not convict the accused person in
court and other independent witnesses and evidence must be sought to
corroborate or support such evidence as contained in the confession.
Action in case of confession
Whenever a suspect makes a voluntary confessional statement, the
investigating officer should take such a statement with the suspect to a
superior police officer to attest to the correctness of the statement. The
D. P.O will read the statement over to the suspect and if he\she admit
having made it voluntarily, the officer will make a certificate to the
effect that the statement `has been read to the accused in the presence of
such officer and that the accused has admitted the statement to be
correct and voluntarily made, the statement may then be admissible in
court even if the accused denies it later.
There are constraints faced by both public and private sector
investigators during confession. Investigators should take full cognizant
of the constraints as they pertain to admission and confessions. They are
as follows:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Confessions may not be obtained through the use of threats or
violence. They must be free and voluntary.
Confessions may not be obtained through inducements or
promise of leniency
Persons from whom confessions are sought must be informed of
their right to remain silent and of the fact that anything they say
may be used against them in court.
A person suspected of a crime has the right to obtain the services
of an attorney, refined or appointed, before making a confession.
He must be informed of this right interrogation must not be
started until the arrival of the attorney/legal counsel.
A suspect who decides against an attorney may, nonetheless
refuse to answer questions, in which case the interrogation must
cease.
Police who claim that a suspect has waived any of his rights prior
to making a confession must fully informed him of such rights,
that he understood them, and that he/she did knowingly and
intelligently waive those rights. The waiver should be written if at
all possible. The waiver should spell out the warning that were
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given, and should include a statement that the suspect
understands and is voluntarily waiving the warning.
Investigators should consider the constraints to be absolutely necessary
as well as reasonable as most criminal investigators would agree. The
problem and danger we see on the scene today is the growing tendency
of criminal investigators to go beyond these constraints. This should not
be so. We should not “Mirandize” anyone unless we are legally obliged.
Explain the meaning of confession as applied to criminal investigations.
3.2
Psychology of False Confessions
What are false confessions?
People assume that most confession is spontaneous that almost all are
truthful. In reality, many confessions are negotiated, and 20% are
recanted, that is the suspect who has made an incriminating statement to
the police later states that it was false. Among the reasons that people
confess is the desire to escape further interrogations, they may conclude
“I, will tell the police whatever they want to avoid this terrible situation
and deny it later”.
Types of false confession
Recanted or disputed confessions are not necessarily false confessions.
Three types of false confessions have been identified.
1.
2.
Voluntary false confession: These confessions are offered
willingly without elicitation. They may be instigated by a desire
for publicity or by generalised guilt, or they may reflect some
form of psychotic behaviour. Every highly publicised crime
generates people who come forward, claiming to have committed
the crime. When the baby son of the Lindbergh’s was kidnapped
in 1932, more than 200 people falsely confessed.
Coerced - complaint confession: These are those in which the
suspect confesses, even while knowing that he or she is innocent
to gain a promised benefit, or to avoid a threatened punishment.
The person does not privately believe that he or she committed
the criminal act. In general, compliance refers to an inconsistency
between one’s public phenomenon reflected in some confessions.
In the fall of 1974, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) place bombs in two
public houses in Guilford in the country of Surrey, England and
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MODULE 4
Birmingham. Five people were killed in one bombing, 21 in the other,
more than 150 were injured. Police under great pressure made arrest,
questioned four Irishmen about one bombing and six other Irishmen
about the other. After intense questioning, the four men questioned in
the Guilford about the other bombing made written confessions although
they all recanted their confessions at trial. They said that their
confessions have been beaten out of them. One Paddy Hill claimed that
he had been kicked and punched on the side of the head and kicked in
the thigh. “We are going to get a statement out of you or kick you to
death” was the threat that he reported. Those claims were rejected by the
jury who found the Irishmen guilty. They were sentenced to life
imprisonment.
Gisli Gejdenson was able to later interview and administer suggestibility
scales to one member of the Guildford four and each of the Birmingham
six. The most dramatic finding from the responses in personality test
scores between these two defendants who did not confess and the four
who did. Thirteen years after their interrogation, those who didn’t make
written confessions “scored exceptionally low on test of suggestibility
and compliance. Gejdenson conclude that all eight of the defendants
who made self incriminating written statements reflected the coercecomplaint type:
Certainly the “third-degree” tactics that were commonplace all over the
world 100years ago – such as extreme deprivation, brutality and torture
– led to many coerced – complaint confession.
3.
Coerced – internalised confession: These are those in which the
innocent suspect confesses and come to believe that he or she is
guilty. Interrogation by the police is a highly stressful experience
that can create a number of reactions, including a state of
heightened suggestibility in which “truth and falsehood become
hopelessly confused in the suspects’ mind.” In this type,
Gejdenson concluded that “after confessing for instrumental gain,
the persistent questioning continues and the accused becomes
increasingly confused and puzzled by the interrogator’s apparent
confidence in the accused’s guilt.
At times, it is difficult to classify a specific person’s response as
complaint or internalised, this is especially true of the responses of
children to interrogations they will later say things like, “I was so
confused, i couldn’t separate what happen from what they told me
happen”.
In Chicago in 1998, two boys aged seven and eight were arrested and
charged with the six-related murder of a young girl. They had confessed
to the murder during an intensive interrogation. Later, however the
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authorities concluded that the boys were not physically mature enough
to produce the semen found on the victim’s body and they were
released. Although no recording was made of the questioning, it appears
that the boys repeated back what the detectives had told them. The
validity of responses of children to questioning by authorities whether
the children are suspects, as in the Chicago case, or victims is a matter
of great concern.
How many confessions are false?
Granted that in at least a few isolated cases, false confessions may
occur, how extensive is the problem?
We cannot say in any systematic way how many people confess falsely.
Determining the number is difficult for two reasons:
a)
b)
Even if it was coerced and the accused retracts it, a confession
may be true
“A confession may be false even if the defendant is convicted,
imprisoned and never heard from again”. But independent
evidence exist that some confessions are false. Among those
cases of people wrongfully convicted of crimes, several
documented ones reflect an erroneous confession as the cause.
For example, Rattner (1988) analysed 205 cases of known
wrongful convictions and concluded that 16 or 8% were the result
of coerced confessions. Although this percentage is low, false
confession more often occurred in highly publicised cases dealing
with major crimes.
People’s self- expectations
Does questioning by the police lead to false confession even if
intimidation is absent? Sometimes people admit to the police that they
committed a crime when they are in fact innocent. This conclusion is
hard for most of us to apply to ourselves. Many even ask “why would
anyone confess to something he/she didn’t do.”
SELF - ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Describe three types of false confession.
3.3
Why Suspects Confess
Many criminal cases, even when investigated by the most experienced
and best qualified investigators are ultimately solved by an admission or
confession from the person responsible for committing the crime. Often,
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MODULE 4
investigators are able to ensure only a minimal amount of evidence, be it
physical or circumstantial that point to a suspect. In many instances this
evidence is not considered strong enough by prosecutors to obtain a
conviction. In such cases the interrogation of the suspects and their
subsequent confessions are of prime importance.
“Why do suspects confess?”
Self-condemnation and verbal self-destruction are not normal human
behavioural characteristics. People do not ordinarily alter unsolicited,
spontaneous confession. It is logical to assume that when suspects are
taken to police stations to be questioned concerning their involvement in
a particular crime, their immediate reaction will be a deluge of television
programmes that present a clear picture of the Miranda warning
(anything you say....etc) and its application to suspects. One would
conclude that no one questioned about crime would surrender
incrimination information, much less supply investigator with a fully
signed confession.
It would also seem that once suspects sense the direction in which the
investigators are heading, the conversation would immediately end.
However, for various psychological reasons, suspects continue to speak
with investigators.
Suspect paranoia
Suspects are never quite sure of exactly what information investigators
posses. They know that the police are investigating the crime and in
many cases, suspects have followed media accounts of their crime to
determine what leads the police have. Uppermost in their minds,
however is how to escape detection and obtain firsthand information
about the investigation and where it is heading.
Such paranoia motivates suspects to accompany the police voluntary for
questioning coupled with curiosity. It also motivates suspects to appear
at police headquarters as concerned citizens who have information about
the case. By doing this, suspects may attempt to supply false or noncorroborative information concerning the case so that investigators will
not suspect their involvement.
For example, in one case a 22- year- old woman was discovered dead in
stairwell outside a public building. The woman had been raped and was
found naked and blyggeoned. Investigators interviewed numerous
people during the next few days but were unable to identify any
suspects. Media coverage on the case was extremely high. Several days
into the investigation, a 23- year- old man appeared at the local police
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station with two infants and informed investigators that he believed he
may have some information regarding the woman’s death. The man
revealed that when he was walking home late one evening, he passed the
area where the woman was found and observe a ‘strange individual’
lurking near a nearby phone booth. The man said that because he was
frightened of the stranger, he walked straight back to his home. After
reading media accounts of the woman’s death, he believed that he
should tell the police what he had observed.
The man gave police a physical description of the ‘stranger’ and then
helped an artist to compose a sketch of the individual.
Later,
investigators discovered that the sketch bore a strong resemblance to the
‘witness’ who provided the information. After further investigation, the
witness was asked to return to the police station to answer more
questions, which he did gladly. Some 15 hours into the interrogation, he
confessed to one of his ‘multiple personalities’ having killed the woman,
who was unknown to him. He had killed her simply because she was a
woman, which is what the suspect had always wanted to be. This case
clearly illustrates the need for some suspects (mentally disturbed or not)
to know exactly what is happening in an investigation. In their minds,
they honestly believed the guise of a person trying to help they will,
without incriminating themselves, learn more about the case from the
investigators.
The confession/interrogation setting
In any discussion concerning confession/interrogation, it is necessary to
include a review of the surroundings where a suspect is to be
interrogated for confession. Because there is a general desire to maintain
personal integrity before family members and peer groups, suspects
should be removed from familiar surroundings and taken to a location
that has an atmosphere conducive
to cooperative behaviour and
truthfulness. The primary psychological factor for a successful
interrogations and confession is privacy - being totally alone with
suspects. This privacy prompts suspects to feel willing to unload the
burden of quilt. The interrogation and confession site should isolate the
suspect so that only the interrogator is present. The suspect’s thoughts
and responses should be free from all outside distractions and stimuli.
The confession/interrogation setting plays an important part in obtaining
confession. The surroundings should reduce suspect’s fears and
contribute to the inclination to discuss the crime because fear is a direct
reinforcement for defensive mechanisms (resistance). It is important to
alleviate as many fears as possible. Therefore, the interrogation rooms
should establish a business atmosphere as opposed to a police-like
atmosphere. While drab, barren interrogation rooms increase fear in
suspects, a location that displays an open.... you have nothing to fear,
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MODULE 4
quality about it can do much to break down interrogation defensiveness,
thereby eliminating a major barrier. The interrogators tend to disarm the
suspects psychologically by placing them in surroundings that are free
from ay fear including distractions.
Psychological factor
More than likely suspects voluntarily accompany investigators, either in
response to a police request to answer question or in an attempt to learn
information about the investigation. Once settled in the interrogation
room, the interrogators should treat suspects in a civilised manner, no
matter how vicious or serious the crime may be. While interrogators
may have feeling of disgust for the suspects, the goal is to obtain a
confession and it is important that personal emotions are not being
revealed. Investigators should also adopt a compassionate attitude and
attempt to establish a rapport with suspects. In most cases, suspects
commit crime because they believe it offers the best solution to their
crime needs. It is important to establish a common level of
understanding with suspects. Such an understanding is critical in
persuading suspects to be open, forthright and honest. Suspects should
be persuaded to look beyond the investigators’ badge and see instead a
person who listens without judging. If investigators are able to convince
suspects that the issue is not the crime itself, but what motivated them to
commit the crime, they will begin to rationalise or explain their
motivating factors.
At this stage of the interrogation, investigators are on the brink of having
a breakthrough on the suspect save the defensive barrier to admit
involvement in the crime. This is the critical stage of the interrogation
process commonly known as the “breakthrough”.
The breakthrough
The breakthrough is the point in the interrogation when suspects make
an admission, no matter how small. In spite of having been advice of
certain protections guaranteed by the law, most suspects feel a need to
confess. Both hardened criminals and first time offenders suffer from the
same pangs of conscience. This is an indication that their defense
mechanisms are diminished, and at this point, the investigators may
push through to elicit the remaining elements of the confession.
In order for interrogators to pursue a successful breakthrough, they must
recognise and understand certain background factors that are unique to a
particular suspect. Often criminals exhibit psychological problems that
are the result of having come from homes torn by conflict and
dissension. Also frequently found in the backgrounds of criminals are
parental rejection and inconsistent and severe punishment. It is
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important that investigators see beyond the person sitting before them
and realise that past experience can impact on current behaviour. Once
interrogators realise that the fear of possible punishment, couple with
loss of pride in having to admit to committing a crime is the basic
inhibitor they must overcome in suspects, they will quickly be able to
formulate question and analyse responses that will break through the
suspect’s inhibitions.
Successful interrogations/confession
Investigators must conduct every interrogation in the belief that
suspects, when presented with an attractive avenue will use it to confess
their crimes. Research indicates that most guilty persons who confess
are, from the outset, looking for the proper opening during the
interrogation to communicate their guilt to the interrogators. Suspects
confess when the internal anxiety caused by their deception outweighs
their perception of the crime’s seriousness and consequences. In most
instances, suspects have magnified in their minds both the severity of
the crime and the possible repercussion. Interrogators should allay
suspect anxiety by putting these fears into perspective. Suspects also
make admission or a confession when they believe that cooperation is
the best of action regarding their future. If they are convinced that
officers are prepared to listen to all of the circumstances surrounding the
crime, they will begin to talk. The psychological and physiological
pressures that build in a person who has committed a crime are best
alleviated by communication. In order to relieve these suppressed
pressures, suspects detail the circumstances of the crime they confess.
Finally, suspects confess when interrogators are able to speculate
correctly on why the crime was committed. Suspects want to know
ahead of time that interrogators will believe what they have to say and
will understand what motivated them to commit the crime.
As a police officer, how will you encourage suspects to confess?
3.4
Written Confession
The following is an example of a typical written confession made to an
investigator.
Note the choice of words that set the tone.
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MODULE 4
Statement of Jack J. Doe
I, Jack J. Doe, employee of Ruiter Air Service make the following
statement of my own freewill, without duress, threats of any kind or
promise of any reward or immunity, this 19th day of December, 1980.
This evening, at about 9:00 p.m., December 19, 1980 I was in the
process of filling my car’s gasoline tank from the Ruiter Air Service’s
pump located in the service yard when I was approached by Mr.
Christian of the security department. He asked me what I was doing and
I told him he caught me taking gas that was not mine to take. At that
point, I had taken eleven (11) gallons. We then came to Mr. Christian’s
office where he asked me about previous incident in which I took gas
from the company. I told him the first time I took gas was in the middle
of 1978, during the very beginning of the big gas crunch. I remember the
first night I took exactly five (5) gallons because I was low and had a
date in Middleton. I was afraid to alter the pump record because it could
easily be discovered. I just cleared the pump reading each time with my
key.
I’ve taken over five gallons a week ever since July of last year. Mr.
Christian asked me to compute that loss. I figure at the most, five
gallons a week for eighty (80) weeks, which come to 400 gallons I
understand our cost is presently $ 1.29per gallon, my calculation of
what I’ve taken is $440 worth of gasoline from the company and if
given the opportunity, I will like to make restitution. I know am going to
lose my job and I deserve to. I truly regret what I have done, but at least
I feel well now that “it has all come to light and is over”. This typed
statement was the result of my conservation with Mr. Christian. He than
typed it up. I’ve read it and it says what I want to say.
Again, this is my statement which I voluntarily offer and Mr Christian
has been with me tonight.
(Sign) Jack J. Doe, 10.40
P.M. 12/9/80.
Witness: Sidney R. Christian
19 December, 1980.
Such a statement should withstand the test of scrutiny in any judicial or
administrative hearing. Consider how much this statement tells.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The author
The date it was written
Who actually composed the worlds
How it came about (subject being caught in the act)
When he first got involved
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vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
His estimate of quality taken
His calculation of the financial loss to the company
That the relationship with security was positive
That the statement was made and signed freely and voluntarily
That no threats or promise were made.
The tone of the statement is a true reflection of the subject’s attitude at
the time the statement was made. The written admission may be the only
assigned, self incrimination document the investigator can obtained.
Whereas the written confession is usually sign at the conclusion of the
interrogation, and is frequently reduced to a type written document, the
admission is taken early in the interrogation.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed written statement and confessions. We noted that
confessional statement is statements made by suspects or accused
persons confessing or admitting the commission of the offence alleged.
Also confessional statements are usually always admissible in evidence
provided they were not obtained by threat, fraud, force or inducements.
If obtain by any of these means, it will not be admissible in evidence.
There are also constraints faced by both public and private investigators
during confession. Investigators should take full cognizant of the
constraints as they pertain to admissions and confessions. Three types of
false confession were also identified as voluntary false comfession,
coerced-complaint confession and coerced-internalised confession.
Conditions necessary for confession were also discussed in addition to
how to frame a written statement that could be used in the court.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the topic written statements and
confessions by looking at the following aspects, meaning of confessions,
psychology of false confessions, why suspects confess and written
confession.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
Define the term confession.
Describe three types of false confession.
What is the difference between written confession and written
admission?
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7.0
MODULE 4
Fakayode, E.O. (1985). The Nigerian Criminal Code Companion.
Benin, Nigeria: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.
James, G. (1980). Criminal Investigation. Ohio, U.S.A: Merrill
Publishing Co.
Member, C. F. L. (1990). Police and Law Enforcement. Ibadan: Intec
Printers Ltd.
Onashie, Y. (2004). Scientific Criminal Investigation Detection and
Prosecution. Ibadan: Malijeo Soft Print.
Swanson, C. R. (2003). Criminal Investigation. (8th ed.). Boston
U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Senneward, C. A. (1981). The Process of Investigation: Concepts and
Strategies for the Security Professional. Washington, U.S.A.:
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UNIT 3
INFORMANTS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Informants
3.2
Classifications of Informants
3.3
Laws Regarding Use of Informant
3.4 Cultivation and Management of Informants
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Who are informants? And what is their role in police investigations?
There is a popular dictum in the police “Good informant, good case, bad
informant, bad case, no informant, no case.”
The ability to be resourceful at information gathering and collection is
the key determinant of success at policing and criminal investigation.
When police lacks witness especially eyewitness when dealing with
sophisticated criminals, or not getting much out of the crime scene
evidence; it turns to tried and true methods of law enforcement informants and surveillance. Use of informant is the more legally
permissive yet ethically repugnant activity, and use of surveillance is the
more legally regulated yet ethically sound activity. That’s because
informants are often used in the loose, early phases of an investigation to
develop leads and the activity of managing informants always involves
the integrity of law enforcement.
It’s important to note at the outset that use of informants and
surveillance should be methods of last resort. These are not methods for
screening-out or eliminating potential suspects from further
consideration. Quite the opposite, they “screen-in” or incriminate more
suspects than usual. These are methods that are expensive, timeconsuming, and controversial. They are inherently stressful and
dangerous, and undercover work is risky. All information obtained from
such sources, including open sources should be regarded as
untrustworthy until it is corroborated by other sources and/or converted
from information into intelligence. That is, subjected to analysis and
synthesis.
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2.0
MODULE 4
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
define the concept “informants”
list different types of informants
explain the laws governing the use of informants
describe how informants are managed
state the importance of informants.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of ‘Informants’
As valuable and indispensable are general sources of informant to the
investigator, private and confidential sources are even more important.
Such confidential sources are commonly referred to as ‘contacts’ or
‘informants’. Who are they? Contacts or informants are people willing
to provide information which the investigator would not normally have
access to.
Investigative sources will generally provide data that could lead to
locating a suspect. A private source or contact can tell the investigator
where the suspect is. The information contained in certain records might
well suggest the motive for an act or crime, such as arson, but the
contact can tell the reason with absolute certainly. Records and
documents might indicate or even prove that a given incident occurred
after or before a specific date, the contact can advise as to the precise
time. General source of information might unfold a pattern upon which
an investigator could predict future acts, such as thefts, but the informant
can provide the specifics of the next planned crime. A contact or
informant furthermore can advise on individual who are actively
engaged in misconduct or theft when activity is unknown to
management or security.
An informant is a person who provides privileged informant about a
person or organisation to an agency. The term is usually used within the
law enforcement world, where they are officially known as confidential
or criminal informants (CI) and can often refer pejoratively to the supply
of information without the consent of the other parties with the intent of
malice, personal or financial gain. Informants are commonly found in
the world of organised crime. By its very nature, organised crime
involves many people who are aware of each other’s guilt in a variety of
illegal activities.
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Quite frequently, confidential informants (criminal informants) will
provide information in order to obtain lenient treatment; and sometimes
provide information over a long period of time in return for money or
for police to overlook their own criminal activities. Quite often someone
will become an informant after his arrest.
Types of informants
We have three different types of informants.
i.
ii.
iii.
Bill White type of informants: Bill White was simply doing
everything that he could to discredit every other white nationalist
leader except himself and his primary purpose was probably to
snare a stupid, young and naive white kid and eventually to get
him to commit some type of violent crime.
Jett Rink type of informant: Jett Rink simply focuses on running
distraction and subverting any possibility that might actually
work together on some issue or project. Watch him, he is always
the first to enter an activities thread, with the exception of any
Bill White threads and badmouth whoever or whatever issue or
individual is being discussed. He was in the thread involving the
destitute Idaho family stuck out in the woods last November
telling anyone that would listen that we shouldn’t send the family
any money. He was in the Daniel Cicciaro thread, doing
everything he could to convince anyone that would listen that we
shouldn’t contact the Cicciaro family and encourage them to
speak out about the fact that John White murdered their son and
got away with it. Jett Rink gets involves in every single thread
where anyone here might actually work in concert with another.
Richard H. type of informant: Richard focuses pretty much on
threads asking questions, i.e. what do you like to do, and where
do you live, post a picture of yourself, who’s your favourite
leader, what are your hobbies.
Explain the meaning and types of ‘informants.
3.2
Classifications of Informants
There are at least seven classes of informants.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
232
One-time informants
Occasional informants
Employee informants
Anonymous informants
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v.
vi.
vii.
MODULE 4
Criminal informants
Personal informants
Mentally disturbed informants.
The one-time informants: The one-time informants usually have very
specific information and are anxious to see that information acted upon.
The motive behind providing the information is commonly based on
normal grounds. What is happening is wrong.
These informants give a lot of thought before acting. They are usually
nervous about what they are doing and they seek assurance that their
identity will not be disclosed. Some see the act of informing as a civil
duty or in keeping with their religious convictions. One-time informers
may be employees of a company and tend to view the passing of
information as good for the welfare of the company. This is particularly
true if the employee has a vested interest in the success of the enterprise.
Another variation on motivation for the one-time informant is revenge.
The information may be seeing to get even with someone for a slight or
a wrong, evening the score is viewed as “the right thing to do”.
In most cases it is difficult to gather additional information from the
one-time informant though not impossible. The difficulty lies usually in
the informant’s “second thought” about involvement. This is not always
true. A few such informants are so committed to seeing the matter
resolved that they become quite involved. In one case, a female
informant resident of a nearby community went through the typical soulsearching. She initially called and stated that one of our employees,
whom she identified by name lived on the same block as her own
residence. She stated that the employee in question was using and
dealing in marijuana. According to her testimony, the employee was
also stealing goods from the company and had a quantity of stolen goods
in his garage.
What bothered the informant most was that the fact that she had two
impressionable sons who had always looked up to the employee who
was bragging about his newly acquired wealth and how easy and
profitable it was to steal. Although the informant’s fear for her own
safety was secondary to her concern for her children, she felt strongly
that, if the employee discovered she had informed on him, violence
would follow. She was reluctant to stay in touch and provide additional
information until she caught her younger son with marijuana. The
mother then was fiercely determined that the employee should be
brought to justice. Thanks to her, the thief was apprehended and
convicted. We never heard from this informant again although it was
later learned that the convicted man moved out of the neighbourhood
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after he got out of jail. The occasion and the circumstances prompted the
woman in this case to become a one-time informer.
The occasional informants: The occasional informer is an opportunist
who will pass along information from time to time, usually if and when
it satisfies some need. This is the person who will inform on a
supervisor if the supervisor’s demise offers an opportunity to advance.
Or he may be one who secretly envies the investigator’s role in the
organisation (and in life) and seeks recognition and praise from the
investigator. Becoming an informant is a way of identifying with the
organisation. One clear example of this type of informant was a young
college student who had been shunned by a fraternity. He liked to hang
around the campus police office and would occasionally provide
information about illegal or improper conduct on the part of that
fraternity or its members. He acted so much for revenge as for the
acceptance he felt he received from the campus police chief for that
intelligence.
Whatever the motivation - which is rarely financial - the occasional
informant should be quietly encouraged praised. He/she should be made
to feel part of the investigative team. That encouragement alone will go
a long way.
The employee informant: While it is true that an employee may be a
one-time informant or an occasional informant, employees as a group
deserve very special attention and consideration because of their
potential sources of intelligence. This is one category of persons who
can effectively be solicited to inform through a structure programme.
In a given work force there are employees who either strongly suspect or
definitely know of dishonestly in the organisation. Some of these
employees do not approve of co-workers who steal or condone their
dishonest activities. In many cases the frustration experienced by the
honest employee while others get away with theft leads to resentment
against company management for its failure to stop the thievery. Yet
management may be completely ignorant of the existence of any
wrongdoing. This type of situation quickly erodes morale. It is not
uncommon for the honest but frustrated employee to reason in effect,
what the hell, if others are doing it and no one cares, I might as well get
some for myself -“theft contagion.”
Why do such honest employees not promptly report internal dishonesty,
thereby avoiding all the frustration, resentment and possible
involvement? There are two principal reasons. In the first place, many
employees are unsure of whom to go to with information, should they
report to their immediate supervisor? Perhaps the supervisor is involved
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in the dishonesty. Should they go to someone higher in the company?
Going over the boss’s head is frowned at in most organisations.
Uncertainty holds these potential informants’ tongues and add to their
frustrations. A second and equally strong deterrent is the fact that the
thought of been identified as a company stooge is quite unpalatable to
most people in the vast majority
of organisations. Such a reputation
would either make working conditions intolerable or dangerous for the
informant. Fear of discovery and its consequences thus leads to silence
and continuing frustration. There should be a legitimate and structured
programme for information to be passed unto management.
The anonymous informants: Anonymous informants obviously seek to
protect their identity. As with the employee informant discussed above
desire for anonymous may come from the fact that the informant is in or
closely connected with the firm and does not want to be known as an
informant. If the informant is not connected with the firm in any way, he
or she may still wish not to get involved in any way beyond passing
information. What this outside informant is saying, in effect is here is a
piece of information, do with it what you pleases.
A third category of anonymous informant may or may not be connected
with the firm, but spiteful, degrading or disrupting, aimed at causing
suspicious, fear or hostility in the organisation. Outside informants may
in fact provide good information while insisting on remaining
anonymous. However, because of the inherent possibility of receiving
false or biased information from an anonymous source than from an
identifiable informant, information from members of this group should
rank low in reliability.
The criminal informant: The criminal informant is more commonly
indentified with the public sector or law enforcement than with private
sector. Prostitutes, petty thieves, narcotic users, those on parole and
other assorted “street people” frequently pass information to the police.
Often they are bartering information for freedom from prosecution,
lengthy imprisonment or a return to prison. Sometimes money is the
prime motive for some informants. One must wonder how many times
helpless and amateurish purchasers of narcotics have been seized by
official because of a tip from the very party who sold the drugs and still
collect reward for such tip.
Although generally considered useful by police and other law
enforcement agencies, the criminal informant is not a major source of
information to investigators in business and industry. When they do
appear on the scene in the private sector, as they do from time to time,
they are worthy of attention.
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In one such case, a caller asked if my employer paid for information.
After some discussion of the nature of that information, the caller agreed
to a meeting. He then put his cards right on the table. He was a
professional forger with a lengthy criminal record including state prison
terms. He claimed to be currently involved with a forgery ring. He
produced nine fraudulent documents for examination.
Three were bank checks of the company the type prepared by the
accounts payable departments to pay company bills. The other
documents were three California department of motor vehicles operator
licences and three social security cards. The checks were made payable
to three different persons, with address included. The same three names
were contained on the drivers licence and social security cards. The
informant’s own photograph was on each licence. He had three sets of
identification to support the checks, each of which was made out for a
sum around and 2,500 Dollars.
According to the information, the plan was for him to go to three
separate banks and establish checking account, using the company’s
checks in each case as the initial deposit. After enough time had elapsed
for the checks to clear, a member of the gang of conspirators would call
each bank branch where an account had been established and determine
whether or not the forged checks had successfully cleared. He would do
this by pretending that he was a service station
owner who had a
customer wishing to buy an expensive set of tires and wanting to pay by
check. Did the customer have enough in his account to cover a $400.00
check? If the bank said no, the fraud had failed. If the bank answered
yes the depositor (who was the informant) would withdraw all the
money from these accounts. The company would remain ignorant of the
theft until either an audit or regularly scheduled bank check
reconciliation occurred. The only potential flaw in the plan was the
magnetic coding on the checks. The checks were masterfully
reproduced, genuine works of art.
The informant sought to sell information on the location where the
checks were being printed and the identity of the other members of the
ring. He had reservations about his associates and wanted enough money
to leave the country and spend an extended vacation in Europe. Our
company, it turned out was not the only indented victim, other
nationally known firms were also in the process of being victimised, and
the informant was dealing with them as well as with us. After pocketing
the money he has to receive for his information he would then work with
the police until arrests of the conspirators were made, along with the
seizure of printing equipment and other materials used in the scheme. Its
plan was to be en route to Europe while his associates were en route to
jail.
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Bank and company accounting executive believing that the magnetic
coding on the checks could not be duplicated, were confident that the
threat described by the informant was not as great as the security
department claimed. However the informant insisted that the coding had
been successfully duplicated. The police were involved in the case. The
plan unfolded. A number of people were arrested, equipment was seized,
bank checks were recovered, and the informant winged his way across
the Atlantic.
Oh yes, the checks did clear, in spite of the magnetic coding. Had this
informant not approached us, a serious financial loss would have
resulted without discovery for a matter of months. Criminal informant
situation then do occur in the private sector. They include, but are not
limited to shoplifting arrests where the person with the security people,
offering to inform on other or revealing such vital information as where
stolen merchandise is “fenced”. (A fence is a person or organisation that
knowingly buys stolen property from thieves and sells the good at a
profit).
The personal informant: The personal informant is one who will deal
with only one investigator, refusing to provide information to anyone
else under any circumstances. Such relationships will often commence
with something the investigator says or does. It could be the result of
assisting a person whose car won’t start, solving someone’s problem by
composing a letter he is unable to write, exhibiting concern for an
individual’s family, or even treating the janitor who cleans the
investigator’s office with respect. The recipient of any of these actions
knowing what the investigator does for a living, may choose to return
the kindness by providing information. One personal experience offers
an illustration of the sometimes unpredictable motivation of the personal
informant. He was my first of such informant, a man named Lacey. I
received a call one night while doing some paper work at the
headquarters. The caller identified himself as Lacey and asked if I
remembered him. I did not. He told me that I had put him in jail for
pimping. When he related some of the details surrounding his arrest, I
recalled him. He had just been released that day.
The mentally disturbed informant: The last category of informant to
be discussed here is, in fact, not a genuine informant at all, at least in out
experience. Such people do exist however, and for the investigator they
are a tragic nuisance. They are tragic because they are sick and do not
know it, a nuisance because after your first meeting with them, usually a
clandestine one to his or her request, you cannot easily get rid of them.
That usually happen paradoxically because the investigator upon
recognising that the supposed informant is actually a disturbed person
will try to be gentle, understanding and sympathetic as a strategy to end
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the meeting. The sick person for whom rejection is a more typical
experience will latch onto that kindness as a sign of acceptance.
Sooner or later every professional investigator will, by virtue of the
work itself come into contact with the individual who purports to have
information but is in fact mentally disturbed. Strangely enough, some of
these persons are quite convincing at first. That may be because the
investigator want to believe what he or she is hearing. But in due course,
usually quite quickly, it becomes apparent that the informant has a
distorted sense of reality. Their “informant” is worthless.
List the classes of informants you know and describe three of them.
3.3
Law Regarding Use of Informants
There are legal restrictions on how far law enforcement can go in
keeping an informant’s identity a secret. The
general rule that
confidentially (as in “confidential informant” or “affiant”) can be
maintained if the informant was used in the early stages of a case, say
the reasonable suspicion stage, and most definitely if the informant is
not required to be a witness at trial. In some situations, however, the
Jencks Act or court decisions involving Brady vs Maryland may be
invoked, forcing the prosecutor to at least turn over a transcript of
statements made by the informant. The extreme situation would require
a judge to agree that exculpatory information might be found by
revealing the informants identity (an unlikely scenario).
Courts have always reorganised police use of information - a historical
tradition with no inherent moral weakness (U.S Dennis 1950). Probably
the most significant case in recent years Hoffa vs U.S. (1950) in which
the court considered among other things whether a police informant
must identify himself as working with police under certain conditions
such as when they are recruiting other informants.
The opinions in Hoffa and a subsequent case (Marine vs Moulton 1985)
yielded a requirement that police admonish their informants to act
natural and not to try to draw out any particular incriminating statements
that would constitute the functioning.
Courts will not tolerate the use of informant for entrapment. Any
incriminating statement made to an informant, in response to the
informant’s remarks which prompted the statement, will be
inadmissible. Entrapment is defined as inducing a person to commit a
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crime they did not contemplate for the sole purpose of instituting a
criminal prosecution against them.
Inducement is perceived be the courts as persistent coercion or trickery.
Placing opportunity in front of the suspect is not normally entrapment,
but repeatedly providing them with the same opportunity over and over
again could be construed as persistent coercion. Similarly, playing on a
suspect’s weakness such as their vanity or tendency to boast could be
construed as trickery if it was being constantly prompted by an
informant.
Above all, you should avoid using what is called an “agent provocateur”
who is a person who provokes or incites crime, such as someone who
urges a mob or urges someone armed and angry to shoot.
Another thing to avoid is referring to your informants as “special
employees” or employees of any sort. This used to be fairly standard law
enforcement practice up till the late 1960s and early 1970s and at least
one court case did involve a suit such an informant demanding civil
service benefits for years of service. This kind of situation will most
likely come up when you need an informant with special skills (such as
foreign language proficiency or computer skills), or when an exinformant puts previous law enforcement experience in their resume.
Modern law enforcement practice strongly discourages informants from
thinking of themselves as employees.
A final word of advice is never meet with an informant alone. Some
have been known to kill their police handler, and others “set up” their
handler for assault or robbery, make false claims about physical or
sexual abuse, and allege that they were smoothed in a shakedown or
extorted for money and/or drugs. The initial debriefing (establishment of
motive and or registration) of an informant should always take place in
the officer’s turf, preferably in an office somewhere. Later meeting with
the informant can occur in a vehicle, safe house or public place.
A regular schedule of telephone and face-to-face will go a long way at
convincing courts that this is a managed informant who follows
directions and has some credibility, so too, will corroboration establish
credibility. Police corroborate, or double cheek, what the informant says
in a number of ways.
Discuss the guidelines regarding the use of informants.
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3.4
Cultivation and Management of Informants
A cultivated source (as opposed to a regular source) is neither a victim,
witness nor suspect in an investigation involving them against them, but
is someone with connections to the criminals underworld that is able to
tell you things that are about to happen. Cultivated sources make the
best informants.
Apprehended criminals who turn informants (or “flip” as is called) in
hope of having their charges dropped or reduced have not been
cultivated. Their value is worthless because evidence law sees them as
saying or doing something out of self-interest. At law, there is a
presumption of truth in anything someone says or does against his selfinterest or safety, not in his self-interest if criminal charges are pending
against him. Ideally, you want active informant reporting information
about future crime, not witness informant for past crimes likewise,
jailhouse informant (or “snitches”).
Cultivated source typically include people doing business around an area
where criminal conduct their business.
Examples include taxi drivers, hotel employees, airline employees,
automobile sales people, doorman, gun dealers, bartenders, private
investigators, apartment mangers, package delivery employees, and
proprietors or employees of restaurant. The idea is that such people can
get as close to criminal suspects as possible (for example they require
barber or prostitute).. It is obvious that these types of informants
constitute a deviant street network of eyes and ears for the police. By
using such sources, you are looking for signs of crime in the making.
You are not doing infiltration or undercover work. If anything, you are
doing the equivalent of espionage work by setting up a ring spy or agent
in place. All you have to do in managing such people is keep them from
doing or provoking criminal things, but also keep them close to their
own
source of knowledge about criminal events which you
conveniently check out for corroboration purpose.
It used to be common for each and every police officer to have their
connections. Today, most police departments only allow (and
encourage) their detectives to cultivate informants, but there are
inconsistencies in who they registered and handled. When an informant
is on the payroll, they are usually registered because the law requires
financial auditing.
They are also most likely to hold the status of confidential informant,
although this term technically refers to informants who have some
special knowledge about past or future crime and are potential targets
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for violence and revenge. Confidential informants are allowed to be
referred to as anonymous or unnamed affiants in affidavits, do not
appeared on any other legal documents and never have to be disclosed in
court or via any discovery process.
The management of informants is mostly a matter of knowing what
motivates them, and always making sure this motivation continues to
have currency. There are many motivation-based typologies of
informants. Osterburg and Word (2000) present one that distinguishes
the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Volunteer informant - Usually an eyewitness to a crime or jealous
spouse with specific information about vice activity or income
taxi evasion motivated by civic duty or vanity and kept motivated
by gratitude.
Paid informant - Usually someone involved in a crime with
particulars about a person they feel the police should know about
and motivated by revenge or money and kept motivated by
money.
Anonymous informant - Usually someone with precise details of
a crime that is being planned or they believe is not yet discovered
by police and motivated by repentance and kept motivated by
reward or gratitude.
Treatment of informants: The investigator who speaks scornfully
of informant in all probability will never be able to keep him.
Avoid using words as “snitch”, “frik”, stoolic” or “stoof peon”
such jargons should be left to the cops-and-robbers on television.
It has no place in the professional investigator’s glossary of
terms. Refer to an informant as a “contact” or a confidential
source.
Irrespective of an informants motive, always treat him wit the
same courtesy and respect you would show anyone else.
To treat all people with dignity, no matter who they are has its
rewards. That kind of philosophy somehow attracts people with
information. To treat people with disdain or disrespect, no matter
who they are, also has its consequences and they do not further
the investigative purpose.
The need for corroboration: As a general rule information
received from an informant is not directly actionable. That is to
say, if an informant reports that the head cashier of the firm or
school is embezzling funds and has purchased a new car, the
investigator does not set up an interrogation of the cashier. The
information received needs corroboration. Did he in fact purchase
a new car? How is he embezzling funds? Should the internal
auditors do a cash count under the ruse of a routing check? These
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and many other questions have to be answered before information
received from an informant can lead to a confrontation.
What information provides the direction for further investigation?
This point is well expressed by Gene Blackwell. Remember that the
investigator seeks at all time to upgrade the status of the information he
receives by having if verified and corroborated from additional source
whenever possible.
Information from informant that is not verifiable in one way or another
has limited value. Where such information can be corroborated it can
prove an invaluable aid to investigation. The use of informants with
prudent regard for their limitations and motivations can be a productive
tool for the investigator in the private as well as the public sector.
Discuss how you would treat and manage an informant.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed and explained the concept “informant”. An
informant is a person who provides privileged information about a
person or organisation to an agency. The term is usually used within the
law enforcement world, where they are officially known as confidential
or criminal informant (CT). And can often refer perjoratively to the
supply of information without the consent of the other parties with intent
of malicious, personal or financial gain. Classes of informants were also
described as one-time informants, occasional informants, employee
informants, and anonymous, criminal personal and mentally disturbed
informants.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
List the different classes of informants and describe four of them.
What laws govern the use of informants?
How would you identify who is an informant.
7.0
REFERENCES /FURTHER READING
Billingslay, T. & Bean, P. (2001). Informers Portland. Willan.
Brown, M. (1985). “Criminal Informants.” Journal of Police Scenes
and Administration, Vol 13. pp 251-256.
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Carroll, J. (1975). Confidential Information Source. SoS Angels.
Security world.
Dempsey, J. (2003). Introduction to Investigation. Belmont Wadsworth,
U.K.
O’Hara, C. & O’ Hara, L. (1980). Fundamentals Criminal Investigation.
Springfield: Charles Thomas.
Osterburg, J. & Word, R. (2000). Criminal Investigation. Cincinnati:
Anderson.
Weston, P. & Lushbough, C.(2003). Criminal Investigation. Upper
Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
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UNIT 4
INTERVIEWS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Interview
3.2
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) and the Codes
in Relation to Interviews
3.3
Types of Interviews
3.4
Records of Interview under Caution
3.5
How to Conduct a Police Interview
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A Criminal investigator deals with people, and the information he
supplies helps accomplish his investigative task. In fact, over 90% of an
investigator’s activities involves gathering, sorting, compiling and
evaluating information.
Interview is considered mostly as a formal conversation which is
conducted with a view to obtaining information. Interviews are
conducted in criminal case for the purpose of gathering pieces of
information from people (complainant, witness, suspect) who may have
pieces of information needed in the investigation.
Basically, the investigator’s role is to extract from the witness vital
pieces of information factually perceived through one or more of the
witness five senses-sights, hearing, smell taste and touch. His source
depends largely on the establishment of his rapport, good questioning
and careful listening abilities.
Who conducts interviews?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
244
The charge room officer
The investigating officer
The vetting officer
The scene of crime officer
The prosecutor
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MODULE 4
Who to interview in the criminal process?
1.
2.
3.
Witness who has a piece of information
Witness who may have the needed piece of information
Suspects
A good interviewer must bear the following in mind:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The motivation of the witness.
Knowledge of the elements of the crime or points to prove.
To collect accurate information on the date, time, place, method
of the crime, items involved and description of the crime scene.
Background of the person interviewed and his attitude towards
the investigation. In case of the suspect, his aliases, date and
place of birth, education, marital status, occupation, financial
background, prior offences, relation to the victim, or crime scene
and possible motive.
you to the concept of interview include meaning of interview, purpose
of interviews, types of interviews, records of interviews under caution
and how to conduct a police interview.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
define the term interviews
state the purpose of interviews in relation to criminal
investigation
mention types of interviews
explain how interviews are recorded under caution
describe how to conduct a police interview
explain Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) and the codes
in relation to interviews.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Interview
What is the difference between interview and interrogation?
Interview and interrogation are two distinctly different processes,
although both have essentially the same objective.
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They both seek insight into information about a specific question or
issue.
Interview and interrogation are question-and-answer exchanges between
one who seeks information (in our context, the investigator) and the
individual who is believed to possess the information being sought. The
key difference between the interview and the interrogation is the person
being
questioned.
The
interview
is the questioning of a witness or any party not (at that point in time)
suspected of involvement is the crime or act, and the interrogation is the
questioning of a person who is suspected of involvement. An obvious
consequence of the difference is that the interrogation at some point
becomes accusatory and as such conveys the uniformed as bad, or
negative, with connotations of “grilling” or administering the old “third
degree”. For this reason, such professional as James Gilbert in his work
Criminal Investigation, recommends that all police questionings be
referred to as interviews. Be that as it may, the investigator must
understand the two processes and approach each accordingly.
What then is an interview? Interview is a conversational process of
information gathering. The intent of interview is to control an individual
so that he or she will either willingly supply the requested information
or, if someone is an unwilling participant in the process, demands for
information. The latter can involve techniques of humiliation,
intimidation, and fear. In more extreme cases in some countries,
physical pain is inflicted.
Every interview is intended to strip away the subjects’ defences and
resilience. If the process is successful, the subject will eventually “give
in” and supply the interrogator with the information being sought. The
interviewers hold much power in the interview process by various
techniques that are intended to manipulate the subject psychologically;
his interrogator’s aim is to dominate the subject. For example, an
interrogator can display a great knowledge of the subject’s background
and actions. Whether or not the interrogator actually knows much about
the subject is irrelevant. The point is to convince the subject that what
the interrogator says is true, and so that resistance is pointless.
The surroundings are also an important part of the interviewing process.
Often, as in a police station, jail or clandestine highway; the conditions
are foreign, and even uncomfortable to the subject. This throws the
subject off balance. If the conditions are abruptly changed, as for
example, being brought out of solitary conferment to be given a hot
shower and a tasty meal, a subject’s mood may change abruptly from
despair to relief, then, information may be offered to the interviewer out
of gratitude.
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During the early stages of an interviewing process, an interrogator will
“get to know” the subject. It is important to find out whether a subject is,
for example, zealously dedicated to a cause, to the point of becoming a
martyr, or whether the subject needs little persuasion to become
compliant.
A skilled interviewer will also observe a subject’s physical posture and
listen carefully to the tone of his or her voice, especially if behaviour
changes in response to some aspect of the conversation. For example,
many people who are nervous or under stress will unconsciously and
protectively draw their bows in to their sides. As another example, when
many people are talking about something they either know a lot about or
are passionate about, their rate of speaking increases. But, if a subject
area is uncomfortable, many people pause and speak slowly knowing
what topics a subject is sensitive to, and observing visual cues, can be
used later as levers.
If a subject is reluctant to offer information, an interrogator will often
begin to probe the topics that make the subject uncomfortable. By turns
an interrogators can be calm or bluntly insistent. Both the topics
discusses and the interrogator’s manner are intended to keep the subject
tense and off-balance, and to indicate to the interrogator how hard he or
she may need to press to gain the information that is sought. A subject
can become hostile during this phase of an interviewing session or may
be compliant.
In the next phase of an interview process, the interrogator attempts to
elicit the sought-after detailed and to the point at this stage, never
allowing the conversation to stray off topic. The interrogator also will
want to establish whether the subject’s information is reliable. The
interrogator can employ a variety of tactics, including leaving the
subject alone for sometimes, making the subject think that he or she has
no allies, using threats, talking about the subject’s family and even
adopting a warm tone.
An interview is sometimes accomplished by a pair of interrogators, often
with very different personalities. One person will be domineering, crass,
profane, and loud. The other interrogator will be friendly, sympathetic,
and quiet. This contrast, which is reinforced by a rehearsed routing, can
work to the interrogator’s advantage, particularly with woman, teenagers
and shy people, who usually will respond to the quiet interrogator.
An interviewing session can take place over days with periods of
solitary confinement in between. These solitary periods serve to build up
tension in that subject and, especially if the surroundings are lout or
uncomfortable, to make the subject exhausted.
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Explain the meaning of interview.
3.2
Types of Interviews
There are five basic types of interviews. The one a criminal uses
depends more on his personal style than anything else.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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Regular interview: This is the most common form of interview
for muggers. The criminal will approach you under the guise of
normalcy, i.e. needing information or small item (e.g. matches).
This is a distraction. While he is talking, he is not only getting in
position to attack but also cheeking your awareness about what
he is doing and your commitment to defending yourself. This is
why you should always be careful when someone approaches you
in a fringe area and ask for something. Your answer should
always be “no” and insist on him keeping his distance.
Hot interview: Hot interviews are sudden and unexpected
emotional blitzkriegs against you. They pop out of “nowhere”
you are minding your own business one minute, and the next you
have a treating, obscenity-spouting, screaming person charging
down on you. The success of this strategy relies on extreme
emotional violence and reacting in a stunned and confused
manner. You must be willing to immediately shift into an
extreme physical violence to foil such interviews. Paradoxically,
if you can immediately display this commitment, the attacker will
often abort.
Escalating interview: Unlike a hot interview, which starts out
immediate hostility, an escalating interview starts normally but it
rapidly turns hostile. The person or people test(s) your boundaries
by escalating outrageous behaviour. Every time he is not stepped
down i.e he is successful, this behaviour becomes more and more
extreme until finally he attacks. This is a very common interview
for date rapists. It is also common when you walk into the middle
of a group of loitering young people, what “supposedly” starts
out with them normally escalates into a robbery or assault
sometimes both.
Silent interview: A silent interview is when a criminal put
himself in a position to observe you. He may never speak until
the attack, but he has been watching all along. He may position
himself out of sight in a parking structure and follow you. Or he
may make his presence known and decide to attack if you show
fear of his presence.
Prolonged interview: An interview can take anywhere from a
mere moment (hot) to weeks (prolonged). Prolonged interview
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MODULE 4
are often combined with other types. Being stalked is prolonged
escalation. A serial thief can silently watch victim for days
whereas a Bunco scan would be prolonged regular interview.
While the con artist attempts to win your trust with prolonged
interview, the intent is seldom obvious from the beginning.
Therefore having the first four levels of the pyramid of personal
safety in place becomes of critical importance.
In addition to these types of interviews, we have structured, semistructured and unstructured interviews. For structured interview, the
interview schedule specify properly the number of question to be asked,
what response are expected, the sequence of items and the words
expected to be used in replying. In this type of interview both the
interviewer and interviewee’s freedoms are limited because they have no
chance of probing further to clarify answer while the interviewee cannot
express himself freely.
In semi-structured interview, the schedule contains questions for a
particular session but the interviewer is authorised to probe further
provided the interview is eliciting information about the problem under
investigation. Another characteristic is that not all the questions are
determined before interview commence. Other questions could be added
as interview progresses while in unstructured interview, only the general
problem is noted by interviewer on a time. The timing, structure and
content of items to be asked are determined by interviewer.
In criminal law, interview is a process of formally and systematically
questioning a suspect in order to elicit incriminating responses; though
elaborate safeguards have been placed on police interrogatory powers in
order to protect the rights of the accused.
Enumerate the types of interviews you know, and describe three of
them.
3.3
Police and criminal evidence Act (PACE) and the Codes
in Relation to Interviews
How is Police and Criminal Evidence Act relevant in interviews with
suspects?
The Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) of 1984 is primarily
concerned with the powers and duties of the police, the rights of
suspects and the admissibility of evidence. Seven codes of practice have
been adopted under this act including code C for the detention, treatment
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and questioning of persons by police officers, and code E on the audio
recording of interviews with suspects. Section 67(9) of PACE places a
duty on persons other than police officers “who are charged with the
duty of investigating offences or charging offenders” to have regard to
any relevant provisions of the codes of practice. You should be familiar
with the provisions of the codes and follow them when you are
questioning or interviewing suspects.
When should you conduct an interview under caution?
There is no express legal requirement that a person suspected of having
committed an offence must be interviewed under caution before any
decision as to whether to prosecute is taken. However, it is desirable that
persons who are suspected of committing offences are interviewed under
caution because:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The interview may provide important evidence against the
suspect, which you would otherwise be unable to obtain.
The interview may provide important information revealing
further lines of inquiry.
The interview may provide relevant information to be considered
in the prosecution decision.
It is fair and proper to allow a potential defendant an opportunity
to answer the allegations and give their own account.
An interview under caution will help to satisfy the provision of
the enforcement concordant.
In the light of the above, you should generally interview suspects under
caution unless there are good reasons for not doing so, such as the
suspect refusing to attend. Even in a case where you feel that the
evidence you have collected in the course of an investigation is
sufficient to provide a realistic prospect of conviction, you may still
carry out an interview under caution. In any event, in health and safety
investigations it will generally be appropriate to question the suspect
about the reasonable practicality of steps that were or were not taken.
This is likely to be difficult to ascertain without an interview. You may
also wish to give the suspect the opportunity to comment on the
evidence you have uncovered in your investigation and to put forward
any point that they considered to be relevant.
Once a person has been charged (serve with a summons) or informed
that they will be prosecuted, you should not question them further in
relation to the offence, unless such questions are:
a.
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Absolutely necessary for the purpose of preventing or minimising
harm or loss to some other person or to the public.
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b.
c.
MODULE 4
For clearing up an ambiguity in a previous answer or statement.
In the interest of justice in order to give the person an opportunity
to comment on information concerning the offence which has
since come to light.
Before any such questions are put to a person, they should be cautioned
again. They should also be reminded that they have a right to seek legal
advice.
When setting up an interview under caution, a letter should be sent
inviting the person or an authorised representative in the case of a
company to attend an interview under caution.
If a suspect declines the opportunity to attend or you do not conduct an
interview under caution for any other reason, you will not be able to
verbally ask the suspect for their representations. You should normally
write to the suspect, inviting him/her to make any written
representations relating to the investigation or the prospect of
prosecution.
A suspect is not obliged to accept your invitation and may therefore
refuse to attend. If they do so, this can be brought to the court’s attention
at the time of sentencing (if they plead guilty or are convicted at trail) as
the extent to which they co-operated with the investigation is relevant at
that stage.
If you receive no response to your invitation, it may be appropriate to
attempt to write to the suspect again, provided you have the correct
address. If necessary, you can telephone the suspect to check the
correctness of his/her address.
Interviewing a corporate body (company)
In the event that a corporate body (e.g. a company) is invited to attend
an interview under caution, you should ask the corporate body to
nominate a person to attend the interview under caution to answer
questions on its behalf.
It sometimes happens that a company (or other corporate body) that is
invited to nominate a representative to attend an interview under caution
nominates a person whom you suspect may have committed an offence
in their individual capacity (e.g. as a director or senior manger pursuant
to HSWA section 37) and who you may therefore intend to interview
under caution as an individual. Where this happens, the company should
be asked if there is anyone else who attend instead to speak as the
company’s nominated representative. If the company cannot nominate a
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different person (e.g. because there is only one director), there should be
two separate interviews under caution, one, the company through its
nominated representative; and two, the
same individual in his/her
personal capacity. The order in which the interviews are conducted will
depend on the circumstances of the investigation. You must never
conduct just one interview where the individual is asked to answer
question both on his/her behalf and on behalf of the company-it would
be impossible to identify which answer are admissible against each and
the entire interview is likely to be inadmissible in any later court
proceedings.
Where two interviews are to take place, it may be possible to conduct
both interviews on the same day for the convenience of all concerned,
but this may not be possible in more complex cases. It should always be
made clear in advance in which capacity a person is being interviewed,
either in his/her capacity as individual or as the company’s nominated
representative. Where both interviews are being conducted on the same
day, it should be absolutely clear that two of tapes/CDS should be used
for each interview. You should make it completely clear at the start of
each interview, in what capacity the person in being interviewed.
Cautions
When there are grounds to suspect that a person has committed an
offence, you must caution them before any questions about it are put to
them to ensure that the answer (or failure to answer) is capable of being
admissible in evidence in prosecution.
If you put further questions to a person at later time you must caution
again.
Grounds for suspicion are more than vague unsubstantiated feeling or a
hunch; they require some basis, but this can be less than evidence
supportive of a prima facie case.
A caution is not necessary when you are asking questions for other
purposes (for example, safety to establish someone’s identity or their
ownership of a certain vehicle). You should remember however, that
what starts out as exploratory questioning may, as a result of the answer
given to preliminary questions, become questioning about a person’s
involvement or suspected involvement in a criminal offence. You must
then immediately issue a caution and comply with the other relevant
provision of code C.
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MODULE 4
Interview under caution (PACE interviews)
An interview is defined by code C as the questioning of a person
regarding their involvement or suspected involvement in a criminal
offence or offences. Such an interview must always be carried out under
caution. Therefore, whenever you caution someone and question
him/her about his/her involvement in an offence, you are conducting an
interview under caution within the meaning of code C.
The suspect’s responses to questions put to him/her during an interview
under caution conducted in accordance with code C may be used as
evidence against him/her in any subsequent criminal proceeding. This is
explained to the suspect by the caution. Evidence obtained during the
interview can only be used against the person being questioned, it
cannot be used in evidence against another person (e.g. a co-defendant),
although one may suggest additional lines of enquiry.
You should note that an informed discussion can be an interview with
the meaning of code C. A conversation will constitute an interview if a
suspect is being asked to incriminate him/her. Also since code C refers
to “any questioning”, a single question can amount to an interview.
If you fail to caution a person but still question him/her about his/her
involvement or suspected involvement in an offence, this is still
“interview”. However any evidence contained in the interview may not
be admissible.
State the “PACE” in relation to interviews. How would you conduct an
interview under caution?
3.4
Records of Interviews under Caution
How will you conduct and record interviews under caution?
An accurate record must be made of every interview with a person
suspected of an offence i.e. every interview under caution. The record
must state the place of the interview, the time it begins and ends, the
time the record is made on forms provided for this purpose or in the
investigation’s note book, or in accordance with the code of practice for
the audio recording of interviews with suspects (code E).
Persons being interviewed in connection with offence have a right to
consult privately with a solicitor. They can choose to do so in person or
by telephone you should inform the suspect of this right when you
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arrange the interview and before the interview starts. Suspects who are
not interviewed at a police station are not entitled to free legal advice
under the ‘duty solicitor’ scheme. If the witness asked for legal advice
however, an interview may not continue until it has been obtained.
Where a solicitor has been consulted and is available, he/she must be
allowed to be present at the interview.
Conducting the interview
The interview should be conducted sitting down and as far as possible in
comfort, with proper breaks for refreshment. The interview should take
place in an adequately heated, lit and ventilated room. Before the start of
the interview, it is advisable to ensure that all persons present have
switched off mobile telephones, pagers etc to avoid interruptions.
At the beginning of the interview, having first cautioned the suspect,
you should put to him/her any significant statement(s) or silence(s)
which occurred in your presence or of any other interviewing inspector
before the interview and which have not been put before the suspect in
previous interview. You should ask the suspect whether he/she confirm
or deny that earlier statement or silence and if he or she wishes to ask
anything.
If a suspected person makes unsolicited comments outside the context of
an interview but which might be relevant to the offence, you should
make a written record of the comment. You should sign the record and
record the time the comments were made.
You should also give the suspect the opportunity, where practicable to
read the record and sign it as correct or to indicate the aspects in which
they consider it inaccurate. If the suspect agrees the record is correct,
they should be asked to endorse the record with, for example, ‘I agree
this is a correct record of what was said’ and append his/her signature.
Where the suspect disagrees with the record, you should record the
details of any disagreement and ask the suspect to read these details and
sign them to the effect that they accurately reflect his/her disagreement.
Any refusal to sign should also be recorded.
You must not try to obtain answer by the use of oppression. Such an
approach is likely to mean that any evidence obtained is inadmissible.
You should not leave the suspect unattended during an interview if you
take a short break and all parties remain in the room, it is not necessary
to switch off the recorder. However, if you do take a break during the
interview at which the audio recording is stopped, you must always
announce that a break is to be taken and give the reason for it and the
time, before switching off the recorder.
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If the suspect is to leave the room during a break, you must take the
tape/ CD out of the recorder and seal it as if it is the end of the
interview.
You should continue the interview on a new tape/CD
following the same procedure.
Ending the interview
The interview (or further interview) of a suspect must cease when:
i.
ii.
iii.
All the questions you consider relevant to obtaining accurate and
reliable information about the offence have been put to the
suspect. This includes allowing the suspect an opportunity to give
an innocent explanation and asking questions to test if the
explanation is accurate and reliable (e.g. to clear ambiguities or
clarify what the suspect said).
You have taken accurate record of any other available evidence
You reasonably believe there is sufficient evidence to provide a
reliable prospect of conviction.
Audio – reordered interview under caution. The purpose of audio
recording an interview under caution is to ensure that the most accurate
record possible can easily be made. Audibly recorded interview are the
best way to ensure that admissible evidence is collected from suspects
who are interviewed. Interview with suspects should therefore always be
audio recorded.
You should have regard to code of practice E on audio recording
interviews with suspects, as well as code C on the questioning and
treatment of persons. If interviews with suspects are audio recorded, the
court may exclude evidence of the interview if a relevant provision of
the code is not followed.
At the start of an audio- recorded interview, you should give the place of
interview, the date and time, and then introduce yourself by giving your
name and post. All other persons present in the room should be asked to
introduce themselves so that their voice may be identified on the
recording.
You should inform the suspect that, at the conclusion of the interview,
you will hand them a notice explaining what will happen to the
recording.
You should then caution the suspect, stating that you are not using your
powers and that the suspect is not under arrest and free to leave. You
should remind the suspect of the right to seek legal advice if there is no
solicitor.
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The interviewee should be asked to give his/her full name, address, date
of birth, and where he/she resides.
If the suspect objects to the interview being recorded, the objection
should be recorded on the nearest media. If the objection is recorded on
tape/CD or the suspect has refused to have his/her objections recorded,
you may turn the recorder off, and explain your reasons for doing so.
Concluding the audio-recorded interview under caution
At the end of the interview, you must offer the suspect an opportunity to
clarify anything that has been said or to add anything. You should then
complete the notice to person whose interview has been audio recorded.
Give the time and announce that you are now switching off the recorder.
The master tape/CD must be sealed and the label signed by you, the
suspect and any other persons present.
After you have conducted an audio-recorded interview, you should
make a note in your notebook of the fact that an audio interview has
taken place, the time, duration and date and the identification number of
the recording.
As a police officer, how will you conduct an audio-recorded interview?
3.5
How to Conduct a Police Interview
Interviewing witnesses and suspects is a crucial part of criminal
investigation, the purpose of which is to get information. Effective
police work involves getting complete and accurate eyewitness
accounts, as these can be convincing forms of evidence. In addition to
gathering and corroborating the facts, police investigators also must get
the proof or confessions they need. There are a number of techniques for
conducting a successful police interview.
i.
ii.
256
Explain the reason for the interview before you begin. Work on
building a rapport with the person being interviewed. You want
the person to like you, so you must give him a reason to confide
in you. Also, take steps to make the person feel comfortable.
Interviewees are more likely to volunteer information when they
do not feel frightened or intimidated.
Refrain from using unethical means to get a confession. Do not
make threats or promises or use coercive actions to obtain
confession. In order not to appear confrontational, seating should
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iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
MODULE 4
be arranged so that the interviewer and interviewee are sitting at
the ten and two o’clock positions, rather than face to face.
Ask open-ended questions. Open-ended questions are not always
phrased like questions, but rather as statements that require a
response. Instead of leading a suspect or witness, an open-ended
question is intended to encourage answers based on what the
person knows. The objective is to get witnesses or suspects to
volunteer information. Interview question that achieves this
always begin with a word as “what”.
Listen to what is being said and clarify any inconsistencies. Even
the most trivial information could be important. Make eye contact
throughout the interview to establish credibility. Videotape the
interview to maintain the integrity of the investigation. Take
notes while interviewing the witness or suspect, or have another
interviewer in an adjacent room to take notes.
Avoid embarrassing the person being interviewed throughout the
interview. Do not interrupt the person being interviewed when he
is speaking. Let him tell his story. Ask only one question at a
time and wait for each answer.
Employ suggestive techniques to help witness recall information
from memory. Sometimes memory can be jogged with clues
about the personal characteristics or clothing a suspect was
wearing.
Use accusatory questioning to help determine whether a person is
telling the truth or lying. An innocent person tends to be direct
with answers; someone who is lying might be evasive. Innocent
people usually feel confident that an investigation will clear
them. A guilty suspect may try to direct the interviewer from the
actual questions being asked.
Outline the steps you will follow when conducting a normal police
interview.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have discussed interviews and its purpose. We noted that interview
is considered mostly as a formal conversation which is conducted with a
view to obtaining information. We also noted that interviews are
conducted in criminal cases for the purpose of gathering pieces of
information from people that is complainant, witness and suspects who
have or may have pieces of information needed in the investigation. The
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) was also stated and its
application to various forms of interview was discussed.
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Audio-recorded interview under caution was also described together
with the steps to follow. It was also noted that after you have conducted
an audio-recorded interview, you should make a note in your notebook
of the fact that an audio interview has taken place, the time, duration and
date, and the identification number at the recording.
Finally, techniques for conducting a successful police interview were
also outlined and discussed.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the concept interview by looking at the
following aspects, meaning of interview, types, Police and Criminal
Evidence Act (PACE) in relation to interviews, records of interview
under caution and techniques of how to conduct a police interview were
enumerated.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
State the Police and Criminal Evidence Act. Discuss its
importance.
Explain how to conduct and record an interview under caution.
List types of interviews you know and describe two of them.
7.0
Fakayode, E. O. (1985). The Nigerian Crminal Code Companion.
Benin, Nigeria: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.
James, G. (1980). Criminal Investigation. Ohio, U.S.A.: Merrill
Publishing Co.
Member, C.F.L. (1990). Police and Law Enforcement. Ibadan: Itec
Printers Ltd.
Onashile, Y. (2004). Scientific Criminal Investigation. Detection and
Prosecution. Ibadan: Malijoe Soft Print.
Swanson, C. R. (2003). Criminal Investigation. (8th ed.). Boston, USA:
Senneward, C. A. (1981). The Process of Investigation: Concepts and
Strategies for the Security Professional. Washington, U.S.A.:
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MODULE 5
REPORT-WRITING AND MANAGEMENT
OF CRIMINAL INFORMATION
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Managing Crime/Criminal Information
Case File
Report-Writing and Note-Taking
UNIT 1
MEANING OF CRIMINAL INFORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
3.2
The Concept of Information
3.3
Sources of Criminal Information
3.4
Types of Criminal Records
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
What is information? And how is it related to crime?
Generally, information refers to news or knowledge being given. It is the
act of exchanging news or knowledge between persons. “When Mr.
Joseph arrived at the village square, the village head told him that his
house will be demolished on Sunday if he (Joseph) fails to pay the fine
imposed on him by the villagers. Mr. Joseph returned on Monday to find
his house razed down.”
From the foregoing narrative, the news of the proposed demolition of
Mr. Joseph’s house by the villagers is what we referred to as
information. It could be a message, a story, warning, alarm, training or
lesson. It could also be a good news or bad news.
Information is very essential and indispensable in criminal investigation.
In order words, without information an investigator may not know what
to do or how to approach a given crime situation. It is therefore
important for information about known crimes to be given to the police,
or any known authority. The law recognises this fact and imposes a
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penalty against persons who neglect to prevent crime by failing to do
something about its prevention. Section 515 of the Criminal Code 97
provides that “Every person who, knowing that a person desires to
commit or is committing a felony, fails to use all reasonable means to
prevent the commission or completion thereof, is guilty of a
misdemeanour, and is liable to imprisonment for two years.”
The most reasonable means to prevent the commission or completion of
a crime is to pass information about it to the police or law enforcers.
This is because: to use our physical strength or presence to prevent a
crime may appear too fatal or risky, so it is wiser to inform the agency
prepared physically, psychologically and otherwise to prevent it.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At end of this unit, you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
explain the meaning of information
enumerate the various sources of criminal information
state the importance of information
mention categories of information
analyse information in relation to crime.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
What is criminal information?
Criminal information is a criminal charge that is brought by prosecutor
rather than a grand jury. A charge from a grand jury is called an
indictment. In other words, information is a formal criminal charge
made without a grand jury indictment by prosecutor in a document
called information.
The moment a person commit any form of crime, the crime is mentioned
as a criminal record of the person. There is no difference in the type of
crime that is committed; let it be a simple drinking under influence
charge or a robbery, it is mentioned in the criminal record. When a law
is violated, the offended person may be able to smile and forget the
crime. However this violation of the law will be mentioned in the
criminal record of the violator by court and government. And this may
sometimes give a bad impression of the person in all of his/her future
lifetime opportunities.
Whenever an employer looks for likely candidates for employment, he
runs the mandatory procedure of doing a background check on the
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applicant. By running a background check, the employer will be able to
learn if the applicant has any criminal record. If at all the person has a
criminal record, the employer is at liberty to check on the criminal
record to see what felony or crime the person had actually done. And so
on checking the criminal record, and type of crime committed, the
employer can decide if it is safe to employ the person or not. The person
with a bad criminal record may find it difficult to get any form of
employment.
Criminal records are easily accessible. Also the companies doing
background checks are at liberty to conduct background checks and thus
have continuous access to not only criminal records, but to any other
personal information of a person. Of course, the police and the CID also
have criminal records of all criminals, and the crimes they had
committed.
The state archives have online databases of all public records, including
criminal records. The state archives holds information about every
governor, bills, act, and reports and of all proceedings of the supreme
and appellate courts. So this archive can be considered the best place for
one to access a person’s criminal records. Some states also have online
databases of public records while others have online sites of criminal
records of sex offenders. Similarly, there are sites of the most wanted
people.
Countries also have online database that contain criminal records that
are accessible to the public. Here you also find sites listing sex
offenders; this is a site that has to be made publicly available for the
safety of citizens of a country. Some states also provide criminal record
searches. Here a person can get a criminal record of felonies and
misdemeanour arrests that took place in the state for a fee. Sometimes, if
the person searching for a criminal record comes up with the statement
that no records were found, it is required to pay for the services rendered
by the site.
How is criminal information different from ordinary information?
3.2
The Concept of Information
How did the concept “information” evolved?
Information is a formal criminal charge made without a grand jury
indictment by a prosecutor in a document called information. The term
is used worldwide and in various other common law jurisdictions.
Information is one of the oldest common law pleadings (first appearing
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around the 13th century), and is nearly as old as the better known
indictment, with which it has always coexisted.
Information in its most restricted technical sense is an ordered sequence
of symbols that record or transmit a message. It can be recorded as signs
or conveyed as signals by waves. Information is any kind of event that
affects the state of a dynamic system. As a concept however,
information has numerous meanings. Moreover the concept of
information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication
control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, metal stimulus,
palter perception, representation, and especially entropy.
The concept of information connotes the following:
1.
2.
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Etymology: The English word was apparently derived from the
Latin stem (information) of the normative (information). This
noun is in turn derived from the verb “informare” (to inform) in
the sense of “to give form to the mind”, to ‘discipline” instruct”
“teach” “men so wise should go and inform their kings”. Inform
itself comes (via French informer) from the Latin verb informare,
to give form, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already
contained the word information; meaning concept or idea, but the
extent to which this may influenced the development of the word
information in English is not clear.
As sensory input: Often information is viewed as a type of input
to an organism or system. Inputs are of two kinds; some inputs
are important to the function of the organism (for example, food)
or system (energy) by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology,
Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information)
are important only because they are associated with causal inputs
and can predict the occurrence of a caused input at a later time
(and perhaps another place). Some information is important
because of association with other information but eventually
there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice,
information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be
detected by specialised sensory systems and amplified by energy
inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system.
For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides
information to animals. The coloured light reflected from a
flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual
system of the bee detects it. Bee’s nervous system uses the
information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often
finds nectar or pollen which are casual inputs serving a
nutritional function as an influence which leads to a
transformation.
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Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or
transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a
conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate the pattern. Consider,
for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that
influences’ the formation and development of an organism without any
need for a conscious mind.
System theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense,
assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind
and patterns. Circulation (due to feedback) in the system can be called
information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense
is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created
or presented for that purpose.
If, however, the premise of “influence” implies that information has
been perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the
specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the
transformation of information into knowledge. Complex definitions of
both “information” and knowledge make such semantic and logical
analysis difficult, but the condition of “transformation” is an important
point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in
the business discipline of knowledge management. In this practice, tools
and processes are used to assist a knowledge worker in performing
research and making decisions including step such as:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Reviewing information in order to effectively derive value and
meaning.
Referencing data if any is available.
Establishing a relevant context, often selecting from many
possible contexts.
Making decisions or recommendations from the resulting
knowledge.
The Danish dictionary of information terms argues that information only
provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer provides
knowledge depends on the informed person. So a generalised definition
of the concept should be “information” = an answer to a specific
question.
3.
As records: Records are specialised form of information.
Essentially, records are information produced consciously or as a
by-product of business activities or transactions and retained
because of their value. Primarily their value is as evidence of the
activities of the organisation but they may also be retained for
their informational value. Sound records management ensures
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that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are
required.
The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines
records as “information created, received, and maintained as evidence
and information by an organisation or person, in pursuance of legal
obligations or in the transaction of business.”
4.
Information and semiotics: Beynon-Davies explains the multifaceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal sign
systems. Signs themselves can be considered in terms of fourdependent levels, layers or branches of semiotics: pragmatics,
semantics, syntax, and empirics. These four layers serve to
connect the social world on one hand with the physical or
technical world on the other. Pragmatics is concerned with the
purpose of communication. Pragmatics links the issue and sign
with the context within which signs are used. The focus of
pragmatics is on the intentions of living agent undertaking
communicative behaviour. In other words, pragmatics link
language to action.
Semantics is concerned with the meaning a massage conveyed in a
communication act. Semantics is the study of the meaning of sign-the
association between signs and behaviour. Semantics can be considered
as the study of the link between symbols and their referents or concepts;
particularly the way in which signs relate to human behaviour.
Syntax is concerned with the formalism used to represent a message.
Syntax as an area, studies the form of communication in terms of the
logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax is devoted to the study of the
form rather than the content of signs and sign-systems.
Empirics is the study of the signals used to carry a message; the physical
characteristics of the medium of communication. Empirics is devoted to
the study of communication channels and their characteristics, e.g.
sound, light electronic transmission etc.
Discuss the various levels of definitions of the concept of information.
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3.3
Sources of Criminal Information
What are the various sources of criminal information?Criminal
information can be gotten by investigators using four principal sources.
These are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The complainant/crime victims
The suspect/accused persons
The witnesses
Scenery picture.
Other sources include the following; physical evidence, people involved
(suspects) and non suspects, records, reconstructing the incident,
evidence from the crime scene, witness statements and interrogation of
suspects.
The complainant/crime victim: In crime investigation, the complainant
or victim is a reliable source of information. As the first recipient of the
burden or impact of the crime, he/she knows its effect, how, when and
where the crime was committed. He could equally know why the crime
was committed against him and what was used committing the crime.
The aim of criminal investigation is to know all these. The complainant
is in a position to supply all these information to the investigating
officer. If these are known, he releases them without fear of being
known or harmed: because the criminal already know him and had done
the worst to him by committing the crime against him.
Information supplied by the complainant should be carefully recorded
and in good precision because, as a victim of the crime, everything is
fresh and what he says might be most reliable except in few cases where
fear, State of health, age and effect of violence might blur the memory
of the complainant from knowing exactly what happened.
The complainant is expected in normal situation, to supply the following
information to the investigator.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Date and time of the crime
Place and how the crime was committed
Who committed the crime? (if known)
Pains to the crime:
i.
Damages (if any)
ii.
Things stolen (if any)
iii.
Injuries (if any)
e) Instruments or weapons used (if any)
f) And possibly why the crime was committed against him\her.
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The suspect/accused: The suspect or accused person is another source
of criminal information. The suspect is the person who, by the
circumstances surrounding the crime, suspected to be behind the
commission of the crime by any means whatsoever. He may be the
actual person or innocent. In any case, the suspect can be a veritable
source of good information that may be useful in crime investigation.
The accused is the person charged with the commission of the crime. He
is presumed to be innocent until the fact that he committed the crime is
proved against him. Just as in the other case, he could be a source of
information whether he committed the crime or not.
Somebody can be suspected or accused of a crime innocently, but knows
much about it. In the event of such situation, the law expects a law
abiding citizen to release such information to the law enforcement
agents when necessary to do so. A suspect can confess to a crime on
interrogation. And a suspect or accused though innocent of the crime,
but knew about it, when questioned, may deny the charge and expose
facts he knows about the crime. The process of denial may also reveal
essential facts about the crime against someone else without the suspect
or accused knowing. The following illustration may buttress this point.
Bature was sleeping in his house at about 8.30pm on a Sunday, when
Thomas Okoh his friend ran into his house and hid under his bed. Bature
saw him but did not know what he did. Onome James, a co-tenant with
Bature jugging outside was chasing Thomas Okoh soon after stealing a
golden wrist watch from its owner at a mosque close to Bature’s house
and thought it was Bature. When police interrogated him the following
day, he told the police that he was not the one they were chasing but
Thomas Okoh whom he saw ran inside his house soon before he
(Bature) was arrested.
Bature who was trying without success to find out why Thomas should
run into his house and hide at that hour of the day, was arrested by the
police following Onome’s statement to them. Bature was charged for
stealing a golden wrist watch valued at 15,000.00, a charge he denied,
but revealed that at the hour in question, he was not the one who ran
inside his house, but his friend Thomas Okoh. When arrested, Thomas
was found with the golden wristwatch, and eventually confessed the
crime.
From this illustration, one can see how information relating to crime can
be sourced from a suspect. And that is the reason why proper steps
should be taken during interrogation of a suspect or accused.
The suspect or accused might be a criminal, so he/she is the second
person who knows much about the crime besides the victim. While the
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victim or complainant is the recipient, the criminal perpetrates the crime.
Information expected from him or her essential include:
a)
b)
c)
Why he did it
How he did it
Persons who aided, counselled, or assisted or procured him to
commit the crime. And where he, the suspect or accused is
innocent of the crime, he is to supply information that may prove
same.
The witness: Witnesses are persons who are present during the
commission of a crime, or by any means have facts about a committed
crime. It may be that the person who saw the action that constituted the
crime; he heard a noise that constituted the crime or a declaration by the
suspect or victim as to the crime. A witness is an independent person in
the crime. He or she loose or gain nothing in the crime. But he
experienced it. He may loose nothing still, if he remains adamant. The
outburst of the witness in revealing what he/she heard or saw has the
tendency of offsetting or endangering the security of the criminals.
Therefore, both can be in good terms and the criminal may stop at
nothing to ensure the witness stay away from the matter. For this reason
witnesses need to be protected, especially in serious crimes.
There are two types of witnessing. The first is that, the complainant as
well as the suspect or accused persons knew who and who witnessed the
crime. Another is one whereby somebody witnessed the crime without
anybody knowing this.
Information to the police or investigators on the later instance is most
essential because it is reliable and unbiased or uninfluenced, witnesses
who gave such information are called informants. It is this type of
witnesses’ identity that needs to be protected to avoid possible harm
against them. Essential information from witnesses may include.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Who committed the crime?
Who was victimised by the crime?
What he/she heard?
What he/she saw?
What he/she perceived with any of his/her five senses?
Scenery picture: By visiting the scene of crime, the investigating
officer may create what is referred to as scenery picture. This is what
he/she saw at the scene of crime. The sight of the scene may define what
happened. It may send lots of information to the officer. Scene of crime
is often seen as silent informant or non-verbal information about the
crime. That for instance, a scene of murder, which revealed a pool of
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blood, a matches, torn pieces of wrappers, and cloths and as identity
card as revealed a lot of information. The investigator may work extra
length to decide this information to arrive at more facts.
People seen or met at the scene may have more to tell about the crime
and people behind it. Whatever or wherever the source of the
information, the success of any investigation is independent on how
efficient this information is managed by the investigators.
Criminal record search information
There are essentially two reasons for accessing a criminal record history,
which is a public record search. The first principal reason is for the
purpose of employment screening. Whenever a public records search is
conducted, the information returned on a criminal history search is
limited. Arrests without convictions may not be reported for the past
seven years. This includes successfully completed pre- trial intervention
(PTI) cases, deferred prosecution, adjudication withheld, and nullified
cases. We should first address the types of criminal records search
products available. They are federal criminal records, state criminal
record, local government or country criminal record, and criminal record
database searches. Also there are four types of offences that may appear.
They are infractions or violations, traffic offences, misdemeanours, and
felonies. The following is information on each criminal record search
category.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Infractions: Infractions are minor offences that fall under
violations of city codes and regulations.
Traffic offenses: These are serious traffic offenses, such as
driving under the influence of alcohol. Minor traffic infractions
will not be indicated in the criminal background check.
Criminal misdemeanour: These offences usually call for
incarceration of one year or less, in a local confinement facility.
In many instances there is no jail term.
Felony criminal records: A felony criminal record is considered
the most serious. The incarceration ranges from one year to life.
Criminal record search procedures
The vendor receive a request for a criminal records search and
determines what type of release is required – if any, and if the records
may be accessed online, by facsimile, via mail. If not, the vendor sends
out the request to the court runner, who in turn must physically travel to
the court jurisdiction to access the court file. The court runner, in turn,
must be diligent in searching the records.
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Criminal record identifiers
In this case, criminal records are assssed using one or more search
identifiers. The identifiers are: name, date of birth, race, or fingerprints.
Many jurisdictions utilise an exact name search only. Other may utilise a
combination of the above identifiers. Inaccurate identifiers will yield
inaccurate results. The most accurate identifier is a finger print search.
Important pointers
Always determine the source of criminal record search. This will help
ensure that you are accessing the source that best suit your needs. It will
also assist you in reducing false results.
Mention five sources of criminal information, and discuss two of them.
3.4
Types of Criminal Records
The term “criminal records” is a broad one under which many types of
records relating to one’s involvement with a court system or government
agency can be found. That does not necessarily mean that a person has
unfortunate incident with a state or local authority; however, in most
instances this is the case.
A criminal record is a record of a person’s criminal history, generally
used by potentials employers, lenders etc, to assess his/her
trustworthiness. The information included in a criminal record varies
between countries and even between jurisdictions within a country. In
most cases it lists all non-expunged criminal offenses and may also
include traffic offenses such as speeding and drunk-driving. In some
countries the record is limited to actual convictions (where the
individual has pleaded guilty or been declared guilty by a qualified
court) while in others it also includes arrests, charges dismissed, charges
pending and even charges of which the individual has been acquitted.
The latter policy is often argued to be a human rights violation since it
works contrary to the presumption of innocence by exposing people to
discrimination on the basis of unproven allegations. Criminal records are
public records. By nature and most jurisdictions allow access to the
public either from the state funded website for criminal records or
directly requesting it from the concerned public offices who have the
control over the records wanted to be obtained by the public. Before the
development of the Internet, it is quite hard to conveniently obtain
criminal records because of the processes involved in getting them. If
you want a criminal record about a certain person, you have to actually
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perform a physical search on the government institution responsible for
maintaining if like police precincts and court houses.
Types of records
Criminal records could include something as simple as a motor vehicle
or driving records, or something as complex as one’s arrest or criminal
history. Included in the criminal history level could be arrest records,
sex offender records, misdemeanour records, felony records, inmate and
prison records as well as possible inmate release information.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
270
Motor vehicle driving records: Every state has some motor
vehicle department where a person’s driving record can be
obtained for a relatively small fee. There are also databases
available online that provide information on obtaining a driver’s
records step-by-step instructions that have links to all states of the
federation.
In some instances, the section of the database may explain how to
correct errors, what documentation is required when going to a
state motor vehicle administration and whether or not would have
access to someone else’s driving record. These records may
contain information regarding traffic citations any associated
points and the dispositional status of those citations.
Arrest records: Arrest records are exactly records of someone’s
arrest. Quite simply, local, municipal and state agencies are
required to keep a record of each and every contact and
subsequent restraint of an individual. When one is arrested, he is
submitted to the custody of a police officer/agency and a record
of that detainment is maintained. During the arrest process and
recorded on the arrest record is the individual’s physical
description; a record of what he had on his person at the time of
his arrest and a record of his fingerprints. In most instances, these
arrest records are open to the public.
Sex offender records: Sex offender records or sex offender
registries are a centralised database that contains information
about individuals who have been deemed to be sexual offenders
by a court of competent jurisdiction. The Dru Sjodin national sex
offender public website is coordinate by the United States
department of Justice and is a registry that compiles information
from state jurisdictions that have their own sex offender registries
and the federal government. A search query can be done by
searching an individual’s name, by jurisdiction, by zip code, by
country and or state if the reporting jurisdiction has provided that
information, as well as a national search.
Misdemeanour and felony records: Most crime can be
misdemeanours and the determining factor is the potential
POS 214
v.
punishment upon conviction. If a period of incarceration has been
imposed for a year or longer, then the crime is usually considered
a felony, if the period of imprisonment will be less than a year,
the crime will in all likelihood be a misdemeanour. Criminal
records databases may list these offences either together or
separately and may in more detail explain how the crime was
classified. If the offender was given probation or a monetary fine
that information would most likely be found in the criminal
records database.
Inmate, prison and release records: After a felony conviction has
been rendered and a prison sentence imposed, the next set of
records will be established. When a person is under the control of
a state’s department of corrections, information about the inmate
will be gathered and stored both in hard copies on an
identification card, as well as entered into a database that in some
instances is linked to other criminal clearing house databases.
When a particular crime is committed, these databases can be searched
to see if there are any inmate, including term imposed, term served and
release dates are maintained so that police agencies have that. In some
cases, the victims can be kept apprised of the whereabouts of those who
committed a crime against them.
Although a centralised system would be the most effective means of
gathering and maintaining information about people who have
committed crimes, there are places that this information can be found.
With a little bit of patience and due diligence, we can have a better
understanding of the people that we will come into contact with on a
day-to-day basis.
Describe three types of criminal record you know. Give at least one
example each.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have described and explained the meaning of criminal information.
Criminal information is a criminal charge that is brought by prosecutor
rather than a grand jury. A charge from a grand jury is called an
indictment. We also discussed the concept of information, that
information in its most restricted technical sense is an ordered sequence
of symbols that record or transmit a message. It can be recorded as signs
or conveyed as signals by waves. We also learnt that information is any
kind of event that affects the state of a dynamic system. As a concept it
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has numerous meanings and closely related to constraints,
communication, control, data, form, instruction and knowledge.
The various sources of
criminal information were also listed and
described, the sources includes physical evidence, people involved
(suspects) non-suspects, records, reconstructing the incident, evidence
from the crime scene, witness statements and interrogation of suspects.
Criminal record was also discussed as a record of a person’s criminal
history, generally used by potential employers, lenders etc, to assess his
or her trustworthiness. The criminal records of an individual would have
details on the criminal offenses committed by the person including
traffic violations, cases where the person is convicted along with the
cases where the person was acquitted. The various types of criminal
records were also described and listed as motor vehicle, driving record,
arrest records, sex offender records, misdemeanour and felony records,
inmate, prison and release records.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning of criminal information, the
concept of information, criminal records and types of criminal records.
6.0
a)
b)
c)
What is criminal information? Why is it important?
Discuss the various sources of criminal information.
Mention four criminal records and describe two of them.
7.0
REFRENCES/FURTHER READING
Beyon, D.P. (2002). Information systems: An Introduction to
Informatics in Organisation. Palgrave, Basingstoke U.K.:
Einstein Publishers.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2010) w.w.w. org. USA.
Kirk, P.L. (1994). Crime Investigation. ( 2nd ed.). NY: John Wiley and
Sons.
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UNIT 2
MANAGING CRIME/CRIMINA
INFORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Characteristics of Well-Managed Information
3.2
Gathering Information
3.3
Managing Crime and Quality of Life Using “Compstat
Management Model”
Conclusion.
Summary
INTRODUCTION
How do we know whether a police department is managing criminal
information successfully?
Generally, information as an essential tool of investigation needs to be
well managed. Well- managed information is capable of producing other
useful information, and will assist in realising the aim of investigation.
Poorly managed information however, has the tendency of driving away
other useful information and will hamper investigation in any way.
During the 1970s and 1980s most criminologist and even police
executives believed that controlling crime was beyond the capacity of
the police. Hence, crime rates were a relatively unimportant measure of
police effectiveness. Two other measures were considered more
suitable. One was response time which calculated how quickly patrol
officers responded to citizen calls for assistance. Another was clearance
rates, the percentage of crimes against victims, such as burglaries, that
the police believed they have solved. Now most large police
departments are explicitly trying reduce crimes against victims. Crime
rates have become the golden standard for evaluating the competence of
police departments.
Now the question is, how do we manage information relating to crime,
and what are the general characteristics of well-managed information?
The various aspect that will introduce you to how to manage
crime\criminal information include, characteristics of well-managed
information, gathering information and managing crime and quality of
life using “compstat management model.”
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2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
describe the general characteristics of well–managed information
enumerate methods of gathering criminal information
identify sources of criminal information
define the compstat management model
explain the use of compstat management model in managing
crime
list some reasons for giving information to the police by
informants.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Characteristics of Well-Managed Information
What are the main characteristics of well-managed information? There
are principally six major characteristics of well-managed criminal
information. These are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Secrecy/confidential
Checking up information
Storage of information/records
Keeping criminal information/record intact
Parity of information
Honesty and fairness with informants.
Secrecy/confidential: It is a rule in investigation to treat all information
with extreme confidentiality or secrecy. This implies that investigators
should not let information made available to them to anybody, be it
complainant, suspect, witness or informant, during the course of their
investigation. The facts of any case under investigation should remain or
be confined to the four walls of the investigation house, or to the
investigation team. The need for such secrecy helps to prove the
authenticity of such information. If an investigator allows information to
“pill of his file, he is as good as destroying the case he is investigating.
Take for instance, the following experiences:
Detective Sgt. Timothy Henshaw was a crack detective. He was
investigating a case of murder involving one Alanigi who murdered a
girl–Timi. Alanigi escaped to a reverine town to hide in the house of his
friend Mathew. Mathew who already knew what Alanigi did kept him.
One night, Peter a log driver sighted Alanigi and promptly passed the
information to Sgt. Timothy, who made the arrangement in his office to
travel to the riverine community where Alanigi was seen for his arrest
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and that of the man who kept him. Before leaving in the morning,
Timothy revealed the information and the reason for his journey to his
wife Theresa who in turn revealed it to her friend Elizabeth - younger
sister to Mathew. To prevent the arrest of her brother (Mathew),
Elizabeth sent urgent message to him alerting him of the intended
invasion by the police to arrest him and Alanigi. On receiving this
massage, Mathew sent Alanigi away, and also planned to go out of the
town. In his haste to beat the police time of arrival, Mathew’s luck ran
against him. He jammed an old woman with his motor-cycle breaking
the woman’s ankle, while the villagers were beating him for his
recklessness, the police arrived and arrested him but before then Alanigi,
the murderer had escaped police arrest.
From the foregoing, one can see the reason for secrecy of crime
information. Secrecy of crime information does not exclude one’s wife,
mother or father, much less friends, brothers and sisters. People whom
you don’t think can spill your information are most guilty of it. They do
it without knowing the effect or without intending to frustrate and mess
up the case as in the case of Timothy Henshaw’s wife. She did it to
boost her husband’s prestige before her friend Elizabeth. Little did she
know that Elizabeth will be an interested party.
It is important to note that an investigator is safer if he is able to resist
the urge to discuss his official assignment at home.
Keeping your secret secret is not only a trait or attribute of a detective or
investigator; it is also a duty- an important duty for that matter. Once
information is received in an investigation office, especially with respect
to a crime, that information becomes part of the official secret of that
office; and it is the duty of everybody working in that office to preserve
its secrecy or confidentiality. It is an offence under the law to reveal or
expose official secrets. Some conservative investigators go the extramiles of keeping such information away from their colleagues and even
their boss until they have cross checked and acted on it.
Also note that the secrecy of the information is not limited to the
information, it also extend to its sources e.g. the informant. While it is
possible time and events may eventually expose the piece of
information, the informant is expected to exist permanently secret. This
is so in that your source of information today may also be a source
tomorrow, if only you allow the source to remain perpetually secret.
Checking up information: The adage that “knowledge is not power
until applied,” is also true of information. In investigation, “information
is power.” But it is also not so until well utilised. Having kept the
information secret, the next line of action is to check it up if it is true or
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not. Information that is not crosschecked remains waste. And
crosschecking information must be quick and swift if success must be
recorded. It’s tantamount to mismanaging information when time is
allowed to elapse before checking up the information. In the crime
world, people are always on the move, just as in the world of ants. A
delay on the part of the investigator may make false of genuine and true
information. To avoid this, investigators should be quick and
spontaneous in acting on information received.
A police crack team received information of a plan to rob a supermarket
one morning; their effort to respond immediately was marred by a
member of the team (the driver) who failed to keep their vehicle always
on the ready position. Before they could clear the obstacle on the way of
their vehicle they got to the supermarket only to be told that the robber
struck and left with huge sum of money few minutes before they (the
crack team) arrived. Had the members of the team gone to the place as
soon as the information was received, they may have succeeded in
foiling the robbery or arrested the robbers. Hence it is important to act
quickly and swiftly on information received.
Storage of information/records: There is certain information that may
have to do with crimes to be committed in future, or crimes whose
offenders have gone into hiding, and may resurface in a future date.
Such information should be properly stored for easy retrieval for use at
the right time. It important to note that human memory fluctuates from
time to time, and fluctuation of human memory is influenced by a
number of factors, including daily activities and volume of things to
memories or remembers. Since this is the case, it becomes important to
store information in such a way that it could be retrieved in future for
necessary and appropriate action. It is recommended that information
file tagged “sundry information” be opened by every investigator.
Information and informants-no matter how trivial, be recorded therein.
This file should be visited regularly to ensure that information in it has
been acted upon. In the modern day, science is playing this role very
well. Computer services help in refreshing the memory of investigators
and detectives of current crime, information, criminals and events.
Notable information to be included in such files are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
276
Names and addresses of criminals in relation to the crime they
commit with date, time and place.
Name of Informants.
Events or incident or type of crime committed, or about to be
committed.
Stolen items, implement of violence or instruments used in
committing crimes.
Name of persons who received stolen goods or properties.
POS 214
vi.
vii.
Names of person who abet, or aid criminals.
Evidence of person’s involvement in crime.
Information should be received in writing, and documented. Information
from the complainant, suspects and in most cases too, that of witnesses
and informants should be documented for future reference. Here
statement taking comes in. Once a statement is taken from a
complainant, suspect/accused or a witness, a record is created. It is
therefore important and appropriate to store or keep these records in a
safe place where it can be gotten when needed. The confidentiality of
these records, as emphasised earlier is as important as its safety.
Keeping criminal information/record intact: Information or record
relating to any crime should not, in any way be altered, cancelled or
obscure, either in words or in writing for whatever reason. Information
should be intact and be allowed to remain in the original form it was
given. In other words, nothing should be added to the original story to
make up the information. This is to avoid acting wrongly and
miscarriage of justice. For instance, an informant told a member of
police anti- robbery team that a group of boys were seen by him early in
the morning returning from an unknown place, and that the boys were
later seen clustered in a place, sleeping. The informant told the police
that he suspected that the boys must have returned from where they
performed nefarious activities in the night. But reporting the information
to his boss, the members of the robbery gang who robbed a place the
previous night are sleeping in a house, all members of the team
advanced to arrest the suspected robbers with the notion that they were
robbers, that had robbed the previous night and that they are likely
armed with guns. The police eventually shot two of them dead who
attempted to escape, and arrested three others and only to realised later
that the boys were not robbers. At official level, the information was
traced to the informant who denied ever passing the information as told
by the police; the members of the anti-robbery team were charged to
court for murder of the two boys. But before then, the parents of the
boys went to court demanding for N100m damage for killing of their
children. If they win the suit, the N100m may be the cost of altering the
original information by the policemen or a member of the anti-robbery
team.
Once information is left or delivered in its original form, it is easier to
act upon. It should be borne in mind that not all pieces of information
are correct and so investigators take note.
Parity of information:
Treat all pieces of information equal. In
other words, all pieces of information should be treated the same way in
terms of confidentiality, responses and handing. A “too-good” piece of
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information may turn out to be a complete farce. While one considered
as insignificant could turn to be genuine and most reliable; no matter
who gave it or whom it is given against, all pieces of information must
be given equal attention and same treat.
Honesty and fairness with informants: Informants should be treated
honestly, and fairly. In every respect, they should be respected.
Informants posses key to good investigation, and so should be treated
honestly. To a marketer or distributed, the customer is a king, and
always right so it should be with investigators in repect to the
informants.
Describe three
information.
major
characteristics
of
well-managed
criminal
3.2 Gathering Information
As a police officer investigating a crime committed, how do you gather
your information?
There are two classes of persons giving or volunteering information to
the police which require the existence of information fund. That is, the
financial package for processing information. First, persons giving
information at police station in the form of complaint in which
allegations of pure criminal offence is connected and second, person
who deliberately or for other reasons give information to police officers
from time to time. Of course, the second class of persons or informants
will benefit more from information fund than the first class because the
fund is mainly provided to entice them as an informant- being an
individual who for a particular reason provides information to the police.
Persons like proprietor or employee of hotels, traders, prostitutes,
shopkeepers, labourers, cobblers, barbers, barmen, roadside mechanics,
motor pack touts, hawkers and vendors etc are potential security and
criminal information suppliers for police to work with. These are people
who by virtue of the nature of their duties have the time and opportunity
to watch their demeanour and activities, listen to their utterances and
offer assistance to their neighbours and others.
In the course of their duties, they have access to either criminal or
security information and become sources of assistance to the police by
volunteering this information for any particular reasons to which the
police may have to pay for/or spend money in the course of procuring
and processing the information hence the need for the information fund.
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The reasons for giving information to the police are many depending on
the motives behind such actions Baker (1981) and Udensy (1976). The
investigator has the duty to evaluate and assess the informant and his
information because of the conflicting motives behind giving the
information. The most known reasons for giving information to the
police by informants are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Civil mindedness: A good citizen of repute has the civic duty
and responsibility to volunteer information. Similarly agood
citizen who is interested in seeing that justice is done will give
information to the police.
Gratitude: A person who has interest to help the police either by
way of rewarding the investigator for his kindness or
achievement, or on committed inquisitiveness.
Monetary reward: People give information for payment because
of financial need for survival or for other gains. Most informants
are for monetary reward.
Favour: Some people take delight in giving information to police
authorities to enjoy their courtesy, or in order to subsequently
secure police favour.
Fear and revenge: Under the impression of impending danger, an
informant may want police protection or assistance and volunteer
information to scuttle the danger. Others who want to settle
grudges or even scores with someone who caused them pain in
the pass would volunteer information that will reveal wrongful
acts of that person to the police.
Repentance: Weak minded men who have repented can decide to
unburden their conscience by volunteering information to the
police about their wrongful act or those of others.
Escape from punishment: Person(s) who committed minor
offence and wish to give information about major crime in order
to avoid prosecution and such a person is often treated as an
accomplice.
Jealousy: A person envious of the success of other may wish to
humiliate them by giving information about their pass criminal
activities.
Deceit: A person who may be involved in criminal acts with
intent to escape punishment may give the police false information
to mislead the police or the security operatives. Therefore, for
this reason, the investigator must maintain firm control and
direction of the information with intelligent evaluation of his
information to ascertain its reliability if the investigation is to be
legally, morally, and safely conducted and concluded. A good
attention should always be given to protect the interest of a
deliberately anonymous informant. But a dubious anonymous
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informant and his information should be dismissed. Immediate
effort should always be made to identify a bogus informant who
gives information to divert the attention of the police elsewhere,
whilst they and their friend or cohorts commit crime in another
place. Same treatment should be given to informants who give
information deliberately to dupe or defraud young inexperienced
police officers and to get money from them.
There are two sources of information always available to an officer.
These are the primary and secondary sources or the regular and
cultivated sources respectively. the primary source of information are
information from complainant in the sense of an aggrieved person or
victim and their witnesses; the suspect/accused in a case under
investigation and their witnesses or accomplice; anonymous petition,
abandoned exhibits; from anonymous callers even from the scene of
crime.
From the primary sources are obtained raw information which requires
more energy in utilisation. All pieces of information received must be
assessed to verify the truthfulness or otherwise of it, no matter how
much trust you have on the informant or the urgency of the matter, the
emphasis for authenticity is more on primary sources of information
than the secondary.
The word cultivated connotes information produced by objective
collateralisation, having been improved upon or developed and possibly
a cultivated or refined type.
Therefore, the secondary or cultivated sources of information would
produces certified, refined and ascertained information usually in order
to secure documentary corroboration of the verbal information relating
to the crime under investigation. Once a document which has a link to a
crime is obtained, it serves as direct evidence or information and other
things like the perpetrator (s) of the crime can be traced. Such records of
document may be willingly surrendered to the police by their custodians
on demand or through the order of the court. Some of such important
records of information include:
i.
ii.
iii.
280
Police records like police gazette, fingerprints register, modus
operandi system, and surveillance.
Government records like gazettes; departmental records of
government ministries and records of decided cases,
superintendent of prisons records of inmates.
Company records like stock and shares register, sales daybook,
imprest account
register, the purchases and debts account
registers, the proceedings of every audited account records , etc.
POS 214
iv.
v.
vi.
Banks records including their statement of cheque book, all
private or personal or joint deposit accounts ledgers, the
proceedings of every audited account record etc.
Personal records like letters, files jackets, diaries and (relevant)
correspondence.
Newspapers, magazines and periodicals.
Though the last two categories are more of primary sources than
secondary, the provision of sections 165 and 166 of the commission of
offence emphasis the need for police to take every piece of information
seriously because in the haystacks of allegations, accusations denials
and even rumours lies a needle of truth.
Therefore, proper care of information received must be taken, and be
kept secret. Equally, the source of any information and the identity of
the informant must never be disclosed unless absolutely necessary.
Discuss the various ways of gathering information in a criminal
investigation.
3.3
Managing Crime and Quality of Life Using “Compstat
Management Model”
What is “compstat management model?”
The highly effective management model or paradigm that come to be
known as Compstat was first developed within the New York Police
Department in 1994 as a process for managing crime and quality of life
in New York city. Compstat was developed in response to a very
specific set of immediate needs confronting the NYPD. That compelling
need to bring spiralling rates of crime and disorder to within manageable
bounds and to focus on violence was its primary objective. Since its
introduction in early 1994, Compstat has proven to be highly effective in
achieving the goals for which it was initially intended. Over time it has
also evolved and grown from a basic and fairly rudimentary process
involving the collection and analysis of crime data as well as a
mechanism for ensuring accountability and information- sharing into a
more complex, more nuanced, and eminently more effective
management paradigm.
The Compstat Management Model can be adopted for implementation
and practice in the Nigeria police system to resolve a range of problems
and to manage a range of police functions.
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While Compstat has gained renown as a method used by police for
reducing crime, it overall flexibility and adaptability make it a suitable
tool for managing virtually any organisational function in many types of
organisations. Compstat is a multifaceted approach to management that
derives many of its guiding principles from sound practice, including its
emphasis on collecting and analysing data that is used for strategic
decision-making. Compstat Management Model emphases and
establishes exceptionally a high levels of performance accountability at
every level of organisation.
The Compstat paradigm may be best explained or understood through a
review of its basic principles or premises.
The first principle of the Compstat paradigm is that police can make a
difference. While some may reflexly accept this proposition as true,
others are less receptive to it; they are willing to accept poor results and
attribute them to the idea that external forces (such as economics,
unemployment, social conditions, poor education, etc) are the engine
that drives crime, and the police can really do little to influence crime.
Clearly, police manager who does not wholeheartedly believed in the
capacity of the police organisation and the individual officer to make a
difference is in wrong line of work. A lack of faith in this basic premise
also undermines the respect and legitimacy he/she needs from rank-and
–file officers.
The second principle of the Compstat paradigm underlies effective
crime reduction and quality of life problem abatement.These include
timely and accurate intelligence, effective tactics, rapid deployment of
personnel and resources; and relentless follow –up and assessment to
ensure that the problem has been solved.
Third, the Compstat paradigm recognises that in majority of crime
instances, divisional police officers or middle managers are in a far
better position to make everyday operational decisions than headquarters
executives. Divisional police officers are (or should be) far better
acquainted with the crime and quality of life problems within their
jurisdiction, and they are better acquainted with the strength and abilities
of the individual officers working for them. In order to make cogent
operational decision, divisional police officers need crime intelligence,
practical police experience and problem –solving skills. They also made
more accurate and effective decisions when they incorporate the wealth
of information, tactical knowledge and experience residing within
members of their commands.
To operationalise this precept, divisional police officers must be given
the authority to make important decisions within prior review by
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administrative high ups. Careful selection and assignment processes and
a viable accountability system will ensure that middle managers make
appropriate decisions.
The fourth precept of the Compstat Management Model is the
recognition that the police occupation’s culture is not a singular,
unchanging and monolithic entity. The occupational culture is the heart
and soul of the police organisation, the glue that often holds the agency
together, and one of its greatest strengths. In many dysfunctional police
organisations, two distinct cultures can be discerned: a ‘street-cop’
culture and a management –cop’ culture. When the ideas, attitudes,
belief systems, values and goals that characterise these cultures are
disparate or contradictory, the agency’s executives and managers face
formidable challenges and the agency is unlikely to achieve its full
potential. Effective management demands that the differences between
cultures be demised, usually in favour of the “street cop” culture’s best
attributes. Police executives must manage the organisation’s culture as
they would manage any other valuable resource, but few police
executives pay adequate attention to nurturing and developing the
organisation’s culture.
The fifth principle is that accountability is the key to performance.
Transparent accountability systems in which performance objectives are
clear and objectively measurable and in which accountability processes
take place in public must be used to identify and either reward or
discipline the organisation’s members.
Finally, the Compstat Model recognises that in a high- performance
police organisation there should be a strict adherence to the
communication systems and information sharing. The executives should
consult with the rank-and-file in developing policies, strategies and
organisational goals. If police executives are to be successful, the
Compstat paradigm holds, they engage in measured risk-taking and
reward it within the middle and upper management ranks. Operational
officers are, by temperament and the nature of their work generally risktakers.
List six basic principles of the Compstat Management Model.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have explained the general concept of managing crime and criminal
information. We also listed the general characteristics of well- managed
information to include: checking up information; storage of
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information/records; keeping criminal information/record intact; parity
of information; and honesty and fairness with informants.
We also discussed ways of gathering information, when trying to
investigate a criminal case and listed various sources of getting criminal
information. The use of Compstat Management Model was also
discussed for adoption and implementation.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed managing crime/criminal information by
looking at the following areas; characteristics of a well –managed
information, ways of gathering criminal information and adopting
“Compstat Management Model” as a strategy for managing crime and
quality of life.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
7.0
Explain “ Compstat Management Model.”
Lists different ways of gathering criminal information.
Discuss three major characteristics of well –managed
information.
REFERENCES\FURTHER READING
Esserman, D.E. (2001). How to Decentralise Control and Get Police
Officers to Love their Jobs. Washington DC: Heritage Foundation
Executive Memorandum.
Esoung, P. J. (2010). A Handbook on Intelligent Investigation.
Abakilliki: Willy Rose and Appleseed Publishing Coy.
Ewoh, U. R. (2000). Introduction to Criminal Investigation.
PortHarcourt: Minson Publishers.
Henny, V. E. (2002). “The need for a coordinated and strategegic local
police approach to terrorism: A practitioners’ perspective”.
Police Practice and Research Journals, 3,(4) pp 319-338.
Henry, V. E. (2003). “Compstat: The Emerging Model of Police
Management.” In: A. R. Roberts (Ed.). Critical Issues in Crime
and Justice. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publiciations.
Henry, V.E. & Charles, V. C. (2004). “Managing Police Integrity:
Applying Compstat Principles to Control Police Corruption and
Misconduct.” In: R. Muraskin & A. R. Roberts (Eds).
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UNIT 3
CASE FILE
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Meaning of Case File
3.2
Contents of a Case File
3.3
Compilation/Treating of Case File
3.4
Vetting of Case File
Conclusion
Summary
INTRODUCTION
One may ask, what is a case file?
Is it a file that contains a case just as a lay man look at it? What are
contained in a case file? What are its uses and how is a case file
compiled and treated? Answering these questions will be the hallmark of
this unit.
Case file connotes investigation. It is called case file in the southern
parts of Nigeria and goes with Criminal Code Act but it is called casediary in the northern part of Nigeria and goes with the FIR (First
Information Report) in relation with the Panel Code Act. Criminal cases
are processed and charged to court on completion of investigation
through the case file. But, there is the additional practice of using FIR or
First Information Report which is more common in the northern part of
Nigeria to charge cases to courts while investigation is in progress with
its adulterated syntax of “holding charge” in the southern part of
Nigeria.
Case file is a document of events and facts obtained in connection with a
particular case on investigation.
Therefore, the treatment of case diary, even after investigation has been
concluded is a relevant and crucial part of investigation. A good look at
its description, treatment of complaints, its compilation and writing of
report, vetting, termination and security of case file or case diary shall
be of interest to every police personnel and others in any security outfit
that has to do with investigation.
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The various issues that will be examined in this unit that will introduce
you to the concept of case file include meaning of case file, contents of a
case file, compilation and treatment of case file, and vetting procedure
of a case file.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
define a case file
describe the content of a case file
analyse the compilation of a case file
explain how a case file should be treated
outline the vetting procedure of a case file
differentiate case file in the criminal code and penal code.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Meaning of Case File
What is a case file? If one may ask.
A case file is defined differently by different persons, each according to
the professional perspective from which it is made. To a doctor, nursing
and other medical personnel, a case file is a book, folder, file and
document containing the totality of a medical personnel record of patient
under their medical care. A lawyer may see a case file as a file or folder
containing details of a client’s matter. But to a police officer or a
detective/investigator, a case file refers to a file that contains the totality
of facts of a case under investigation. Membere (1982) defines it as a
file which contains all facts and evidence about a complainant or report
made to the police, or of crime or offence detected by police and which
has become a subject of investigation and probable prosecution. If the
foregoing is correct, then the layman perception of a case file, as “a file
that contains a case is partially correct because a file contains document
of a matter (case) between one or more persons which the police or
investigator may likely charge to court for prosecution.
The case file is supposed to contain the statements, reports and
documents collected during investigation. A case file is generally
defined as a comprehensive record of actions taken, and facts and
exhibits uncovered by the investigator in connection with an incident or
crime reported, and care must be taken to maintain it.
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Define the concept “case file” in relation to criminal investigation.
3.2 Content of a Case File
What are the contents of a case file?
Basically, a case file is divided into three parts:
Part ‘A’ (Prosecution)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Index to the case file/ case diary
Extract from crime diary
Police investigation report
Precise evidence
Minutes sheet
Complainant statement
Statement of witnesses to complainant.
Part ‘B’ (Defence)
8)
9)
Statement of suspect(s)
Statement of suspect(s)’ witness.
Part ‘C’ (Documents)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
Petition (where applicable)
Warrant of arrest
Search warrant
Coroner forms(in the case of homicide)
Medical report
Letter/signals
Bail bond.
There is usually an argument over the position of written petition.
Remember that petition as a document sometimes comes with a
covering letter from the assigning authority. Such a petition should be
included among the documents. After all, the contents of the petition
would have been extracted into the crime diary.
In criminal investigation, generally a case file comprises the following
parts:
i.
i
a.
File jacket made of three partsThe cover page
287
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
b.
The diary of actions
c.
The exhibit registration column.
The index to the case file.
Extract from crime diary- This is the extract of the crime reports
which was recorded from the diary.
Investigation report
Précise of evidence
Minutes sheet(s)
Statement of complainant’s witness
Statement of suspect/witness(es) accused person’s witness(es)
Statement of suspect/accused person(s)
Other Documents.
Case file jacket:
Is the file itself. It is made of three parts:
a)
b)
c)
The cover page
The diary of action taken, and
The exhibit registration column.
(a)
The cover page: The cover page of a case file is the front page
that bears the name of the file. It shows the following particulars:
1.
The name of the station or branch or section
2.
The file number of that station
3.
The law contravened
4.
Name(s) and address(es) of complainant
5.
Name(s) and address (es) of suspects (s) Accused
person(s)
6.
Date, time and place of incident
7.
Date and time reported and by whom or rather
commencement of investigation
8.
Name(s) and address (es) of deceased persons or missing
person(s) (if any)
9.
Charge register and charge sheet number
10.
Value of property stolen /lost or damaged or recovered
11.
Name of investigating officer (s)
12.
Date suspect accused person(s)were arrested
13.
Date released on bail
14.
Date investigation completed
15.
Date case charged completed
16.
Date accused person remanded in custody
17.
Date case adjourned
18.
Central exhibit register number (if there is an exhibit (s)
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(b)
The diary of action: The diary of action taken is the second part
of a case file jacket. It is the other side or rather the inner side of
the front cover page of the jacket. It contains the list of action
taken by the investigating officer with date and time.
Just as stated earlier, all actions taken by an investigating officer while
investigating a case must be recorded for the perusal of his superior
officer, or possibly a magistrate, judge or members of a panel should the
need arises and it is in this part of the case file that such actions are
recorded. Note that rules governing the record keeping in law should be
observed. That is, there should be no ambiguity, no over writing,
cancellation, obstruction, obliteration etc. all entry should be dated and
timed.
Table 1: Diary of Action Taken (Part B)
Date and Time
(c)
Particulars or Action
Exhibit registration column
This is the third part of the jacket and also an inner cover. The column
contains the list of Exhibit (s) recovered and which may be used in the
prosecution of the case. It is numbered alphabetically “A”, “B”, “C” and
so on while the numbering is in red ink the Exhibit items are in blue or
black ink.
The particulars of fingerprints of an accused person(s) are also
recovered here. And unlike other exhibits it is done throughout in red
ink. Having listed the exhibit or particulars of the finger prints here, one
is expected to take and register such exhibit(s) or finger print(s) with the
exhibit keeper and crime recorder respectively. After such registration,
the exhibit register number or charge register number is assigned to the
exhibit or finger print. Such number is often written below the last item
and signed by the exhibit keeper indicating receipt of such exhibit.
Table 2: Exhibit Registration Column (Part C)
Date and Time
Particulars of Item
Exhibits
Exhibit Reg. No
Description of Exhibit/Exhibit No
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Index to case file: This contains summary of the contents of the file
and the page each of them can be found. This is to ensure ease of
reference. Just as the entire title is divided into three parts “A-C”, the
index to case file has three parts A-C.
Part A contains:
1.
2.
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Extract from crime diary
A1
Police investigation report
A2
a. Précis of evidence
A2a
Minute sheet
A3a
Statement of complainant
A4
Statement of witness to complainant
A5
Statement of witness to suspect/accused persons A6, etc.
Part B contains:
Statement of suspect/accused person(s)
B1
Suspect /accused person’s Finger prints(if any)
B2
Part C contains:
Copy of search warrant
C1
Copy of warrant of arrests
C2
Doctor’s medical report
C3
Application for bail
C4
Bail bond
C5 etc.
Extract from crime diary: This is the extract of the crime report as
recorded in the station diary. These represent a form of authorisation for
the investigating officer to investigate. If a crime is reported and
recorded, what follows next is investigation. It is numbered in the index
as file A1
Table 3:
S/N
160
OF
15/4/2010
290
Extract from Crime Diary
TIME
1320
HOURS
C/R
DETAIL OF ENTRY
Malicious Damage: One Dick Nwine
‘m’of no 26 Nanka street, Diobu port
Harcourt came to the charge room
today 15/4/2010 at about 1300hrs,
and reported that at about 1030hrs, of
same day, he was in his building site
mentioned above when one Isong
Peters ‘m’ and Amaka Nwachukwu
‘m’ of the same address came and
damaged a part of his building. The
reason for the damage is unknown,
hence he reported. Action case was
incidental and referred to DCB for
POS 214
investigation.
Okonkwo.
Inspector
Clement
Investigation report: This is the report of investigation written by the
investigator. It contains the introduction – which is an embodiment of
the extract from the crime diary, facts of the case- summary of the action
that constitute the crime that led to the report of complaint—normally
sourced from the statements of the complainant(s), witnesses and
suspect(s) and of course the scenery picture or information. It is
concluded with findings and recommendations or suggestion, and
signature and name of the writer. It is numbered as page A2.
Précis of evidence: This is a list or order of evidence, should the case
be prosecuted. An investigating officer and his team normally make it.
Since he/she investigated the case, he knows whose evidence is material
to the prosecution of the case. So he lists it in the précis of evidence, in
the order of relevance. In some cases, the prosecutors in the court do the
précis of evidence. After reading or studying the case, the prosecutor
may make up his précis of evidence. The prosecutor’s work is lessened
if the investigating officer has drawn this before taking the case to court.
It is numbered as A3 of the case file.
Table 4: Précis of Evidence
1
2
3
4
5
6
The complainant pw1
A witness pw2
A witness pw3
A witness pw4
Dr. Briggs Alabo Peters pw5
Sgt Okon Isong PW6
-
Mr Abel Idoko
Johnson Ibe
Mrs Janet Ibe
Mr Ike Madu
(I.P.O)
Minute sheet(s): These are sheet of papers, a medium of communication
between the investigating officer and his/her superior officer, while in
turn receives instruction from same superior. It is numbered page A4 or
page A3. If precise of evidence is not included by the IPO. Minuting is
done serially beginning from No. 1.
Statement of complainant: The written statement obtained from the
complainant or victim of the crime make up part of the case file. In fact,
a case file cannot be said to be complete without the statement of
complainant. It is numbered page A4 or A5.
Statement of witnesses: We have two forms of witnesses- witness to the
complainant, and witness to the suspect or accused person. Whichever is
the case, it is paged after complainants’ statement to end part “A” of the
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case file. However, some investigation and legal personalities have
argued that the statement of witness (es) to complainant should be paged
immediately after (besides) the complainant’s witness, which same thing
be applied to that of the suspect’s witness (es).
In other words, they argued that statement of witness(es) to
suspect/accused person should be paged after the suspect/ accused
person’s statement in part “B” of the case file, to form B2,3,4 and so on.
The points against this argument is that some cases have two or more
suspects/accused persons, and the common thing in such situation is to
page the first suspect B1, and the second suspect B2 and so on. Then to
number witnesses along them is confusing so should be discouraged.
Statement of suspect / accused person(s): Any statement taken under
caution is that of suspect or suspected person, or a statement made by
person suspected or accused of the crime. Such statement is attached to
make up the case file in the Part B of the file. In a multiple suspects’
case, suspect’s statement is paged as follows: case, 1st suspect or
accused B1, 2nd suspect/accused B2, and so on.
It is important to note that statements especially that of the complainant
and suspects or accused persons constitute vital and indispensable part
of a case file so care should be taken to preserve them.
Other documents: These constitute Part C of the case file. What are
considered as other documents may include all documentary exhibits
and correspondence relevant to the case. These include: search warrant,
warrant of arrest, doctor’s medical summons, coroner’s forms, letter of
equity/investigation and so forth and so on. Page numbering is
dependent on the ones you first receive. Paging begins from C1,to C2
and so on. You page as you receive. However, similar documents are
paged closer to each other e.g. coroner’s form “A”, B, C and D are
paged closer to each other in the following order. Coroner’s form ”A”
on page C, coroner’s form “B” page C1a coroner’s form C on page C1b
and so on. Also page numbered in the same ways for instance Page C2
and C2a.
Discuss the contents of a case file.
3.2
Complication/ Treatment of Case File
How do you compile and treat a case file after criminal investigation?
By compilation of case file, we refer to the arrangement of document
such as listed above in the file. Compilation of case file takes the order
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which were discussed above - arrangement of documents from the index
to case file to other documents in Part C. Generally, the arrangement
begins with the opening of a file. Followed by the attachment of the
index to case file. Extract made from the crime diary, empty sheet of
paper for the report and the “minute sheet”. These are the content of a
file.
Minuting cannot take place in a case file until other documents such as
statements of complainant and suspect or accused persons are attached.
However compilation of case file does not have to do with arrangement
of document in the file jacket. It simply means the collation or collection
and putting together in sequence of every relevant fact and written
evidence from the complainant of the case, the suspect and their
witnesses and any data/correspondence relating to the case under
investigation. The need for meticulous arrangement, which requires
patience, carefulness, mental alertness and thorough knowledge of the
law, cannot be over –emphasised. Once a case is referred for further
investigation, a case file or case file jacket must be opened. The
necessary materials like the case file jacket, the writing materials and the
relevant documents for the case file have to be procured.
Compilation also embraces the total making of the file which includes:
the completion of the case file jacket cover coupon or performa,
maintaining the diary of action, report writing, minuting of the file,
registering of exhibit, and file numbering or pagination.
Completing the file coupons: The file coupons are the front- page
cover. Completing the coupon has to do with filling and supplying
information in the appropriate spaces e.g nature or name of the case with
the section of law, name and address of suspect(s) or accused person(s),
name and address of the complainant(s) date, place and time of such
offence etc. This is completed in such a way that the information there
gives summary of the information relating to the case at a glance.
Sources of the information are the extract from the crime diary,statement
of complainant(s), witness and suspects/accused person(s).
Diary of action: The diary of action column is the back of the file or the
inner page cover of the file. Here, all actions taken in the course of the
investigation is chronicled with dates and time indicated. This should be
written or noted in a way that an officer perusing or vetting the file
might be well informed of the level of and finding of investigation even
without a full investigation report. A well noted diary of action is often a
guide to good report writing.
It should be borne in mind that no action is too small or big to be noted
in the diary of action. Since this can help to refresh an investigator while
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about to give evidence in the court of law after many years of
investigating that case.
Investigation report: Every officer that investigates a crime writes
report, and that report is called investigation report. In it, the investigator
highlights the crime itself, his actions, findings and recommendations or
opinions. This report forms part of the case file. One cannot be said to
have compiled a case file without an investigation report from him/her.
Such report is attached to page A. report writing should follow the
sequence in the diary of action. Report writing should follow the
sequence in the diary of action. A report could be an interim or detailed
or comprehensive. It is interim if investigation has not been concluded.
Investigation report under this situation only serve the need of early
information to one’s superior. On the other hands a detailed or
comprehensive report is written when investigation has been completed
and there is need to inform one’s boss for his necessary action or his/her
directive. Whichever is the case, investigation report should be less
ambiguous, and should dwell on facts.
A good investigation report should include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
The address of the writer with date and the address of whom he
is reporting to.
A caption/topic reflecting the offence and section of the law as a
heading or subject matter.
Introduction referring to the complaint, station, crime diary of
what is the offence as reported and referred for investigation.
Facts of the case, or what the case is as reported and revealed by
investigation on the relevant data/facts, not just what they say in
the investigation.
Investigation relating to actions taken and the nature of
investigation, activities and modus operandi of gathering of
evidence without ignoring the need for corroboration of entries
under the diary of actions in the case-file/case-diary by the IPO.
Findings, being the result of investigation, corroborating facts of
the case in accordance with relevant law establishing the offence
or rejecting the allegation.
Suggestion / opinion which is deduced from its preceding
paragraph of “findings” to determine whether a request for
approval for case to be charged to court or to be terminated is
made or not.
Minuting the file: Minuting is a form of communication between two
or more persons working or handling a subject of common interest in a
file. A minute in a file passes a piece of information from one person to
another. Having arranged a case file, an investigator must minute it to
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his/ her superior officer. Minuting gives direction to a file and in fact the
case contained in the file. An IPO must minute out his/her case file if
information received during his her investigation must reach the
appropriate quarters; or if he/she must be instructed on what to do.
Minuting is serialised beginning from No 1.
Documents vital to prosecution: There are certain documents that are
vital to prosecution such as: warrant of arrest, search warrant, doctor’s
report, expert opinion etc. These documents are often referred to as
documentary exhibits and are the Part C of the file. Because these
documents are needed for use in the prosecution of the case so
investigated they are considered vital and so care must be taken to
protect or preserve them.
Exhibit treatment: Exhibit can simply be defined as anything, object or
otherwise that is connected with the commission of a crime or an
offence. It may include documents, papers, books, maps, and objects in
fact all forms of property. Often time, investigating police officer
recovers exhibits from scenes of crime, a complainant, witness or a
suspect/accused person. Such exhibits are normally registered and kept
with the officer in charge of exhibits or exhibit keeper, who in turn will
record and number the exhibit(s) in the criminal exhibits register (CER).
It is still part of compilation of case file to record exhibits recovered
during an investigation at the appropriate column of the file. To do this
effectively, the IPO needs to do the following:
(a)
(b)
(C)
(D)
Collate and gather the entire exhibit connected with that
particular case.
Record them one after the other in the appropriate column, e.g. in
the following forms:
“A” one torn blood stained pant
“B” one blood stained bed sheet
“C” one black brazier
“D” a pair of brown trouser.
Take them to the exhibits keeper who will in turn record them
inside the Criminal Exhibit Register (CER).
Make case file available to the exhibit keeper to enable him
record the CER number of the exhibits in the file and sign the
acknowledgement of the receipt of the exhibits.
Enumerate the steps you will take in compiling a case file.
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3.4
Vetting of a Case File
What is the importance of vetting a case file?
The vetting of a case-file simply means a close and critical examination
of a case file and its contents by an authority in order to identify
ambiguities and or correct the IPO on points not cleared by him and in
turn give directive to the IPO on new lines of action. The authority can
be the IPO’s superior officer, the Director of Public Prosecution (DPP),
the Attorney-General or the court. The new or next lines of action can be
to continue with the investigation, regard investigation complete and
pass on case file for court or to terminate or discontinue with the case.
Case-files of sensitive or controversial nature treated at the lower level
of criminal investigation department are usually sent or forwarded to a
higher level like the federal or zonal or state directorate of intelligence
and investigation bureau (depending on which bureau is lower) or to the
state Attorney General and/or the court if the case was already charged
to court. Also, case file of capital offence or cases involving senior
officers in civil and public services or huge amount of government funds
are always referred to the Directorate of Public Prosecution (DPP) in the
Ministry of Justice for legal advice.
Vetting of case-file requires patience, carefulness and thorough
knowledge of the law. The officer should be meticulous and never take
things for granted with the view that he is serving the public and his
service should be creditable. The officer should observe the following
important rules when vetting a case-file:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
296
Go through the extract from the crime diary to check for the
correct elements of the offence against the title as shown on the
case file jacket including the correct section of the law
contravened and ensure that all the necessary columns of the case
file jacket are correctly filled and completed.
Read all statements to ensure that they are recorded according to
Judges’ Rules, all points raised by complainants/suspects and
their witnesses were clearly verified and that the allegation made
are in conformity with the alleged offence. If any statement was
left out by the IPO, ensure that such statements, no matter how
trivial, is recorded.
Exhibits involved must be collected and preserved, recorded and
parcelled. They should be sent to the appropriate place like the
forensic laboratory or fingerprint expert or pathologist, and so on,
as required by law.
All confessional statements must be endorsed by a superior police
officer in red ink thus “the accused/suspect was brought before
POS 214
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
i.
ii.
iii.
me by………… IPO. He presented to me a statement alleged to
have been made by the accused/suspect. I read the statement to
the accused in English language (or any other language) which he
admitted to be correct that it was made by him voluntarily
without any force, threat or duress or any promise. Signed with
time and date”. Note: it is advisable to conduct this exercise in
secret with a neutral person in the investigation, not even a team
member of the IPO.
Read the investigation report to check if the facts and opinion of
the IPO are in consonance with the facts in file before you give
directive. Remember that some IPO may be dishonest and crafty,
and can easily commit or/and implicate you.
Ensure that all relevant documents of search warrant, warrant of
arrest, bail bond, medical report, specialist report, and coroners
forms, if any, are appropriately processed as contained in the in
the case file.
Ensure that all statement are properly dated and signed by the
maker and counter-signed by the IPO including his full name,
because signatures alone are confusing and the identity of the
maker can easily be forgotten.
Be specific and concise in conveying your instructions to the
IPO, use simple language that can be understood by him, indicate
when case file must be returned to you. Don’t underline suspects
or complainants statements, clear all ambiguities and be sure of a
satisfactory investigation before charging the case to court,
except the case is to be terminated in or out of court. Terminated
case file should have reason stated in writing. For example:
Charge to court and convicted, cautioned and discharged or
discharged and acquitted on merit or otherwise
File closed as undetected or civil
Case closed for want of evidence under section 130 of Criminal
Procedure Code (CPC) or 19 of Criminal Procedure Act (CPA).
The security of case file, which is a restricted document, should be taken
seriously. It should not be left loose or be allowed into the wrong hands.
It should be preserved in lockers and the IPO should take extra care to
ensure safety
of a case file even when after passing it over to his
superior officer. Completely processed case file from police to court
must be safely secured in the store by the police exhibit keeper or court
recorder who must be aware that the document may remain for
sometime in that form. Order 49 stipulates a time gap for destruction of
evidence.
a)
b)
All detected case (files) have three years but murder five years
All undetected case (files) have five years but murder seven
years
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c)
All police administrative and routine correspondence has five
years and other registers and diaries seven years. An IPO who is
aware of all these is assumed to be of sufficient knowledge on the
treatment of case-file.
Describe how you will vet a concluded case file as a police officer.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have described and explained the concept of case file. It is a file that
contains the statements, reports and document collected during
investigation. We also discussed the contents of a case file, and pointed
out that it is basically divided into three parts namely part “A” which is
the prosecution, part “B” which is the defence and part “C” the
documents.
The various stages in the compilation of case file simply means the
collation or collection and putting together in sequence of every relevant
fact and written evidence from the complainant of the case, suspect and
their witness relating to the case under investigation.
Finally, vetting is a curious examination of the case file in order to
detect mistake, omissions or loopholes made by the investigating officer
with a view to correcting them.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the sub-headings; meaning of case file,
contents of a case file compilation and treatment of case file and the
vetting procedure of a case file.
6.0
i.
ii.
Discuss the main contents of a case file.
As a police officer investigating a case, how will you complete
your report?
Differentiate a case file from an ordinary file.
iii.
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7.0
Akwa, N. M. (1984). Nigeria Law (Question and Model Answer). (2nd
ed.). Owerri, Nigeria: New Africa Publishing Co.
Criminal Code (1958). The laws of Federation of Nigeria and Lagos,
vol 2 CAP 42. Lagos: Federal Government Printer.
Criminal Procedure Act (1958). The Nigeria Laws Of Criminal
Procedure Act, CAP 43. INN, London: Eyre and Spottiwoode
Ltd,
Esuong, J. P. (2010). A Handbook on Intelligent Investigation.
Abakiliki, Nigeria: Willy Rose and Appleseed Publishing
Company.
Ewoh, U. R. (200). Introduction to Criminal Investigation. PortHarcourt, Nigeria: Manson Publishers.
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar, Nigeria: Esshah Books
and Press Service.
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UNIT 4
REPORT-WRITING AND NOTE-TAKING
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
70
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Investigation Report-Writing
3.2 Types of Report
3.3 Samples of Investigation Reports in a Case of Stealing
3.4 Note-Taking
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
How do you write an investigation report? And what is a report?
All the actions taken in the course of a investigation are usually reflected
in the report. However, this poses a very big challenge to investigating
officer in recent times. Imagine when the officer is untrained and cannot
write well.
Generally, a report can be defined as a systematic and logical
presentation of information on a specific problem or issue which is
directed as a guide in decision making process. Reports are presented in
sub-sections according to the specific need for which the reports are
required.
The purpose of writing a report on any incident which has occurred
during an officer’s duty or in the course his investigations is to convey
to the superior officer all the facts which had been collected during the
inquiry. This is the main reason why every effort must be made to write
the report in such a way that all relevant facts are contained in it. Having
stated all the facts as they are known, the officer should respectfully give
opinion and recommendations or suggestions, taking into consideration
the all circumstances and the facts.
The content of a good report has the following features: the report
should bear the police station where the officer writing is serving on the
top right corner. On the top left corner of the sheet should appear the
name or designation of the officer to whom the report is being
addressed.The title of the report and the subject matter or heading of the
report should be in the centre of the sheet (the paper).
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The introduction to the report should come next; and then the body of
the report containing all the facts. Recommendations or suggestions of
the officer reporting is next and then the closing address or salutation.
The signature and name with number (if applicable) of the officer
reporting come last at the bottom right corner.
The various aspects that will be discussed in this unit that will introduce
you to investigative report-writing and note-taking include meaning of
investigative report-writing, types of report, a sample of an investigation
report in a case of stealing and finally note-taking.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
state the meaning of investigative report
describe types of report
discuss the main features of an investigative report
define note-taking
enumerate the importance of note-taking
write a sample of an investigative report
state the importance of report-writing.
3.0
MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Investigation Report-Writing
What is investigation report-writing?
Report is a description of an event, experience and actions. It relates
information from one person to another, on issue under consideration of
the totality of actions of an investigator in view of a reported crime.
Every investigator is subject to a superior person, whom he or she must
give account showing the exactness of the situation, action taken and
other related experiences.
It is the duty of every investigator to report in writing about cases
referred to him/her for investigation or action. In other words, an
investigation report contains the facts and findings of the case put down
in written form. A good investigation report must be devoid of
ambiguity, falsehood and bias. The language, words and sentences
used should be simple, straight forward and legible. The presentation
should be sequential and logical.
It should contain all the relevant details, discarding the unnecessary
details. It should be properly addressed, titled and signed by the writer.
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However, remember that the length of the report reduces depending on
the authority demanding or requiring it. Divisional Crime Officer (DCO)
or Divisional Police Officer (DPO) may require sufficient details, the
Commissioner of Police (CP) may require a brief or a precise comment
on the matter; and so the length of the report is automatically reduced.
Parts of an investigative report
Investigation report which is normally written in the form of formal
letter has principally eight parts, namely:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Addressee
Addressed
Subject
Introduction
Facts of the case
Investigation activities
Finding
Conclusion.
a.
Addressee: This part of the report, like all formal letters is written
at the right top corner of the report sheet. And it bears the address
of the writer- reporting investigator. Slightly below it is the date
of writing.
Example: 1
Divisional crime Branch
The Nigeria Police
Oshodi - Lagos
14th-July-2011
b.
Addressed: The second part of a report is the addressed, and that
is the address of the officer to whom the reporting investigator is
answerable to. Below this, is a formal greeting e.g. (Sir or
Madam) it is normally written at the left hand side of the report
sheet, slightly below the date.
Example 2
The Divisional Crime Officer
Divisional Crime Branch
The Nigeria Police
Oshodi – Lagos
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Sir,
c.
Subject: Slightly below the salutation is the subject of the report,
headed boldly in block capital. This is the third part of an
investigation report, and it normally defines the type of report.
Example 3
An Investigation Report on a Case of Stealing N 200,000 reported on 1st
July.
The subject of any investigation report could be centred or blocked to
the left.
d.
Introduction: A brief introduction of the writing is considered as
the fourth part of investigation report. The introduction of any
report should be direct to the point. Rreporter should endeavour
to summaries the nature of the case in just a paragraph.
Example 4:
“Introduction: This is a case of stealing N 200,000 punishment under
section 390 (9) of the Criminal Code, reported on the 17/7/2004 by one
James Ugwu ‘M’ of No. 16 Agege Motor way Oshodi, against one of
his employees, Stephen Akiola ‘M’ of the same address, of which I was
detailed to investigate. This report therefore outlines the details of action
taking during my investigation.”
Writing the introduction of any investigation report depends on the style,
which the writer must have cultivated over time. It may take a different
shape from the example above. The following is another example of
introduction.
“Introduction: On the 1st July, 2004 one Mr. James Ugwu of No.16,
Agege Motor Way, Oshodi came to the station and reported that on
same date, at his office, one Stephen Skiola Akiola ‘M’ of the same
address, an employee of his, stole a cash sum
N 200,000.00,
property of his company. Upon this report, a case of stealing was
incidented and referred for investigations and I was detailed to
investigate, hence this report.”
Facts of the case: What is referred to as the fact of any case under
investigation is the actual story behind the report that prompted an
investigation. That is what happened before a case of that nature
incidented and referred for investigation. This is normally written in the
language of the investigator. In making the facts of a case, the
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investigator must deduce from what he was told by the complainant,
suspect or witness and what he/she saw or heard at the scene of crime.
This implies that, facts are not necessarily outlines of a complainant’s
statement as maintained by some. However, emphasis is laid on his/her
complaint and where there is no other source of information that could
be merged to form the facts, and then one can make do with what the
complainant said.
Example: 5
Facts of the case: the facts of this case are, the suspect Stephen Akiola is
an employee of the James Ugwu in his trading business at No. 16 Agege
Motor Way. He is a sales clerk there. On the 1st day of July 2004, the
complainant James Ugwu went to bank with his cashier, Miss Patience
Mai and withdraw a total sum of N280,000 for the payment of workers’
salary for the month of June 2004. At the office, the money was kept
inside two drawers, by the cashier and left for launch. The suspect a
clerk in the same office, capitalising on the cashier’s carelessness and
absence, stole the money in the first drawer amounting to N200, 000.00
and vamoosed from the office. The cashier discovering the theft,
reported to her boss, James Ugwu who later reported to the police, and
stated that he suspected Stephen Akoila, hence a case of stealing was
incidented and referred for investigation.
f. Investigation activities: The next part of an investigation report after
facts is the investigation activities. This part exclusively deals with the
details of the investigator’s actions throughout his tenure of duty on a
particular case. It is narrative in pattern and emphatically the source of
the finding that will be revealed afterword. While writing a report, as it
applies to this section, the reporter should bear in mind the dairy of
actions he had noted at the inner cover of the case file. So that whatever
action he incorporates into the report must have its foundation from the
diary of action.
Example 6:
“Investigation Activities: I visited the scene of crime. There I chatted
with some eyewitness who later volunteered statements to me (see
relevant pages) of the case file.
The complainant made statement at the beginning of investigation. One
Stephen Akiola ‘M’ of no 16, Agege Motor way Osodi was arrested in
connection with the case. He was charged and caution in English
language. After a thorough interrogation, he volunteered statement in
which he confessed the crime (see page B1). The confession was
attested to by a superior police officer. The suspect’s house at the above
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named address was searched with the aid of a search warrant and a cash
sum of N75, 000.00 was recovered. Also recovered were: 1) a president
coloured TV value N20,000; 2) a national video tape recorder value
N12,000.00; 3) an Echolac box valued N5,000.00; and 4)
a ceiling
fan valued N3,000.00. All these according to the suspect, and the receipt
found on him, were bought within a week with the stolen money. These
items were treated and registered as Exhibits (see cover page for Exhibit
number).
Meaning the suspect has been released on bail to two sureties in the sum
of N200, 000”.
Just like the introduction, the general pattern of writing investigation
activities is dependent on the style activated by the writer. It should be
borne in mind that this part embodies the totality of the reports. Because
the superior officer is interested to know what the investigator did, to
earn his findings and the recommendation he proffered.
g. Findings: It is often said, “ask, it will be given and seek, you shall
find.” Though this is a biblical and religious verse, it has its fulfilment in
investigation. If an investigator asks question, he will be given
information; and if he seek the truth in a matter under investigation he
will certainly find one. Finding is the next section of an investigation
report. All observations, revelations, and findings during investigator’s
activities are briefly and concisely noted so as to assist the superior
officer in forming his opinion for necessary action. Findings should be
without ambiguity. That is, it should be very clear. Words like “either”
maybe etc should be avoided.
Example 7:
Findings:
During my investigation, I found the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The suspect Stephen Akiola stole the money.
He sought and obtained the assistance of one Dobo Alaye now at
large, to hide the money for three days.
The suspect spent a total of N37,000.000 to buy household
equipment now recovered, and a cash sum of N76,000.000 saved
in his box
The balance of N80, 000.000 was left with Dabo Alaye as a loan.
In fact, the suspect Stephen Akiola committed the offence
punishable under section 390 (9) of the Criminal Code, and this
charge can be sustained in the court.
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h. Recommendation and conclusion: After noting down his findings, his
conclusion should be based on what was found above and what he want
the superior officer to do.
Example 8:
Recommendation and conclusion: In view of the above findings, it is my
humble recommendation that the accused person be arraigned before a
court on the charge of stealing, punishable under section 390 (9) of the
Criminal Code. While this is done, effort should be made to track down
Mr. Dabo Alaye who on arrest be charged for aiding and abetting, and
receiving stolen property.
Reports are finally concluded with the name and rank of the reporter.
It’s been argued that the exact conclusion formality of a formal letter
e.g. “yours faithfully, or yours obediently”, etc is not necessary,
However, we find this necessary. The reason is not far fetched.
Report writing should conclude with such courtesy, “yours faithfully, or
yours obediently, since, in form and in tune they are formal letters.
Describe the major parts of an investigation report.
3.2
Types of Report
What are the main types of investigative report?
There are different types of reports depending on the specific needs.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Business reports
Discipline reports
Financial reports
Intelligence reports
Feasibility reports
Crime/incident reports
Accident reports
Investigation reports.
However, there are basically two major types of reports namely
narrative reports and structured or formalised reports.
306
POS 214
Narrative report
A report is most easily understood when presented in the first person
narrative style, and the heart of any investigative report is the narrative
body. In many organisations, in fact, the narrative comprises the entire
report. An effective narrative report must include the key elements listed
below.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Writing
Told in first person narrative
Objective
Factual
Chronological
Easily understood
Comprehensive
Able to withstand the test of time.
Writing: There is no substitute for the written word when it comes to the
investigative report. Despite the availability of videotape recordings,
audio recording capability or any other item of hard wear, the report
must end up on paper. Even if the investigator dictates his report, the net
result will be the written word on paper. No other kind of report can be
as quickly reviewed, and no other so successfully meets the
requirements being both comprehensive and readily understood.
Since the final version of the report is in writing, it follows that correct
grammar, spelling and punctuation as well as legibility will reflect either
favourably or unfavourably on the author- the investigator. He does not
have to be a consummate stylist, but he does have to be able to organise
and present his facts clearly. Lapses in grammar, spelling and
punctuation often have the troublesome result of making things unclear,
so also does an unreadable scrawl.
Told in first person narrative:The use of the first person narrative is
recommended because, for the average person, a report flows more
naturally in this style. If we write as we think and talk; the material tends
to become both easier to write and easier to read.
Objective: The investigative report is no place for speculation,
hypothesis or opinion (the investigator’s judgement or prejudices). If a
reader of the report engages in any of the result of the facts presented,
that is his prerogative.This is not to say that the investigator should not
have opinion or engage in speculation. But any such subjectivity should
not be included or reflected in the report itself. If there is any need for
subjective expression, it should be made in another or a different report,
such as a memorandum to the investigators supervisor.
307
POS 214
Factual: The problem of an investigator reporting non-factual
information in his report does not, as a rule occur intentionally. The
common mistake is for the investigator to assume the facts are there
when they are not. Example; “Employee David then clocked out at the
end of his shift, 4.00 pm, and went home”. May be David went home;
maybe he went to Bar and Grill. More factually the investigators report
should have read, “Employee David then clocked out at the end of his
shift, 4.00 pm and left the company’s premises.
Chronological: The investigator reports a record of his work. The
chronology of the report then is concerned with investigation. The
chronologically structured report is the unfolding, in order of time, of
what the investigator did.
Easily understood: The report must be written so that it is easy to
understand. Small, familiar words are better than words of many
syllables. Short, clear, direct sentences are preferable to long compound
complex sentences. The security investigator’s Handbooks recommends
sentences of no more than twenty words, a good rule of thumb. If
technical terms must be used in the report, define or explain them. The
report is not meant to be a literary masterpiece, but rather an accurate
and easy-to-understand story of the investigation.
Comprehensive: A report is comprehensive when it has both scope and
depth in terms of specific and pertinent facts. That is not to suggest the
report should be wordy; on the contrary, if should be as brief as possible.
But some space must be devoted to detail when details are germane.
Take for example, the description of a person who is considered the
responsible for a crime. A comprehensive report would include all of the
following in the description:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
308
Name, including aliases and nicknames.
Address and phone number.
Sex
Face
Age
Height
Weight
Hair colour and eye
Colour of eyes
Build
Complexion
Beard
Teeth
Unusual mannerisms or voice accent
POS 214
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dress habits
Birth place
Level of education
Occupation
Vocation or hobby
Relatives and friends.
The test of time:The report should be so writhen that the events of the
investigation can be reconstructed from the report even after a prolonged
lapse of time.
Structured or formalised report
This is another type of report. The heart of the investigative report, the
narrative body, often constitutes the entire report, as previously stated.
Some organizations however, make use of a more structured form that
includes a heading section, the body, or narrative, and an ending or
conclusion. The latter is simply a statement of the status of the
investigation, no more and no less. The heading portion of a pre-printed
investigative form usually calls for answers or information that fits into
boxed spaces. Almost anyone can fill these out without difficulty. An
exception might be the type of form sometimes used in the private sector
that includes the nine parts of a modus operandi. Here some confusion
can set in about the kind of information required. The following
breakdown suggests the type of answers required to those nine basic
questions
QUESTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ANSWER
Time of attack
Date and time the offence was
committed.
Person attacked
Type of person attacked, by female
child.
Property attacked
Type of location where the offence
took place, e.g. single story retail
store.
How attacked
The way in which the person or
property was attacked, e.g. theft of
goods.
Means of attacked Instrument, tool device, trick or method by
which the person or property was attacked, e.g. placed goods in
linning of jacket designed to accommodate stolen goods.
Object of attacked Why the criminal was too committed or
attempted, e.g. to sell stolen goods for money to support drug
habit.
309
POS 214
7.
8.
9.
Trademark The peculiarity which may serve to distinguish the
offence or offender from others, e.g. crawls behind counters in
the store to avoid detection.
What the suspects said what and how the suspect spoke to victims
or witness, not to authorities, e.g. upon discovery claims he’s
looking for the men’s toilet.
Transportation used Description of vehicle used if no vehicle
seen or heard, so note.
List the types of reports you know and describe one of them.
3.3
Sample of Investigation Reports in a Case of Stealing
How will you present an investigative report in a case of stealing?
The following are sample of investigative reports in a case of stealing.
The Divisional Police Hqtrs
The Nigeria Police
Ekori
Yakurr L. G A.
Cross River State
20th July, 2011
The Divisional officer
Divisional Headquarters
The Nigeria police
Ekori
Sir,
INVESTIGATION REPORT
RE: CASE OF STEALING AGAINST OTUN ENE ‘M’
Introduction: This deals with a case of stealing reported by One Udo
Ikpi ‘M’ of No. 8 Atakpo Street, Calabar against one Otu Ene ‘M’ of
same address and I was instructed by the DPO to investigate and submit
report on this respect.
Facts of the case: The complainant Udo Ikpi ‘M’ of No. 8 Atakpo
Street, Calabar alleged that on the 15th day of January, 2011at about
1300hrs, one Otu Ene ‘M’ of the same address, stole his five tubers of
yams valued at N1,500 which were kept at his veranda about to be taken
to the market. He further stated that two neighbours, who saw him
carrying the tubers of yam into his room, raised an alarm and alerted
310
POS 214
other neighbours. The case was thereafter incidented at the charge room
and assigned for investigation.
Investigation: On the strength of the report, statements of the
complainant and two witnesses viz: Obot Ene ‘M’ and Obong Eteng ‘M’
were recorded. The two witnesses in their corroborated statement
averred that they saw the suspect carrying the five tubers of yams at
once into his room, and so raised an alarm knowing that he was not the
owner of the tubers of yam. They further stated that, the suspect has on
two occasions, been caught in that act.
The suspect was arrested, interrogated in connection with the act. He
was thereafter cautioned and he volunteered statement which he wrote
himself. In his statement, the suspect admitted committing the crime,
and stated that the stolen tubers of yams were hid under his bed in his
room. He further stated that he stole the tubers of yam to enable him to
sell and get something to eat. He also admitted having twice been caught
by his neighbour while attempting to steal a neighbour’s handset. The
confessional statement was attested to by the Divisional Crime Officer
(DCO), ASP Amos Edet.
In furtherance of the investigation, a search warrant was executed in the
room of the suspect and the five tubers of yam were recovered under his
six springs iron bed cabinet.
They were registered as exhibits.
Findings: In the course of investigation, the following facts emerged:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
That the suspect actually stole the five tubers of yam as he
admitted in his confession.
That the stolen tubers of yam were property of the complainant.
That the five tubers of yam recovered from the suspects room
upon execution of search warrant, were the alleged tubers of yam
stolen, as identified by the owner.
That the suspect is a habitual criminal, well know around his
neighbourhood.
That the corroborated evidence of the two witnesses who saw
him were sufficient to sustain a charge of stealing against the
suspect.
Recommendation: From the foregoing revelation of facts in the case, it
is obvious that the suspect actually committed the offence of stealing. In
view of this, it is recommended that the suspect, Otu Ene ‘M’ be
arraigned in court on a charge of stealing contrary to section 390(9) of
the Criminal Code, please.
311
POS 214
F/NO. 809 CPL Effiong Okon.
The following is another example of a complete investigation report in a
case of stealing N280, 000.00.
The Nigeria police
Oshodi-Lagos
14th –July, 2011
The Divisional Crime Officer
The Nigeria police
Oshodi-Lagos
Sir,
AN INVESTGATION REPORT ON A CASE OF STEALING
N280, 000.00 REPORTS ON 1ST JULY, 2011
Introduction: This is a case of stealing N280, 000 punishable under
section 390 (9), reported on 1/7/2011 by one James Tames Ugwu ‘M’ of
No. 16 Agege Motor Way, Oshodi, against one of his employees,
Stephen Akiola of the same address, of which I was detailed to
investigate. This report therefore, outlines the details of my actions
during the investigation.
Facts of the Case: The fact of this case is that Stephen Akiola ‘M’ the
suspect is an employee of James Ugwu in his trading company at No. 16
Agege Motor Way. He is a sales clerk there. On the 1st of July, 2011, the
complainant James Ugwu went to the bank with his cashier Miss
Patience Mai ‘F’ and withdrew a total sum of N280, 000.00 for the
payment of workers salary for the month of June 2011. At the office, the
money was left inside two table drawers by the cashier and left for lunch
in a nearby restaurant. The suspect-Stephen- a clerk in the same office,
capitalised on the cashier’s carelessness and absence stole the money in
the first drawer, amounting to N200, 000.00 and vamoosed from the
office, pretending to be on break. The cashier on discovering the theft
reported to her boss-James Ugwu- who in turn reported to the police,
and stated that he suspected Stephen Akiola. Hence a case of stealing
was incidented and referred for investigation.
Investigation Activities: I visited the scene of crime at No. 16 Agege
Motor Way, Oshodi. There, I chatted with some eyewitnesses, who later
volunteered written statements to me (pages A5-7). The complainant
made statement to me at the beginning of investigation. Stephen Akiola
312
POS 214
the principal suspect was arrested in connection with the crime. He was
charged and cautioned in English language following the complaint of
Mr. James Ugwu, his employer. After a thorough interrogation, he
volunteered statement in same language, in which he confessed as the
maker, which, while I countersigned as the recorder. (See page B1 of the
case file). His house, at the above address was searched with the aid of a
search warrant obtained from magistrate court 3 Mushin, and a cash sun
of N76, 000.00 was recovered. Also recovered were: (1) A President
coloured TV valued N20, 000.00.
(2)
(3)
(4)
A National video tape recorder valued N14, 000.00
And Echolac box valued N3, 000.00, and
A ceiling fan valued N2, 200. All these according to the suspect,
and the receipt found on him were bought within a week with the
stolen money. These items were treated and registered as exhibits
(see cover page for exhibit money). Meanwhile, the suspectStephen Akiola- has been released on bail to two sureties in the
sum of N200, 000.00.
Findings: During my investigation, I found the following:
(1)
(2)
The suspect Stephen Akiola stole the money.
He sought and obtained the assistance of one Dabo Alaye, now at
large to hide the money for three days.
(3)
The accessed spent a total of N37, 700 .00 to buy various
household equipment now recovered, and a cash sum of N76,
000.00 save in his box.
(4)
The balance of N80, 000.00 was left with Dabo Alaye as a loan.
(5)
In fact, the Accused person committed the offence punishable
under section 390 (9) of the Criminal Code. This charge can be
sustained in the court. In other worlds, there are enough evidence to
convict Stephen Akiola for stealing the sum of N200,000.00 being
property of James Ugwu Trading Company Ltd.
Recommendation: In view of the above findings, it is my humble
recommendation that the Accused person Stephen Akiola ‘M’ be
arraigned before a magistrate court on a charge of stealing N200,000.00,
while enquiries for the possible arrest of Dabo Alaye continues. When
arrested, Dabo should be charge for aiding and abetting felony to wit:
stealing. This is subject to your consideration.
I remain,
Yours faithfully
Mathias Uwa (Inspr).
313
POS 214
Enumerate steps to be taken when writing an investigative report
involving burglary case.
3.4 Note-Taking
What is the importance of note-taking in investigation?
It is difficult to imagine an investigator writing a formal comprehensive
report, whether in structured format or as a complete narrative, without
referring to notes taken during the course of the investigation. Good
note-taking is as important in the investigative process as it in college
courses.
There are three specific needs for on-the-spot notes by the investigator.
These are:
1.
2.
3.
Recording times: It would require a very superior intelligence to
recall accurately all the dates and times that are so important in
the investigation.
Recording full name: Besides full names of witnesses, including
their proper spelling, notes should list their tile or rank, address,
home and business phone numbers. The investigator cannot rely
on securing printed business cards from everyone connected with
the case.
Recording quotations: Quotations can be a powerful part of the
investigative report. If a person is to be quoted directly in the
report, however, those words will lack credibility unless backed
up by the investigator’s notebook. That is because the case is
frequently not written until the case is finalised. Days or even
weeks may have elapsed, and it is a difficult challenge to try to
explain how you can recall someone exact words day or weeks
later.
The notebook should be small, pocket-sized, and bound so that pages
cannot be added or removed. A “3 by 5” notebook will fit conveniently
into a breast pocket of a man’s coat or jacket.
Discuss the importance of note-taking to an investigator.
314
POS 214
4.0
CONCLUSION
We have described and explain the importance of report-writing and
note-taking. We said that an investigative report is a clear,
comprehensive,
written
documentation
of
facts,
presented
chronologically, which is an
objective, first person recording of the
investigator’s experience, conversations and observations regarding a
specific assignment, and from which the events of the investigation can
be reconstructed even after a lapse of time.
We also note that the police investigation report has the following
contents: addresses of the investigation officer, subject matter or title of
report, introduction, facts of the case, investigation, findings,
recommendation and signature. Types of investigative reports were also
discussed as narrative and structured or formalised reports.
Finally, the importance of note- taking was also examined.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with investigation report-writing, types of
report, sample of investigation reports involving a case of stealing and
importance of note-taking.
6.0
i.
ii.
iii.
Describe the main characteristics of a good investigative report.
List types of reports and discuss one of them.
What is note-taking?
7.0
Banton, M. (2004). The Policemen in the Community. NY: Basic Books
INC. Publishers.
Investigation and Prosecution. Calabar, Nigeria: Esshah Books
and Press Services.
Membere, C. F. L. (1990). Police and Law Enforcement Port Harcourt:
Menbs Foundation Books.
315
POS 214
Senneward, C. A. (1981). The Process of Investigation, Concepts and
Strategies for the Security Professional. Boston, U.S.A.:
316

course guide pos 214 - National Open University of Nigeria

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