Track and Field

G
Track and Field
mes and activities
Authors:
Dr. Anetta Müller
János Seres
Gábor Szalay
Dr.Benczenleitner
Ottó
EKC Líceum Press
Eger, 2015
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MADE WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE INSTITUTE OF SPORT SCIENCE OF
ESZTERHÁZY KÁROLY COLLEGE
EDITED BY
Dr. Anetta Müller
WRITTEN BY
Dr. Anetta Müller, János Seres, Gábor Szalay
PROFESSIONAL PROOFREADER:
Kristonné Dr. Bakos Magdolna
HUNGARIAN PROOFREADER:
Mrs Judit Varga Vas
TRANSLATED BY
Éva Kovács
Downloadable from:
http://oszkdk.oszk.hu/beszolgaltatas/index.php
TÁMOP-4.1.2.E-15/1/Konv-2015-0001
''3.misszió'' Sport és tudomány a társadalomért Kelet-Magyarországon
ISBN 978-615-5297-66-3
Person responsible for publishing: the rector of Eszterházy Károly College
EKC Líceum Press
Published in 2015
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An introduction to athletics/track and field
Athletics as the „Queen of sports”
Athletics is an umbrella term which includes running, walking, jumping and throwing The
word is derived from the ancient Greek word ”athlon”, which means fight for a prize. In prize
competitions ancient Greeks generally played branches of sports belonging to light and heavy
athletics today. One of the secrets of this popular branch of sport is that individual physical
condition and quickness and fight are needed in order to be successful in athletics. Track and
field provides the basis for all branches of sports as there are few branches of sports in which
running, jumping or throwing are not required. In addition to this, its significance and
popularity can be attributed to the fact that they develop physical abilities such as quickness,
stamina, strength and skilfulness, which are also essential in other branches of sport as well.
The history of athletics dates back to ancient times as the running, jumping and throwing
events organised with other rules and under a different condition system at that time were the
primary ones of the competitions of ancient Olympic Games. It has a central role even in
Olympic Games of modern times. Since the Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 it has always
been organised with more and more events; the first track and field events for women were
organised the Olympic Games of Amsterdam in 1928. (Béres et al 2015)
The significance of track and field
Athletics with the varied usage of its motion material – walking, running, jumping and
throwing – provides proper motivation for children in both the PE lessons and afternoon
sport sessions.
Developing athletics and athletic skills is important as it provides the basis for other sports.
Track and field has always been ranked among the basic branches of sport in the literature.
The primary reason for this is that in the education of the new generation and children track
and field has the forms of motion and possibilities which on the one hand form the body in a
varied way and proportionately, and on the other hand any other branches of sport can build
their special motion structure upon the well built-up bases. It provides the basis for all
branches of sports as the motion of running, jumping and throwing appears in even ball
games.
The presence and development of athletic skills is essential in nearly all branches of sports.
Track and field consists of natural human motions, and thus it is easy to acquire. It can be
taught even from very young age.
Walking and running are cyclic motions, and thus they have a life-time character. With
respect to age the target group is broad as it can be done from very young age to old age.
Burdening can be portioned adequately, independent of sex, age and training condition.
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The motion material of athletics is highly suitable for developing motor skills and the whole
human motorium.
It plays a crucial role in developing conditioning abilities. Strength, quickness and stamina
and their forms of appearance can be developed well by track and field running, throwing and
jumping. Start exercises develop reaction speed, the simple reaction time; sprint and flying
running develop quickness (locomotor speed) and long distance running, fartlek and speed
games are suitable for developing (short-, middle-, and long term) stamina. Throwing and
jumping develop speed force, strength endurance and the strength of particular muscle groups.
Athletics also plays an important role in developing coordination abilities. Running with
various speed and pace exercises of running-, and running school develop the rhythmic
ability, speed sense and motion control and regulation abilities. Throwing, jumping and the
exercises of jumping-, and throwing school also develop rhythmic sense, kinesthesis, the
ability of spatial orientation, the ability of motion control, motion regulation and motion
conversion, distance estimation as well as the sense of time and speed. Throwing and jumping
are also called the ”skilfulness” events of track and field. Thus these motions and events as
well as the jumping-, and throwing exercises develop considerably skilfulness as a complex
coordination ability.
There is a possibility to teach the motion material of track and field throughout the
whole year; it represents a teaching material that can be planned for the whole year, i.e. it is
not seasonal. In autumn and spring the various motions and events of track and field can be
taught and track and field skills can be developed outdoors. In winter track and field abilities
can be developed indoors in the gym and indoor athletics (e.g. high jumping) can be realised.
People with almost all kinds of physique and attitude can get a sense of achievement by doing
the varied forms of motion of athletics.
Track and field events can be measured very well and objectively, and therefore it has a
crucial role in developing the notion of fair play.
Due to its relatively little demand of equipment it can be regarded to be cost efficient. It can
be realised in every school as it has events and motion material (running, jumping school)
which do not require much equipment and it can be taught in many different infrastructural
settings.
Athletics and track and field skills can be taught even in classes with a great number of
students as well.
The motion material of track and field can be used in every part of the lesson. In the
introductory part it can be used for warm-up. In the main part of the lesson it can be used for
teaching one particular technique or for developing a particular ability. In the game part of the
lesson it can be used in the form of running and catching games, in serial-, and relay
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competitions. In the wrap-up part of the lesson the motion material of track and field can be
used well.
The game character of track and field can be utilized well. By using the motion material of
track and field in the running and catching exercises, target throwing and target jumping
exercises, serial-, and relay competitions we can make it more attractive for children.
This branch of sport is suitable for developing the motion culture of students as while
students acquire the varied motion material of track and field their culture of motion is
developed.
It has a significant role in the maintenance of students’ health and prevention. Longdistance and endurance running develop the children’s cardiorespiratory stamina, i.e. the
heart-, lungs-, and circulatory system meaning prevention of the illnesses of the heart and
vascular system or against obesity. The development of athletic skills contributes to the
development of a healthy skeletal and muscular system.
Teaching the branch of sport contributes to the personality development of students. It
develops the whole personality of students. It develops their physical, mental and social
abilities as well. It teaches them to act independently and make decisions. Acquiring the
motion material of track and field and developing track and field skills provide a good means
for developing such positive personality features as endurance, volition of fight, fair play and
helping each other, etc.
Its role played in socialization cannot be questioned either. Track and field team
championships, team competitions or exercises performed in smaller-bigger groups, contests
facilitate children’s socialization. ”Life situations” are modelled by track and field
competitions and contests as on the track it must be fought just like in life as well, the only
difference is that children can try themselves out without any stakes and they can acquire the
competences necessary for a competition and fight.
The varied motion material of track and field is highly suitable for getting children to like
motion and developing the need for doing exercises regularly.
Track and field exercises performed in nature can also be called a means of training with the
”forces of nature” beyond the training limit. The forces of nature are the elements of
weather, the training with which can strengthen our immune system, and thus we will be
less susceptible to various diseases.
It contributes to educating and active and healthy life-style. The goal is for it to be built into
our life style by making its motion material liked by students and to make it part of their
everyday life.
Track and field and developing track and field skills contribute to the increase of students’
fitness level as it develops skills which are essential for being fit.
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By the Kids’ Athletics Program the above mentioned advantages can be realised and it can be
made an experience for students based on an age-related development.
The classification of track and field
Track and field events can be grouped into running, jumping and throwing events. The
English term ”track and field events” for athletics refers to the fact that certain events of
athletics take place on tracks, these are the running events and the other events are events
which take place on a field (jumping and throwing), which can also be called together the
„”skilfulness events” of track and field. The double classification of running and skilfulness
events is also common in the system of both the English literature and the Hungarian one.
Let us have a look at the more detailed classification of track and field in the light of events.
Olympic (international) events (Polgár T-Béres S 2011)
Track and Field events
Running events
Short-distance running/Sprints:
 100 m, 200 m,400 m
Middle-distance running:
 800 m,1500 m
Long-distance running:
 5000 m,10 000 m,
marathon
Relay running:
 4 × 100 m, 4 × 400 m
Hurdles:
 Men’s 100 m, Men’s 110
m, Men’s and Women’s
400 m
Steeplechase:
 Men’s and Wome n’s
3000 m
Walking
20 km
50 km
Jumping events
Long jump
Triple jump
High jump
Pole vault
Throwing events
Weight throwing
Javelin throwing
Discus throwing
Shot putting
Combined
events
Decathlon (for
men)
the first day: 100
m, long jump,
shot putting, high
jump, 400 m
the second day:
110 m hurdle
race, discus
throwing, pole
vault, javelin
throwing, 1500
m
Heptathlon (for
women)
the first day: 100
m hurdle race,
high jump, shot
putting, 200 m,
the second day:
long jump,
javelin throwing,
800 m
1.Figure. Olimpic events in Athletics
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International indoor events
Running events:
 60 m
 400 m
 800 m
 1500 m
 3000 m
 60 m hurdles
 4 × 400 m relay
Jumping events:
 Long jump
 Triple jump
 High jump
 Pole vault
Combined events:
 Heptathlon
Other competitions, competition events (international, domestic, county, and student,
etc.)
Road running events:
 International (Bécs–Budapest)
 Town, school
 etc.
Cross country running:
 International (World championship, European championship)
 Country, county
 etc.
Indoor running events:
 One lap running
 Several laps running
 Medicine ball throwing
 Long jump from place
 etc.
Individual, an invitation to run:
 Jumping gala (Salgótarján)
 Throwing gala (Szombathely)
 etc.
The characteristics of athletics, athletic motions, its motion taxonomic classification, its
place among other branches of sport
In the world of physical education and sport and in physical education in schools and
primarily in relation to its classification we can often meet the question of when we can judge
the process of learning a motion successful and when we can consider the process to be
completed. What are the criteria of a learnt motion? No matter how evident the question
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seems to be, when we analyse it, several questions arise that we try to find an answer to. Such
as: it is enough if we present the motion? How can we know that the motion presented
expresses exactly that we asked for or that the requirement was? Is it enough to present it only
once or is the presence of motion skill indicated by several repetitions? How much are we
able to present a motion in the same way and repeat it several times? And of the many
differences which configuration do we regard to the ideal one, the ”good” one, the etalon? It
is enough to perform it and have we achieved success or do we have other further goals by
executing it? Which goal is really the one which is the most important from the point of view
of judging the result than presentation itself? (Let us think of jumping and throwing events or
ball exercises where the ”overcome” distance or the trajectory and strike of the ball will
qualify the execution of motion, as the result of which it was carried out. Along which
components of the motion can we analyse and grasp it properly? (The question is mainly
interesting if we want to get information relatively quickly without having the special tool or
instrument park at our disposal. Let us think of the fact that in school circumstances but even
during preparing first-class sportsmen it is true that the results obtained by only instrumental
procedure do not help our decision in a direct way.) We could also put it that by analysing the
process of the motion becoming more and more perfect we are often obliged to rely on our
own observation and decisions even today.
In our judgement the automatization level, and then the acquisition of dynamic stereotype can
be the central element in the classical process of learning motion.
Accurate: ”Complying with the reality, the requirements.” „”It can be executed at the time
fixed.” ”It functions without mistakes, in a reliable way.” (as written in the Concise
Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language by Juhász et al.1). Thus we can say that it
means compliance with the reality and the requirements, exact functioning without any
mistakes and keeping the fixed times. Later we will see that an important momentum of
examining motion accuracy will be temporal accuracy and the ability of time estimation.
Perfect: (the Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language
1980):”Complying with the result, the norm or model completely. ”The best, the most
excellent possible.” ”Embodying some property to the greatest possible extent.” “The
perfectness as a noun, faultlessness, completeness, the highest degree of some property.”
Precise: „Meticulously accurate”, ”great accuracy” (as written by Juhász and et al. in the
Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language.) In another interpretation:2”
accurate, exact”, ”refined, carefully developed”,”particularly accurate”.
The word accurate is perhaps synonymous with the word exact (Dictionary of Foreign
Words and Terms 1974): ”precise, unambiguous, determined exactly”, „excluding
subjective evaluation”. We use this expression when we determine the accurate motion,
Juhász J. – Szőke I. O. – Nagy G. – Kovalszky M. (1980): Magyar Értelmező Kéziszótár. Akadémiai Kiadó.
Bp. 1115-1992. p.
2
Bakos F. (1974): Idegen szavak és kifejezések szótára. Akadémiai Kiadó-Kossuth Könyvkiadó. 210- 729. p.
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define the good way of execution and when we evaluate the performance of certain branches
of sports objectively (branches of sports with giving points: gymnastics, RG, etc.
Execution is accurate if formally it matches the form of motion, an ”etalon” accepted
conventionally. The etalon is (Dictionary of Foreign words and Terms 1974): ”certified
standard of measures”, ”certified sample copy”.
Motion accuracy: ”is a property of motion which contains the target security of executing a
motion, especially its matching with a form of motion given in advance.” (quoted by Rigler
1987)3 Allawy, (Rigler 1987) talks about hit or target accuracy and means by the target the
quality of passing a ball. The target can be the goal, the basket, one particular part of the game
field of the opponent mentioned already as his/her own game companion. Fetz (quoted by
Rigler 1987) mentions hit and target accuracy, but he refers the concept not only to ball games
but regards it to be more generally valid. He also uses such terms as hit security, repetition
accuracy. According to its interpretation it also means deviation from a given target. What is
new about it is that in his view the values of executing it several times also belong to the
criteria of motion accuracy. A motion is accurate if we can repeat it several times, relatively
accurately.
In the case of calculating the accuracy index (mean/standard deviation) the more accurate the
execution is, the smaller the standard deviation of the results is, i.e. the more constant the
performance is.
The latest concepts used by Meinl (quoted by Rigler 1987) (”motion precision”, ”precise
execution”, ”motion constancy”, ”result constancy”) are also determined on the basis of
”target orientation” as well.
In his view ”motion accuracy” or ” precision of motion” means target orientation and the
determination of sport motions by target. He attributes great significance to practice and states
that somebody with more practice can execute the motion with greater accuracy.
Fetz (quoted by Rigler 1987) represents the view of a more differentiated motion accuracy:
”motion accuracy means the exactness of target motions measured externally (on the basis of
success), i.e. of motor target accuracy on the basis of the temporal and spatial measure of the
constancy of the motor repetition accuracy of motion executions”. He makes a distinction
between two basic components in motion accuracy:
 the target or hit accuracy of the motion, and

the constancy of motion, i.e. the precision of repetition accuracy.
In Nádori’s interpretation (1993) the high level of motion constancy accompanies such
motions whose motion structure is firm, steady and the same”.
(Note: motion constancy: in the case of cyclic branches of sports it is a property which refers
to the degree of coincidence, identity, similarity of particular cycles; and in acyclic motions it
refers to the size of correspondence of various, and successive repetitions.)
Rigler E. (1987): Az emberi mozgás reprodukálhatóságának és teljesítményállandósága. (Részlet a szerző
kandidátusi értekezéséből) A Testnevelési Főiskola közleményei. 1. sz. Melléklet. 3-96. p.
3
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Motion constancy adjusts itself to performance, the elements triggering and determining
performance. Motion constancy has an effect on good performance. Furthermore, he points
out: ”outstanding motion constancy is the result of learning for a long time”.
Reproduces (Dictionary of Foreign Words and Terms 1974): ”brushes up, imitates,
recreates”. Thus motion reproduction means the repetition and imitation of motions. While
we are practising, we try to repeat the forms of motion which triggers motion constancy as a
result.
The characteristic features of accurate motion are coordination and the economy of motions.
However, it is true that they are necessary but not sufficient conditions of the criterion of
accuracy.
Having looked at the concepts, we think that motion constancy, i.e. the great constancy and
accuracy of repeated executions can be a favourable quality criterion for the quality of
motion. The role and significance of these problems is manifested in relation to both
execution and its result again and again. We would like to justify this statement in the
classification below:
Branches of sports
with scoring
Athletics (throwing,
jumping)
martial arts
ball games
Cyclic branches of
sports
Judging motion
accuracy, the basis
of result calculation
Axccuracy:
the goodness of
execution
Result calculation:
the difficulty grade
of technical
element, the
accuracy of
execution
Accuracy:
the constancy, the
reproduction of the
results
Result calculation:
Measurable result
(cm, sec, goal,
point)
Accuracy:
the successive,
repeated execution
of motion cycles in
a great number,
constant speed
Result calculation
Measurable result
(sec)
Figure 2. The classification of motion forms on the basis of judging motion accuracy and
result calculation (Müller 2004)
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Branches of sports with scoring (artificial motions): gymnastics, RG, ice skating, diving,
etc. They serve as an illustration for artificial motions, where performance is stated according
to the combination of elements, i.e. difficulty level of the motion combination and the actual
execution.
Such motion is successful and accurate if ”formally it corresponds to the motion of form
conventionally accepted and at the same time there is not inserted correction during
execution”.– as pointed out by Rigler (1987).
Athletics, martial arts, ball games: the stability of motion triggering them is mainly
indicated by the constancy of the results. There are certain smaller or greater requirements and
rules available for executing the motion which are determined by the regulation of rules
books. In these motions the quality of execution seems to be of ”no importance”. In the
evaluation of performance it is primarily not the manner of execution but the result that is
taken into consideration.
Cyclic branches of sports (endurance events): Cyclic branches of sports are a good example
for reproduction of a great degree where we can meet the execution of successive repeated
movements and motion cycles in a great number. We accept as the criterion of accuracy the
repetition of the successive movements executed in the same way as well as the maintenance
of the constant speed in the motions involving a change of place.
It would be proper to ask what we mean by performance in the case of particular branches of
sports. Does the same thing mean performance or „”better performance” in the case of every
branch of sports? It is obvious that it doesn’t, i.e. the criteria for achieving and judging a good
performance are not quite the same.
In certain branches of sports with scoring (e.g. gymnastics, RG, aerobics, synchronised
swimming, diving, etc.), the basis of calculating the result depends on the difficulty degree of
technical elements and their quality performance, i.e. their execution. It is sanctioned by strict
score reduction if the exercise, the temporal, spatial and dynamic structure of the exercise
elements deviates from what is „expected.” The expectations are determined by the rule books
precisely. Achieving a high-level performance requires the precise, accurate execution of the
motions and technical elements. Interestingly enough ort not interestingly enough, aesthetics
and style also appear and get an important role in the result calculation in these branches of
sports.
What happens in the case when we have a further goal by execution, i.e. to achieve a better
result? In such a case the execution of motion is not merely a means but an end to achieve the
goal. In the case of the branches of sports with the dominance of the technique (let us
think here of the throwing-, jumping-, or running events of track and field) it can be observed
that performance can be well measured either in seconds or centimetres. Here the result will
be the sportsmen’s throwing-, jumping-, or running result. The execution and the ”goodness”
of the technique can be judged on the basis of this. In the case of these branches of sports it
can also be formulated that ”every motion is good which is successful”, i.e. it is possible to
use so-called ”individual techniques”. On the basis of what has been said execution may
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seem to be of secondary importance. Execution can also influence the judgement of the result
although not in the same respect as in the case of branches of sports with scoring. We have
already referred to the fact the rules book contains such rules which regulate and restrict
technical execution. Let us have a look at an example related to track and field javelin
throwing:4
1. (a) The javelin must be held by the thong and must be thrown over the shoulder and the
throwing upper arm. The javelin must not be thrown from below or swinging (the not
traditional styles are forbidden.)
(b) Until the competitors has thrown the object, he/she is not allowed to turn around his/her
axis in such a way that he/she is with his/her back to the throw-out curve.
Other rules restrict the run-up or the length of gaining momentum, the number of attempts,
and the place of the arrival of the equipment by the designated sector, there is a time limit for
executing the attempt, etc. The manner of technical execution can be regulated by a great
number of such and similar rules. We think that within these rules there are greater
possibilities of variation in the execution than in the case of branches of sports with scoring.
It is interesting to compare high jump and throwing events from the point of view of how the
variation of performance (higher standard deviation) is judged in relation to success.
Throwing athletes have at least three attempts in a competition (in the case of a combined
competition this is also the maximum value); if they get into the final round, they can make
further attempts. After the first, so-called safety attempt (s), if the competitor has got into the
final round, he/she can afford to ”risk” in the hope of achieving a higher result. The effort for
a better performance – the intention of an even further throw – can make the competitor
spasmodic, and as a result the evenness of the result of the throws can be broken as it can
result in a less successful or unsuccessful attempt as well. However, it also carries the
achievement of a better performance in itself and can open a way for achieving a higher level
of achievement. The result calculation is given by the best attempt and thus it does not mean
a problem if there was an unsuccessful attempt. In the case of a tie the result of the second
best attempt is decisive. It is also true that according to the rules of high jump it is also the
best jump that is decisive but in the case of a tie the fewer failed attempts are considered. As
in the case of high jump a tie is more common, this problem deserves more attention. The
rule of high jump prefers „” performance constancy” in the case of a tie, or the other way
round we can say about the logical order that it sanctions the extension of greater variation of
performance.
Comparing track and field events with the branches of sports with scoring, we can say that
when a gymnast has practised his/her technique a lot and was able to reproduce this precise
execution in the competition as well, he/she has achieved his/her performance. It is not sure
that an athlete achieves the best throwing, jumping or running performance by merely a
perfect execution. In the case of branches of sports with the dominance of tactics – ball
Magyar Atlétikai Szabálykönyv 2010. Magyar Atlétika Szövetség kiadványa. Bp.114-115.p. In:
http://www.masz.hu/images/stories/Versenybirok/szabalyzatok/szabalykonyv-2010-2.pdf
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games – the technical execution is only a means to achieve the goal (goal, basket, achieving a
score) in judging performance. We can say that we can discover some similarity with the
track and field events of technical dominance. In spite of the similarities, however, there are
also differences. While track and field events require ”a closed skill”, ball games require ”an
open skill”. This means that ball game competitors must reproduce a perfect technical
execution not under steady circumstances but with constantly changing conditions. Such a
condition is meant by the changing position of the companions in the situation (moving
target) in the play field. Players must pay attention to the movement of the ball, the position
of the opponent as well as the given form of motion (shooting the ball through the basket,
blocking, smashing, etc.), which has to be executed not always from the same place and in
the same way.
Thus on the basis of what has been mentioned above the condition of success is partly the
coordinated accurate motion, partly the ability of reproducing motions and the relative
constancy of performance.
Kids’ Athletics
Athletics is ranked among the basic branches of sports or even among the foundation sports
on the basis of the motion taxonomic classification of both the international and Hungarian
literature. It has several different reasons. Athletic motions consists of natural motions
(running, jumping, throwing, walking) which children acquire at an early age and in the
education of the future generation and training of children athletics has forms of motion and
possibilities that contribute to the many-sided and proportionate development of the human
motorium and later any other branch of sport can build its special motion structure on its welldeveloped foundations.
Kids’ athletics motivates children to move by its varied forms of motion, contests, team
exercises and colourful tools. Since time immemorial children have been interested in
competing with each other and in seeking comparison with others. To satisfy these needs
athletics provides an excellent possibility as it consists of several different events and forms
of motion. In order to maintain a healthy competitive spirit, an international working group
created competitions which became an age-specific motion program by taking the age
characteristics of children and their capacity into consideration.
Competing children must be different from that of adults. We often think that sports events
and thus track and field competitions as well are the scale models of adult competitions.
However, this is a wrong idea – as it is supposed by the experts of the working group
developing kids’ athletics. It’s because the early branch-of sport specific competition requires
a too early specialization in the preparation thus preventing children’s harmonious
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development. (Unfortunately this is what we can experience in the competition system of the
Students’ Olympics functioning today as well.)
Therefore the IAAF (The International Association of Athletics Federations) set the goal of
introducing a new form of athletics that can be realised easily and meets children’s
developmental needs completely and contributes to ensuring their healthy physical and mental
development.
In the spring of 2001 the IAAF took the initiative and developed an event concept for children
which featured a distinct departure from the adult model of Athletics. The concept was
henceforth labelled, “IAAF KIDS’ ATHLETICS”.
Due to the working group’s professional work of several years consisting of experts a global
training strategy for the age groups 7-15 was developed for 2005. The main ideas of this
strategy are:
- It should be simple, accessible for everybody and be able to be practised,
-
It should ensure progressive development,
-
Its facility need should be simple, it should be able to be realised practically anywhere,
in a gym, in the street or on a square,
-
It should make sure that a great number of people could be made to do exercises
effectively in a short time,
-
The principle of team work should be manifested in the sporting sessions.
Another aim of the program is to make sure that equal opportunity motor development and
motor learning strategies could be realised in the program. It applies an experience-centred
training system in the field of games, competition and prevention. It aims at making sure that
a wide-ranged and simultaneous possibilities of development of general education contents
(curriculum regulations) should be manifested in teaching.
In order to do so it must meet the following needs and requirements and these must always be
borne in mind:
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It should
provide the
foundations
for another
branch of
sport
It should develop
personality
It should be made accessible for
evebody
It should make athletics attractive (it should
give an experience of motion, pleasure, which
motivates children
3. Figure. The goal pyramids of Kids’ athletics (the author’s design)
The general goals of the programme (Dornbach 2013):
The IAAF developed the program with the aim of achieving that the program comprising the
natural human forms of motion – walking, running, jumping and throwing – should be the
most practised motion material in all the schools of the world by making this branch of sport
popular and creating a mass basis for it.
Winning affection for motion
Its colourful tool system and entertaining motion program make it highly suitable for children
to enjoy doing the exercises which appear in the training and competition system by which
they get to like doing exercises and it becomes their inner need after a while. Thus they can
play this sport even after leaving school or they will be fans of track and field competitions.
Educating children for an active and healthy way of life
The motion material of athletics improves the cardiorespiratory endurance by running in an
excellent way and the skilfulness events (such as jumps, throws: Field events) develop
children’s fitness. It is the values mentioned above increase the chance that a child who got
acquainted with this program enjoyed doing these activities and practised it regularly and got
used to it so much that he/she will have the need for doing exercises continuously, which has
a positive impact on the development of his/her health.
15
A better trained new generation for both athletics and the other branches of sports
The training system of Kids’ athletics has a progressive and complex effect on coordination
abilities, which form the foundations of every branch of sport. By practising the course
material of teaching physical education regularly and the related competition system we can
create a consequent training which is meant to realise the development of the abilities of
children aged 6-12 globally and at a higher level than the average.
Revival: we should bring new dynamism into teaching physical education
As the functioning form and tool system of the programme is meant to be colourful, exciting
and full of challenges for both children and PE teachers, the basis is created for bringing
dynamism and a new colour into teaching physical education.
As the PE teacher sees that the children are more motivated and interested, he/she will enjoy
doing his/her job better and more carefully in the interest of the children.
The organisational objectives of the concept of IAAF Kids’ athletics
-
That a large number of children can be active at the same time
-
That varied and basic athletic forms of movements are experienced
-
That not only faster and stronger children make a contribution to a good result
-
That skill demands vary according to the age and requisite coordination abilities
-
To make the program more adventurous
-
That a character of adventure infuses the programme, offering an approach to
Athletics that is suitable for children
-
That the structure and scoring of the event is easy, based on the rank order of teams
-
That few assistants and judges are required
-
That athletics is offered as a mixed team event (boys and girls together)
The content objectives of IAAF Kids’ athletics events are:
Health promotion – One of the main objectives of all sporting activities must be to
encourage children to play and use up their energy in order to preserve long-term health.
Athletics is uniquely designed to meet this challenge by the varying nature of the playing
activities and by the physical features its practice requires.
The increasing demands of the forms of games provided to children will contribute to their
harmonious general development.
Social interaction – “IAAF KIDS’ ATHLETICS” is a profitable factor of integration of
children in a social background. Team events, in which everyone makes a contribution to the
16
game, are the opportunity for children to meet and to accept their differences. The simplicity
of the rules and the harmless nature of the offered events, allow children to play the part of
officials and team coaches to the full. These responsibilities they really take on are special
moments when they can experience citizenship.
Character of adventure – To be stimulated, children need to have the feeling they can
actually win the event they take part in. The selected formula (team, events, and organisation)
conspires to keep the event outcome unpredictable until the last event. This is a driving
element of children’s motivation.
Kids’ athletics is an activity system which develops children’s physical, mental and social
competences. It has a crucial role in developing children’s personality.
Its main values can be summarised as follows:
It develops physical skills well
Its motion material has been compiled in such a way that matching its age-related
characteristics should develop continuously and built on each other all physical skills which
are the basic condition for all healthy people and every sport.
Both its activity and competition structure develop children’s physical skills in a playful way.
It develops mental skills excellently
By the advance of activities children get to the point when they can evaluate each other’s
performance.
Their attention is focussed not only on physical performance but also on evaluation and
keeping the results and numerical factors in their mind.
As the equipping of the gym also is their responsibility, they learn to plan, act economically,
manage their time and there are many other factors which will have a positive effect on them.
It’s suitable for developing social skills
By the frequent change of the structure of the working groups they learn to adapt themselves
to and accept each other.
While doing the organisational jobs they learn to work, think together and share tasks.
The form of team competition teaches them to respect and support the ones with more
moderate skills.
They learn to be happy about victory together and lose by supporting each other.
The flexibility of the system makes it also possible to involve disabled children. The
acceptance of being different also has a positive effect on children’s personality.
It educates for independence and acting and decision-making skills
Of course, becoming independent should be the result of a longer learning and adaptation
process. However, children in the 5-6. years must already have the knowledge so that they
could carry out the whole script of an activity independently with minimum teacher’s
instruction in teamwork.
17
The novelty of kids’ athletics
1. The attraction of its equipment – motivation
The quality, safety and variety of equipment get even children to be active who are not so
keen on doing sport activities. Considering that its competition system is a team competition
in all circumstances, the individual performances of the children with less moderate skills also
contribute to the final result, thus encouraging every member of the team for a better
performance.
Both the competition and the activity system must have a KA unit package.
By using and varying freely the 27 kinds of colourful, light, plastic equipment, 226 pieces
altogether in the package we can develop the basic physical skills in a playful way without
being noticed.
2. Creative diversity
Although the equipment and task system is given, a motivated and creative PE teacher will
create an enormous number of possible variations to develop children’s abilities and motivate
them by using the equipment available in a varied and target-oriented way.
3. Varied activities
It is due to teachers’ creativity that activities can be made varied and exciting, which
maintains interest continuously and encourages children to act.
There is an educational manual (called Educational models) available, which contains a wide
range of activities for developing abilities in a playful way and facilitate the development of
particular groups of abilities by presenting exercises built upon each other.
We can create enjoyable activities for children advancing always from the simpler to more
complex exercises and varying the exercises freely.
4. Activities in teams
Teamwork is a basic principle of “IAAF KIDS’ ATHLETICS”. All team members make a
contribution to the results, on the occasion of running events (relay) or as individual
contributions to the overall team result (in every event). Individual participation contributes to
the team result and reinforces the concept that the participation of each child is to be valued.
Every child takes part in all the events which prevents early specialisation. Teams are mixed
(made up of 5 girls and 5 boys if possible.
The system of Kids’ athletics is primarily an event and competition system which completes
each other and is motivating.
18
The event system of Kids’ athletics
The main idea of the event system is that it should take place at least once a week for each
class by being integrated into the morning school lessons. This basic frequency is needed for
abilities to be developed and the stimuli to be adapted.
Forms of practice
Circuit
The most suitable way of practice is the so called circuit practice so that as many children as
possible should be made active at the same time. By choosing the settings freely and
considering the number of students available at a particular time we can determine the form of
burdening of the given activity according to the goal to be achieved.
The range of possible variations is quite wide, we can even use exercises meant to develop
one ability, still taking the needs of the age group concerned (1-4 classes) into consideration.
It is important to provide a foundation for developing conditioning abilities by a many-sided
development of coordination abilities.
Homogeneous parallel events
One ability group can be developed in several groups at the same time by using parallel (the
same) exercises.
Heterogeneous parallel events
Several different ability groups can be developed in such a way that the groups practise
different exercises at the same time.
Competitive-like events
a) in the form of circuit practice
b) in the form of parallel practice.
The preparatory movement material of Kids’ athletics
The minimum goal to be achieved in learning a movement is the coordinated performance of
the exercises in the competition system of Kids’ athletics at the highest possible level
matching the age-group requirements. It is not the size of jumps and throws or the speed of
hurdles race that is essential but the level of technical execution and coordination of the
movement.
Important educational principles:

We should lay down requirements for children for the performance of which they have
the necessary conditioning foundations (e.g. for which they have the strength level)

we should always try to create the balance situations
19

we should never be afraid of taking one step back in teaching if we feel that the
execution of the movement encounters difficulties

we should go one step further when we perceive that children are able to perform the
given exercise in a great number, in a harmonious and energetically economic way

the educational exercises should always be playful, entertaining, too and learning a
movement should be playful

we should be brave enough to use compelling means because they make teaching more
colourful even in themselves.
The preparation of throwing events
Developing the refined movements of the hand
 Throwing a ball on the wall many times, upwards and catching it

propelling a ball with a small diameter with both hands and one hand

many-many manipulating games with the hands
Throws are primarily determined by the work of the legs:
 Making the legs more skilful

strengthening them by many-many small skipping with two legs or one leg, in every
direction, up and down, mostly by compelling means

Running, walking over hurdles, variations of rotations, independently and with
equipment (combined coordination ability development)
Throws primarily consist of rotation movements:
 There are a lot of rotation movements, therefore it is important to train the limbic
system, e.g. somersaults, rotations, spinning round the various axles

That is why the development of the sense of balance is also very important – static and
dynamic
Preparing the throwing motion:
 primarily by throwing into a target, taking care of the correct throwing motion

target throwing with two hands with balls of various sizes

one-handed target throwing with balls of various sizes, with both hands
20

target throwing should happen into various heights

the most important element of the work of the legs, making the tight support leg felt
Preparing the hurling motion:
 with various equipment, balls, rings, discusses with a handle, rubber batons, etc.

essentially with target throwing

initially front-wise, later gradually from increased turning away

the target area at the line of the throwing hand is forced

taking care of the tight support leg
Preparing the shot putting motion:

with two hands, front-wise, with knee-springing

with two hands, front-wise, jumping off from two legs

in the form of target throwing

from a small trunk-bending, from traverse straddle position, with knee-springing
Preparing jumping exercises
The starting point of preparing jumping exercises is the development of the correct running
motion.
In order to do so we suggest keeping the following aspects in mind:
1. Developing the sense of balance a:
 High position of centre of gravity and a

In order to develop the correct running technique
2. Making the performance of closed swinging felt
 while running with the back – knee lifting children feel it better
The basic element of jumps is pushing off.
Various methods of force transmission:
 jumps

jumping over

jumping up
21

skipping in every direction
1. Developing the correct swinging

arm

leg
4. Developing the sense of rhythm
 by performing many-many exercises with steady and changing rhythm
E.g. clapping- giving back rhythm planned in advance
5. Dividing attention – combined coordination exercises
Preparing running exercises
1. Developing the sense of time: performing tasks in a definite period of time, without a
qualitative and quantitative determination
2. Developing sense of speed: covering a certain distance for a definite time
3. Developing coordination:
- Varied steeplechase tracks
- Games – developing skilfulness and general condition at the same time
4. Stride length-stride frequency games
- Coordination ladder – frequency development, on tiptoes, arm work
- running-running school exercises performed on compelling means
5. Dynamic strength development:
- running, skipping forward, to the side, backwards
- throws with a medicine ball
6. Dynamic balance exercises: forward, to the side, backwards
7. Developing the running arm work: in sitting, walking and while doing running exercises
8. Preparing the start
- starts from various starting and body positions
- using various start signals (auditory, visual, touching perception)
- using pre-movements
- combined starts (exercise performance after start signal)
Start stages:
- Leaning forward starts
- Kneeling starts
- Start competitions
22
9. Teaching hurdles race
Preparation exercises
 gymnastics and coordination exercises – increasing motion limits of the joints, getting
acquainted with the motion elements

hurdle technique exercises performed in place

hurdle technique exercises that can be performed during walking

hurdle technique exercises that can be performed during running
It is important that the continuity of momentum is more important than the accuracy of
technical execution, therefore we should choose lower heights which we increase gradually in
relation to the development of coordination.
10. Changeover technique – lower changeover. The process of teaching:
in sitting, standing, running in place, slow running, dynamic running
Teaching start: space perception – ball for rolling, arrival of companion.
Pictures of Kids’ athletics see in annex.
Questions for self-assessment:
 Describe the importance of track and field
 How can track and field events be classified?
 Describe the characteristics of athletics, the characteristics of track and field motions,
their motion taxonomic classification, the place of track and field among other
branches of sports.
 Describe the main methodological aspects and principles in teaching athletics, track
and field motion patterns.
 Describe the main goals and tasks of athletics in the lower grades of the primary
school (years 1-4).
 What is kids’athletics, describe its goal and main ideas briefly.
 What are the most important values of kids’ athletics?
 What forms of activities does kids’ athletics have?
 What drills and competition exercises does kids’ athletics have?
23
A list of terms:
Exact (Dictionary of Foreign Words and Terms 1974): ”precise, unambiguous, determined
exactly”, „excluding subjective evaluation”.
Etalon (Dictionary of Foreign Words and Terms 1974): ”certified standard of measures”,
”certified sample copy”.
Motion accuracy: ”is a property of motion which contains the target security of executing a
motion, especially its matching with a form of motion given in advance.” (quoted by Rigler
1987)5
Accurate: ”Complying with the reality, the requirements.” „”It can be executed at the time
fixed.” ”It functions without mistakes, in a reliable way.” (as written in the Concise
Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language by Juhász et al.6).
Reproduces (Dictionary of Foreign Words and Terms 1974): ”brushes up, imitates,
recreates”. Thus motion reproduction means the repetition and imitation of motions.
Precise:” Meticulously accurate”, ”great accuracy” (as written by Juhász and et al. in the
Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language.) In another interpretation:7”
accurate, exact”, ”refined, carefully developed”, “particularly accurate”.
Perfect (the Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language
1980):”Complying with the result, the norm or model completely. ”The best, the most
excellent possible.” ”Embodying some property to the greatest possible extent.” “Perfectness
as a noun, faultlessness, completeness, the highest degree of some property.”
Rigler E. (1987): Az emberi mozgás reprodukálhatóságának és teljesítményállandósága. (Részlet a szerző
kandidátusi értekezéséből) A Testnevelési Főiskola közleményei. 1. sz. Melléklet. 3-96. p.
6
Juhász J. – Szőke I. O. – Nagy G. – Kovalszky M. (1980): Magyar Értelmező Kéziszótár. Akadémiai Kiadó.
Bp. 1115-1992. p.
7
Bakos F. (1974): Idegen szavak és kifejezések szótára. Akadémiai Kiadó-Kossuth Könyvkiadó. 210- 729. p.
5
24
RUNNING IN TRACK AND FIELD
About runs in general
Running motion belonging to humans’ natural motions is a crossed cyclic motion of
changing position. Running as a natural motion develops in infancy, not a long time after
children learn to walk. Examining the running motion of sportsmen we can find significant
differences between running and running. An athlete runs in a different way in a 100 metre
race, a marathon runner runs in a different way, a basketball player runs in a different way in
the warm-up at the beginning of the training and during a match at the start. The running
motion developed naturally changes depending on the goal of running, and therefore running
appearing in the events of track and field is not a natural motion any more but an acquired
one, a series of motions developed to perform the running distance most successfully.
Running is one of the most commonly used general physical exercise as well as an
exercise of a sport branch and a special one. Besides track and field it appears in several other
branches of sport as a position changing motion, building up momentum and a means of
training.
Middle and long distance running can play a great role in creating a healthy way of life as
well. It develops the heart-circulation-respiratory system, the main physiological component
of stamina. It has an effect on the energy supply systems of the organism through the
metabolism processes of the muscle cell. The running events of track and field have a positive
impact on the development of the personality and the strengthening of the positive personality
features by their complex effect.
Running is used in several fields even within track and field:
- A competition event – achieving the maximum speed in the given distance and
conditions;
- A means of building up momentum in the jumping and throwing events;
- A means of training – for the development of conditioning and coordination
abilities
The branch of track and field containing the most events, its main groups are flat-race
(sprints-, middle-, and long distance running) as well as the races in which a task must be
solved while running (hurdles, steeplechase, and relay races).
The running events of track and field contain:
- Sprints: from 100 metres to 400 metres,
- Middle-distance running: from 600 metres to 1500 metres,
25
- Long-distance running: from 3000 metres to 42195 metres,
- Hurdles: 100 metres, 110 metres, 400 metres.
- Steeplechase: 3000 metres.
- Relay races: 4x100 metres, 4x400 metres, 4x800 metres
(The enumeration was made without the requirement for completeness, in age-related
competitions there are other distances as well).)
THE TECHNIQUE OF TRACK AND FIELD RUNNING EVENTS
The goal of the running events is to overcome a given distance in the shortest possible time,
i.e. to achieve the greatest speed under the given conditions and to maintain it till the end of
the distance.
The main factors determining the running, the speed of running:
-
competition rules
-
biomechanical regularities.
The effect of competition rules on the running motion and speed
1. The setting of running.
The sizes of the track (outdoor-track, indoor-track, road-race, cross-country running)
The ground of the track (cinder, plastic, road, terrain)
The curve of the bend
2. The length of the running distance.
The rules of the start. Kneeling start is compulsory up to 400 metres, and standing start
on longer distances.
A straight track (60 metres, 80 metres, 100 metres, 110 metres).
Running both in a straight line and bend. (200m and longer distances, on an athletic
track)
3. Devices.
Barriers, hurdles, relay baton, starting blocks.
Track and field spikes
4. Compulsory rest-period between the rounds, in the case of preliminary rounds.
5. Rules related to age-group competitions.
26
Physical laws determining the technique and speed of running
1. Exertion of force of the muscles participating in the motion is needed to execute the
running motion. The force needed for starting running, accelerating and maintaining speed
is provided by the function of the muscles. (Newton I.)
2. The runners exert an effect on the ground by the force emerging during the contraction
of the muscles and a force with the same size but with an opposing direction exerts an
effect on the runner. (Newton III.)
3. According to the above laws force must be transmitted by the action to start the motion
and change the direction. External force is developed by the effect of the muscle
contraction if the runner is in touch with the ground.
Hindering factors emerging in running:
1. Insufficient joint motion extension. The length of stride depends on the looseness of the
hip joint.
2. The effect, length and function of the antagonist muscles.
3. The rotational inertia resistance of the swinging limbs.
4. The effect of the force of gravity. The centre of gravity of the runner does not move on
a straight line, but vertically with a deviation of 3-8cms. The force of pushing off moves
the centre of gravity not only forward but upwards as well.
5. Resistance of the air depends
- The difference between the speed of the runner and the air.
- The size of the surface colliding with the air.
- The angle of collision.
6. The centrifugal force emerging in bend running.
The technique of running motion
Running motion is a cyclic motion, two strides (the left and
right leg) form a cycle. (Especially in the case of great speed) it
can be observed that the running stride consists of two phases,
the support phase and the phase of flight.
Support phase
During the support phase the runner cannot transmit force to the
ground, and as an effect of this force forward motion occurs.
The support phase can be divided into two parts
1.pic. Touching the ground
- the first support phase or eccentric phase, the phase of bending the joints;
27
- the second support phase or concentric phase, the phase of stitching the joints.
The first support phase, the centre of gravity is behind the support point.
The centre of gravity lasts from touching the ground to passing over the support point.
Touching the ground happens with a definite part of the sole depending on the speed.
In sprints the runner touches the ground on the front part of the sole with the
toe cushions.
In middle distance running the runner touches the ground with the outer part of
the sole; the heel does not touch the ground.
In long-distance running the runner touches the ground with the outer part of
the sole or with the heel. In the latter case we talk about the rolling technique.
Bending happens in the joint of the knee and ankle, the heel approaches the ground.
The heel of the swinging leg swings forward upwards, bends in the knee, the heels strikes up
to the gluteus; the knee reaches the line of the support leg.
The arms bend from the most stretched position farthest from the trunk and approach the line
of the trunk.
When touching the ground the runner collides with the ground, and therefore braking happens
and the speed is reduced. The effect of the braking can be reduced by an active touching of
the ground. The runner moves his/her foot backwards before touching the ground and pulls
himself/herself in the front support phase.
The second support phase, the vertical projection of the centre of gravity passes over the
support point, gets in front of it.
The active, concentric phase of the running stride is when the main force transmission
happens. The muscle contractions necessary for running
occur in this phase.
Of the muscles determining the speed of running the gluteus
maximus together with the synergists (auxiliary muscles)
start the contraction already before the support phase; they
move the foot downwards, backwards. They help the centre
of gravity to pass over the support quickly in the support
phase.
The stretching of the knee and ankle joint is marked; they
almost reach the limit of their anatomic motion extension.
The force transmission occurring during the stretching of the
2. pic. The second support phase
28
hip, knee and ankle joint creates the energy necessary for forward motion.
Initially, the swinging leg passes beside the support leg with an accelerating motion and
swings forward upwards. In the second stage of swinging the knee slows down, the knee joint
stretches, the heel swings forward.
The arms passing over beside the body get involved in the swing, the bending of the elbow
changes continuously during the running motion. The greatest degree of bend (80-850) can be
measured at the end of swinging forward, in the highest position of the hand. During swinging
backwards the elbow stretches gradually, it is stretched to the greatest degree, its greatest
degree (95-1400) when it passes beside the body. In the second phase of swinging backwards
the elbow bends again to the rear to a dead point, to approximately 900.
The period of the support phase reduces with the increase of the speed; a greater exertion of
force must occur in a shorter time.
The phase of flight
After leaving the ground in the phase of flight the partial relaxation of the muscles; rest is
possible. The length of the phase of flight is developed according to the force of pushing off
and the speed of running determining the length of stride as well. In the phase of flight the
arms try to prevent the undesired rotations by a balancing motion. The most important task of
the phase is preparing touching the ground and realizing an active touching of the ground
executed well.
Take-off with a proper direction, the exact way of the centre of gravitation is facilitated by the
joint work of the swinging limbs. They compensate the harmful grips, and do a balancing job.
Landing:
Landing can be considered to be good if active landing can be realized, In spite of this, in
every case touching the ground is followed by braking; the sole collides with the ground. It is
primarily the motions occurring in the ankle that are responsible for damping the energy of
collision.
3 pic. The phase of flight
While running the trunk is in a position slightly leant forward
depending on the speed. In the case of a greater speed the
degree of leaning forward is greater.
-
excessive straightening up results in a greater
deviation of vertical direction in the motion of the centre
of gravitation; the force exerted in the direction of
motion is not effective enough.
29
-
excessive leaning forward prevents raising the knee, and therefore the stride
length decreases; the speed is reduced.
The shoulder and the hip of the runner turn in the opposite direction, the hip moves forward
with the swinging leg; the shoulder on the same side turns backwards.
The path of the centre of gravity
While running the body’s centre of gravity deviates in horizontal and lateral direction due to
the forces affecting it. The forces affecting the centre of gravity:
-
The strength of pushing off, which has a component of both a horizontal and
vertical direction.
-
The gravitational force pulls the centre of gravitation down.
-
Air resistance has an opposing effect with the direction of running.
The motions that can be observed in the passing of the centre of gravity:
→ If we look at the runner sideways, the centre of gravity goes forward on a wavy line; its
deepest point in the support phase is above the support point when the centre of gravity passes
over while its highest point is in the phase of flight.
→ If we look at him/her from the back or opposite, the centre of gravity is lateral and
performs a vertical motion. The lateral movement is attributed to the position of the two legs.
In sum the centre of gravity goes forward on a vertical and lateral wavy line while it is
moving forward.
The factors determining the speed of running
The speed of running is determined by two factors
-
the stride length and
-
the stride frequency.
Stride length
The stride length is the distance measured between the two support phases of the
running stride. Long-distance runners perform the distance with a stride length of 2,0m; the
100m race men even achieve a stride length of 2.40 m while performing the distance.
Stride length shows a strong correlation with
-
the build of the runner, first of all with the length of his/her lower limbs,
-
the strength and the angle of pushing off,
-
the motion extension of the hip joint,
30
-
the running technique, the rhythm of running, the time of the phase of flight,
the swinging,
-
the ability of relaxation, the micro-regeneration ability.
The average stride length of middle-distance runners is the double of the leg length; in
sprinters it can reach 2,5 times of the leg length.
Stride frequency
Stride frequency refers to the number of strides per second. Under conditions of a
competition, in the 100 m race values of 4,2-4,5 1/s can be measured while in middle and long
distance the stride frequency is 3.2 -4,0 l/s.
The stride frequency depends on:
-
The motion- regulatory functions, coordination of the central nervous system,
-
The running technique, the motion extension of the lower limbs,
-
The contraction speed of the muscles playing a role in the force transmission,
the level of the reactive muscle function.
The stride frequency of every runner is much bigger than the greatest stride frequency
measured in competition events (e.g. motions with a small extension); during training we
must try to reduce the difference between the maximum stride frequency and the frequency
needed to perform the running distance. It can be achieved by technical training, improving
coordination and developing dynamic-leg strength.
The change of speed in running distances, the division of the competition
distance
1. Start and running after start – the phase of acceleration
2. Running between distance – keeping speed, maximum speed, the phase of changing
speed
3. Finish – the phase of arriving at finish line, slowing down
Start and running after start
It has a great significance in short distances; the longer the distance is, the less contribution it
has to the result. Competitors are obliged to start with a kneeling start from 100-400 metres,
on distances longer than 100 metres they must start with a standing start.
On short distances the acceleration phase is 40-60 metres, the increase of the stride frequency
causes the acceleration; the stride length increases more slowly and evenly and facilitates
acceleration.
31
On middle and long distances, it is 800 metres and longer; acceleration is of smaller
importance; runners achieve the slower speed between distances in a few 10 metres.
Running between distances
On a 100m race the task is to reach and maintain the maximum speed, good runners can
perform 30-40 metres with a decrease of speed. Well-prepared runners can achieve that the
phase of acceleration and running between distances can last till the end of the race (e.g. 60m
race on an indoor track)
On a 200m and 400m race the task of running between distances is that the runner should be
able to run the longest with the highest speed and his/her average speed should be high.
In middle-and long-distance running performance depends on the energy supply. The running
technique should be such that it could ensure the most economical function beside the given
speed. The proper use of the energy basis has a crucial role in performance in the case of
tactical accelerations and slow-downs as well.
Finish, arriving at the finish line
It is typical of a short distance that we can observe a decrease of speed in the last phase.
Approaching the finish, the stride frequency decreases; the so far harmonious running rhythm
of high speed breaks down and the runner slows down.
On a middle and long distance the speed can even increase. In running between distances the
intensity is lower, it is possible to increase speed during the distance and immediately before
the finis has well.
The techniques of the start:
In track and field competitions sportsmen start with two kinds of start: with a kneeling or
standing start.
Standing start:
The rules of track and field determine that on a distance longer than 400 metres runner must
start with a standing start, the hand must not touch the ground
and there is no possibility to use starting blocks. Even in short
distance relay running only the first runner can use starting
blocks. Standing start has two versions; start with front the leg
or with back leg.
Standing start with back leg
It is the most commonly used form of standing start; it is also
worth starting teaching starts with this.
4. pic. Standing start with back leg
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Its execution:
The runner stands in a traverse straddle position behind the start line. His/her front leg does
not touch the line; the feet are parallel to the direction of running. The distance between the
two feet is half-one foot sideways, and 1-2 feet transversely. The trunk is slightly leant
forward, the hip and knee are bent, the heels do not touch the ground, and the arm on the same
side as the front leg is at the back (opposite arm, leg position). The body weight is
proportionally distributed on the two legs. By the start signal the runner steps out with the
back leg with a quick powerful stride. The arms swing forward and backwards reversely
helping to develop a proper stride length and running rhythm.
Standing start with front leg
5.pic. Standing start with front leg
The runner stands behind the start line, the position of the leg
is similar to the start with back leg. The traverse straddle
position changes between ¾ and 1,5 feet, the knee and the hip
are slightly bent; the heel dos not touch the ground. The arm
at the side of the front leg is at the front.
By the start signal the runner starts with the front leg, with a
quick and powerful stride. Lifting the leg burdened more
breaks down the equipoise of the runner, the centre of gravity
of the runner moves forward, which makes a quicker start
possible. The front arm swings backwards, the back arm
moves forward with a powerful, short movement. In the first strides the stride frequency is
high, the stride length is short.
Kneeling start
According to the rules of start, the execution of the start:
For the command „To the start” the runner must occupy his/her position behind the
start line without delay. Stepping in front of the starting blocks the runner assumes a
crouching support position, and he/she braces first his/her back foot, and then his/her front
foot against the start blocks; the knee of the back
leg touches the ground. After this he/she places
his/her hands on the start line; he/she usually
supports himself/herself on opened thumbs-, index
fingers and middle fingers. He/she waits for the
start signal at rest.
6 pic. Kneeling start – “Redy”
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For the command”Ready”, he/she raises his/her hip, his/her eyes are directed towards
the hands. The size of the hip raising should be such that the hip should get 8-13 cms higher
than the shoulder. The arms are vertically, often in a position slightly leant forward; the
runner waits for the start signal motionlessly.
By the start signal (some kind of a sound effect, start pistol, start clapper, whistle,
clapping, etc.) the runner starts running.
The characteristics of a good start.
Reaction time, the time passed from the start signal to the appearance of motion
response, 0,15-0,20mp.
Start time or the action time of the start, the time passed from the start signal to
leaving the start blocks 0,5mp.
The angle of take-off, the angle closed by the centre of gravity with the straight
ground formed by the stretched support leg. On leaving the start blocks it is 42-45 degrees,
and then it increase gradually; in an optimum case after covering 20-25 metres it reaches the
value of running between distances.
The greatest force can be exerted in the shortest time with the knees’ bend of 1201450. The start is good if the front leg reaches this degree of stretching when the back leg
leaves the start blocks.
The take-off force affecting the blocks results initially from the two legs’ joint
exertion of force, the back leg finishes its pushing work earlier; the swinging begins. The
front leg goes on stretching, continues take-off alone.
The arms help the trunk to rise first by a pushing movement, and then by separating
from each other they help acceleration by swinging in accordance with the crossed cyclic
motion.
We can make a distinction between middle, wide and narrow block standing.
The characteristics of middle block standing:
The distance of the first block from the start line: 1,5-2 feet.
The distance between two blocks: 1 foot,
The hip should be about 10cm higher than the line of the shoulder.
It is favourable for runners with an average build and good explosive power and beginner
runners. It makes it possible for them to acquire start from standing on the blocks more
suitable for the runner’s build and more explosive force.
Narrow block standing: It can be with a block position close to the start line (high hip
position) or far from it (low hip position).
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Wide block position is favourable for runners with longer legs and less explosive; the
great speed and acceleration are determined primarily by the stride length.
In relay running standing start with hand support also occurs. In this case the runner supports
himself/herself on the ground with his/her right leg standing in a right traverse straddle
position.
Relay race
The history of relay races
The relay race is supposed to have appeared in the torch relay of the ancient Greeks and the
courier service of the Middle Ages. The word estafette refers to mounted couriers. In the 19th
century competitions were also organised; the whole distance, the partial distances and the
number of runner changed competition by competition. The relay happened in a standing
position, by touching and by passing a flag and later a baton. The relay companion arriving
with a great momentum and the standing one had difficulty doing the relay, collisions and
overrunning were frequent.
1908. A relay race, an Olympic relay with distances of 200 – 200 – 400 – 800 metres was
organised the first time in the London Olympics.
There were significant changes till the next Olympics games.
- Competitions with short partial distances were spread.
- Because of the great speed a (flight) relay during running was introduced.
- The relay place changed into a relay zone (20m).
1912. Stockholm. Relay races of 4x100m and 4x400m. Since then these are the two events
which have been present in the Olympic Games.
Between the two world wars the technique of relay improved a lot, the technique developed
then is still used today, but its execution is getting better and better.
1936. Berlin. The American relay team became the champion with a world record of 39,8mp.
1952. Helsinki. A relay team having no individual international good results but developing
the perfect relays can also reach a good result. The Hungarian 4x100m relay team got the
third place.
1962. The IAAF meeting modifies the rules of relay.
- The runner taking over the baton can start running 10 metres before the take-over zone, but
the baton changes must take place in the 20m take-over zone.
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- Making an improper baton pass, late or early passing are both out of the rules.
The modifications led to a newer improvement in the results.
The official international events of relay races:
4x100m; 4x200m; 4x400m; 4x800m; 4x1500m.
The general description of relay races
The success of a relay race is determined by the runners’ performance and the execution of
the relays. The most common relay events are the distances of 4x100m and 4x 400m. the
technique of running is the same as the technique of running of short distance.
The team that can take the baton from the start to the finish in the shortest time is the most
successful.
In the relay race the results are better than the sum of the best results of the relay members;
the main reason for this is that the 2. 3. 4. runners start to perform their distance from a
momentum.
The most important rules determining the changeover:
1. The changeover must take place within a 20 m long changeover zone. We talk
about a pre-changeover if the receiver grips the baton before getting into the changeover zone. Over or post-changeover means that the receiver touches the baton after
the change-over zone.
2. The baton cannot be thrown.
3. The changeover must take place in the running lane of the team; they cannot leave
it even after the changeover in such a way that they disturb the other relay teams.
3. A dropped baton must be taken up by the person who dropped it.
4. The receiver can start at 10 m from the changeover zone at most.
The techniques of the 4x100 metre relay race:
1. We talk about two-handed changeover if the 2nd and 3rd member of the relay team takes
the baton over into his/her other hand immediately after the change-over, and uses both hands
for the changeover.
2. We talk about one-handed changeover if the members of the relay team carry the baton in
the hand to the end in which they took it over and they touch it with only one hand.
The technique of the two-handed changeover:
-
The first runner carries the baton with the left hand, passes it into the right hand of
his/her companion, who puts it immediately into his/her left hand; the second
changeover also happens like this; in the third one the last runner carries the baton in
the left hand all the time.
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-
During changeover it is always the giver who runs on the outer arch, the receiver on
the interior arch. Thus they can avoid running after each other, which means an
uncertain changeover or perhaps hindrance of each other.
-
Changeover takes place in the same way at every changeover place. It is enough to
teach each member of the relay team only one technique; the order of the runners can
be changed more freely.
-
Its disadvantage is that the baton must be passed from the less skilful hand, exact
targeting is more difficult and the baton makes the longest way on the track.
-
In two-handed changeover taking over the baton into the other hand breaks down the
rhythm of running and causes speed to decrease.
The technique of one-handed changeover:
The first runner carries the baton in his/her right hand, runs on the inner side of the
running lane, and passes it into the left hand of his/her companion.
Starting on the outer side of his/her lane the second runner runs there all the time and carries
the baton in his/her left hand. In the second changeover passing the baton happens from the
left hand into the right hand. The receiver starts on the inner arch of the upper bend and runs
there all the time with the baton in his/her right hand.
The third changeover is the same as the first one.
The one-handed changeover makes the shortest way of the baton possible because in the
bends the runner always moves on the inner arch.
The runner needn’t take over into the other hand, and therefore he/she can move with the most
effective and fastest technique all the time; there is less chance to drop the baton.
Starting from the outer side, the second and the fourth runner can see their approaching
companion better, and it’s easier for them to start at the right time.
The forms of passing – taking over the baton:
Lower passing (lower changeover):
The receiver swings his/her arm backwards, at about 20 cms from his/her hip for taking the
baton over; his/her palm looks backwards, his/her thumb gets further from the others.
The giver swings the baton with a movement from downwards upwards between the
receiver’s thumb and index finger, the runner at the front grips the baton. In the case of onehanded changeover the receiver has to catch the baton as close as possible to the giver’s hand,
otherwise the baton ”runs out”; there will be no place left on the baton for the gripping hand.
for the next changeover.
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In the case of two-handed changeover this problem does not arise because of the takeover of
the baton.
Upper passing (upper changeover):
The receiver swings his/her arm backwards for takeover to almost horizontal, the palm looks
upwards. The giver puts the baton from above into the receiver’s hand.
In this case the giver holds one end of the baton, the receiver grips the end of the free part,
and thus the maximum free distance between the two runners is created. After the takeover
the longer part of the baton become free for passing.
Passing the baton held up is used in 4x400m and longer relay races.
Approaching his/her companion the giver stretches his/her hand forward, holds the baton
close vertically. Turning back after a few steps the receiver takes the baton out of his/her
companion’s hand and runs further dynamically.
The start of relay runners during the 4x100m race:
The first runner starts with a kneeling start, a smaller difference occurs only because of the
grip of the baton. His/her thumb-, index finger-, and middle finger of his/her hand holding the
baton is supported behind the start line, the ring finger and the small finger hold the baton.
The start of the other members of the relay team happens with standing start or hand-support
start. The receiver starts from outside the changeover zone, from within the mark of the
allowed 10 metres. There are about 24-26 metres available for acceleration.
The characteristics of a well-executed changeover:
The giver passes the baton the receiver without speed decrease.
The most important factors from the aspect of success are the runners’ speed and the
quickness of the changeover.
The start of giveover-takeover can happen at an audio signal, an auxiliary signal or after
making a definite number of strides.
Free distance is the distance between the giver and receiver at the moment of double touch
(both of them hold the baton). In the case of lower changeover, the free distance is 50-70cms
and in the case of upper changeover it can be 130-150cms.
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Hurdling
The history of hurdle races
The development of hurdling started in England in the 1800s from the various kinds of
steeplechase competitions.
There are even records about hurdles competitions from the 1830s. First of all they were
spread at universities; students competed in hurdles on not only domestic competitions but on
competitions between institutions as well.
The competition distances were developed by 1860, in short distances the 120 yard (100m)
event and in long distance the 440 yard (400m) event is the most common.
By the beginning of the 1900s the hurdle height of 106 cms on 120 yards and that of 91,4cms
on 440 yards became common.
The distance between the hurdles valid even today was determined in 1920.
Initially, runners jumped over hedges, fences and fixed obstacles. The track was a grassy field
built in advance. Hurdles were dangerous and required a great space.
With the development of towns there were smaller and smaller areas to do sport on. Stadiums
with a circular track were developed. Due to this compulsion movable and hurdles that can be
knocked over easily were used. The change of the hurdles made clearing the hurdle safer and
the running faster.
The technique of hurdle race changed with the building of the tracks and hurdles together.
Initially, hurdle runners jumped over the hurdle, jumped off close to the hurdle, pulled the
swinging leg bent in the knee, turned towards the trailing leg below themselves and pulled the
trailing leg bent in the knee over the hurdle. Clearing the hurdle was of a high arch, landing
happened with a great jerk and running was broken.
The development of the modern technique, the hurdle race started in the 1920. Runners
stepped off further from the hurdle, tried to pass over the hurdle as close as possible, the
swinging leg nearly stretched, the lead leg raised at the side pass over the hurdle in a tucked
position. Running was made continuous, unbroken by stepping off the hurdle quickly.
The characterization of hurdle race
During the hurdle race the runner wants to cover the distance in the shortest possible time.
The hurdle runner tries to reach that the running motion should approach the technique of flat
race as well as possible.
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The main deviations and the reasons for these:
-
The path of the centre of gravity. After the start of hurdle race runners have to rise
more quickly so that clearing the first hurdle could be done properly.
-
During clearing the hurdle the centre of gravity moves with a greater deviation of
vertical direction.
-
Stride length. In spite of individual differences in build the stride length shows
small differences between runners. Running onto the first hurdle, running between the hurdles
take place with the same number of strides in almost every athlete.
-
The stride before clearing the hurdle must be shortened to ensure a quick and flat
clearing of the hurdle.
-
The stride over the hurdle is considerably longer than the usual running stride. The
length of running stride between distances for men is 220-250cms; the entire length of hurdle
clearing is 350-380cms.
The phases of hurdle race
1. Start and run-up to the first hurdle
2. Clearing the hurdle
3. Running between the hurdles
4. Running from the last hurdle to the finish line
5. Arriving at the finish line
1. Start and run-up to the first hurdle
Hurdle runners always start with a kneeling start. Because of the closeness of the first hurdle
the starting blocks should be adjusted so that the greatest acceleration can be achieved during
8(7) strides.
Hurdle runners most often use the middle standing position of the blocks; in the ”ready”
position the hips rises about 10 cms above the level of the shoulder.
During the acceleration as far as the first hurdle the speed is greater and greater due to the
increase of the stride frequency first, and then to that of the stride length.
The last stride before the hurdle is shorter compared to the previous one. The goal of
shortening is for the runner to get into a more favourable position for clearing the hurdle.
During the quick last stride the centre of gravity passes over the support point quickly,
clearing the hurdle can be longer and of a flatter arch.
The straightening of the trunk is gradual and ensures the greatest acceleration. Due to the
effect of too early straightening the speed decreases, a too late one is unfavourable for
executing hurdle clearing quickly.
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Adult males step on the first hurdle from 210-225cms; women from 190-210cms.
2. Clearing the hurdle
The push off force is created by the entire stretching of the leg, the direction of which is with
an angle of 58-66 degrees. At the end of push off the force of push off has an effect behind the
centre of gravity, and thus causing forward rotation.
The swinging leg ”attacks” the hurdle bent in the knee bent, with a motion directed a little
over the hurdle.
Getting over the hurdle both the swinging leg and the take-off leg is entirely stretched, get
almost into splits position.
The flight over the hurdle must be shortened so that the
7.pic. Above the hurdle
runner could accelerate as early as possible in the next
support phase. Stepping off the hurdle is facilitated by
several factors:
The forward rotation developed during takeoff,
The lowering of the swinging leg,
Raising the trunk,
Pulling the support leg over the hurdle,
The near-body position of the arms.
During clearing the hurdle the trunk first leans forward; helps to keep the centre of gravity
low. When passing over the hurdle, it gradually straightens and facilitates lowering the
swinging leg.
After stretching completely the support leg swings in the hip to the side while the knee
stretches powerfully; the heel approaches the hip. After passing
over the hurdle, the knee swings forward upwards towards the
8. pic. Touching the ground –
brhind the hurdle
middle line of the body. On the one hand, it facilitates the short
active landing of the support leg; on the other hand it prepares
the proper stride length of the first running stride after the
hurdle.
The swinging of the arms facilitates balancing. During
stepping on the hurdle the arm contrary to the swinging leg
swings forward long, it nearly touches the foot. By the
straightening of the trunk the arms approach the trunk, thus
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facilitating the effect of the torque affecting forward.
The entire length of clearing the hurdle is about 3,5m. The distance of stepping on the hurdle
is 210-225cms; the distance of stepping off the hurdle is 125-140cm, with a ratio of about 2/31/3.
3. Running between the hurdles.
A 110/100m hurdle runner makes three strides between the hurdles. The first stride after takeoff is 150-160cm; in the case of weaker runners it is shorter. The second stride is 200-220cms,
reaching the values of flat race. The third stride is the stride before the hurdle, a shortened
one, is about 190-200cms; it prepares the quickest clearing of the hurdle. During running
between the hurdles arm swinging must be regulated consciously so that it can facilitate the
best execution of the peculiar running rhythms between hurdles.
4. Running from the last hurdle to the finish line.
Stepping off the last hurdle is the same as clearing the other hurdles; it makes quick further
running possible. In the last phase runners make 6-7 strides; the trunk is in a position leant
forward so that the runner can reach the greatest possible speed; the angular offset can also
increase till the finish.
5. Arriving at the finish line
It is the same as arriving at the finish line of flat races.
The change of speed during the hurdle race
During the 100/110m hurdle race the speed increases rapidly until the clearing of the first
hurdle, and reaches 90% of the speed of running between distances. Good runners can
increase their speed as far as the 3. – 5. hurdles. The phase of maintaining the speed lasts
through 2-5 hurdle distances, and then it decreases. From the last hurdle to the finish line the
speed increases again. (In weak, beginner runners it happens that the speed increases only as
far as the first hurdle and from the last hurdle the speed increases.)
Between the hurdles the speed increases during the first and second strides; due to the
shortening of the third stride and the preparation of clearing the hurdle it decreases.
In the 400m hurdle race the speed increases as far as the first hurdle, from there it decreases
till between the 9-10. hurdle, and then it increases again at arriving at the finish line.
THE ORGANISATION OF RUNNING COMPETITIONS , THE MOST IMPORTANT RULES
(The issue of the Athletics Rule Book of 2010 can be downloaded from the website of the
Hungarian Athletics Association and that of the IAAF)
42
TEACHING TRACK AND FIELD RUNNING EVENTS
The development of the technique of running
The running motion belongs to the natural motions of people. Natural running is economical
and effective until the necessary performance is determined by external circumstances. The
running motion appearing in track and field events is not a natural motion any more but it is a
learnt motion developed and modified by the rules, the distance, the track and the task.
The structure of teaching
In teaching running we make a distinction between preparatory exercises, target exercises and
inductive exercises.
Preparatory exercises, ability development exercises by which the students’ conditioning
and coordination become suitable for learning the given motion.
Target exercises, such ability development exercises which contain the parts of the motion
intended to be taught in some of their characteristics.
Inductive exercises, which contain the motion or its parts to be learnt in a simplified or
simpler form.
The preparatory exercises of running.
1. Developing conditioning abilities
- Perseverance running depending on the age for 2-12 minutes.
- Relay competitions with running and skipping exercises
- Tasks, jump-ups from one or both legs while running. Running with sidling steps (sidling
gallop) with jumping up too, sidling running with cross steps executed on both sides.
- Doing exercises for strengthening the muscles of the trunk, the shoulder girdle and the leg
for a signal while running.
- Skipping with changed legs and arms with forward motion, swinging with both arms and
circling the arms forward and backwards.
- Trunk and shoulder girdle strengthening free exercises of the basic form, complementary,
exercises with hand equipment, exercises in pairs or with peers.
2. Developing the components of coordination ability.
- Balancing exercises: running on a line, walking, running on the sitting surface of a bench,
fighting games in standing. (Cock fighting by skipping on both legs and one leg, push him/her
out of the circle, etc.)
- Running, walking, skipping by changing directions, solving a task and carrying a medicine
ball.
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- Playing tag with a house (with a task in the house), playing tag in pairs, half-a minute game
of tag, touching game of tag, monkey tag, etc.
3. Exercises developing general flexibility.
Trunk bending forward, backwards, straddle position sideways and in closed standing. Trunk
circling through trunk bending and trunk leaning. Trunk bending forward in closed and
straddle sitting position. The previous exercises combined with arm- and skipping exercises.
Ankle-, knee circling in standing and sitting position.
The target exercises of running.
Exercises strengthening the leg muscles
Skipping in place and with moving forward by using equipment as well.
Skipping on alternating legs, with swinging with alternating arms, moving forward.
Running-jumping skipping, with an explosive push-off, with a powerful leg and arm swing,
touching the group with the front part of the sole.
Running between barriers, hurdles. (jump box, medicine ball, low hurdles, lines, etc.)
Running with burdening, stepping off/up, running on a slope, pulling, pushing resistances.
Exercises increasing the hip joint’s limitation of motion.
Leg swings in standing, in every direction.
Knee and leg circling in standing.
Bouncing in left (right) crouch with finger support.
Leg and knee swings forward and to the side in kneeling support.
In nape stand leg swings, leg straddles, crossing, cycling.
9. pic. The jogging
Trunk bending in perineum sitting forward and to the side.
Getting into the position of perineum sitting from various
starting positions. Swinging the left leg bent backwards from
push-up, from lying on the belly and a turn of 1080- into
perineum sitting. Rolling from nape stand forward into
perineum sitting, trunk bending forward.
Besides stretching with after-motion, exercises with a static
stretching effect must also be taught.
Stretching, dynamic stretching, PNF exercises.
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The inductive exercises of running – Running school
The basic exercises of the running school:
1. treading running – jogging: One leg of the runner is supported on the ground on the whole
sole, the heel also touches the ground or is very close to it. The other leg is raised up on to
tiptoe by bending the knee and pushing it forward. Continuous changes of the position of the
leg, with an opposite motion of the arms.
Its effect: it improves take-off, with a marked ankle motion and coordination by learning the
correct
rhythm.
10.pic. The
skipping
2. Treading running with raising the knee – skipping: It is a
version of treading running executed with high knee raise. The
knee swings to a horizontal position, take off is strong, dynamic,
the knees perform the swing with a greater extension.
Its effect: It increases the motion extension, helps to reach the
proper stride length. A greater stride frequency can be achieved
than in gallop running.
11.pic. Running with heel
swing
3. Running with heel swing on
tiptoes. Rising on to the tiptoe
the heel is struck up completely
to the gluteus maximus while
moving forward. The motion of
the lower leg is very quick; the arms swing narrow facilitating
the leg work of a great speed.
4. Progressive running: Learners should start the exercise with
walking, should increase the speed of running gradually by
increasing the stride length and stride frequency. After
reaching the greatest speed, the speech decreases gradually till
stopping. It is not allowed to brake during slow-down.
5. Flying running. The exercise can begin similarly to the progressive running until the runner
reaches the still controlled maximum speed. He/she keeps this speed through a few strides,
and then he/she gradually slows down.
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2. Figure: The speed diagram of progressive running and flying running
a./Progressive
running
a./ Flying
running
Combined exercises
1.
During treading running or slow running the swinging of one of the knees to a
horizontal position after each 2-3 stride.
2.
The previous exercise with heel swing backwards.
3.
Running performed with various different speed, at an even and alternate pace, with
an even and alternate stride length. The goal is to maintain the coordinated running
motion in various speed domains.
4.
Skipping with swinging the lower leg below the thigh.
5.
Polish skipping. During skipping, at the end of knee swings, the lower leg is struck
forward, and then the foot moves definitely downwards and backwards, ensuring a
powerful active landing.
6.
Progressive running started with jogging, transition into skipping, and then by
increasing the stride length gradual acceleration to maximum speed. Gradual slowdown with running out. From jogging transition into skipping with a middle knee
swing, and then increasing the stride frequency.
2. Figure: Jogging with moving forward (Koltai, 1978)
Teaching start
Starts ensure a quick start, to reach the maximum speed as early as possible characteristic of
the running distance. When teaching starts, we must also teach quick reaction and quick start
and acceleration besides developing the right technique. Every exercise must be performed
46
with the greatest speed possible. Competitions and competition like practice are meant to
serve this.
Exercises developing a quick start:
1. Games of tag
2. Catching up with games in pairs, on a distance of 15-20metres.
The starting position: Two students are situated behind each other at a distance of about two
metres, they start running for a signal, the goal is to catch up with the peer, and run away from
the peer.
Only running in a straight line is allowed.
Variations: The exercise begins not for a teacher’s signal but for a movement of the peer
standing at the front or at the back.
3. Starts from various starting positions. Choosing and succession of the starting position can
be a teaching stage. The principle of staging can be lowering the centre of gravity from a
standing position to a lying position. In the case of starts executed with turns choosing the
stronger leg and developing a start position with support with one leg or two legs. The
exercises should be done in groups of 6-8 similar to a competition. The groups should be
made up of learners with almost the same abilities. If permitted by the exercise the start
should be performed with the words of command. „TO THE START” (”READY”) –START
SIGNAL- possibly with an audio-signal.
Teaching start techniques
Standing start with back leg: Teaching starts should be begun by this technique.
Developing the right position,
1. By presentation – only exemplary presentation is acceptable.
2. By explanation – it should be sort and easy to understand- E.g.: Stand in a traverse straddle
position, the opposite arm should be at the front. Bend your knees and lean a little forward.
This is TO THE START position. Start for a clap.
3. Developing the position of the leg by imitation and explanation: Stand in a closed position,
turn the feet outwards on the right heel, turn the heels out on the right tiptoe. Bend your knees,
the right arm should be at the front, the left one at the back bent. This is the TO THE START
position.
All methods are appropriate; all can even be used with the same group.
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By developing the position TO THE START, the start should also be done with a running of
at least 10-15 metres.
Standing start with the front leg:
It is taught mainly because of the relay running.
The methods of teaching are the same as the one described for teaching the start below, but
the starting position and the stand-up is different.
Kneeling start:
First we start teaching gallop running with the crouching.
Its execution:
TO THE START position: Left crouching support, the hands are by 1-1,5 foot in front of the
front leg.
READY position: For the signal Hip raise quick start and a running of 10-15 metres.
Teaching kneeling start can be done from starting blocks or by another means providing a safe
support.
3. Figure: Teaching starting blocks
Kneeling start should be combined with the words of command of kneeling start.
The first start block should be about 2 feet far from the start line, we should take the average
feet of students as a basis, and the two blocks should be at the distance of two lower legs from
each other.
1. After a short explanation and possibly a presentation we should start practising.
2. The starting position: Standing up behind the start blocks.
3. For the command of TO THE START students must step in front of the start blocks
(shouldn’t walk over the start blocks). They should assume their position to the start
from a crouching support according to the presentation.
(They should ”shunt” into the starting blocks).
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4. For the signal READY the teacher adjusts hip raise to the correct height in every
student.
It is worth stopping the exercise in each attempt, making the students stand up and
relax.
5. If the position TO THE START and READY has been assumed successfully, it can
be continues by giving out the start signal. First the start should be performed with
clapping.
Starting should be determined and rhythmic. It should be required that it should be
performed according to the rules, in the case of the presence of conditions we should
give the start signal without delay.
Teaching relay running
As a preparatory exercise of relay running we can use the games of tag and catching up with
games as well as relay competitions.
First we should teach the two-handed changeover technique with lower passing from the left
hand into the right hand.
Teaching passing the baton:
1. Column position, the baton is in the left hand of the last person, the others stretch
their right hand backwards, the palm looks backwards, and the big finger is separated
from the others. Passing happens from below upwards, the receiver puts the baton from
his right hand into the left one, and then he gives it he the right hand of the person
standing in front of him. The hand of the receiver and the giver should be in one plane.
2. The previous exercises, but the receiver prepares his right hand for the signal of the
giver and takes over the baton.
3. 8-12 students form a circle, with their left side to the middle of the circle. While
running slowly the receiver prepares his hand downwards for the signal of the giver and
takes the baton over.
4. The changeover should be performed in pairs during running of middle speed. The
exercise can be done continuously if the giver precedes the receiver after the passing.
5. We should create a 20 metre changeover zone and the changeover should be executed
within this. By increasing the speed we should go over to using the 10 metre
acceleration auxiliary line, too.
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6. We should mark out a 20+10m changeover zone. WE should call the attention to the
fact that the giver should run on the left side of his/her lane, the receiver on the right
side and they mustn’t leave their lane.
7. On a 400m track we mark out 7 changeover zones, so eight runners can practise the
changeover. We can also organise a competition, in this case on 400 metres in teams of
eight people.
Teaching hurdle race
We teaching hurdle race, we should try to achieve that the rhythm and speed of running
should change to the least possible degree because of clearing the hurdle.
We start teaching hurdle race during continuous running. The exercises are built upon each
other; we must go over to the next one if the student can perform the current exercise in
continuous, unbroken running.
We can tach hurdle race effectively by the global – partial – global method. First we
develop the rhythm of hurdle race with exercises during running. Then we teach clearing the
hurdle, first the work of the take-off (raised leg), then the work of the swinging leg, and
finally the motion of the two legs together over the hurdle. Finally, running and clearing the
hurdle are combined.
Exercises preparing hurdle race:
1. Gymnastic and static stretching exercises increasing the motion extension of the hip joint in
various starting positions.
2. Running school exercises, with high position of the centre of gravity, with changes of
rhythm.
3. Running school exercises for developing the explosive force of the leg.
The first global phase of teaching hurdle race
Flat race with momentum will be turned into hurdle race.
1. During running with momentum, stepping over the lines at each 4 stride.
2. The previous exercise with a longer step-over stride, over a lane of 60-70cms
3. During dynamic running stepping over a low, about 10 cm hurdle after every 4 stride.
The partial phase of teaching hurdle race
The exercises are performed on a hurdle, the exercise involving stepping over the hurdle is
done in such a way that the hurdle can be knocked over easily.
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1. Schooling the raised leg by standing beside the hurdle and during slow running
2. Schooling the work of the swinging leg by standing beside the hurdle and while moving
forward.
3. Executing clearing the hurdle while walking and then running slowly.
The second global phase of teaching hurdle race
1. Dynamic running over the lines, the distance of the lines should make it possible to step
over the lines with the rhythm of hurdle race.
2. Dynamic running over gradually rising hurdles. We can increase the height of the hurdles if
the running becomes unbroken, rhythmic.
4. In running over about hurdles with a height of about 30 cms even the raised leg becomes
definite and when the hurdle is raised to a further height it swings forward raised more and
more to the side.
5. Increasing the hurdle height in clearing the hurdle of middle height.
6. Run-up onto the first hurdle from standing or kneeling start.
7. Kneeling start, hurdle race on 3, 4, ….10 hurdles.
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Jumps
The general description of jumps
The present form, rules and competitions of track and fireld jumps have developed from the
19th century. Initially jumps executed both from a standing position and with building up
momentum were present in competitions. By the present time jumps from a standing position
were omitted from competitions but they are still used in physical education in schools to
develop students’ ability in the material of physical education and to measure the speed of the
legs.
Jumps executed from momentum remained in track and fields events, three without
equipment: long-, triple- and high jump and one with equipment: pole vault.
The development of jumping events was affected by the rules (e.g. a valid attempt), the
improvement of the facilities (e.g. the landing area for high jump), applying technological
research (e.g. the material of the pole) and bimechanic knowledge (e.g. Flop technique). We
can often meet the contributions of some outstanding personalities, the ”schools” of various
countries in the development of track and field jumping events.
Besides the technique the effect of training methods also plays a crucial role in the
development of the results. Jumps belong to the skilfulness events of athletics. In jumping.
coordination abilities are of great importance in performance in addition to the conditioning
abilities which are characteristic of all track and field events.
The classification of jumping events:
Jumping in distane: long jump, triple jump (hop, step and jump)
Jumping high: high jump, pole vault
The execution of jumps is determined by rules, which have an impact on the development of
the most effective techniques.
The rules valid for all four kinds of jumps:
- jumpers must jump up or off from one leg,
- after being called, they must execute the jump within an allotted amount of time,
- they can make a definite number of attempts,
- the decision on dead heat – event by event – is fixed by the rules
The rules of long- and triple jump:
- The determination of the place of the jump and the rules of distance measurement
influence the size of performance;
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- the number of attempt: every jumper has three jumps in the preliminary round and
four jumps in the final round;
- free turning over cannot be executed in action in the air;
- after landing they can leave the sand pit only at a determined place;
- the rules of triple jump prescribe which leg must be used in the consecutive jumps.
The rules of high jump and pole vault:
- the number of attempts: they jumper cannot jump any more after three consecutive
missed jumps. The jumper can do further three new attempts after every successful attempt;
- the parts of the body of the jumper must pass over the bar;
- in pole vault jumpers mustn’t grip over the hand gripping over.
The difference between jumping off and jumping up
In the case of jumping events we can make a distinction between jumping off and jumping up.
In long and triple jump the horizontal component of the resultant speed of the centre of
gravity is bigger during take off, therefore the jumper moves forward and slightly upwards,
and we can talking about jumping off. In the case of high jump and pole vault the vertical
speed component is bigger, so we can talk about jumping up.
Factors influencing success
The approach run primarily determines success. In the case of long-, triple jump and pole
vault primarily it is the speed of the approach run that determines succeess. It must be noted
that in less qualified jumpers the speed of the approach run must be optimal in accordance
with individual possibilities because these jumpers may not cope with the power impulse
emerging during the jumps after an approach run executed with an individual maximum
speed. Int he case of jump jump the jumper does not need the maximum speed as high
jumpers must convert the horizontal speed into a vertical one. In this case they must do the
run-up with such a speed that the jumper can make the best use of with the given level of the
technical execution and the current speed of the muscles used for the take-off.
The biomechanic features examined in the research done on jumps
In the research done on jumps while comparing and presenting particular jumpers and jumps,
researchers examine the biomechanic parameters that characterize jumps and part moments
well.
An extended material body is often characterized by a point, the so-called centre of gravity in
biomechanics. The path, the distance from the ground, the horizontal and vertical momentary
speed values of the athlete’s centre of gravity during the last spets of the approach run provide
essential information about the quality of the technical execution of the jump for experts.
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From the aspect of the centre of gravity the distance of the jump is determined at the moment
of leaving the ground. At the moment of take-off the most important characteristic features of
the centre of gravity describing the whole body are the height from the ground, the horizontal
and vertical momentary speed-components and the resultant speed that can be obtained from
these by applying trigonometric functions and the angle of flight. The distance of touching the
ground of the theoretical centre of gravity can be calculated by the above parameters by the
formula of oblique throw.
LONG JUMP
The technique of jumps
The technique of long jump
The description of long jump:
The goal of long jump is to jump the greatest possible distance from one leg within the
possibilities given by the rules. The jumpers jump off from a wooden take-off board after an
approach run/run-up with a determined length for the execution of the jump and land in a
sand-pit. The jumpers do movements during the flight after take-off which make it sure for
them to land in the most favourable possible way. The distance is measured from the very last
trace left in the sand to the edge of the take-off board from the sand. Landing can happen with
one or two legs, perhaps to the side. The success of long jump depends primarily on the speed
of the aprroach run.
The phasis of long jump:
Run-up/Approach run or building up momentum
1. starting building up momentum;
2. developing the speed of the run-up;
3. preparing the take-off.
Take-off
1. the work of the jumping leg, supporting;
- the phases of bending the joints;
- the phase of stretching the joints, or pushing off;
2. the work of the limbs doing the swing;
- the accelarating phase of the swing;
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- the slowing phase of the swing.
Action in air
1. preventing or slowing down turning forward;
2. preparing landing or touching the ground.
Landing
Run-up:
Run-up must be graually accelerating, the jumper must reach the optimal speed by the end. It
is important for the runner to reach the take-off board accurately.
The start of the run-up can be
from a rest/a standing position,
from previous momentum
In starting from a rest we place our leg at the front in traverse straddle position at the take-off
mark, then we start the gradually accelerating run.
With previous building up momentum after doing a few strides the long jumper reaches the
take-off mark with the proper leg.
The length of the run-up:
The number of strides of the approach run always corrolates with the jumper’s preparation
level, age, sex and build. It is not advisable to exceed the upper limit of 23-24 strides as in
such a case the jumper can reach such a great final speed that he/she cannot make use of
economically during take-off. Slower long-jumpers should use a run-up with fewer strides
because they can reach the individual optimal speed earlier, too, and they run the risk that the
speed of the run-up decreases during the last few strides.
Beginners and less prepared jumpers jump from a shorter run-up of 12-18 strides. In a
technical training building up with 6-12 strides is sufficient for practising take-off and action
in air. In the case of 6 strides proper effeciency is questionable because a too short run-up
results in a low speed, and sometimes cramped, forced running motion.
Measuring the distance of run-up:
An experimental method: The jumper runs backwards from the take-off board, after he/she
has done a proper number of strides, the coach marks the place of the point of the shoe int he
last stride (take-off auxiliary mark).
Method with measuring: The distance is measured with a tape-measure or footing. (We
determine the proper distance earlier).
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In both cases it is important for us to make the distance of run-up exact so that the take-off
should take place from the same foot, possibly at the nearest to the take-off line in every case.
Developing run-up speed:
By the end of the run-up an optimal speed must be achieved by gradual accelerating. Int he
case of high-ranking jumpers the optimal speed means the maximum speed while in the case
of less trained jumpers it means the speed from which they can achieve the greatest distance
without their legs collapsing during take-off.
The distance of jumps primarily depends on the final speed of the run-up. The size of speed
that can be measured at touching the ground is important from the aspect of the distance that
can be jumped.
The length of long jumpers’s run-up can be determined on the basis of the number of steps,
metre or foot. Jumpers mostly determine and measure the length of the run-up by feet. The
best jumpers run from a distance between 42-48 metres, which means 125-150 feet depending
on the size of their feet. This is approximately 16-24 strides. They can ensure with this
number of strides the optimal run-up speed which is:
10,3–11,3 m/s in the case of the best male long jumpers;
9,5–10,1 m/s. in the case of the best female jumpers.
The preparation of take-off:
Run-up is gradually accelerating, has a high centre of gravity position and a specific rhythm.
In the phase of preparing the run-up the rhythm of the running mustn’t be changed bacause its
creates an unfavourable situation for the take-off.

In the last three strides the jumper prepares for the jump. In this phase the putting of
the the centre of gravity on a new path already begins.

In the last three strides the sinking of the centre of gravity occurs. The size of the
sinking of the centre of gravity is about 8-10 cms in long jump.

According to the results of several thousands measuring data the last three strides
follow the structural division of Normal-Long-Short - counting back from the take-off
board- in 90 %.
For the sake of pushing off with the proper direction the jumper changes the way, position of
the centre of gravity compared to run-up and prepares supporting. Two methods of lowering
the centre of gravity have been developed: the ”European School”, where the centre of gravity
is lowered especially as the effect of the middle ”L” stride. In the ”American School” the
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jumper steps out to the side in the penultimate stride, by which he/she lowers his/her centre of
gravity.
The position of the trunk. However, it is very important that the ” staying behind” of the trunk
during the last stride should really be the consequence of the accelerated forward motion of
the take-off leg.
Take-off
The so far cyclic motion (run-up) has to be converted into an acyclic motion (take-off) in such
a way that the execution order of the part movements of the take-off, which are related with
each other but differentiated from each other in time, the size and time of the display of
strength, the size and direction of the movements of mass-part-centre of gravity should
provide together the best conditions for achieving the highest possible performance.
The work of the jumping leg, supporting
1. The phase of bending the joints
After collision with the heel the whole sole gets printed onto the ground without breaks int he
shortesdt time. By this part movement the jumper satisfies important requirements:
- by touching the ground with a whole sole he/she ensures firm supporting;
- the flexible reduction of the collision occurred at touching ground becomes possible by
stretching the proper muscles of the support leg;
- he/shet ensures that the centre of gravity should get out of its way only to the proper extent
(as it is is known the force emerged by supporting creates a torque and directs it the body
travelling in vertical direction upwards.
During the changes of the joint angle at touching the ground the angle of the knee is about
170°, which is reduced to 145° affected by the awakening force. The angle of the knee of the
support leg has reached its lowest bend. The trunk is situated before the imaginary
perpendicular drawn through the centre of gravity – a little leaning forward. The limbs
making the swing are situated close to the trunk and the support leg.
The phase of bending the joints finishes when the bend of the angle of the knee of the supprt
leg has reached 140–145°. At this time all the energy is stored in the muscles of the long
jumpers which they have obtained during run-up and preserved and completed in the phaes of
the take-off so far. Following this a so called ”switching over” process takes place in the
muscles.
2. The phase of streching the joints or pushing off;
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Compete stretching from the hip – knee – and ankle, i.e. pushing off influence considerably
the size of the jump. The size of pushing off crucially determines the starting speed of takeoff. In long jump the movement in a horizontal direction must be bigger in comparison to the
vertical one. The jumper can satisfy these speed increasing requirements economically only if:
•
the angle of pushing off (ß) is between 70–80°;
•
the rate of the horizontal and vertical speed-
12.pic. The phases of the take off
components is about 3 : 1;
•
as a joint effect of the exerted forces the centre of
gravity continues its way in the air with a flight angle
of 18–24°.
At the moment of finishing pushing up the take-off leg still
having contact with the ground is completely stretched. The trunk is nearly in the prolonged
line of the take-off leg – but a bit behind it. One of the arms is in front of the trunk, the other
is behind it and it is bent at the elbow in 90°. The thigh of the swinging leg is raised to the
horizontal, the lower leg is approximately parallel to the leg doing the pushing off.
The work of the limbs doing the swing;
During take-off the two arms and one leg help pushing up by swinging. The arms and the
swinging leg continue their crossed motion done during run-up, however, the extension,
speed, change of speed and rhythm change.
1. The accelerating phase of the swinging
In the phase of bending the joints the limbs doing the swing execute an accelerating motion
they burden the support leg proportinately with their speed and weight helping to create the
proper prestressed position.
2. The slowing phase of swinging.
In the stretching phase of the joints the swinging limbs slow down. The slowing relieves the
jumping leg proportionately with the speed and weight of the limb, and thus it increases the
speed of the flight. The swinging helps to reach the proper flight angle, compensates the
undesired turning effect of the take-off around the width and depth axis.
The swinging limbs get into the proper position by the end of the swing to execute action in
the air, and then touching the ground.
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Action in the air
The goal of actions in the air is to maintain balance by regulating the rotation impulses during
flight and to ensure the most suitable conditions for landing. In order to do so, jumpers do
various kinds of motions in the air. The main aim is to prevent forward rotation.
Several different techniques have been developed for preventing forward rotation or slowing
down, as well as for touching the ground and preparing landing.
Crouching technique – Following take-off the swinging leg closes next to the take-off leg
directly after the swinging of the swinging leg forward. At the same time the jumper swings
both his/her arms behind his/her trunk in slanting deep pose. The jumper flies into a
”crouching position”, and then streches his/her legs to touch the ground. The crouching
technique is the less effective motion as by taking up a tuck position the forward rotation
around the width axis speeds up, and thus the jumper is forced to stretch his/her leg early, and
as a results he/she arrivers in the sand early and loses space.
13.pic. Stepping technique, in the air
Stepping technique – After pushing off the jumper keeps
the position of the take-off, brings the takes-off leg forward
only immediately before touching the ground and stretches
the two legs forward towards the sand. In this technique, the
jumper reduces the possibility of forward rotation by keeping
his/her body far from the main rotation axis. Before landing,
he/she stretches both legs forward.
Hollowing technique – The jumper starts the action in the air after take-off by lowering the
swinging leg backwards next to the take-off leg. At the same time he/she presses his/her
pelvis so much forward that he/she starts to hollow. The jumper increases the size of
hollowing by slightly striking up the heel of both his/her legs at the back and swinging his/her
arms in high position and rear-side-middle position. In the descending part of the flight the
jumper finishes hollowing by suddenly bringing the trunk and leg forward with a jack-knife
movement, and approaches the landing site by ”being closed” like this.
Scissors technique – one and a half scissor – This is the most advanced technique for
eliminationg harmful rotations (forward rotation) because the limbs do a rotating motion
contasting with that. After take-off the swinging leg of the jumper streches after keeping
his/her knee in a momentary stepping position and continues the running series of motion int
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he air. During the motion with a backward direction when the leg gets behind the plengthened
line, the heel strikes up. At the same time with the motion of the swinging leg described
before, the take-off leg swings forward with the knee bent, and then the leg behind the trunk
moves forward int he same way. The arm moves with the elbow stretched, slantwise
sidewasy, backwards and upwards, and then circles forward through high position. After the
arm and the leg finishes moving the jumper leans forward and approaches touching the
ground like this.
Two or half scissors – during its excecution the jumper changes his/her arm and leg once
more after changing the first arm-and leg position. In the case of a bigger jump is less
effective than the one and a half scissors due to the longer execution of the contrasting limb
moztions.
Touching the ground
14.pic. Touching the ground (Basic
technic)
The success of touching the ground depends on the size of the
rotations emerged during the jump and the technique of the
action in the air applied. If the torque of the body forward is too
big, i.e. it is difficult to regulate, the legs are forced to drop so
there os no way to make use of the mass middle point of the
path properly.
The squatting technique
In the execution of this technique the heels have already reached the sand, the jumper bends
his/her leg in the knee strongly, makes an energetic swing forward, and so he/she continues
moving on in the direction of jumping in a squatting position.
This method is primarily used by beginner long jumpers and it also accurs in elite jumpers as
well, first of all in the case of two and half scissors technique, where there is no more time for
touching the groud with a wholly stretched leg.
The sitting out technique
The jumper leans slightly to the right or left even in the flight. At the moment of touching the
ground he/she lifts his/her leg, and after touching the ground he/she moves forward not on the
point of support, but he/she sits out next to the trace left by the heel. The advantage of this
technique is that it is not needed to produce energy for the jumper to move over the point of
touching the ground. Its disadvantage is that tipping to the side can result in putting the left or
right heel down.
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The sitting in or gliding technique
In the case of the sliding technique jumpers try to keep their leg as long as possible lifted in
front of themselves or to lift it again in the second pace. They try to acieve that the legs move
forward upwards kicking the sandi n front of them and finally arrive on the gluteus maximus.
The advantage of this technique is that the difference between the theoretical point of
intersection of trace left by the heels and the path of the centre of mass is smaller.
HIGH JUMP
The technique of high jump
The description of high jump:
The goal of high jump is to jump over the higest possible height from one foot within the
possibilities given by the rules. Jumpers jump after an approach of a determined length for
performing the jump in front of the vertical projection of the high bar and after passing over
the bar they arrive safely at the landing place. After take-off jumpers do movements during
the flight by which they make sure that they pass over the bar as effectively as possible. By
doing the proper action in the air the the jumper’s centre of gravity of the can go closest to the
bar, he/she does not need to get with his/her whole body over the bar at the same time.
Landing has no effect on success; its aim is to avoid injuries at the end of the jump.
The phases of high jump:
Approach (Run-up) or building up momentum
1. starting building up momentum
- from standing;
- from previous motion;
2. creating the speed of run-up (trying to achieve the optimum speed);
3. preparing the take-off (the last three strides).
Take-off
1. The work of the take-off leg,
- touching ground (supporting)
- the phase of bending the joints;
- the phase of stertching the joints or pushing-off.
2. Classification of the take-off on the basis of the work of the limbs doing the swing:
- the accelarating phase of the swing;
- the slowing down phase of the swing.
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Action in the air
1. ensuring passing over the bar by using rotation motions of various directions
2. preparing touching the ground (sponge or sand) előkészítése.
Landing.
The various kinds of high jump are differentiated on the basis of the typical techniques of
ation in the air. In the Olympics of 1968 in Mexico Dick Fosbury revoluitonazed the
technique of high jump, since then we haven’t met any other jumping techniques in high-jump
competitions. The scissors, rolling and belly roll techniques have been removed from the
applied techniques by today.
The types of high jump:
1. Stepping over
2. Scissors
3. Rolling
4. Belly roll
5. Flop
The performance model of high jump
After a final speed of run-up of 6–8 m/s the high jumper has to produce a vertical force
between 3000–5000 N during 0,13–0,22 mp when jumping up. The active exertion of strength
is done by the take-off leg after run-up, which the swinging leg and the arms help by
swinging. However, the whole body as a unified system is affected by the active exertion of
strength. The character of the exertion of strength is determined by the fact that the energy
emerging by the run-up in a horizontal speed must be converted into a vertical one. Jumper
does this by braking this horizontal speed. The prestress of primsarily the take-off leg but also
that of the whole body happes by this braking. The rapid exertion of strength based on actionreaction can be realized by this prestress, which jumping up is characterised by.
The stepping over technique
This is the simpliest technique that can be acquired the most easily and is uneconomical from
the aspect of making use of the forces. Its positive role is in the creation of jumping upwards,
it forces the jumper to execute the series of motion of building up momerntum – supporting –
jumping up effectively. Arriving in standing has a favourable effect on rising as the athlete
does not want to ”fall down” his/her take-off leg.
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Run-up, or building up momentum
1. starting building up momentum can happen from standing or previous building up
momentum
Run-up is linear, happens from the side of the swinging leg, the line of the run-up
closes anacute angle with the bar.
2. running accelerating gradually with a position of a high centre of gravity.
3. the accelerating last three strides, the last stride from the bar are done with the farther
leg.
The last stride with the swinging leg is long, the rising and then the falling
backwards of the trunk begins. The last stride is quick, touching down happens with
the heel, the sole is quickly pressed on the ground.
Take-off
15.pic. Take off – stepping over
1. The work of the jumping leg,
- during touching the ground (supporting) the trunk
stays behind, the support leg stretches forwaed, at
the moment of supporting the leg and the trunk form
a straight line.
- in the phase of bending the joints the support leg
bends int he ankle, knee and hip, the muscles doing
the stretching of the joints get stretched during
tightening, and by this they accumulate energy.
- the phase of stretching the joints or pushing off.
After the centre of gravity passes over the support
leg, pushing-off begins. First the slower munscles with a bigger mass, and then the
gradual involvement of the smaller muscles being able to contract mpre quickly
ensure the strength and speed of the jump.
2. The classification of take-off on t he basis of the the work of the limbs doing the
swing:
The work of the swinging leg: Following the last phase of support the swinging leg
goes on bending only slightly in the knee, begins the accelerating phase of the swing.
Leaving the jumping leg it stretches grtadually and its motion slows down. The
swing is directed forward, upwards, slightly towards the bar and stpos aboe the
horizontal.
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The work of the arms: During the last stride the arms get by a narrow circling of the
arms with a backward movement into a back slanting deep pose, bent half way in the
elbow. The swing is directed forward, upwards, at the end of the swing the arms are
bent in t he elbow to right angle, the hands stop at the height of the forehead.
Action in the air
After take-off the jumping leg closes stretched next to the swinging leg, the jumper gets
over the bar in a sitting position. Passing over the bar the swinging leg is lowered, gets
prepared for arriving at the ground.
The trunk bends forward over the bar, the arms almost touch the feet.
Landing
Landing happens on he swinging leg, in a standing position.
The stepping over technique is the least effective. Nevertheless it is regarded to be the basic
technique of high jump, the reasons for this are:
- It is relatively easy to acquire.
- There is no need for a high jump bale, it can be performed outdoors in a sand-pit or on a
gymnastic mat in a gym.
- It contains the essential movements of take-off, facilitates a good take-off.
Flop technique
The main idea of the flop technique of high jump is that totations
developed around the length
16.pic. Take-off position - flopp
and width axis by an arched run-up make is possible to
pass over the bar with the back. Its success is due to the
run-up with a great speed, the energy effective take-off
and the possibility of a favourable passing over the bar.
Nowadays this is the technique that can exclusively be
seen in high jump competitions.
Run-up or building up momentum
The run-up happens from the side of the swinging leg in
the shape of „”J” or in a semi circle. The length of the runup is 10-12 strides, the last 4-5 strides happen in a curve.
The run-up is perhaps the most important part of the high
jump, mainly in the case of the Flosbury flop as the
jumper develops the speed and the force relations during the run-up, with the help of which
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he/she creates the proper take-off position, and which enables him/her to get parted with the
ground effectively and vertically. The advanteages of the curved run-up path: nagyobb
vízszintes sebesség;
 a more effective rotation in the air;
 creating the proper take-off position;
 it is easy to teach.
Due to running in a curve, the jumper leans inwards during the last few strides, during the last
two strides he/she bends the trunk backwards, the take-off leg gets in front of the trunk and
the hip, the hip gets more forward than the trunk. Leaning inwards and the trunk staying
behind create supporting with two directions.
Take-off
Jumping up begins with the take-off leg being put on the ground, support happens with the leg
further from the bar. After touching the ground with the heel, the heels gets immediately
pressed. The foot must be on the curve of the run-up, the foot closes and angle of 15-300
.
with the line of the bar.
During support due too the effect of the momentum of the run-up 6-8 times of the body
weight is put on the muscles taking part in the jump-up; the muscles store energy while they
function excentrically. First the joints bends during the tightening of the muscles (excentric
function), and then the joints are stretched under the effect of the contraction of the muscles
(concentric function). The size of the exertion of strength is determined by the energy stored
in the prestressed position and the strength exerted by the contraction.
The swinging leg (mostly) swings in the knee bent, in front of the body crossed. The
accelerating –swinging phase of the swinging facilitates take-off, swinging crossways
facilitates rotation around the length axis.
The swinging of the arms can happen with both arms, changed arms or one arm. Swinging of
the arm facilitates rotation around the width
17.pic. Action in the air - flopp
axis.
Action in the air
After leaving the ground, the jumper’s centre
of gravity goes on a predetermined path, its
way cannot be changed until he/she arrives at
the ground.
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Following the take-off the jumper goes on rotating around his/her length axis and get with
his/her back to the bar. First the arm opposite to the take-off leg, perhaps the jumper’s head
passes over the bar; the rotation around the width axis backwards emerged during the take-off
make it possible for the jumper to pass over the bar making a hollow. In the ideal case it is
only a smaller part of the body which is over the bar, and thus the jumper’s centre of gravity
cab get outside his/her body and the centre of gravity can pass very close over the bar and
rarely under the bar too. After the hip passing over, the jumper bends his/her head raised
backwards forward, and by this his/her hip will be lowered, his/her leg will be raised and
avoids the bar.
Arriving at the ground
The goal of landing is to avoid injuries. During the flop technique jumpers arrive on their
back on a great surface; we can often meet landing on the upper part of the back, finishing it
with a backward somersault.
Teaching jumps
The preconditions necessary for teaching jumps:
-
Running with an impetuous speed
-
Skipping, jumping on one leg or both legs
-
Jumping up and off
Preparatory exercises:
-
Games with a jumping and skipping exercise
-
Series and relay competitions with a jumping and skipping exercise
-
Carrying the peer
-
Belly- back muscle strengthening exercises
-
Exercises increasing the motion limit of the hips-, knees-, and joints
-
Swinging the knees and legs
-
Exercises with a jump rope
Goal- and conducting exercises:
-
Exercises of the running school
-
Exercises of the jumping school
-
Running up and jumping off an ascending apparatus
-
Jumping from a raised place
-
Jumps performed with swinging with two arms- and changed arms
Exercises of the jumping school:
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1. Skipping on one leg
- on place
- by moving forward
- by pulling up the knee
- by moving forward and pulling up the knee, with a powerful swinging of the arms
We should have the exercises performed on both legs. In the case of skipping with pulling up
the knee it is also important to develop an active touching of the ground.
2. Skipping on both legs
- on place, from the ankle with a tight thigh
- on place jumping up with a hollow
- on place pulling up the knee
- from crouching jumping up with a hollow/pulling up the knee
- moving forward with holding the hip
- moving forward with swinging the arm forward-backwards
- moving forward by swinging the arm forward at every jumping up
- moving forward by pulling up the knee
- moving forward from crouching to crouching
The exercises should be done with the back held straight, vertically.
3. Skipping with changed legs and arms (The basic variation: jumping up from the right leg,
swinging with the left knee and opposing arms, arriving at the take-off leg by jumping up
from changing legs, continuously)
-
Swinging with both arms, the arm is swinged forward during one jump-up, and
backwards during the other
-
By swinging both arms, the arm is swinged forward during each jump-up
-
With circling the arm forward/backwards
-
Let’s have it performed with jumping upwards and forward, too
-
After landing on the right leg, a flat leap forward on the right leg, stepping with left
leg and jumping up
4. Skipping on changed legs
-
Doubling, tripiling skipping – there should be a JUMP when the legs are chaned
-
Continuous skipping on changed legs – by keeping the swinging leg, and active
touching the ground
-
With swinging the changed arms and both arms, too
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Arriving at the take-off leg forces the jumper to jump upwards, and arriving on the
swinging leg forces them to jump forward.
5. Jump-box
-
Jumping up- and off
-
Jumping over
-
Jumping on the jump-boxes
-
Jumping up and off between the jump boxes with an additional jump
• Ono ne leg
• On both legs
• From one leg onto both legs – from both legs onto one leg
• From a straddle position jumpong onto the jump boksz forward, take-off between the jump
boxes in a closed standing position
There should be 6-10 jump boxes one after the other, we should powssibly create several
places for exercises.
6. Gynmastic bench In addition to the exerrcises mentioned for the jump-boxes, exercises ont
he legth of the bench:
-
From a straddle position jumping up and off by moving forward.
-
Skipping in zigzag by jumping over-and up-, off.
-
From a straddle position moving forward with clicking the heels.
Methodological advice for teaching jumps
1. Choosing the jumping leg:
A. Free jump-up from a light running or jumping over a small obstacle. Children jump off
mostly instinctively from the take-off leg.
B. Right-handed students should jump from the left leg, and left-handed ones from the
right leg. (It is a not too reliable method.)
C. From a 3-5 stride-run-up a powereful take-off, 2-3 trials from both legs. The leg
producing the better jumps should be the take-off leg.
2. Place of landing
A. The sand-pit for the long jump should always be dug up, and it should be raked after
4-5 jumps. The pace forr un-up should have an even ground, it can also be marked
with a line insterad of a board.
B. High jump with a stepping over technique can be done in a sand-pit, too.
C. Both high and long jump can be perforemed on a sponge bale in the gym.
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3. Warm-up
The general warm-up before track and field jumps should contain exercises increasing
circulation and with a stretching effect.
The special warm-up should consist of the exercises of the running and jumping school. It is
compulsory to have increasing-, flying running performed.
Developing stepping long jump
1. Developing a stepping position in a wide traverse straddle position, assuming the
position of the arms.
2. Skipping school, take-offs step by step by keeping the stepping position.
3. Jumping into a sand-pit (from a raised place) from the take-off leg, by keeping the
swinging leg in a horizontal position at landing (knee 90 degrees)
4. Jumping into a sand-pit (from a raised place) by landing with a leg leg left in the
stepping position in a half-kneeling position with the trunk kept and swinging arms.
5. Jumping into a sand-pit by keeping the stepping position, and then besides swinging
the arms forward closing the legs, tuching the ground with crouching in.
6. Measuring and schooling run-up.
7. Jumps from a short run-up.
8. Jumps from a complete run-up by the technique of stepping action in the air.
Exercises for developing one and a half scissors:
Precondition:
- Performing stepping long jump at a high level.
Preparatory exercises:
- Strengthening the trunk muscles.
- Jumping school exercises outdoors with devices, by raising the burden.
Goal exercises:
- Skipping with changed leg sin a series, by active touching the ground, keeping the position
of the take-off.
- Take-off from the take-off leg in a series, by jumping off at every step with the take-off leg
and at every secondand third step with the take-off leg, by keeping the position of the take-off
for a long time.
- Skipping in a series on the take-off leg by moving forward, the action in the air of the takeoff leg is a cycling movement.
Conducting exercises:
- Cycling movement in standing with one leg, performed by both legs.
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- Continuous cycling motion in sitting and standing on the neck.
- Cycling movement in a support on a parallel bar.
- Take-off from a short run-up, changing the legs with a scissor movement in the air, arriving
in half-kneeling with the take-off leg in the front.
- Jumping from a raised place, performing one and a half scissors, arriving in crouching. It
can also be performed on a sponge hill from running up.
- Practising the whole technique in a sand-pit, jumping off from a level.
Teaching high jump
Preparatory exercises:
The exercises used in teaching long jump can be applied in the preparation of high jump as
well.
Goal- and conducting exercises:
The exercises enumerated in long jump can be used with a completion:
-
Jumping up by touching an object placed high up –by hands, -by the head,- by the
swinging leg.
-
The object hung should not cause any injuries.
-
Hanging should ensure jumping up with 3-6 strides and safe landing.
Conducting exercises:
-
1. The exercises should be done with landing ont he take-off leg.
-
2. Swinging with both arms should be required in every exercise.
-
3. Jumping upwards is facilitated by marking the place of landing.
-
4. The exercise should be performed with bent and stretched leg sas well.
Teaching the stepping over technique
Developing the technique, serial jumps:
1. Skipping with changed legs and arms with swinging both arms.
2. Skipping with changed arms and legs with swinging both arms, in jumping up from
the take-off leg the arms swings forward.
3. Jumping up from the take-off leg,- arriving at the take-off leg-, stepping with the
swinging leg. In a series.
4. Jumping up from the take-off leg, with swinging the stretched leg-, arriving at the
take-off leg,- stepping with the swinging leg. In a series.
5. Jumping up from the take-off leg, with swinging the stretched leg,- arriving at the
take-off leg-, skipping on the swinging leg. In a series.
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6. Jumping up at every second step with the take-off leg, with swinging with both arms
and stretched legs, arriving at the take-off leg.
7. Jumping up at every thrird step with the take-off leg, with swinging with both arms
and stretched legs, arriving at the take-off leg.
Developing the technique:
1. Schooling the run-up, acquiring performing the right technique (a high knee position,
rhythmic long strides).
2. Jumping up with swinging stopped in front of the chin with changed arms.
3. Jumping up with swinging the legs with a knee in 90 degrees or stretched.
4. Jumping up by arriving at the place of take-off, even in a forced way (in front of a
wall) – developing a trunk position leant backwards
5. Stepping over high jumps, from three strides, for a small height (on sponge or in
sand), schooling swings, run-up and the right take-off.
6. Raising the height, with a run-up of 3-5-7 strides
7. Competition
Developing the flop technique:
Developing the curved run-up:
1. Line running
2. Line catching
3. Follow the first one
4. Catching games in a circle
5. Running on a curve, with continuous changing of the direction, leaning inwards from
the ankle towards the middle of the curve
6. Running on a curve, with an upright trunk, and swinging the knee high
7. From running in a straight line running on a curve on a liner
8. Running on a narrowed circular curve
9. Graduating running on a narrowed circular curve
10. Jumping up fron running on a curve.
Developing a posture of the body with a hollow:
1. Rising into a bridge from lying ont he back
2. Lying on the back with bent legs, by raising the hip, supporting the hips with hands
3. Lying on the back with bent legs, in a slanting deep position, by raising the hip
4. Leaning backwards on a sponge bale into a sole-shoulder bridge
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5. Jumping backwards on a sponge bale, by arriving on the shoulder blade, by keeping
the high hip position
6. High jump with a „”flop” technique from a standing position, from both legs.
We give only a sketchy presentation of pole vault and triple jump due to the lack of space.
The reader can get more detailed knowledge about them in the literature that was applied.
POLE VAULT
The beginnings of pole vault can be traced back to passing over obstacles, ditches, strems,
bushes by using various devices. The immediate predecessor of today’s pole vault appeared in
the 19th century.
The material of the pole played a crucial role in the development of pole vault. Initially,
jumper jumped with a wooden, then a stiff metal pole (techniques with a stiff pole). Later
vaulting poles made from bamboo and later of fibreglass were used, which made it possible to
stretch the pole, and the development of techniques with a pole of modern ”glass”.
Special rules in pole jumping competitions
- Poles can be of preferred length, but if the pole knocks down the bar, it is also regarded to be
an unsuccessful trial.
- The pole can be gripped at a preferred height, nut is it forbidden to climb up the pole. It is
forbidden to grip over the gripping hand.
The main point of using the pole:
Vaulting ploes made from fibreglass are light, flexible, can be measured out and durable. It is
easy to run with them, and they are easy to move. By bending it flexible energy is stored in
them, which the jumper gets back during the jump.
The parts of pole jumping:
Gripping the pole: The hand opposing the jump-off leg grips it, 60-90 cms from the
hand gripping below.
Run-up/Approach: Carrying the pole happens on the side of the swinging leg, the
gripping hand above grips the pole with a low grip, the hand gripping below grips it with an
upper grip. During running, the tip of the pole is raised and is gradually lowered approaching
the box.
Plant: The pole vaulter plants the pole into the box without losing speed, by the end of
the movement the pole is raised and the trail leg is below the vertical projection of the
gripping hand above or a little bit in front of it.
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Swing up: The arm gripping above is stretched, and the arm gripping below is bent in
the elbow. The take-off has a flat curve, similar to long jump. The bending of the pole begins.
The force ensuring the bending of the pole is provided by the body with great motion energy.
The pole vaulter does not bend the pole by bending or stretching the arms.
Action in the air:
Drifting – in the position of the take-off the vaulter passes forward by keeping
himself/herself from the pole, bending the pole.
Swing-up: The vaulter rotates backwards around the shoulder axe by going on
bending the pole.
Rolling back: The vaulter gets with his/her whole body above the shoulder in a
tuck position, in position ”C” the pole starts to straighten out.
Extension: The vaulter straightens out from the tuck position (positions ”L”,
”J”, ”I”), staying close to the pole, with his/her back to the bar.
Pulling up-pushing: At the end of extension, the vaulter pulls himself/herself
up with his/her arms, and then pushes himself/herself further upwards, and in the meantime
he/she gets above the bar with his/her belly side by turning around his/her length axis.
Taking the pole: The vaulter passes over the bar perpendicularly to the bar by
being knocked from a hand standing with one arm.
Landing: The vaulter should arrive at a great surface by rolling down.
TRIPLE JUMP (HOP, STEP AND JUMP)
It developed from the serial jumps in the training of athletes in the 19th century. It has several
versions known; typically the triple jump is performed on the same leg in the Irish technique
(B-B-B) while in German competitions the triple jumpers made three jumps on changed legs
In 1893 the present form of triple jump appeared, the first two jumps happen from the same
leg, and the third one from the other (B-B-J).
The development of the techniques:
Traditional techniques: Northern, Australian and Japanese jumpers put the emphasis
on the speed of the run-up, perform quick, impetuous jumps.
Force or steep technique: Soviet long jumpers: the first jump is steep; a lot of
horizontal momentum on the second jump, the third jump is performed from force. A further
novelty is swinging with both arms, and an active touching of the ground at the end of the first
jump.
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Acceleration (Polish) technique: All three jumps must be performed by making use of
the speed of the run-up.
The division of the triple jump in the various trends
Trend
1. jump %
2. jump %
3. jump %
Northern
39,5
22,5
38,0
Australian
39,5
33,0
27,5
Japanese
41,5
28,0
30,5
Soviet
38,5
30,5
31,0
Polish
35,0
30,0
35,0
At present
35-37
29-31
33-35
The technique of triple jump
Triple jump belongs to the jumps in the distance. Its goal is to achieve the greatest possible
horizontal distance. Similarly to long jumps the performance of triple jump depends on the
speed of the run-up. The jumper tries to keep the horizontal speed obtained with the run-up
during the jump. However, during touching the ground this speed decreases from jump to
jump. In the case of high ranking jumpers the size of the speed reduction is 0,5–0,8 m/s
during the first touching the ground and 0,8–1,5 m/s during the third touching of the ground.
This gradual reduction is related to the direction and height of the jumps as the jumper must
push himself not only forward, but a little upwards as well during the jumps.
The rules of triple jump is primarily the same as those of long jump, there is one exception in
the determination of the form of the jump, the first two jumps must be performed from the
same leg, and the third one from the other.
The basic technique
Run-up: with 8-12 strides, developing the optimum speed by increasing the speed gradually.
Jumps: In the first jump it is not allowed to jump on a high curve because the leg can falls in
at landing. During jumping the take-off leg must be swung in the knee bent in front of the
trunk, approaching the horizontal. The swinging leg swings backwards, the arms change
position. At the end of the flight phase the leg at the front stretches forward, downwards,
reaches the ground with the whole sole and tensed muscles.
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In the flight phase of the second jump (with the same leg as the first one) the jumper keeps the
position of the take-off. The thigh of the take-off leg is in the line of the trunk, its lower leg is
on the horizontal, the swinging leg reaches the horizontal in front of the body in the knee bent.
Touching the ground happens with a powerful striking down of the swinging leg, the whole
sole touches the ground.
The third jump (the swinging leg so far): happens in the same way as the first two jumps. The
action in the air and touching the ground are the same as the stepping technique of long jump.
The detailed rules of the competition events can be downloaded from the website of the
International Associations of Athletics Federation (IAAF). http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/documents/rules-regulations
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THROWS
About throws in general
Throws have always been a part of everyday life in the history of mankind. In early times
stones were used as a means of self-preservation and getting food. As a result of development
people were able to hurl spears equipped with a metal point more accurately and further than
stones. Besides hunting these tools were used as a means of self-defence and attack. In history
we can read about fighters with slings who threw stones from slings and lances and in whose
hands a spear was a deadly weapon. Over the course of many thousands of years the throwing
tools of fighting and hunting have become more and more perfect although they were pushed
into the background when fire-arms appeared. However, they –especially spears and discuses
– survived for the man of later times used to show their force and skill and compete, and later
they became tools of competition.
Even the ancient Greeks realised that throwing a discus is an excellent way of physical
training. The Greeks ranked discus throwing among the physical exercises. Discus throwing
and javelin throwing were events of the pentathlon in the ancient Olympic Games B.C.
”Children can push a ball after the age of one, later they can roll it, throw it and catch it from
a shorter distance at around the age of two.” /Mészáros 1990/
In our days shots, small balls, grenades, discuses and hammers are the most frequently used
throwing devices in competitions. However, we can throw a lot of different types of devices.
At present, there are four throwing events for both men and women in the Olympic Games:
shot put, javelin throwing, discus throwing and hammer throwing. In addition, shot put,
javelin throwing and discus throwing can also be found in combined events championships.
Throwing successfully and achieving high performances primarily require physical strength –
quick force, skilfulness, suppleness, flexible and load-bearing muscles. Further advantages are
a tall stature and greater body mass, which must also be combined with appropriate speed.
Track and field throwing events
The techniques of throwing events and within these the acceleration of the throwing device
and guiding the trajectory have a different characteristic throw by throw. However, the whole
process has a general order, which is valid for all track and field throws.
1, Assuming a position, preparation for momentum building, starting the momentum
2, Building up momentum
3, Preparing the throw position
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4, Transferring the momentum into throwing and starting the throw
5, Delivering the throwing object
6, Assuming the final position after the throw
Javelin throwing, throwing a soft ball: Throws performed with building up momentum in a
straight line.
Shot put: The technique most commonly used in completions is the one performed with
gliding from standing up with the back.
Discus throwing: Throwing performed with a spinning in the direction of the throw.
Hammer throwing: Throwing performed with a progressive turning movement.
The role and importance of throws in physical education and sport
activities
When teaching throws we give priority to the many-sided personality development of
students. The age-related characteristics and biological development of students must be taken
into account. Throws contribute to achieving the set goals by their specific means and
exercises.
”Throws appear in physical education and sport activities extensively and in various different
forms. They appear as contents meaning the main ideas of motion activities, as the
components of motion activities and as the means of developing coordination and
conditioning abilities. ” /Eckschmiedt, 2002/
In physical education and sport activities throws appear as exclusive contents of motion
activities in performance-targeted shots, hurling and throwing meaning the motion material of
track and field as well a track and field throwing events.
In the beginning our goal should be the correct performance of spatial structure, the extension
of motion and directions of motion while paying attention to the formal features of throws.
Special care must be taken of the final moments of throws – shot by the arm, throwing and
hurling. It can be followed by establishing the good throwing rhythm, which means the
correct order of involving the various body parts into the throwing process. In order to acquire
the correct technique continuously and in the long run, we use throwing exercises as a means
of ability development.
If we use throwing exercises competitively with the endeavour of performance besides the
existence of proper maturity and appropriate conditioning and coordination abilities, we can
considerably enhance the effect of throws on developing speed strength with the developing
psychic conditions but we can make the conditions of technical execution worse. In order to
develop speed strength in performance-targeted completions, we should use throwing
77
exercises only when the appropriate level of performing the motion is achieved, approaching
the development of fine coordination.
In physical education and sport activities track and field throwing exercises are used as a
means of developing coordination and conditioning abilities in general, many-sided and
specific education.
The various kinds of throwing exercises (e.g. two-handed throwing vertically, upwards) can
be used both as a means and an end from the educational point of view. They are used as an
end if the goal of education is to teach the particular forms of throwing. They are used as a
means if they mean one of the steps of the educational stage system intended to teach a more
complex form of throwing (e.g. shot put with one’s back to the circle from standing up by
gliding)
If the throwing exercises are used as a means in the teaching process, they should already be
executed at the appropriate level. It can be achieved only by proper practising in the longer
run of the education process, and teaching of the throwing events can be started. At a definite
level of technical execution even competitions can be organised.
In each case the teaching of the technique should be subordinated to the goal of fostering the
harmonious physical and mental development of students, and the technique of a given throw
should develop together with the many-sidedness of motion development in accordance with
a higher level of coordination and conditioning abilities. An important ability for students to
acquire is that they should be able to make use of the coordination pattern acquired with
throwing motions successfully in other motions as well.
Throws appear as a component of motion activities, as a part of the technique of a branch of
sport in physical education games and ball games, in which throwing is only one element of
game activities.
The role of throws in the development of coordination abilities
Throws belong to the ”skilfulness” track and field events. Thus these events and throwing
exercises develop skilfulness as a complex coordination ability effectively.
A characteristic feature of throws is that a certain preparation is followed by the sudden,
complete mobilization of the strengths, body parts become involved in the process of motion
gradually, and then they slow down, fade away in the same order as operation. In throws (with
consideration of the throwing phase) a particular dynamics is manifested, which is expressed
in performing a great amount of work in a unit of time (performance), in uncontrolled
acceleration and an explosive execution of motion. When talking about athletic abilities, we
should think of this specific dynamics, which a great majority of track and field events are
characterised by.
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”Thus the coordination scheme of developing speed strength is realized in the specific
dynamics of athletic throws. Throws represent performing speed strength as a coordination
scheme, as a coordination pattern. The fundamental role of throws in developing coordination
abilities follows from and relies in this.” (Eckscmiedt: 2002)
This specific dynamics of speed strength is expressed in throws performed with both certain
parts of the body and the whole body. In the specific dynamics of throws the throwing motion
is started by stronger muscles, groups of muscles with a greater mass, and the weaker but
quicker muscles get involved in the throw gradually. At the start of the throw and during the
throwing motion the thrower stretches the muscles getting involved in the operation
previously, and thus the speed created by the muscle contractions will be added to the speed
of motion already present (the principle of the rocket). The dynamics of performing speed
strength is developed on the basis of this principle. This dynamics can exclusively taught by
throws. The coordination pattern of developing speed strength can be taught most successfully
by throws because the characteristics of throws make it possible for students to acquire the
pattern of motion relatively easily. This coordination pattern of performing speed strength can
be transferred well into motions of other structure as well (e.g. wrestling, boxing).
The general and specific coordination pattern of throws can be developed by throwing
exercises, which contributes to developing skilfulness as a complex coordination ability.
Skilfulness can be developed considerably by practising throws make it possible to acquire
the motion exercise quickly and effectively. The fundamental skilfulness component of
throwing motions is a sense of balance, and plays a role in the refinement of keeping the
balance. In executing a motion a dynamic balance is manifested. A good sense of balance
enables the thrower to assume a body position favourable for accelerating the device through
his development of more refined differentiation ability and throwing off the size of balance.
There is a close correlation between the level of keeping the balance and the development of
physical abilities – mainly skilfulness. The balance exercises related to throws should be
planned in such a way that both straight-line motions and rotary motions should be used.
Spatial sense or the ability of spatial orientation is the ability of a thrower to coordinate his
movements in the process of throwing and in space suiting the exercise. It is very important
for a thrower to perceive the space, his position and surroundings properly with respect to
what position he occupies in the space. An important factor in perceiving space is that the
throws are executed from a circle providing nearly steady conditions or a place of throw
ensuring gaining a linear momentum.
Kinaesthetic perception is an important component of the coordination ability of throws, and
means the proper processing and differentiation of these perceptions. This ability is
responsible primarily for the accuracy and economy of motions. It is responsible for the
development of the mechanism of muscle tension and relaxation of crucial importance in
throws, and the relaxation of unnecessary efforts.
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The ability of understanding the temporal-dynamic order of motion process of throws and
perceiving and realizing a rhythm lying in motion and given in advance is rhythm ability.
Practising throws develops the level of the special ability of motion /throwing ability. We
must distinguish it from coordination abilities. Throwing ability is also an acquired
performance condition of a coordinative character. However, throwing ability is built on a
definite technique of motion (e.g. shot put), refers to solving a specific task, and can be
developed only by practising and refining the technique of motion.
The role of throws in the development of conditioning abilities
Throwing exercises applied in various forms prepare not only the teaching of certain track and
field throwing events but they are also a means of developing general, many-sided
conditioning abilities. The exercises of throwing triggering many-sided effects facilitate the
physical and mental development of students. They mean many-sided activities for the
organism. This many-sidedness can be achieved by the varied forms of throwing and
changing the starting position and the weight of the ball. The dynamics of the strength of
transmission can be matched the goal. We can trigger formal, operational changes,
accommodations favourable for the general performance ability of the body. Using throws for
general strength development facilitates acquiring techniques of a branch of sport requiring
more complex and special abilities, which lays the foundations for teaching them. Throwing
with a compact ball in games is regarded to be an effective means of strength development.
The goal is to lay the foundation for the organism, on which the motion material of every
branch of sport can be built.
Throws are the means of training for developing speed strength, which cannot be replaced by
anything else. The thrower overcomes a relatively great resistance by an especially intense
muscle contraction. It is advisable to teach the dynamics of executing speed strength by
throws because the characteristics of throws make it possible for students to acquire the
pattern of motion in a stage system from the simple to a more complex one by using rationally
increased resistances (the weight of throwing devices). The coordination patterns of executing
speed strength by throws can be transferred into motions of different structure (wrestling,
boxing). Especially at a lower level of ability the maximum strength and endurance strength
develop parallel with the development of speed strength. The maximum strength can be
developed with devices of a bigger weight while endurance strength can be improved by a
high number of throws.
The function of throws developing coordination and conditioning ability cannot be separated
from each other.
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The classification of track and field throwing exercises
The basic forms of track and field throws are shot putting, throwing and hurling on the basis
of the characteristic of throwing with the arm.
Shot putting: It means throwing the object with accelerating stretching of the arm. The elbow
is behind the place of gripping the object. The object moves in a straight line, in a vertical
plane in the direction of the throw.
Throwing: It means throwing the object over the plane of the shoulder with a quick moving
forward of the arm which bends gradually and then stretches out.
Hurling: It means throwing the object with swinging the stretched arm when the acceleration
of the object happens on a vertical or oblique curved path.
Track and field throwing exercises can be performed from standing position or with building
up momentum. The starting point of throwing can be lying, sitting, kneeling, half-kneeling
and standing. According to the object thrown we can make a distinction between throws with
a bullet, a stone, a ball with handles, a javelin and a discus, etc.
The two major groups of throwing exercises, throws from a standing position and by building
up momentum can be broken down into various phases of motion on the basis of the contents
of the motions.
The phases of throws from a standing position: starting position, assuming a position on the
place of throwing by gripping the object, building up momentum, delivery – preparatory
motion, throwing, and final position.
The phases of throws with building up momentum: assuming a position on the place of
throwing with gripping the object, building up momentum, delivery- preparatory motions,
throwing, and final position.
The most suitable object for teaching throwing exercises is a medicine ball. A medicine ball
as a means of throwing exercises can be used in each starting position; it can be gripped easily
and can be used as a hand exerciser in several different ways.
Executing the throws from various starting positions, with one hand or two hands, the
moment of shot putting, throwing and hurling, the specific appearance of moments make up
the special coordination pattern of throwing motions.
Shot putting exercises from a standing position from various starting positions
1.
Shot putting with two hands from the breast forward
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2.
Shot putting with one hand forward
Throwing exercises from a standing position from various starting positions
1.
Throwing with two hands over the head forward
2.
Throwing with one hand forward
Hurling exercises from a standing position from various starting points
1.
Hurling with two hands from the side forward.
2.
Hurling with one hand from the side forward.
3.
Hurling with one hand forward, in a vertical plane with a ball with handles.
4.
Hurling with one hand at the side backward in side straddle position.
5.
Hurling with two hands, with the lower one vertically upwards, in side straddle
position.
6.
Hurling with two hands, with the lower one forward, in side straddle position.
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7.
Hurling with two hands, over the head backwards, in side straddle position.
The structural similarities or matching of throwing motions form the general coordination
pattern of throwing motions. Acquiring and practising of the last three types of hurling with
two hands also mean a stage system in developing it. We must teach all the spatial, temporal
and dynamic components which are the same in the various types of throwing, which are the
common characteristics of the various kinds of throws:
We must teach that the acceleration process must be started with the stronger muscle groups
of greater mass, the weaker muscle groups of smaller mass should be involved in the
acceleration gradually. We must teach that the acceleration force should exert its effect at
such a long way as possible.
Throws with building up momentum
Building up momentum is a motion with changing position, which the thrower performs
before throwing.
Building up momentum can be stepping forward, walking, running, cross stepping, leaping,
jumping, gliding, spinning and turning. We can reach more and more momentum by these
forms of building up momentum. All of them can be directly linked with throwing. From
building up momentum the thrower must get into a side or transverse straddle position.
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Two-handed shot putting with building up momentum
After building up momentum it is advisable to get into a side straddle position in such a way
that the two feet get to the ground at the same time. In order to do so, the building up of
momentum must be finished by jumping.
One-handed shot putting with building up momentum
After building up momentum, shot putting can be done from a side straddle position and a
transverse straddle position. It is advisable to arrive in a transverse straddle position because
the conditions of throwing are more favourable in this position.
Two-handed throwing with building up momentum
The thrower can arrive in side straddle position or transverse straddle position from building
up momentum in two handed throws. It is more favourable to develop the curve position from
getting into a traverse straddle position. In the case of two handed throws the throwing object
must be held over head height. After building up momentum, the thrower gets into side
straddle position by jumping.
One-handed throwing with building up momentum
It is advisable to execute one-handed throws by arriving in a traverse straddle position. The
throwing arm must be stretched backwards by turning the trunk even before starting building
up momentum, and building up momentum must be done in this position.
Two-handed hurling with building up momentum
Two handed hurling with building up momentum can be done from side straddle position and
traverse straddle position. In a vertical plane forward, upwards we must arrive in a side
straddle position.
One-handed hurling with building up momentum
One-handed hurling can be performed with the middle-line of the body in a vertical plane
from arriving in a side straddle position. Beside the body, in a vertical plane forward onehanded hurling can be done with a ball with handles from arriving in a side straddle position.
In the case of hurling with one hand from the side forward we must arrive in a transverse
straddle position after building up momentum.
Combining throws with various basic forms of gymnastics
In this case two-handed and one-handed throws appear as parts of ability development
exercises. Their combining means making it more difficult and increasing its effect. Skipping
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and jumping exercises can be combined with one kind of two-handed throwing and twohanded hurling as a continuation. Students must arrive in a side straddle position for such
throws. Throws can be combined with stretching exercises in such a way that stretching
should be a contrasting motion with the direction of the throw. Most of the exercises can be
performed in pairs by changing continuously, or one member of the pair helps the other do the
exercise, and then they change roles.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lying on the back, the ball up high. Sitting up and two-handed throwing forward.
Lying on the belly, the ball up high. Bending the trunk backwards and two handed
shot putting forward.
Lying on the thighs on a vaulting box with the legs in the wall-bars. Bending the trunk
forward with the ball at the breast, bending the trunk backwards and two-handed
pushing forward.
Standing with the feet at an angle, keeping the ball low. Jumping forward in crouched
position with the feet astride, two-handed lower hurling forward.
Standing with the feet at an angle, keeping the ball low. Stepping out with the left leg
forward in attack position, swinging the ball high, and bending the trunk backwards,
two-handed-hurling over the head forward.
The methodological aspects of teaching throws
Before teaching every throwing exercise, we must form an image of the given form of
throwing in our students. The most effective way of it is presenting the movement combined
with an explanation. First let them make some experiments without any objects, and then with
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objects. Shot putting, throwing and hurling without an object can be used well especially in
the lower grades of the primary school to develop the correct throwing motion. Following
several attempts of throwing, we can correct mistakes, which should be directed at the
essential mistakes related to the structure of motion.
We should make students practise the acquired throwing exercises primarily with the aim of
developing ability. Acquiring the correct shot putting, throwing and hurling movement is not
only a precondition of applying throwing exercises in ability development but it also provides
the foundations for learning special throws of other branches of sport more quickly and
accurately. We can insert smaller competitions even at the initial stages of education.
We can start teaching and practising throws only after proper warm-up. First our students
should perform throws with making less effort and for a shorter distance, and then the
throwing distance should be increased gradually. After sufficient practice we can go on to
one-handed throws. Acquiring throws from a standing position at the proper level can be
followed by teaching throws performed with building up momentum.
For teaching preparatory throwing exercises the most suitable object is a medicine ball. Its
weight should be choses matching the age of students. The most suitable place for teaching
preparatory throwing exercises is the gym, the place for practising should be created in such a
way that students should have enough place for performing the throws safely without being
hindered in performing the throws, and the risk of accidents should be the smallest possible.
At the same time they should have to possibility to achieve a relatively big throwing distance.
Preparatory throwing exercises provide a good basis for teaching various throwing events.
When teaching the various throwing events, we must teach the moment meaning the essential
part of motion. Especially in lower primary grades we mustn’t teach throwing motions broken
down into the phases of motion, and it cannot be expected of students either to execute the
throwing technique without mistakes. The best way for students is to acquire the execution of
the given throw at an elementary level, and to throw with this technique as much as possible,
and by this they can develop their abilities.
In the teaching process we must get to practising throws in real conditions. It means both
applying the objects with a proper weight and performing the throw from a regular place of
throwing. It is good if parallel with teaching throws with building up momentum we also let
students practise the given throwing event at the place of throwing as well.
An inseparable part of teaching throws is comparing performances. At this time students can
see their development, their self-knowledge, their ability of real self-estimation is developed
by getting to know their ability of performance.
The conditions of teaching throws outdoors are different from those of teaching throws in a
gym. The most important difference is that real (hard-surface) throwing objects are used
outdoors, and we can try to achieve a much bigger throwing distance than in a gym.
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Accordingly, teaching throws outdoors have very strict rules. In the exercise form most
commonly used in groups, if several students perform a throw at the same time – whether they
do it in one direction or in pairs in turns- every moment must happen at command. If the lines
stand opposite each other, the distance of the two lines should be much bigger than the
distance of the expected biggest throw depending on the form of throw. The distance of
students next to each other correlates with the creation of the greatest safety to various
degrees according to the way of throwing.
Teaching throws at the age of 7- 12
Groups of exercises meaning the main parts of the teaching process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Preparatory exercises for throws
Exercises facilitating the development of various forms of throws: arm movements,
rolling and target throwing
Rotation exercises
Throws from simple forms of building up momentum, throwing a small ball in a threestep throwing rhythm
Applying the acquired forms of throwing in games and competitions
Preparatory exercises without an object
1.
2.
3.
Free exercises
Natural exercises and their combinations
Imitating exercises
Preparatory exercises with a basic form of free exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Exercises with an object
Preparatory exercises with an object
Exercises in pairs and small groups with and without an object.
Combined exercises with an object
Natural exercises by using objects
Exercises facilitating the development of various forms of throwing
Having the series of motions of throwing with an arm (shot putting, throwing, hurling)
perceived at a slower pace initially, and then at a gradually increasing pace. The objects
applied should have a good grip with both one hand and two hands: (soft ball, small ball
tennis ball, etc.).
The exercises of arm movements:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The movement of two-handed shot putting in a standing position without letting the
object go;
The movement of throwing with two hands over the head in a side straddle position
without letting the object go;
One-handed throwing movement in traverse straddle position without letting the
object go;
Two-handed hurling movement vertically upwards in a side straddle position without
letting the object go;
The previous exercises with giving the object into the hand of the peer by paying
attention the correct foot position and arm movement;
Rolling:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Moving the ball forward while walking with changing the stretched arms;
Moving the ball forward with two hands while walking with stretched arms;
Various forms of rolling a ball made of different material (leather, rubber, rags, paper)
in pairs. The distance of pairs from each other is 3-5 metres;
Rolling a ball on the wall intensively so that the ball can roll back from as far as
possible.
Target throwing
With regards to accuracy and coordinative motion execution getting their object to the target
can be practised with any form of throwing, but it can be realized more effectively with onehanded throws. This conclusion is advisable to be manifested in teaching throwing a small
ball in lower grades students. One of the most characteristic features of track and field throws
is endeavouring for the greatest distance possible. It must always be borne in mind in the
teaching process, and accordingly target throwing should be evaluated as a kind of leading
exercise.
Two-handed shot putting from a standing position from the breast forward, into a target
Exercises:
– two handed shot putting from the breast forward sitting on a jump box onto the top of
an overturned vaulting box;
– two-handed shot putting from the breast forward from kneeling onto a gymnastic mat
placed perpendicularly to the direction of throwing;
– two-handed shot putting from the breast forward from side straddle position at the
wall, into a horizontal lane.
Two-handed hurling with the lower one forward from a standing position and hurling
with two hands over the head backwards into a target
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Exercises:
– two-handed hurling with the lower one forward onto a gymnastic mat placed
perpendicularly to the direction of the throw;
– two-handed throwing with the lower one forward at the wall into a horizontal lane;
– two-handed hurling over the head backwards onto a circular target surface;
One-handed hurling from a standing position in a vertical plane forward into a target
Exercises
– one-handed hurling forward in a vertical plane into a horizontal lane matching the
direction of throw,
– one-handed hurling forward in a vertical plane into a circle drawn on the wall.
Two-handed hurling from a standing position over the head forward into a target
Exercises:
– two-handed hurling over the head forward from kneeling, into a lane matching the
direction of throwing;
– two-handed hurling over the head forward from kneeling, into a lane perpendicular to the
direction of throwing;
– two-handed hurling over the head forward from side straddle position onto a gymnastic
mat;
– two-handed hurling over the head forward from traverse saddle position at the wall, into a
horizontal lane.
One-handed hurling from a standing position into a target
Exercises:
– one-handed hurling from a traverse straddle-half-kneeling position in a vertical plane,
onto a gymnastic mat;
– one-handed hurling from a traverse straddle position in a horizontal lane perpendicular to
the direction of throwing;
– one-handed hurling from a traverse straddle position at the wall into a circular target
surface.
Rotation exercises:
– rotations lying on a horizontal or oblique surface individually or with the help of a peer;
– rotations standing on a horizontal or oblique surface individually;
– rotations standing on a line, stepping in a lane, with skipping;
– rotations hanging;
– rotations with a peer or devices;
– moving forward by rotation jumping.
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Throwing with building up momentum
With respect to both execution and efficiency throwing from a standing position is completely
different from the one performed with building up momentum (making a run). Students must
get to throwing executed from walking, slow running to throwing executed in an unbound
form. In this age group the most important thing is that they should throw as many times as
possible approaching the whole model of execution. We can prepare teaching outdoors by
throwing onto a vertical target on the wall.
The teaching process of two-handed throwing with building up momentum over the
head forward
The precondition of teaching: students should be familiar with the technical execution of basic
level two-handed throwing over the head in a side straddle position and traverse straddle
position.
1. We should form a motion image about the given form of building up momentum and
throwing, the most effective means of which is an explanation combined with
presentation. The presentation should cover the whole process of throwing with an object;
it should comprise standing up the correct grip of the object as well.
2. Two-handed throwing over the head forward with stepping out
3. Two-handed throwing over the head forwards from walking.
4. Two-handed throwing over the head forward with arriving from a skipping step in a
traverse straddle position.
5. Arriving in a traverse straddle position from walking into a skipping step and two-handed
throwing over the head forward.
6. Arriving in a traverse straddle position from running to a skipping step and two-handed
throwing over the head forward.
Methodological advice: in the case of two-handed throwing executed with building up
momentum students should hold the object above head height in the plane of the body before
starting to build up momentum in such a way as in the starting position of two-handed throws
executed from a standing position. At the beginning of teaching we should use light balls
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(handballs) so that students can acquire building up momentum as soon as possible. They
should perform a few throws from a standing position, but the emphasis should be placed on
throwing with building up momentum.
The teaching process of throwing a small ball with building up momentum in a threestep throwing rhythm
The precondition of teaching: acquiring the movement of one-handed throwing from standing
position.
1. Free, unbound throws with a small ball onto the wall.
2. Forming the image of motion with presentation: the presentation should cover the
grip of the ball as well as every important element of the starting position.
3. Throwing a small ball from a side straddle position.
4. Throwing a small ball from a traverse straddle position.
5. Throwing a small ball with stepping out with a prepared object. The exercise can
be performed parallel with moving the object backwards, and then throwing it.
6. Throwing a small ball from walking with a prepared object.
7. Throwing a small ball from a skipping step with a prepared object, and then with a
prepared object from a skipping step combined with walking.
8. Throwing a small ball with a prepared object from a skipping step combined with
running.
9. Throwing a small ball with marking time step by step from a three-step throwing
rhythm.
10. Throwing a small ball with a three-step throwing rhythm from walking. After
sufficient practising we should give our students the opportunity to make an
attempt to build up momentum with running as well and perform the throw from
this.
Using throws in the games and competitions of students aged 7-12
Both one-handed and two-handed throws from a standing position and with building up
momentum can be used in games. In this age group acquiring and using the various forms of
throws in games as an experience is a process supposing and mutually complementing each
other. Developing the conditioning and coordination abilities, and applying throwing motions
in games are less tiring than repeating a particular form of throwing. When choosing games,
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we should take the age group, ability level and the fact that objects with a bigger weight can
be thrown with two hands and not with one into consideration. We should always use devices
made of soft material and we should take proper care of choosing the number of participants.
Games and competitions can take place both in the gym or outdoors, but the most suitable
setting or the character of the game or competition should play a crucial role in our choice.
1. Competitions of target throwing
- individual competitions with target throwing
- serial competitions with target throwing
2. Long distance throwing competitions
– individual competitions with throwing long distance
– serial competitions with long distance throwing
3. Relays
-
ball passing serial competitions
ball passing relays
ball throwing relays
relays with combined exercises, throwing
4. Games with balloons and ball schools
Balloons touched by the arm movements of various forms of throwing are suitable for
organising funny, cheerful games.
5. Throwing out games
They belong to the most favourite games of children because a ball is one of their favourite
toys, the result appears at once and such games involve a lot of physical movement and varied
exercises.
6. Games serving as preparing ball games. They are suitable for practising the various forms
of throws in game situations and developing abilities.
7. Hurdle race games with a throwing exercise.
8. Winter outdoor games with a throwing exercise. Its most important condition is snow.
Teaching throws for students aged 13-18
Preparatory exercises of throws
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As the basic level education of throwing events begins in this age group, great emphasis must
be laid on creating the coordination and conditioning preconditions for a given throwing
event.
The educational stage system of track and field throwing events
1. Developing the general coordination pattern of the throwing motion
2. Developing the special coordination pattern of the throwing motion (shot putting, throwing
and hurling) with two-handed throwing
- from various starting positions
- with building up momentum
3. Developing the special coordination pattern of the throwing motion (shot putting, throwing
and hurling) with one-handed throwing
- from various starting positions
- with building up momentum
4. Teaching the technique of a given throwing event (shot putting, throwing the javelin,
throwing the discus, throwing the hammer)
- structure of throwing from a standing position
- the structure of throwing from building up momentum
Teaching throwing a small ball
The preconditions for teaching throwing with a small ball:
- the appropriate level of students’ intellectual development to understand the exercises,
- the level of students’ coordination and conditioning ability to acquire the technique.
The most important abilities needed for teaching throwing with a small ball:
- coordinated running motion,
- the flexibility of the vertebra, the looseness of hip and shoulder joints,
- sense of rhythm.
The preparatory exercises for throwing a small ball:
- stretching-relaxing exercises
- exercises with a strengthening effect
- preparatory throwing exercises with a medicine ball: the exercises intended to develop the
general coordination and conditioning pattern of throwing motions: two-handed hurling
vertically upwards, two-handed lower hurling forward, two-handed hurling over the head
backwards. Developing and improving the special coordination and conditioning pattern of
hurling motion with two-handed, and then and one-handed bending from a standing position
and with building up momentum.
The physical conditions for teaching throwing with a small ball:
- a suitable place of throwing outdoors, a free wall surface in the gym.
- a sufficient number of small balls so that each student can have one.
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Teaching the technique of throwing a small ball
The grip and holding of a small ball
The right grip must be presented and it is advisable to control it frequently.
The structure of a small ball from a standing position
1. Throwing a small ball from a standing position, from a side straddle position;
2. Throwing a small ball from a standing position, from a traverse straddle position
without turning the trunk;
3. Throwing a small ball from a standing position, from a traverse straddle position
with turning the trunk;
4. Throwing a small ball from a throwing straddle position.
The exercises of throwing a small ball from a standing position are introducing exercises to
throwing a small boy executed from building up momentum. Its goal is to facilitate learning
the regular throwing movement. It shouldn’t be practised too much as the rhythm of throwing
from building up momentum is completely different.
The structure of throwing a small ball from building up momentum
In teaching we use the global method and we increase the momentum to an optimal extent.
The critical point of teaching is combining the momentum with the delivery during the
preparatory steps. This is the time when the student must turn the line of his shoulder in the
direction of the throw, move the ball backwards into the delivery position and develop the
most suitable throwing position.
1. Throwing a small ball from a skipping step: it happens from a standing position with a
prepared object.
2. Throwing a small ball from a skipping step combined to making a run.
3. Throwing a small ball with marking the time step by step from a three-step rhythm.
4. Throwing a small ball from a three-step rhythm from walking, with running, running
with momentum and making an accelerating run. Increasing the building up of
momentum means executing it at a higher and higher level in three steps.
5. Throwing a small ball from a five-step throwing rhythm: it means the combination of
throwing a small ball with the three-step rhythm and the skipping step and throwing
the small ball from a skipping step.
6. Throwing a small ball from a five-step rhythm, marking the time step by step.
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7. Throwing a small ball from a five-step rhythm with marked step lengths.
8. Throwing a small ball from a five-step rhythm with individual timing from walking,
running and running with momentum.
9. Practice: performing the whole series of exercises many times.
10. Competitions: throwing a small boy from a standing position and with building up
momentum, target throwing competitions by overcoming farther goals.
The most common mistakes occurring in throwing a small ball:
–
The students hold the ball in his palm.
–
The preparatory steps of the throws happen in a bad rhythm.
–
The student arrives with stretched knees in a high delivery position.
–
Throwing from the air.
–
A flat or too big throwing angle.
Teaching shot putting
The complexity of the technique of shot putting makes only the achievement of only a
determined level as a real goal possible. Students aged 13-14 are able to acquire the motion
of shot putting from a standing position, from a throwing straddle position, in which a
fundamental task is to strengthen the movement of shot putting. At the same time we can
more easily acquire shot putting from a delivery straddle position with simple momentum
building up – from walking. After the age of 14 the applying of more complex forms of
building up momentum can happen by motion extension and increasing its dynamics. While
learning the technique, more skilful students can make an attempt to practise the more
complicated shot putting from standing up backwards with gliding.
The preconditions of teaching shot putting:
- Students should have the appropriate intellectual abilities to understand the task.
- The appropriate level of the coordination and conditioning abilities needed to acquire the
technique.
The most important abilities needed to teach shot putting:
- The proper strength of the parts of body involved in the motion (feet, trunk, arms).
- Flexibility to acquire the technique effectively.
- Skilfulness to learn the motion.
The physical conditions of teaching shot putting:
- A free area with a proper size.
- A sufficient number of throwing objects with a proper weight.
The preparatory exercises of shot putting
- exercises with a strengthening effect: primarily with free exercises, exercises with an object
and natural exercises
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- preparatory throwing exercises with a medicine ball: developing the general coordination
pattern of throwing motions as well as for developing and improving the special coordination
pattern of the motion of shot putting.
Teaching the basic elements of the technique of shot putting
1. The grip of the shot.
2. Placing the shot.
Presentation and explanation should be followed by practice.
3. Shot putting from side straddle position.
Developing shot putting from a standing position
The goal is to increase the extension of the movement of shot putting gradually by various
shot putting exercises from a standing position, involving the muscles of the trunk more and
more intensively into the process of motion.
1.
Shot putting from a side straddle position with stepping back into throwing straddle
position.
2.
Shot putting from standing up from the side by swinging the previous left leg.
For the forms of shot putting from the standing position described above it is advisable to
teach and practise the following simple variations of shot putting executed from the forms
with building up momentum at the same time:
- From walking with turning the trunk backwards and bending it slightly, arriving in a
throwing straddle position and shot putting.
- Shot putting combined with a cross step from walking.
- Shot putting combined with a cross step from standing up at the side.
- Shot putting combined with an after-step from standing up at the side.
- Shot putting from standing up at the side with jumping in.
Acquiring shot putting from the standing position at a higher level is meant by the throw
executed by swinging the previous left leg with half-back and from standing up with the back.
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Teaching the technique of shot putting with gliding
In every element of the educational stages it is an important task to combine the continuous,
smooth building up momentum with the delivery.
1.
Shot putting from walking with a cross step.
2.
Shot putting from walking, with an after-step.
3.
Shot putting from walking, with a skipping step
4.
Shot putting from standing up sideways, with an after-step.
5.
6.
Shot putting from standing up sideways, with jumping in.
Shot putting from standing up sideways, with gliding.
Further stages can be:
– Shot putting with half-back to the throwing direction, from standing up with after-step,
with jumping in, and then with gliding.
– Shot putting with the back to the throwing direction, from standing up with and afterstep, jumping in, with a short glide, with a glide of increasing length to complete glide.
– Shot putting with the back to the throwing direction, from standing up with gliding
from the throwing circle.
Executing these educational stages – with the exception of the position of standing up – is
similar to executing the stages of shot putting performed from standing up sideways.
7. Organising shot putting competitions, comparing strength with the aim of gaining a
sense of achievement with throws from a throwing circle.
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The most common mistakes occurring in shot putting
– The shot is in the palm; the elbow is pressed down too much or lifted too high.
– Swinging happens not in the direction of throwing, or the leg is bent too much.
– Arriving in the throwing straddle position is too high.
– Throwing instead of shot putting.
Teaching hurling motions
Teaching hurling requires careful organisation. A relatively large area is needed for teaching
the various kinds of hurling from a standing position and with building up momentum.
Hurling for a distance requires the greatest space, in this case individual execution is the
accepted form of training. Outdoors by using the proper throwing device the size of the area
determines the number and position of the throwers.
Two-handed hurling with a medicine ball
1. Two-handed hurling from a standing position, vertically upwards, two-handed hurling
with the lower hand forwards, hurling with two hands over the head backwards.
2. Two-handed hurling with simple building up momentum vertically in a plane: jumping
with stepping out into side straddle position and two-handed hurling vertically
upwards, jumping with stepping out into side-straddle position and hurling with two
hands with the lower hand forward.
3. Hurling from standing position from the side forward in an oblique plane from
kneeling, standing, from straddle seat at the wall, from sitting on a jump box, etc.
4. Two-handed hurling from the side forward in an oblique plane, executed from a
quarter, half or whole turning while walking in place. Arriving in a side straddle
position after building up momentum.
5. Two-handed hurling from walking, with a spin forward in an oblique plane.
Hurling with a ball with handles
A ball with handles is very useful throwing device that can be used in many different ways
especially in teaching one-handed hurling. In one-handed and two handed hurling it makes a
safe grip possible, and by this the unsafety of the direction of flying out which is typical of
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hurling motions can be reduced besides the efficiency of force transfer. Its lack can be
substituted in a practical way if we put the medicine ball into a net or sack.
1. One-handed hurling in the middle-line of the body, in vertical plane forward, in place
from a side straddle position.
2. One-handed hurling next to the body in a vertical plane forward from a traverse
straddle position.
3.
4.
5.
One-handed hurling from the side forward in an oblique plane from a traverse
straddle position.
One-handed hurling executed from a standing position, into a target, into zone. The
target can be throwing above a horizontal line on the wall or a zone/stripes
perpendicular to the throwing direction/.
One-handed hurling from a standing position with a ball with handles to distance.
Hurling from a standing position can be combined with simple ways of building up
momentum
Training spinning
1. While walking with a medicine ball turning the trunk towards the foot stepping out.
2. Turning with devices while walking in place.
3. A turning jump from a standing position facing the imaginary throwing direction.
4. A turning jump while walking.
Applying throws in the games and competitions of the age group of 13-17
Games: target throwing, throwing out, two-court banging, driving out, Indian clubs, fire fight,
throwing relays, getting free from the ball, string balls, bomber, etc.
Games should match the development level of students in all of their elements.
Competitions with throwing
In this age group we can organise competitions for performance by using any form of
throwing they have learnt. In addition to their many other advantages, their main advantage is
in the development of conditioning abilities. Competitions can be organised individually or in
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the form of group competitions. It is advisable to perform the throws outdoors, on a flat area,
from behind a line. It is allowed to step beyond the line after the throw. Results must be
marked during the competition. Competitions can be organised with one form of throwing or
more, with a determined number of attempts. The order can be easily decided by adding up
the places. Besides the entertaining and ability developmental character of the competitions,
they can be valuable and beneficial from their educational aspect as well.
Competitions:
1.
The result of the throw
2.
Adding up the right-left handed throws
3.
Overcoming distance by fewer throws
4.
Adding up the throws executed from a standing position and with building up
momentum
5.
Throwing team competitions
6.
2-3 throws added up
7.
The forms of throws added up
8.
Difference throws
Epilogue
Throwing events are organised most frequently within track and field competitions but they
can be organised also individually. The conditions for organising a competition are different
depending on whether we want to organise it on the track and field course or at another place
suitable for it. No matter where it takes place, we must try to create the circumstances which
approach best the real conditions.
The primary conditions for organising competitions are the following:
1. An appropriate place of throwing, a space of a sufficient size for the arrival of the throwing
objects
2. A sufficient number of objects with a proper weight
3. A sufficient number of and well-prepared referees
Two-handed throws with a simpler motion structure mean an experience for students even at
the first time of practice, and if they learn the ropes of it, they get to like it and find a source
of pleasure and success in it, which is beneficial for their physical and mental health in the
long run. In England there are shot putting clubs where the throwing event has become a part
of social life.
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ANNEX
The events of kids’ athletics in pictures: Source
(http://moderniskola.hu/sites/default/files/field/image/tanevnyito2013/prezik/kolyokatletika.p
df)
Sprint/hurdles shuttle relay
102
Formula 1
Frog jumping
103
Ladder running
Cross skipping
jumping roping
104
Guided hop-step and jump/triple jump
105
Javelin throwing with a sponge javelin
Throwing from kneeling
106
One-handed target throw over a barrier
Progressive endurance race
107
Flat/hurdle/slalom there and back relay
Pole vault for distance
Precision long jump
108
Rotational throw
Overhead backward throw
109
The colourful equipment of kids’ athletics
110