CleanUP 2013

Transcription

CleanUP 2013

Clea
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2013
5th International Contaminated
Site Remediation Conference
Program and Proceedings
15 – 18 September 2013
Crown Conference Centre, Melbourne, Victoria
Program and Proceedings
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Contents
Conference welcome
iv
Organising committees
v
Sponsors
vi
Social program
General information
Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment
and Australasian Land and Groundwater Association
September 2013
Copyright © CRC CARE Pty Ltd and ALGA, 2013
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Exhibitors
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Plenary and keynote speakers
xvi
The commemorative Brian Robinson lecture
xxvii
Program timetables
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Workshops
Technical Tours
This book is copyright. Except as permitted under the Australian Copyright Act 1968
(Commonwealth) and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced,
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written permission of the copyright owner.
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Abstracts
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ISBN: 978-1-921431-38-8
Enquiries and additional copies:
CRC CARE, P.O. Box 486, Salisbury South, South Australia, Australia 5106
Tel: +61 (0) 8 8302 5038
Fax: +61 (0) 8 8302 3124
www.crccare.com
These proceedings should be cited as:
CRC CARE & ALGA 2013, 5th International Contaminated Site Remediation Conference: Program
and Proceedings, CleanUp 2013 Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 15 –18 September 2013.
Disclaimer:
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technical matters. Participating organisations of CRC CARE and ALGA do not accept liability for
HU`SVZZHUKVYKHTHNLPUJS\KPUNÄUHUJPHSSVZZYLZ\S[PUNMYVT[OLYLSPHUJL\WVUHU`PUMVYTH[PVU
advice or recommendations contained in this publication. The contents of this publication should not
necessarily be taken to represent the views of the participating organisations.
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5th International Contaminated Site Remediation Conference
CONFERENCE WELCOME
Dear colleagues
Executive committee
Technical advisory committee
On behalf of CRC CARE and The Australasian Land & Groundwater
Association Inc. (ALGA), it is our pleasure to welcome you to the biennial
CleanUp Conference.
Professor Ravi Naidu, Managing Director, CRC CARE
Albert Juhasz, CERAR, UniSA
Dr John Hunt, Technical Services Manager, Thiess
Services; President, ALGA
Alex Simopoulos, ACLCA
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Branch Chair, ALGA
Bruce Kennedy, CRC CARE
Andrew Beveridge, Program Leader, Education and
Training, CRC CARE
Emma Waterhouse, Coffey
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educational program that covers all aspects of contaminated site
assessment, management and remediation. Particular attention has
been paid to presenting you with different aspects and approaches from
Australia and many other countries around the world, and the sessions
will cover both advances in research and industry best practice. Whether
you are an industry practitioner, a scientist, a regulator or a service
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ILLUWYHJ[PJPUNMVYKLJHKLZ^LHYLJLY[HPU[OH[`V\^PSSÄUKZVTL[OPUN
interesting at each time slot.
The organising committee is pleased to have secured the Crown
Melbourne as the host venue for the event, with the change in venue
constituting the next stage in the Conference’s extraordinary growth after
four successful events in Adelaide. The Crown Conference Centre – one
of Australia’s newest and best-equipped purpose-built hotel convention
facilities – is the ideal venue for the CleanUp Conference. Crown offers
an environment that enables attendees to easily navigate the tightly
paced program, engage with exhibitors, and share ideas and information.
Networking will be facilitated through a full complement of lunches,
receptions and other meals during program breaks. After the sessions
conclude each evening, there will be poster sessions and networking
drinks, and the Conference gala dinner will again be a highlight.
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industries, the Conference presents an excellent opportunity to increase
awareness of your organisation, demonstrate your involvement in the
contamination assessment and remediation industry, promote your
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before, during and after the event. We encourage you to take advantage
of this unique opportunity to promote yourself, your organisation and
your clients to a large national and international audience, and to
contribute to the success of this special event.
The Conference has again been very well supported by our sponsors,
without whom CleanUp 2013 would not be possible.
Finally, we extend our thanks to the members of the organising
committees who have generously given their time and expertise to
ensure CleanUp 2013 meets the needs of the various industry sectors
represented by the attending delegates. We look forward to your
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a professionally rewarding and enjoyable experience.
Professor Ravi Naidu
Managing Director & CEO
CRC CARE
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ORGANISING COMMITTEES
Dr John Hunt
President
ALGA
A safer, cleaner
environmental future
CRC CARE is a multi-partner
Australian research organisation
developing innovative technologies
to assess, prevent and remediate the
contamination of soil, water and air.
World-class researchers at
CRC CARE work with industry on
global contamination issues, engaging
with such major end-users as the
mining and petroleum industries,
environmental regulators, government
organisations, small-to-medium sized
enterprises, and consultants.
CRC CARE’s structured research
program is complemented by a
focus on educating and training
postgraduates and industry
professionals. In so doing, CRC CARE
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and suitably trained researchers
and decision-makers in the area of
environmental risk assessment and
remediation.
For more information, visit
www.crccare.com
Conference secretariat
Plevin and Associates Pty Ltd
Andrew Kohlrusch, GHD
Carl Gauthier, Ginivar
Enzo Lombi, CERAR, UniSA
Euan Smith, CERAR, UniSA
Frederic Cosme, Golder Associates
Garry Smith, Chairman SuRF ANZ
Gorm Heron, TerraTherm
International advisory committee
Ian Thompson, University of Oxford
Paul Nathanail, University of Nottingham, UK
Jackie Wright, EnRiskS
Rao Surampalli, US EPA, USA
Jason Prior, Institute for Sustainable Futures
Renato Baciocchi, University of Rome, Italy
Jean Meaklim, URS Australia
Ian Thompson, University of Oxford, UK
John Boyer, New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection
Scott Warner, ENVIRON, USA
Shoji Nakayama, National Institute for Environmental
Studies, Japan
Leigh Sullivan, Southern Cross University
Naji Akladiss, State of Maine Department of
Environmental Protection, USA
Michael Nicholls, CDM Smith
John Boyer, New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection, USA
Megh Mallavarapu, CERAR, UniSA
Mitzi Bolton, EPA Victoria
Nanthi Bolan, CERAR, UniSA
ALGA was formed to provide a forum
and identity for the Australasian
contaminated land and groundwater
industry, and to support the many
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core focus of this association is to
support advances in the prevention,
assessment and remediation of
contaminated land and groundwater.
ALGA has a broad base of members
including land owners, property
developers, industry, consultants,
scientists, contractors, regulatory
agency staff, government, the legal
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researchers and academics. ALGA’s
vision is for Australia and New Zealand
to lead the world in the sustainable
management of contaminated land
and groundwater.
For more information visit
www.landandgroundwater.com
Local organising committee
Neil Gray, ERM
Victoria Leitch, CRC CARE
Peter Storch, URS Australia
Adam Barclay, CRC CARE
Prashant Srivastava, CRC CARE
Elisabethe Dank, ALGA
Ross McFarland, AECOM
Jon Miller, The Remediation Group
Sam Gunasekera, Coffey
Sarah Roebuck, Herbert Smith Freehills
Workshop coordinators
Sophie Wood, ERM
Dave Reynolds, Geosyntec
Sven Hoffmann, URS Australia
Garry Smith, Chairman SuRF ANZ
Tony Cussins, Tonkin and Taylor
Gorm Heron, Terra Therm
Grant Geckeler, TPS TECH
John Boyer, New Jersey Department of
Maureen Leahy, ERM
Mike Sequino, Directional Technologies, Inc.
Peter Di Marco, Golder Associates
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SPONSORS
CONFERENCE CENTRE FLOORPLAN
We wish to thank all sponsors for their contributions to the success of this Conference:
Major sponsor
Platinum sponsors
Ground level
Silver sponsor
Bronze sponsor
REGISTRATION
Gala dinner sponsor
First level
Satchel and lanyard sponsor
Barista sponsor
CAFE
A safer, cleaner
environmental future
Session sponsors
Second level
CCH1
CCH2
CCH3
CAFE
Sponsors
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SOCIAL PROGRAM
Welcome reception
Date:
Time:
Venue:
Sunday 15 September 2013
5.00pm – 5.30pm
Crown conference centre, Level 2 Pre-function area
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VWWVY[\UP[`[VTLL[JVSSLHN\LZILMVYL[OL*VUMLYLUJLJVTTLUJLZ;OL*VUMLYLUJL^PSSILVMÄJPHSS`VWLULKI`*OLY`S
Batagol, Chairman EPA Victoria.
ALGA 3rd annual dinner
Date:
Time:
Venue:
Cost:
Monday 16 September 2013
6.00pm – 11.30pm
Showtime Events Centre, Shed 11, 61 South Wharf Promenade, South Wharf
$140pp for ALGA members, $170pp for non-members
SOCIAL MEDIA
There are a number of ways you can follow the progress and join in with the discussion online at CleanUp 2013.
CRC CARE will be live-tweeting from the event via our @crcCARE Twitter account (twitter.com/crccare). To
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page (on.fb.me/15883wo) and a LinkedIn group (linkd.in/12ZnCEd) and encourage you to use them to share and
compare ideas and information around the conference.
And you can follow us via CRC CARE’s Facebook page (www.facebook.com/CRCCARE) and the Australian
Remediation Industry Cluster (ARIC) LinkedIn group (linkd.in/nsO2TN).
We look forward to seeing you online.
ALGA is proud to be hosting its 3rd Annual Dinner in conjunction with CleanUp 2013. It is shaping up to be another great
event, with memorable food, drinks and a diverse industry crowd. The dinner venue is a leisurely 15 minutes stroll down
the Yarra River from conference centre. Online registration for this event is available at www.cvent.com/d/qcq621.
Conference gala dinner
Date:
Time:
Venue:
Cost:
INTERNET
Tuesday 17 September 2013
7.00pm – 11.00pm
Crown conference centre, Level 2 Conference Hall
$140pp
The conference gala dinner promises to again be a highlight of the conference. The gala dinner will be a chance to
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enjoying a social gathering with colleagues and clients. With a fantastic line up of entertainment, the conference gala
dinner is an event you will not want to miss. Tickets available at time of registration.
Wireless internet is available in all session rooms, foyers and trade area of the Crown Conference Centre for
the duration of the Conference. Log in details are:
Username: CleanUp13
Password: Melbourne
To gain access to the internet, connect to the ‘CleanUp13’ wireless network. When you begin browsing the
internet you will be prompted for the password.
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GENERAL INFORMATION
Registration desk opening times
Melbourne taxis
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Sunday 15 September
8:00am – 6:00pm
Monday 16 September
7:30am – 5:00pm
Tuesday 17 September
8.00am – 5:00pm
Wednesday 18 September
8.00am – 4:00pm
Taxis can be hailed in the street if their sign is illuminated. Orange lights indicate that the taxi is not for hire. Contact
numbers within Australia are:
Arrow 13 22 11
CABS 13 22 27
Black Cabs 13 22 27
Embassy 13 17 55
North Suburban 13 11 19
Silver Top 13 10 08
Notes to presenters
Presenters are requested to report to the registration desk. You will be directed to the speaker preparation room where
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minutes prior to the commencement of the session.
The speaker preparation room will be open during the following times:
Sunday 15 September
3:00pm – 6:00pm
Monday 16 September
7:30am – 5.30pm
7:30am – 5.30pm
7:30am – 3.30pm
If at all possible, please check in your presentation material well before your presentation.
Melbourne Visitor Centre
Federation Square
Corner Swanston and Flinders Streets
t: +61 3 9658 9658
tourism@melbourne.vic.gov.au
www.thatsmelbourne.com.au
Melbourne Greeter Service
Special dietary requirements
Free personal orientations of the city with a local volunteer who shares your interest and speaks your language are
available seven days a week. Bookings must be made three days in advance.
If you have advised the organisers of a special dietary requirement, this information has been forwarded to the catering
staff. However, it is your responsibility to identify yourself to staff.
t: +61 3 9658 9658
Name tags
Name tags and lanyards are in your delegate envelope. For security reasons, and for easy recognition, please wear your
name tag to each conference function.
City Ambassadors and Info Booth
Melbourne’s Ambassadors wear distinctive red uniforms and rove the streets providing free information to visitors. Ask
them for directions or ideas for things to do or see. The Melbourne Visitor Booth is located in Bourke Street Mall and
operates Monday to Saturday: 9am–5pm and Sunday: 10am–5pm.
Dress standard
Smart casual dress is suggested for conference sessions and social functions.
Smoking
The Conference has designated this to be a non-smoking environment for all sessions and social functions.
Melbourne shopping hours
As a general guide, trading hours for city shops are:
Saturday to Wednesday
10am-5pm
Thursday
10am-7pm
Friday
10am-9pm
WE’VE CHANGED
THE LANDSCAPE
We are one of the only contractors in Australia to offer the full range of
remediation technologies currently available worldwide, as well as hold
exclusive rights to internationally proven treatment solutions.
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Hours of operation often vary between shops and areas.
With a track record of almost 30 years in remediation, our experience,
innovative technologies and expertise have changed the Australian landscape.
FIND OUT MORE AT THIESS.COM.AU
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EXHIBITORS
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6
8
9
CRC CARE – booth #13
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23
11
12
22
13
CRC CARE brings together industry, government, science and engineering to prevent, assess and clean up
environmental contamination. World-class researchers at CRC CARE work with industry on global contamination issues,
engaging with major end-users such as the mining and petroleum industries, environmental regulators and consultants,
government organisations, and small-to-medium-sized enterprises. CRC CARE’s research is complemented by an
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in the area of environmental risk assessment and remediation. www.crccare.com
Envirolab Group – booth #9
21a
21
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19
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13a
Envirolab/MPL specializes in testing for the environmental and OHS sectors. Our testing includes asbestos, acid sulfate
soils, acid mine drainage, contaminated sites for organics, inorganics and metals, waters, air toxics and OHS testing
Z\JOHZ+74X\HY[aK\Z[HUKWHPU[>P[OSHIVYH[VYPLZPU:`KUL`7LY[OHUK4LSIV\YULHUKVMÄJLZPU)YPZIHULHUK
Adelaide, we are able to service all your testing needs.
Envirolab – Great Chemistry. Great Service.
ERM – booth #10
Trade exhibition
Environmental Resources Management (ERM) is a leading global provider of environmental, health, safety, risk, social
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more than 5000 people. ERM is committed to providing a service that is consistent, professional and of the highest
quality to create value for our clients.
The Conference Organising Committee thanks exhibitors for their support.
Exhibition opening times
The trade exhibition is located in the Crown Conference Centre, and will be open during the following hours:
Monday 16 September
8.30am – 5.00pm
8.30am – 5.00pm
8.30am – 4.00pm
ALS Environmental – booth #22
ALS is the largest and most diverse provider of commercial environmental analytical services in Australia. Our services
cater to a number of distinct environmental market sectors including drinking and water resources, site assessment and
remediation, mining sector monitoring, occupational hygiene, acid sulfate soil, acid mine drainage, air, dust, soil gas and
sediment testing.
Coffey – booth #23
Every Coffey relationship is built on trust.
Whether it’s in geosciences, project management or international development. Trust that’s hard-earned through our
proven expertise, our depth of global experience and our commitment to stay one-step ahead.
Our united group of specialists – many of whom number among the best in the world – take enormous pride in
collaborating with our project partners. By digging deeper. Thinking smarter. And seeing further.
Environmental Remediation Resources Pty Ltd – booth #15
ERR provides specialised equipment, technologies and services in remediation and assessment of contaminated soil and
groundwater. Our customised approach is supported by leading international technology principals.
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,U]PYVWHJPÄJHYLPUK\Z[Y`SLHKLYZPU[OLWYV]PZPVUVMIV[OWL[YVJOLTPJHSZLY]PJLZHUKLUNPULLYLKLU]PYVUTLU[HSZVS\[PVUZ
[VZVSPKHUKSPX\PKJVU[HTPUH[PVUWYVISLTZ[OYV\NOV\[(\Z[YHSPH6\YJSPLU[ZILULÄ[MYVTV\YPUUV]H[P]LWYVMLZZPVUHSHUK
cost-effective services complemented by practical hands-on experience.
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HUK4LSIV\YULZ\WWVY[LKI`H5H[PVUHSUL[^VYRVMJSPLU[Z\WWVY[VMÄJLZ.SVIHSS`^LOH]L3HIVYH[VYPLZHJYVZZ
countries & 13,000 staff.
FMC Environmental Solutions – booth #11
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A leader in chemical oxidation for environmental applications, FMC offers Klozur® activated persulfate, PermeOx®
Plus, and hydrogen peroxide for remediating a wide range of contaminants including petroleum hydrocarbons, BTEX,
chlorinated solvents, MTBE and pesticides.
All so we can deliver the smartest solutions, every time.
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EXHIBITORS continued...
Geosyntec Consultants – booth #13a
Spatial Vision – booth #8
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new ventures and complex problems involving our environment, natural resources, and civil infrastructure.
*OLJR:P[LI`:WH[PHS=PZPVU¶H\[OVYP[H[P]LWYVWLY[`ZWLJPÄJPUMVYTH[PVU[VHZZLZZLU]PYVUTLU[HSYPZRZ*OLJR:P[LZL[Z
the industry standard for Phase 1 Environmental Risk Assessments. www.checksite.com.au
JBS&G Environmental Consulting – booth #21a
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JBS&G is a specialist consulting company offering Contaminated Land, Groundwater Remediation, Impact Assessments
and Approvals, Site Audits, Occupational Hygiene and Air Monitoring services across Australia.
;OLYTV-PZOLY:JPLU[PÄJVMMLYZHIYVHKWVY[MVSPVVMLU]PYVUTLU[HSTVUP[VYPUNHUKYLTLKPH[PVUWYVK\J[ZLUJVTWHZZPUN
the most respected global leading brands as well as our own brands such as QED Environmental, Regenesis,
Geotechnical Instruments, In-situ, EnviroEquip and Honeywell.
Maccaferri Aust. Ltd – booth # 18
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range of pollutants including hydrocarbons, industrial chemicals and toxic wastes.
McMahon Services Australia Pty Ltd/ResourceCo – booth #1
McMahon Services is an award-winning remediation services contractor capable of delivering large-scale remediation of
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Thiess Services Pty Ltd – booth #14
Thiess Services is Australia’s oldest, largest and most experienced contractor. We pioneered many of the remediation
practices that are used today, and we are still innovating. We have completed over $1 billion of remediation project
works, and have 25 years of experience in oil, gas, chemical, radiological mining and sediment remediation.
Toxikos – booth #12
Providing science-based solutions for government, industry and community that match the outcomes and goals of the
stakeholders and clients.
ResourceCo delivers a range of project solutions including tyre and conveyor belt recycling, treatment of contaminated
soil, mobile concrete batching, and treatment and management of solid, toxic and contaminated wastes.
Numac Drilling Services Australia – middle of hall
From initial site investigation through to divestment, Numac consolidates 50 years of drilling, high resolution vertical
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true end-to-end offering of specialist environmental contracting services.
REGENESIS – booth #19
REGENESIS is a global leader in proven and cost-effective environmental technologies for the remediation of
contaminated properties. Since 1994, the company has been developing, manufacturing and supporting a range
of widely used reagents that are applied directly into soil and groundwater to enhance the biological and chemical
destruction of environmental contaminants. For more information visit www.regenesis.com.
Veolia Environmental Services – booth #6
VES will soon be bringing advanced resource recovery to the soil treatment market with our indirect thermal desorption
installation at our Brooklyn treatment facility.
Willowstick Technologies LLC – booth #16
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groundwater, improving characterisation and remediation efforts. www.willowstick.com
Ziltek – booth #21
Ziltek is a leading provider of waste remediation products. Signature products include RemScan – a handheld instrument
MVY[OLYLHS[PTLTLHZ\YLTLU[VMO`KYVJHYIVUZPUZVPS"9LT)PUK¶HJOLTPJHSÄ_H[PVUYLHNLU[MVY[OLPTTVIPSPZH[PVUVM
organic soil contaminants including PAHs and PFOS; and RemActiv – a liquid bioremediation enhancer.
RENEX Group – booth #17
9,5,?OHZLZ[HISPZOLK(\Z[YHSPH»ZÄYZ[WLYTHULU[S`SVJH[LKPU[LNYH[LK^HZ[L[YLH[TLU[HUKYLZV\YJLYLJV]LY`MHJPSP[`MVY
the treatment of contaminated soils and other prescribed industrial wastes.
Shell – booth #3 and #4
Shell is a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies committed to helping to meet the world’s growing
demand for energy in economically, environmentally and socially responsible ways.
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PLENARY AND KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
Dr Vivian Balakrishnan
Naji Akladiss
Professor Renato Baciocchi
Stephan Bartke
Minister for the Environment and
Water Resources, Parliament of
Singapore
State of Maine Department of
University of Rome
Helmholtz Centre for
Environmental Research – UFZ,
Department of Economics
Dr Balakrishnan graduated from
the National University of Singapore
with a degree in Medicine in 1985.
After graduating, he specialised in Ophthalmology.
He was appointed associate professor of the National
University of Singapore and deputy director of Singapore
National Eye Centre (SNEC) in 1997, and later as the
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the Singapore General Hospital in 2000. During this time
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of the 2nd Combat Support Hospital of the Singapore
Armed Forces and honorary treasurer of the Singapore
Medical Association. He was also a member of the
National Library Board, the Singapore Broadcasting
Authority Programmes Advisory Committee, and National
Volunteer Centre. He was a well-known debater in the
1980s and host of the television series Health Matters
in the 1990s. Dr Balakrishnan has been a member of
parliament since 2001. He is currently Minister for the
Environment and Water Resources. He previously held
appointments as Minister for Community Development,
Youth and Sports; Second Minister for Trade and
Industry; Minister responsible for Entrepreneurship;
Second Minister for Information, Communications and
the Arts; and Minister of State for National Development.
During the early years of his political career, he served as
chairman of both the ‘Remaking Singapore’ committee
and the National Youth Council. He also served two
terms as Chairman of the Young People’s Action Party.
In Parliament, he has moved several pieces of new
legislation including the Energy Conservation Act, AgriFood and Veterinary Authority Act, and Sewerage and
Drainage Act.
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Naji Akladiss, P.E., is a project
manager with the Maine
Department of Environmental
Protection (DEP), Bureau of
Remediation, in Augusta, Maine. He has worked as an
analytical chemist in the DEP Laboratory (since 1989),
and as a project manager for federal facilities (since
1991). He has experience in environmental technologies
and Superfund remediation. Naji is the project manager
for the clean-up of two Superfund sites in Maine. He is
the leader of the ITRC Integrated DNAPLs Site Strategy
Team as well as co-leader of the Characterization Team.
He has also served as the ITRC state Point of Contact for
Maine. He is a licensed Professional Engineer in the State
VM4HPULHUKH8\HSP[`,UNPULLYJLY[PÄLKI`[OL(TLYPJHU
Society for Quality. Prior to joining the Maine DEP, Naji
worked for Rockwell International as a process/quality
engineer.
Professor Baciocchi has been
assistant professor of environmental
engineering at the University of
Rome Tor Vergata since 2003.
He received a PhD in Chemical
Engineering from the Politecnico di Milano in 1995,
and worked as a process engineer before starting his
academic career in 1998. His research interests focus on
remediation of contaminated sites and carbon dioxide
JHW[\YLHUKZ[VYHNL0U[OLMVYTLYÄLSKOLOHZILLU
working on the application of in situ chemical oxidation
(ISCO) to the remediation of contaminated sites, and on
the development of tools and criteria for the application
of risk analysis to the management of contaminated
sites. He is currently a member of a working group of the
Ministry of the Environment on the issue of the national
priority contaminated sites. He has published more than
100 contributions to international journals and conference
proceedings, with 39 papers published in peer-reviewed
journals.
Stephan Bartke is research
fellow at the Helmholtz Centre for
Environmental Research – UFZ,
Leipzig, Germany, and visiting research fellow at the
University of Manchester, UK. He has been lecturer
at Anhalt Applied University and Leuphana University,
Germany. With a background in economics and
business administration, he has long been involved in
transdisciplinary research projects striving to achieve
more sustainable land use. Since 2009, he has been the
coordinator of the SAFIRA II Tool Development Group,
which developed an integrated Megasite Management
:`Z[LTMVYIYVÛÄLSKYL]P[HSPZH[PVUHZZLZZTLU[
*\YYLU[SÒLPZZJPLU[PÄJJVVYKPUH[VYHUKYLZWVUZPISLMVY
the management and dissemination of the international
EU FP7 project TIMBRE – Tailored Improvement of
)YVÛÄLSK9LNLULYH[PVUPU,\YVWL>P[OPU[OL.LYTHU
Association of Remediation Engineers (ITVA), he is deputy
leader of the Site Recycling technical committee.
Kyle M Alexander OBE
Maze Long Kesh, Lisburn
As an advisor and practitioner in
regeneration policy and practice,
Kyle draws on over 30 years’
public- and private-sector
experience in the regeneration
VMIYVÛÄLSKZP[LZPU[OL<UP[LK2PUNKVT/LPZ
currently interim chief executive of the Maze Long Kesh
Development Corporation, responsible for securing
[OLZPNUPÄJHU[HUKZ`TIVSPJ[YHUZMVYTH[PVUVM[OPZ
347-acre former prison site in Northern Ireland. He
is a Strategic Advisor with the Strategic Investment
Board (Northern Ireland), Chairman of the Connswater
Community Greenway Trust, and a director of the Lisburn
Building Preservation Trust. Kyle received an OBE in
the Queen’s New Year Honours in 2007 for services to
regeneration in Northern Ireland as chief executive of
Laganside Corporation, the organisation responsible for
transforming Belfast’s waterfront. He is a board member
of INTA, the International Urban Development Association
and a member of the Royal Town Planning Institute, the
Academy of Urbanism, and the European CABERNET
IYVÛÄLSKUL[^VYR
Professor Paul Bardos
r3 Environmental Technology
Ltd, Reading
Prof. Paul Bardos has more than
20 years of experience in soil
science and biology, contaminated
SHUKHUKIYVÛÄLSKZ^HZ[L
treatment, and risk management – focused particularly
around biological treatment technologies, sustainability
appraisal, and soil and water issues. Since 1997 he has
been managing director of r³. Prior to 1997 he worked
with Nottingham Trent University and, before that, the
Warren Spring Laboratory, a government research
institute. He has worked with a wide range of clients in
the UK, Europe and North America including multinational
and national businesses, stakeholder networks, and
government agencies. He is currently a visiting professor
at the Universities of Nottingham and Reading, and a
staff professor at the University of Brighton.
Eric Blischke
CDM Smith, Sydney
Eric Blischke is a contaminated
sediment specialist with over
25 years of remediation experience
in the state, federal and private
sectors. Currently, Eric is serving as
a technical resource for numerous CDM Smith sediment
clean-up projects around the country, and as CDM Smith’s
representative on the Sediment Management Workgroup.
He also participates in the development of a national
sediment remediation guidance development by ITRC.
Prior to joining CDM Smith, as project manager for the
Portland Harbor Superfund Site, Eric was responsible for
all major technical elements of the sediment investigation
and evaluation, sediment source control coordination,
clean-up of dioxin-contaminated sediments in East Doane
Lake, environmental policy, and development of clean-up
rules and guidance documents for the State of Oregon.
Eric has extensive experience performing human health
and ecological risk assessments, evaluating contaminant
fate and transport, completing feasibility studies, producing
remedial investigation/feasibility study plans and reports,
and coordinating laboratory analyses and data validation
efforts.
xvii
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PLENARY AND KEYNOTE SPEAKERS continued...
Professor Nanthi Bolan
Ed Dennis
CERAR and CRC CARE
Contaminated Site Services,
WorleyParsons Consulting
Professor Nanthi Bolan is Research
Chair of Environmental Science
at the Centre for Environmental
Risk Assessment and Remediation
(CERAR), University of South
Australia (UniSA), and a CRC CARE program leader.
From 2007 to 2011 he led CRC CARE’s Prevention
Technologies Program, and was UniSA Dean of Graduate
Studies from 2008 to 2010. Before arriving at UniSA in
2007, Nanthi was professor of soil science and director
of postgraduate studies at New Zealand’s Massey
University. Nanthi remains an active researcher in
CRC CARE projects and at CERAR. Nanthi completed
his PhD at the University of Western Australia in 1983,
and has published more than 200 peer-reviewed papers.
A fellow of the American Society of Soil Science and the
New Zealand Soil Science Society, Nanthi was awarded
the M.L. Leamy Award in 2004, in recognition of his
contribution to his discipline. He is also a winner of the
Massey Medal for Postgraduate supervision.
John E Boyer
New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection, USA
Mr Boyer is an Environmental
Scientist at the New Jersey
Department of Environmental
Protection (NJDEP). He has
worked with NJDEP since 1988 where he is a principal
in developing vapour intrusion (VI) policy. He is co-author
of NJDEP’s Vapor Intrusion Guidance (2005) and the
updated NJDEP Vapor Intrusion Technical Guidance
(2012). As co-team leader for the Interstate Technology
and Regulatory Council (ITRC) Vapor Intrusion Team,
Mr Boyer was a primary writer for the ITRC companion
documents VI Pathway: A Practical Guideline and VI
Pathway: Investigative Approaches for Typical Scenarios
(2007). He is an instructor for ITRC’s Vapor Intrusion
Classroom Training and is currently co-chair of the ITRC
Petroleum Vapor Intrusion Team. Mr Boyer has written
vapour intrusion (VI) articles for publications that include
the American Bar Association and EM (Environmental
Managers).
xviii
Ed graduated from the University
of London (University College)
with a Bachelor’s Degree in
Geophysics and a Master’s
Degree in Hydrogeology in 1997. He started his
consulting career Dames & Moore, later URS, working
on international investigation and remediation projects
in Europe, the former Soviet Republics, the Middle
East, India and Pakistan before relocating to URS’s
7LY[O6MÄJLPU0U,KQVPULK[OLJVUZ\S[PUN
division of WorleyParsons to lead the company’s
contaminated site services practice, which has
delivered innovative solutions and value to clients
locally and globally while promoting the importance
of stakeholder participation in the decision-making
process. Ed’s expertise includes LNAPL remediation
in fractured rock settings, the economics of soil and
NYV\UK^H[LYYLTLKPH[PVUSHUKÄSSYPZRHZZLZZTLU[[OL
management of acid sulfates soils and environmental
due diligence. In addition to supporting major oil and
gas clients with the management of environmental risk
HUKSPHIPSP[PLZ,K»ZJSPLU[ZPUJS\KLSH^ÄYTZTHQVYHUK
junior resource companies, the infrastructure sector,
and industrial clients. In 2012 Ed, with his co-authors at
WorleyParsons, Professor Paul Hardisty (now CSIRO)
and Melanie Myden, was commissioned by CRC CARE
[VKL]LSVWH\UPÄLKHWWYVHJOMVY[OL[YLH[TLU[VM35(73
in Australia.
Dr Ian Duncan
Bureau of Economic Geology,
University of Texas
Dr Ian Duncan is a program director
and research scientist at the
Bureau of Economic Geology at the
University of Texas at Austin. He
was born in Sydney and grew up
in the Western Plains and New England areas of NSW.
He graduated from Macquarie University in Sydney and
received a Doctorate in geology from the University of
British Columbia. He was on the Faculty at Southern
Methodist University in Dallas and Washington University
PU:[3V\PZ/PZJ\YYLU[YLZLHYJOMVJ\ZLZVU[OLZJPLU[PÄJ
environmental, regulatory and public policy aspects of
unconventional natural gas production, the water–energy
nexus, and carbon capture and storage. He has a
particular interest in risk analysis, decision making, and
legal/regulatory issues related to hydraulic fracturing,
carbon diaoxide sequestration, and energy production.
He is currently collaborating with the Centre for Coal
Seam Gas at the University of Queensland in making
a comparative study of the environmental impacts on
coal bed methane in the US and coal seam gas in
Australia. He has presented congressional testimony on
environmental impacts of energy development to the US
House Natural Resources Committee, and to the US
House Committee on Energy and Commerce.
Carl Gauthier
GENIVAR, Canada
Mr Gauthier, a senior engineer
who specialises in contaminant
hydrogeology, has a Bachelor’s
degree in Geological Engineering
from Université Laval. He joined
GENIVAR in 2002 where he has been the Environmental
Engineering Director since 2004. Since 2012, he
has also been the Regional Environmental Manager
– Eastern Quebec. He is also an Expert accredited
by the Quebec ministry of Sustainable Development,
Environment, Fauna and Parks. Over the past 20 years,
he has developed solid expertise in site rehabilitation
contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons, using both
in situ and ex situ methods. He has also worked on
multiple characterization projects and participated in
several hydrogeological and geotechnical studies, as well
as several impact studies. His career brought him to the
United States where he was assigned for 16 months as
senior design engineer on a major rehabilitation project,
integrating several engineering disciplines from four
VMÄJLZ/LOHZHSZV^VYRLKHZÄLSKJVVYKPUH[VYHUK
manager of rehabilitation operations in four emergency
responses, including two major sulphuric acid spills
(up to 250,000 litres) after train derailments. In the past
10 years, Mr Gauthier has focused mostly on project
management for large characterisation and rehabilitation
projects and mines closures. In 2010, he was project
THUHNLYVU[OLÄYZ[ZTLS[LYJSVZ\YLPU*HUHKHSVJH[LK
in Murdochville.
Dr. Allen Hatheway
Private Consultant
Allen W. Hatheway is a Geological
,UNPULLYVWLYH[PUNPU[OLÄLSKVM
remediation and redevelopment of
former manufactured gas plants
and other coal-tar sites. He was
educated at the University of California, Los Angeles,
and the University of Arizona, and was in consulting
engineering until 1981 when he served as full professor
of geological engineering (University of Missouri) for 19
years. He has been in practice for 51 years and holds
US licensure as a civil and geological engineer, geologist,
and engineering geologist. Allen was self-captured
by the ‘coal-tar bug’ in 1989 and has since devoted
his energies to the full spectrum of site and waste
characterisation and remedial engineering of such sites.
His Australian gasworks history and remediation paper
(2010) is evidence of his devotion-to-calling worldwide.
The greater remedial alternative of ex-situ remediation
has his enthusiastic endorsement for its ability to blend
cost-effectiveness with public safety and environmental
assuredness.
Dr Gorm Heron
TerraTherm, California
Dr. Heron is Chief Technology
6MÄJLY^P[O;LYYH;OLYT0UJÔLYL
he is responsible for site evaluation
and treatment design. A specialist
in a broad range of thermal
remediation methods, from 1995 to 1998 Dr. Heron
conducted research on thermal remediation at the
US EPA lab in Ada, Oklahoma, and at the University
of California at Berkeley. As the lead engineer with
SteamTech Environmental Services from 1999 to 2004,
OLKLZPNULKHUKPTWSLTLU[LKÄLSKZJHSLZ[LHTHUK
electrical heating systems. He serves as an expert
advisor on thermal remediation to government and
private organisations. He is based in south central
California, USA.
xix
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Dr Maureen Leahy
Dr. Ben Mork
Dr. Peter Nadebaum
Professor Paul Nathanail
Environmental Resources Management, USA
Regenesis, USA
GHD, Australia
University of Nottingham & Land
Quality Management Ltd, UK
Dr. Maureen Leahy is an internationally known expert
in remediation technologies with over 25 years of
experience. She holds a BS in chemistry from Fordham
University and a PhD in molecular biophysics and
biochemistry from Yale University. Dr. Leahy provides
technical support in the application of biological,
chemical, and physical treatments for contaminated soil
and groundwater and has worked on sites throughout
the USA, Canada, Latin America, Europe, Middle East
HUK(ZPH7HJPÄJ+Y3LHO`»ZWYPTHY`HYLHZVML_WLY[PZL
are biological and chemical treatment processes, and she
has implemented biological treatments at multiple sites
using either aerobic or anaerobic processes for a wide
range of contaminants. With an academic background in
molecular biology and chemistry, she is well positioned
to present the application of many of the new diagnostic
tools for support of bioremediation.
Toni Meek
Yarra Valley Water, Melbourne
Australia
Toni is the community engagement
manager at Yarra Valley Water. A
community relations specialist with
over 20 years’ experience working
in community- and stakeholder-engagement roles in
the environment industry, Toni’s expertise is regularly
sought out nationally and internationally. Toni’s more
recent roles have been in environmental consulting, and
previously at Melbourne Water and EPA Victoria. As EPA’s
ÄYZ[JVTT\UP[`SPHPZVUVMÄJLY¶HUKWVZZPIS`[OLÄYZ[PU
an environment agency in Australia – Toni has been in
[OL\UPX\LWVZP[PVUVMTHUHNPUNZVTL]LY`ZPNUPÄJHU[
community impacts resulting from the discovery of major
contaminated sites around Victoria. These include the
infamous Ardeer site, the legacy of which informed the
evolution of contaminated site management both in
that state and across Australia. Toni will give a personal
perspective of the rise in prominence of communityengagement activities over the last two decades and
the (sometimes reluctant) acknowledgement of their
importance.
xx
Dr. Mork earned a B.S. in chemistry
from the University of California
at Davis, and a PhD in inorganic
chemistry from the University of
California at Berkeley. His industrial
YLZLHYJOL_WLYPLUJLZWHUZ[OLÄLSKZVMWL[YVJOLTPJHS
catalysis, high-throughput experimentation,
nanotechnology and environmental chemistry. He is a
co-author of numerous technical papers and patent
applications on aspects of organometallic chemistry,
catalysis, materials science, and environmental chemistry.
He joined Regenesis in 2006, where he currently serves
as director of research and development.
Professor Ashok Mulchandani
Department of Chemical and
Environmental Engineering,
University of California
Dr. Ashok Mulchandani is a
professor in the Department of
Chemical and Environmental
Engineering at the University of California and the editorin-chief of the Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology
journal. He is an elected Fellow of the American
Association for Advancement of Science and the
American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering.
He has received several honours and awards including
the Research Initiation Award from the National Science
Foundation and a Faculty Participation Award from
the Department of Energy. He has delivered several
plenary and keynote lectures. Prof. Mulchandani has
published over 225 peer-reviewed journal publications,
13 book chapters, 12 conference proceedings, and
over 200 conference abstracts. He has also edited four
textbooks. Prof. Mulchandani’s primary research interest
is in the broad area of bio-nanotechnology with goals of
developing novel (bio)analytical devices/assays,
(bio)remediation technologies and (bio)nanomaterials.
Dr Peter Nadebaum is a senior
principal of GHD and a founding
member of CRC CARE. Peter
has extensive experience in
the management of land and
groundwater contamination, and has been the national
manager of the environmental businesses of major
consulting companies. He is currently appointed as
an environmental auditor in NSW and South Australia
(Contaminated Land), in Victoria (Contaminated Land
and Industrial Facilities), as a third party reviewer in
Queensland, and as an auditor in Victoria (Safe Drinking
Water Act). He has been an Adjunct Professor of the
University of South Australia and Chair of the Advisory
Board of the UniSA Centre for Environmental Risk
Assessment and Remediation. He was a founding
member and director of the CRC Water Quality and
Treatment, and a director of Saftec Pty Ltd, a company
involved with the commercialisation of new water and
wastewater treatment technologies.
Paul Nathanail is professor
of engineering geology at
the University of Nottingham
and managing director of
specialist contaminated land consultants Land Quality
Management Ltd. His interest in sustainable remediation
Z[LTZMYVTHSVUN[YHJRYLJVYKPU[OLIYVHKLYÄLSKVM
sustainable urban land management. The concept is
‘trending’ and in danger of losing its impact through
misuse on company websites and marketing literature.
The plethora of spreadsheets, programs and applets
purporting to diagnose sustainable remediation are
in danger of cloaking a simple concept with overly
elaborate, time-consuming and expensive procedures.
The middle ground in achieving a step change in how we
remediate is to use simple tools and approaches to help
identify those remedies likely to deliver optimal net social,
LJVUVTPJHUKLU]PYVUTLU[HSILULÄ[Z
Carlos Pachon
Dr. Shoji F. Nakayama MD, PhD
Integrated Health Risk
Assessment Section, Centre
for Environmental Health
Sciences, National Institute for
Environmental Studies, Japan
Dr Nakayama holds an MD and
a PhD in public health. He is an expert on exposure
science, especially relating to compounds of emerging
concern such as persistent organic compounds,
Å\VYPUH[LKJOLTPJHSZLUKVJYPULKPZY\W[LYZ
pharmaceuticals and personal care products. In 2005,
he was invited to the US EPA and researched exposure
[VWLYÅ\VYPUH[LKHSR`SJVTWV\UKZ(M[LYTV]PUN[V,7(»Z
engineering laboratory to work on risk management
of emerging contaminants, Dr Nakayama joined the
National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan in
in 2011. He is a lead exposure scientist for the Japan
Environment and Children’s Study, a longitudinal birth
cohort study involving 100,000 mothers and children.
Recently, in collaboration with US EPA, Dr Nakayama
has been combining biological assays and analytical
chemistry as part of his research on risk management of
chemical mixtures in the environment.
6MÄJLVM:\WLYM\UK9LTLKPH[PVU
and Technology Innovation,
US EPA
Carlos is a senior environmental
protection specialist with the US
EPA Superfund Program, based
PU>HZOPUN[VU+*/LTHUHNLZ[OL)YVÛÄLSKZHUK
Land Revitalization Technology Support Center, providing
ZP[LZWLJPÄJ[LJOUPJHSZ\WWVY[HUKJHW[\YPUNHUK
KVJ\TLU[PUNILZ[WYHJ[PJLZPU[OLÄLSK(THPUMVJ\ZVM
his work is identifying and advancing best practices and
new technologies in cleaning up contaminated sites. He
keeps tabs on overall market trends, and as an example
he tracks and synthesizes information on the use of
technologies in Superfund. He is currently leading a
cross-agency effort to advance EPA’s principles for green
remediation. In recent years he also served as Deputy
Director for Environmental Reviews with the United
States Trade Representative, and worked as a special
assistant to EPA Administrator Johnson. He has held
other positions outside the agency, notably as a forecast
hydrologist with the NRSC Snow Survey Program. He
has a BS from Colorado State University in Watershed
Sciences, a Master’s in Environmental Management from
Duke University, and a Georgetown MBA.
xxi
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Mr Jeff Paul
Chief Justice Brian Preston
Dr Jason Prior
Golder Associates, USA
Land and Environment
Court of NSW
Institute for Sustainable Futures,
University of Technology Sydney
Mr Paul has almost 40 years of
professional experience in the
ÄLSKVMLU]PYVUTLU[HSYLTLKPH[PVU
Specialising in non-aqueous
phase liquids (NAPLs) he has
directed, performed, reviewed and optimised site closure
remediation projects in over 60 countries – including a
number in the Australasian region. Currently a principal
and practice leader – remediation for Golder Associates
in Atlanta, Mr Paul has also worked for the Yorkshire
Water Authority, Suffolk County Council and Severn Trent
>H[LY(\[OVYP[`(JLY[PÄLKNLVSVNPZ[^P[OHUOVUV\YZ
degree in Geology from the University College Wales,
Mr Paul has also been involved in studies assessing
groundwater and aqueous geochemistry.
Professor Gary Pierzynski
Kansas State University, USA
Professor Gary Pierzynski has
been head of Kansas State
University Department of Agronomy
since 2007, serving as interim
department head for a year prior
to his appointment, and also served as Interim Dean
of the College of Agriculture and Interim Director of
Kansas State University Research and Extension from
March 2010 until August 2012. Professor Pierzynski is
past-president of the Soil Science Society of America.
He is a professor of soil and environmental chemistry
and a member of the Kansas State faculty since 1989.
An active researcher, Professor Pierzynski has worked
with the US EPA, US Department of Agriculture, and the
Kansas Department of Health and Environment on issues
related to plant nutrient management and remediation of
contaminated sites and soils. He earned his bachelor’s
and master’s degrees from Michigan State University,
and a doctorate in soil chemistry from the Ohio State
University.
xxii
Justice Preston is the Chief Judge
of the Land and Environment Court
in New South Wales. Prior to being
appointed in November 2005, he
was a senior counsel practising primarily in New South
Wales in environmental, planning, administrative and
property law. He holds a BA and LLB (1st class honours)
from Macquarie University, practised as a solicitor from
1982-1987, and then at the bar from 1987-2005. He
was appointed senior counsel in 1999. He has lectured
in postgraduate environmental law for over 20 years,
principally at the University of Sydney, but also at other
universities in Australia and overseas. He established
two law courses: environmental dispute resolution and
biodiversity law. He is currently an Adjunct Professor at
the University of Sydney. Justice Preston is the author
VM(\Z[YHSPH»ZÄYZ[IVVRVULU]PYVUTLU[HSSP[PNH[PVUPU
1989) and 77 articles, book chapters and reviews on
environmental law, administrative and criminal law.
He holds editorial positions in several environmental
law publications. Justice Preston is a member of
the Adhoc Advisory Committee of Judges, United
Nations Environment Programme Judges Program; the
Environmental Law Commission of the International
Union for Conservation of Nature; the Australian
Centre for Climate and Environmental Law; and Chair
of the Environmental Law Standing Committee of the
3H^(ZZVJPH[PVUMVY(ZPHHUK[OL7HJPÄJ0UOL
received a Commendation in Australasian Institute
of Judicial Administration, Award for Excellence in
Court Administration, for his work in implementing the
International Framework for Court Excellence in the
Land and Environment Court of New South Wales; and
the Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement
Network awarded him for his outstanding leadership
and commitment in promoting effective environmental
adjudication in Asia.
Jason Prior is a planner, architect
and social researcher who
researches improved decisionmaking, governance and planning
for institutional, urban and regional futures. He builds
on his transdisciplinary background in planning, urban
design, architecture, property development and
rights, geography, and sociology to obtain a clearer
understanding of the role of social and cultural processes
within these futures. His doctoral research explored the
interplay of built form, governance, planning and social
identity within the 20th-century urban context. Jason’s
portfolio of current research includes the NextGen
Affordable Housing Project; creating a sustainability
indicator framework for Australian tourism, and studying
the relationship between communities and technologies.
He uses a range of qualitative and quantitative research
methods, supported by such technologies as Nvivo,
SPSS and GIS, and has recognised skills in problem
solving and the facilitation of processes. Jason is also an
HZZVJPH[LTLTILYVM[OL(ZPH7HJPÄJ*LU[YLVM*VTWSL_
Real Property Rights, the China Research Centre, and
the Centre of Contemporary Design Practice.
Professor Kirk Semple
Lancaster University
As a professor of environmental
microbiology, Kirk has strategically
developed and managed an
active research team, supported
by excellent analytical (LC-MS,
GC-MS, HPLC-14C detector, sample oxidisation, liquid
scintillation counting) and microbiological (incubation,
handling, 12C- and 14C-respirometry) facilities. His
THPUÄLSKZVMYLZLHYJOPU[LYLZ[PUJS\KL\UKLYZ[HUKPUN
fundamental processes affecting organic contaminant–
biota interactions in soils, availability of pesticide residues
in soils, and risk assessment and bioremediation of
contaminated land. Hie is best known internationally for
his expertise in organic contaminant bioavailability in
soil. He has published over 160 peer-reviewed journal
and international conference papers. In addition, Kirk
has sat on the editorial boards of Journal of Applied Soil
Ecology, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Soil
Biology and Biochemistry, Journal of Soil and Sediment,
Soil & Sediment Contamination, Journal of Applied
Microbiology, and Letters in Applied Microbiology. He
has also been invited guest editor for special issues of
Environmental Pollution, Journal of Environmental Quality
and Journal of Applied Microbiology.
Michael Sequino
Directional Technologies Inc.
Mike Sequino is vice president of
Directional Technologies and is
the company’s principal engineer.
Mike has relevant experience in the
VPSÄLSK[OL\[PSP[`PUK\Z[Y`HUK[OL
environmental industry. He is responsible for operations
from design to completion.
Professor Jonathan Smith
Shell Global Solutions (UK) Ltd.
Jonathan is a senior hydrogeologist
at Shell Global Solutions, based
in Rijswijk, The Netherlands. He
also is a visiting professor of
hydrogeology at the University of
:OLMÄLSK<2HJOHY[LYLKNLVSVNPZ[HUKHUHJJYLKP[LK
Specialist in Land Condition (SiLC). He has 20 years’
soil and groundwater experience in regulation and policy
(Environment Agency), academia (Catchment Science
*LU[YL:OLMÄLSK<UP]LYZP[`HUKPUK\Z[Y`:OLSSHUK
has worked in the UK, USA and The Netherlands. He
is chairman of the Sustainable Remediation Forum-UK
(SuRF-UK, www.claire.co.uk/surfuk) and the CONCAWE
Soil & Groundwater Task Force (www.concawe.org), and
sits on the European Commission’s Advisory Working
Group on the European Union Groundwater Directive.
Jonathan led the development of the UK guidance on
hydrogeological risk assessment and management tools
such as the Remedial Targets method (P20), ConSim,
LandSim, the Environment Agency’s monitored natural
attenuation guidance and the SuRF-UK framework. He
has published more than 20 peer-reviewed journal papers
and is a co-author of the developing ISO standard on
sustainable remediation.
xxiii
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Professor Leigh Sullivan
Southern Cross Geoscience
Dr Leigh Sullivan is a founding
director of Southern Cross
Geoscience and professor of
geoscience. His research interests
embrace the geochemistry of
soils and sediments; reducing global carbon dioxide
emissions by enhancing secure carbon biosequestration
via silica phytolith carbon in crops, pastures, forestry
and horticulture; and the geochemistry of silica and
phosphorus in terrestrial environments. Many of Leigh’s
contributions to soil science have been in the area of
acid sulfate soil science and management, but they also
cover soil organic matter characterisation and dynamics,
clay movement in soil, the effect of microstructure on
soil behaviour, and the micromorphology and mineralogy
of many soil components. Leigh has co-pioneered
research in the role of plantstones (aka. silica phytoliths)
in crops, pastures and trees to enhance the secure
biosequestration of terrestrial carbon. Leigh has authored
V]LYZJPLU[PÄJW\ISPJH[PVUZHUKOHZ^VUPUL_JLZZVM
TPSSPVUVMJVTWL[P[P]LM\UKPUNPU[OLWHZ[Ä]L`LHYZ[V
support his research.
Matthew Sutton
AECOM
Matthew Sutton is chief executive
VMÄJLYVM,U]PYVUTLU[)\ZPULZZ
for AECOM, an $8-billion global
provider of professional technical
and management support
services. Mr Sutton recently returned from an executive
management trip to China where he was invited to
high-level talks with the Chinese Deputy Minister of
Environmental Protection on advancing air pollution
control, hazardous waste management, and worker
health and safety in regulatory regimes. Mr Sutton joined
AECOM from an international consultancy, design,
engineering and management company, where he was
executive vice president and director of operations.
/LHSZVSLK[OLÄYT»ZZP[LL]HS\H[PVUHUKYLTLKPH[PVU
and sediments business. Previously, Mr Sutton was
WYLZPKLU[HUKJOPLMVWLYH[PUNVMÄJLYVM3-90UJHNSVIHS
LU]PYVUTLU[HSJVUZ\S[PUNÄYTHJX\PYLKI`(YJHKPZPU
xxiv
December 2008. With extensive experience in alternative
delivery services and performance-based contracting,
merger and acquisitions, and integrating operations,
he has worked with public- and private-sector clients
to manage delivery of environmental services in the
Americas, Asia, Europe and Africa.
Professor Ian Thompson
Department of Engineering
Science, University of Oxford
Although he originally trained and
worked as a microbial ecologist,
Ian is a Professor of Engineering
Science. His research group
specialises in environmental biotechnology, with particular
focus on the manipulation of micro-organisms using
physical and engineered approaches (ultrasound, particle
acceleration and nanomaterials) for industrial waste
water treatment and remediation. Current research
projects include the development of microbial based
end-of-pipe clean-up systems for treating spent metal
^VYRPUNÅ\PKZL_WSVP[PUNUHUVTH[LYPHSTPJYVIPHSJLSSZ
interactions, microbial conversion of green waste to
useful products, and development of novel nanomaterialbased biocides. He has published over 100 papers,
held grants from a broad range of sources (particularly
industry), and is an active member of the international
peer review system. Until 2007 he was the Head of
Environmental Biotechnology in Natural Environmental
Research Council Institute Oxford, developing microbial
technologies for soil and water clean-up and accessing
the environmental impact of contaminants. Since
joining Oxford he has established a state-of-the-art
environmental biotechnology laboratory in the University
of Oxford Begbroke Science Park. He is also co-founding
director of Microbial Solutions Ltd, a spin-out company
which specialises in microbial diagnostic and formulation
JOLTPZ[Y`HUK[YLH[PUN^HZ[LTL[HS^VYRPUNÅ\PKZ
A/Professor Remke Van Dam
Remke Van Dam is an Assistant
Professor at Michigan State
University, USA, but resides in
Brisbane, Australia, where he is an
Adjunct Associate Professor in the
Institute for Future Environments
at Queensland University of
Technology. He holds a PhD (2001) from the Free
University in Amsterdam. Van Dam is an expert in the use
of ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity as
tools for characterization and monitoring of subsurface
conditions and processes. He has broad experience with
a range of other geophysical methods and environmental
assessment tools.
Dr Thomas Vienken
Thomas Vienken studied Geology
at the University of Cologne
and received his PhD from the
University of Tübingen for his
[OLZPZVU[OL¸*YP[PJHSL]HS\H[PVUVM
vertical high resolution methods for
KL[LYTPUPUNO`KYH\SPJJVUK\J[P]P[`¸
Since November 2010 Thomas is leading the working
NYV\W¸+PYLJ[7\ZOHUK/`KYVNLVSVNPJHS4LHZ\YLTLU[
4L[OVKZ¹PU[OL+LWHY[TLU[¸4VUP[VYPUNHUK,_WSVYH[PVU
;LJOUVSVNPLZ¹H[[OL/LSTOVS[a*LU[YLMVY,U]PYVUTLU[HS
Research – UFZ in Leipzig, Germany. Thomas’ research
interests include the evaluation of vertical high resolution
hydrogeological measurement methods; the application
of Direct Push-technology for the characterization of
complex sedimentary aquifers; use of Cone Penetration
Testing (CPT) for hydrogeological and environmental
applications; and assessing effects of the (geo-)thermal
use of the shallow subsurface.
Dr. Richard Wilkin
Ground Water and Ecosystems
Restoration Division, US EPA
Dr Richard Wilkin is an
environmental geochemist at US
EPA’s National Risk Management
Research Laboratory. His research
deals primarily with groundwater contaminants and the
biogeochemical processes controlling the fate of these
contaminants. A major focus of his work has been the
application and development of permeable reactive
barriers and monitored natural attenuation for remediation
of groundwater impacted by metals and radionuclides.
Dr Wilkin received a PhD in geosciences from the
Pennsylvania State University. He serves on the editorial
boards of the journals Chemical Geology, American
Mineralogist and Geochemical Transactions.
Professor Ming H. Wong
Hong Kong Baptist University
In his role as Chair Professor
of Biology, director of Croucher
Institute for Environmental Sciences,
Hong Kong Baptist University,
Professor Wong has established
a multidisciplinary team – comprising environmental
toxicologists, molecular biologists, analytical chemists,
mathematicians, medical professionals and environmental
managers – to tackle environmental problems. He is
recognised internationally for his work on environmental
impact assessment and, in particular, contaminant
impact on environmental health.
Julie Wroble
US EPA
Ms Wroble – who holds a BA in
Biology and Environmental Science
and an MS in Environmental
Health (Toxicology) – has over
20 years’ experience as an
environmental toxicologist for both the US EPA and as
a consultant for federal and state regulatory agencies.
Specialising in asbestos, Julie has worked on sites
(including landslides) with naturally occurring asbestos,
the Libby, Montana, vermiculite exfoliation facilities, and
housing developments contaminated with asbestoscontaining materials. Julie is one of three co-chairs of
the Asbestos Technical Review Workgroup, a group of
US EPA scientists working on sampling, analysis and
risk assessment issues relating to asbestos. She has
also held invited positions at the Johnson Conference,
the World Asbestos Conference and the World Health
Organisation’s Regional Forum on Environmental Health
in Southeast and East Asian Countries. She was also
one of the primary authors of EPA’s Framework for
Investigating Asbestos-Contaminated Superfund Sites.
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Smarter solutions
delivered on the ground
THE COMMEMORATIVE BRIAN ROBINSON LECTURE
Dr Brian Robinson AM devoted his working life to improving Victoria’s
environment, and shaping the direction of environmental protection in
Australia.
)VYUPU5VY[OLYU0YLSHUK)YPHUÄYZ[JHTL[V(\Z[YHSPHPU [V
complete his PhD in Chemistry at Melbourne University. After a period
as a research chemist with DuPont in the UK, he returned to Australia
in 1973 to play a key role in the Westernport Bay Environmental study.
It was here, working on one of the largest environmental studies of
its type, that he consolidated his passion for the environment and his
lifelong commitment to shaping a sustainable Victoria.
Brian joined Environment Protection Authority (EPA) Victoria in 1975,
and was appointed Chairman in 1986. It was he, more than anyone
else, who made EPA Victoria the nation’s leading environment protection
agency. For more than
`LHYZOLZ[YP]LK[VLUZ\YLYLZV\YJLLMÄJPLUJ`HUKZ\Z[HPUHISLNVVKZ
and services. Over the last decade, his interests spread to identifying
ÄUHUJPHSKYP]LYZMVYLU]PYVUTLU[HSPTWYV]LTLU[ZHUK[V^H`ZVM
engaging local communities in sustainability issues.
Fairfax Syndication/John Donegan
Recognised nationally and internationally as one of the strongest and
most articulate advocates for cleaner production, Brian realised very
early in his career that a robust and healthy environment was central to
the prosperity of society and individual enterprise.
Guided by his commitment to serving the people, Brian remains the longest serving Chairman/CEO of EPA Victoria, and
PZYLTLTILYLKHZHO\THULHUK]PZPVUHY`SLHKLY^P[OV\[Z[HUKPUNZJPLU[PÄJHUKTHUHNLTLU[ZRPSSZ)YPHUKLKPJH[LK
his professional life to improving environmental health, ensuring access to reliable, relevant information about the
environment, and providing people with the opportunity to participate in decisions on protecting the environment.
For 50 years, Coffey
has brought the latest
solutions to geoenvironmental problems
in Australia.
We were the first to apply some of the now common place
techniques commercially, including in-situ soil vapour extraction
and in-situ bioremediation.
And we’ve never stopped exploring the boundaries with
remediation solutions.
Today our team of remediation experts are backed by 130
contaminated land specialists across Australia and New Zealand.
Sadly, Brian Robinson passed away on 1 May 2004. A valedictory celebration of his achievements was held in the Great
Hall of the National Gallery of Victoria, attended by 1200 people. Politicians of all persuasions sang his praises. Bureaucrats
and captains of industry spoke of his capabilities. All were unanimous in their appreciation of his ability and his charm. His
sheer niceness, it seems, oiled the machinery he constructed to reconcile differing interests. He worked what miracles he
could for the environment, and for people’s quality of life. Brian’s voice was loud and his passion was clear.
The commemorative Brian Robinson Lecture was inaugurated in 2009 at the 3rd International Contaminated
Site Remediation Conference. In 2013, the organising committee again wishes to acknowledge the efforts of an
environmental hero whose vision, ideas and leadership were a force for global sustainability. This year, the organising
committee takes great pleasure in inviting Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Singapore Minister for the Environment and Water
Resources, to present the commemorative Brian Robinson Lecture.
We’re still bringing smarter solutions.
Contact:
Sarah Richards
Principal Geo-environmental Engineer
T: + 61 3 9473 1400
E: sarah.richards@coffey.com
coffey.com
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Conference Hall 2
10.30 - 12.30
3.30 - 5.00
Measurement and use of mass
discharge and mass flux to improve
decisions at contaminated sites
5.00 - 5.30
Welcome reception
1.30 - 3.00
Sunday 15
September
Advancements in petroleum vapour
intrusion investigation and mitigation
Integrated DNAPL site remediation
strategy (IDSS)
Conference Hall 3
Contaminated land as a legacy of
mining – past, present and future
Meeting Room 12
In situ bioremediation for the
practitioner
Detailed site characterisation:
Approaches, outcomes and managing
the data
Theory and practice of the application
of in situ thermal methods to
contaminated site remediation
Sustainable Remediation Forum
workshop: Applying sustainability
principles to remediation in ANZ
Meeting Room 13
Horizontal remediation wells
Welcome reception
5.30 - 5.45
Official conference opening
Official conference opening
5.45 - 6.45
Brian Robinson memorial lecture to be presented by Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for the Environment and Water
Resources, Parliament of Singapore
Brian Robinson memorial lecture to be presented by Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for the Environment and
Water Resources, Parliament of Singapore
8.30 - 10.10
Health impacts of contamination
Predictive tools for site contamination
Advances in bioremediation
10.40 - 12.40
Urban renewal
The role of analytical services in site
remediation. Do they measure up?
Human health risk assessment
CRC CARE: Advances in site
assessment and remediation
Mine closure case studies and
emerging challenges
ALGA Annual General Meeting
Monday 16
September
Contaminated sediment management
Through the regulators' looking glass
and remediation
1.40 - 3.20
Emerging contaminants
Mining summit
Urban renewal discussion session
Towards best practices for acid sulfate The Australian Environmental Audit
soil management
System – whence, now and where to?
3.50 - 5.30
5.30 - 6.30
Drinks and poster session
8.30 - 10.10
National remediation framework
LNAPL
10.40 - 12.40
Implications of unconventional gas
extraction for groundwater
management
Advanced remediation technologies
Legal implications of unconventional
gas extraction
Remediation and sustainability
Defence Symposium
Tuesday 17
September
Meeting Room 11
PROGRAM OVERVVIEW
Conference Hall 1
8.30 - 10.00
SuRF AFM
1.40 - 3.20
Nanotechnology for remediation
Metal(loid) assessment and
remediation in groundwater
Engaging communities in the
management of contamination
In situ remediation
Global Contamination Research
Initiative
3.50 - 5.30
5.30 - 6.30
Poster session
Poster session
7.00 - 7.30
Pre-dinner drinks in the function area on level 2
Pre-dinner drinks in the function area on level 2
7.30-12.00
Gala Dinner
Gala Dinner
9.00 - 10.20
Advances in bioavailability based risk
assessment
Ground gas
ASBestos-IN-Soil
Management and remediation
strategies for DNAPL
High-resolution site characterisation
10.50 - 12.50
Wednesday 18
September
Thursday 19
September
xxviii
Ex situ soil remediation case studies
Vapour intrusion
1.35 - 3.15
Geotechnics
3.45 - 4.45
Closing plenary lecture
Closing plenary lecture
4.45 - 5.00
Conference closing
Conference closing
8.30 - 5.30
Eastern tour
Containment Risks
Waste
Innovative remediation technologies
Taiwan: Strategic partnership for
opportunities in greater China
Western tour
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Meeting Room 11
12.40PM
xxx
Session Chair: Sreenivasulu Chadalavada, CRC CARE
D04 THE ANALYTICAL SERVICE USER
PERSPECTIVE
Ross McFarland, AECOM
Predictive tools for site contamination
Session Sponsor: NATA
Session Chair: Jennifer Evans, NATA
The role of analytical services in site remediation. Do they measure up?
Session Sponsor: EPA Victoria
Urban renewal
D03 THE LABORATORY’S PERSPECTIVE
David Springer, Envirolab
E02 AN INTEGRATED STATISTICAL
APPROACH TO ASSESSING
CONTAMINANT DISTRIBUTION
Peter Beck, GHD Pty Ltd
E03 EVALUATION OF HANDHELD PDA
SOFTWARE/HARDWARE SYSTEM FOR SITE
CHARACTERISATION AND CLEARANCE
SAMPLING
Steven Wilkinson, ChemCentre
E04 INTRODUCING LSPECS – A WEBBASED INTEGRATED FIELD PROGRAM
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Tom Wilson, EarthScience Information
Systems
A08 BIOAVAILABILITY-BASED RISK
CHARACTERISATION MODEL
Dong Morrow, CERAR, UniSA
B10 TREATMENT OF CHLORINATED
ETHENES AT A LANDFILL IN GERMANY
Maureen Leahy, ERM
Lunch
C08 CONCEPTUAL SITE OR PROJECT
MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
ASSESSMENT
Paul Bardos, R3 Environmental
Technology Ltd
E07 THE CHALLENGES OF LIABILITY
TRANSFER FOR SOIL AND
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION ON
AN IRON ORE MINE SITE IN THE
KIMBERLEY, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Stuart McLaren, AECOM
E08 WHAT ARE THE BIG TICKET ITEMS IN
MINE CLOSURE?
Geoff Byrne, ERM
E09 REDEVELOPMENT OF A SITE WITH
MULTIPLE ISSUES FROM PREVIOUS
MINING
David Knott, Coffey
F03 ADVANCES IN SITE ASSESSMENT
AND REMEDIATION DEMONSTRATIONS –
gwsidCARE™ and gwmndCARE™
Bithin Datta, James Cook University
Session Chair: Michy Kris, CRC CARE
Session Sponsor: WSP-GENIVAR
D06 PLENARY OPEN FORUM – THE
ISSUES RAISED BY THE FOUR
STAKEHOLDER PRESENTATIONS WILL BE
USED AS THE BASIS FOR A FACILITATED
DISCUSSION BY ALL FORUM
PARTICIPANTS.
Vyt Garnys, CETEC PTY LTD
Session Chair: Peter Moore, WSP-GENIVAR
Session Sponsor: NATA
C07 NEW PLACES FOR TOMORROW'S
PEOPLE: A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO
BROWNFIELD REGENERATION APPRAISAL
Paul Nathanail, University of Nottingham
Session Chair: Jennifer Evans, NATA
C06 FACILITATING THE APPLICATION OF
BROWNFIELDS REMEDIATION TO URBAN
RENEWAL
Garry Smith, Smith Environmental
E06 GASPE MINES CLOSURE – A
SUCCESS STORY IN MINE RECLAMATION
Carlos Gauthier, WSP-GENIVAR
Mine closure case studies and emerging challenges
B09 BIOTRANSFORMATION AND
TOXICITY OF FENAMIPHOS AND ITS
METABOLITES BY TWO MICRO ALGAE
PSEUDOKIRCHNERIELLA SUBCAPITATA
AND CHLOROCOCCUM SP
Tanya Caceres, CERAR, UniSA
Urban renewal
B08 INSTALLATION AND
COMMISSIONING OF AN ENHANCED IN
SITU BIOREMEDIATION SYSTEM, SYDNEY
NSW
Jessica Hughes, AECOM
indoorCARE™
Dawit Bekele, CERAR, UniSA
E05 DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION
OF A SCREENING TOOL TO PREDICT THE
EFFICACY OF PAH BIOREMEDIATION
Albert Juhasz, University of South
Australia
D05 THE CONTRACTOR’S PERSPECTIVE
Annette Nolan, Enviropacific Services
The Role of Analytical Services in Site Remediation. Do they measure up?
A07 CRITICAL ISSUES OF RISK
ASSESSMENT APPLICATION IN THE
ITALIAN CONTEXT.
Leonardo Arru, ISPRA, Italian Institute for
Environmental Protection and Research
C05 URBAN REGENERATION AND
BROWNFIELD REMEDIATION:
ADDRESSING CHALLENGES FOR
TAILORED, INTEGRATED AND
SUSTAINABLE URBAN LAND
REVITALIZATION
Stephan Bartke, Helmholtz Centre for
Environmental Research
B06 DEGRADATION OF DIESEL RANGE
HYDROCARBONS BY A FACULTATIVE
ANAEROBIC BACTERIUM, ISOLATED
FROM AN ANODIC BIO-FILM IN A DIESELFED MICROBIAL FUEL CELL
Krishnaveni Venkidusamy, CERAR, UniSA
B07 THE ROLE OF STATE REGULATIONS
IN THE APPLICATION OF
BIOREMEDIATION
Louise Cartwright, Enviropacific Services
OVERVIEW
Ravi Naidu, CRC CARE
Morning tea
Session Chair: Jason Borg, EPA Victoria
A06 RISK-BASED REMEDIATION
DECISION MAKING IN EMERGING
COUNTRIES, INCLUDING EXAMPLES
FROM SOUTH AFRICA, TAIWAN, INDIA
AND BRAZIL
Sophie Wood, ERM
Session Chair: Megh Mallavarapu, CERAR, UniSA
A05 UPDATE ON HHRA IN AUSTRALIA
AND THE AMENDED NEPM
Jackie Wright, Environmental Risk
Sciences Pty Ltd
Session Chair: TBC
11.00AM
12.20PM
C03 UNLOCKING PRODUCTIVE
POTENTIAL OF BROWNFIELDS – A
DEVELOPERS VIEW
Dominic Arcaro, CBRE
POTENTIAL OF BROWNFIELDS – CASE
STUDY
TBC
B05 ENHANCED IN SITU
BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED
SOLVENTS: FROM THE LABORATORY TO
THE FIELD
Sandra Dworatzek, SiREM
A04 PERSPECTIVES FOR CHANGING
ASSUMPTIONS AND IMPROVING MODELS
IN RISK ASSESSMENT
Renato Baciocchi, Laboratory of
Environmental Engineering, University of
Rome
12.00NOON
POTENTIAL OF BROWNFIELDS IN
MELBOURNE – CASE STUDY
Geoff Ward, Places Victoria
D02 THE REGULATOR'S PERSPECTIVE
Andrew Miller, Department of
Environment Regulation, WA
Morning tea
10.40AM
11.40AM
B03 MICROBIAL COMMUNITY
DYNAMICS DURING REDUCTIVE
DECHLORINATION OF GROUNDWATER AT
A CHLOROETHENE-CONTAMINATED SITE
Andrew Ball, RMIT University
B04 QUANTITATIVE PCR FOR DETECTION
OF DICHLOROETHANE-DEGRADING
BACTERIA IN GROUNDWATER AND IN A
MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR
Nicholas Coleman, University of Sydney
10.10AM
11.20AM
B02 BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED
SOLVENTS IN AUSTRALIAN
GROUNDWATER
Michael Manefield, University of NSW
C01 FROM PEACE TO PROSPERITY –
BROWNFIELDS AS DRIVERS FOR SOCIAL
AND ECONOMIC REGENERATION
Kyle Alexander, Maze Long Kesh
Development Corporation
Session Chair: Jason Borg, EPA Victoria
Session Chair: Braj Singh, University of Western Sydney
A03 ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL AND
HEALTH IMPACTS OF UNCONTROLLED
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF
ELECTRONIC-WASTE CALL FOR PROPER
MANAGEMENT
Ming Wong, Hong Kong Baptist
University
B01 BIO-NANOTECHNOLOGICAL
APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL
REMEDIATION
Ashok Mulchandani, University of
California
CRC CARE: Advances in site assessment and remediation
9.50AM
A02 HEALTH IMPACT OF PERSISTENT
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS AND/OR HEAVY
METALS
James Siow, National Institute of
Integrative Medicine
Session Chair: Jack Ng, EnTox - University of Queensland
9.30AM
Health impacts of environmental contamination
9.10AM
A01 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS
AND CHILDREN'S HEALTH:
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIONS IN
LARGE-SCALE BIRTH COHORT STUDIES
Shoji Nakayama, National Institute for
Environmental Studies, Japan
Meeting Room 13
E01 SOFTWARE PACKAGE: (1) OPTIMAL
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
SOURCES; (2) OPTIMAL MONITORING
NETWORK DESIGN IN CONTAMINATED
GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS
Bithin Datta, James Cook University
D01 WHY ARE WE HERE?
Jennifer Evans, NATA
8.30AM
8.50AM
Meeting Room 12
Session Chair: Michy Kris, CRC CARE
Conference Hall 3
CRC CARE: Advances in site assessment and remediation
Conference Hall 2
MONDAY - AM
Conference Hall 1
rankCARE™
Prashant Srivastava, CRC CARE
D07 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Jennifer Evans, NATA
E10 MANAGEMENT OF SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTION EMISSIONS. COLLINSVILLE
COAL MINE: A CASE STUDY
Kate Cole, Thiess Services
Lunch
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2013
Conference Hall 2
Meeting Room 11
Conference Hall 3
Meeting Room 12
Lunch
xxxii
C14 PANEL DISCUSSION: REGULATORS
TO FORM A PANEL AND DISCUSS BOTH
SELF-IDENTIFIED TOPICS AND QUESTIONS
FROM THE FLOOR
Regulators
ϭϬdKy/,D/>^&ZKD
PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONAL
CARE PRODUCTS AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT
Kenneth Sajwan, Savannah State
University
E14 HIGH RATE TREATMENT METHODS
FOR MINE PIT SLURRY
William Gary Smith, URS Australia Pty Ltd
D14 DEVELOPING SURFACE WATER
SCREENING LEVELS FOR COMPOUNDS
ASSOCIATED WITH AQUEOUS FILM
FORMING FOAMS
Kenneth Kiefer, ERM
E15 NOVEL TECHNOLOGY FOR
REMEDIATION OF HYDROCARBONS AND
OTHER CONTAMINANTS
Gary Foster, Pearl Global
URBAN RENEWAL DISCUSSION
Session Chair: Bert Huys, BHP Billiton Iron Ore
Session Chair: Susan Richardson
D13 EFFECT OF PERFLUOROOCTANE
SULFONATE (PFOS) ON SURVIVAL AND
DNA DAMAGE OF EARTHWORM IN OECD
SOIL COMPARED TO NATURAL SOILS
Srinithi Mayliswami, CERAR
Mining Summit: Assessment, Remediation and Rehabilitation of Mining Sites
B18 EVOLUTION OF A REGULATORY
APPROACH FOR MANAGING LAND
DEVELOPMENT ON ACID SULFATE SOILS
IN WA
Environment Regulation, WA
A SERIES OF BRIEF PRESENTATIONS WILL
BE GIVEN BY KEY PARTICIPANTS AND
PRACTITIONERS INVOLVED IN THE AUDIT
SYSTEM, OFFERING PERSPECTIVES ON
THE PRESENT AND A WISH LIST FOR THE
FUTURE. THIS WILL BE FOLLOWED BY A
PANEL DISCUSSION, FACILITATED BY
MARK BEAUFOY, WHERE KEY TOPICS
WILL BE EXPLORED BY THE PANEL
INCLUDING:
ͻZ>/^/E'd,WKdEd/>K&d,
AUDIT SYSTEM – ARE THERE ANY AREAS
FOR IMPROVEMENT?
ͻt,Z/^d,^z^dD^dh^͍
ͻ^W/E'hWE^/DW>/&z/E'd,
PROCESS – THE POSITIVES AND PITFALLS
ͻd,h/d^z^dD^>//>/dz
TRANSFER TOOL
ͻDE'/E'EKDDhE/d/E'
INFORMATION DERIVING FROM AUDITS
D12 EMERGING CONTAMINANTS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN
Matthew Sutton, AECOM
Emerging Contaminants
B17 TRENDS IN ACID SULFATE SOIL
ANALYSIS FOR MANAGEMENT:
OBSERVATIONS FROM A COMMERCIAL
LABORATORY
Graham Lancaster, Environmental
Analysis Laboratory, Southern Cross
University
E13 USE OF BIOSOLIDS FOR THE
TREATMENT OF ACIDIC METALLIFEROUS
MINE DRAINAGE
James Robinson, SKM
D11 OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN
THE ADELAIDE ENVIRONMENT
Pandian Govindarasu, CERAR, UniSA
C15 THE AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTAL
AUDIT SYSTEM SINCE 1990 – ITS
EVOLUTION
Peter Nadebaum, GHD Pty Ltd
Session Sponsor: ACLCA
B16 EFFECT OF FULVIC ACID ON
ARSENIC RELEASE FROM ARSENICSUBSTITUTED SCHWERTMANNITE
Chamindra Vithana, Southern Cross
University
FOLLOWING ON FROM THE SERIES OF
TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS EARLIER IN
THE DAY, THE OBJECTIVE OF THE URBAN
RENEWAL DISCUSSION SESSION IS TO:
ͻyW>KZZ'h>dKZzWWZK,^
AND FRAMEWORKS TO MANAGE THE
CLEAN-UP OF URBAN RENEWAL
PROJECTS FOR INDIVIDUAL AS WELL AS
LARGE MULTI-SITE (PRECINCTS).
ͻyW>KZ^^dh/^&ZKDE
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION
PERSPECTIVE OF INTERNATIONAL AND
NATIONAL URBAN RENEWAL PROJECTS.
ͻyW>KZd,EK>K'/>
SOLUTIONS THAT HAVE BEEN
IMPLEMENTED TO MANAGE CLEAN-UP IN
URBAN RENEWAL PROJECTS.
Afternoon tea
Session Chair: Alex Simopoulos, National Chair – ACLCA
5.10PM
A17 LEAD: EVOLUTION OF A SCREENING
CRITERIA
Alyson Macdonald, ERM
B15 ACID SULFATE SOIL MANAGEMENT
REGULATION AND GUIDANCE: WHERE
ARE WE, AND WHERE ARE WE GOING?
Leigh Sullivan, Southern Cross
GeoScience, Southern Cross University
Urban Renewal
Session Chair: Mitzi Bolton, EPA Victoria
Session Sponsor: CDM Smith
Session Chair: Michael Nicholls, CDM Smith
Through the regulators' looking glass
B14 EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF A SEDIMENT TIME-CRITICAL REMOVAL
ACTION USING MULTIPLE LINES OF
EVIDENCE
Ronald French, CDM Smith
The Australian Environmental Audit System – whence, now and where to?
4.50PM
A16 COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF
INHALABLE IRON-RICH PARTICLES AND
OTHER METAL-OXIDES PARTICLES
Jack Ng, The University of Queensland
Session Sponsor: Environmental Analysis Laboratory, SCU
A15 ASSESSMENT OF MUTAGENIC
CARCINOGENS IN AUSTRALIA
Belinda Goldsworthy, ENVIRON Australia
Towards best practices for acid sulfate soil management
Session Chair: Sophie Wood, ERM
4.10PM
A14 CASE STUDY OF RISK ASSESSMENT
APPLICATION
Alessandro Girelli, IA Industria Ambiente
S.r.l.
Session Chair: Graham Lancaster, Environmental Analysis Laboratory, SCU
A13 ASSUMED TPH SOURCE
COMPOSITION IN THE HSLS: ARE THE
HSLS SUITABLE FOR USE ON YOUR SITE,
AND WHY MIGHT THEY BE TOO
CONSERVATIVE?
Katie Richardson, CH2M HILL
3.50PM
5.30PM
C13 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN UPDATE:
ENGAGEMENT OF THE COMMUNITY ONSITE IMPACTS
Andrew Pruszinski, EPA SA
Afternoon tea
3.20PM
4.30PM
B13 HEAVY METALS PHYTOEXTRACTION
FROM TSUNAMI SEDIMENT
CONTAMINATED SOIL TREATED WITH
STEEL SLAG
Marco Antonio Leon Romero, Graduate
School of Engineering, Tohoku University
E12 DIFFICULTIES CONDUCTING SITE
ASSESSMENTS AND REMEDIATION ON AN
OPERATING MINE SITE
Brendan May, BHP Billiton Iron Ore
E16 THE ASSESSMENT OF LEAD IN SOIL
OF THE URBAN ENVIORNMENT OF
BROKEN HILL
Jason Bawden-Smith, JBS&G
E17 COMBINED DISCUSSION SESSION
Bert Huys, Ravi Naidu, Gary Pierzynski
A12 APPLICATION OF RISK ANALYSIS
USING THE “RACHEL” SOFTWARE
Mariachiara Zanetti, Politecnico di Torino
C12 OUT OF SIGHT, OUT OF MIND –
REGULATING THE UNDERGROUND
STORAGE TANK LEGACY
Danielle McPhail, EPA TAS
D09 ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY FOR
PRIORITY AND EMERGING
CONTAMINANTS
Lesley Johnston, National Measurement
Institute
URBAN RENEWAL DISCUSSION
Urban Renewal
3.00PM
C11 THE AUDITOR SYSTEM IN
QUEENSLAND
Lindsay Delzoppo, EHP QLD
E11 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES WITH
METAL/METALLOID MINING:
EXTRACTING VALUE FROM OUR PAST SO
THAT WE CAN MOVE FORWARD
Gary Pierzynski, Kansas State University,
USA
Session Chair: TBC
2.40PM
A11 VAPOR INTRUSION MODEL
INCORPORATING SITE HETEROGENEITY
Contaminated sediment management and remediation
Session Chair: Renato Baciocchi, University of Rome
2.20PM
B12 CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTING THE
CHALLENGES OF CONSTRUCTION,
MANAGEMENT, AND MONITORING OF A
CONFINED AQUATIC DISPOSAL (CAD) SITE
IN A BUSY COMMERCIAL PORT
Paul Goldsworthy, ENVIRON Australia
Emerging contaminants
C10 CONTAMINATION
COMMUNICATON – WESTERN
AUSTRALIA’S CONTAMINATED SITES
DATABASE
Environment and Conservation, WA
2.00PM
A10 A NEW VAPOR INTRUSION MODEL
INCLUDING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC
BIODEGRADATION
Iason Verginelli, Laboratory of
Environmental Engineering, University of
Rome
D08 EMERGING CONTAMINANTS IN
DRINKING WATER: IS THERE A
CONCERN?
Susan Richardson
Session Chair: TBC
B11 SEDIMENT MANAGEMENT IN THE
USA – WHERE WE ARE AT AND WHAT’S
TO COME?
Eric Blischke, CDM Smith
Session Chair: Cherly Lim, National Measurement Institute
1.40PM
Session Chair: Bert Huys, BHP Billiton Iron Ore
C09 DOES THE CONTAMINATED LAND
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK IN NSW
ENCOURAGE LAND DEVELOPMENT?
John Coffey, NSW Environment
Protection Authority
Mining summit: Assessment, remediation and rehabilitation of mining sites
Lunch
A09 CANADIAN HEALTH INVESTIGATION
LEVELS FOR TPH
Gordon Dinwoodie, Environment Canada
Meeting Room 13
MONDAY - PM
Conference Hall 1
FOLLOWING ON FROM THE SERIES OF
TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS EARLIER IN
THE DAY, THE OBJECTIVE OF THE URBAN
RENEWAL DISCUSSION SESSION IS TO:
ͻyW>KZZ'h>dKZzWWZK,^
AND FRAMEWORKS TO MANAGE THE
CLEAN-UP OF URBAN RENEWAL
PROJECTS FOR INDIVIDUAL AS WELL AS
LARGE MULTI-SITE (PRECINCTS).
ͻyW>KZ^^dh/^&ZKDE
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION
PERSPECTIVE OF INTERNATIONAL AND
NATIONAL URBAN RENEWAL PROJECTS.
ͻyW>KZd,EK>K'/>
SOLUTIONS THAT HAVE BEEN
IMPLEMENTED TO MANAGE CLEAN-UP IN
URBAN RENEWAL PROJECTS.
TBC
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12.00NOON
12.20PM
12.40PM
xxxiv
A25 LINKS BETWEEN CRC CARE AND
INDUSTRY - OPPORTUNITIES TO
IMPLEMENT RESEARCH OUTCOMES
DISCUSSION AND QUESTIONS
Session Chair: David Tully, Coffey
Session Sponsor: Coffey
C23 THE EFFECT OF FREE LNAPL
PRESENCE ON THE LIFECYCLE OF UST
SITES
Charles Newell, GSI Environmental
B24 SUSTAINABLE CONSIDERATIONS
FOR HEAVY METALS REMEDIATION
Lowell Kessel, ERR
B25 INTEGRATING SUSTAINABLE
REMEDIATION IN CONTAMINATED SITE
MANAGEMENT
Alyson Macdonald, Environmental
Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd
Lunch
E20 COMBINED APPLICATION OF IN SITU
CHEMICAL OXIDATION AND MULTIPHASE
VACUUM EXTRACTION
Daniel Guille, Coffey
E22 A NEW, CATALYZED PERSULFATE
REAGENT WITH BUILT-IN ACTIVATION
FOR THE IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION
OF GROUNDWATER AND SOIL
CONTAMINANTS
Ben Mork, REGENESIS
D20 NATURAL GAS IN THE COURTS: AN
OVERVIEW
The Hon. Justice Brian J Preston, Chief
Judge, The Land and Environment Court
of NSW
C27 LNAPL – A REVIEW OF COMMON
MISCONCEPTIONS AND THEIR
IMPLICATIONS IN REMEDIATION BASED
ON CASES FROM AROUND THE WORLD
Jeffery Paul, Golder Associates Inc.
D22 NSW REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
FOR CSG AND ITS LIMITATIONS
Penny Murray, DibbsBarker
Session Chair: Prashant Srivastava, CRC CARE
D21 REGULATORY RESPONSE TO CSG IN
QUEENSLAND
John Ware, Herbert Smith Freehills
C26 LNAPL REMEDIATION CASE STUDY
TBC
Session Sponsor: Herbert Smith Freehills
C25 GUIDANCE ON THE MANAGEMENT
OF FEDERAL LNAPL SITES IN CANADA
Brian Drover, Environment Canada
Legal implications of unconventional gas extraction
C24 WHERE IS THE NAPL?
Claire Howell, Parson Brinkerhoff
Session Sponsor: Golder Associates Pty Ltd
LNAPL
B23 IS SUSTAINABLE REMEDIATION
NOW A SELF-SUSTAINING CONCEPT? AN
INTERNATIONAL PROGRESS REPORT
Jonathan Smith, Shell Global Solutions
(UK) Ltd.
Session Chair: Frederic Cosme, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
A24 THE USE OF REMSCAN™ TO
ACCELERATE THE CLEAN-UP OF A MAJOR
DIESEL SPILL IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Richard Stewart, Ziltek Pty Ltd
Session Sponsor: SuRF ANZ
A23 AFFF: CURRENT RESEARCH,
UNDERSTANDINGS AND FUTURE
RESEARCH
Remediation and sustainability
A22 HOW TO GET THE BEST VALUE OUT
OF STAGE 1 AND 2 INVESTIGATIONS
Peter Beck, GHD Pty Ltd
E19 ELECTROKINETIC-ENHANCED
AMENDMENT DELIVERY FOR
REMEDIATION OF LOW PERMEABILITY
AND HETEROGENEOUS MATERIALS:
RESULTS OF THE FIRST FIELD PILOT
David Reynolds, Geosyntec Consultants
Morning tea
B22 INNOVATIVE REMEDIATION
STRATEGIES AND GREEN REMEDIATION:
ACHIEVING ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION WITH A SMALLER
ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
Carlos Pachon, US EPA
Session Chair: Garry Smith, President SuRF ANZ
Session Chair: Scott Callinan, Department of Defence
Defence symposium
11.00AM
11.40AM
TBC
Session Chair: Sarah Roebuck, Herbert Smith Freehills
A21 NEPM 2013 - FOR BETTER OR
WORSE
Ian Kluckow, Golder Associates
10.40AM
Meeting Room 13
E21 AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY –
REFRIGERATED CONDENSATION FOR
TREATMENT OF OFF-GAS FROM SOIL
VAPOUR EXTRACTION SYSTEMS
Grant Geckeler, TPS TECH
Morning tea
10.10AM
11.20AM
D18 COAL SEAM GAS DEVELOPMENT –
USING A RESEARCH ‘HOT SPOT’ TO
SUPPORT BETTER ENVIRONMENTAL
OUTCOMES
Renee Harvey, Coffey
Session Sponsor: TerraTherm, Inc.
C22 A COMPARISON OF REPORTED BTEX
CONCENTRATIONS WITH ESTIMATED
EFFECTIVE SOLUBILITIES IN MONITORING
WELLS WHERE LNAPL HAS BEEN GAUGED
Wijnand Germs, Environmental Resources
Management
D17 ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS AND
MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS USED IN
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
Sophie Wood, ERM
E18 STAUS OF IN SITU THERMAL
TECHNOLOGIES FOR EFFECTIVE
TREATMENT OF SOURCE AREAS
Gorm Heron, TerraTherm, Inc.
C21 MULTI-TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM TO
REMEDIATE A LATERALLY EXTENSIVE
HYDROCARBON PLUME WITHIN A
SEDIMENTARY AQUIFER, VICTORIA
Christian Wallis, Golder Associates
Meeting Room 12
D16 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF REPORTED
AND DOCUMENTED GROUNDWATER
CONTAMINATION INCIDENTS
ASSOCIATED WITH UNCONVENTIONAL
GAS
Ian Duncan, University of Texas
Session Chair: Emma Waterhouse, Coffey
B21 NATIONAL REMEDIATION
FRAMEWORK
Bruce Kennedy, CRC CARE
A20 DEFENCE PRESENTATION
Anne-Marie Tenni, DERP
9.50AM
C20 COMPARISON OF CONSTANT AND
TRANSIENT-SOURCE ZONES ON
SIMULATED CONTAMINANT PLUME
EVOLUTION IN GROUNDWATER:
IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROGEOLOGICAL
RISK ASSESSMENT
Implications of unconventional gas extraction for groundwater management
Session Sponsor: LNAPL Forum
B20 REVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN AND
INTERNATIONAL REMEDIATION
GUIDANCE
Susan Barnes, CH2MHILL
LNAPL
National remediation framework
A19 DEFENCE PRESENTATION
Vicki Pearce and Scott Callinan, DERP
C19 LNAPL REMEDIATION – A UNIFIED
APPROACH FOR THE ANALYSIS,
MANAGEMENT AND REMEDIATION OF
LNAPL IN AUSTRALIA
Ed Dennis, WorleyParsons Consulting
Session Chair: Geoff Borg, Shell
B19 BEYOND RISK-BASED LAND
MANAGEMENT: SUSTAINABILITY
APPRAISAL FOR REMEDIATION OR
REGENERATION
Paul Nathanail, University of Nottingham
Session Chair: Bruce Kennedy, CRC CARE
9.30AM
Session Chair: Sarah Brown, Department of Defence
Defence symposium
8.50AM
Meeting Room 11
Conference Hall 3
A18 WELCOME
Michael Healy, Department of Defence
8.30AM
9.10AM
Conference Hall 2
TUESDAY - AM
Conference Hall 1
E24 HORIZONTAL REMEDIATION WELL
IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION: A CASE
STUDY
Michael Sequino, Directional
Technologies, Inc
E25 USE OF IN SITU THERMAL
TECHNOLOGY IN COMPLEX GEOLOGICAL
SETTINGS TO DELIVER SUSTAINABLE,
RAPID AND COST EFFECTIVE ENDPOINTS:
GLOBAL CASE STUDIES
Neil Gray, Environmental Resources
Management Australia Pty Ltd (ERM)
E26 REMEDIATION OF A FORMER
GASWORKS IN ALBURY, NSW, USING IN
SITU SOLIDIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Paul Carstairs, AECOM Australia Pty Ltd
COMBINED DISCUSSION SESSION WITH
PRESENTERS
REMEDIATION CASE STUDY
TBC
Lunch
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Conference Hall 2
Conference Hall 3
Meeting Room 11
Meeting Room 12
Lunch
B29 STABILITY OF IRON OXIDE
NANOPARTICLES COATED WITH
DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER
Laura Checkli, University of Technology,
Sydney
xxxvi
Session Chair: Bruce Kelley, Rio Tinto
Global Contamination Research Initiative
Session Chair: Jason Prior, Institute for Sustainable Futures, UTS
Engaging communities in the management of contamination
In situ remediation technologies
Session Chair: Brendan Brodie, ERM
E29 TARCUTTA STREET FORMER
GASWORKS REMEDIATION –
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
Rhys Blackburn, EnviroPacific Services
THIS SPECIAL SESSION INVITES
INTERESTED PARTIES TO DISCUSS THE
INITATIVE AND PROGRESS TO THE NEXT
STAGE.
E30 COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT CASE
STUDY
Jean Meaklin
D26 CASE STUDY
TBC
D29 LABORATORY AND FIELD
EVALUATION OF A NOVEL LIQUID
AMENDMENT CONTAINING LECITHIN
AND FERROUS IRON
Joh Valkenburg, FMC Environmental
Solutions
Session Chair: Jason Prior, Institute for Sustainable Futures, UTS
D28 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF
IN SITU TREATMENT OF A
TRICHLOROETHENE-IMPACTED
GROUNDWATER SOURCE ZONE
Andrew Cooper, Orica Australia Pty Ltd
E31 HISTORY IS THE HAND ON OUR
^,Kh>Z͗
THE RHODES PENINSULA REMEDIATION
LEGACY PROJECT
Kate Hughes, University of Technology,
Sydney
Engaging communities in the management of contamination
Session Sponsor: Directional Technologies, Inc.
C35 APPLICATION OF HORIZONTAL
BORES FOR INTERCEPTION OF DISSOLVED
HEAVY METALS PLUME AT MAJOR ZINC
SMELTER
Barry Mann, GHD Pty Ltd
D27 HORIZONTAL REMEDIATION WELLS:
TRANSFERRING EFFECTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES FROM THE OIL INDUSTRY
TO ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION
Michael Sequino, Directional
Technologies, Inc.
D30 SELF-SUSTAINING TREATMENT FOR
ACTIVE REMEDIATION (STAR): OVERVIEW
AND IN SITU AND EX SITU APPLICATIONS
OF THE TECHNOLOGY
Gavin Grant, Geosyntec Consultants
5.10PM
5.30PM
C34 IN SITU STABILISATION OF ARSENIC
IN GROUNDWATER: PILOT TEST RESULTS
Byron Brewster, Environmental Resources
Management Pty Ltd
In situ remediation technologies
B33 EFFECT OF NANO-ZEOLITE AND
BIOSOLIDS ON PLANTS GROWN IN SALINE
SOILS
Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, CERAR,
UniSA
C33 IN SITU STABILIZATION OF HEAVY
METALS IN GROUNDWATER
John Valkenburg, FMC Environmental
Solutions
Session Chair: Michael Sequino, Directional Technologies, Inc.
B32 EFFECT OF NANOSCALE CALCIUM
OXIDE PARTICLES IN THE REMEDIATION
OF AUSTRALIAN SODIC SOILS
Prasad Tollamadugu, Acharya N G Ranga
Agricultural University
C32 IN SITU REMEDIATION OF
CHROMIUM IN SOIL AND
GROUNDWATER
Lowell Kessel, ERR
Session Chair: Peter Storch, URS Australia Pty Ltd
B31 TOXICITY OF IRON-NICKEL
NANOPARTICLE TO GREEN ALGAE
SPECIES
Biruck Yirsaw, CERAR, UniSA
E28 RISK-BASED COMMUNITY
CONSULTATION AS A BASIS FOR
REMEDIATION PARTNERSHIPS
Garry Smith, Smith Environmental
CleanUp 2013 SEES THE LAUNCH OF AN
EXCITING VENTURE – THE GLOBAL
CONTAMINATION RESEARCH INITIATIVE
(GCRI) – THAT WILL BRING TOGETHER
THE PEOPLE, ORGANISATIONS AND
KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED TO CLEAN UP
AND PREVENT THE WORLDWIDE
SCOURGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINATION.
Afternoon tea
Metal(loid) assessment and remediation in groundwater
OPEN DISCUSSION
Session Chair: Ian Thompson, University of Oxford
B30 GREEN SYNTHESIS OF IRON-BASED
NANOPARTICLES USING TEA EXTRACT
Zuliang Chen, CERAR
Session Chair: Vicki Pearce and Scott Callinan, Department of Defence
4.50PM
Defence Symposium
3.50PM
4.30PM
C31 IN SITU REMEDIATION OF pH 13
AND 750 uG/L ARSENIC IN A CEMENT
KILN DUST GROUNDWATER PLUME
Henry Kerfoot, URS Pty Ltd
D25 IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION
(ISCO) AND ENHANCED IN SITU
BIODEGRADATION (EISB) OF DISSOLVED
BENZENE PLUME USING HIGH pH
ACTIVATED PERSULPHATE
Afternoon tea
3.20PM
4.10PM
C30 UNIQUE IMPLEMENTATION
METHOD FOR THE IN SITU CHEMICAL
FIXATION OF OF ARSENIC USING
CHELATED IRON AND STABILIZED
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Stanley Haskins, In-Situ Oxidative
Technologies
D24 BIOREMEDIATION/IN SITU
CHEMICAL REDUCTION REMEDIATION OF
TRICHLOROETHENE-IMPACTED
GROUNDWATER
Rachael Wall, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
E27 THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY
ENGAGEMENT IN DECISION MAKING
TOOLS
Toni Meek, Yarra Valley Water
E32 CHRISTCHURCH, CONTAMINATION
AND THE EMOTIONAL COST OF LAND
REPAIR
Isla Hepburn, Environment Canterbury
E33 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF
PARTICIPANT VALUES IN REMEDIATION
DECISION MAKING
Jason Prior, University of Technology,
Sydney
Session Chair: Bruce Kelley, Rio Tinto
3.00PM
C29 IN-PLACE SOIL AND GROUNDWATER
CLEANUP OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM
AND OTHER METALS AND METALLOIDS
BY NANO SCALE FERROUS SULPHIDE
SLURRY
Jim V Rouse, Acuity Environmental
Solutions
D23 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH CURVE FOR
BIOREMEDIATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Maureen Leahy, ERM
Global Contamination Research Initiative
A29 REMEDIATION OF FORMER FIRE
TRAINING AREA BY DIRECT THERMAL
DESORPTION, RAAF WILLIAMS BASE
POINT COOK
Bernie Morris, Enviropacific Services Pty
Ltd
B28 RESPONSIBLE INNOVATION IN
NANOREMEDIATION?
Fern Wickson, Genøk Centre for Biosafety
C28 GROUNDWATER CO-CONTAMINANT
BEHAVIOR OF ARSENIC AND SELENIUM:
IMPLICATIONS FOR REMEDY SELECTION
Richard T. Wilkin, US EPA
Session Chair: Peter Storch, URS Australia Pty Ltd
A28 BASELINE MARINE ASSESSMENT –
JOHN BREWER REEF
Greg Stratton, Golder Associates
B27 ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES:
DECREASING THE UNCERTAINTIES IN
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND RISK
CHARACTERISATION
Enzo Lombi, CERAR, UniSA
Metal(loid) assessment and remediation in groundwater
A27 ROBUST RISK MANAGEMENT AND
DECISION MAKING USING GEOSCIENTIFIC
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT (GIM) FOR
DEFENCE ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS
Andrew Barker, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
Session Chair: Erica Donner, CERAR, UniSA
2.40PM
Session Chair: Vicki Pearce, Department of Defence
2.20PM
Defence Symposium
2.00PM
B26 HARMONISATION OF
NANOTECHNOLOGY WITH BIOLOLOGICAL
PROCESSES FOR LOW ENERGY
REMEDIATION
Ian Thompson, University of Oxford
Session Sponsor: Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd (ERM)
Lunch
1.40PM
A26 A BETTER WAY FOR DEFENCE’S
ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION OF
ASBESTOS-IN-SOIL (ASBINS)
Ross McFarland, AECOM Australia
Meeting Room 13
TUESDAY - PM
Conference Hall 1
CleanUp 2013 SEES THE LAUNCH OF AN
EXCITING VENTURE – THE GLOBAL
CONTAMINATION RESEARCH INITIATIVE
(GCRI) – THAT WILL BRING TOGETHER
THE PEOPLE, ORGANISATIONS AND
KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED TO CLEAN UP
AND PREVENT THE WORLDWIDE
SCOURGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINATION.
THIS SPECIAL SESSION INVITES
INTERESTED PARTIES TO DISCUSS THE
INITATIVE AND PROGRESS TO THE NEXT
STAGE.
COMBINED DISCUSSION SESSION
xxxvii
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Conference Hall 2
Conference Hall 3
Meeting Room 11
Meeting Room 12
10.00AM
12.50PM
xxxviii
Session Chair: Prashant Srivastava, CRC CARE
Advances in bioavaliability based risk assessment
Session Sponsor: Numac Drilling Services Australia
High resolution site characterisation
Session Chair: Sven Hoffmann, URS Australia
Session Sponsor: Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd
D33 ADVANCED SITE CHARACTERISATION
WITH PASSIVE SOIL GAS
Dean Woods, Douglas Partners Pty Ltd
E34 THE IMPACT OF CABONACEOUS
SORBENTS ON THE BIOACCESSIBILITY OF
PAHS IN SOIL
Kirk Semple, Lancaster University
E35 ASSESSING MERCURY AND METHYL
MERCURY BIOAVAILABILITY IN SEDIMENT
USING MERCURY-SPECIFIC DGTS
Paul Goldsworthy, ENVIRON Australia
D34 APPLICATION OF LASER INDUCED
FLUORESCENCE FOR OPTIMIZING FUEL OIL
RECOVERY
Brendan Brodie, ERM
E36 ORAL BIOAVAILABILITY OF
BENZO[A]PYRENE SOILS – THE USE OF A
SWINE MODEL
Luchun Duan, CERAR, UniSA
A38 VAPOR INTRUSION MITIGATION IN
LARGE COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
William R. Morris, Vapor Mitigation
Sciences
A39 THE IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICAL
APPROACH ON VAPOUR INTRUSION
DECISION MAKING AT VOLATILE ORGANIC
HYDROCARBON CONTAMINATED SITES
CONCLUSION – PRACTICE NOTE FOR
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF
ASBESTOS-CONTAMINATED MATERIALS
Lunch
C42 ASSESSMENT OF DNAPL
REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY
PERFORMANCE AND COSTS
Julie Knozuk, Geosyntec Consultants
C43 PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT OF ISCO
REMEDIATION AFFECT
Patrick Baldwin, Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd
C44 LAWRENCE DRY CLEANERS: PROGESS
REPORT ON 10 MONTHS OF FULL SCALE
EHANCED IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS IN THE BOTANY
SANDS
Jason Clay, AECOM
D37 RAPID OPTICAL SCREENING TOOL –
AN IN SITU INVESTIGATION APPROACH
FOR HYDROCARBONS
Penny Woodberry, Golder Associates Pty
Ltd
D38 ADVANCED PASSIVE SOIL GAS
SAMPLING – COLLECTION OF HIGHRESOLUTION SITE CHARACTERIZATION
DATA TO ACCURATELY IDENTIFY SOURCE
AREAS
Harry O'Neill, Beacon Environmental
Services, Inc
D39 DIRECT PUSH - STATE OF THE ART
AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS FOR HIGH
RESOLUTION SITE CHARACTERIZATION
Thomas Vienken, Helmholtz Centre for
Environmental Research
Session Sponsor: Enviropacific Services
C41 UNDERSTANDING MIGRATION OF A
COMPLEX DNAPL MIXTURE IN FRACTURED
BASALT
Frederic Cosme, Golder Associates
Exsitu soil remediation case studies
D36 BACKGROUND FLUORESCENCE
ANALYSIS – A SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE
TECHNIQUE FOR ASSESSING
PREFERENTIAL GROUNDWATER FLOW
PATHS
Dinesh Poudyal, Envrironmental Resources
Management
E37 DECISIONS, DECISIONS, DECISIONS –
THE UNIVERSAL TECHNICAL CURSE OF
HONEST ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION
OF NASTY, TOXIC SVOC (PAH) SITES
Allen W. Hatheway, Private Consultant
Session Chair: Matt Fensom, Enviropacific Services
C40 TOWARDS CONTAMINANT MASS
FLUX CRITERIA IN GROUNDWATER:
SUPPORT FROM LINKS TO MASS
REDUCTION
Colin Johnston, CSIRO
Session Sponsor: Numac Drilling Services Australia
D35 HIGH-RESOLUTION VERTICAL
PROFILING: REAL-TIME DATA COLLECTION
FOR COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL
SITE ASSESSMENTS
David Heicher, Numac Drilling Services
Australia
High resolution site characterisation
C39 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS FOR
MONITORED NATURAL ATTENUATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENT PLUMES
Heather Rectanus, Battelle
Session Chair: Simon Gracie, Numac Drilling Services Australia
B40 ROUND TABLE DISCUSSION
Session Sponsor: Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd
B39 ASBESTOS CONTAMINATION OF
BUILDING DEMOLITION DEBRIS – WHAT A
WASTE!
TBC
Management and remediation strategies for DNAPL
Session Chair: Ross McFarland, AECOM
A37 ASSESSMENT OF VAPOUR
INTRUSION IN AUSTRALIA
Jackie Wright, Environmental Risk Sciences
Pty Ltd
B38 ASBESTOS IN SOIL – THREE
REMEDIATION/MANAGEMENT CASE
STUDIES FROM THREE STATES – AN
AUDITOR’S EXPERIENCE
Tony Scott, Coffey Environments Australia
Session Chair: Naji Akladiss, State of Maine Department of Enviromental Protection
A35 PETROLEUM VAPOR INTRUSION
(PVI): PROGRESSION OF THE SCREENING
APPROACH
John E. Boyer, New Jersey Dept. of
A36 RESULTS FROM FIVE US EPA
RESEARCH PROGRAMS ON SOIL GAS
SAMPLING VARIABLES AND TEMPORAL
VARIATIONS OF SOIL GAS AND INDOOR
AIR CONCENTRATIONS
Blayne Hartman, Hartman Environmental
Geoscience
Morning tea
B37 ASSESSING THE EXPOSURE
PATHWAY: ASBESTOS IN SOIL TO AIR
ASSESSMENT METHOD (ASAAM)
Benjamin Hardaker, AECOM Australia
ASBestos-IN-Soil
Vapour intrusion
11.30AM
Session Chair: John E. Boyer, New Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection
11.10AM
12.30PM
C37 MASS FLUX AND MASS DISCHARGE:
THE ITRC APPROACH
Charles Newell, GSI Environmental
D31 ADVANCES IN HIGH RESOLUTION
GEOPHYSICAL IMAGING: EXAMPLES FROM
THE HIGHLY HETEROGENEOUS MADE SITE
IN MISSISSIPPI, AND BEYOND
Remke van Dam, Queensland University of
Technology
Morning tea
10.50AM
12.10PM
C36 THE USA’S INTRASTATE
TECHNOLOGY AND REGULATORY
KhE/>͛^;/dZͿWWZK,dKd,EW>
PROBLEM
Naji Akladiss, State of Maine Dept of
Enviromental Protection
C38 IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENT DNAPL SOURCE
ZONES: STATE OF THE ART
Tamzen W Macbeth, CDM Smith
B36 CONTRACTORS' PERSPECTIVE
Cameron McLean, Enviropacific
10.20AM
11.50AM
B35 KEY REGULATORS' PERSPECTIVE
Martin Matisons, WA Department of
Health
Session Chair: Tony Cussins, Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd
A34 LANDFILL GAS AND DEVELOPMENT
APPROVALS: REGULATORY
REQUIREMENTS IN AUSTRALIAN
JURISDICTIONS
Phil Sinclair, Coffey
B34 RECENT TRENDS AND
DEVELOPMENTS IN ASBESTOS IN SOIL
(ASBINS) – US EPA PERSPECTIVE
Julie Wroble, US Environmental Protection
Agency, Region 10
Management and remediation strategies for DNAPL
A33 CRANBOURNE LANDFILL – SOME
INSIGHTS FROM AN INTENSELY
MONITORED LANDFILL GAS CASE
Peter Gringinger, Cardno Lane Pipe
Session Chair: Ross McFarland, AECOM
9.40AM
A32 REMEDIATION OF SUBSURFACE
LANDFILL GAS, STEVENSONS ROAD CLOSED
LANDFILL, CRANBOURNE, VICTORIA
Paul Fridell, ERM Australia Pty Ltd
ASBestos-IN-Soil
Ground gas
9.20AM
Session Chair: Jon Miller, The Remediation Group
9.00AM
Meeting Room 13
WEDNESDAY - AM
Conference Hall 1
E38 REMEDIATION OPTIONS FOR
HEAVILY CONTAMINATED TPH SEDIMENTS
Euan Smith, University of South Australia
E39 THE EFFECTS OF AN ORGANIC
BARRIER ON CHROMITE ORE PROCESSING
RESIDUE
Regin Orquiza, Centre for Contaminant
Geoscience
E40 CHEMICAL IMMOBILISATION OF
LEAD-IMPACTED SOILS
E41 EX SITU REMEDIATION OF THE OLD
TOOWOOMBA GASWORKS
David Bax, Thiess Services Pty Ltd
Lunch
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Conference Hall 2
Conference Hall 3
Meeting Room 11
Meeting Room 12
Lunch
B44 Case study
TBC
C48 CONTAMINATED SOIL TREATMENT
WORKS AND ANCILLARY DEVELOPMENT: A
NSW PLANNING CASE STUDY
Gregor Riese, OneSteel Recycling
D44 PHYTOREMEDIATION OF RED MUD
RESIDUES BY HYBRID GIANT NAPIER
GRASS
Chongjian Ma, Shaoguan University
E44 STUDY ON THE ORGANIC SOLID
WASTE THERMO-CHEMISTRY
CONVERSION FOR METHANE
PRODUCTION
Bo Xiao, Huazhong University of Science
and Technology
E45 AROMATIC HYDROCARBON
DEGRADATION OF A BIOFILM FORMED BY
A MIXTURE OF MARINE BACTERIA
Nhi-Cong Le, Vietnam Academy of Science
and Technology
Session Chair: Steve Chiu, Austrade Taiwan
D43 EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL
BYPRODUCTS ON PHOSPHORUS
MOBILISATION IN ABATTOIR EFFLUENT
IRRIGATED SOIL AND IMPLICATIONS ON
BIOMASS IN NAPIER GRASS
Balaji Seshadri, CERAR, UniSA
F11 FUTURE VISION AND MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES ON THE REMEDIATION OF
TAIWAN SOIL AND GROUNDWATER
CONTAMINATED SITES
Hung-Te Tsai, Soil and Groundwater
Remediation Fund Management Board,
EPA Taiwan, Executive Secretary
Taiwan: Strategic partnership for opportunities in greater China
E43 TECHNICAL ADVANCES OF
INDIRECTLY HEATED VACUUM THERMAL
DESORPTION (VTD) FOR SOIL
REMEDIATON
Reinhard Schmidt, R&D Department econ
industries
Session Sponsor: Enviropacific Services
Session Sponsor: GHD
Containment risks
Afternoon tea
3.15PM
D42 CHITOSAN ENHANCES REMEDIATION
OF ZINC CONTAMINATION IN SOIL
Nimisha Tripathi, Central Institute of
Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad
Innovative remediation technologies
C47 REMEDIATION OF RADIOACTIVE
SAND MINE TAILINGS: BELMONT STATE
WETLANDS PARK, BELMONT NSW
Laurie Fox, Coffey
Session Chair: Jayant Keskar, CRC CARE
B43 GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
CONTAMINATED LAND MANAGEMENT, A
CONERSTONE TO SUCCESS OR FAILURE –
CASE STUDIES
Edward Wu, Coffey
C46 TWO CONTRASTING CASE STUDIES
ILLUSTRATING USE OF THE ANZECC 1999
GUIDELINES FOR ON-SITE CONTAINMENT
Ian Gregson, GHD Pty Ltd
E42 ODOUR ABATEMENT FOR LOADING
A COAL TAR SHIP
Matt Fensom, Enviropacific Services
F12 DEVELOPMENT OF TAIWAN’S
REMEDIATION INDUSTRY ALLIANCE INTO
CHINA
Li-Peng Chang, Deputy General Manager
of Taiwan Environment Technical Co., Ltd.
F13 PROMOTION ACTIVITY ON SOIL AND
GROUNDWATER INDUSTRY AND
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH INTERNATIONAL WORKING
GROUP
Zueng-Sang Chen, Chairman of Working
Group on the Remediation of Soil and
Groundwater Pollution of Asian and Pacific
Region
A44 FACTORS LIMITING AEROBIC
VAPOUR DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC
CONTAMINANTS IN THE VADOSE ZONE
Bradley Patterson, CSIRO Land and Water
2.55PM
B42 GEOTECHNICAL ISSUES AROUND
CONTAINMENT OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
AND OTHER WASTE
Roger Parker, Golder Associates
Session Chair: Ian Gregson, GHD Pty Ltd
A43 SCREENING DISTANCES FOR VAPOUR
INTRUSION APPLICATIONS AT PETROLEUM
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK SITES
Matthew Lahvis, Shell
Session Sponsor: Coffey
A42 QUANTITATIVE PASSIVE SOIL VAPOR
SAMPLING FOR VOCS – MATHEMATICAL
MODELLING, LABORATORY TESTING AND
FIELD TESTING
Hester Groenevelt, Geosyntec Consultants
Geotechnics
A41 ADVANTAGES OF MEASURED SOIL
POROSITY IN VAPOUR INTRUSION
MODELLING
Nick Woodford, Coffey
C45 CONTAMINATED SITES – THE
PRACTICE OF APPLYING THE
CONTAINMENT OPTION
Peter R Nadebaum, GHD Pty Ltd
D41 BIOSOLIDS APPLICATION ENHANCES
CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN SOIL
Nanthi Bolan, CERAR, UniSA
Session Chair: Annette Nolan, Enviropacific Services
2.35PM
B41 OPTIMISING REMEDIATION
SOLUTIONS THROUGH APPROPRIATE
CONSIDERATION OF GEOTECHNICAL
FACTORS
Patrick Wong, Coffey Geotechnics
Session Chair: Sam Gunasekera, Coffey
2.15PM
Vapour intrusion
1.55PM
Session Chair: Jackie Wright, Environmental Risk Sciences Pty Ltd
1.35PM
Lunch
Waste
A40 A CONSERVATIVE SCREENING
MODEL FOR PETROLEUM VAPOUR
INTRUSION ACCOUNTING FOR THE
BUILDING
Greg Davis, CSIRO Land and Water
Meeting Room 13
WEDNESDAY - PM
Conference Hall 1
D45 VERMICULTURE TECHNOLOGY: AN
ECO-TOOL IN SUSTAINABLE WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND LAND RESOURCES
REHABILITATION IN THAILAND
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen
University
E46 ADSORPTIVE TREATMENT OF
PHARMACEUTICAL WASTEWATER
CONTAINING BALSALAZIDE USING
UNSATURATED POLYESTER RESIN (UPR)
Rajeev Jain, Jiwaji University
Afternoon tea
Closing plenary
4.05PM
4.25PM
4.45PM
Session Chair: Tony Scott, Coffey
3.45PM
LAUNCH OF THE GLOBAL CONTAMINATION RESEARCH INITIATIVE AND INTERACTIVE PANEL SESSIONS DISCUSSING GLOBAL REMEDIATION PRIORITIES, FUTURE CHALLENGES
AND OPPORTUNITIES
LAUNCH OF THE GLOBAL CONTAMINATION RESEARCH INITIATIVE AND INTERACTIVE PANEL SESSIONS DISCUSSING GLOBAL REMEDIATION PRIORITIES, FUTURE CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES
OFFICIAL CONFERENCE CLOSING
OFFICIAL CONFERENCE CLOSING
5.00PM
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G028 LIES, DAMNED LIES AND STATISTICS: HOW ONE CAN HELP YOU KNOW YOUR PLUME BETTER
Graham Smith, Parson Brinckerhoff
G055 SEQUENTIAL TREATMENT OF A HIGH-STRENGTH TCE SOURCE BY POTASIUM PERMANGANATE
Maureen Leahy, ERM
G082 THE INFLUENCE OF BIOSOLIDS-BASED CO-COMPOSTED PRODUCTS ON THE BIOAVAILABILITY OF
COPPER TO EARTHWORMS
Thammared Chuasavathi, Khon Kaen University
G002 THE EFFECTS OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND ARSENIC ON BENZO(A)PYRENE-INDUCED GENOTOXICITY IN
HUMAN CELLS
Jack Ng, The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology-Entox
G029 JURISDICTIONAL DIFFERENCES IN DEVELOPING A NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ASSESSMENTS
Jeremy Alcorn, Spatial Vision
G056 IMPLEMENTATION OF QA/QC PROCEDURES TO ACHIEVE REMEDIAL OUTCOMES
Alessandro Sica, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
G083 CHARACTERIZATION AND REUSE OF WASTEWATER
Sonia Shilpi, CERAR, UniSA
G003 THE EFFECT OF ARSENIC ON THE BIOAVAILABILITY OF CADMIUM TO HUMAN LIVER CARCINOMA
CELLS
Qing Xia, The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology
G030 APPLICATION OF STABLE OXYGEN ISOTOPES FOR DETECTING SEEPAGE FROM MINE DEWATERING
EVAPORATION PONDS
G057 PORE GAS VELOCITY VERSUS RADIUS OF VACUUM INFLUENCE FOR EVALUATING SVE AND MPVE
PILOT TESTS
Brendan Brodie, ERM Australia
G084 ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ABATTOIR WASTEWATER
IRRIGATED SOILS IN PORT WAKEFIELD (SA) AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON PLANT GROWTH
Raghupathi Matheyarasu, CERAR, UniSA
G004 EMERGENCY CLEAN-UP RESPONSE
Matthew Deaves, SGS Australia Pty Ltd
G031 COMPARISION OF HYDRASLEEVES (NO-PURGE) SAMPLING TO LOW-FLOW SAMPLING IN A
FRACTURED BASALT AQUIFER
Grant Cozens, Golder Associates
G058 REMEDIATION OF OILY CLAY SOIL USING THE METHOD OF HIGH-PRESSURE DIRECT BORING
COMBINED WITH ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE HEATING
Min-Cheol Shin, R&D Center / H-Plus Eco Ltd.
G085 DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF COAL COMBUSTION PRODUCTS ON PHOSPHORUS MOBILITY IN
FERTILISED SOILS
Balaji Seshadri, CERAR, UniSA
G005 THE NEW NEPM – HOW DOES IT IMPACT MY PROJECT
Geoff Le Cornu, Australian Laboratory Services Ltd
G032 NO PURGE SAMPLING: A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE FOR GROUNDWATER SAMPLING
Neil Gray, Environmental Resources Management (ERM)
G059 TBT IN A NON-MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Clinton Smiljanic, Coffey
G086 STUDY ON THE ENERGY RECOVERY AND THE UTILIZATION OF NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS FROM
PIGGERY MANURE
Zhiquan Hu, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
G006 STANDARD OF PROOF FOR CONTAMINATED SITES INVESTIGATIONS – BALANCING UNCERTAINTY
AND RISK
Stephen Cambridge, Coffey
G033 ASSESSING AMBIENT BACKGROUND CONCENTRATIONS OF HEAVY METALS USING FE OR AL
CORRECTION CURVES: CASE STUDY FOR THE BASALTIC SOILS, WESTERN PLAINS, VICTORIA
Hannah Dannatt, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
G060 PERMEABLE REACTIVE BARRIER TO REMEDIATE SUBSURFACE SOIL AND GROUNDWATER IN
ANTARCTICA
Meenakshi Arora, University of Melbourne
G087 EFFECTS OF METALLIC CATALYSTS ON COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOMASS MICRON FUEL
(BMF)
Frangjie Qi, CERAR, UniSA
G007 CONTAMINATED SITE INVESTIGATIONS: ARE RISK ASSESSMENTS THE WAY OF THE FUTURE IN OUR
INDUSTRY?
Colee Quayle, Coffey
G008 EVALUATION OF ECOLOGICAL AND HEALTH RISKS OF DOWNSTREAM EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS
AND METALLOIDS FROM HISTORICAL MINE PRACTICES IN THE LEICHHARDT RIVER INCLUDING
BIOACCUMULATION IN FISH
Barry Noller Centre For Mined Land Rehabilitation
G009 HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF HALOGENATED CONTAMINANTS IN WATER USING THE THRESHOLD
OF TOXICOLOGICAL CONCERN (TTC) APPROACH
Sim Ooi, Parsons Brinckerhoff Australia
G034 INTEGRATED MOBILE ELECTRONIC DATA CAPTURE AND STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR PLANNING LARGE
AND COMPLEX REMEDIATION PROJECTS
Andrew Barker, Golder Associates Pty Ltd
G061 REVIEW OF IMMOBILIZED TITANIA REACTORS FOR IN SITU WATER REMEDIATION
Aaron Katz, University of Technology, Sydney
G088 BURIED BAG TECHNIQUE TO STUDY BIOCHARS CO-COMPOSTED WITH CHICKEN MANURE AND
SAWDUST
Naser Khan, CERAR, UniSA
G035 NAPHTHALENE: DISCREPANCIES IN CONCENTRATIONS DETERMINED OF FROM GROUNDWATER
SAMPLING USING VOLATILE AND SEMIVOLATILE ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Marc Centner, ALS
G062 A CASE STUDY OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM REMEDIATION BY IN SITU CHEMICAL REDUCTION
AND THE IMPORTANCE OF SETTING REMEDIATION GOALS
Jean-Paul Pearce, GHD Pty Ltd
G089 IMPACT OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON CHICKPEA (CICER ARIETINUM) IN SALINE USAR LAND
Anuj Prakash, H C P G College
G036 DEVELOPING ROBUST CONCEPTUAL SITE MODELS THAT CONSIDER CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND
EXTREME EVENTS
Tamie Weaver, Environmental Resources Management
G063 ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF LEACHATE CONTROL MEASURES AT A REMEDIATED LANDFILL
Fiona Wong, Coffey
G090 LIFE CYCLE OF DISPOSAL WASTE IN LANDFILLS: IMPLICATION FOR E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
Peeranart Kiddee, CERAR, UniSA
G010 EMERGING CONTAMINANTS OF CONCERN – AQUEOUS FILM FORMING FOAMS (AFFF'S)
Paul Loewy, Australian Laboratory Services Pty Ltd
G037 ENGINEERED TO AESTHETIC: CLOSURE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE LANDFILLS
Warren Pump, ERM
G064 APPLICATIONS OF VACUDRY® INDIRECTLY HEATED VACUUM THERMAL DESORPTION
Reinhard Schmidt, R&D Department econ industries
G091 CADMIUM CONTENT OF LONG-TERM SUGARCANE GROWING SOILS FROM FIJI
Jai Gawandar, Sugar Research Institute of Fiji
G011 COMPARATIVE ACUTE TOXICITY OF 2,4-DINITROANISOLE, ITS METABOLITES AND 2,4,6TRINITROTOLUENE TO DAPHNIA CARINATA
Prasath Annamalai, CERAR, UniSA
G038 HYDROGEOLOGIC UNCERTAINTY IN IDENTIFICATION OF CONTAMINATION SOURCES
Mahsa Amirabdollahian, James Cook University
G065 COBALT-EXCHANGED NATURAL ZEOLITES FOR ORGANIC DEGRADATION IN WATER
Shaobin Wang, Curtin University
G092 RHIZOSPHERE EFFECT OF AUSTRALIAN NATIVE VEGETATION ON GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION
FROM SOIL
Ramya Thangarajan, University of South Australia
G012 ACUTE TOXICITY OF PERFLUORINATED COMPOUNDS TO DAPHNIA CARINATA
Logeshwaran Panneerselvan, CERAR, UniSA
G039 A COMPARISON OF ARSENIC MOBILITY USING TWO SEQUENTIAL EXTRACTION PROCEDURES
Renato Veloso, Universidade Federal de Viçosa
G066 UNDERSTANDING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF XRF TO IMPROVE CONFIDENCE IN ITS APPLICATION
FOR CONTAMINATED LAND ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION PLANNING
Christian Wallis, Golder Associates
G093 PUCCINELLIA FRIGIDA AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR BORON PHYTOREMEDIATION
Consuelo Ramila, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
G013 PERFLUORINATED COMPOUNDS: EMERGING, PERSISTENT AND PREVALENT ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINANTS
Allan Bull, Cardno Lane Piper
G040 ALS INDUSTRY TRAINING – 2 YEARS ON: WHAT HAS IT DONE?
Adam Grant, ALS
G067 OVERCOMING PERMANGANATE STALLING DURING ELECTROMIGRATION
Daniel Hodges, Golder Associates
G094 SOIL WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE THE ARSENIC CONTENT OF BROWN RICE
FOR DIFFERENT AS-CONTAMINATED SOILS
Zueng-Sang Chen, National Taiwan University
G014 THE ASSESSMENT OF RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO PERFLUORINATED CHEMICALS:
ADDRESSING UNCERTAINTY
Giorgio De Nola, Cardno Lane Pipe
G041 GROUNDWATER PROHIBITION AS A REMEDIAL TOOL
Gabrielle Wigley, SA Environment Protection Authority
G068 HORIZONTAL REMEDIATION WELL AIR SPARGE/SOIL VAPOR EXTRACTION (HRW-AS/SVE): A CASE
STUDY
Michael Sequino, Directional Technologies, Inc
G095 BIOAVAILABILITY OF ARSENIC AND LEAD AT MOANATAIARI, THAMES, NEW ZEALAND
Dave Bull, Golder Associates (NZ) Ltd
G016 CADMIUM TOLERANCE AND ACCUMULATION OF THE MANGROVE SPECIES RHIZOPHORA STYLOSA
AS A POTENTIAL PHYTOSTABILIZER
Zeng-Yei Hseu, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology
G042 PETROLEUM SITE CLOSURE – STEPS TO EFFICIENT END POINT
Benedict Smith, Coffey
G069 PERFORMANCE OF INORGANO-ORGANOCLAY FOR SOIL MIX TECHNOLOGY PERMEABLE REACTIVE
BARRIER
Ziyad Abunada, University of Cambridge
G096 ASSESSMENT OF THE PRIMING EFFECT OF MODEL ROOT EXUDATE ADDITION ON SOIL ORGANIC
MATTER AS AFFECTED BY NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
Saikat Chowdhury, CERAR, UniSA
G017 USE OF COMPOUND SPECIFIC ISOTOPE ANALYSIS TO PROVE SUCCESSFUL BIODEGRADATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS IN GROUNDWATER
Jason Clay, AECOM
G044 THE DOUBLE EDGED SWORD OF CERTAINTY
Sarah Richards, Coffey
G070 ASSESSMENT OF METHANE IN SOIL GAS AT A RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT IN FLORIDA, USA
Henry Kerfoot, URS Pty Ltd
G097 PHYTOREMEDIATION OF BENZO(A)PYRENE AND PYRENE IN SOIL
Anithadevi Kenday Sivaram, CERAR, UniSA
G018 BIOAUGMENTATION: AN INNOVATIVE REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY FOR THE REMEDIATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENT CONTAMINATED SITES
Sandra Dworatzek, SiREM
G045 CURRENT CHALLENGES AND POTENTIAL RISKS IN USING (NANOSCALE) ZERO-VALENT IRON FOR
SITE REMEDIATION
Erica Donner, CERAR, UniSA
G071 METHANE AT PETROLEUM-CONTAMINATED SITES ABOVE THE LEL: WHY, WHERE AND WHEN
Casey O'Farrell, Coffey
G098 EFFECT OF AGEING ON BENZO[A]PYRENE EXTRACTABILITY IN FOUR CONTRASTING SOILS
Luchun Duan, CERAR, UniSA
G019 WHICH BUGS WORK HARDER FOR LONGER
G046 PHYTOSYNTHESIZED IRON NANO PARTICLES FOR THE REMEDIATION OF CHROMIUM
Vidhyasri Subramaniyam, CERAR, UniSA
G072 THE MANAGEMENT OF HYDROCARBON-IMPACTED VAPOURS WITHIN A RESIDENTIAL APARTMENT
DEVELOPMENT, BRADDON, ACT
Ian Batterley, AECOM
G099 BIOAVAILABILITY AND TOXICITY OF LEAD TO EARTHWORMS IN THREE SOILS
Ayanka Wijayawardena, CERAR, UniSA
G020 MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS ADSORBED ON SOIL MINERALS
Bhabananda Biswas, Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation [CERAR]
G047 MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF WATER PATHOGENS BY SURFACE MODIFIED NANOPARTICLES
Sudeep Shukla, Jawaharlal Nehru University
G073 MASS TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN WITHIN THE VADOSE ZONE: EVIDENCE FOR AEROBIC
DEGRADATION UNDER A SLAB
Victoria Lazenby, URS Australia
G100 HOW (AND WHY) TO BE A MORE DIPLOMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANT – A VICTORIAN
PERSPECTIVE
Alyson Macdonald, Environmental Resources Management
G021 BIODEGRADATION OF ORGANIC MATTER FROM INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARM WASTEWATER USING
MANGROVE SNAIL (CERITHIDEA OBTUSE)
Lich Nguyen Quang, CERAR, UniSA
G048 SIMULTANEOUS IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN GROUNDWATER POLLUTION SOURCE FLUXES
AND THEIR STARTING TIME
Om Prakash, James Cook University
G074 HOW THE MOON ATTENUATES GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
G101 PILOT-SCALE REMEDIATION OF TOTAL PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS USING BIOSLURRY REACTOR
Thavamani Palanisami, CERAR, UniSA
G022 A LOW-COST BIOREMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY FOR ARSENIC CONTAMINATED WATER
Mezbaul Bahar , CERAR, UniSA
G049 THE USE OF CONTAMINANT MASS FLUX AND MASS DISCHARGE FOR CONTAMINATED SITES IN
AUSTRALIA
Peter Nadebaum, GHD Pty Ltd
G075 TIER 1.5 SOIL VAPOUR SCREENING FOR NON-PETROLEUM VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Kenneth Kiefer, ERM
G102 BIOPILING WEATHERED HYDROCARBONS – ATTAINABLE / SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION IN ARID
REGION SOILS?
Kavitha Ramadass, CERAR, UniSA
G023 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE THROUGH WATER NEUTRALIZATION AND RECIRCULATION IN A
STERILE FORM URANIUM MINING
Luisa Poyares Cardoso, Federal University of Viçosa
G050 A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODELLING APPROACHES TO PETROLEUM IMPACTS IN POROUS
MEDIA
Kaveh Sookhak Lri, CSIRO/UniSA
G076 ASSESSING DEGRADATION PROCESSES OF SUBSURFACE VAPOURS FROM A PETROLEUM SOURCE
IN FRACTURED BASALT USING A CARBON FILTER
Kenneth Kiefer, ERM
G103 A NOVEL TECHNOLOGY FOR TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS FIRE FIGHTING FOAMS (AFFF)
CONTAMINATED WASTEWATER
Victor Andres Arias Espana,CERAR, UniSA
G024 SYNTHESIS OF AL- FE (HYDR)OXIDES AS A GEOCHEMICAL BARRIER FOR URANIUM
Vanessa de Paula Ferreira, Federal University of Vicosa
G051 CARBON FOOTPRINT ASSESSMENT OF A LARGE SCALE IN SITU THERMAL TREATMENT PROJECT
PERFORMED AT A CHLORINATED SOLVENT IMPACTED FRACTURED BEDROCK SITE
Neil Gray, Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd (ERM)
G077 TRUSTING YOUR FIELD OBERSVATION OVER LABORATORY DATA: KNOWING WHEN TO APPLY THE
HSLS – A SOIL VAPOUR CASE STUDY
David Jackson, Environmental Strategies
G104 CONCURRENT EFFECTS OF ZINC AND POLYCYLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS ON ROOT
ELONGATION OF CUCUMBER IN PURE SOLUTION
Mohammed Kader, CERAR, UniSA
G025 PRECIPITATION OF AL-FE (HYDR)OXIDES TO TREAT WATER CONTAMINATED WITH ARSENIC
Jaime Mello, Federal University of Vicosa
G052 THE USE OF PERMEABLE REACTIVE BARRIERS TO TREAT AND MANAGE CONTAMINATED SITES IN
ANTARCTICA
Tom Statham, University of Melbourne
G078 INTEGRATED DNAPL SITE STRATEGY
Heather Rectanus, Battelle
G105 NATURALLY OCCURING ARSENIC IN CANBERRA
Cheryl Halim, Coffey
G026 IMMOBILIZATION OF LANTHANUM BY SYNTHETIC COLLOIDS OF IRON AND ALUMINUM
Jaime Mello, Federal University of Vicosa
G053 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE USE OF HEAVY METAL SLUDGE FOR SOLIDIFICATION OF SULFUR
CONCRETE
Han-Suk Kim, Research and Development
G079 TREATMENT OF COMPLEX CONTAMINATED WASTES
G106 MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF ARSENIC-CONTAMINATED SOIL IN WEST
BENGAL BY CHINESE BRAKE FERN
Asit Mandal, Indian Institute of Soil Science
G027 EXPANSION OF SURFACE AREA OF RED MUD BY THERMAL AND ACID TREATMENTS
Yanju Liu, CERAR, UniSA
G054 MULWALA EXPLOSIVES AND CHEMICALS MANUFACTURING FACILITY – APPLICATION OF
GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION OPTIONS
Gavin Scherer, AECOM
G080 THE TOXICITY OF LEACHATES FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE CONTAINING ANTIMONY
Dayanthi Nugegoda, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University
G107 ACID SULFATE SOILS: NEUTRALISATION WITH LIQUID LIME
Louise Cartwright, Enviropacific Services
TUESDAY - POSTER SESSION
MONDAY - POSTER SESSION
G001 IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTITUENTS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN (COPCS) FOR ROBUST HUMAN
HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF REFINED FUEL RELEASES
G081 BRINKLEY QUARRY – WASTE DERIVED FILL STANDARD POSES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Adrian Hall, GHD
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2013
Workshops
Workshop 1:
Advancements in petroleum vapour
intrusion investigation and mitigation
Workshop 3:
Integrated DNAPL site
remediation strategy
Coordinated by: John Boyer
Time: 8:30am – 5:00pm
Location: Crown Convention Centre,
Conference Hall 1
Coordinated by: Naji Akladiss
Time: 8:30am – 12:30pm
Departure: Crown Convention Centre,
Conference Hall 2
Regulatory agencies and industry are utilising vast
resources on petroleum vapour intrusion (PVI) evaluations
that may not be necessary due to the lack of a technical
understanding of the current science. At potential PVI
sites there is often uncertainty as to the best approach to
assess, investigate, and manage sites. This uncertainty
leads to inconsistent and slow decision making, and
PUZVTLJHZLZHSHJRVMJVUÄKLUJLPU[OLWYV[LJ[PVU
of human health. The challenge is to identify those
sites requiring a typical investigation and to screen out
unnecessary sites while still protecting public health.
This short course is based on the 2011 ITRC IDSS-1
training course Integrated DNAPL Site Strategy
(www.itrcweb.org).
Workshop 2:
Contaminated land as a legacy of
mining – past, present and future
Sponsored by ACTRA
Coordinated by: Peter Di Marco
Time: 8:30am – 5:00pm
Conference Hall 3
By their very nature, mining activities pose a high risk
for soil and water contamination unless appropriate
management practices are in place. In the past,
particularly early in the last century, the approaches to
sustainable environmental practices have been less than
desirable, resulting in a large number of contaminated
sites from the mining. Not restricted to the mining
site, the contamination can also occur along transport
corridors (e.g. the railway line corridor from Broken Hill to
Port Pirie) and distal to the mining site because of erosion
(soil and surface waters), or can leach into groundwater.
The geographical distribution of the contamination may
not be known or knowable. The contamination has
caused disease in the past (Wittenoom, Port Pirie) and
will likely do so in the future as population increases,
urban areas expand and people move out of the capital
cities.
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Workshop 4:
In situ bioremediation for the
practitioner
mass discharge) and plume behaviour (e.g. preferential
ÅV^WH[OZJVUJLU[YH[PVUKPZ[YPI\[PVUTHZZÅ\_VUS`
recently have generic tools been developed to help
site managers, regulators, engineers and remediation
scientists determine how to combine existing and new
approaches to arrive at a level of site characterisation
suitable for an intended purpose. Cost-effective site
characterisation is important when determining the
feasibility of treatment approaches, to assess process
performance during operation, and to reduce the
uncertainty of long-term performance through support for
optimisation strategies. This workshop will focus not only
on the tools for detailed site characterisation (particularly
[OLPYILULÄ[ZHUKSPTP[H[PVUZI\[HSZVVU[OLWYVJLZZ
of selecting data, determining the worth of data, and
techniques and holistic approaches for the integration
and visualisation of the data.
Sponsored by ERM
Coordinated by: Maureen C. Leahy
Time: 8:30am – 12:30pm
Meeting Room 11
The understanding and application of biological treatment
for environmental contaminants have made huge
advances in the past 30 years, but many practitioners
still rely on vendors of commercial products and
tools for their information. This workshop is aimed at
providing practitioners with an understanding of the
factors involved in choosing bioremediation over other
technologies, selecting the right amendments, and
monitoring the performance of the implementation.
Workshop 5:
Detailed site characterisation:
approaches, outcomes and
managing the data
Sponsored by Geosyntec
Coordinated by: David Reynolds
Time: 8:30am – 12:30pm
Meeting Room 12
Site investigation is a process of reducing uncertainty,
with the eventual aim of developing a conceptual site
model that is appropriate for the remedial objectives of
the site. While there has been a strong recent focus on
developing new site diagnostic tools and approaches
to characterising source zones (e.g. architecture, mass,
Workshop 6:
Measurement and use of mass
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decisions at contaminated sites
Coordinated by: Naji Akladiss
Time: 1:30pm – 5:00pm
Conference Hall 2
;OPZZOVY[JV\YZLPZIHZLKVU[OL0;9*4HZZÅ\_
[YHPUPUNJV\YZL<ZLHUKTLHZ\YLTLU[VMTHZZÅ\_HUK
mass discharge (www.itrcweb.org).
Workshop 7:
In situ thermal remediation
Sponsored by TerraTherm
Coordinated by: Gorm Heron and Grant Geckeler
Time: 1:30pm – 5:00pm
Meeting Room 11
The workshop will include an overview of the theory and
application of in situ thermal methods to the remediation
of contaminated sites in North America and Europe,
including steam-enhanced extraction, electrical resistive
OLH[PUN[OLYTHSJVUK\J[P]LOLH[PUNHUKNHZÄYLK
conductive methods.
Workshop 8:
Applying sustainability principles
to remediation in Australia and
New Zealand
Sponsored by SuRF ANZ
Coordinated by: Garry Smith
Time: 1:30pm – 5:00pm
Meeting Room 12
International and Australia/New Zealand experience
JVUÄYTZ[OH[PUJS\KPUNYLSL]HU[Z\Z[HPUHIPSP[`
considerations in contaminated sites remediation project
planning and practice provides a means to:
• demonstrate the effectiveness of a proposed project
from the triple-bottom-line perspective
LMÄJPLU[S`HKKYLZZWYVQLJ[YPZRIHZLKV\[JVTLZHUK
ÄUHUJPHSJVZ[Z
• meet government and societal expectations with
respect to sustainable development.
Sustainable Remediation practice also has important
contributions to make to emerging crossdisciplinary
sustainable development practices in land-use planning
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renewal’) and transport (‘transit-oriented development’).
Workshop 9:
Horizontal drilling techniques
Sponsored by
Directional Technologies
Coordinated by: Mike Sequino
Time: 1:30pm – 5:00pm
Meeting Room 13
This horizontal remediation well (HRW) workshop will
discuss the use of HRWs to broaden the spectrum of
in situ remediation and mitigation methods that work
more effectively when implemented. The workshop will
include enhanced bioremediation, chemical oxidation,
multiple phase extraction, in situ thermal remediation,
hydraulic barriers, air sparging, soil vapour extraction,
and subslab depressurisation to mitigate vapour
intrusion.
xlv
Clea
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2013
SPECIAL SYMPOSIA
Advances in site assessment and
remediation demonstrations
One of CRC CARE’s founding purposes is to work with
end users to develop the technologies they need, to not
only solve their contamination problems but also lower
their costs and increase their revenue. This session will
introduce attendees to several of CRC CARE’s recent
advances in site assessment and remediation.
0U[OLTVYUPUN»ZÄYZ[ZLZZPVU*9**(9,4HUHNPUN
Director Professor Ravi Naidu will discuss several R&D
highlights. These include:
• Remediation of shooting range soils: remediated
3.5 tons of lead, saving $1.5 million dollars, at a
Department of Defence shooting range in Western
Australia.
• Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs): CRC CARE’s PRB
technology has reduced TCE levels now declining
downstream from treatment sites.
• Trybutyltin (TBT) soil and stormwater remediation
using novel porous granular organoclay absorbents
were able to demonstrate high levels of remediation
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• Surfactant-enhanced in situ chemical oxidation
(S-ISCO): With industry partners VeruTEK and Soil and
Groundwater Consulting (now JBS&G), CRC CARE has
developed a biodegradable, plant-based surfactant/
co-solvent mixture that facilitates the desorbing of soil
contaminants, making them accessible for oxidative
destruction in place.
• PFOS/PFOA remediation: treatment plants based at
three Royal Australian Airforce bases employing CRC
CARE’s matCARE™ technology have already treated
more than 1 million litres of wastewater to levels below
the limit of reporting and reduced the annual cost of
managing contamination by as much as 90%.
xlvi
This will be followed by the introduction of four recently
developed computer modelling technologies which will
be showcased in sessions 2-4 via demonstrations by
the CRC CARE researchers who developed them. These
software packages are:
• indoorCARE™ (Dawit Bekele) – a modular vapour
intrusion (VI) model that improves on existing simplistic
fate and transport models of VI.
• gwsidCARE™ (Bithin Datta) – enables clean-up
managers, even if they lack a detailed knowledge of
the prevailing hydrology, to identify sources, rates of
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• gwmndCARE™ (Bithin Datta) – in concert with
gwsidCARE™, this software suggests suitable points
for improved monitoring of pollutants and of the
effectiveness of the clean-up operation.
• rankCARE™ (Prashant Srivastava) – uses a list
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contamination risk and urgency of action for each
contaminated site or area.
CRC CARE invites end users to work with them to further
develop these important additions to contaminated
site remediation. Such collaboration will ensure that
CRC CARE provides the industry with the tools it needs
[VHJOPL]LIL[[LYJSLHU\WTVYLLMÄJPLU[S`¶HUK[O\Z
grow their businesses at the same time as achieving
better environmental outcomes.
The session will also give businesses an opportunity to
pressure test and use the technologies with a view to
suggesting further enhancements and tailoring for better
practical outcomes and adoption.
Global Contamination Research
Initiative
CleanUp 2013 sees the launch of an exciting venture
– the Global Contamination Research Initiative
(GCRI) – that aims to bring together the people,
organisations and knowledge required to clean up
and prevent the worldwide scourge of environmental
contamination.
Contamination by the chemical products and by products
of human activity is now ubiquitous across our planet.
It is estimated that there are more than 3 million
contaminated sites worldwide, of which the vast majority
are un-remediated. Chemical contamination has been
PKLU[PÄLKHZVULVM[OL[LUºWSHUL[HYÌV\UKHYPLZ»[OH[
humanity should not transgress (Rockström J et al.
2009, A safe operating space for humanity, Nature vol.
461, pp. 472–475). However, a lack of data prevents the
X\HU[PÄJH[PVUVM[OLL_[LU[VMNSVIHSJVU[HTPUH[PVUP[Z
effects or where to set the boundary.
The United Nations Environment Programme estimates
current world chemical output at 20 million metric
tonnes – about a third of which is thought to be toxic or
carcinogenic – and growing at a rate of about 3% per
year. Many countries either lack effective regulations
or do not enforce them, and even in the best-run
jurisdictions, both knowledge and regulation lag far
behind the generation of novel chemical compounds,
nano-products and electronic waste, and their release
into the biosphere. The rate of clean-up of polluted
sites remains far below what is needed to protect
environmental and human health.
.*90HPTZ[VKLÄULX\HU[PM`ZL[SPTP[Z[VOLSWJSLHU
up, and devise new ways to curb the growing chemical
assault on human health and the biosphere.
0[^PSSILHUPU[LYUH[PVUHSHSSPHUJLVMSLHKPUNZJPLU[PÄJ
government, industry and community organisations and
individuals dedicated to a cleaner, healthier and safer
world. GCRI will seek to develop cost-effective, workable
solutions that can be readily adopted by industry,
governments and the community.
GCRI aims to be an international partnership involving
NV]LYUTLU[ZPUK\Z[Y`ZJPLU[PÄJVYNHUPZH[PVUZHUK
JVTT\UP[ÌVKPLZ0[^PSSWLYMVYTUL^ZJPLU[PÄJYLZLHYJO
aggregate existing knowledge, develop novel assessment
and clean-up technologies, advise governments and
industry on ways to improve existing regulation or
industry practices, train high-level experts, and share
information about ways to reduce anthropogenic
contamination in all facets of human society and the
natural environment.
GCRI’s key areas of research may include:
• extent and circulation of anthropogenic contaminants
in the Earth System
LZ[HISPZOTLU[VMZJPLU[PÄJHSS`JYLKPISLºIV\UKHYPLZ»[V
limit release of certain key contaminants
• impact of contaminant mixtures on human and
environmental health and human genetics
• extent of contamination of the global food chain,
resulting risks and options for prevention
• new methods for assessing and remediating
contamination and bioavailability, especially in cases
where pollutants cross national borders
• green production, green manufacturing and new ways
to prevent future contamination
• better ways to engage society, industry and
governments in understanding and sharing
responsibility for global clean-up.
xlvii
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2013
TECHNICAL TOURS
Technical tour 1: Eastern Tour
Tour sponsored by
Date: Thursday 19 September 2013
Time: 8:30am – 5:30pm
Departure: Crown Convention Centre
Cost: $80 per person
Delegates registered for this full-day tour will visit four remediation-related sites to the east of Melbourne’s central
business district (CBD) and will enjoy guided tours by local experts. Site visits will be made to the Richmond
YLKL]LSVWTLU[[OL*YHUIV\YULSHUKÄSSZP[L[OL9,5,?^HZ[L[YLH[TLU[HUKYLZV\YJLYLJV]LY`MHJPSP[`HUK[OL(\Z[YHSPHU
Synchrotron.
Tour itinerary
9:00am
Bus departs Crown Convention Centre
Richmond redevelopment
*YHUIV\YULSHUKÄSSZP[L
1:00pm
Lunch
RENEX treatment and recovery facility
Australian Synchrotron
5:30pm
Bus returns to Crown Convention Centre
Technical tour 2: Western Tour
Tour sponsored by
Date: Thursday 19 September 2013
Time: 8:30am – 5:00pm
Departure: Crown Convention Centre
Cost: $80 per person
Delegates registered for this full-day tour will visit three remediation-related sites to the west of Melbourne’s CBD and will
enjoy guided tours by local experts. Site visits will be made to the Department of Defence’s Point Cook and Maribyrnong
sites, and the Docklands precinct.
Tour itinerary
9:00am
Bus departs Crown Convention Centre
Department of Defence – Point Cook
Department of Defence – Maribyrnong
1:00pm
Lunch
Docklands precinct
5:00pm
Bus returns to Crown Convention Centre
Abstracts
xlviii
xlix
Health Impacts of Environmental Contamination
A02
Health Impacts on Persistent Organic Pollutants and/or Heavy Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
James C.F. Siow
A03
Adverse Environmental and Health Impacts of Uncontrolled Recycling and Disposal of
Electronic-Waste: Call for International Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
M.H. Wong, Y.B. Man, Peeranart Kiddee, Ravi Naidu
Human Health Risk Assessment I
A04
Perspectives for Changing Assumptions and Improving Models in Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Renato Baciocchi
A06
Risk-Based Remediation Decision Making in Emerging Countries, Including Examples from
South Africa, Taiwan, India and Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sophie Wood, Chih Huang, Stephen McKeown, Karin Guiguer, Suyash Misra
A07
Critical Issues of Risk Assessment Application in the Italian Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Leonardo Arru, Laura D’Aprile
Human Health Risk Assessment II
A10
A New Vapor Intrusion Model Including Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
I. Verginelli
A12
Application of Risk Analysis Using the “Rachel” Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
M.C. Zanetti, L. Bretti
Human Health Risk Assessment III
A13
Assumed TPH Source Composition in the HSLs: Are the HSLs Suitable for Use on Your Site,
and Why Might They be Too Conservative? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Katie Richardson
A14
Case Study of Risk Assessment Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Alessandro Girelli
A15
Assessment of Mutagenic Carcinogens in Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Belinda Goldsworthy, Rosalind A. Schoof
A16
Comparative Toxicity of Inhalable Iron-Rich Particles and Other Metal-Oxides Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Shiva Prakash, Jack C. Ng
A17
Lead: Evolution of a Screening Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Alyson N. Macdonald, Kenneth L. Kiefer
Ground Gas
A32
Remediation of Subsurface Landfill Gas, Stevensons Road Closed Landfill, Cranbourne,
Victoria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Paul Fridell, David Maltby, Warren L. Pump
A33
Cranbourne Landfill — Some Insights from an Intensely Monitored Landfill Gas Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Peter Gringinger, Anthony P. Lane, John P. Piper
A34
Landfill Gas and Development Approvals: Regulatory Requirements in Australian
Jurisdictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Phil Sinclair, Tim Marshall, Sam Gunasekera
Vapour Intrusion I
A35
Petroleum Vapor Intrusion (PVI): Progression of the Screening Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
John E. Boyer
A36
Results from Five US EPA Research Programs on Soil Gas Sampling Variables and Temporal
Variations of Soil Gas & Indoor Air Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Blayne Hartman
A37
Assessment of Vapour Intrusion in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Jackie Wright
A38
Vapor Intrusion Mitigation in Large Commercial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
William R. Morris
A39
The Importance of Statistical Approach on Vapour Intrusion Decision Making at Volatile
Organic Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dawit N. Bekele, Ravi Naidu, Sreenivasulu Chadalavada
Vapour Intrusion II
A40
A Conservative Screening Model for Petroleum Vapour Intrusion Accounting for the Building
Footprint Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Greg B. Davis, John H. Knight
A41
Advantages of Measured Soil Porosity in Vapour Intrusion Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Nick Woodford, Ross Best
A42
Quantitative Passive Soil Vapor Sampling for VOCs — Mathematical Modeling, Laboratory
Testing and Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Todd McAlary, Hester Groenevelt, Tadeusz Górecki, Suresh Seethapathy, Paolo Sacco,
Derrick Crump, Brian Schumacher, Michael Tuday, Heidi Hayes, Paul Johnson
A43
Screening Distances for Vapour Intrusion Applications at Petroleum Underground Storage
Tank Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Matthew Lahvis
A44
Factors Limiting Aerobic Vapour Degradation of Organic Contaminants in the Vadose Zone. . . . . . . . 49
Bradley M. Patterson, Greg B. Davis, Ramon Aravena, Trevor P. Bastow
Advances in Bioremediation I
B01
Bio-Nanotechnological Approaches to Environmental Remediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Ashok Mulchandani
B02
Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in Australian Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Mike Manefield, Joanna Koenig, Adrian Low, Olivier Zemb, Matthew Lee
B03
Microbial Community Dynamics During Reductive Dechlorination of Groundwater at a
Chloroethene Contaminated Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Andrew S. Ball, Sayali Patil, Taylor Grundy, Philip Mulvey
B04
Quantitative PCR for Detection of Dichloroethane-Degrading Bacteria in Groundwater and in a
Membrane Bioreactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Nicholas V. Coleman, Elissa F. Liew, Jacob E. Munro
Advances in Bioremediation II
B05
Enhanced in-situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents: From the Laboratory to the Field . . . . . . . . 55
Sandra Dworatzek, Jeff Roberts, Phil Dennis, Peter Dollar
B06
Degradation of Diesel Range Hydrocarbons by a Facultative Anaerobic Bacterium, Isolated
from an Anodic Bio-Film in a Diesel Fed Microbial Fuel Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Krishnaveni Venkidusamy, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Robin Lockington, Ravi Naidu
B07
The Role of State Regulations in the Application of Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Louise Cartwright
B08
Installation and Commissioning of an Enhanced in-situ Bioremediation System, Sydney NSW . . . . . . 60
Jessica L. Hughes, Philip A. Limage, Jason Clay, Jonathan Ho
B09
Biotransformation and Toxicity of Fenamiphos and its Metabolites by Two Micro Algae
Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and Chlorococcum sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tanya Caceres, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
B10
Treatment of Chlorinated Ethenes at a Landfill in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Maureen C. Leahy, Andrea Herch, Ulrich Desery
Contaminated Sediment Management and Remediation
B11
Sediment Management in the USA — Where We are at and What’s to Come? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Eric Blischke
B12
Case Study Highlighting the Challenges of Construction, Management, and Monitoring of a
Confined Aquatic Disposal (CAD) Site in a Busy Commercial Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Paul Goldsworthy, Alan S. Fowler, David Moore, Victor Magar, Thomas Fredette
B13
Heavy Metals Phytoextraction from Tsunami Sediment Contaminated Soil Treated with Steel
Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
M.A. León-Romero, M. Fujibayashi, C. Maruo, Y. Aikawa, O. Nishimura, K. Oyamada
B14
Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Sediment Time Critical Removal Action Using Multiple Lines
of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Eric Blischke, Ronald French, Andrew Santini, Todd King
Towards Best Practices for Acid Sulfate Soil Management
B15
Acid Sulfate Soil Management Regulation and Guidance: Where Are We, and Where Are We
Going? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Leigh Sullivan, Chrisy Clay
B16
Effect of Fulvic Acid on Arsenic Release from Arsenic-Substituted Schwertmannite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chamindra Vithana, Leigh Sullivan, Richard Bush, Edward Burton
B17
Trends in Acid Sulfate Soil Analysis for Management: Observations from a Commercial
Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Graham Lancaster
B18
Evolution of a Regulatory Approach for Managing Land Development on Acid Sulfate Soils in
W.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Steve Appleyard, Scott Jenkinson, Stephen Wong
Remediation and Sustainability
B22
Innovative Remediation Strategies and Green Remediation: Achieving Environmental
Protection with a Smaller Environmental Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Carlos Pachon
B23
Is Sustainable Remediation Now a Self-Sustaining Concept? An International Progress Report . . . . . 82
Jonathan W.N. Smith
B24
Sustainable Considerations for Heavy Metals Remediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Andrew Wollen, Bernd W. Rehm
B25
Integrating Sustainable Remediation in Contaminated Site Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Alyson N. Macdonald, Neil Gray, Alan Thomas
Nanotechnology for Remediation I
B26
Harmonisation of Nanotechnology with Biological Processes for Low Energy Remediation . . . . . . . . . 87
Ian Thompson, Sheeja Jagadevan
B27
Environmental Risk Assessment of Engineered Nanoparticles: Decreasing the Uncertainties in
Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Enzo Lombi, Erica Donner, Ryo Sekine, Gulliver Conroy, Maryam Khaksar, Gianluca Brunetti,
Adi Maoz, Thea Lund, Ravi Naidu, Krasimir Vasilev, Kirk Scheckel
B28
Responsible Innovation in Nanoremediation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fern Wickson
B29
Stability of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Coated with Dissolved Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Laura Chekli, Sherub Phuntsho, Maitreyee Roy, Hokyong Shon
Nanotechnology for Remediation II
B30
Green Synthesis of Iron-Based Nanoparticles Using Tea Extract-Synthesis, Characterization
and Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Zuliang Chen, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
B31
Toxicity of Iron-Nickel Nanoparticle to Green Algae Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Biruck Desalegn, Suresh R.Subashchandrabose, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Zuliang Chen, Ravi Naidu
B32
Effect of Nanoscale Calcium Oxide Particles in the Remediation of Australian Sodic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Prasad N.V.K.V. Tollamadugu, Ravi Naidu
B33
Effect of Nano-Zeolite and Biosolids on Plants Grown in Saline Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Mohammad Mahbub Islam, Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, Ravi Naidu
Asbestos-in-Soil I
B34
Recent Trends and Developments in Asbestos in Soil (ASBINS) — US EPA Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Julie Wroble, Danielle Devoney
Asbestos-in-Soil II
B37
Assessing the Exposure-Pathway: Asbestos in Soil to Air Assessment Method (ASAAM) . . . . . . . . . . 104
Benjamin Hardaker, Angus Leslie, Ross McFarland, Gerry Coyle, Peta Odgers
B38
Asbestos in Soil — Three Remediation/Management Case Studies from Three States — An
Auditor’s Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Tony Scott, Dilara Valiff, Sally Egan
Geotechnics
B43
Geotechnical Considerations in Contaminated Land Management, a Cornerstone to Success or
Failure — Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Edward K.C. Wu
Urban Renewal I
C01
From Peace to Prosperity — Brownfields as Drivers for Social and Economic Regeneration . . . . . . . 110
Kyle M. Alexander
Urban Renewal II
C05
Urban Regeneration and Brownfield Remediation: Addressing Challenges for Tailored,
Integrated and Sustainable Urban Land Revitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Stephan Bartke
C06
Facilitating the Application of Brownfields Remediation to Urban Renewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Garry Smith
C08
Conceptual Site or Project Models for Sustainability Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Paul Bardos
Through the Regulators’ Looking Glass
C09
Does the Contaminated Land Management Framework in NSW Encourage Land Development? . . . 118
John Coffey, Niall Johnston, Arminda Ryan
C10
Contamination Communication: Western Australia’s Contaminated Sites Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Andrew Miller, Clare Nixon
C12
Out of Sight, Out of Mind — Regulating the Underground Storage Tank Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Danielle McPhail, Kylie Bull
The Australian Environmental Audit System — Whence, Now and Where to?
C15
The Australian Environmental Audit System Since 1990 — Its Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Peter R. Nadebaum
LNAPL I
C19
LNAPL Remediation — A Unified Approach for the Analysis, Management and Remediation of
LNAPL in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Ed Dennis
C20
Comparison of Constant and Transient-Source Zones on Simulated Contaminant Plume
Evolution in Groundwater: Implications for Hydrogeological Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Jonathan W.N. Smith, Steven F. Thornton, Kevin Tobin
C21
Multi-Technology Program to Remediate a Laterally Extensive Hydrocarbon Plume within a
Sedimentary Aquifer, Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Christian Wallis, Geoff Ellis, Jonathan M. Medd
C22
A Comparison of Reported BTEX Concentrations with Estimated Effective Solubilities in
Monitoring Wells Where LNAPL Has Been Gauged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
W.J. Germs, A.C. Ashworth
LNAPL II
C23
The Effect of Free LNAPL Presence on the Lifecycle of UST Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Poonam R. Kulkarni, Thomas E. McHugh, Charles Newell, Sanjay Garg
C24
Where is the Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Claire Howell, Graham Smith, Tim Russell
C25
Guidance on the Management of Federal LNAPL Sites in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Brian Drover
C27
LNAPL — A Review of Common Misconceptions and Their Implications in Remediation Based
on Cases from Around the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Jeffery J.C. Paul
Metal(loid) Assessment and Remediation in Groundwater I
C28
Groundwater Co-Contaminant Behavior of Arsenic and Selenium: Implications for Remedy
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Richard T. Wilkin, Tony R. Lee, Cherri Adair
C29
In-Place Soil and Groundwater Cleanup of Hexavalent Chromium and Other Metals and
Metalloids by Nano Scale Ferrous Sulphide Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Jim V. Rouse, Richard H. Christensen, Steven R. Irvin
C30
Unique Implementation Method for the in-situ Chemical Fixation of Arsenic Using Chelated
Iron and Stabilized Hydrogen Peroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Stanley C. Haskins, Kolter Hartman
C31
In situ Groundwater Remediation of pH 13 and 750μg/L Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Henry B. Kerfoot
Metal(loid) Assessment and Remediation in Groundwater II
C32
In situ Remediation of Chromium in Soil and Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Andrew Wollen, Bernd W. Rehm
C33
In situ Stabilization of Heavy Metals in Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
John Valkenburg, Alan Seech, Josephine Molin, Jim Mueller
C34
In situ Stabilisation of Arsenic in Groundwater — Pilot Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
B. Brewster, K. East, R.A. Brown, William A. Butler, W.J. Germs, G. Wheeler
Management and Remediation Strategies for DNAPL I
C36
THE USA’s Intrastate Technology and Regulatory Council’s (ITRC) Approach to the NAPL
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Naji Akladiss, Tamzen W. Macbeth, Charles Newell
C37
Mass Flux and Mass Discharge: The ITRC Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Charles Newell, Naji Akladiss, Tamzen W. Macbeth, Heather V. Rectanus
C38
In situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvent DNAPL Source Zones: State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Tamzen W. Macbeth, Naji Akladiss
Management and Remediation Strategies for DNAPL II
C39
Essential Components for Monitored Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvent Plumes . . . . . . . . . 160
Heather V. Rectanus
C40
Towards Contaminant Mass Flux Criteria in Groundwater: Support from Links to Mass
Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Colin D. Johnston, Greg B. Davis, Trevor P. Bastow, Robert. J. Woodbury, P. Suresh C. Rao,
Mike D. Annable, Stuart Rhodes
C41
Understanding Migration of a Complex DNAPL Mixture in Fractured Basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Frederic Cosme, Jonathan M. Medd, Irena Krusic-Hrustanpasic, Andrew M. Cooper
C42
Assessment of DNAPL Remediation Technology Performance and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Julie Konzuk, David Major, Bernard Kueper, Jason Gerhard, Mark Harkness, David A. Reynolds,
Michael West, Carmen Lebrón
C43
Practical Assessment of ISCO Remediation Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Patrick Baldwin, Leon Pemberton, Chris Bailey
C44
Lawrence Dry Cleaners: Progress Report on 10 Months of Full Scale Enhanced in-situ
Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in the Botany Sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Jason Clay, Jonathan Ho, Jessica L. Hughes, Philip A. Limage
Containment Risks
C45
Contaminated Sites — The Practice of Applying the Containment Option. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Peter R. Nadebaum
C46
Two Contrasting Case Studies Illustrating Use of the Anzecc 1999 Guidelines for On-Site
Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Ian D. Gregson, Drew D. Morgan, David Gamble
C47
Remediation of Radioactive Sand Mine Tailings Belmont State Wetlands Park, Belmont NSW. . . . . . 175
Laurie Fox, Robert Blackley
C48
Contaminated Soil Treatment Works and Ancillary Development — A NSW Planning Case
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Gregor Riese
The Role of Analytical Services in Site Remediation. Do They Measure Up?
D01
The Role of Analytical Services in Site Remediation — Do They Measure up? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Vyt Garnys
Emerging Contaminants I
D09
Analytical Methodology for Priority and Emerging Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Lesley A. Johnston, Meg Y. Croft, E. John Murby
D10
Toxic Chemicals from Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products and Their Management . . . . . . 181
Kenneth S. Sajwan
D11
Occurrence of Illicit Drugs in Adelaide Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Pandian Govindarasu, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Raktim Pal, Ravi Naidu, Paul Pigou
Emerging Contaminants II
D13
Effect of Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) on Survival and DNA Damage of Earthworm in
OECD Soil Compared to Natural Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Srinithi Mayilswami, Kannan Krishnan, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
D14
Developing Surface Water Screening Levels for Compounds Associated with Aqueous Film
Forming Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Ron Arcuri, Kenneth L. Kiefer, Belinda Goldsworthy
Implications of Unconventional Gas Extraction for Groundwater Management
D16
A Critical Review of Reported and Documented Groundwater Contamination Incidents
Associated with Unconventional Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Ian Duncan
D17
Environmental Risks and Management of Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Sophie Wood
Legal Implications of Unconventional Gas Extraction
D21
Regulatory Response to CSG in Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
John Ware
Insitu Remediation Technologies I
D23
Exponential Growth Curve for Bioremediation in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Maureen C. Leahy
D24
Bioremediation/in situ Chemical Reduction Remediation of Trichloroethene Impacted
Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Rachael C. Wall, Andrew M. Cooper, Tim Robertson, Jeffery J.C. Paul, Jonathan M. Medd
D25
In situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) and Enhanced in situ Biodegradation (EISB) of Dissolved
Benzene Plume Using High pH Activated Persulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Barry Mann
Insitu Remediation Technologies II
D27
Horizontal Remediation Wells: Transferring Effective Technologies from the Oil Industry to
Environmental Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Michael Sequino
D28
Design and Implementation of in situ Treatment of a Trichloroethene Impacted Groundwater
Source Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Andrew M. Cooper, Rachael C. Wall, Alex Savage
D29
Laboratory and Field Evaluation of a Novel Liquid Amendment Containing Lecithin and
Ferrous Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
John Valkenburg, Alan Seech, Josephine Molin, Jim Mueller
D30
Self-Sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR): In situ Testing and Scale-Up for the
Smoldering Combustion Treatment of Coal Tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Gavin Grant, Grant Scholes, David Major, David A. Reynolds, Sandra Dworatzek, Julie Konzuk,
Peter Dollar
High Resolution Site Characterisation I
D33
Advanced Site Characterisation with Passive Soil Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Dean Woods, Lowell Kessel, Harry O’Neill
D34
Application of Laser Induced Fluorescence for Optimizing Fuel Oil Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Brendan M. Brodie, David J. Heicher, Thomas F. Donn
High Resolution Site Characterisation II
D35
High Resolution Vertical Profiling: Real Time Data Collection for Comprehensive
Environmental Site Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
David J. Heicher
D36
Background Fluorescence Analysis — A Simple and Inexpensive Technique for Assessing
Preferential Groundwater Flow Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Dinesh Poudyal, William A. Butler, Martin H. Otz
D37
Rapid Optical Screening Tool — An in situ Investigation Approach for Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Penelope R. Woodberry, Keely L. Mundle
D38
Advanced Passive Soil Gas Sampling — Collection of High Resolution Site Characterization
Data to Accurately Identify Source Areas and Effectively Guide Remediation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . 214
Harry O’Neill, Andrew Wollen, Lowell Kessel
Waste
D41
Biosolids Application Enhances Carbon Sequestration in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Nanthi Bolan, Anitha Kunhikrishnan, Ravi Naidu
D42
Chitosan Enhances Remediation of Zinc Contamination in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Nimisha Tripathi, Girish Choppala, Nanthi Bolan, Prashant Srivastava, Raj S. Singh
D43
Effect of Industrial Byproducts on Phosphorus Mobilisation in Abattoir Effluent Irrigated Soil
and Implications on Biomass in Napier Grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Balaji Seshadri, Raghupathi Matheyarasu, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu
D44
Phytoremediation of Red Mud Residues by Hybrid Giant Napier Grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Chongjian Ma, Ravi Naidu, Beihong Feng, Changhua Lin, Hui Ming
D45
Vermiculture Technology: An Eco-Tool in Sustainable Waste Management and Land
Resources Rehabilitation in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Thammared Chuasavathi
Predictive Tools for Site Contamination
E01
Software Package: (1) Optimal Identification of Unknown Groundwater Contamination
Sources; (2) Optimal Monitoring Network Design in Contaminated Groundwater Systems. . . . . . . . . 227
Bithin Datta, Ranga R. Arachchige, Om Prakash, Mahsa Amirabdollahian, Deepesh Singh,
Chadalavada Sreenivasulu, Ravi Naidu
E02
An Integrated Statistical Approach to Assessing Contaminant Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Peter Beck
E03
Evaluation of Handheld PDA Software/Hardware System for Site Characterisation and
Clearance Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
S. Wilkinson, B. Muir
E04
Introducing LSPECS — A Web Based Integrated Field Program Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Tom Wilson, Warwick Wood
E05
Development and Validation of a Screening Tool to Predict the Efficacy of PAH Bioremediation. . . 235
Albert L. Juhasz, Sam Aleer, Eric Adetutu
Mine Closure Case Studies and Emerging Challenges
E06
Gaspe Mines Closure: A Success Story in Mine Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Carl Gauthier
E07
The Challenges of Liability Transfer for Soil and Groundwater Contamination on an Iron Ore
Mine Site in the Kimberley, Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Stuart McLaren
E08
What Are the Big Ticket Items in Mine Closure?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Geoff Byrne, Leo Guaraldo
E09
Redevelopment of a Site with Multiple Issues from Previous Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
David L. Knott, Jacob Dunstan, Ruairi Hanly, Kandiah Pirapakaran, John Klippen
E10
Management of Spontaneous Combustion Emissions. Collinsville Coal Mine: A Case Study. . . . . . . 246
Kate Cole
Mining Summit: Assessment, Remediation and Rehabilitation of Mining Sites I
E11
Environmental Issues with Metal/Metalloid Mining: Extracting Value from Our Past So That
We Can Move Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Gary M. Pierzynski, Mary Beth Kirkham
E12
Difficulties Conducting Site Assessments and Remediation on an Operating Mine Site . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Brendan May, Bert Huys
E13
Use of Biosolids for the Treatment of Acidic Metalliferous Mine Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Jamie Robinson
E14
High Rate Treatment Methods for Mine Pit Slurry — Case Study: Open Cut Coal Mine. . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
W. Gary Smith, Adrian Widjaya, Alex Horn
Advanced Remediation Technologies I
E18
Status of in-situ Thermal Technologies for Effective Treatment of Source Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Gorm Heron
E19
Electrokinetic-Enhanced Amendment Delivery for Remediation of Low Permeability and
Heterogeneous Materials: Results of the First Field Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
David A. Reynolds, James Wang, Evan Cox, David Gent, Charlotte Riis
E20
Combined Application of in situ Chemical Oxidation and Multiphase Vacuum Extraction . . . . . . . . . 259
Daniel Guille, Andrew Labbett, David Lam
E21
Australian Case Study — Refrigerated Condensation for Treatment of Off-Gas from Soil
Vapour Extraction Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Grant Geckeler, Noel Ryan, Graham Smith, Andrew Wollen
Advanced Remediation Technologies II
E22
A New, Catalyzed Persulfate Reagent with Built-In Activation for the in situ Chemical
Oxidation of Groundwater and Soil Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Ben Mork, Bryan Vigue
E24
Horizontal Remediation Well in-situ Chemical Oxidation: A Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Michael Sequino
E25
Use of in-situ Thermal Technology in Complex Geological Settings to Deliver Sustainable,
Rapid and Cost Effective Endpoints: Global Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Neil Gray, James Baldock, Jay Dablow
E26
Remediation of a Former Gasworks in Albury, NSW, Using in situ Solidification Technology. . . . . . 267
Paul Carstairs, Clayton Cowper, Bengt von Schwerin
Engaging Communities in the Management of Contamination I
E27
The Evolution of Community Engagement in Decision Making Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Toni Meek
E28
Risk-Based Community Consultation as a Basis for Remediation Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Garry Smith
E29
Tarcutta Street Former Gasworks Remediation — Community Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Rhys Blackburn, Prudence Parker, Vanessa Keenan
Engaging Communities in the Management of Contamination II
E31
History is the Hand on Our Shoulder — The Rhodes Peninsula Remediation Legacy Project . . . . . . 275
Kate Hughes
E32
Christchurch, Contamination and the Emotional Cost of Land Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Isla Hepburn, Davina McNickel, Barbara Campany
E33
Understanding the Role of Participant Values in Remediation Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Jason Hugh Prior
Advances in Bioavaliability Based Risk Assessment
E35
Assessing Mercury and Methyl Mercury Bioavailability in Sediment Using Mercury-Specific
DGTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Paul Goldsworthy, Nicholas Steenhaut, Aria Amirbahman, Delia Massey, Guilherme Lotufo,
Lauren Brown, Victor Magar
E36
Oral Bioavailability of Benzo[a]pyrene Soils — The Use of a Swine Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Luchun Duan, Thavamani Palanisami, Yanju Liu, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Jean Meaklim, Ravi Naidu
Exsitu Soil Remediation Case Studies
E37
Decisions, Decisions, Decisions — The Universal Technical Curse of Honest Environmental
Remediation of Nasty, Toxic SVOC (PAH) Sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Allen W. Hatheway
E38
Remediation Options for Heavily Contaminated TPH Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Euan Smith, Thavamani Palanisami, Kavitha Ramadass, Weihong Wang, Ravi Naidu,
Prashant Srivastava, Megharaj Mallavarapu
E39
The Effects of an Organic Barrier on Chromite Ore Processing Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Regin Orquiza, Chris Conoley, Philip Mulvey
E40
Chemical Immobilisation of Lead Impacted Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Annette Nolan, Fred Lunsmann
E41
Ex-situ Remediation of the Old Toowoomba Gasworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
David Bax
Innovative Remediation Technologies
E42
Odour Abatement for Loading a Coal Tar Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Matt Fensom, Pearce A. Anderson
E43
Technical Advances of Indirectly Heated Vacuum Thermal Desorption (VTD) for Soil
Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
R. Schmidt, C. Stiels
E44
Study on the Organic Solid Waste Thermo-Chemistry Conversion for Methane Production. . . . . . . . 300
Bo Xiao, Shiming Liu, Jingbo Wang, Ravi Naidu, Hui Ming, Nanthi Bolan
E45
Aromatic Hydrocarbon Degradation of a Biofilm Formed by a Mixture of Marine Bacteria. . . . . . . . . 302
Thi Nhi Cong Le, Thi Ngoc Mai Cung, Ngoc Minh Nghiem
E46
Adsorptive Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Containing Balsalazide Using
Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Rajeev Jain, Shalini Sikarwar
CRC CARE: Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation
F01
Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation Demonstrations — Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Ravi Naidu
F02
Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation Demonstrations — indoorCARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Dawit N. Bekele
CRC CARE: Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation
F03
Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation Demonstrations — gwsidCARE and
gwmndCARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Bithin Datta
F04
Advances in Site Assessment and Remediation Demonstrations — rankCARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Prashant Srivastava
Monday Posters
G001
Identification of Constituents of Potential Concern (CoPCs) for Robust Human Health Risk
Assessment of Refined Fuel Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Jonathan W.N. Smith, Ric L. Bowers, Matthew Lahvis
G002
The Effects of Cadmium, Lead and Arsenic on Benzo(a)pyrene-Induced Genotoxicity in
Human Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Cheng Peng, Sasikumar Mutusamy, Qing Xia, Jack C. Ng
G003
The Effect of Arsenic on the Bioavailability of Cadmium to Human Liver Carcinoma Cell . . . . . . . . . 314
Qing Xia, Cheng Peng, Jack C. Ng
G004
Emergency Response and Clean-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Peter Novella, Matthew Deaves, Paul Pui
G005
The New NEPM — How Does it Impact My Project? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Geoffrey J. Le Cornu
G006
Standard of Proof for Contaminated Sites Investigations — Balancing Uncertainty and Risk . . . . . . 320
Stephen Cambridge, Sarah Richards
G007
Contaminated Site Investigations: Are Risk Assessments the Way of the Future in Our
Industry? — Case Study: Redbank Tunnel Deviation Project: Heavy Metal Impacted Materials . . . 322
Colee Quayle, Casey O’Farrell
G008
Ecological and Health Risks of Heavy Metals and Metalloids from Historical Mine Practices in
the Leichhardt River Including Bioaccumulation in Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Barry N. Noller, Jack C. Ng, Hugh H. Harris, Jiajia Zheng, Trang Huynh
G009
Health Risk Assessment of Halogenated Contaminants in Water Using the Threshold of
Toxicological Concern (TTC) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Sim G. Ooi, Daniel Deere, Henry Tan, Ryan Milne
G010
Emerging Contaminants of Concern — Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Paul Loewy
G011
Comparative Acute Toxicity of 2,4-Dinitroanisole, its Metabolites and 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene to
Daphnia carinata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Annamalai Prasath, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Arthur Provatas, Ravi Naidu
G012
Acute Toxicity of Perfluorinated Compounds to Daphnia carinata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Logeshwaran Panneerselvan, Krishnan Kannan, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
G013
Perfluorinated Compounds: Emerging, Persistent and Prevalent Environmental Contaminants . . . 335
Alan Bull, Anthony P. Lane, Peter Gringinger
G014
The Assessment of Risks Associated with Exposure to Perfluorinated Chemicals: Addressing
Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Giorgio De Nola, Anthony P. Lane, Peter Gringinger
G016
Cadmium Tolerance and Accumulation of the Mangrove Species Rhizophora stylosa as a
Potential Phytostabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Z.Y. Hseu, K.C. Fan
G017
Use of Compound Specific Isotope Analysis to Prove Successful Biodegradation of
Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Jason Clay, Jonathan Ho, Jessica L. Hughes, Philip A. Limage
G018
Bioaugmentation: An Innovative Remediation Technology for the Remediation of Chlorinated
Solvent Contaminated Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Sandra Dworatzek, Jeff Roberts, Phil Dennis, Peter Dollar
G019
Which Bugs Work Harder for Longer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Shane Giliam, Mike Manefield, Graham Smith, Tim Russell
G020
Microbial Degradation of Environmental Contaminants Adsorbed on Soil Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Bhabananda Biswas, Binoy Sarkar, Ravi Naidu
G021
Biodegradation of Organic Matter from Intensive Shrimp Farm Wastewater Using Mangrove
Snail (Cerithidea obtuse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Lich Q. Nguyen, Martin S. Kumar, Nanthi Bolan, Tuan C. Le
G022
A Low Cost Bioremediation Technology for Arsenic Contaminated Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Md.M. Bahar, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
G023
Mitigation of Acid Drainage Through Water Neutralization and Recirculation in a Sterile from
Uranium Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Luísa Poyares Cardoso, Renato Welmer Veloso, Luiz dos Santos Jr., Jaime Wilson Vargas de Mello
G024
Synthesis of Al-Fe (Hydr)oxides as a Geochemical Barrier for U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Vanessa de Paula Ferreira, Jaime Wilson Vargas de Mello, Massimo Gasparon,
Bruno Araujo Furtado de Mendonça
G025
Precipitation of Al-Fe (Hydr)oxides to Treat Water Contaminated with Arsenic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Jaime Wilson Vargas de Mello, Massimo Gasparon, Juscimar da Silva
G026
Immobilization of Lanthanum by Synthetic Colloids of Iron and Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Aloncio Gottardo Pietralonga, Bruno Araujo Furtado de Mendonça, Jaime Wilson Vargas de Mello,
Walter Antônio Pereira Abrahão
G027
Expansion of Surface Area of Red Mud by Thermal and Acid Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Yanju Liu, Ravi Naidu, Hui Ming
G028
Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics: How One Can Help You Know Your Plume Better. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Graham Smith, Marcus Trett, Tim Russell, Shane Giliam
G029
Jurisdictional Differences in Developing a National Information System for Environmental
Site Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Graeme Martin, Jeremy Alcorn
G030
Application of Stable Oxygen Isotopes for Detecting Seepage from Mine Dewatering
Evaporation Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Barry Mann
G031
Comparison of Hydrasleeves (No-Purge) Sampling to Low-Flow Sampling in a Fractured Basalt
Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
G. Cozens, Jonathan M. Medd, A. Water
G032
No Purge Sampling: A Sustainable Alternative for Groundwater Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Rajat Srivastav, Neil Gray
G033
Assessing Ambient Background Concentrations of Heavy Metals Using Correlation Curves (Fe
and Al): Basalt Soils, Western Plains, Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Hannah Dannatt, Christian Wallis
G034
Integrated Mobile Electronic Data Capture and Storage Systems for Planning Large and
Complex Remediation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Andrew Barker, Christian Wallis
G035
NAphthalene: Discrepancies in Concentrations Determined of from Groundwater Sampling
Using Volatile and Semivolatile Analytical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
M. Centner
G036
Developing Robust Conceptual Site Models That Consider Climate Variability and Extreme
Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Tamie R. Weaver, Geoffrey Borg, Sarah J. Sawyer
G037
Engineered to Aesthetic: Closure of Municipal Waste Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Hayden Burge, Warren L. Pump
G038
Hydrogeologic Uncertainty in Identification of Contamination Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Mahsa Amirabdollahian, Bithin Datta
G039
A Comparison of Arsenic Mobility Using Two Sequential Extraction Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Renato Welmer Veloso, Susan Glasauer, Jaime Wilson Vargas de Mello, Luísa Poyares Cardoso
G040
ALS Industry Training — 2 Years on: What Has it Done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Adam Grant
G041
Groundwater Prohibition as a Remediation Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Gabrielle A. Wigley, Emma J. Bradford
G042
Petroleum Site Closure — Steps to Efficient End Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Benedict L. Smith, Gary Bagwell
G044
Remediation Life Cycle Costs — The Double Edged Sword of Certainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Sarah Richards, Matthew Hill, Lawrence Smith
G045
Current Challenges and Potential Risks in Using (Nanoscale) Zero-Valent Iron for Site
Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Erica Donner, Adi Maoz, Elena Mele, Laura Chekli, Bita Bayatsarmadi, Hokyong Shon, Enzo Lombi,
Ravi Naidu
G046
Phytosynthesized Iron Nano Particles for the Remediation of Chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Vidhyasri Subramaniyam, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Thavamani Palanisami, Zuliang Chen,
Ravi Naidu
G047
Magnetic Separation of Water Pathogens by Surface Modified Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Sudeep Shukla, Vikas Arora, Alka Jadaun, Jitender Kumar, Sameer Sapra, V.K. Jain
G048
Simultaneous Identification of Unknown Groundwater Pollution Source Fluxes and Their
Starting Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Om Prakash, Bithin Datta
G049
The Use of Contaminant Mass Flux and Mass Discharge for Contaminated Sites in Australia . . . . . 399
Peter R. Nadebaum, Joanne Roolker
G050
A Comparison of Different Modelling Approaches to Petroleum Impacts in Porous Media. . . . . . . . . 400
Kaveh Sookhak Lari, Colin D. Johnston, Greg B. Davis, Jungho Park, Ravi Naidu
G051
Carbon Footprint Assessment of a Large Scale in-situ Thermal Treatment Project Performed
at a Chlorinated Solvent Impacted Fractured Bedrock Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Neil Gray, James Baldock, Jay Dablow
G052
The Use of Permeable Reactive Barriers to Treat and Manage Contaminated Sites in Antarctica. . . 404
Tom Statham, Kathryn Mumford, John Rayner, Scott Stark, Greg Hince, Ian Snape, Damian Gore,
Geoff W. Stevens
G053
Experimental Study on the Use of Heavy Metal Sludge for Solidification of Sulfur Concrete. . . . . . . 406
Han-Suk Kim, Min-Chul Shin, Chang-Yong Cho, Ouk-Kyun Shin, Eunjoo Bae
G054
Mulwala Explosives and Chemicals Manufacturing Facility — Application of Groundwater
Remediation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Gavin Scherer, Melissa Saunders, Brett Aggenbach
Tuesday Posters
G055
Sequential Treatment of a High-Strength TCE Source by Potassium Permanganate Followed by
Anaerobic Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Maureen C. Leahy, Rick Lewis, Martin Ryan, Mark Harkness, Steven Meier
G056
Implementation of QA/QC Procedures to Achieve Remedial Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Alessandro Sica, Geoff Ellis
G057
Pore Gas Velocity versus Radius of Vacuum Influence for Evaluating SVE And MPVE Pilot
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Andrew Gray, Erica Somogye, Edward Sorraghan
G058
Remediation of Oily Clay Soil Using the Method of High-Pressure Direct Boring Combined
with Electrical Resistance Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Min-Cheol Shin, Han-Suk Kim, Chang-Yong Cho, Ouk-Kyun Shin, Eunjoo Bae
G059
TBT in a Non-Marine Environment. Challenges for a Brownfield Development Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Paul Moritz, Clinton Smiljanic, John Throssel, Anna Yates
G060
Permeable Reactive Barrier to Remediate Subsurface Soil and Groundwater in Antarctica . . . . . . . . 418
Meenakshi Arora, Ian Snape, Geoff W. Stevens
G061
Review of Immobilized Titania Reactors for in-situ Water Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Aaron Katz, Andrew Mcdonagh, Hokyong Shon
G062
A Case Study of Hexavalent Chromium Remediation by in situ Chemical Reduction and the
Importance of Setting Remediation Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Jean-Paul Pearce, Barry Mann
G063
Assessing the Performance of Leachate Control Measures at a Remediated Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Fiona Wong, Sam Gunasekera
G064
Applications of Vacudry Indirectly Heated Vacuum Thermal Desorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
G065
Cobalt-Exchanged Natural Zeolites for Organic Degradation in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Hongqi Sun, Edy Saputra, Ha Ming Ang, Moses O. Tadé, Shaobin Wang
G066
Understanding the Fundamentals of XRF to Improve Confidence in its Application for
Contaminated Land Assessment and Remediation Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Damien Falconer, Christian Wallis
G067
Overcoming Permanganate Stalling During Electromigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Daniel Hodges
G068
Horizontal Remediation Well-Air Sparge/Soil Vapor Extraction (HRW-AS/SVE): A Case Study . . . . . 434
Michael Sequino
G069
Performance of Inorgano-Organoclay for Soil Mix Technology Permeable Reactive Barrier . . . . . . . 435
Ziyad Abunada
G070
Assessment of Methane in Soil Gas at A Residential Development in Florida, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Henry B. Kerfoot
G071
Methane at Petroleum Contaminated Sites Above the LEL: Why, Where and When . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Casey O’Farrell, Phil Schulz, Sarah Richards
G072
The Management of Hydrocarbon Impacted Vapours Within a Residential Apartment
Development, Braddon, ACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Ian Batterley
G073
Mass Transport of Oxygen Within the Vadose Zone: Evidence for Aerobic Degradation Under
a Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Victoria Lazenby
G075
Tier 1.5 Soil Vapour Screening for Non-Petroleum Volatile Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Kenneth L. Kiefer, Alyson N. Macdonald, Kathleen V. Prohasky, Sophie Wood
G076
Assessing Degradation Processes of Subsurface Vapours from a Petroleum Source in
Fractured Basalt Using a Carbon Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Kathleen V. Prohasky, Kenneth L. Kiefer
G077
Trusting Your Field Observation Over Laboratory Data Knowing When to Apply the HSLs — A
Soil Vapour Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
David K. Jackson, Colin D. Biggs, Rodney C. Harwood, Alex S. Mikov, Mick Carmen
G078
Integrated DNAPL Site Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Heather V. Rectanus, Naji Akladiss, Charles Newell, Tamzen W. Macbeth
G079
Treatment of Complex Contaminated Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Annette Nolan, Rob Miller, Matt Fensom
G080
The Toxicity of Leachates from Industrial Waste Containing Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Clare Grandison, Suzanne Reichman, Dayanthi Nugegoda
G081
Brinkley Quarry — Waste Derived Fill Standard Poses Challenges and Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Adrian Hall, Jean-Paul Pearce
G082
The Influence of Biosolids-Based Co-Composted Products on the Bioavailability of Copper to
Earthworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Thammared Chuasavathi, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai
G083
Characterization and Reuse of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Sonia Shilpi, Balaji Seshadri, Md. Nuruzzaman, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu
G084
Assessment of Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Abattoir Wastewater Irrigated Soils
in Port Wakefield (SA) and its Implications on Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Raghupathi Matheyarasu, Balaji Seshadri, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu
G085
Differential Effects of Coal Combustion Products on Phosphorus Mobility in Fertilised Soils. . . . . . 462
Balaji Seshadri, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu
G086
Study on the Energy Recovery and the Utilization of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Piggery
Manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Zhiquan Hu, Qunpeng Cheng, Cuixia Liu, Ravi Naidu, Hui Ming, Nanthi Bolan
G087
Effects of Metallic Catalysts on Combustion Characteristics of Biomass Micron Fuel (BMF). . . . . . . . 466
Fangjie Qi, Bo Xiao
G088
Buried Bag Technique to Study Biochars Co-Composted with Chicken Manure and Sawdust . . . . . . 468
N. Khan, I. Clark, M.A. Sánchez-Monedero, J. Lehmann, Nanthi Bolan
G089
Impact of Sewage Sludge on Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in Saline Usar Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Anuj Prakash, Arunima Srivastava
G090
Life Cycle of Disposal Waste in Landfills: Implication for E-Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Peeranart Kiddee, Ravi Naidu, M.H. Wong
G091
Cadmium Content of Long Term Sugarcane Growing Soils from Fiji. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
J. Gawandar, Ravi Naidu, Nanthi Bolan
G092
Rhizosphere Effect of Australian Native Vegetation on Greenhouse Gas Emission from Soil . . . . . . 475
Ramya Thangarajan, Nanthi Bolan, Ravi Naidu
G094
The Soil Water Management Techniques to Reduce the Arsenic Content of Brown Rice for
Different Arsenic-Contaminated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Tai-Hsiang Huang, Hao-Yen Chang, Chi-Yen Lin, Zueng-Sang Chen
G095
Bioavailability of Arsenic and Lead at Moanataiari, Thames, New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
David Bull, Simon Hunt, Sue Robinson
G096
Assessment of the Priming Effect of Model Root Exudate Addition on Soil Organic Matter as
Affected by Nutrient Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Saikat Chowdhury, Mark Farrell, Greg Butler, Nanthi Bolan
G097
Phytoremediation of Benzo(a)pyrene and Pyrene in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Anithadevi Kenday Sivaram, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Robin Lockington, Ravi Naidu
G098
Effect of Ageing on Benzo[a]pyrene Extractability in Four Contrasting Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Luchun Duan, Yanju Liu, Thavamani Palanisami, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
G099
Bioavailability and Toxicity of Lead to Earthworms in Three Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
M.A. Ayanka Wijayawardena, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
G100
How (and Why) to be a More Diplomatic Environmental Consultant — A Victorian Perspective. . . 489
Alyson N. Macdonald, Warren L. Pump
G101
Pilot Scale Remediation of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons Using Bioslurry Reactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Thavamani Palanisami, Euan Smith, Kavitha Ramadass, Ravi Naidu, Prashant Srivastava,
Megharaj Mallavarapu
G102
Biopiling Weathered Hydrocarbons — Attainable/Sustainable Solution in Arid Region Soils????. . . 493
Kavitha Ramadass, Euan Smith, Thavamani Palanisami, Ravi Naidu, Prashant Srivastava,
Megharaj Mallavarapu
G103
A Novel Technology for Treatment of Aqueous Fire Fighting Foams (AFFF) Contaminated
Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Victor Andres Arias Espana, Ravi Naidu, Sreenivasulu Chadalavada, Megharaj Mallavarapu
G104
Concurrent Effects of Zinc and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Root Elongation of
Cucumber in Pure Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
M.A. Kader, Dane T. Lamb, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
G105
Naturally-Occuring Arsenic in Canberra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Cheryl Halim, Ken McQueen, Tony Scott
G106
Management Strategy for Phytoremediation of Arsenic Contaminated Soil in West Bengal by
Chinese Brake Fern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Asit Mandal, T.J. Purakayastha, A.K. Patra
G107
Acid Sulfate Soils: Neutralisation with Liquid Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Louise Cartwright, Jason Cole
A02
HEALTH IMPACTS ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
AND/OR HEAVY METALS
James CF Siow
Centre of Clinical Toxicology, National Institute of Integrative Medicine, PO Box 3094,
Auburn, Victoria, 3123, AUSTRALIA
drjsiow@niim.com.au
INTRODUCTION
The pollution of toxicants on a global scale and their impact on human health was publically
recognised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) through the
publication of guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures in 1986 and
implemented in 2000 (US EPA 1986, US EPA 2000). The cumulative effects of combined
toxicants have reached epidemic levels in the 21st century having its beginnings in the
industrial revolution in the 1700s.The current persistence of pollutants and their impact on
the human genome globally has resulted in the “Exposome Concept” postulated by
Christopher Wild which implies that almost every human being on earth can be considered
physiologically and biochemically polluted (Wild 2005).
Historically, the concept of a toxic chemical body burden was introduced by Onstot J et.al
through the analysis of human adipose tissue in 1987 and these scientist have estimated
that every single person at the time were exposed to at least 700 contaminates most of
which have not been well studied (Onstot 1987). More than twenty years had past since the
alarm was initially sounded but finally, there is general consensus amongst global
organizations on the critical importance of global pollution and its effects on human health
and the necessity of collaborative efforts to make aware to scientists, clinicians and the
public on the vital importance of remediation measures to achieve healthy environments for
the future of our nations. The WHO has initiated the International Program for Chemical
Safety (IPCS) Harmonization Project in 2011. The European Council of the European Union
has concluded that mixed and cumulative chemicals should be considered in risk
assessments and future legislations and research to address these issues should be
encouraged in a council resolution in Belgium in 2009.
Since the concept of a toxic chemical burden was initiated, specific databases have been
documented with regards to individual toxicants and their chemical profile. One such
database resides in the Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR). In
2002, the Collaborative on Health and the Environment (CHE) was initiated and a clinical
database linking toxicants and diseases has been cumulatively documented. A
comprehensive meta-analysis of extensive clinical trials in toxicology based on the
foundation of these databases is presented. The summary of evidence from this
retrospective analysis indicates that world pollution has strong evidential links to human
health and cumulative toxicant exposure can result in the aetilogy and perpetuation of many
chronic diseases lending much weight to the concept of the Exposome. Furthermore the
evidence from epigenetic and genomic research has indicated that lifetime cummulation of
toxicants affects almost every aspects of human health adversely not only in the current
generation but its effects can lead to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in the long
term affecting our future generations.
In conclusion, despite attempts by the World Health Organization to bring this awareness to
health practitioners, the current health paradigm still lacks this vital integration of clinical
toxicology into orthodox practice (Genuis 2012). A collaborative research paradigm to
encourage a more rapid process of translating established scientific research in toxicology
into the practice of clinical toxicology for the benefit of community health is presented. This
paradigm will have a target of achieving positive medical outcomes in an efficient timeframe
to curb the rising cost of tertiary health by breaking the chains of transgenerational
1
epigenetic inheritance. Achievable and tenable solutions based on current toxicology science
are also presented that can yield immediacy of tangible health outcomes when implemented
in most current health systems.
REFERENCES
Guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; Washington, DC, USA: Sep, 1986.
Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Washington, DC, USA: Aug, 2000
Wild CP 2005. Complementing the genome with an “expocome”: the outstanding challenge
of environmental exposure measurement in molecular epidemiology. Cancer Epidemiol
Biomarkers Prev 14(8):1847-1850.
Onstot J, Ayling R, Stanley J. Characterization of HRGC/MS Unidentified Peaks from the
Analysis of Human Adipose Tissue. Volume 1: Technical Approach. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Toxic Substances (560/6-87-002a),
1987.
Genuis SJ. What‘s out there making us sick? J Environ Public Health 2012; 2012:605137
2
A03
ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS OF
UNCONTROLLED RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF ELECTRONICWASTE: CALL FOR INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
M.H. Wong1, Y.B. Man1, P. Kiddee2, R. Naidu2
1
Croucher Institute for Environmental Science and Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist
University, Hong Kong, CHINA
2
Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the
Environment (CRC CARE), University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, AUSTRALIA
mhwong@hkbu.edu.hk
INTRODUCTION
Electronic waste (e-waste) has become the fastest growing waste stream (at least of 3-5%
rise per annum) in industrialized countries (UNEP, 2005). This is mainly due to the decrease
of average lifespan of computers in developed countries from 6 years in 1997 to only 2 years
in 2005 (SVTC, 2008).
It has been demonstrated that e-waste storage sites emitted flame retardant and various
heavy metals into the surrounding soils, may affect crop production and food safety. In
countries such as Australia, disposal of e-waste in landfills generated potent leachate, with
high concentrations of flame retardant (PBDEs) and various heavy metals, which may
migrate through soils and groundwater within and around landfill sites, pending on weather
conditions. In areas where e-waste is recycled via primitive techniques, e.g., dissolving
precious metals (such as gold, silver and platinum) using strong acid, and opening burning of
wire cables (for extraction of copper) and e-waste (for the rapid reduction of the waste
volume) have given rise to severe environmental problems.
The toxic chemicals generated through open burning (incomplete combustion) of e-waste
(containing plastic chips, wire insulations, PVC materials and metal scraps) included POPs
(PCDD/Fs, PBDEs, PAHs, PCBs) and heavy metals (especially Pb), have given rise to
serious contamination of different environmental media (i.e., air, soil, sediment, water)
(Leung et al, 2007a, 2008b; Wong et al, 2007). Some of the toxic chemicals, notably PBDEs
are bioaccumulated in fish with the total PBDEs in tilapia (Oreochromis spp, a freshwater fish
collected from local rivers of the e-waste site: Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China) 600 times
and 15000 times higher than those from Canadian markets (0.18 ng/g wet wt), and US
markets (0.0085 ng/g wet wt) respectively (Luo et al, 2007). In general, food items available
in the e-waste sites are highly contaminated (Xing et al, 2008).
The health of e-waste workers and residents of e-waste sites is greatly affected, with
extremely high concentrations of different POPs in body tissues (placenta, milk and hair),
linking to the rapid rise of morbidity of major diseases (such as cancer, and heart diseases),
according to the limited epidemiological data supplied by the local hospital from Taizhou
(another e-waste recycling site in Zhejiang Province, China). The results of health risk
assessments also showed that there was a danger that these toxic chemicals are passed on
to our next generation, through placenta transfer and lactation (Chan et al, 2013; Xing et al,
2013).
The e-waste sites contaminated by mixed pollutants would be extremely difficult to detoxify
and restore. It is envisaged that the practice of dumping e-waste from more affluent countries
to less affluent countries would be gradually diminished, due to better environmental
awareness and tighter environmental regulations in these less affluent countries. Eventually,
each country has to deal with its own e-waste problems. Nevertheless, there seems to be an
urgent need to manage e-waste more efficiently through better international collaboration
(Wong et al, 2012).
3
REFERENCES
Chan, J.K.Y. (2008) Dietary exposure, human body locadings, and health risk assessment of
persistent organic pollutants at two major electronic waste recycling sites in China. PhD
Thesis, Hong Kong Baptist University.
Leung, A.O.W., Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S., Cheung, K.C. and Wong, M.H. (2008) Heavy metals
concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications
in southeast China. Environmental Science and Technology 42: 2674-2680.
Leung, A.O.W., Luksemburg, W.J., Wong, A.S. and Wong, M.H. (2007) Spatial distribution of
polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
dibenzofurans in soil and combusted residue at Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site
in southeast China. Environmental Science and Technology 41:2730-2737.
Luo, Q., Cai, Z.W. and Wong, M.H. (2007) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish and
sediment from river polluted by electronic waste. Science of the Total Environment 383:
115-127.
Man, Y.B., Chow, K.L., Yang, K. and Wong, M.H. (2013) Mutagenicity and genotoxicity of
Hong Kong soils contaminated by polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons and dioxins/furans.
Mutation Research – Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis (in press).
SVTC (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition) (2008) Global e-waste crisis: threatening communities
around the globe.
<http://www.etoxics.org/site/PageServer?pagename=svtc_global_ewaste_crisis>, accessed
May 18, 2008.
UNEP (United Nation Environmental Programme) (2005) E-waste, the hidden side of IT
equipment’s manufacturing and use. In: Early Warning on Emerging Environmental
Threats.
Wong, M.H., Wu, S.C., Deng, W.J., Yu, X.Z., Luo, Q., Leung, A.O.W., Wong, C.S.C.,
Luksemburg, W.J. and Wong, A.S. (2007) Export of toxic chemicals – A review of the
case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling. Environmental Pollution 149: 131-140.
Xing, G.H., Yang, Y., Chan, J.K.Y., Tao, S. and Wong, M.H. (2008) Bioaccessibility of
polychlorinated biphenyls in different foods using an in vitro digestion method.
Environmental Pollution 156:1218-1226.
Wong, M.H., Leung, A.O.W., Wu, S.C., Leung, C.K.M. and Naidu, R. (2012) Mitigating
environmental and health risks associated with uncontrolled recycling of electronic
waste: Are international and national regulations effective? In: Environmental
Contamination, Health Risks and Ecological Restoration. Ed. Wong MH. CRC Press,
London, pp. 193-208.
4
A04
PERSPECTIVES FOR CHANGING ASSUMPTIONS AND IMPROVING
MODELS IN RISK ASSESSMENT
Renato Baciocchi
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering. University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via del
Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, ITALY
baciocchi@ing.uniroma2.it
INTRODUCTION
Risk assessment is an useful and widely applied tool for the management of contaminated
sites, since it provides a rational and objective starting point for priority setting and decision
making (Ferguson et al. 1998). Its application in most advanced countries has been
prompted by the application of the Risk-Based Corrective Action (RBCA) framework, based
on the corresponding ASTM standard (E 2081-00). The procedure outlined in this standard is
based on the information collected during the contaminated site investigation, which is used
to evaluate the potential effects on the health of exposed receptors and on the environment,
allowing to assess whether a particular site requires remedial action and eventually the
specific risk-based remediation goals. Namely the risk is defined by using site-specific data
concerning receptors, exposure potential, site hydrogeology and the type, amount, and
toxicity of the chemicals of concern. The ASTM RBCA is based on a "3-tiered" approach to
risk and exposure assessment, with increasing complexity in the definition of the site
conceptual model and in the description of the physical and chemical phenomena underlying
the fate and transport of contaminants. Usually, the risk analysis procedure is performed
using the Tier 2 conditions, that represent a reasonable compromise between the need for a
detailed site assessment and the advantage of handling a rather simple and easy-to-use
management tool (Baciocchi et al. 2010). The main strength of the Tier 2 RBCA procedure
relies in its capacity of evaluating risks to human health through relatively simple fate and
transport and exposure models. However, the experience gained over the years has shown
that such models are too simplified leading, in some cases, to unreasonably low clean-up
goals. In this work some issues that could be addressed in order to get a more realistic risk
assessment are discussed.
CRITICAL ISSUES
Fate and Transport Models (Natural Attenuation)
As briefly discussed above, fate and transport models are usually too simplified as they
neglect several natural attenuation processes occurring in the subsurface. Natural
Attenuation refers to naturally-occurring processes in soil and groundwater environments that
act without human intervention (U.S.EPA, 1999) and that can be particularly effective in
reducing the mass, toxicity, mobility, volume and concentrations of contaminants. These
natural processes include biological degradation, volatilization, dispersion, dilution, and
sorption of the contaminant onto the organic matter and clay minerals in the soil (Mulligan
and Yong, 2004). In the last decades several studies have demonstrated the occurrence of
natural attenuation by studying the attenuation in the unsaturated zone, the evolution of the
groundwater plume length, the source mass reduction and the vertical vapours profiles in the
subsurface (Baciocchi et al. 2010).
In addition in the last decades a large number of models accounting for natural attenuation
processes in the different contaminant migration pathways were developed. However,
despite most of these models could be easily included in a tier 2 risk-analysis framework, in
many cases the contaminants migration is still estimated using the too simplified ASTMRBCA fate and transport models leading to unreasonably low clean-up goals, that can make
the whole remediation economically unsustainable (Verginelli and Baciocchi, 2013).
5
Exposure models (Bio-availability)
The aspects discussed above refer only to the limitation of the fate and transport models that
can affect the estimation of the concentration of the contaminant at the point of exposure.
This value, combined with the specific exposure factors, is used for the estimation of the
dose assumed by the potential receptor and consequently for the estimation of the risks
posed. Hence, the choice of the correct exposure factor play also a key role for the correct
estimation of the risks and consequently of the clean-up levels. In this sense it should be
stressed that the Italian approach, as well as the standard ASTM-RBCA (2000) on which the
Italian one is based on, assumes that the dose of a generic contaminant absorbed through a
generic exposure pathway actually coincides with the calculated dose. For instance, for the
soil ingestion, it is assumed that the intestinal tract is able to absorb all the pollutant assumed
for this route of exposure, not considering that a fraction of the dose can be actually excreted
by the organism. To overcome this limitation, at the international level is growing at a rapid
rate the interest in the development of advanced procedures of risk analysis that also include
accurate estimations of the amount of contaminant actually absorbed by the body (e.g.
U.S.EPA, 2007). However, the lack of harmonization, mainly caused by the absence of a Soil
Framework Directive, makes this approach still not widespread in Europe.
CONCLUSIONS
The main strength of the RBCA procedure relies in its capacity of evaluating risks to human
health through relatively simple fate and transport and exposure models. However, such
models are usually based on very simplifying assumptions. Among these, a key one consists
in neglecting natural attenuation processes taking place in the subsurface, that several
experimental and field studies in the last decades have shown to be particularly relevant.
These processes, acting without human intervention, can in fact lead to a significant
reduction of the mass, toxicity, mobility, volume and concentrations of contaminants, that are
not accounted for in the RBCA risk procedure, possibly inducing an overestimation of risks.
Furthermore, the development of bio-availability and bio-accessibility data-sets shared at
European and international level could represent an important starting point in the
development of advanced procedures of risk analysis, capable of representing more
realistically, the actual conditions of the exposure of the receptors.
REFERENCES
ASTM (2000). Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action. American Society for
Testing and Materials. Standard E2081-00. West Conshohocken, PA.
Baciocchi R., Berardi S., Verginelli I. (2010). Human Health Risk Assessment: models for
predicting the Effective Exposure Duration of On-Site Receptors Exposed to
Contaminated Groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials 181(1–3), 226–233.
Ferguson C., Darmendrail D., Freier K., Jensen B.K., Jensen J., Kasamas H., Urzelai A.,
Vegter J. (1998). Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites in Europe. Volume 1.
Scientific Basis. LQM Press, Nottingham.
Mulligan C.N., Yong R.N. (2004). Natural attenuation of contaminated soils. Environ. Int. 30,
587–601.
US EPA (2007). Guidance for Evaluating the Oral Bioavailability of Metals in Soils for Use in
Human Health Risk Assessment. OSWER 9285.7-80.
U.S.EPA (1999). Monitored Natural Attenuation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons. EPA/600/F98/021.
Verginelli I., Baciocchi R. (2013). Role of natural attenuation in modeling the leaching of
contaminants in the risk analysis framework. Journal of Environmental Management
114, 395–403.
6
A06
RISK-BASED REMEDIATION DECISION MAKING IN EMERGING
COUNTRIES, INCLUDING EXAMPLES FROM SOUTH AFRICA,
TAIWAN, INDIA AND BRAZIL
Sophie Wood1, Chih Huang2, Stephen McKeown3, Karin Guiguer4 and Suyash Misra5
1
Environmental Resources Management (ERM), Sydney, NSW, Australia
2
ERM, Taipei, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
3
ERM, Cape Town, South Africa
4
ERM, São Paulo, Brazil
5
ERM, Mumbai, India
Sophie.wood@erm.com
The emerging market has represented a major world economic development driver in the last
decade. However, the rapid development has brought major issues related to land
contamination that has prompted governments to promulgate and enforce regulatory
frameworks to proactively manage contaminated sites. Particularly in emerging countries,
establishing and managing environmental legislation and guidance has been challenging and
slow, and in many cases, site assessments are being conducted using international best
practice where local guidelines have not been finalized or are inadequate. The regulatory
frameworks of four developing countries, including Brazil, India, South Africa, and Taiwan
were examined to assess the various approaches adopted to the management of
contaminated land. Selected case studies were used to provide insight to the actual level of
regulatory involvement, actions taken by authorities and authorizations provided, where
relevant.
Taiwan has integrated human health risk assessment and contaminated land reuse to
proactively offer a legal pathway for a sustainable land use strategy. Since 2005, the
legislation has provided for alternative decision-making routes, based either on compliance
with Control Levels, or using a risk assessment approach to determine remedial goals. A
critical element in the successful implementation of this policy is to promote effective
communication among the stakeholders to raise the awareness of public and ensure buy-in
from the regulators.
Taiwan is currently considering broadening the integration of riskbased protocols including development of risk based Control Levels, implementation of
brownfield policy, and advocating sustainable remediation.
In South Africa, draft legislation has been issued on the management of contaminated land.
The legislation stipulates risk-based screening criteria for a range of organic and inorganic
contaminants in soil. The key challenges in South Africa are managing inconsistencies
applying the risk-based approach between different state jurisdictions and individuals. In
some cases, a lack of technical insight results in regulators adopting the screening criteria as
remediation goals. Although clearly described in the draft legislation, applying risk-based
remediation approaches is typically achieved on a case by case basis, working with local
regulators to achieve outcomes that are favourable to all stakeholders.
In Brazil, contaminated site management procedures were developed by the regulatory
agency (CETESB) in 2007 to provide a framework for the rehabilitation of contaminated
sites. Within the framework, a human health risk assessment constitutes the basis for the
development of site specific target levels (SSTLs) for soil and groundwater. The SSTLs are
used as remedial levels, or in the development of risk management measures to be
implemented at the site. Critical for the successful implementation of these procedures was
the establishment of a program for qualifying companies and professionals that are involved
in each stage of the contaminated site management process.
7
In line with its strategic plan (2012-2017), the Government of India is in the process of
implementing a program for managing industrial pollution. The program will establish a
framework for the remediation of legacy polluted sites all over the country, however it will not
necessarily incorporate risk-based decision making. Effective capacity building of the
program remains the biggest challenge at all levels. India does not currently have national
risk-based guidelines for assessment or remediation, and the practicality and relevance of
international practice on use of quantitative risk assessment as a decision tool is questioned
by many regulators. Nevertheless, use of risk assessment in Indian remediation is
reasonably common, generally pursued by multi-national companies applying their own
policies for remedial decision making.
ERM’s experience is that with appropriate
communication with regulators, a risk based approach is generally acceptable.
Conclusions that can be drawn from the case studies include:
All four of the emerging countries have implemented, or are in the process of implementing,
contaminated land management regimes based on similar principles to those of developed
nations.
A key aspect of the emerging contaminated land legislation in the countries assessed is that
risk assessment is being used as a decision making tool, allowing for the development of
sustainable remedial approaches, in line with many developed countries. The momentum
being generated in these emerging countries can be expected to continue and have
consequent benefits for efficiency and sustainability of remediation of contaminated land in
future.
The challenges in implementing risk-based decision making centre primarily around
awareness and level of comfort of stakeholders with the principles and practice of the
methodology. Levels of pragmatism are also related to comfort factor (in general less
experience leading to more conservative positions; which is a feature also common to
developed countries). India is a possible exception to this general rule, where the challenges
associated with managing very significant environmental issues on a regular basis may
influence regulators’ risk perceptions, making them more tolerant towards accepting high risk
levels.
8
A07
CRITICAL ISSUES OF RISK ASSESSMENT APPLICATION IN THE
ITALIAN CONTEXT
Leonardo Arru, Laura D’Aprile
National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, ISPRA, Rome, Italy
leonardo.arru@isprambiente.it
INTRODUCTION
In most industrialized countries, the management of contaminated sites relies on a riskbased approach, where the contamination of the site is evaluated depending on the effective
risk posed to the human health and/or environment.
In this context, risk assessment results a very useful tool, giving a rational and objective
starting point for priority setting and decision making. In fact, even if the use of fixed quality
objectives is simple and less expensive than more elaborate site-specific assessment
methods, its exclusive application would result in a poor site-specificity and consequently
could lead to extremely conservative clean-up actions. In this view, a combined approach,
using predetermined screening values to simplify the preliminary stages of decision making
and then site-specific risk assessment to evaluate clean-up levels in later stages of an
investigation, is generally considered the most appropriate one (Ferguson et al. 1998).
The most commonly used technical and scientific references for the risk-assessment
approach are the ASTM Risk-Based Corrective Action (RBCA) standards for evaluating
petroleum sites (E 1739-95) and chemical release sites (E 2081-00). The procedure outlined
in these documents is based on the information collected during the contaminated site
investigation, which are used to evaluate the potential effects on the health of exposed
receptors and on the environment, allowing to assess whether a particular site requires
remedial action and eventually the specific risk-based remediation goals. Namely the risk is
defined by using site-specific data concerning receptors, exposure potential, site
hydrogeology and the type, amount, and toxicity of the chemicals of concern.
The ASTM RBCA is based on a "tiered" approach to risk and exposure assessment, where
each tier refers to a different level of complexity.
In Tier 1, aimed to the definition of the contamination screening values, only on-site receptors
are considered, transport of contaminants is described through simple analytical models and
conservative default values are used for all hydro-geological, geometrical and exposure data,
without requiring any site characterization.
In Tier 2, aimed to evaluate site-specific target levels, off-site receptors are included in the
conceptual model, all input data should possibly be site-specific, whereas the models used to
describe contaminants transport are still analytical.
Finally, fate and transport modeling in Tier 3 application usually involves the use of numerical
models which can simulate time-dependent constituent migration under conditions of
spatially-varying properties of the environmental media through which migration is occurring.
The risk analysis procedure is typically performed using the Tier 2 conditions, that represent
a reasonable compromise between the need for a detailed site assessment and the
advantage of handling a rather simple and easy-to-use management tool.
APPLICATION OF RISK ASSESSMENT IN THE ITALIAN REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
In Italy the application of a risk-based approach is required by law since 2006.
The Framework Environmental Legislation issued in 2006 (Legislative Decree n. 152/06)
provides in its Title V, subsequently revised and integrated through many regulatory acts, the
indications for the management of contaminated sites in Italy. The procedure applied is
summarized in Figure 1.
9
Main Site Investigation
Measured Concentration > CSC
(CSC = Screening Levels set by
DLgs 152/06 for soil and GW)
Site-Specific Risk Assessment
(Human Health)
SSTLs calculation (CSR)
Measured
Concentration < CSR
Monitoring Plan
Measured Concentration < CSC
(CSC = Screening Levels set by
DLgs 152/06 for soil and GW)
Site
NOT
CONTAMINATED
Measured
Concentration > CSR
Action Required to reduce
Risk (Clean-up, Exposure
Pathways Interruption)
Figure 1: Procedure for the management of contaminated sites according to Legislative Decree
n.152/06 and subsequent revisions
The development of human-health site specific risk assessment is required after the main
investigation of the site, if the screening levels for soil, subsoil (according to the use of the
site) and groundwater set by the Legislative Decree n. 152/06 are exceeded. The site
specific risk-assessment is applied to derive Site Specific Target Levels (SSTLs), called CSR
(Concentrazioni Soglia di Rischio). If the CSR are exceeded the site is contaminated and
further action is needed to clean-up the site and/or to interrupt exposure pathways.
According to its institutional task of technical support to the Italian Ministry of the
Environment for the management of the remediation activities of National Priority List Sites,
the National Institute for Environmental Protection and Reasearch (ISPRA), in cooperation
with the National Health Institute (ISS), the National Institute for Prevention and Safety at
Work (ISPESL, now joined to INAIL) and the Regional Environmental Protection Agencies
(ARPA/APPA) developed in 2005 the national guidelines for the application of human-health
risk assessment at contaminated sites. The guidelines, titled “Criteri metodologici per
l’applicazione dell’analisi assoluta di rischio ai siti contaminati” were updated in 2006
(revision 1) by adding the procedure for the development of Site Specific Target Levels. The
latest revision of the guidelines has been published on March 2008 (revision 2). All the
documents are available in Italian on the ISPRA website (www.isprambiente.it ).
The developed procedure follows the tiered ASTM Risk Based Corrective Action approach
and according to the indication of the National Health Insitute (ISS) the following human
health target values are set:
x acceptable value for the individual (one contaminant, one or more exposure
pathways) carcinogenic risk: 10-6
x acceptable value for the cumulative (many contaminants, one or more exposure
pathways) carcinogenic risk: 10-5
x acceptable value for individual and cumulative risk for non carcinogenic substances:
1
10
Groundwater risk is calculated by comparing the concentrations at the POC calculated by
ASTM-RBCA Fate & Transport equations with fixed groundwater values developed for
drinkable use.
As additional technical tools for the risk-based management of contaminated sites, the
following have to be mentioned:
x a dedicated software implementing ISPRA guidelines available since 2012 (RiskNet
developed by the University of Rome “ and tested by Reconnet network, see
www.reconnet.net for further details);
x database of chemical, physical and toxicological parameters developed by the
National Health Institute and National Institute for Worker Safety since 2005 and now
under revision;
x technical protocols for the selection and validation of site-specific parameters to be
used as input values in risk assessment;
x specific guidelines for soil-gas measurement and use of soil-gas values in risk
assessment (ongoing work).
OPEN ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES
The experience gained on case-studies and the increased understanding of the different
natural processes occurring in the subsurface gained over the years have highlighted some
critical issues of the Tier 2 RBCA application:
x contaminant concentration at the POE: namely, it is well known that the ASTM fate
and transport models in many cases result too simplified as they neglect several
natural attenuation processes occurring in the subsurface. Natural Attenuation refers
to naturally-occurring processes in soil and groundwater environments that act
without human intervention and that can be particularly effective in reducing the
mass, toxicity, mobility, volume and concentrations of contaminants. These natural
processes include biological degradation, volatilization, dispersion, dilution, and
sorption of the contaminant onto the organic matter and clay minerals in the soil. As a
results, the application of the ASTM models, which neglect almost all the processes
described above, can lead in many cases to a significant overestimation of
constituent concentrations at the point of exposure (i.e. conservative predictions of
constituent migration and attenuation) and consequently of the risk-based sitespecific clean up-levels;
x contaminant bioavailability: the influence of bioavailability on risk assessment results
is widely documented by scientific literature. Namely the use of site-specific
bioavailability values
can
significantly improve the “site-specificity” of risk
assessment thus leading to more reasonable results in term of clean-up levels;
x heavy metal mobility: as soils consist of heterogeneous mixtures of different organic
and organomineral substances, clay minerals, oxides of iron, aluminium and
manganese and other solid components as well as of a variety of soluble substances,
the binding mechanisms for heavy metals in soils are manifold and vary with the
composition of the soils, the soil reaction and redox conditions. Thus, a metal may
form different species according to wether it is bound to various soil compounds,
reacting surfaces and external or internal binding sites with different bonding energy.
In order to obtain a correct picture of the mobility of heavy metals, speciation analysis
coupled with a detailed assessment of soil composition and properties is
recommended. The results of speciation analysis can be used to reduce the
uncertainty of the ASTM model application;
x vapour intrusion assessment: “vapour intrusion” is a major problem at contaminated
sites and is frequently overestimated by using the ASTM-RBCA equations. It would
be recommended to “adjust” the model by using biodegradation and/or the results of
direct measures of soil-gas and indoor/outdoor air, but we have to analyse multiple
lines of evidence since direct measure can be confusing and difficulties in identifying
the source can be experienced.
11
CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
The main focus of this work is to analyse some critical issue of human health risk
assessment application for the management of contaminated sites, starting from the Italian
experience on this subject.
The risk analysis procedure is typically performed using the ASTM-RBCA Tier 2 conditions,
that represent a reasonable compromise between the need for a detailed site assessment
and the advantage of handling a rather simple and easy-to-use management tool. In
addition, data collection for fate and transport models in Tier 2 application is typically limited
to relative economically or easily to obtain site-specific data.
On the other hand the ASTM-Tier 2 equations cannot account for some key natural
processes occurring in soil and groundwater, thus leading to very conservative assumptions.
The integration of this model with the results of integrative site-specific assessment aiming to
obtain bioavailability, speciation, soil-gas, biodegradation data, allows to keep the original
simplicity of the approach, overcoming its limitations in correctly managing risk for specific
site conditions.
REFERENCES
ISPRA (2008), Criteri metodologici per l’applicazione dell’analisi assoluta di rischio ai siti
contaminati, www.isprambiente.it
ASTM (1995), Standard Guide for Risk Based Corrective Actions Applied at Petroleum
Release Sites, E-1739 .
ASTM (1999), Standard Provisional Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action, PS-104 ASTM.
12
A10
A NEW VAPOR INTRUSION MODEL INCLUDING AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC BIODEGRADATION
I. Verginelli
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering. University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via del
Politecnico 1, 00133 Rome, ITALY
verginelli@ing.uniroma2.it
INTRODUCTION
Natural Attenuation processes can be particularly effective in attenuating petroleum
hydrocarbon vapours, either from groundwater or unsaturated soil sources. Nevertheless,
most risk assessment procedures do not include vapour degradation as a standard feature
for developing clean-up levels (e.g. the Johnson and Ettinger, 1991 model). Neglecting these
processes can lead to an overestimation of the overall risk for human health, since vapour
intrusion in indoor air is one of the most important exposure pathways at many contaminated
sites impacted by volatile compounds. To overcome this limitation in the last decade, several
numerical (e.g. Abreu and Johnson, 2006) and analytical models (e.g. DeVaull, 2007)
models including aerobic biodegradation were developed. All these models account just for
the aerobic reaction, whereas anaerobic biodegradation is always neglected. However, as
reported e.g. by Foght (2008), in the last decades several studies have demonstrated that
many aromatic hydrocarbons can be completely degraded under anaerobic conditions. This
is somehow confirmed by the frequent methane detection at sites where petroleum
hydrocarbons have been released into the subsurface (e.g. Hers et al., 2000), suggestive of
anaerobic biotransformation under methanogenic conditions (Gray et al., 2010). In this work
a steady-state analytical 1-D vapour intrusion model including both aerobic and anaerobic
biodegradation is presented (Verginelli and Baciocchi, 2011).
METHODS
The main assumptions of the developed model (Verginelli and Baciocchi, 2011) are: (1)
constant source concentration, (2) linear equilibrium partitioning between the different
phases, (3) steady-state transport, (4) homogenous soil, (5) diffusion-dominated transport in
the soil, (6) diffusion and advection transport of vapours from the soil into the enclosed space
(7) aerobic biodegradation (1st order kinetic) limited by O2 availability, (8) anaerobic
biodegradation (1st order kinetic) in the regions where O2 is not sufficient to sustain the
aerobic reaction, (9) methane production and oxidation in the case of anaerobic
methanogenic biodegradation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig.1 highlights the expected combined effects of aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation on
the overall attenuation of vapours migrating into indoor environments. Namely, the figure
reports the predicted indoor concentrations (Cindoor) and the corresponding calculated aerobic
layer thickness (La) as a function of the source concentration (Csource) considering or
neglecting anaerobic biodegradation (and methane generation). For reference, the results
obtained by applying the traditional J&E (1991) model are also reported. With reference to
these figures, it can be noticed that for low Csource, the occurrence of anaerobic
biodegradation doesn’t lead to a significant attenuation of vapours (the model with aerobic
and aerobic biodegradation approach the model with aerobic biodegradation only). For this
scenario, aerobic biodegradation is expected to be the main attenuation mechanism (see
Fig. 1a for Csource < 0.1 g/m3). On the contrary, for intermediate to high Caource, the aerobic
biodegradation model approach the traditional J&E one due to oxygen depletion immediately
below the building (i.e. La/L = 0, see Fig.1b). In these cases, the occurrence of anaerobic
biodegradation can lead to a significant decrease of the predicted indoor concentration. This
13
is especially true when anaerobic biodegradation occurs under denitrifying or sulfate
reducing conditions (i.e. no CH4).
Fig. 1. Predicted Indoor concentration (a) and relative aerobic zone extension (b) obtained, as a
function of source concentration, assuming: no biodegradation (J&E, 1991); Aerobic
biodegradation only; aerobic + anaerobic biodegradation (no methane generation); aerobic +
anaerobic biodegradation (methanogenic conditions). Main inputs: Sand; L = 3 m; Ș = 0.001; Ȝa
= 0.79 h-1 (Devaull, 1997).; Ȝb = 0.15 h-1; ȜCH4 = 82 h-1 (Devaull, 1997).
For methanogenic conditions the attenuation due to anaerobic reaction is lower. This
behaviour is due to the CH4 produced in the anaerobic zone migrating upward, leading to a
further O2 demand, due to CH4 oxidation with a consequent reduction of the aerobic layer
thickness (in this case the extension of La assuming methanogenic condition approaches the
one estimated assuming aerobic biodegradation only).
CONCLUSIONS
The obtained results suggest that for many scenarios, the aerobic biodegradation is
expected to be the main attenuation mechanism. However, in cases where the aerobic
biodegradation is limited by the oxygen availability (e.g. for high Csource) anaerobic
biodegradation may lead to a significant further attenuation (especially when the anaerobic
reaction occurs under no methanogenic conditions).
REFERENCES
Abreu, L.D., Johnson, P.C., 2006. Simulating the effect of aerobic biodegradation on soil
vapor intrusion into buildings: Influence of degradation rate, source concentrations.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 2304–2315.
DeVaull, G., 2007. Indoor vapor intrusion with oxygen-limited biodegradation for a
subsurface gasoline source. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 3241–3248.
Foght, J., 2008. Anaerobic Biodegradation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Pathways and
Prospects. J. Mol. Microb. Biotech. 15, 93-120.
Gray, N.D., Sherry, A., Hubert, C., Dolfing, J., Head, I.M., 2010. Methanogenic degradation
of petroleum hydrocarbons in subsurface environments remediation, heavy oil formation,
and energy recovery. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 72, 137-61.
Hers, I., Atwater, J., Li, L., Zapf-Gilje, R., 2000. Evaluation of vadose zone biodegradation of
BTX vapors. J. Contam. Hydrol. 46, 233–264.
Johnson, P.C., Ettinger, R.A., 1991. Heuristic model for predicting the intrusion rate of
contaminant vapors into buildings. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25, 1445-1452.
Verginelli I., Baciocchi R., 2011. Modeling of vapor intrusion from hydrocarbon-contaminated
sources accounting for aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. J. Contam. Hydrol. 126
(3–4), 167–180.
14
A12
APPLICATION OF RISK ANALYSIS USING THE “RACHEL”
SOFTWARE
M.C.Zanetti1, L. Bretti2
1
Politecnico di Torino, DIATI, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
2
IDRA, Via Pigafetta 6, 10129 Torino, Italy
mariachiara.zanetti@polito.it, laura.bretti@idra-associati.it
INTRODUCTION
Actually, in Italy, the environmental risk analysis is a fundamental tool both for the definition
of “polluted” site (site in which the toxic and/or carcinogenic risk are higher than established
values and where, therefore, the reclamation is necessary) and both for the establishment of
the remediation target concentrations (Italian law 152/2006). The risk analysis approach has
substituted the previous tabular approach that only took into account a comparison between
the measured on site concentration values and the prescribed values. The broad application
of the risk analysis tool has enhanced the necessity of a certain standardization of the risk
analysis procedure in order to guarantee that different technical operators may obtain similar
results. At a national level some guidelines were established (ISPRA/APAT) that must be
taken into account by technicians in the environmental risk analysis implementation.
Particularly the compliance with the above mentioned Italian guidelines was the leading
reason for the development of two new software for the execution of the risk analysis
procedure. The one here described with one application is Rachel (Risk Analysis Calculation
Handbook (for) Environment (and) Living-beings). Rachel offers an alternative to the most
used software and it is up to date with the toxicological and chemical/physical database for
contaminant substances indexed by the Italian ISPESL/ISS institute and guides the user
through the procedure which leads to the quantification of the toxicological damage to the
environment or to human beings as a result of the presence of a contaminating source,
whose releases can reach, following several migration paths, a potentially exposed subject,
named receptor. The graphical interface can assist the user with a complete site
characterization and along the calculation of fate and transport models and helps to quantify
the risk for human beings or for the water quality due to the presence of contaminants.
Actually the aim of the software developers is to increase the Rachel flexibility by adding
several options in order to comply with several requirements such as: different international
laws, the application of the risk analysis approach to other fields of interest such as: food
industry, recreational use, work exposures and so on. In order to reach this purpose another
Rachel release is in preparation where some tools are already added like: bioavalability, the
possibility to insert measured values for some parameters and the addition of some exposure
pathways. Anyway the aim is still to understand by means of active technical exchanges and
discussions which may be the more interesting implementations that may be added to the
Rachel software in order to obtain a versatile tool that may be used for several technical
purposes in different countries.
Some results of the Rachel software application are shown in the following section and also
the comparison with the results gathered with software already existing on the market.
METHODS
The considered site involves the presence of wastes (car fluff residues) that were put in soil
by means of excavations without any control (Figure 1). The geological formation of the site
is of alluvial origin. The pollution transport model is the lateral dispersion in groundwater. The
pollutants groundwater concentrations(μg/l) of Al, As, Cd, Cr, Phenols, Fe, PAH, Mn, Ni, Pb,
Cu and Zn in three different piezometers are shown in Figure 1. The blue arrow shows the
groundwater flow and the brown circle the potential receptor position. The here involved
aquifer is strongly vulnerable because of the low distance from the field surface (the average
distance from the field surface is 2,5-3 m) and the high intrinsic permeability.
15
This site was employed for agricultural use. The risk analysis results show that both irrigation
and drinkable water use must be avoided.
Figure 1. Polluted site due to car fluff residues.
In Table 1 an immediate comparison between the results obtained by Rachel and Risc
(Grondwater software) softwares is performed. The Rachel evaluation is more conservative
than Risc evaluation but of the same magnitude order.
Table 1. Rachel and Risc results.
Drinkable water ingestion
Representative concentrations (μg/l)
Rachel Toxic Risk
Rachel Carcinogenic Risk
Risc Toxic Risk
Risc Carcinogenic Risk
Arsenic
27.90
1.38
6.22•10-4
1.4
2.20•10-4
Iron
97500
8.9
Manganese
79300
15.5
4.9
8.5
According to the International Standards (ASTM, 1998) the Toxic Risk must be below 1 and
the Carcinogenic Risk below 10-4.
REFERENCES
ASTM PS 104 (ASTM, 1998)
APAT (2008) “Criteri metodologici per l'applicazione dell'analisi assoluta di rischio ai siti
contaminati”, rev. 2, marzo 2008, Agenzia per la Protezione dell’Ambiente e per i Servizi
Tecnici , Via Vitaliano Brancati, 48 - 00144 Roma.
16
A13
ASSUMED TPH SOURCE COMPOSITION IN THE HSLS:
ARE THE HSLS SUITABLE FOR USE ON YOUR SITE, AND WHY
MIGHT THEY BE TOO CONSERVATIVE?
Katie Richardson
CH2M HILL, Level 40, 385 Bourke St, Melbourne VIC 3000, AUSTRALIA
katie.richardson@ch2m.com
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS
The introduction of the Health Screening Levels (HSLs) for petroleum hydrocarbons by CRC
CARE (CRC CARE, 2011) is of enormous benefit in the assessment of contaminated land
sites, as these screening criteria are robust; transparently derived; and consider the key
pathway of vapour intrusion.
Inherent in the HSLs is an assumption of TPH source composition, based on the composition
of Australian fuels. These assumptions are required because TPH can contain a very wide
range of constituent chemicals, with widely differing toxicity and chemical characteristics. In
order to meaningfully model the behaviours of TPH in the environment, it must be divided
into sub-fractions, such as those defined by the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons Criteria
Working Group (TPHCWG, 1997). The analysis of every sample on a site for these detailed
sub-fractions can prove very expensive; as such, the HSLs are presented for “rolled-up”
fractions (e.g. TPH C10-C16, which contains four of the fractions defined by TPHCWG). This
allows for a more pragmatic analytical suite, but in order to develop these HSLs, the relative
proportions of the TPHCWG sub-fractions must be assumed.
Further consideration is given in this paper to the TPH source composition assumed in the
HSLs and commentary is provided on whether this is likely to be representative of the actual
composition of impacts on sites impacted with petroleum hydrocarbons. It is concluded that
the assumed TPH source composition may not be applicable on every site.
Given the wide range of toxicities and chemical properties within a single “rolled-up” TPH
fraction, if the assumed composition is not representative, this may result in HSLs which are
not protective of human health. It is therefore necessary to query the appropriateness of the
assumed TPH source composition for any given site. This paper presents principles for
determining whether the assumed source composition is appropriate for a given site, and
therefore whether the HSLs are likely to be protective of human health.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Likely Representativeness of Assumed Source Composition
The assumed composition in the HSL derivation is based on data for Australian petroleum
and diesel bulk fuels. It is assumed that the relative proportions hold for all source media
(soil, groundwater and soil vapour) even though in reality these proportions will be greatly
affected by fate and transport processes in the subsurface (such as sorption, dissolution,
biodegradation and groundwater migration). As such, it is considered of key importance to
assess the effect of compositional assumptions on the applicability of the HSLs.
Furthermore, it is noted that in a number of cases, it is not possible for the “rolled-up” TPH
fraction to be present at the HSL concentration, because the assumed composition would
result in some of the TPHCWG sub-fractions being present at concentrations in exceedance
of their theoretical solubility. In these cases, the assumed source composition is clearly not
representative.
This paper will discuss a case of a groundwater HSL for which - by limiting the concentration
of each of the sub-fractions to theoretical solubility concentrations - it can be shown that it is
not possible for risks to exceed the acceptable level. More generally, limiting the
concentration of each sub-fraction to its solubility concentration allows more realistic
estimates of source composition (and therefore risk) to be determined.
17
Determining Appropriateness of the HSLs
Provided a sub-set of the samples collected beneath a site are analysed for the detailed
TPHCWG fractions, it is possible to assess whether the assumed source composition is
appropriate for a given site, and therefore whether the HSLs are likely to be protective of
human health.
The HSL documentation (Appendix F, Part 1) details the HSLs for each of the TPHCWG subfractions together with the assumed source composition. The effect of a different (sitespecific) composition can be determined by replacing the assumed source composition with
site measured values in order to develop indicative screening criteria adjusted for sitespecific composition (example below). It is noted that this calculated value is not intended for
use as an alternative screening criterion, just to provide a comparison to assess the effects
of changing composition.
Analytical
HRAF Fraction
Fraction
C6-C10
>C10-C16
Ali 6-8
Ali 8-10
Aro 8-10
Ali 10-12
Ali 12-16
Aro 10-12
Aro 12-16
HSL: TPHCWG
Fraction (mg/kg)
245
41
30.1
137
744
60.1
209
Assumed
Proportion in
HSLs
0.231
0.641
0.128
0.208
0.598
0.04
0.153
HSL (mg/kg)
48
269
Example
Measured
Proportion
0.05
0.35
0.60
0.12
0.59
0.07
0.22
Indicative
Adjusted HSL
(mg/kg)
35
260
Fig. 1. Example calculations used to demonstrate the appropriateness (or otherwise) of the
HSLs as screening criteria (in this case HSLs for silt soils; <1 mbgs)
If the indicative adjusted value is similar to, or higher than the HSL, then confidence is
maintained that the HSLs are likely to be protective of human health for this given site.
Conversely, if the adjusted criterion is significantly lower than the HSLs, this indicates that
the HSLs may not be appropriate for use.
It is noted that, as a result of assuming a source composition appropriate for petroleum and
diesel sources, the HSLs documentation states that the criteria should only be used for
petroleum and diesel fuels. However by undertaking an assessment as summarised above,
it may be possible to indicate that the HSLs are suitable for use as screening criteria for TPH
sources other than petroleum or diesel fuels. As such, undertaking such an analysis may
result in cost-savings on sites with TPH sources other than petroleum or diesel fuels by
allowing for a screening assessment rather than progressing immediately to full site-specific
QRA.
REFERENCES
CRC CARE, 2011. Health Screening Levels for Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Part 1: Technical
Development Document.
TPHCWG, 1997. Volume 3. Selection of Representative TPH Fractions Based on Fate and
Transport Considerations
18
A14
CASE STUDY OF RISK ASSESSMENT APPLICATION
Alessandro Girelli
I.A. Industria Ambiente S.r.l., Via E. De Amicis 6/10, 16122, Genova, ITALY
a.girelli@industriaambiente.it
INTRODUCTION
A groundwater survey conducted in the municipalities of Trento and Rovereto revealed a
contamination by chlorinated compounds and was used to define some "areas of potential
groundwater contamination".
At first, municipal authorities decided to ban any groundwater use.
Later on (following farmers and industrial users pledges) they decided to assess whether it
was possible to use groundwater, at least, for agricultural and/or industrial purposes (“not for
drinking” uses).
The study was conducted in order to assess risk associated with contaminated groundwater
use for irrigation and/or industrial purposes and to calculate the Risk Based Screening Level
(RBSL) for identified uses and pollutants.
METHODS
Risk Assessment was developed using standard procedures based on ASTM Risk Based
Corrective Action (RBCA) and US EPA Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund in their
latest release.
The first step was defining a Site-Specific Conceptual Model (SSCM) which identifies
contamination sources, diffusion/exposition pathways and receptors.
A simplified SSCM had to be produced because of the dimensions of the areas of concern.
Risk from conventional pathways (based on RBCA standard) has been calculated using the
software RBCA Toolkit 2.5.
Risk from non-conventional pathways (such as vegetables/meat/milk consumption or outdoor
vapour inhalation during irrigation of fields or industrial water use) has been calculated
considering the following steps:
(a) evaporation of contaminants during irrigation;
(b) uniform mixing of the contaminants in the upper soil surface layer (20 cm);
(c) partition of the contaminants in soil different phases (soil, interstitial water, soil gas)
using partition coefficients and Henry's constant;
(d) soil-to-plant uptake;
(e) ingestion of the plants (vegetables/fruits) by human receptors (ĺ risk assessment
target) and by animals (cows);
(f) food (forage)-to-beef transfer;
(g) food (forage)-to-milk transfer;
(h) ingestion of beef and milk by human receptors (ĺ risk assessment).
In industrial settings the most critical pathway connected to contaminated water use was
assumed to be inhalation of vapour produced during cooling processes (cooling towers).
SSCM adopted is shown in Fig. 1.
For each exposure pathway a RBSL was calculated.
Groundwater conformity could then be assessed by simple comparison between measured
concentrations and calculated RBSL.
By comparing calculated RBSL and measured concentration municipalities banned the use
of a limited number of wells (n. 4 out of 20 – agricultural/industrial) previously used for
irrigation, on the basis vinyl chloride concentration was exceeding calculated RBSL. Further
groundwater surveys were planned to confirm the measured concentrations.
19
Fig. 1. Site-Specific Conceptual Model
Since the study was conducted using site-generic parameter values - listed in international
and national databases (especially the transfer factors - plant uptake and beef-milk transfer) and not measured/calculated on the site (site-specific) it was suggested, where possible, to
investigate also these matrices (vegetables/fruits/meat/milk) in order to better assess the risk
associated with agricultural groundwater use.
CONCLUSIONS
The adopted methodology (risk assessment) provided the municipalities of Trento and
Rovereto with a management tool to assist deciding which groundwater extraction wells were
suitable for agricultural or industrial use and which ones were more vulnerable to
contamination.
The calculated RBSLs (Tier 1/2) represent conservative concentration values below which
potential risk for identified pathways can be considered acceptable, pending further
investigations.
REFERENCES
United States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for
Superfund: Volume I - Human Health Evaluation Manual. EPA/540/1-89/002.
United States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). 2011. Exposure Factors Handbook.
EPA/600/R-090/052F.
ASTM "Standard Guide for Risk Based Corrective Actions Applied at Petroleum Release
Sites", E-1739, 1995
ASTM "Standard Guide for Risk Based Corrective Actions", E 2081-00, 2000
United States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). 2011. “Soil Screening Guidance”,
EPA 540/R-96/018
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). 1984. Radiological
Assessment: Predicting the Transport, Bioaccumulation, and Uptake by Man of
Radionuclides Released to the Environment. NCRP Report No. 76.
The Risk Assessment Information System - http://rais.ornl.gov
Hinton, T. G. 1992. Contamination of plants by resuspension: a review, with critique of
measurement methods. Sci. Total Environ. 121:177–193.
20
Whelan, G., D. L. Strenge, J. G. Droppo, Jr., B. L. Steelman, and J. W. Buck. 1987. The
Remedial Action Priority System (RAPS): Mathematical Formulations. DOE/RL/87-09.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA.
Miller, C. W. 1980. An analysis of measured values for the fraction of a radioactive aerosol
intercepted by vegetation. Health Phys. 38:705–712.
McKone, T. E. 1994. Uncertainty and variability in human exposure to soil contaminants
through home-grown food: a Monte Carlo assessment. Risk Anal. 14:449–463.
Pinder, J. E., and K. W. McLeod. 1989. Mass loading of soil particles on plant surfaces.
Health Phys. 57:935–942.
Personal communication with the Roane County, Tennessee, Extension Agent.
National Council on Radiation Protection Measurement (NCRP). 1989. Screening
Techniques for Determining Compliance with Environmental Standards. Releases of
Radionuclides to the Atmosphere. Bethesda, Maryland.
21
A15
ASSESSMENT OF MUTAGENIC CARCINOGENS IN AUSTRALIA
Belinda Goldsworthy1, Rosalind A. Schoof2
1
2
ENVIRON Australia, NSW, AUSTRALIA
ENVIRON, 901 Fifth Avenue, Suite 2820, Seattle, WA 98167 USA
Belinda.Goldsworthy@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
In Australia, cancer risks from childhood exposures to chemicals are generally analysed
using methods based on exposure to adults, which assumes that chemicals are equally
potent in both early and later life. However, literature from animal studies shows that
perinatal exposure to mutagenic carcinogens in conjunction with adult exposure usually
increases the incidence of tumors or reduces the latent period before tumors are observed.
These observations were made from chemical exposures that act via a mutagenic mode of
action. Therefore, it is generally considered that children are more susceptible to mutagenic
carcinogens than adults largely due to differences in biological processes e.g. immature
immune system, more frequent cell division during development.
In recognition of these differences, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released
guidelines in 2005 for assessing risks to children associated with early-life exposure to
mutagenic carcinogens (Supplemental Guidance for Assessing Susceptibility for Early-Life
Exposure to Carcinogens). The guidance suggests that age-dependant adjustment factors
(ADAF) should be applied for mutagenic carcinogens, for the age groups ‘0 to 2 years’ and ‘2
to <16 years’. Currently, the USEPA identifies 19 compounds that are thought to be
mutagenic carcinogens. In 2008, the California EPA proposed applying an early life
adjustment scheme in the assessment of all carcinogens, not just mutagenic carcinogens
(Cal EPA, 2009).
ISSUE
Although the USEPA (2005) guidance for early-life exposure is not strictly adopted in
Australia, it is acknowledged in the recently published enHealth (2012) risk assessment
guidelines. This guidance states that “While Australian environmental health authorities have
not enunciated specific policies relating to applying these US early-life risk assessment
strategies, additional precaution tends to be applied on a case-by-case basis when justified
by relevant data” (p19).
In addition, ADAFs were incorporated into the revised draft NEPM (2011) guidance with
acknowledgement that “…additional precaution tends to be applied on a case-by-case basis
when justified by relevant data……the US early-life risk assessment policies are not
automatically adopted in Australia” (p51, Schedule B4). However, the US EPA (2005) ADAFs
were adopted during derivation of the draft benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) health investigation level
(HIL) for soil. Although the BaP HIL values are presented both with and without application of
the ADAF, the recommended HIL incorporated the ADAF approach which is noted to be 70%
lower than the HIL without the ADAF. Therefore, it is highly likely that the decision whether to
adopt ADAFs in risk assessments for carcinogens will significantly influence the results.
During recent risk assessment workshops in Australia (e.g. Toxicological Excellence for Risk
Assessment (TERA) Dose-Response Assessment workshop, July 2012 and the Life StageSpecific Human Health Risk Assessment Workshop, March 2013), the merits for and against
adoption of ADAFs in Australian risk assessments were discussed with no clear agreement
amongst peers.
CONCLUSIONS
As noted above, the decision to adopt the ADAFs in carcinogenic risk assessments is likely
to significantly influence the results. However, there is currently no clear guidance regarding
the use of ADAFs for risk assessments in Australia and this is required to ensure a
consistent and robust approach.
22
REFERENCES
Cal EPA (2009) Technical Support Document for Cancer Potency Factors: Methodologies for
derivation, list of available values, and adjustments to allow for early life stage exposures.
California Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment, Air Toxicology and Epidemiology Branch, May 2009.
enHealth (2012) Environmental Health Risk Assessment. Guidelines for assessing human
health risk from environmental hazards. Australian Government, Department of Health
and Aging.
Draft NEPM (2011) Site Specific Health Risk Assessments, Schedule B4. National
Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure April 2011. National
Environment Protection Council (NEPC).
USEPA (2005) Supplemental Guidance for Assessing Susceptibility from Early-Life Exposure
to Carcinogens. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC 20460.
EPA/630/R-03/003F.
23
A16
COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF INHALABLE IRON-RICH PARTICLES
AND OTHER METAL-OXIDES PARTICLES
Shiva Prakash1,2, Jack C. Ng1,2
1
The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology,
39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Brisbane, 4108, AUSTRALIA
2
Environment, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, 5095, AUSTRALIA
j.ng@uq.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Australia ranks as the world’s third largest producer of iron ore, the majority of which is
mined, processed and shipped out of the Pilbara region in Western Australia. Industrial
activities can potentially generate fugitive iron-rich particles. In general, fine dust <10um in
diameter (PM10) significantly penetrates human bronchial airways; and chronic exposure
can lead to increased morbidity and mortality through several disease processes. Current air
quality guidelines do not address relative toxicity of various particulate matters. Port Hedland
(WA, Australia) is a major export port for iron ore mined in the Pilbara region, as 80% of its
ambient PM10 is iron-rich in composition and regulatory limits are sometimes exceeded. We
aimed to develop and refine traditional in-vitro toxicology techniques for greater sensitivity to
insoluble fine particles; and to conduct toxicology of iron-ore PM10 comparing to that of other
more well known metal-oxides of both micro- and nano-sizes.
METHODS
The test items included PM10 fractions isolated from bulk 50 μm iron-ore samples collected
from three mines namely Yandi, Mining Area C (MAC) and Newman in the Pilbara region and
commercially available fine particles of Fe2O3, mixture of FeO and Fe2O3 (<5 ȝm and <50
nm), CuO (<5 ȝm and <50 nm) TiO2 (<50 nm), and SiO2 (<10 ȝm). Four different cell lines
(A549, LL24, U937 and AREc32) were used to analyse cytotoxic, oxidative and cytokine
expression parameters relevant in physical and immunological responses to iron-ore PM10
in the lungs. The effect of disaggregating pulmonary surfactant proteins was also examined
using metal oxides in both nano- and micro-sizes. Additionally, the particle size-distribution
profile of the iron-ore samples was analysed and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) of
particle morphology and cellular uptake examined.
Cytoxicity
Cytoxicity of particulate matter was measured using a resazurin assay, PrestoBlue (Life
Technologies, USA), a cell viability test on all cell lines. Spectrophotometric analysis was
then conducted using the FluoStar Omega microplate reader (BMG Labtech, Germany),
using the top-down fluorescence optic (540 nm excitation, 580 nm emission) configured to
average 8 pulses in a circular pattern per well. This method was developed to minimize
opaque particulate matter interference. The elimination of washing reduced toxicity falsepositive effects caused by the mechanical abrasion of cells by the particulate matter, which
we show cannot be cleanly separated from cells during washing. The cytotoxicity of the ironore PM10 was similar to that of iron-oxides, slightly lower than TiO2, but significantly lower
than that of CuO. Whereas responses of cytokines were more variable depending on which
individual cytokine was being compared.
Oxidative stress
A recombinant cell line with a fluorescent probe for activation of the antioxidant response
pathway (AREc32) was used for the comparative toxicity evaluation. The relative potency of
various particles tested was similar to the cytoxicity observed. Figure 1 shows the toxic
equivalency of the tested items.
24
Fig. 1. Relative oxidative potency of various particles tested after adjustment for dosages used
in the culture media to challenge the AREc32 cells
Electron microscopy
Electron micrographs show highly size-heterogeneous rounded particle morphologies for the
mixed mine site samples. This is consistent with crushing of ore from rocks with low levels of
foliation (Belardi et al. 2013). It has been hypothesised that the increased carcinogenic
properties of some particulate matter such as asbestos arise from high aspect ratios,
impairing immunological clearance and causing frustrated phagocytosis; a state of extended
inflammatory signalling by macrophages unable to engulf long fibres. The absence of fibrous
formations in these images suggests this particular mode of carcinogenicity may not arise.
Epithelial and fibroblast cells show surface contact and trapping formations, but low levels of
particle internalisation. In contrast macrophage cells show high uptake capacity before
apoptosis.
CONCLUSIONS
From this study, it is evident that iron-ore PM10 exerts similar or slightly lower toxicity as
other metal-oxides with the exception of CuO which has at least an order of magnitude
higher toxicity. The mechanism by which iron-ore fine dust samples studied may cause lung
fibrosis (Stewart and Faulds, 1934) as reported for haematite mineral particles and SiO2
upon chronic exposure is being investigated.
REFERENCES
Belardi, G., Vignaroli, G., Plescia, P. and Passeri, L. (2013) The assessment of particulate
matter emitted from stone-crushing industry by correlating rock textures with particles
generated after comminution and dispersed in air environment. Environ. Sci. poll. Res.
Inter. doi:10.1007/s11356-012-1434-7.
Stewart, M. J. and Faulds, J. S. (1934) The pulmonary fibrosis of hæmatite miners. J. Pathol.
Bacteriol. 39: 233-253.
25
A17
LEAD: EVOLUTION OF A SCREENING CRITERIA
Alyson N. Macdonald1, Kenneth L. Kiefer2
1
ERM, PO Box 266, South Melbourne, VIC 3205, AUSTRALIA
2
ERM, Locked Bag 24, Broadway, NSW 2007, AUSTRALIA
alyson.macdonald@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
Soil lead contamination is a common issue in Australia. In recent years there has been a shift
in expert opinion based on new studies of the relationship between blood lead levels and
effects on neurological development, which as of yet do not provide any indication of a
threshold for effects. This presentation discusses the implications of the opinion shift on how
we should be dealing with lead contamination.
In Australia, the current screening criteria for residential soil lead is the health-based
investigation level (HIL) published in the 1999 NEPM (and retained in the 2013 amendment),
which is set at 300 mg/kg. If the HIL is exceeded, then site specific screening levels (SSSLs)
may be developed.
In 2012, ERM investigated some residential properties in suburban Melbourne at which soil
lead concentrations were found to exceed the HIL. ERM then undertook a quantitative risk
assessment to advise whether a higher SSSL could be applied as a remediation goal.
METHODS
The risk assessment used similar methodology to the HIL development (Maynard, 1991),
and consisted of an exposure assessment, allocation of background exposures,
bioavailability assessment and a toxicological review. Incidental ingestion of soil was the
most significant exposure pathway and was therefore the only one quantitatively assessed. A
two year old child was chosen as the critical receptor, based on higher exposures and
increased lead susceptibility compared with an adult.
Exposure Assessment and Background Exposure
The site included some residences with exposed lead contaminated soil. The current
recommended exposure parameters (enHealth, 2012) were used, which are only slightly
different than the exposure parameters used to develop the HIL. Also, recent Australian data
allowed 25% reduction of the allocated background lead exposure, due to decreased dietary
and ambient air exposures.
Bioavailability
The HIL was developed assuming 100% lead bioavailability from all sources, which is
considered overly conservative. Lead bioavailability data had been reported for an adjacent
site with the same primary source of contamination, in the range of 0.1 to 0.3 fraction
absorbed. ERM therefore assumed 0.3 to 0.5 absorbed fraction for this site.
Toxicological Review
Lead affects the central nervous system, including the intellectual development of children
(NHMRC, 2009). Recent studies correlate increases in blood lead levels to decreases in IQ.
Small IQ changes can be significant when considering effects on large populations, and may
also indicate other neurodevelopmental effects. Because the dose-response analysis does
not support the establishment of an effect threshold, the tolerable lead intake on which the
HIL was based has been rescinded (JECFA, 2011), leaving the HIL derivation no longer valid
and a need for an alternative method of defining an acceptable soil lead concentration.
In the absence of specific Australian guidance on deriving a non-threshold screening level for
chemicals other than genotoxic carcinogens, ERM adopted the NHMRC blood lead goal
(10 ug/dL) as the basis for SSSL derivation. This value acts in lieu of a threshold, at which
risks are considered tolerable (although non-zero). For comparison, ERM also undertook
SSSL derivation using the threshold method and rescinded tolerable lead intake value.
26
Blood lead biokinetic uptake modelling method
Soil lead intake was calculated using enHealth standard exposure parameters. Modelling of
the expected blood lead level associated with a specific lead intake was then undertaken,
using a biokinetic uptake model (USEPA, 2010). This model compartmentalises the body
and uses empirical equations to estimate lead transfer rates between various compartments.
The model uses soil lead bioavailability of 0.3 and food and water bioavailability of 0.5, and
provides an output as a probability distribution curve to account for individual variability. The
SSSL was based on protection of the blood lead goal at 95% percentile. Model limitations
include pre-set body weights, which do not correspond to enHealth recommendations.
Threshold method
Soil lead intake was calculated using the same exposure parameters as for the biokinetic
model. Bioavailability was set at 0.5 across all intake sources. The soil lead concentration
was then varied until the absorbed intake was equal to the tolerable intake.
The lead SSSL derived using the biokinetic model was 285 mg/kg, which is equivalent to 350
mg/kg when adjusted to the standard enHealth body weight. Using the threshold method, the
lead SSSL was 700 mg/kg. The results indicate that given the same input assumptions,
using the blood lead goal will result in a much lower SSSL, mainly due to the variability in the
relationship between lead intake and blood lead implicit in the model as a probability
distribution curve. It is also noted that the blood lead goal maybe subject to change, based
on the latest toxicological information and the reduction in Australian background lead
exposure.
CONCLUSIONS
ERM concluded that for this specific site a lead remediation goal of 300 mg/kg (equal to the
current HIL) was appropriate. This outcome relied on site soil lead bioavailability of 0.3, and
may not be appropriate as a generic screening criteria. The 1999 NEPM HIL derivation is
out-dated, and the 2013 NEPM HIL may not be based on sufficiently conservative
assumptions. This has implications for other lead contaminated sites across Australia,
particularly where higher SSSLs have been applied.
REFERENCES
Environmental Health Committee (enHealth) (2012) Australian Exposure Factor Guidance
Handbook. Environmental Health Committee of the Australian Health Protection
Principal Committee.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) (2011) Evaluation of certain
food additives and contaminants. Seventy-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives. Geneva, World Health Organization, WHO Technical
Report Series, No. 960.
Maynard, E.J. (1991) Setting response levels for lead. In: Langley, A.J. and Saadi, O.E.I.
(Eds.) Protocol for the Health Risk Assessment and Management of Contaminated
Sites. Summary of a National Workshop on the Health Risk Assessment and
Management of Contaminated Sites. Monograph No. 1. Adelaide: South Australian
Health Commission. pp. 102-122.
National Environment Protection Council (NEPC) (1999) National Environment Protection
(Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure (NEPM).
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2009) Information Paper, Blood
Lead Level for Australians.
United State Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) (2010) Integrated Exposure Uptake
Biokinetic Model for Lead in Children, At:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/lead/products.htm#ieubk
27
A32
REMEDIATION OF SUBSURFACE LANDFILL GAS, STEVENSONS
ROAD CLOSED LANDFILL, CRANBOURNE, VICTORIA
Paul Fridell1, David Maltby2, Warren Pump1
1
Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd, 18-38 Siddeley Street, Docklands,
3005, AUSTRALIA
paul.fridell@erm.com; warren.pump@erm.com
2
Independent Consultant, 18-38 Siddeley Street, Docklands, 3005, AUSTRALIA
dmtm@bigpond.com
INTRODUCTION
Subsurface landfill gas migration from the Stevensons Road Closed Landfill (SRCL), owned
by the City of Casey (CoC), into the adjacent Brookland Greens Estate (‘the Estate’) in
Cranbourne, Victoria generated significant publicity.
Sand quarrying commenced at the site that was later occupied by SRCL with related
dewatering in the 1960s. Landfilling of the SRCL commenced in June 1996 and continued
until June 2005 with approximately 1.1 million tonnes of waste deposited at the site. Sand
extraction took place concurrently with the landfilling, with landfilling following the completion
of sand extraction progressively from south to north. The SCRL was constructed without any
form of basal or side liners. Methane gas was first reported in the estate in March 2006
when bubbling was observed in puddles on the estate and to the north in an off-site dam. In
May 2007, landfill gas was detected within an electrical pit and meter box in a house in the
estate recorded at 10% v/v methane in the electrical pit and 7% v/v methane in the meter box
(methane LEL = 5% v/v).
As a result of methane being detected in the estate, a range of mitigation works were
completed by CoC to reduce the risk off-site including: replacing all electrical and stormwater
service pit lids with open grates to allow passive venting; installation of passive vents across
the estate; sealing of potential penetration points on selected residential dwellings;
improvement of on-site leachate pumping, capping and LFG extraction; and construction of a
20-30 metre deep cement bentonite diaphragm wall (CBDW) between the waste and the
estate.
LFG was identified up to 800 metres from the landfill under approximately 100 occupied
homes, extending across an area of approximately 40 hectares to the west of the landfill.
The issue led to a Victorian Ombudsman report, a class action in March 2011 between CoC,
EPA Victoria and residents of the Estate and a substantial revision to the Victorian EPA
landfill siting and design guidelines (BPEM) setting LFG action levels of 1%v/v methane and
1.5%v/v carbon dioxide above background in subsurface geology at the boundary of a
landfill. Subsequent investigations identified LFG concentrations up to 50% v/v methane and
30% v/v carbon dioxide in the subsurface geology throughout the estate.
In 2011, the Authors prepared a Clean Up Plan (CUP) in response to a Pollution Abatement
Notice (PAN) to remediate the residual LFG throughout the Estate to achieve the BPEM
action levels.
METHOD
To achieve the action levels, the CUP method included:
(a) Development of a robust conceptual site model (CSM) to guide assessment of the
extent and quantity of LFG that had migrated from SRCL;
(b) assessing technologies that could be used to achieve the LFG action levels by
evaluating the potential effectiveness and practicability of each identified
technology against the conceptual model;
(c) identifying practicable measures to be taken to achieve the :LFG action levels;
(d) detailing mitigation measures and associated monitoring programs and reporting
dates; and,
(e) provision of a schedule by which actions would be implemented.
28
There were five regional geological units in the vicinity of the SRCL in order of oldest to
youngest: Silurian Formation (SF); Werribee Formation (WF); Older Volcanics (OV); Brighton
Group (Red Bluff Sands) (BG); and, Quaternary Sands (QS). The majority of LFG detected
in the estate was identified in the OV and WF units. It was identified that there was
significant unsaturated thicknesses of these units at depth, often over lain by lower
permeable units or perched water which is thought allow transmission of gas a greater
distance. While the sandy WF ability to transmit LFG when unsaturated was expected, the
lower permeable silty clay OV formation was previously considered more likely to limit the
migration of gas, it was unexpected that the OV formation reported the highest
concentrations of methane gas across the estate. The CSM investigations identified areas of
poorly weathered basalt in the OV which are thought to have some connectivity allowing
transmission of high quantities of LFG to migrate through the OV in the subsurface. The
surface infrastructure (underground services) excavated into the OV throughout the estate
are also are thought to have contributed to the migration of LFG from the OV subsurface into
the houses.
The remediation technological assessment included: vacuum extraction, passive venting, air
injection, bioremediation and barriers. Ground Gas Vacuum Extraction (GGVE) was deemed
to be the preferred remediation technique for remediation of soils involving inducing air flow
in the soil with a vacuum pump. GGVE is similar to Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) which is an
accepted, cost effective remedial measure adopted for volatile and semi volatile
contaminants on contaminated sites such as former service stations. The main difference
between SVE and GGVE is SVE is designed to promote mass transfer from adsorbed,
dissolved and free phases in soil into the vapour phase whereas in the case of ground gas,
methane and carbon dioxide already exist predominantly in the gaseous phase in the
subsurface; therefore there is no need to promote partitioning as intended by SVE. Trials of
GGVE in the OV unit demonstrated that the technology was practical and could remove a
large volume of LFG from the subsurface with off-gas treatment using portable LFG flare or
activated carbon drums. The CUP recommended a number of areas for the technology to be
applied based on the trial works which were undertaken during 2012 and demonstrated that
the technology was effective in reducing concentrations in some areas of high permeability
within the estate and limited in reducing concentrations in others where subsurface
permeability is very low.
The results of the 2012 clean up works indicate that BPEM actions levels are unlikely to be
practicably achieved in some areas. The next stages of works are now focussed on further
refining the CSM based on the 2012 remediation works, assessing technical impracticability
and improving the risk assessment to identify when Clean Up to the Extent Practicable has
been achieved.
CONCLUSIONS
In response to the presence of LFG in a residential estate adjacent to SRCL, the authors
prepared a CUP for the removal of subsurface LFG to achieve regulatory action levels. The
CUP developed a robust CSM and identified GGVE as a preferred remediation technology.
Remediation works undertaken in 2012 have demonstrated that the technology was
successful in removing high volumes of LFG in certain areas however it is unlikely to
practicably achieve the regulatory actions levels. Further works are continuing to assess the
practicability of clean up through refining the CSM, undertaking a detailed risk assessment
and a technical impracticability assessment.
29
A33
CRANBOURNE LANDFILL – SOME INSIGHTS FROM AN INTENSILY
MONITORED LANDFILL GAS CASE
Peter Gringinger, Anthony P. Lane, John P. Piper
Cardno Lane Piper, Bldg 2, 154 Highbury Road, Burwood, 3125, AUSTRALIA
peter.gringinger@cardno.com.au
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Large quantities of landfill gas (LFG - i.e. methane and carbon dioxide) are produced in
municipal solid waste landfills (MSW) and emitted to the environment. This, together with a
number of other sources of Ground Gas (e.g. coal seams, peat and swamp deposits and
organic rich fill), have historically caused serious incidents (e.g. explosions), including
fatalities, serious injury (such as asphyxiation from CO2) and property damage, reported from
a number of countries (e.g. UK and USA). Such incidents have not been recorded in
Australia. However, in 2008 elevated levels of CH4 were measured in the ground and in a
residential property in the vicinity of the former Stevensons Road Cranbourne Landfill
(SRCL), located in the SE suburbs of Melbourne. A residential development has been built
up to the western boundary of the former landfill. The reporting of elevated methane in a
house triggered short term emergency evacuation of about two hundred nearby residential
buildings. Consequently, extensive mitigation and remediation measures were implemented
by the SRCL site owners (two local councils) to reduce LFG risks to acceptable levels. This
included implementation of an extensive investigation and monitoring program in the area
surrounding the SRCL to develop of a comprehensive Conceptual Site Model (CSM) of the
LFG impact as the basis for an assessment of risk.
Since the emergency incident, a very large amount of information, LFG and other data have
been collected providing a unique opportunity to gain some insight into the adequacy and
quality of such data sets. In particular, the data on spatio-temporal LFG migration and
observed responses of LFG to changes in weather and climatic conditions as well as the
engineered mitigation measures are examined. The LFG mitigation measures included
upgrades to the LFG extraction and leachate extraction systems (commenced in 2008);
construction of a 30m deep cement bentonite diaphragm wall in 2009, and completion of a
more highly engineered cap in 2010 and implementation of a Clean Up Plan within the
residential estate from 2011.
The SRCL was operated in a former sand quarry and filled with Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) between 1996 and 2005. The estimated volume of deposited waste was around 1.1
million m3. The landfill was constructed without an engineered liner and below the water
table. The hydrogeology of the site and environs is complex with moderately to highly
permeable alluvial deposits of various ages and Silurian bedrock (mudstone). In parallel to
the LFG investigations, hydrogeological assessments were completed for assessment of
leachate and contaminated groundwater, including development of a revised Conceptual
Hydrogeological Model as a basis for the CSM.
METHODS
Off-site LFG monitoring commenced in 2006 and expanded from mid 2008 and included:
(a) Installation of approximately 180 soil gas bores on-site and in the residential estate in
the vicinity of the landfill, and weekly LFG concentration monitoring.
(b) Installation of continuous (2 minute measurement intervals) LFG monitors in up to 330
residential properties (reduced to about 70 in early 2011) in the residential estate.
(c) Weekly monitoring of electrical and stormwater pits for LFG
(d) Sampling and analysis for trace gas composition and isotopes on- and off-site to
determine if other sources of gas exist (e.g. swamp gas, mains gas).
(e) Air and gas injection and extraction tests (i.e. pumping and injection tests) to determine
gas migration properties and mechanism and for planning of remediation.
(f) Preparation and implementation of a comprehensive Clean Up Plan (CUP) for the
residential estate west of the landfill.
30
CONCEPTUAL SITE MODEL
The CSM for the site and LFG migration off-site is based on detailed hydrogeological data
analysis and emphasizes the change of modes of gas migration over time into a number of
stages of the landfill life-cycle. This started with the operation of the quarry and related
dewatering, creating an extensive and thick unsaturated zone around the site. This was
followed by landfilling and site completion (i.e. initial capping) stages, with associated
groundwater level recovery (which can take years) and lateral pressure driven (advective)
LFG migration into the residential estate. Subsequently, LFG management has cut off the
pressure driven LFG flow with residual diffusively migrating LFG remaining in a thinner
unsaturated zone. This is due to full water table recovery and recent wet climatic conditions
causing a rising water table close to ground surface. Deep unsaturated zone containing LFG
are also indicated and were further investigated.
SOIL GAS MONITORING DATA RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
This presentation focuses on the soil gas bore monitoring data analysis and interpretation,
because such data are most commonly available at other sites where LFG is under
investigation and this approach is generally advocated in relevant guidance documents.
The spatio-temporal analysis of weekly LFG monitoring data (also more recently including
differential pressure and most recently also gas flow data) since at least 2008, indicate:
(a) At least three classes of LFG monitoring data patterns indicative of previous and current
migration pathways and mechanism and their changes over time.
(b) Limited value and reliability of atmospheric (due to weekly intervals which do not pick up
shorter term pressure changes) and differential pressure data (poor measurement
reliability).
(c) LFG migration is largely diffusive in recent years and is highly heterogeneous and
influenced by a number of factors (e.g. soil properties, infilled drainage and swamp
areas, geological heterogeneities, presence of services trenches and road base together
with sealed surfaces) which are reflected in a heterogeneous response to LFG mitigation
and management measures. A deep unsaturated LFG migration pathway is likely as a
relic of former dewatering.
(d) LFG migration is thought to have occurred at least 250m from the landfill.
(e) Stagnant residual LFG will likely remain for an indefinite period of time until diffusive
dissipation to the land surface and into the air (and oxidation to some extend) removes
remaining methane (plus active clean up measures0. Carbon dioxide is more persistent.
CONCLUSIONS
Using experience gained from the former SRCL, which has been a highly instrumented and
monitored site, recommendations for LFG assessment at or in the vicinity of active or former
landfill and other potentially gassing sites should include:
(a) a well developed CSM supported by sufficient site specific data and assessment.
(b) following established guidelines for the assessment of LFG using a weighted multiple
lines of evidence approach rather than only relying on LFG monitoring from a few gas
bores.
(c) reliable and accurate gas flow and differential pressure measurements to understand the
flow mechanism which directly relates to risks from LFG.
(d) Recognising the limitations of short term spot LFG monitoring approaches, which should
be complemented by continuous LFG monitoring in strategically selected LFG bores in
at moderate to high risk sites to resolve uncertainties.
(e) The risk assessment techniques need to rely on an adequate database not just a
qualitative generic assessment.
(f) The adoption by responsible authorities of appropriate and well established LFG risk
assessment methodologies to proposed developments.
(g) The assessment of risks by local responsible authorities due to historic development
near old landfills and other potentially gas generating environments.
31
A34
LANDFILL GAS AND DEVELOPMENT APPROVALS:
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS IN AUSTRALIAN JURISDICTIONS
Phil Sinclair1, Tim Marshall1, Sam Gunasekera2
1
2
Coffey, 126 Trenerry Cres, Abbotsford, 3067, AUSTRALIA
Coffey, PO Box 5275 West Chatswood, NSW 1515 AUSTRALIA
phil.sinclair@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
The Brookland Greens, Cranbourne incident in Victoria in 2008/09, precipitated a change in
approach to regulatory and planning control of sites at or near to landfills or former landfills in
Victoria and has had flow-on effects to other jurisdictions in Australia. Its influence on
regulatory and planning systems has arguably been as significant as the incident with a lead
recycling operation in Ardeer, which resulted in development of Victoria’s land contamination
audit system in 1989.
This paper reviews the status of regulatory control of proposed developments at or near
landfills and former landfills in Australian States and Territories. The review focuses on: the
regulatory requirements; which agencies are responsible for development approval; and the
methodologies used to assess suitability of proposed developments in these jurisdictions. In
particular, it focusses on the interaction between the environmental regulator and the
planning authority.
METHODS
The authors searched and collated published guidelines, legislation and advice from
Australian jurisdictions. Existing reviews of the regulatory regimes in place for landfill
permitting were also used in this review (SLR Consulting, Wright Corporate Strategy).
Specialists within the primary author’s company plus regulators and planning departments in
each State and Territory were also contacted to confirm the searches had obtained the latest
advice and also to gain an appreciation of programs already in place or proposed to be
adopted that assess the suitability of development proposals at or near landfills or former
landfills.
The review has assessed the risk frameworks in use and effectiveness and efficiency of the
adopted or proposed regimes. The review also provides recommendations and comments
on which approach is best practice methodology (or comes closest to best practice) using
comparison with European and North American examples.
CONCLUSIONS
An Australian Best Practice Environmental Management Guideline or Australian Standard
should be developed which provides a consistent approach to assessing the suitability of
land in the vicinity of former and operating landfills, with the potential to generate landfill gas.
REFERENCES
SLR Consulting. (2012) Global Landfill Regulation & Waste Levy Review (for Western
Australian Department of Environment and Conservation and the Waste Authority). SLR
Ref: 4AU_03561_00011 (SLR Consulting Australia Pty Ltd in association with Wright
Corporate Strategy Pty Ltd)
Wright Corporate Strategy. (2010) Review of the Application of Landfill Standards. (for
Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts).
32
A35
PETROLEUM VAPOR INTRUSION (PVI): PROGRESSION OF THE
SCREENING APPROACH
John E. Boyer
New Jersey Dept. of Environmental Protection, 401 E. State Street, Trenton, NJ 08625 USA
john.boyer@dep.state.nj.us
INTRODUCTION
Vapor Intrusion (VI) is a relatively new exposure pathway. One of the earliest VI
investigations dates back to the late 1980’s with the Hillside School site in Massachusetts
(USA). The Netherlands and Canada were also early leaders in recognizing the potential
health risk of the VI pathway, along with Italy and the United Kingdom. Australia started
assessing VI in the mid 1990’s with an evaluation of the Johnson & Ettinger (J&E) model
(1991).
Despite the concern about this pathway, regulatory agencies were slow in developing VI
guidance. The first national VI guidance in the USA was in 2002 (USEPA). Australia updated
its national guidelines for assessing contaminated sites to include VI in 2013 (NEPC).
PVI AND BIODEGRADATION
The J&E model has been the principal tool in assessing human risk from the VI pathway.
While the J&E model has been shown to be broadly applicable for chlorinated hydrocarbons,
it does not account for aerobic biodegradation of petroleum vapors. Thus, for petroleum
hydrocarbons (e.g., gasoline or petrol, heating oil, aviation fuel, crude oil), the J&E model is
overly conservative. Based on this issue, the USEPA did not recommend utilizing their 2002
VI guidance for discharges from underground storage tanks (USTs) due to “certain
conservative assumptions that may not be appropriate” at UST sites.
Many environmental agencies and responsible parties utilize vast resources on petroleum
vapor intrusion (PVI) evaluations that may not be necessary due to the lack of a proper
understanding of biodegradation. A reasonable and scientifically-based approach is
necessary that recognizes the differences between PVI and other VI sites and provides a
mechanism to screen out sites where the potential for petroleum vapors to reach a receptor
are improbable.
The initial regulatory attempts to address PVI employed one of several tactics designed to
limit the number of these sites undergoing a VI investigation. In New Jersey (USA), the state
selected an additional attenuation factor for select petroleum hydrocarbons of 10 times the
ground water to indoor air value calculated using the J&E model (NJDEP). Other agencies
used a reduced source-separation distance for petroleum hydrocarbons (30 feet) when
compared to chlorinated hydrocarbons (100 feet) for VI screening purposes. The source
might be identified based on compound-specific results or total petroleum hydrocarbons in
groundwater, soil or soil gas. Still other agencies allowed consultants to develop site-specific
approaches for PVI sites.
The missing component in these preliminary steps was an adequate data set of empirical
results that supported the rationale for the adjusted attenuation factor or source-separation
distance. The USEPA prepared an empirical database from petroleum sites in the United
States and Australia, and identified an approach to exclude petroleum discharges from
further PVI investigation. The results of this report (USEPA 2013) have become the basis for
future guidance on the PVI pathway, including the Petroleum Hydrocarbon Vapour Intrusion
Assessment: Australian Guidance (Wright 2013). Both the USEPA and the Interstate
Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) are currently finalizing PVI guidance documents
that include this source-separation distance approach to petroleum hydrocarbon discharges.
33
CONCLUSIONS
Scientific advancements have been made over the last ten years in the assessment of PVI
sites. Empirical data provides the scientific justification that allows a reasonably conservative
screening methodology for petroleum vapors. Acceptance by regulators, auditors and
consultants becomes the next hurdle in this progression of PVI approaches.
REFERENCES
Johnson, P.C. and Ettinger, R.A. (1991) Heuristic model for predicting the intrusion rate of
contaminant vapors into buildings. Environmental Science and Technology. 25:14451452.
NEPC (2013) National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination)
Measure. National Environment Protection Council, Australia.
NJDEP (2005) Vapor Intrusion Guidance. New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection (USA).
USEPA (2002) Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor air Pathway from
Groundwater and Soils. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, US
Environmental Protection Agency.
USEPA (2013) Evaluation of Empirical Data to Support Soil Vapor Intrusion Screening
Criteria for Petroleum Hydrocarbon Compounds. Office of Underground Storage Tanks,
US Environmental Protection Agency.
Wright, J. (2013) Petroleum Hydrocarbon Vapour Intrusion Assessment: Australian
Guidance, CRC CARE Technical Report no. 23. CRC for Contamination Assessment
and Remediation of the Environment, Adelaide, Australia.
34
A36
RESULTS FROM FIVE US EPA RESEARCH PROGRAMS ON
SOIL GAS SAMPLING VARIABLES AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS
OF SOIL GAS & INDOOR AIR CONCENTRATIONS
Blayne Hartman
Hartman Environmental. Geoscience, 717 Seabright Lane, Solana Beach, CA 92075, USA
blayne@hartmaneg.com
SUMMARY
Five Research studies funded and overseen by the US EPA-Office of Research and
Development (ORD) have been conducted over the past 7 years on sampling variables
affecting soil gas concentrations and temporal variations of both soil gas concentrations and
indoor air concentrations with the purpose of improving our understanding of the use of soil
gas data and indoor air data for vapor intrusion assessments. The studies were conducted
at three locations starting in October 2006 and are still on-going. The locations were coastal
central California, inland California, and Indianapolis, Indiana.
The soil gas sampling variables studied were sample flow rate, purge volume, sample
volume, tubing type and equilibration time.
In the first temporal study from March 2007 to April 2007, soil gas concentrations and
meteorological data were measured every hour by an autoanalyzer (~750 measurements per
probe). Observed TCE concentration variations were less than 15% for all of the probes
over the entire time period indicating that meteorological variations had little effect on soil gas
concentrations even as shallow as 2’ bgs in probes not under a covered surface.
In the second temporal study (November 2008 to November 2009), soil gas concentrations
were measured each month in a large array of probes (~35 probes) both underneath and
away from a cement slab. Maximum concentration variations were a factor of 2 to 3 even
during periods of heavy rain.
The third temporal study was conducted at a duplex in Indianapolis from August 2011 to
March 2013. Soil gas, sub-slab soil gas and indoor air were monitored using both passive
collectors and a continuous monitoring instrument.
A summary of the results of all of these this research studies will be presented.
35
A37
ASSESSMENT OF VAPOUR INTRUSION IN AUSTRALIA
Jackie Wright
Environmental Risk Sciences Pty Ltd, 6 Wilshire Ave, Carlingford NSW 2118, AUSTRALIA
jackie@enrisks.com.au
ABSTRACT
Vapour Intrusion (VI) is an increasingly important consideration in the management of
contaminated sites. Over the last decade, a number of Guidance documents have been
released in Australia and internationally. While providing good background to the general
concepts of vapour intrusion, these documents are often broad and can be interpreted
differently at the site application level. In addition, the VI guidance did not distinguish
between potential sources of vapour (in particular the difference between chlorinated and
petroleum vapours), and how fate and transport processes affect potential receptor
exposure. As a result, industry experience in Australia over this period has been mixed, with
mixed results in the assessment of petroleum vapour intrusion (PVI) sites.
With the release of the amendment to the National Environment Protection (Assessment of
Site Contamination) Measure 1999 (the ASC NEPM) in 2013, issues associated with vapour
intrusion have been recognised in Australian regulatory guidance. The approaches outlined
in regulatory and technical publications that are now available in Australia for the assessment
of vapour intrusion will be outlined in this paper.
Guidance relevant to the assessment of vapour intrusion provided within the ASC NEPM
(Schedule B4) includes:
x Consideration of vapour intrusion within the conceptual site model;
x Consideration of vapour intrusion in all aspects of a risk assessment process
(screening level to detailed risk assessments);
x Collection of appropriate data for the assessment of vapour intrusion;
x A range of approaches that may be considered in the assessment of vapour intrusion,
including modelling, use of attenuation factors, measurement or a combination of
these approaches; and
x Consideration of the differences between the behaviour and assessment of petroleum
hydrocarbon and chlorinated hydrocarbon sources, where biodegradation of
petroleum hydrocarbons can be considered (where relevant and appropriate).
To further assist in the assessment of petroleum vapour intrusion (PVI) CRC CARE has
released Technical Report no. 23, Petroleum hydrocarbon vapour intrusion assessment:
Australian guidance (2013). This guidance is intended to provide a clear decision framework
for conducting PVI assessments in Australia. The framework has been developed to be fairly
prescriptive allowing greater certainty in the decision processes adopted and outcomes for
both assessors and auditors/regulators. The framework has incorporated key aspects of PVI
behaviour, incorporation and use of Health Screening Levels (HSLs), current science in
relation to the use of screening distances and the potential importance of slab sizes, data
collection and evaluation for the purpose of robust making decisions on whether PVI is of
significance.
36
A38
VAPOR INTRUSION MITIGATION IN LARGE COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
William R. Morris
Vapor Mitigation Sciences, LLC, 4475 W. Piute Ave., Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
mitigationsciences@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
At many vapor intrusion sites, typical vapor mitigation (radon) systems are being installed to
interrupt the vapor intrusion exposure pathway. Design of the systems can be relatively
straight forward, however the need for an experienced vapor intrusion mitigation specialist is
necessary. There is very little guidance on system diagnostics, installations for larger
commercial buildings, operation, monitoring, and closure requirements for installed systems.
PROCESS
This presentation will discuss the importance of diagnostic or “suction field” testing to design
a mitigation system and how the data should be used during system installation for larger
commercial buildings. Once a system is designed and installation begins each extraction
point in the system should be spot tested to ensure that the performance of the extraction
point fits within the parameters of the system design. Data collected after the system is
installed can differ from the diagnostic data. These post installation data should be used to
determine how well the system is operating over time.
DISCUSSION
Collecting data to design a mitigation system should include vacuum, flow and pressure
differential measurements. These data will determine the sub-slab suction influence at a
given vacuum rate during diagnostic testing. During system installation, testing of the
extraction points should be done as the results from each extraction point can alter the
system design.
Figures
Demonstration of how diagnostic data and actual system data can vary.
These
discrepancies are due to extraction point installation and how a multipoint system works
compared to a single point system.
Fig. 1. Plot of Diagnostic testing data vs. actual system data.
37
CONCLUSIONS
Designing and installing vapor mitigation systems for smaller building is relatively straight
forward and there is plenty of guidance for smaller buildings. However, for larger more
complex buildings, there is very little guidance and the design and installation should be
done by a vapor mitigation specialist with experience in working with larger more complex
buildings. Understanding how diagnostic testing should be done, how to interpret the data
for the design, designing a system that is not only effective, but implemented to reduce
installation, operational and monitoring costs.
38
A39
THE IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICAL APPROACH ON VAPOUR
INTRUSION DECISION MAKING AT VOLATILE ORGANIC
HYDROCARBON CONTAMINATED SITES
Dawit N. Bekele1, Ravi Naidu1,2, Sreenivasulu Chadalavada1,2
1
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, University of South Australia,
Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
2
CRC for Contamination Assessment & Remediation of the Environment, Building X,
University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
Dawit.Bekele@postgrads.unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
For volatile organic hydrocarbon (VOCs) contaminated sites assessment, the number and
spacing of samples (i.e., sample density), field sampling and analytical techniques and
protocols (i.e., Quality assurance/quality control issues), the accuracy and level of
conservatism of screening-level algorithms and uncertainty of model input parameters have
been studied and recommended by scientist and engineers. Interpolations between soil-gas
wells may not necessarily reflect actual concentration. Unlike groundwater contamination
plume characterisation, soil-gas vapour delineation using contour map at VOC contaminated
site is impractical. Often, a one-dimensional screening model is used by decision makers to
evaluate large area of VOC contaminated site. As a consequence, site maximum soil-gas or
groundwater concentration measured at specific X, Y, and Z location at a given time is
implemented for evaluating 70 years of VI exposure in indoor air.
The requirement for sufficient spatial and temporal coverage to evaluate the most
susceptible building or area is often biased with the grid cells overlying higher groundwater
concentration. However, rarely does one see the strategies that are being used as to how
such VOC data are used to assess human health risk that is predicted over 70 years of
exposure. For this reason, there is a need for accurate evaluations and screening of VOC
contaminated sites based on actual human health risk exposure. Appropriate statistical
methods should be recommended to process the data and the minimum number of location
and sampling event required for a realistic assessment.
METHODS
The TCE vapour plume was monitored vertically and horizontally and temporally using a
network of five nested soil-gas monitoring wells (i.e., 1 m, 2 m and 3 m below ground
surface) installed near the residential building and property boundaries. Soil gas monitoring
was conducted for a year. The nested soil-gas wells were installed to span the range of
expected concentrations with sufficient spatial resolution to indicate the presence of a
significant variability of soil vapour plume. The case study site covers approximately
2000 m2.
An example of significant variability of soil-gas vapour concentrations at the small plot of
land at the case study site is shown in Figure 1. It is apparent that soil gas vapour
concentrations vary significantly both spatially and temporally. Given the significant
variability in VOC concentrations along soil profile and across the site it is critical that the (1)
location, (2) number of soil-gas sampling wells be installed (3) use of one-dimensional
screening tools by decision makers, we conclude that appropriate statistical approach is
fundamental to process the soil-gas vapour data to reasonably screen the VOC
contaminated site and recommend minimum required soil-gas wells at the contaminated
sites.
The application of site maximum soil-gas vapour concentration for screening large plot of
contaminated land leads to more number of brownfields where actually no reasonable
39
human health risk exists. Figure 2 indicates predicted indoor air TCE concentration ranging
from less than 1μg/m3 to greater than 6 μg/m3 throughout the year. Target indoor air
concentration to satisfy both the prescribed risk level and the target hazard Index (R=10-5,
HI=1) is 0.22 μg/m3 (U.S. EPA, 2002).
Fig. 1. 3D-plot soil-gas vapour plume
delineation for TCE across the site at 1 m, 2 m
and 3 m depth below ground surface (bgs)
sampling in January
Fig. 2. Model simulated indoor air TCE
concentration at the case study using soil-gas
vapour conc. at 3 m bgs; the result is
compared by IndoorCARETM and the J&E
model (1991)
CONCLUSIONS
Given the increased cost of remediation and the potential liabilities associated with VI, a
more accurate approach is needed to assess health risk from such contaminants. Although
VI field characterisation techniques and uncertainty of site screening tools has been studied
in the recent decades, the approach on how to use field data needs to be investigated. The
use of site maximum or annual arithmetic average of soil-gas vapour concentration to
evaluate human health exposure in indoor air for 70 years is currently being applied and is
allowed by environmental guide lines. Statistical approaches should be implemented to
assist decision makers on minimum number of soil-gas samples required for screening VOC
contaminated sites and for decision on how measured soil-gas vapour data should be
implemented as inputs in the site screening tools.
REFERENCES
U.S. EPA. 2002. Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air Pathway
from Groundwater and Soils.USEPA Office of Solid Waste & Energy Response,. US
EPA530-D-02-004, Washington D.C.
40
A40
A CONSERVATIVE SCREENING MODEL FOR
PETROLEUM VAPOUR INTRUSION ACOUNTING FOR THE
BUILDING FOOTPRINT SIZE
Greg B. Davis1,2, John H. Knight3
1
CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag No. 5, Wembley, WA, 6913, AUSTRALIA
2
University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, AUSTRALIA
3
CSIRO Land and Water, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, AUSTRALIA
Greg.Davis@csiro.au
INTRODUCTION
Petroleum hydrocarbon vapours rapidly biodegrade where oxygen is present (Davis et al.,
2009). As a result vapour inhalation risks posed by petroleum hydrocarbon vapours are
reduced or eliminated where oxygen is available in subsurface environments or below built
structures. Lundegard et al. (2008) showed oxygen to be present (and no vapours to be
present) under the entire sub-slab of a house where a petroleum hydrocarbon source was as
shallow as 1.8 m below ground. In contrast, Patterson and Davis (2009) showed oxygen was
not present under the entire footprint of a 13.3 m x 15.2 m slab-on-ground building, and that
vapours were present under the centre of the sub-slab. In this case the vapour source was
2.25 m below ground. The presence of oxygen everywhere below the building footprint
appears to be related to the depth to the source of vapours, the concentration of vapours in
the source (strength of the source), and the building footprint size.
Key then to petroleum vapour intrusion assessment is the availability of oxygen. There is the
potential for reduced availability of oxygen due to the built structure compared to open
ground conditions. Here we present a simple model linking oxygen and petroleum vapour
transport and biodegradation processes that allows a conservative screening assessment
based on oxygen availability. It provides a basis for conservative regulation using exclusion
distances (or risk elimination) where built structures exist or are planned over petroleum
contamination. The approach is to assess the effects of a building footprint size on the
availability of oxygen and hence hydrocarbon vapour biodegradation in the subsurface. This
drives whether petroleum vapours come in contact with the base of a building. If vapours do
not come in contact with the base of the building, and oxygen is present everywhere beneath
the base of the building, then the exposure pathway is incomplete and risk is eliminated.
Fig. 1. Conceptualisation of the slab-on-ground modelling scenario (half the slab/model domain
is shown). (Davis, 2013; Knight and Davis, 2013)
41
CONCEPTUALISATION AND ASSUMPTIONS
Figure 1 shows the model conceptualisation. In this case, oxygen is assumed to diffuse
through the open ground adjacent to a slab-on-ground footprint with a half width a. The slab
is assumed to be impervious to minimise oxygen ingress to assure a conservative screening
model. In contrast, Davis et al. (2009) modelled open ground conditions which would
maximise oxygen ingress and petroleum vapour biodegradation. Oxygen is assumed to be
consumed rapidly during the biodegradation of the vapours. Vapours are assumed to
emanate from a constant concentration and extensive petroleum source at a depth b below
ground. The two dimensional coupled model equations are amenable to analytical solution.
The solution involves complex mathematics of an unknown boundary problem (the interface
between the vapours migrating from below and oxygen diffusing from the open ground
surface above), but simplifies to an elegant relationship between the vapour source
concentration and the ratio of the half slab width and depth to the vapour source.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Data from known field investigations of buildings above petroleum impacted soil/groundwater
are consistent with model predictions, and the predictions are shown to be conservative as
an estimator of when oxygen is available everywhere beneath a slab-on-ground building (to
effectively eliminate petroleum vapour intrusion risk). A graph of the vapour source
concentration and its depth below ground compared to a building slab half width provides a
simple illustration of when oxygen is everywhere beneath the sub slab; the point at which
vapours pose no risk and are not in contact with the sub slab of a building. For example, as
shown to be the case from measurement, it predicts that oxygen would not be present
everywhere beneath the building slab in Patterson and Davis (2009). At one extreme, the
model predicts that even over a fresh gasoline release (equivalent to perhaps a total
petroleum vapour gas concentration of 200,000 μg/L in the source) you would have oxygen
everywhere beneath a building slab 10 m wide if the gasoline source was 5 m below
ground. This is also the case for a slab 8 m wide with the source 4 m deep. More typical of
groundwater at low concentrations (vapour gas concentrations in the source of 100-1,000
μg/L equivalent to BTEX dissolved in groundwater of ~0.5-5 mg/L), oxygen would be
everywhere beneath a building slab 15 m wide if the source was 2 m below ground.
The model remains conservative, since it does not allow additional delivery of oxygen into
the subsurface via advective flows (pressure differentials across the slab or across the width
of the building), nor diffusion through the slab. Additional conservatism is inbuilt because the
current model does not account for the length dimension of the building footprint. Overall, the
model provides a simple yet conservative tool for including or excluding sites from further
investigation, where petroleum may be resident in the subsurface below a building footprint.
REFERENCES
Davis G.B. (2013) Do petroleum vapours accumulate under buildings? – data and modelling.
AEHS West Coast Conference, 23rd Annual International Conference on Soil, Water,
Energy, and Air, Mission Valley, San Diego, March 2013.
Davis G.B., Patterson B.M. and Trefry M.G. (2009) Evidence for instantaneous oxygenlimited biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon vapours in the subsurface. Ground Wat.
Monitor. & Remed. 29(1): 126-137.
Knight J.H. and Davis G.B. (submitted) A conservative vapour intrusion screening model of
oxygen-limited hydrocarbon vapour biodegradation accounting for building footprint size.
J. Contam. Hydrol.
Lundegard P.D., Johnson P.C. and Dahlen P. (2008) Oxygen transport from the atmosphere
to soil gas beneath a slab-on-grade foundation overlying petroleum-impacted soil.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 42(15): 5534-5540.
Patterson B.M. and Davis G.B. (2009) Quantification of vapor intrusion pathways into a slabon-ground building under varying environmental conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43(3):
650–656.
42
A41
ADVANTAGES OF MEASURED SOIL POROSITY IN VAPOUR
INTRUSION MODELLING
Nick Woodford1, Ross Best2
1
2
Coffey, 126 Trenerry Crescent, Abbotsford, Victoria, 3067, AUSTRALIA
Coffey, Level 19, Tower B, 799 Pacific Highway, Chatswood, NSW, 2067, AUSTRALIA
nick_woodford@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
Vapour intrusion modelling is a key tool in the characterisation and the assessment of health
risks of sites contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOC). The exposure modelling
process relies upon a combination of inputs taken from site-specific data, literature sources
or assumptions based on professional judgement. Inputs selected to evaluate potential risks
are generally conservative, and hence protective, especially when assumptions or literature
values have to be adopted.
Weaver, J.W. and Tillman, F.D. (2005) identified a number of critical input parameters and
assessed their sensitivity in the Johnson-Ettinger Model (JEM). Soil properties such as
water content and porosity were among the most sensitive input parameters and can be
measured with relative ease. Other sensitive parameters may be more difficult or subjective
to measure (building air exchange rate, building mixing height and soil gas flow rate) or are
already typically well characterised (source depth).
The objective of this work was to provide a comparison of risk characterisation outcomes at
petroleum hydrocarbon impacted sites in Australia using both literature sourced values and
measured values for total porosity and water porosity. A cost benefit analysis of including
porosity and moisture content testing at an early stage of site characterisation has been
evaluated.
METHODS
Data from over 15 petroleum impacted sites across Australia were used for this study.
Groundwater or soil vapour sampling and analysis for typical contaminants of potential
concern (COPC) for petroleum impacted sites, as well as geotechnical soil testing was
conducted at each site.
Vapour intrusion and exposure modelling was conducted for each site utilising the JEM, as
presented in the Risk-Integrated Software for Clean-Ups RISC (2003) V4.03, and equations
for calculation of exposure concentrations from USEPA (2009). The model assesses vapour
movement from a subsurface source through the soil profile and into a building driven by
both molecular diffusion and by convective air flow as the vapours enter the ‘zone of
influence’ of a building. The model also incorporates an air exchange rate in the building.
Building parameters and exposure parameters were standardised for all sites to enable
comparison across sites. Generic soil parameters from Friebel, E. and Nadebaum, P. (2011)
were selected for comparison against the measured values.
The rate of vapour migration in soil is inversely proportional to the degree of saturation of the
soil pore space. Direct comparison of the measured soil properties to the literature based
properties indicated that in nearly all cases, the degree of saturation was higher in the
measured samples than the literature values. This was not unexpected, particularly given
the selected literature values were considered to be generally conservative.
Up to over an order of magnitude difference was observed between the predicted indoor air
concentrations using the measured and literature soil porosity properties. In many cases this
would be enough to alter the outcome of a risk assessment.
Uncertainties which should be accounted for when using site specific porosity data include
temporal variation of moisture content (seasonal changes in rainfall or discrete heavy rain
43
events), the effect of surface cover on moisture content, heterogeneous soil types or sites
with excavations.
CONCLUSIONS
The collection of measured values for total porosity and water porosity can significantly alter
the risk characterisation of sites impacted with petroleum hydrocarbons. By replacing
conservative assumptions regarding soil geophysical properties with site specific data
assessors, a more accurate assessment of risk can be determined. This has the potential to
significantly reduce further site investigation costs, improve assessment timing and in some
situations, reduce or eliminate remediation will be required to meet remediation endpoints.
REFERENCES
Friebel, E. and Nadebaum, P. (2011) Health Screening Levels for Petroleum Hydrocarbons
in Soil and Groundwater. Part1: Technical Development Document, Salisbury South, SA:
CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment.
Heath, R. C. (1983) Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, United States Geological Survey
(USGS) Water-Supply Paper 2220.
RISC (2003) Risk Integrated Software for Cleanups, Version 4.03. (L. R. Spence, & T.
Walden, Eds.)
Tillman, F.D and Weaver, J.W. (2005) Review of recent research on vapor intrusion. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Publication No. EPA/600/R-05/106, 40 p.
USEPA (2009) Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health
Evaluation Manual (Part F, Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment).
Washington D: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
44
A42
QUANTITATIVE PASSIVE SOIL VAPOR SAMPLING FOR VOCS –
MATHEMATICAL MODELING, LABORATORY TESTING AND
FIELD TESTING
Todd McAlary1, Hester Groenevelt1, Tadeusz Górecki2, Suresh Seethapathy2,
Paolo Sacco3, Derrick Crump4, Brian Schumacher5, Michael Tuday6, Heidi Hayes7,
Paul Johnson8
1
Geosyntec Consultants, Inc., 130 Research Lane, Guelph, Ontario, CANADA
University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo, Ontario, CANADA
3
Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, Padova, ITALY
4
Cranfield University, Cranfield Beds, UK
5
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV, USA
6
Columbia Analytical Services, Inc., Simi Valley, CA, USA
7
Air Toxics Ltd., Folsom, CA, USA
8
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
hgroenevelt@geosyntec.com
2
INTRODUCTION
Passive sampling for monitoring volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in soil vapor has been
used for about two decades (EMFLUX, Petrex, Gore Module and Beacon B-Sure test kit);
however, the ability to calculate concentrations from the mass adsorbed on each sampler
has not been demonstrated to be reliable until now. Passive samplers offer several
advantages over whole air or pumped tube sampling, including increased ease of use,
decreased cost, time-weighted sampling, and low visibility. This presentation shows the
results of mathematical modeling, laboratory testing and field testing that clearly document
the basic principles controlling the radial diffusion of vapors through soil to a borehole
containing a passive sampler, the uptake rate of the sampler needed to minimize the
starvation effect, and practical alternatives for field sampling methods for deep, shallow and
sub-slab samples, including temporary and permanent probes, as well as a flow-through cell
apparatus for cases where there is an existing probe of small diameter that will not
accommodate a passive sampler.
METHODS
Mathematical Modeling
Passive soil vapor sampling involves transport of vapors through the soil surrounding the
drillhole into the void space in which the sampler is deployed, diffusion through the air inside
the void-space, and uptake by the sampler. Modeling to understand the effect of soil
moisture on transport of vapour through the soil was performed using the Millington-Quirk
equation, modeling to understand radial diffusion was performed using both transient and
steady-state modeling, and comparison of the modelling results to the uptake rates allowed
the determination of the maximum uptake rate that can be employed to minimize the
starvation effect.
Laboratory and Field Studies
Five different passive samplers (Waterloo Membrane Samplers, Radiello, SKC Ultra, ATD
tubes, OVM 3500) were tested against Summa canisters in a purpose-built exposure
chamber under controlled laboratory conditions at concentrations ranging from1 to 100 parts
per million by volume for eight VOCs. The samplers were also tested against Summa
canisters at five field sites, where sub-slab gas, and soil gas were collected. Some samplers
were available with different configurations that had different uptake rates; these
configurations were also evaluated. Some samplers were also evaluated several times,
using different sorbents.
45
Modelling Studies
The results of the modelling work indicated that moisture content is a significant variable
contributing to the potential low bias of passive soil gas measurements collected from a 2.5
cm diameter borehole containing a 10 cm high void space in which the passive sampler is
deployed. Uptake rates of up to 1 mL/min can be used under conditions of water saturation
of 40%. Under conditions of very wet soils, progressively lower uptake rates would be
required to reduce low bias.
Laboratory Studies
The C/Co values were within a range of 0.6 to 1.7 (maximum relative percent difference of
50%) in 107 out of 133 sampler/VOC/concentration combinations, indicating that passive
samplers can be used at the high concentrations often observed in soil vapour. The
remaining combinations can be explained by conditions such as high humidity used in the
chamber to simulate soil gas conditions, since water vapour is known to interfere with some
passive samplers.
Field Studies
Results of field measurements of soil vapor concentrations measured with passive samplers
were plotted against Summa canister concentrations (see Fig. 1 for an example).
Fig. 1. Correlation for Waterloo Membrane Sampler versus Summa Canister for Field Results
CONCLUSIONS
With proper design of the uptake rate, sorbent and deployment time, passive samplers can
be used to measure concentrations with similar accuracy and variability to conventional
active soil vapor samples. Furthermore, the sampling protocols are faster and simpler, so
there is a significant benefit for reduced inter-operator errors associated with leaks which is a
common challenge for active soil vapor samples (especially for sub-slab samples or low
permeability soils) and lower cost because complex procedures for leak prevention and
tracer testing are not necessary with passive sampling.
46
A43
SCREENING DISTANCES FOR VAPOUR INTRUSION
APPLICATIONS AT PETROLEUM UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK
SITES
Matthew Lahvis
Shell Technology Center – Houston, 3333 Highway 6 South, Houston, Texas, 77381, USA
INTRODUCTION
Methods used in petroleum vapour intrusion screening generally have not been effective in
identifying low-risk sites that require no further action. As a result, numerous petroleum
underground storage tank (UST) sites have been investigated for potential inhalation
exposure and risk to human health where the vapour intrusion pathway has been proven
incomplete. The issue is largely attributed to site-screening methodologies that do not
account for reactive hydrocarbon transport (i.e., biodegradation) and are not validated with
actual field (i.e., empirical soil-gas) data.
Previous studies have shown that concentrations of petroleum VOCs can biodegrade over
several orders of magnitude within short vertical distances (e.g. 1 – 2 m) in the unsaturated
zone. The biodegradation is most prolific at the aerobic-anaerobic interface where
concentrations of electron donors (hydrocarbon) and electron acceptors (O2) are optimal for
biodegradation (DeVaull, 2007, Abreu et al., 2009). The interface occurs in close proximity
to dissolved-phase sources (e.g., capillary zone) and farther up in the unsaturated zone
above light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) sources (Roggemans et al., 2001; Abreu et
al., 2009). The reactive behaviour of hydrocarbons in the unsaturated zone is amenable to
the use of source-separation distance as an alternative to conventional attenuation factors
for petroleum vapour intrusion screening. Beyond the screening distance, the potential for
vapour intrusion can be considered negligible. This study describes the derivation of
petroleum hydrocarbon screening distances for dissolved-phase and LNAPL sources from an
analysis of empirical soil-gas data.
APPROACH
A large database was compiled containing soil-gas and groundwater measurements from
hundreds of petroleum UST sites (US EPA, 2013; Lahvis et al., 2013). The database spans
a range of environmental conditions, geographic regions, and 16-years (1995 – 2011) of data
collection. The database was extensively reviewed to ensure data quality for interpretation
and analysis. Kaplan Meier statistics were used to calculate source-separation screening
distances from the soil-gas data for specific petroleum chemicals (benzene, xylenes, hexane,
C5-C8 aliphatics, C9-C12 aliphatics, and C9-C18 aromatics) and dissolved-phase and LNAPL
sources.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Benzene was found to be the primary constituent of potential concern for petroleum vapour
intrusion screening. In particular, screening distances derived for benzene were longer than
those of other hydrocarbons and thus deemed conservative with respect to screening
applications at UST sites. Greater than 95% of benzene concentrations in soil gas were
attenuated below a specified soil-gas screening limits of 30 – 50 Pg/m3 at any measured
distance above dissolved-phase hydrocarbon sources and at distances greater than 4 - 5 m
above LNAPL sources. The results are consistent with findings from modelling and less
robust empirical studies. Implementation of the screening distance method requires the
collection of certain key data during the initial phases of site investigation (i.e., during
borehole development, monitoring well installation). Application of the screening distance
method is likely to eliminate unnecessary site characterization at numerous petroleum UST
sites and allow more effective and sustainable use of limited resources. The results of this
47
and other studies are being used to support development of petroleum vapour intrusion
guidance by CRC Care.
REFERENCES
Abreu, L.D., Ettinger, R. and T. McAlary. 2009 Simulated soil vapor intrusion attenuation
factors including biodegradation for petroleum hydrocarbons. Ground Water Monitoring
and Remediation 29: 105–177.
DeVaull, G.E. 2007 Indoor vapor intrusion with oxygen-limited biodegradation for a
subsurface gasoline source. Environmental Science & Technology 41: 3241-3248.
Lahvis, M.A., Hers, I., Davis, R.V., Wright, J., and G.E. DeVaull (in press). Vapor intrusion
screening at petroleum UST sites. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation.
Roggemans, S., C.L. Bruce, and P.C. Johnson. 2001 Vadose zone natural attenuation of
hydrocarbon vapors: An empirical assessment of soil gas vertical profile data. Soil and
Groundwater Research Bulletin 15, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC,
December, 2001: pp. 12.
US EPA. 2013 Evaluation of Empirical Data and Modeling Studies to Support Soil Vapor
Intrusion Screening Criteria for Petroleum Hydrocarbon Compounds. Report EPA 510R-13-001. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response, Washington, D.C., January, 2013: pp. 72.
http://www.epa.gov/oust/cat/pvi/PVI_Database_Report.pdf
48
A44
FACTORS LIMITING AEROBIC VAPOUR DEGRADATION OF
ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN THE VADOSE ZONE
Bradley M. Patterson1,2, Greg B. Davis1,3, Ramon Aravena4, Trevor P. Bastow1
1
CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag 5, Wembley, WA 6913, AUSTRALIA
School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009,
AUSTRALIA
3
School of Earth and Environment, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009,
AUSTRALIA
4
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, CANADA
bradley.patterson@csiro.au
2
INTRODUCTION
Volatile contaminant vapour intrusion into buildings can be a significant driver of health risk
and the level of site remediation required. To better quantifying the environmental risk of
vapour intrusion, biodegradation and attenuation of these contaminants within the vadose
zone need to be assessed and the limiting factors controlling the rate of biodegradation need
to be identified.
METHODS
Rate limiting factors for aerobic vapour degradation in the vadose zone were investigated at
a series of field sites in Australia, using novel on-line monitoring techniques to provide longterm (multiple year) data.
For petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites, VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and
oxygen distributions showed limited overlap in the vadose zone, and suggested under these
field conditions that aerobic biodegradation of the VOCs only occurred in a narrow fringe
zone where the two vapour plumes intersected. Subsurface vapour biodegradation rates
were independent of vapour concentration and bacterial activity, but were controlled solely by
the rate of oxygen transport into the subsurface (Patterson and Davis 2009).
At a mixed petroleum and chlorinated hydrocarbon impacted site, the petroleum vapours
were limited to the zone depleted of oxygen, however, tetrachloroethene vapours moved
readily through the profile regardless of oxygen concentrations in the profile. At this mixed
vapour site, the petroleum vapours behaved as if the site was only contaminated by
petroleum.
For a chlorinated hydrocarbon contaminated site, the VOC and oxygen distributions
overlapped as with the mixed site, indicating aerobic biodegradation was more limited, but
with selective chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g. vinyl chloride) likely undergoing rapid
biodegradation. Carbon dioxide vadose zone concentrations showed a strong seasonal
trend, which mimicked changes in vadose zone temperature (Patterson et al., 2013).
Investigation of soil gas carbon dioxide isotope data showed that carbon dioxide was
isotopically depleted (į13C = -33 ‰) compared to soil gas carbon dioxide data originating
from natural sediment organic matter (į13C = -14.7 to -21.3 ‰). The isotope data suggested
the source of carbon dioxide originated from aerobic biodegradation of chlorinated
hydrocarbons rather than sediment organic matter.
Therefore, for the chlorinated
hydrocarbon contaminated site, the subsurface aerobic vapour biodegradation rates were
independent of vapour concentration and the rate of oxygen transport to the subsurface, but
controlled by bacterial activity which was regulated by the temperature of the vadose zone.
CONCLUSIONS
The field results suggest that the controlling factors of contaminant aerobic vapour
degradation are highly dependent on the volatile compound types present, where petroleum
49
hydrocarbon biodegradation is limited by the rate of oxygen transport to the subsurface,
while slower degrading chlorinated hydrocarbons are controlled by the temperature of the
vadose zone.
REFERENCES
Patterson, B. M. and Davis, G. B. (2009) Quantification of vapour intrusion pathways into a
slab-on-ground building under varying environmental conditions. Environmental Science
and Technology, 43, 650-656.
Patterson, B. M., Furness, A. J. and Bastow, T. P. (2013) Soil gas carbon dioxide probe:
Laboratory testing and field evaluation, Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts,
15 (5), 1062 – 1069.
50
B01
BIO-NANOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL
REMEDIATION
Ashok Mulchandani
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside,
CA 92521, USA
adani@engr.ucr.edu
The rapid industrialization and technological advances over the past century has on the one
hand improved the quality of life and increased life expectancy, however, on the other hand
has seriously compromised our environment. Large quantities of toxic inorganic and organic
compounds introduced in the environment as a result of industrialization activities are posing
serious health risk to humans. Cleanup of contaminated water and soil and prevention of
future contamination from these compounds pose a serious technological challenge. Several
physico-chemical methods for treating these pollutants have been developed and tested.
However, these approaches are extremely costly, non-selective, introduce secondary
contaminants or deplete important nutrients. Bio-based treatments, also called
bioremediation, are considered to be eco-friendly and cost-effective, and are gaining
acceptability in environmental cleanup applications. Bioremediation employs either naturally
existing or engineered microorganisms or enzymes to either accumulate or transform
pollutants to less or non-toxic compounds. Development of biotechnological tools for
molecular, genetic and metabolic engineering has accelerated the advancement of designer
biological materials for several bio-based remediation processes. In this presentation, I will
present examples from our research group on engineering microorganisms and microbial
pathways for enhanced removal of organic pollutants such as organophosphate
pesticides/nerve agents, p-nitrophenol, etc., and heavy metals such as Cadmium, Mercury,
Arsenic, etc.
51
B02
BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED SOLVENTS IN
AUSTRALIAN GROUNDWATER
Mike Manefield, Joanna Koenig, Adrian Low, Olivier Zemb, Matthew Lee
School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
manefield@unsw.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Organochlorine contaminated groundwater represents a major environmental concern
globally given the recalcitrant, toxic and carcinogenic nature of these compounds.
Chlorinated ethenes, ethanes and methanes are among the most common groundwater
pollutants and their biodegradation has been the focus of intense research efforts over the
past two decades resulting in development of diagnostic tools and cultures to facilitate site
cleanup. Australia has lagged behind in the application of bioremediation to organochlorine
contaminated groundwater partly because the relevant diagnostic tools and cultures have not
been available.
METHODS
Groundwater and sediment samples from organochlorine contaminated sites near Sydney,
Australia were incubated anaerobically in the presence of various electron donors (vegetable
oil, ethanol, lactate, hydrogen) and relevant organochlorins as electron acceptors
(perchloroethene, 1,2-dichloroethane and chloroform). Donor consumption and pollutant
reduction were monitored by gas chromatography. Microbial community composition was
monitored using contemporary molecular techniques such as denaturing gradient gel
electrophoresis, quantitative PCR and pyrosequencing.
Three distinct anaerobic cultures for deployment in chlorinated ethene, ethane and methane
contaminated groundwater have been developed and characterised. The chlorinated ethene
degrading culture predominantly consists of Dehalococcoides species carrying the vcrA gene
for vinyl chloride reduction to ethene. Dehalobacter and Geobacter species are also present
and responsible for reduction of perchloroethene to trichloroethene and trichloroethene to
cis-dichloroethene. The chlorinated ethane degrading culture is predominantly
Desulfitobacterium. The chlorinated methane culture is the first culture known to completely
detoxify chloroform. The first step in the process is chloroform reduction to dichloromethane
and the second step is fermentation of dichloromethane. Two distinct lineages of
Dehalobacter have been isolated from the culture, one that is capable of chloroform
reduction and the other that is capable of both chloroform reduction and dichloromethane
fermentation.
CONCLUSIONS
Three cultures have been developed from local inocula for bioaugmentation of
organochlorine contaminated groundwater in Australia.
REFERENCES
Matthew Lee, Adrian Low, Olivier Zemb, Joanna Koenig, Astrid Michaelsen and Mike
Manefield (2012) Complete chloroform dechlorination by organochlorine respiration and
fermentation. Environmental Microbiology. 14, 883-894.
52
B03
MICROBIAL COMMUNITY DYNAMICS DURING REDUCTIVE
DECHLORINATION OF GROUNDWATER AT A CHLOROETHENE
CONTAMINATED SITE
Andrew S Ball1, Sayali Patil1,2, Taylor Grundy1, Philip Mulvey3
1
School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, AUSTRALIA
School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, AUSTRALIA
3
Environmental Earth Sciences Limited, Sydney, AUSTRALIA
2
INTRODUCTION
Halogenated organic compounds represent a group of hazardous chemicals of
environmental concern which are widely distributed in groundwater aquifers. Although it is
known some microorganisms can reductively dechlorinate chlorinated ethenes by
organohalide respiration, the functional organization and dynamics of existing dechlorinating
populations from contaminated sites in Victoria have, to date been poorly investigated. In this
study the potential for the application of bioremediation to a TCE-contaminated groundwater
aquifer in Victoria was studied; the ability of indigenous dechlorinators, present in the
contaminated groundwater to convert toxic tetrachloroethene (PCE) to environmental benign
chlorinated ethene in microcosms supplied with acetate was assessed. In addition the native
microbial community was analysed using PCR–DGGE. Biostimulation resulted in complete
(100%) conversion of PCE to ethene over a 24 week period; in contrast only 15%
degradation occurred in the control Molecular analysis of some dominant phylotypes in these
cultures showed affiliation with Ȗ-Proteobacteria, į- Proteobacteria, Spirochaetes,
Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes under the bacteria domain and Methanomicrobiaceae,
Methanosaetaceae and Methanosarcinaceae under archaea. These findings showed the
functionally balanced and dynamic indigenous community that would assist in determining
the appropriate in situ remediation strategies for PCE – contaminated sites. Following these
successfully laboratory trials, site remediation is underway.
53
B04
QUANTITATIVE PCR FOR DETECTION OF
DICHLOROETHANE-DEGRADING BACTERIA
IN GROUNDWATER AND IN A MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR
Nicholas V. Coleman1, Elissa F. Liew1, Jacob E. Munro1
1
School of Molecular Bioscience, University of Sydney,
Building G08, Darlington, NSW, 2006, AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION
The organochlorine compound 1,2-dichloroethane (DCA) is a problem pollutant at several
sites in Australia, including the Botany Industrial Park in Sydney. In earlier work, we showed
that DCA-degrading bacteria were present in a groundwater treatment plant at the Botany
site, and that these bacteria used a hydrolytic pathway for DCA biodegradation, based on the
dhlA and dhlB dehalogenase enzymes.
Our overall aim here was to develop a rapid and quantitative molecular-biological method to
detect and enumerate DCA-degrading bacteria. The first objective was to develop a
quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay for the dhlA gene, which encodes the first enzyme in the
DCA biodegradation pathway. The second objective was to test the qPCR assay under field
conditions in a membrane bioreactor (MBR), and in groundwater from monitoring wells.
METHODS
Standard curves for the dhlA gene and for bacterial ribosomal RNA genes (16S rDNA) were
prepared from known amounts of purified DNA of each type, and the samples subjected to
qPCR using the SYBR-Green method. These standard curves were used to relate the
threshold cycle in the qPCR to the number of gene copies present. The ratio of the dhlA:16S
gene counts can be used to normalise the data – this corrects for the different total numbers
of bacteria in different samples, and gives an estimate of the proportion of the bacterial
community that can biodegrade DCA.
Total DNA was extracted from site samples by a bead-beating method. Sludge from the MBR
was used directly for DNA extraction, while groundwater was first filtered through 0.2 micron
filters to concentrate the particulate fraction. The qPCR data were compared to
physicochemical data from the site to search for correlations between dhlA genes and
variables such as contaminant concentration.
The qPCR for dhlA yielded single products of the expected size and sequence in reactions
using DNA from pure cultures of DCA-degrading bacteria and DNA extracted from complex
bacterial communities. The reaction efficiency was 96%, and the linear range of the assay
(R2=0.998) was 10^0 to 10^6 gene copies per microlitre. The dhlA/16S gene ratio in the MBR
increased from 0.0006 up to 0.27 over a 4-month period, corresponding to a period in which
the concentration of DCA entering the MBR was also increasing. If equal gene copy numbers
per cell are assumed, approximately 1/3 of the bacterial cells in the fully-adapted MBR
system were DCA-degraders.
Ten out of seventeen groundwater samples yielded positive results for dhlA, at levels from
300-900 genes per ml. The data indicate that DCA-degrading bacteria are widespread at the
Botany site, although they are not present at high abundance in groundwater. Therefore, this
site clearly has the biological potential for natural attenuation of DCA, but chemical or
physical conditions appear to constrain the abundance of the relevant bacteria.
CONCLUSIONS
This is the first reported qPCR assay for dhlA. We have proven that this method is a reliable,
sensitive, and rapid tool for quantifying DCA-degrading bacteria in complex bacterial
communities at a contaminated site.
54
B05
ENHANCED IN-SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED
SOLVENTS: FROM THE LABORATORY TO THE FIELD
Sandra Dworatzek, Jeff Roberts, Phil Dennis and Peter Dollar
SiREM, 130 Research Lane, Suite 2, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 5G3, CANADA
sdworatzek@siremlab.com
INTRODUCTION
Bench-scale laboratory biotreatability testing is an effective tool to predict and optimize field
performance prior to field implementation of enhanced in situ bioremediation (EISB) systems.
Laboratory biotreatability testing has been used to demonstrate the potential benefits and
requirements for the addition of various electron donors with and without the addition of
bioaugmentation cultures to promote degradation of common groundwater contaminants
(e.g., chlorinated ethenes, chlorinated ethanes, chlorinated methanes), as individual
compounds or in mixtures.
LABORATORY BIOTREATABILITY TESTING
Successful EISB of chlorinated ethenes, such as tetrachloroethene (PCE) and
trichloroethene (TCE), in groundwater is well documented. Other groups of contaminants
that EISB is being evaluated for include chlorinated methanes, chlorinated ethanes,
chlorinated benzenes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), petroleum hydrocarbons (under
anaerobic conditions), pesticides, pharmaceuticals and other recalcitrant compounds. A
sound understanding of degradation pathways, end-points and contaminant interactions is a
key component to the successful implementation of EISB remedies.
Evaluation of EISB for chlorinated solvents includes evaluation of treatment variables (i.e.,
electron donor type [e.g.,slow release vs. soluble], electron acceptor, electron donor/acceptor
dosage, contaminants [mixture and concentration], nutrient amendment [e.g., vitamin B12,
nitrogen, phosphorus], combined technologies [e.g.,thermal, chemical oxidation, chemical
reduction], site specific geochemistry (e.g.,pH, redox, alkalinity, temperature, geology)
selected on a site-specific basis to assist in the selection of design options for different
remediation approaches (e.g., recirculation systems, passive biobarriers).
METHODS
Microcosms constructed with site aquifer material and groundwater were incubated under
anaerobic conditions. The results presented in figure one from an electron donor amended
(lactate) are the averages of triplicate microcosms sampled over 50 days (Figure 1A).
Bioaugmentation with KB-1® was conducted on Day 28.
BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS
Treatability testing allows for changes to treatments and approaches to optimize system
performance in a cost effective and timely manner. Extrapolations of laboratory results for
field use must be done carefully and take into account the limited control of conditions in the
field (delivery, distribution and use of amendments, contaminant distribution, and changing
groundwater geochemistry). The optimized laboratory conditions provide proof of concept for
field evaluation and provide insights into potential field results. Figure 1B provides results
from the same site as the treatability study. The electron donor used in the field was
emulsified vegetable oil and bioaugmentation was with KB-1®.
CONCLUSIONS/FUTURE WORK
Treatability studies are an effective tool available for assessment of EISB remedial options.
Customizing laboratory treatability studies based on site-specific geochemical and
microbiological conditions provides strong evidence for potential field performance. Half-life
comparisons between laboratory and field results typically show shorter half-lives in the
55
laboratory studies. Success in the laboratory provides technical understanding of the
remedial technology and confidence that it can be applied successfully in the field.
Future work for treatability studies is increasingly directed towards understanding
contaminant interactions in mixed contaminant plumes and how to promote microbial
populations to maximize degradation. Evaluation of biodegradation of more recalcitrant
compounds such as CFCs and chlorinated benzenes is leading to the enrichment and
identification of microbial populations other than currently well known dechlorinating
populations such as Dehalococcoides and Dehalobacter. This understanding gained in the
laboratory will allow for successful future field applications of EISB at sites with mixed
contaminants.
Figure 1A: Biotreatability study results from microcosms amended with lactate as electron
donor and bioaugmented with Dhc containing bioaugmentation culture (KB-1®).
Figure 1B Field bioaugmentation results at site amended with emulsified vegetable oil as
electron donor and bioaugmented with KB-1®
56
B06
DEGRADATION OF DIESEL RANGE HYDROCARBONS BY A
FACULTATIVE ANAEROBIC BACTERIUM, ISOLATED FROM AN
ANODIC BIO-FILM IN A DIESEL FED MICROBIAL FUEL CELL
Krishnaveni Venkidusamy1,2, Mallavarapu Megharaj1,2, Robin Lockington1,2 and Ravi Naidu1,2
1
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR),
University of South Australia, Mawson lakes, SA- 5095
2
CRC-Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE),
Australia
INTRODUCTION
Petroleum hydrocarbons are the primary constituents of oil, gasoline, diesel, and a variety of
solvents.
Global concerns about hydrocarbon contamination and future risks have
provoked research efforts to develop alternative sustainable technologies to the established
physicochemical treatments that are prone to cause recontamination with secondary
contaminants. Emerging green bioelectrochemical remediation (BER) technologies, such as
microbial fuel cells (MFCs) promise to be an effective approach that exploits the bio catalytic
potential of electrochemically active microorganisms to degrade recalcitrant compounds
while generating electricity in the process. Sub surface degradation of diesel range
hydrocarbons depends on the availabitly of the terminal electron acceptors such as nitrate
and sulfate. The depletion of these electron acceptors leads to reduced degradation rates or
to no degradation.
Anode respiring bacteria deposited on an anaerobic anode can
simultaneously reduce the anode and oxidize various substrates from simple to complex
xenobiotic compounds such as petroleum hydrocarbons. Such bacteria are capable of using
solid state electrodes as alternative electron acceptors through an electrical circuit to the
cathode where oxygen is reduced. In our study, we have isolated a number of strains with
such a dual function capable both of diesel degradation and extracellular electron transfer.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the diesel degrading ability and electrochemical
properties of one such strain isolated from the anodic biofilm of a lab scale microbial fuel cell.
METHODS
An exoelectrogenic bacterial strain MK-2 was isolated from the anode suspension of a diesel
enriched mediator and membrane less microbial fuel cell by conventional plating using
Mineral Salts Medium (MSM) and phosphate buffered basal medium (Kim et al,2005) with
nitrate as an electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S
rRNA sequence of strain MK2 revealed that it was closely related to members of the
Stenotrophomonas genus. The sequence is deposited in GenBank under accession number
JQ316533. Surprisingly this strain was found to be also capable of anaerobic growth utilising
amino acid fermentation in rich culture media.
One per cent of a 1 OD culture was inoculated into 20 ml aliquots of MSM to which diesel
fuel had been added to give a concentration of 8000 mg/l. These were then incubated under
both oxic and anoxic conditions. 10 mM nitrate served as a terminal electron acceptor in
anaerobic degradation experiments. An uninocculated control was prepared for each set of
experiments. Dichloromethane extracts along with internal standards were analysed for
diesel range hydrocarbons using an Agilent gas chromatograph equipped with a flame
ionization detector and a HP-5 capillary column. Experiments were also performed to
determine the electrochemical activity of the strain using a modification of the azo dye
decolorization method (Hou et al., 2009). The fuel cell electrochemical studies were
performed with laboratory scale microbial fuel cell systems and cyclic voltammetry
measurements were also carried out.
57
A rapid decrease of the diesel range hydrocarbon concentration of about 50% was observed
in aerobic microcosms containing the Stenotrophomonas strain during the log phase (within
24 h) of the culture. The majority of this loss occurred between 3 to 5 days in aerobic
microcosms studies. (Fig.1). A slow diesel loss was observed in anoxic microcosms during
the initial log phase. This corresponds to an observed diesel loss of 84% with the majority of
degradation occurring between days 6 to day 14. Decolourization efficiency of the azo dye
was more than 95% under anaerobic conditions, but was only 75% in cells grown under
aerobic conditions, indicating that the strain is more electrochemically active under anoxic
conditions. This bacterial strain was also capable of generating electricity in dual chamber
microbial fuel cell systems.
Fig.1. Degradation of diesel by Stenotrophomonas maltophila strain MK2 under aerobic
conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
As an easily culturable facultatively anaerobic diesel degrading, amino acid fermentative,
exoelectrogenic bacterium, S. maltophila strain MK2 has strong potential for bioagumentation
applications in microbial electrochemical remediation technologies.
REFERENCES
Hou, H., Li, L., Cho, Y., De figueiredo, P. and Han, A. (2009). Microfabricated microbial fuel
cell arrays reveal electrochemically active microbes. PLoS One, 4, e6570.
Kim, J. R., Min, B. and Logan, B. E. (2005). Evaluation of procedures to acclimate a
microbial fuel cell for electricity production. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 68,
pp. 23-30.
58
B07
THE ROLE OF STATE REGULATIONS IN THE APPLICATION OF
BIOREMEDIATION
Louise Cartwright
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd, 1392 Kingsford Smith Drive, Pinkenba, QLD, 4008,
AUSTRALIA
louise@enviropacific.com.au
ABSTRACT
Bioremediation has become one of the most successful technologies for soil remediation, as
bioremediation allows the complete removal of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH),
benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) and some polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs); while no secondary pollution is introduced.
Bioremediation
practitioners endeavouring to optimise the technique have focused mainly on soil principles
(particularly fertility) while spending little time discussing the harmonisation of State
regulations.
Bioremediation has generally been undertaking using either a covered or uncovered system
with oxygen content (and therefore microbial activity) in the soil increased through either
venting or ploughing/windrowing for each technique, respectively. Traditionally, the
technique selection for a project is dependent on project requirements e.g. timeframe, soil
properties, zoning. However, with the recent release of documents such as the Draft
National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure(2010),
Friebel and Nadebaum (2011), and NSW OEH Draft Landfarming: Technical Practice Note
(2012) the bioremediation selection is particularly influenced by State regulation / legislation /
guidance.
An aim of regulators through the release of these documents is to, rightly, prevent the
volatilisation of light end TPH and BTEX, which is not best practise nor accepted. This is in
line with overseas countries, such as the USA, which are very aware of key stakeholders
(community).
In spite of the import influence of regulation, there has been little discussion examining the
relation between regulation and bioremediation application. Australia has more than one
regulatory body existing within a single country; this situation allows a unique examination
within-country of the influence of regulations on bioremediation technique selection and
therefore achievable project goals.
As practical examples, this paper shall use Service Station sites, with TPH impacted soils, to
discuss if bioremediation is subjected to consistent influence by regulation. The key drivers
of the different State settings shall be examined; then the discussion will be expanded to
examine International practices.
This paper is particularly relevant to standard setters who are currently debating the future of
remediation; to practitioners who work across State boundaries; and also for site owners
considering the technique.
REFERENCES
Friebel, E. And Nadebaum, P. (2011) Heath Screening Levels for petroleum hydrocarbons in
soil and groundwater. CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the
Environment, Technical Report no. 10.
http://www.crccare.com/publications/technical_reports/index.html
NEPC Service Corporation (2011) National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site
Contamination) Measure as varied 2011. Draft for Public Consultation.
http://www.ephc.gov.au/contam/pcdocs
Office of Environment and Heritage (2012) Landfarming: Technical Practice Note. State of
NSW and Office of Environment and Heritage, Department of Premier and Cabinet
NSW
59
B08
INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING OF AN ENHANCED IN-SITU
BIOREMEDIATION SYSTEM, SYDNEY NSW
Jessica L. Hughes, Philip A. Limage, Jason Clay, Jonathan Ho
AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, PO Box Q410, QVB PO, Sydney, NSW, AUSTRALIA
Jessica.Hughes@aecom.com
INTRODUCTION
In 2012 an enhanced in-situ bioremediation (EISB) groundwater treatment system was
installed and commissioned at a commercial site in Sydney. The contaminants of significant
concern at the site included tetrachloroethene (PCE), trichloroethene (TCE), cis-1,2dichloroethene (DCE) and vinyl chloride (VC). EISB reduces concentrations of chlorinated
solvents in groundwater by stimulating halorespiring anaerobic bacteriological activity.
Groundwater is extracted from a network of extraction wells, treated and dosed with an
electron donor to provide substrate for the bacteria and then re-injected into the aquifer. The
remediation site covers an area of approximately 4.0 hectares and consists of the source site
and affected neighbouring properties. AECOM was the principal contractor for
commissioning the EISB system. The system was designed by Geosyntec Consultants, the
remediation and monitoring wells were installed by South Western Drilling and Numac
Drilling and Enviropacific was the civil engineering subcontractor.
METHODS
Drilling Works
The system required drilling and installation of over 35 100 mm Ø extraction wells installed
with submersible pumps and over 40 100 mm Ø injection wells. The wells are designed to
enhance natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents as well as act as a hydraulic containment
fence line to prevent further cross-boundary migration. The wells were installed within both
the source and affected properties, which included work within laundry facilities, air raid
shelters, food and trade supplies warehouses and NSW state-owned land. Prior to
commissioning both systems, a baseline sampling round was conducted with vertical
geochemical profiling across all remediation wells and monitoring wells.
Civil Engineering Works
To link the extraction and injection loop lines into a system a series of trenches and Unistrut
tray was utilised to bring the extracted water to a treatment unit for amendment before being
pumped back out into injection loops. The trenches were finished with concrete in operational
businesses and soft standing were derelict land was utilised. Civil construction comprised
approximately: 1500 m of PVC pipe, 2500 m of data cables for controls, 10 t imported sand,
20 t concrete and 75 steel vaults. Materials were re-used where possible across the site –
the largest waste stream was approximately 25 t of concrete.
Commissioning Works
To link up the civil engineering works, AECOM field engineers installed componentry and
fittings to manually and electronically control the extraction, dosing and injection process as
well as design a series of ports for performance sampling at each well and loop line. This
included fabricating steel, PVC pipe and selection of materials that are compatible with the
aggressive chemical environment present within the system.
The EISB systems have been operational since September and October 2012. A summary of
the operation is provided in table 1.
Performance monitoring has been conducted on a monthly basis to collect data to assist in
the optimisation of the EISB remediation system. The suite of performance monitoring
analytes includes dissolved volatile halogenated compounds (VHCs), dissolved hydrocarbon
60
gases, speciated volatile acids, compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA) and microbial
assays.
Table 1. EISB Systems Operation Summary
Commissioned Date
System 1
System 2
September 2012
October 2012
Volume of Water
Recirculated (m3)
(as of April 2013)
3775
4205
Volume of Sodium
Lactate injected (L)
(as of April 2013)
2670
4760
Continual System Optimisation
An EISB system of over 4.0 hectares across private and state landowner boundaries has not
been constructed in Australia before. The industrial-scale application of the EISB technology
requires operational maintenance on a weekly basis. This requires cleaning pumps of biofouling; maintenance of manual and electrical components within remediation wells vaults,
safeguarding against ferrous iron corrosion; and performance monitoring of the groundwater
geochemistry to ensure groundwater conditions are optimal for biological activity.
Plates
Plate 1. Extraction pump vault controls
Plate 2. Shipping container manifold
CONCLUSIONS
Australia’s first industrial-scale EISB system was successfully completed from design,
construction and installation within 10 months. Each system to date has recirculated
approximately 4, 000 m3 of groundwater within an unconfined sand aquifer and dosed nearly
8,000 L of sodium lactate donor electron to enhance the native bacteria capable of fully
breaking down the PCE parent compound into daughter products and eventually H2O and
CO2. The system construction was built minimising waste and disruption to land owners
whilst utilising a sustainable remediation technology that limits ecological impact on the
contaminated aquifer.
61
B09
BIOTRANSFORMATION AND TOXICITY OF FENAMIPHOS AND ITS
METABOLITES BY TWO MICRO ALGAE PSEUDOKIRCHNERIELLA
SUBCAPITATA AND CHLOROCOCCUM SP
Tanya Caceres, Megh Mallavarapu, Ravi Naidu
Mawson Lakes Campus, Adelaide, 5095, AUSTRALIA
Environment, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, 5095, AUSTRALIA
tanyacaceres@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Fenamiphos (ethyl 4-methylthio-m-tolyl isopropylphosphoramidate), an organophosphorus
pesticide is extensively used as a systemic and contact insecticide against soil nematodes in
golf greens and horticultural crops all over the world. Generally, under environmental
conditions, fenamiphos can be oxidized primarily to fenamiphos sulfoxide (FSO) followed by
further oxidation to fenamiphos sulfone (FSO2). Fenamiphos and its primary oxidation
products could be hydrolyzed to fenamiphos phenol (FP), fenamiphos sulfoxide phenol
(FSOP) and fenamiphos sulfone phenol (FSO2P) by soil bacteria such as Brevibacterium sp.
MM1 (Megharaj et al., 2003).
Limited information on the toxicity of parent compound, fenamiphos to freshwater algae
(Tomlin, 2000) and soil algal communities (Megharaj et al., 1999) exists in the literature.
However, information on the toxicity of fenamiphos metabolites to algae is lacking (Patrick et
al., 2001). Due to the high solubility of fenamiphos in water (0.4 g L-1) and moderate ability to
adsorb onto soils it can be readily leached from sites of application to surface and ground
water bodies (Patrick et al., 2001).
Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (formerly Selenastrum capricornutum) is a non-motile
unicellular green algae (Chlorophycea) that is common to most fresh waters. Chlorococcum
sp. is terrestrial green algae (Chlorophycea). These organisms are important to maintain the
ecological equilibrium in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Therefore, any
interference of pesticide contaminants with algae and their activities could potentially result in
the adverse effects on the ecosystem health.
The present study was therefore aimed at (1) generating new knowledge on the toxicity of
fenamiphos and its major metabolites (FSO, FSO2, fenamiphos phenol, FSO phenol and
FSO2 phenol) to Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and Chlorococcum sp. and (2) the ability of
these algae to transform and bioaccumulate these compounds.
METHODS
Algal acute toxicity tests were conducted using 7 nominal concentrations of fenamiphos
and its metabolites. These concentrations ranged between 3.12 -100 mg L-1 (fenamiphos,
FSO, FSO2), from 1.31 to 42 mg L-1 (FP), from 2.06 to 66 mg L-1 (FSOP) and from 1.68 to
54 mg L-1 (FSO2P). Aliquots from pesticide stock solutions (aqueous) were dispensed into
sterile culture flasks (100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks with Teflon lined screw caps) containing
mineral salts growth medium (BBM) to reach the final desired concentrations as mentioned
above. The final volume of mineral medium in the culture flasks were 20 ml. Portions of
sterile growth medium (BBM) containing various concentrations of test chemical were
inoculated with exponentially-growing culture of P. subcapitata or Chlorococcum sp..
Controls containing only growth medium and pesticide were included in the test. At the end
of 96 hours, the growth of the alga in terms of cell count was determined in a Neubaur
hemocytometer using a phase-contrast microscope. Growth inhibition (biomass) of the alga
was used as the end point in this bioassay. The biotrasformation of fenamiphos and its
metabolites by the two species of algae was compared in the medium amended with test
chemicals inoculated with the algae to that of uninoculated medium containing only test
62
chemicals incubated during 96h. At the end of incubation period, the algal pellet was
extracted with 5 ml of acetone, the extracts were dried using N2 , re-diluted in 1 ml
acetonitrile and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography ,HPLC, diode array
detector (DAD).
The EC50 and EC20 values of fenamiphos to Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata at 96 h were
38.49 and 10.28 mg L-1 respectively. The EC50 and EC20 values of FP to P. subcapitata
were of 10.54 and 2.16 mg L-1 respectively, while for FSOP, the EC50 and EC20 values
corresponded to 30.33 and 12.47 mg L-1. The EC50 and EC20 values of FSO2P to P.
subcapitata were of 16.25 and 0.79 mg L-1, respectively. Interestingly, the oxidation products
of fenamiphos (FSO and FSO2) were not toxic to P. subcapitata up to a concentration of 100
mg L-1.
The EC50 and EC20 values of fenamiphos to Chlorococcum sp. at 96 h were 73.26 and 30.56
mg L-1, respectively. The EC50 and EC20 values of FP to Chlorococcum sp. were of 13.64 and
1.87 mg L-1, respectively whereas for FSOP, the EC50 and EC20 values corresponded to
30.06 and 10.17 mg L-1. The EC50 and EC20 values of FSO2P to Chlorococcum sp. were
27.04 and 4.36 mg L-1, respectively. Similar to P. subcapitata the oxidation products of
fenamiphos (FSO and FSO2) were not toxic to Chlorococcum sp. up to a concentration of
100 mg L-1.
Fenamiphos, FSO, FSO2, FP, FSOP and FSO2P were relatively stable (within 10% variation)
in the uninoculated medium (abiotic controls) during 96 h incubation under the experimental
conditions. Whereas, the medium spiked with fenamiphos and its oxidation products (FSO
and FSO2), inoculated with algae showed degradation of these compounds. However the
phenols were found to be stable in the presence of algae during the incubation period.
Residues of FSO, FSO2, FP, FSOP and FSO2 were detected in the solvent extracts of algal
pellets from P. subcapitata, while residues of fenamiphos, FSO, FSO2, FP and FSO2P were
detected in Chlorococcum pellets, indicating the role of these algae in biotransformation and
bioconcentration of these chemicals
CONCLUSIONS
The present study is the first evidence of (i) the ability of microalgae to biotransform
fenamiphos and its metabolites and (ii) greater toxicity of hydrolytic products of fenamiphos,
FSO and FSO2 such as FP, FSOP and FSO2 P, respectively to P. subcapitata and
Chlorococcum sp. than fenamiphos and its primary oxidation products (FSO, FSO2). The
finding that the fenamiphos phenols are more toxic to algae highlights the need to consider
the transformation products in ecological risk assessment of fenamiphos.
REFERENCES
Megharaj, M., Singleton, I., Kookana, R., Naidu, R. (1999) Persistence and effects of
fenamiphos on native algal populations and enzymatic activities in soil. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 31, 1549-1553.
Megharaj, M., Singh, N., Kookana, R., Naidu, R. (2003) Hydrolisis of fenamiphos and its
oxidation products by a soil bacterium in pure culture, soil and water. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 61, 252-256.
Patrick, G., Chiri, A., Randall, D., Libelo L, Jones, J. (2001) Fenamiphos Environmental Risk
Assessment. US Environmental Protection Agency. Provided for SRRD by EFED’s
Fenamiphos RED Team. (www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/op/fenamiphos/env_risk.pdf).
Tomlin, C. (2000) The pesticide manual: a world compendium. Farnham, Surrey, UK, British
Crop Protection Council 12th ed.
63
B10
TREATMENT OF CHLORINATED ETHENES
AT A LANDFILL IN GERMANY
Maureen C. Leahy1, Andrea Herch2, Ulrich Desery2
1
ERM, East Hartford, CT, 06108, USA
ERM, Neu-Isenburg, 63263, Germany
maureen.leahy@.com
2
INTRODUCTION
A high-strength plume of trichloroethene (TCE) was discovered in groundwater at an
industrial landfill during routine groundwater monitoring. The property had previously been
used for gravel mining and later the gravel pit was used to landfill domestic, commercial and
industrial wastes. Routine groundwater monitoring by local regulators since the 1980s had
historically detected only trace concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes,
phenol and other solvents in groundwater until the sudden detection of over 450 milligrams
per litre (mg/L) TCE at one monitoring well. Subsequent investigation determined that the
dissolved TCE plume extended about 300 meters from the source area. Groundwater
extraction and treatment was implemented as an emergency measure to contain the plume.
The source was located in an area of mono-fill within the landfill that had been used for the
disposal of asbestos-containing grinding dust materials. Permeable layers of sand and
gravel were interspersed within the landfill and provided preferential pathways for the
horizontal migration of TCE liquid until it reached the groundwater. Drilling for source
characterization was limited due to the nature of the fill material. Excavation of the landfill
body was not practical due to the volume and the presence of asbestos fibers. Reducing
conditions were present groundwater beneath the landfill and biological dechlorination
products cis-1,2-dichloroethene, vinyl chloride, ethene and ethane were all detected. A
remediation strategy was developed to use soil vapour extraction to treat the source within
the landfill and enhanced reductive dechlorination to treat the dissolved plume with
continuation of the groundwater extraction system to contain the plume.
METHODS
Soil vapour extraction (SVE) was pilot tested and then implemented to reduce the source of
TCE and leaching to groundwater. Due to concerns about the possibility of asbestos fibers
in the extracted air, the extracted vapour was treated through an asbestos filter prior to the
activated carbon filters as a safety measure.
Enhanced reductive dechlorination was implemented using batch injection of a soluble
carbon substrate with groundwater recirculation to better distribute the substrate. Sodium
bicarbonate was added as a buffer to control pH. Substrate injections were initially targeted
at the area directly beneath the source. The area downgradient of the source was targeted
in subsequent injections.
RESULTS
Nearly 300 kilograms (kg) TCE were removed by the SVE system. The groundwater
extraction system successfully contained the plume but removed only about 30 kg TCE. The
rate of reductive dechlorination was enhanced by the substrate injections and TCE was
completely dechlorinated to ethene.
Within three years of implementation, TCE
concentrations within the source area had decreased to less than 100 micrograms per litre
(μg/L), which was ten-fold lower than the on-site remediation goal of 1,000 μg/L. The off-site
plume, which was not actively remediated, has continued to attenuate and, after five years,
concentrations at all but one well were below the off-site remediation goal of 100 μg/L.
64
B11
SEDIMENT MANAGEMENT IN THE USA —
WHERE WE ARE AT AND WHAT’S TO COME?
Eric Blischke
CDM Smith, Portland, Oregon, USA
blischkee@cdmsmith.com
INTRODUCTION
Sediment remediation projects require a balancing of environmental and ecological risk,
public health risk, risk management, commercial risk, cost management, technical and
scientific input, and liable risk. The technical and political challenges associated with
sediment remediation projects require a high degree of experience to understand how to
evaluate site conditions and develop an appropriate site remediation plan. In the United
States, the assessment and remediation of contaminated sites has been underway for more
30 years. This experience can be used to develop practical solutions to sediment
remediation that reduce risk in a cost effective manner.
METHODS
The current state of sediment remediation in the United States will be reviewed to identify the
key factors influencing sediment remediation. The review will focus on sediment remediation
projects completed or currently underway. Monitoring results will be evaluated to assess the
effectiveness of sediment remediation and to identify key factors influencing the
effectiveness of sediment remediation. Recent advances in sediment remediation including
in-situ treatment, reactive capping, and methods to manage residuals and reduce
contaminant releases during dredging will be described. The results of the survey will be
used to identify the key factors for evaluating and applying various remedial technologies at
contaminated sediment sites. Finally, a systematic process for focusing site characterization
efforts on those factors that control sediment remediation will be presented.
Successful sediment remediation requires an understanding of the site specific factors that
are expected to influence the effectiveness of sediment remediation technologies. As a
result, site characterization activities should focus on a range of physical, sediment,
contaminant and land and waterway use characteristics. Experience gained in sediment
remediation over the past 30 years allows engineers and scientists to identify the key site
specific factors that influence sediment remediation, delineate areas of sediment
contamination based on these site characteristics, and evaluate remedial technologies based
on site specific considerations. In addition, this experience can be used to develop a set of
guiding principles for evaluating remedial action alternatives.
CONCLUSIONS
Recent innovations in the assessment of MNR and EMNR effectiveness, application of in-situ
treatment and reactive capping technologies, and approaches for managing residuals and
minimizing releases provides site managers with more options for remediating contaminated
sediments. In addition, better understanding of the factors that influence the effectiveness of
sediment remediation and targeted site characterization facilitates the evaluation of remedial
technology. A sediment remediation guidance document being developed by the ITRC will
take advantage of new innovations in sediment remediation and the experience of the past
30 years to help risk managers properly evaluate remedial technologies and make clean
decisions.
65
B12
CASE STUDY HIGHLIGHTING THE CHALLENGES OF
CONSTRUCTION, MANAGEMENT, AND MONITORING OF A
CONFINED AQUATIC DISPOSAL (CAD) SITE IN A BUSY
COMMERCIAL PORT
Paul Goldsworthy1, Alan S. Fowler2, David Moore3, Victor Magar4, Thomas Fredette5
1
ENVIRON Australia, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
ENVIRON International Corporation, Westford, Massachusetts USA
3
ENVIRON International Corporation, Irvine California USA
4
ENVIRON International Corporation, Chicago, Illinois, USA
5
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Boston, Massachusetts USA
pgoldsworthy@environcorp.com
2
INTRODUCTION
Contained Aquatic Disposal (CAD) cells are designed and constructed to securely contain
and isolate contaminated dredged materials from the overlying surface waters. CAD cells
are constructed below the water’s surface and are typically built in the following settings:(1)
naturally occurring bottom depressions; (2) sites from previous mining operations, such as
beach nourishment borrow sites; or (3) newly constructed/dredged areas expressly created
for the disposal of sediments deemed unsuitable for open water disposal. CAD cells are
intended to reduce the potential ecological and human health risks associated with
contaminated dredged material by isolating the sediments and reducing or eliminating
exposure pathways and contaminant transfer rates that could contribute risks to human
health and the environment.
METHODS
Two CAD project sites located in New England and in Southern California offer important
lessons for the siting, design, construction, and monitoring (both during-and postconstruction) applicable to new or planned CAD projects elsewhere in the world.
Construction specifications, operational procedures, and monitoring data both during and
after closure were reviewed for the project sites; similar and different aspects of the projects
were compared and contrasted to highlight important issues and lessons learned.
Several lessons can be learned from each project. In general, siting and design
considerations for CAD cells must match the current and future dredging needs of the harbor
or channel environment; the operating characteristics of current and future vessels; the
physical and chemical characteristics of the dredged material to be placed in the CAD cell;
the underlying foundation materials and the isolation layer materials planned for capping the
CAD cell; placement of the cap material, local environmental conditions; applicable local,
state and federal regulations; and available infrastructure. CAD cell construction must take
into consideration the possibility for damage and or removal of existing bottom habitat, as
well as the possibility that future development activities (e.g., channel deepening or harbor
expansion) may be precluded or significantly restricted. In certain cases CAD cells can be
designed to enhance pre-construction habitat conditions.
While many CAD cells generate losses and gains in habitat that appear to be of comparable
value, considered use of a CAD cell may lead to enhancement of the aquatic habitat, thereby
promoting a vibrant benthic community and fishery. Based on early experiences with CAD
construction and management, such a situation may seem unusual. Although CAD cells are
designed with the intent to retain a high percentage of the contaminants they receive, the
success of engineering designs and operational experiences have varied at different CAD
sites in the U.S. and elsewhere.
66
CONCLUSIONS
From the lessons learned elsewhere, the project demonstrated a minimal or undetectable
impact to aquatic life that visit or inhabit the CAD cell either via direct contact with
contaminants in the dredged material itself or in the sediment pore water. CAD project sites
do vary; depending on the nature of the sediment-bound contaminants isolated in the CAD
cell, there is the potential for aquatic life to bioaccumulate some contaminants. When
properly sited, designed, constructed, and managed, CAD cells have enabled the continued,
safe transport of goods and materials with minimal impact to land and aquatic resources.
67
B13
HEAVY METALS PHYTOEXTRACTION FROM TSUNAMI SEDIMENT
CONTAMINATED SOIL TREATED WITH STEEL SLAG
M.A. León–Romero1, M. Fujibayashi1, C. Maruo1, Y. Aikawa1, O. Nishimura1, K. Oyamada2
1
Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Aramaki-aza 6-6-06, Sendai,
Miyagi, 980 – 8579, JAPAN
2
Slag Business Planning and Control Department, JFE Steel Corporation, Chiyoda-ku,
Uchisaiwai-cho, 2-2-3, Tokyo, 100 – 0011, JAPAN
marco.leon@eco.civil.tohoku.ac.jp
INTRODUCTION
Over the years, due to industrial activity, marine sediment has accumulated pollutants such
as heavy metals (HM). After the tsunami caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake, some
sediment was driven from seabed to agriculture land in coastal zone. Therefore, the effect of
tsunami sediment on plant growth should be evaluated, and adequate management of
agricultural land might be necessary. Within industrial residues used to enhance soil
phytoremediation, steel slag is known to be a cost effective material, which can be applied as
optional fertilizer, to correct high acidity of soil and to rectify soil polluted by HM. In this
experiment, the effect of tsunami sediment on the growth of Arabidopsis thaliana was
studied. The possibility of phytoextraction by steel slag addition was also research
METHODS
A couple of A. thaliana seeds were planted in individual 1.5" Grodan Stonewool A–OK ®
cubes (molten rock spun), placed in a growth chamber at constant temperature of 20 °C, 24
h of light supplied, and fed with a 1M Hyponex’s ® solution. After germination, all three–
week–old A. thaliana were separated and then transfer to individual pots filled with tsunami
sediment contaminated soil, collected in the coastal area of Miyagi prefecture, Japan. Six
systems in triplicate were prepared; control system was established by commercial soil
(vermiculite) meanwhile for raw system was employed by untreated tsunami sediment
contaminated soil. For washes system soil sample was washed with tap water to remove
salts. For slag addition systems Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) slag was added in percentage
of 2, 5 and 10%; respectively (Table 1). Total HM concentrations were determined using an
inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP–MS).
In Table 2 HM concentration in tsunami sediment was compared with HM natural abundance
and a couple of Japanese environmental quality standards (EQS). As shown, tsunami
sample complies easily with EQS1, but has a higher content of As than EQS2.
System
Table 1. Samples characteristics
Treatment
pH
Control
Raw
Washed
Slag Add 2
Slag Add 5
Slag Add 10
No (Vermiculite)
No (contaminated soil)
Tap Water
Wash + 2% slag
Wash + 5% slag
Wash + 10% slag
6.99
4.05
4.82
10.03
8.30
10.72
EC
mS/m
15.2
836.0
83.8
41.0
41.9
57.9
*Natural average abundance of some HM in soil
EQS1: Soil contamination countermeasures act
EQS2: Agricultural land soil pollution prevention act
Table 2. Heavy metal concentration in soil
As
Cd
Cu
(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Japan Soil*
11.00
0.33
48.0
Worldwide*
6.83
0.41
38.9
150
150
ND
EQS1 Japan
EQS2 Japan
< 15.0
< 1.0***
< 125
Sediment**
20.19
0.32
53.52
** Total concentration in samples
*** Concentration in brown rice
ND: No Designation
Table 2 contains a summary of samples specific treatment. pH and electrical conductivity
(EC) values for each case were also described. As shown, raw soil sample had a very acidic
68
pH (4.05) and a EC (836 S/m) not favourable for plant growing, this values was expected
because when the seawater after tsunami floods agricultural land, it has a chance to infiltrate
into the soil profile and increase the salinity of soil or deteriorate soil structure due to high
sodium content. It was decided to wash the sediment with tap water, EC decrease greatly but
the pH value barely improved (4.82). An acidic pH anticipates a possible deficiency of
essential nutrients. From the above steel slag was applied to increase pH (in a range 8 – 10)
and improve soil fertility.
Figure 1 shows the plant growth response (height and dry weight) to changes in pH due to
the treatments applied in the soil. In the first to cases (Raw and washed systems), soil acidity
can facilitate HM’s mobility and coupled with a possible lack of nutrients, plant growth was
inhibited. As the soil washing only helped to remove excess salt and the grown performance
remains poor, it was necessary to add steel slag to solve both problems. For the system with
2 and 5% steel slag addition, a great biomass production was obtained and the height was
as tall as control. However, upon adding 10% of slag a decrease in the growth performance
was detected.
Fig 1. Relationship between soil pH and
plant height/dry weight
Fig 2. Relationship between plant dry
weight and metal extraction ratio.
Metal extraction ratio (MER) was use to express easily the
extraction capacity taking into account the biomass produced
MER
and the amount of soil used to growth a plant. For example a
MER of 5% indicates that 5% of heavy metal was removed
after harvesting plants. Figure 2 shows the relationship between the amount of biomass and
the MER for each HM, it is clear that the higher production of biomass occurs, the greater
percentage of metal extraction ratio is obtained. The best performing systems for removing
HM, where those that were added with steel slag by 2 and 5%.
> HM @ Plant u DWPlant
> HM @ Soil u DWSoil
CONCLUSIONS
The soil treated with steel slag in a 2 and 5%, showed the best growth performance and a
good biomass production. Also, the highest values for MER were obtained for the same
systems. It is concluded that the addition of slag has a positive impact on the phytoextraction
of HM and is an environmental friendly choice to apply on field.
REFERENCES
Kabata - Pendias, A. (2011) Trace elements in soils and plants. CRC Press – Taylor &
Francis Group, LLC. Boca Raton, FL. 505p.
Mertens J., Luyssaert S. and Verheyen K. (2005) Use and abuse of trace metal
concentrations in plant tissue for biomonitoring and phytoextraction. Environmental
pollutionl. 138:1-4.
Shi C. (2002) Characteristics and cementitious properties of ladle slag fines from steel
production. Cement and Concrete Research. 32:459-462.
69
B14
EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A SEDIMENT TIME
CRITICAL REMOVAL ACTION USING MULTIPLE LINES OF
EVIDENCE
Eric Blischke, Ronald French, Andrew Santini, and Todd King
CDM Smith, 8164 Executive Court, Suite A, Lansing, MI 48917, USA
blischkee@cdmsmith.com
INTRODUCTION
The Kalamazoo River Superfund Site is within the city of Kalamazoo in Kalamazoo County,
Michigan, USA, and includes 89 acres along Portage Creek between Cork Street and Alcott
Street (Allied Operable Unit). Paper manufacturing and recycling operations were conducted
at the Allied OU for approximately 94 years (1895-1989). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
were introduced to the Allied OU through the recycling of carbonless copy paper containing
PCBs manufactured from 1957 through 1971. PCBs remained in the recycle waste stream
after 1971 as the carbonless copy paper supply was depleted.
Between June 1998 and October 1999, the United States Environmental Protection Agency
retained the services of the United States Army Corps of Engineers to perform a TimeCritical Removal Action (TCRA) at Portage Creek. The TCRA used wet excavation
techniques by removing exposed and in-stream sediment in two phases. The first phase
removed the bulk of contaminated material working from the southern portion of the site to
the north, and excavating to a depth determined using historical data (i.e., pre-TCRA data
collected during the RI/FS process) and confirmed in the field using visual observation.
Following the second phase of excavation (entailing residual removal), the maximum
confirmation concentration was always below the cleanup criterion of 10 mg/kg. Post-TCRA
excavation confirmation PCB concentrations ranged from non-detect to 3.8 mg/kg, with an
average concentration of 0.27 mg/kg (n=417) in sediment in Portage Creek, well below the
PCB goal of 1 mg/kg.
METHODS
PCB concentrations in pre- and post-TCRA surface sediments were compared based on unweighted arithmetic averages as well as based on surface weighted average (SWAC) values.
Because pre-TCRA samples were haphazardly located as opposed to through a probabilitybased statistical sampling design (Cochran 1977), the weighted average provides a more
accurate basis for comparison. The pre- and post-TCRA resident fish tissue data included
adult carp (Cyprinus carpio) which were greater than or equal to 0.46 meters long and
yearling white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) ranging from approximately 0.13 to 0.25
meters. Adult carp and yearling white suckers were targeted for pre- and post-TCRA
sampling because they a) were historically sampled (comprise the baseline dataset); b) are
plentiful in this reach; and, c) complete an exposure pathway.
RESULTS
Sediment. The pre-TCRA arithmetic average PCB concentration in surface sediment was 82
mg/kg, which is 270 times higher than the post-TCRA average of 0.27 mg/kg. The pre-TCRA
SWAC within Portage Creek was 32 mg/kg and the post TCRA SWAC was 0.26 mg/kg,
representing a reduction of approximately 2 orders of magnitude. The pre-TCRA SWAC was
more than a factor of two lower than the arithmetic average, reflecting the apparent
concentrated sampling of high concentration areas during the RI/FS investigations.
Surface Water. At the downstream station, average PCB concentration in water decreased
by more than an order of magnitude from 0.11 ug/l to 0.003 ug/l following the TCRA.
Fish Tissue. The analytical data from pre- and post-TCRA from Portage Creek shows there
has been a significant reduction (approximately an order of magnitude) in both the wetweight and lipid-normalized PCB concentrations in both yearling white suckers and adult
70
carp. Adult carp PCB concentrations prior to the TCRA ranged from 0.5 mg/kg to 27.4 mg/kg,
averaging 3.3 mg/kg (n=52). Post-TCRA PCB concentrations in adult carp ranged from nondetect to 3.7 mg/kg, averaging 0.34 mg/kg (n=55), an order of magnitude decrease from preTCRA concentrations (Fig. 1). Yearling whole body white sucker PCB concentrations prior to
the TCRA ranged from 0.4 mg/kg to 4.1 mg/kg, averaging 1.9 mg/kg (n=19). Post-TCRA
PCB concentrations ranged from 0.03 mg/kg to 0.58 mg/kg, averaging 0.22 mg/kg, roughly
an order of magnitude decrease from pre-TCRA concentrations.
Adult CarpSpecies--1
Fillets
Subset--1 ABSA--12
95% Confidence Band
No-Action Alternative
1
MDCH General No
Consumption Advisory
BMP TCRA (1998-1999)
(mg/kg)
Lipid and LengthPCB
Adjusted
Total PCB (mg/kg)
10
0
10
MDCH One Meal/Month
(Women and Children)
-1
10
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
Figure 1. Adjusted PCB concentrations in carp fillets at the former BMP. All values
adjusted to represent a typical carp with average length and lipid content of 51.7 cm
3.34% lipid, respectively.
DISCUSSION
The potential to effectively remediate contaminated sediments has been heavily scrutinized
with few success stories reported in the literature. The removal of contaminated sediments
represents an exception where clear and immediate reductions in PCB concentrations in fish,
surface water, and sediment are documented. The TCRA was unique in having objectives to
reduce SWAC by at least an order of magnitude over relatively large laterally extensive
areas, requiring active remediation. Action limits selected at most sites are well above the
site average concentration, and generally speaking, reductions in SWAC as well as fish
tissue and surface water have been disappointing. This site suggests that commitment to
remediation of large proportions of contaminated surface area, that are in-stream, prone to
inundation, or susceptible to erosion into the aquatic system, is required to achieve
meaningful reductions in sediment, and correspondingly fish tissue and surface water PCB
concentrations. Risk managers should consider this experience when evaluating remedial
alternatives and should understand that meaningful risk reduction is unlikely without laterally
extensive remedial action plans that substantively reduce average concentrations over
relatively large exposure areas. At Portage Creek, the removal action included a combination
of remedial technologies in order to cost effectively achieve the laterally extensive remedial
footprint necessary to achieve the large reductions in SWAC necessary to elicit the desired
reduction in risk.
REFERENCES
CDM. 2007. Allied Paper, Inc./Portage Creek/Kalamazoo River Superfund Site. Inlet/Outlet
Investigation. August 2007.
CDM. 2008. Allied Paper Inc./Portage Creek/Kalamazoo River Superfund Site. Allied Paper,
Inc. Operable Unit Remedial Investigation Report. March 2008.
Kern Statistical Services, Inc. 2003. Allied Paper, Inc./Portage Creek/Kalamazoo River
Superfund Site. Spatial and Temporal PCB Trends in Carp and Smallmouth Bass Fillets.
January 23, 2003.
71
B15
ACID SULFATE SOIL MANAGEMENT REGULATION AND GUIDANCE:
WHERE ARE WE, AND WHERE ARE WE GOING?
Leigh Sullivan, Chrisy Clay
Division of Research, Southern Cross GeoScience, Southern Cross University, Lismore,
NSW, AUSTRALIA
leigh.sullivan@scu.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Acid sulfate soil materials are a subset of soil materials that have been widely recognized to
present unique properties and associated hazards especially if mismanaged, as described
below (from Sullivan et al. 2012). Acid sulfate soil materials are distinguished from other soil
materials by having properties and behaviour that have either: 1) been affected considerably
(mainly by severe acidification) by the oxidation of reduced inorganic sulfides (RIS), or 2) the
capacity to be affected considerably (again mainly by severe acidification) by the oxidation of
their RIS constituents. A wide range of environmental hazards are posed by acid sulfate soil
materials including: severe acidification of soil and drainage waters; mobilization of metals;
deoxygenation of water bodies, and; production of noxious gases, and; scalding.
The behaviour of acid sulfate soils can impact on infrastructure such as bridges, drains,
pipes, roads - especially when constructed of steel and concrete. Toxic waters draining from
acid sulfate soil materials may endanger aquatic life and public health. Crops, trees and
pastures may also be severely affected by acid sulfate soil materials, as can aquaculture.
Acid sulfate soils can have detrimental impacts on their surrounding environments as well as
on communities who live in landscapes containing these soils.
This presentation examines the different approaches implemented by various state and
territory governments to minimize the impacts of disturbing acid sulfate soil materials during
development e.g. major projects such as canal estates through to the installation of
underground infrastructure. We examine current approaches and guidance provided across
Australia, identifying similarities and differences between jurisidictions, and then examine
where acid sulfate soil management regulation and guidance seem to be moving.
Planning instruments
The management of acid sulfate soil disturbance is commonly regulated through state-based
planning instruments. This captures contemporary disturbance of acid sulfate soils during
development activity. Acid sulfate soils are specifically mentioned within some jurisidiction’s
instruments such as in Western Australia in the Acid Sulfate Soil Planning Bulletin 64/2009
under the WA Planning and Development Act 2005. Whereas in other jurisdictions such as
Tasmania and South Australia, acid sulfate soils may, depending on their nature, be
considered under general environmental protection acts or planning and approval acts.
Are disturbed sites containing acid sulfate soils contaminated sites?
Only in Western Australia, where they fall under the Contaminated Sites Act 2003.
Scope of the regulations
In all jurisdictions regulations only apply to new developments. Only in Western Australia,
under the Contaminated Sites Act, in situ acid sulfate soil materials that have been
previously disturbed and have elevated arsenic, aluminium and acidity in groundwater or soil
above background concentrations, are considered contaminated land and must be managed
as part of any future development.
Who assess Acid Sulfate Soil Assessment and Management Plans?
As acid sulfate soils are most commonly regulated through the planning process, in many
states the responsibility for assessing Acid Sulfate Soil Management Plans (ASSMPs) falls to
Local Government. Only in Western Australia, South Australia and Northern Territory are the
majority of plans assessed by staff within state and territory departments. In some states the
clear delineation of roles in this task is still under development. Recently in Queensland
72
(August 2012) the state government has devolved its responsibility for assessing ASSMPs to
local government.
Level of detail required in Acid Sulfate Soil Assessment and Management Plans
For developments of comparable nature the level of detail required in ASSAMPs to gain
consent, varies markedly between jurisdictions. Whereas the management aspects within
ASSAMPs in some jurisdictions requires comprehensive detailing of. strategies selected and
their rationale, performance criteria, monitoring and reporting procedures, contingency
procedures, coverage of dewatering practices (where applicable), verification testing
procedures etc., such information is evidently not required to be provided in ASSAMPs in
other jurisdictions to gain development consent.
Need for closure reports in Acid Sulfate Soil Assessment and Management Plans
Closure reports are only specifically required in Western Australia. These reports are
submitted for clearance of any planning conditions placed on the development. Proponents
need to confirm that the ASSMP was followed, provide validation of any neutralisation
undertaken, and demonstrate the successful implementation of the management strategies.
Recommended laboratory analysis for assessment and management purposes.
Current recommendations vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Whereas most guidelines
recommend the approaches detailed in the 2004 guidelines of Ahern, McElnea and Sullivan
(2004) and use the Acid Base Approach with either the Chromium Reducible Sulfur suite or
SPOCAS, the current guidelines of two states still refer to the earlier ASS Manual (Stone et
al. 1998) which recommended use of Total Oxidisable Sulfur (TOS) and the initial Peroxide
Oxidation Combined Acidity & Sulfate (POCAS) methods, despite these two methods having
been 1) shown to be not fit for purpose, and 2) superseded by the 2004 Queensland
guidelines. The 2004 guidelines represent best management practice and have been
endorsed by the National Council for Acid Sulfate Soil (NatCASS), the peak national advisory
group on acid sulfate soil issues.
Where to?
As shown, there are considerable differences in how acid sulfate soils are assessed,
managed and regulated across the country, and in particular in the level of effort required to
gain development consent. The Commonwealth Government is currently examining a
national approach for technical guidance across a range of acid sulfate soil assessment and
management issues. Such national guidance would need to be broad as differences in the
physical and legislative landscapes in different jurisdictions will require jurisdiction specific
approaches at the more detailed level. Despite these differences the appropriate
management of acid sulfate soils needs to be ensured, and in this regard, national guidance
would assist in setting national best practices for the management of acid sulfate soils.
REFERENCES
Ahern, CR, McElnea AE, Sullivan LA (2004). Acid Sulfate Soils Laboratory Methods
Guidelines. QLD DNRME.
Stone, Y. Ahern CR, and Blunden B (1998). Acid Sulfate Soil Manual, Wollongbar, NSW.
Sullivan, L.A., Bush, R.T. and Burton, E.D., Ritsema C.J., and van Mensvoort M.E.F. (2012).
Acid Sulfate Soils. In Handbook of Soil Science, Volume II: Resource Management and
Environmental Impacts, Second Edition. (Eds. Huang, P.M., Y.C. Li and M.E. Sumner.)
Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Florida. 21-1 – 21-26.
73
B16
EFFECT OF FULVIC ACID ON ARSENIC RELEASE FROM
ARSENIC-SUBSTITUTED SCHWERTMANNITE
Chamindra VITHANA1,2, Leigh SULLIVAN1,2, Richard BUSH1,2, Edward BURTON1,2
1
Southern Cross GeoScience, Southern Cross University, AUSTRALIA
CRC CARE, Building X (Environmental Sciences Building), University of South Australia,
Mawson Lakes SA 5095, AUSTRALIA
c.vithana.10@student.scu.edu.au
2
INTRODUCTION
Schwertmannite is one of the main secondary iron hydroxy sulfate minerals contributing to
acidity in acid sulfate soils (ASS). While it is an important source of acidity in ASS,
schwertmannite is also known to be a potential sink for trace metals such as arsenic (As) and
chromium (Cr) (Fukushi et al. 2003; Regenspurg and Peiffer. 2005).Trace metal
adsorption/substitution is known to stabilize schwertmannite which in turn retards its
transformation to goethite which is one of the main processes of acidity generation in ASS.
Fulvic Acid (FA) is a subclass of natural organic materials that are ubiquitous in aquatic
environments (Wang et al. 1997). Due to the presence of polyfunctional organic groups in
FA, it may help to retard the reactivity of iron hydroxy sulfate minerals such as
schwertmannite, thereby affecting the mobility of trace metals in the aquatic environments
(Wang et al. 1997). Our objective in this study was to examine the effect of FA on the release
of As which had been substituted in schwertmannite.
METHODS
A 1:40 suspension of arsenic-substituted schwertmannite: artificial acidic water was titrated
to pH 6.5 and 4.5 with 0.005M NaOH in the presence of different FA concentrations (0, 1, 10
25 mgL-1) for 48 hrs. FA solutions were prepared by diluting a stock solution of Suwannee
River Fulvic Acid (SRFA). As-substituted schwertmannite was consisted of 3.6% As (weight).
The cumulative acidity released by schwertmannite over 48 hrs was measured by the volume
of 0.005M NaOH consumed. The two pH values used in this study span a pH range typically
found in ASS during the drought and flooding seasons. The selected FA concentrations were
also representative for many natural water systems. After 48 hrs, the extract was filtered and
analysed for As and the residue was examined using XRD to identify any mineralogical
changes that may have occurred in schwertmannite. The variability between the effects of
different FA concentrations on As release was statistically evaluated using the Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA)-single factor at 90% confidence interval.
At pH 6.5 and under moderate to lower FA concentrations (1-10 mgL-1) the acidity liberated
from As-substituted schwertmannite showed only slight initial increase compared to that in
the absence of FA, and in the presence of higher FA concentrations (25 mgL-1) (Figure 1a).
Alternatively, at acidic pH (4.5), all three FA concentrations retarded the acidity release from
As- substituted schwertmannite (Figure 1b). The P values determined at 90% confidence
interval (i.e. Į =0.1) for the concentrations of As released at pH 4.5 and at 6.5 (at different FA
concentrations) were 0.11 and 0.06 respectively. Since the calculated P< 0.1 at pH 6.5, it is
apparent that there was significance variability between the effect of FA concentrations on As
release from As-substituted schwertmannite. The data shows that the presence of FA
increased the release of As from schwertmannite at both pH’s (Figure 2). Interestingly at pH
6.5, the lowest FA concentration (1 mgL-1) had the potential to remove twice as much as As
from schwertmannite as was released in the absence of FA.
74
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. Acidity release curves in the presence of different FA concentrations (standard
deviation ± 0.5) (a) pH 6.5 (b) pH 4.5
Fig. 2. Concentration of As released under acidic and near neutral conditions in the presence
of different FA concentrations
CONCLUSIONS
FA played contrasting roles in acidity release from As-substituted schwertmannite at acidic
and near-neutral pH’s. Although schwertmannite is known as a sink for As, FA in natural
environments may promote the release of As from As-substituted schwertmannite. The effect
of FA on schwertmannite in terms of As release dependent on the pH with a greater release
of As at pH 6.5 in the presence of low concentrations of FA. These results may help explain
the often observed greater mobility of As from ASS landscapes after the application of
remediation techniques such as flooding and tidal inundation which often generate nearneutral pHs in schwertmannite-rich ASS materials.
REFERENCES
Fukushi, K., Sasaki, M., Sato, T., Yanase, N., Amano, H. and Ikeda, H. (2003) A natural
attenuation of arsenic in drainage from an abandoned arsenic mine dump. Appl.
Geochem. 18:1267-1278.
Regenspurg, S. and Peiffer, S. (2005) Arsenate and chromate incorporation in
schwertmannite. Appl. Geochem. 20:1226-1239.
Wang, L., Chin, Y-P. and Traina, S.J. (1997) Adsorption of (poly)maleic acid and an aquatic
fulvic acid by geothite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61:5313-5324.
75
B17
TRENDS IN ACID SULFATE SOIL ANALYSIS FOR MANAGEMENT:
OBSERVATIONS FROM A COMMERCIAL LABORATORY
Graham Lancaster
Environmental Analysis Laboratory, Division of Research, Southern Cross University,
AUSTRALIA
graham.lancaster@scu.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Acid sulfate soils are typically either:
PASS – Potential Acid Sulfate Soils are typically waterlogged soils, rich in pyrite, which have
not been oxidised or AASS – Actual Acid Sulfate Soils are PASS soils that have been
exposed to air and formed actual acidity (ie. sulfuric acid)
The reaction of pyrite with oxygen to produce iron hydroxide and acid is:
FeS2 + 15/4 O2 + 7/2 H2O >>>>> Fe(OH)3 + 2SO42- + 4H+
Pyrite
+ Oxygen
+ Water
Iron Hydroxide
+ Sulfate
+ Acid
Environmental management issues that result from poor management of acid sulfate soils
include:
x Acidity release into soils, groundwater and surface waters
x Oxygen depletion in waterways
x Release of Heavy metals – Arsenic in Bangledesh
x Corrosion to concrete structures
x Massive Iron and Aluminium release - Red Spot Disease in Fish
x Agricultural Impacts- scalds, nutrient retention, crop failures, etc.
Acid sulfate soils are analysed by a selection of analytical techniques involving the direct
measurement of the sulfur or the indirect measurement of the acidity from the reaction of
sulfur (ie. primarily pyrite) and oxygen.
As manager of the Environmental Analysis Laboratory (EAL) at Southern Cross University for
over 20 years our involvement with acid sulfate analyses and their management has
occurred over this whole period and included the analyses of over 100,000 samples. The
EAL is a research, teaching and commercial laboratory hence has commercial pressures but
investigate issues with commercial analytical techniques.
METHODS
EAL is NATA (National Association of Testing Authorities) Accredited for its acid sulfate
analytical techniques. For over 20 years EAL has worked with the initial peroxide methods of
acidity measurement through to the development of the SPOCAS technique. EAL also
worked with researchers in Geoscience at Southern Cross University in the development of
the Chromium Reducible Sulfur technique and suite of analysis.
Table 1. Analytical techniques summarised below (refer ASSMAC, 1998)
Scr Suite
SPOCAS Suite
Scr, TAA, ANC, Skcl, Sox, TPA,
Snas
TAA, TSA, ANC,
Snas
Field Screening
NAG - rock
SPOCAS Plus
Skcl, Scr, TPA,
TAA, TSA, ANC,
Snas
Sulfur
Total S, TOS,
ANC,
NAPP,
MPA
SEM – EDAX
The ASPAC Acid Sulfate Soil (ASS) trials identified significant issues in laboratory quality
checking of the SPOCAS and CRS Suite of analyses (Figure 1). Internal laboratory checks
are as simple as the following: CRS Suite Scr (moles H+/tonne) = SPOCAS Spos (moles
H+/tonne) = TSA (moles H+/tonne). In some cases the above does not apply but in the
76
majority of these cases the analytical or soil characteristics account for this difference. High
organics and/ or high iron and manganese can give elevated Spos (Oxidisable Sulfur) and
TSA (Titratable Sulfidic Acidity) or particularly high TPA (Titratable Peroxide Acidity) and TAA
(Titratable Actual Acidity).
If laboratories are not using these checks to verify results then the environmental consultants
and managers should be assessing the quality of the results. Issues with under or over liming
will significantly impact the effectiveness of management plans and potentially lead to legal
issues. NATA is a process of ensuring that laboratories follow set procedures or analytical
methods, but it not guarantee that analytical results are accurate or precise. If the procedure
specifies an acceptable accuracy and precision of +/- 50% then NATA accreditation can be
awarded.
Fig. 1. An example of analytical variation for the Scr technique- ASPAC results 2009
CONCLUSIONS
Over 20 years the analysis of actual, potential, retained and net acidity has had major
advancements and improvement in analytical performance for identification of acid sulfate
soils and rocks and quantification of the acidity. The future developments include combining
the Scr technique with the SPOCAS to provide a simplified combined technique with
improved accuracy and management application.
Environmental managers need to have more extensive understanding of acid sulfate in the
coastal environment but also understand the implication of inland acid sulfate soils. Further
understanding or organic acidity and the analytical differentiation of the forms of acidity are
required.
For laboratories to meet the requirements of environmental managers, the TAT (Turn Around
Time) for accurate analytical identification and quantification of acid sulfate material must be
significantly reduced. It is achievable, with some method refinement, for samples to be fully
processed in 24hr included laboratory based field screening.
REFERENCES
Ahern, CR, McElnea AE, Sullivan LA (2004). Acid Sulfate Soils Laboratory Methods
Guidelines. QLD DNRME.
ASSMAC- Stone, Y. Ahern CR, and Blunden B (1998). Acid Sulfate Soil Manual, Wollongbar,
NSW.
Standards Australia series AS 4969, 2008/0, Analysis of acid sulfate soil – Dried samples –
Methods of test.
77
B18
EVOLUTION OF A REGULATORY APPROACH FOR MANAGING
LAND DEVELOPMENT ON ACID SULFATE SOILS IN W.A.
Steve Appleyard, Scott Jenkinson, Stephen Wong
Department of Environment and Conservation, Perth, AUSTRALIA
steve.appleyard@dec.wa.gov.au
INTRODUCTION
Regional mapping undertaken by the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC)
has indicated that acid sulfate soils (ASS) are widely distributed on the Swan Coastal Plain in
the southern part of Western Australia, a region where more than 80% of the State’s
population lives. The Swan Coastal Plain is also subject to intense development pressure
and is underlain by extensive shallow aquifers that are important for water supply and for
sustaining groundwater-dependent ecosystems.
These factors mean that the inappropriate disturbance of sulfide minerals in soils by
excavation, groundwater dewatering or drainage during urban development has the potential
to cause significant impacts on the quality of shallow groundwater and on wetlands that
receive groundwater discharge. Additionally, a number of occurrences of groundwater
acidification have been recorded at a number of historical development sites due to poor soil
and groundwater management practices.
As a result of these factors, the DEC has worked closely with other State regulatory agencies
to develop the current whole-of-government approach to managing land development on
acid sulfate soils to minimise the risk of environmental harm taking place. The current
management approach utilises planning, environmental protection and groundwater licensing
regulatory tools to control soil disturbance and groundwater dewatering in areas where there
is a significant risk of acid sulfate soil occurrence, and has been progressively developed
over the last decade.
The following discussion outlines how the current management approach for acid sulfate
soils has been developed and how it is currently applied in Western Australia.
Key Steps In The Implementation Of ASS Management In W.A.
Although acid sulfate soils were first described in 1917 in Western Australia (Woodward,
1917), the disturbance of these soils by development practices did not become a significant
management issue until the discovery of groundwater contamination by arsenic and other
metals at a Perth metropolitan development site in 2003 (Appleyard et al., 2004; 2006).
As a result of this issue, which had a high profile in the media at the time, State government
committed funding for acid sulfate soil risk mapping to determine the potential extent and
sulfide content of acid sulfate soils in W.A and committed to implementing the general
principles for ASS management outlined in the National ASS Management Strategy (National
Working Party on Acid Sulfate Soils, 2000).
More than 400 soil investigation boreholes were drilled to depths of at least 6 m between
2004 and 2010 by DEC and the Department of Water in near-coastal areas to the south of
Perth where there is intense development pressure, and data from these drilling programs
was used to refine preliminary ASS risk maps that had been compiled for the State’s
coastline based on existing geological and landform mapping. Drilling initially targeted lowlying land near the coast and major estuaries, but later became widely distributed when it
became clear that the widely-held view that ASS was restricted to elevations of less than 5 m
AHD did not apply in many parts of southern W.A. where sulfides were produced as a result
of groundwater interactions with soils rather than having a marine origin.
The incorporation of acid sulfate soil management issues into the State planning process
through Planning Bulletin No 64 in 2003 was an important step in gaining control of soil and
groundwater management practices on development sites. This Planning Bulletin, which
78
was initially released in 2003 and revised in 2009, requires developers in areas that pose a
risk of acid sulfate soil disturbance to undertake soil and groundwater investigations in
accordance with DEC management guidelines and to the satisfaction of the DEC before
conditional ‘clearance’ advice or Certificates of Title will be released for new developments.
This process ensures that soils and groundwater dewatering are generally well managed on
development sites. Sites where groundwater quality has deteriorated due to poor ASS
management are requested to disclose the underlying groundwater quality to potential
purchasers. Sites where contamination has occurred as a result of poor ASS or dewatering
practices also have the potential to be classified as contaminated sites under provisions of
the Contaminated Sites Act, 2003.
REFERENCES
Appleyard, S.J., Wong, S., Willis-Jones, B., Angeloni, J. and Watkins, R. (2004) Groundwater
acidification caused by urban development in Perth, Western Australia: source,
distribution and implications for management. Aust. J. Soil Res. 42: 579-585.
Appleyard, S.J., Angeloni, J. and Watkins, R. (2006) Arsenic-rich groundwater in an urban
area experiencing drought and increasing population density, Perth, Australia. Appl.
Geochem. 21: 83-97.
National Working Party for Acid Sulfate Soils, 2000. National Strategy for the Management
of Coastal Acid Sulfate Soils. ARMCANZ & ANZECC report available at web site
http://www.mincos.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/316065/natass.pdf.
Woodward, H.P., 1917. Investigation into the cause of the mineralization of the Seven Mile
Swamp at Grassmere, near Albany, South-West Division. W.A. Mines Dept. Ann.
Report, 1917.
Department of Environment and Conservation, March 2013. Identification and investigation
of acid sulfate soils and acidic landscapes
Department of Environment and Conservation, July 2010. Treatment and management of
soils and water in acid sulfate soil landscapes
Department of Planning, 2009. Planning Bulletin 64/2009 Acid Sufate Soils
79
B22
INNOVATIVE REMEDIATION STRATEGIES AND GREEN
REMEDIATION: ACHIEVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION WITH
A SMALLER ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
Carlos Pachon
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology
Innovation, Washington DC, USA
pachon.carlos@epa.gov
SUMMARY
The Superfund Program in the United States was established by the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980, as amended (CERCLA
statute, CERCLA overview). This law was enacted in the wake of the discovery of large,
uncontrolled toxic waste dumps such as Love Canal and Times Beach in the 1970s. Over
the thirty plus years, EPA has worked with many parties involved cleaning up contaminated
sites to protect human health and the environment while advancing and adopting new
technologies and strategies to tackle ever more complex contamination challenges. In the
presentation, I summarize key lessons learned from the Superfund Program implementation,
and how the Program is leveraging technology innovations and adaptive remedial strategies
to achieve greater environmental protectiveness with a lower environmental footprint and in
an environment of diminishing funding.
Prior to the 1980s, technologies and practices in the environmental industry started out with
very basic approaches to managing or containing contamination. In the 1980s and 1990s,
and even into the early 2000s, we experienced a revolution with growth and innovation in the
number and types of technologies used to characterize and remediate sites, particularly in
the area of in situ treatment technologies. Today we have evolved into more of an
“Information Age” of innovation, with faster and better access to site information, and
improved ways of managing, visualizing, and evaluating data that result in more effective
outcomes for environmental cleanups. These developments allow us to efficiently manage
the rich data sets from higher resolution characterization tools in an “adaptive management”
mode. Results of these advances include improved efficiencies and greater sustainability in
our cleanups. At the direction of the President, EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson made
stewardship and sustainability a top priority in the implementation of our core missions. For
our cleanup programs, this translates into achieving our goal of protecting human health and
the environment with a lower environmental footprint, and returning contaminated lands to
productive and sustainable reuse.
While great progress has been made cleaning up sites, there is still plenty of work to do in
the United States and elsewhere. Literally hundreds of billions of dollars in cleanup work to
be completed, at a few thousand very large sites and hundreds of thousands of small sites
across all programs. We have a tremendous challenge facing us, we also have an
opportunity. We have an opportunity to act on what we have learned over the past few
decades, to apply the innovations and best management practices that we have developed
and cleanup sites more efficiently and with a lower environmental footprint.
The upcoming “Superfund Remedies Report” presents a snapshot of Superfund remedial
actions selected in Records of Decisions (ROD). In this report we find that almost half the
remedies selected at Superfund sites included some form of treatment, where the
contaminant is removed, destroyed, or rendered innocuous. The Superfund program
continues to select treatment as a primary component of remedies that involve source
control, groundwater, or both. We also see that we now have a larger toolbox of options to
treat contaminated media. In our early approaches to managing contaminated groundwater
we relied heavily on pump and treat systems, whereas today we are employing a rich mix of
remedies. We’ve come a long way in adopting, adapting and innovating technologies. For
80
both soils and groundwater, we see a steady increase in the use of in situ treatment
remedies, which often target source areas such as DNAPL. These remedies drive, and are
driven by, the use of high resolution site characterization, which can better locate where the
contaminants are in three or four dimensions, so we can more effectively place our treatment
remedies and monitor their performance.
The Superfund program also has a suite of “legacy” remedies that were selected and built
many years ago and are likely to be operated for years into the future. In undertaking
optimization studies of these projects, we are finding numerous opportunities to improving
their effectiveness while implementing changes to reduce their operating costs and
environmental footprint. To date EPA has completed over 150 optimization projects, and we
are using the information to better manage remedies and to share lessons learned.
In addition to more technically effective remedies, EPA is implementing green remediation
practices in the Superfund program to reduce the environmental footprint of its cleanup
projects. The Agency has developed a suite of green remediation best management fact
sheets as well as robust methodology for evaluating and quantifying environmental footprints
at more complex projects to better target footprint reduction efforts. EPA works with external
parties to achieve its mission and, among other efforts, we have been collaborating with the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) effort to develop a Standard Guide for
Greener Cleanups, a voluntary Guide that may be released as soon as Fall 2013.
In summary, the Superfund program continues to pursue efficiencies in site cleanups and
strategies to lower their environmental footprint. Coupled with a robust community
involvement program that ensures citizens have a say in remedy decisions, and a clear goal
of preparing sites for productive reuse, the Superfund program implements its mission on a
“triple bottom line” basis, in a truly sustainable manner.
REFERENCES
Superfund Remedy Report, Thirteenth Edition (2012), < http://cluin.org/asr/>
81
B23
IS SUSTAINABLE REMEDIATION NOW A SELF-SUSTAINING
CONCEPT? AN INTERNATIONAL PROGRESS REPORT
Jonathan W.N. Smith1,2
1
Shell Global Solutions (UK) Ltd., Lange Kleiweg 40, 2288 GK Rijswijk, The Netherlands
2
SuRF-UK, c/o CL:AIRE, London, UK
jonathan.w.smith@shell.com
ABSTRACT
Sustainable remediation – the consideration of environmental, social and economic factors
associated with soil and groundwater risk-management options, to help select the best
overall solution - has been a rapidly evolving topic in recent years. The first published
reference1 to ‘sustainable remediation’ was in the title of a 1999 conference paper by
Kearney et al., (1999), but activity really accelerated in the middle of the 2000’s, with
establishment of a number of collaborative sustainable remediation fora, and increased
publication rates in the peer reviewed literature (Fig 1).
Figure 1. Journal paper publications with search term ‘sustainable remediation’ (accurate to 9
July 2013)
This presentation will review the international progress of sustainable remediation concept
development and application in regulatory and corporate decision-making processes. It will
look back at what has already been achieved, provide an update on the latest initiatives and
developments, and look forward to what the future of sustainable remediation might look like.
Specifically it will describe:
x Sustainable remediation frameworks: synergies and international collaboration;
x Latest guidance and tools developed by the various sustainable remediation
organisations (SuRFs), including the SuRF-UK Best Management Practices and Tier 1
Briefcase;
x Best practice standard development by ASTM and ISO;
x Regulatory acceptance of sustainable remediation, including incorporation into
legislation, and the NICOLE – Common Forum Joint statement on ‘risk-informed and
sustainable remediation’ in Europe;
x Examples of corporate adoption of sustainable remediation principles.
The presentation will conclude with a look forward to a vision of sustainable remediation in
2020.
1
Using Scopus, searched 9 July 2013.
th
Kearney TE, Martin ID and SM Herbert. 1999. Sustainable remediation of land contamination. In: Proceedings of 5
International In situ and On-site Bioremediation Symposium, San Diego, CA, 19-22 April, 1999. Battelle, USA.
82
B24
SUSTAINABLE CONSIDERATIONS FOR
HEAVY METALS REMEDIATION
Andrew Wollen1, Bernd W. Rehm2
1
ERR – Environmental Remediation Resources Pty Ltd, F4/13-15 Kevlar Close, Braeside,
VIC 3915, AUSTRALIA
2
ReSolution Partners, LLC, 967 Jonathon Drive, Madison, WI 53713, USA
aw@erraus.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Traditional remediation approaches for heavy metals range from off-site hazardous waste
disposal to a variety of chemical treatments to reduce metals’ leachability, allowing for off-site
non-hazardous disposal.
These approaches, although regulatorily sound, can have
significant ancillary environmental impacts that include an increased carbon footprint
associated with transportation of waste and borrow materials and increased resource use
(i.e., backfill and reduced landfill capacity). Emerging remediation alternatives can provide
“greener choices,” reducing ancillary environmental impacts.
Emerging remediation alternatives for metals use existing site chemistries or added reagents
to form minerals in soil and aquifers to reduced metals leachability, groundwater
concentrations, and potentially bioaccessibility. Reagents added to soil and groundwater are
typically common agricultural and industrial products that pose little to no hazard to the
environment. Site-specific development of a reagent blend can demonstrate short- and longterm stability in on-site environments. Recycling remediated soil on-site is gaining
acceptance, allowing for increased savings associated with no off-site disposal and no
procurement of backfill.
Further, reusing materials on-site reduces the ancillary
environmental impact associated with traditional remediation approaches.
APPLICATIONS
A combination of on-site and off-site management tools are available for managing heavy
metals in soil, including: off-site disposal as hazardous waste, on-site stabilization and nonhazardous waste disposal, and on-site treatment and reuse with and without management
controls.
Materials with leachable metals concentrations that exceed the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) or the Australian Standard Leaching Procedure
(ASLP) upon excavation are traditionally disposed at a hazardous waste landfill. Disposal of
material as hazardous waste is often not readily favoured by regulators, limited to a few
disposal locations, and is the highest cost management option.
Site-specific treatments can be added to remove the leaching concern from a metalscontaminated waste. Treated materials can then be disposed as non-hazardous waste
resulting in 10 to 40 percent lower cost than hazardous waste management. This approach
is accepted by regulatory agencies and many non-hazardous waste landfills, and provides
expanded disposal location options and reduced transportation liability.
The third option, on-site management, can be achieved with and without institutional
controls. The USEPA the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP) for treated soil
and waste above the water table and site-specific groundwater leaching procedures for
saturated waste and soil, can demonstrate metals leaching reductions to meet site goals for
on-site reuse. Soil is often managed to prevent direct contact exposure, and sites typically
require deed restrictions.
Chemistry modifications can achieve results to meet a
Physiologically Based Extraction Test (PBET) goal to address direct contact exposures as
well as site-specific leaching goals. This approach typically requires a more rigorous up front
evaluation, though would eliminate the need for deed restrictions to prevent human exposure
to soil or capping of the treated materials with clean soil or structures.
On-site management offers further reduced costs compared to off-site disposal, recycling
and reuse of soil, and greater project design flexibility.
83
CONCLUSION
Several options are available for management of heavy metals in soil that provide more
sustainable remediation and lower overall project costs. These options require additional up
front evaluation to determine site-specific chemistries that will render site soil stable to
achieve the required remediation goals for each option.
84
B25
INTEGRATING SUSTAINABLE REMEDIATION IN CONTAMINATED
SITE MANAGEMENT
Alyson N. Macdonald1, Neil Gray1, Alan Thomas2
1
Environmental Resources Management (ERM), PO Box 266, South Melbourne, VIC 3205,
AUSTRALIA
2
ERM, Eaton House, Wallbrook Court, North Hinksey Lane, Oxford, OX2 0QS, UK
alyson.macdonald@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
SuRF ANZ has defined sustainable remediation as:
“a remediation solution selected through the use of a balanced decision making process that
demonstrates, in terms of environmental, economic and social indicators, that the benefit of
undertaking remediation is greater than any adverse effects”.
In order to apply the principals of sustainable remediation, it is essential to integrate these
principles at the right time in a project lifecycle to facilitate the most sustainable outcome.
This presentation describes a philosophy for embedding sustainability within our
contaminated site management practice.
Our ambition/vision is that sustainable
considerations are not seen as an “add-on” to existing services, but can form a framework of
principles that are adopted through the project lifecycle as an integral part of meeting our
clients’ objectives.
A PHILOSOPHY FOR EMBEDDING SUSTAINABILITY
The philosophy for embedding sustainability is outlined in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: A Philosophy for Embedding Sustainability
Embedding sustainability is analogous with the principle of wastes hierarchy (Victorian
Environment Protection Act, 1970, as amended to February 2013), where the first priority is
to avoid the waste-creating activity. Early consideration means that sustainability becomes
more than a superficial add-on to traditional remediation technologies.
85
This high level approach to sustainable assessment can identify alternatives to remediation
which could result in better outcomes for the environment, the community and for our clients
in terms of timeframes, financial and reputational considerations.
In order to support this philosophy, key elements of our life cycle approach include a clear
focus on optimising the scope for remediation and the definition of client and stakeholder
goals at the outset. This is coupled with the identification of relevant environmental, social
and economic indicators and the application of appropriate tools to measure and support
these indicators through the process. This can include the adoption of best management
practices and where remediation is being considered the use of decision analysis tools such
as multi criteria analysis; and, where appropriate quantification of cost and benefits, using for
example, life cycle assessment.
Using these principles this presentation will include a number of case studies where
incorporation of sustainable principles has resulted in a more sustainable cost effective
solution.
CONCLUSIONS
This presentation has outlined a philosophy for embedding sustainability in projects along
with a toolbox to support assessment throughout the lifecycle of the project, together with
practical examples of its implementation. Our experience to date suggests that this holistic
view of sustainability in contaminated land projects has led to positive results and can have a
more significant outcome than looking at the remedial design and construction elements
alone.
86
B26
HARMONISATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY WITH BIOLOLOGICAL
PROCESSES FOR LOW ENERGY REMEDIATION.
Ian Thompson1, Sheeja Jagadevan2
1
Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford,
Begbroke Science Park, Begbroke Hill, Woodstock Road, Oxford OX5 1PF, UK
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan,
1351 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125, USA
ian.thompson@eng.ox.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION
A growing issue in terms of remediation and end-of-pipe treatment of industrial effluent is the
sustainability of the clean-up technology. The drive now is for alternative technologies which
are effective but have an acceptable carbon foot-print The desire for low energy procedures
has stimulated interests in hybrid systems in which the biological activities are synergistically
combined with physical or chemical approaches to enhance and enable natural
biodegradation processing of target contaminants. One of the most recent and promising
biodegradation enablers is that of nanomaterials, and in particularly iron oxide. The object of
this study was to develop a hybrid technology which harmonises the highly reactive nature of
nano-scale zero valent iron (nZVI) oxide for organic degradation with the intrinsic ability of
bacteria to bio-treat a significant problematic industrial effluent: waste metal working fluids
(MWF).
METHODS
Experiments were undertaken in triplicated 2L batch bioreactors, filled to a 1.5L working
volume, with operationally exhausted MWF, taken from a large automotive production site.
The reactors were inoculated with a five-membered bacterial consortium assembled
specifically for degradation MWF effluent, and previously reported to be highly effective for
bio-treatment of operationally exhausted MWF (1,2).
The ZVI nanoparticles were
synthesised using the procedure essentially described by Kingsley and Patil (3).
Synthesised material was thoroughly characterised including Transmission Electron
Microscopy analysis which revealed the average particle size to be 6-10 nm in diameter.
Degradation performance was determined by monitoring changes in carbon oxygen demand
(COD), performed employing dichromate and a Hach spectrophotometer (Hach DR 2800).
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) was measured using Oxitop (WTW) as instructed by the
manufacturers. The Biodegradability index referred below is taken to be the ratio of the
original COD to the Biological Oxygen Demand, after 5 days incubation (BOD5).
The MWF effluent was first treated by biodegradation, which lowered the initial COD from
55,000 to 12,650 mg/L. The resultant consisted of a recalcitrant residue composed of MWF
constituents that could not be broken down by the initial biodegradation stage. This
recalcitrance was attributed to the fact that MWF are formulated specifically to be resistant to
biodeterioration whilst in use during machining. In addition they also contain biocides, again
added specifically to inhibit microbial deterioration and premature spoiling of the fluid.
The effectiveness of the nZVI to degrade the remaining MWF effluent that was resistant to
the biodegradation stage of the treatment is represented in Fig 1a. Addition of nZVI resulted
in a direct effect with an rapid (within on 1 hour) 70% reduction in the COD. This was
attributed to the highly reactive nature of the nZVI, which induced the recalcitrant
constituents to degrade via Fenton’s reaction. However, the advantage of employing nZVI
over the traditional Fenton reaction (which requires the addition of H2O2) is that it obviated
the requirement for addition of H2O2, since the oxygen required for the reaction is intrinsically
87
generated. This can be seen in the data presented in Fig 1a, which clearly demonstrates the
essential role of oxygen when H2O2 was not added.
Furthermore, and as represented in Fig 1b, addition of nZVI induced an increase in the
Biodegradability index of the recalcitrant (BOD5/COD) components, reflecting the change in
chemistry resulting in resistant components being transformed so that they were amenable to
biodegradation. This enabled the COD to decrease further in a third and final step to a COD
level of 570 mg/L, when the effluent was re-inoculated with bacteria.
Untreated w astew ater
Fenton treated
0.3
(BOD5/COD)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
a.
b.
Fig1a. Shows the reduction of COD by nZVI oxidation and the requirement of oxygen for the
process to be effective. 1b. Represents the Biodegradability index (Bod5/COD) of the untreated
and nZVI treated MWF effluent (Error bars represent the Mean ± of triplicate).
CONCLUSIONS
A key issue of our current studies has been optimisation of the process and identification of
the key parameters, such as pH, that determine performance. Important also, and which will
be discussed in further detail in the oral presentation, is the harmonisation of nZVI and
biodegradation steps. Not least over exposure and prolonged residence of the highly
reactive nZVI leads to bacterial cells death, thus preventing or inhibiting the final
biodegradation step. Optimisation of the quantity of nZVI required to be effective, plus the
ability to recycle the material are key issues being addressed in order to be an economic and
realistic treatment option (4).
REFERENCES
1) Kingsley J.J. and Patil K.C. (1988) A novel combustion process for the synthesis of fine
particle alpha-alumina and related oxide materials. Material Letters 6 (11-12): 427-432.
2) van der Gast C.J., Whiteley A.S., Starkey M, Knowles C.J., and Thompson I.P (2003)
Bioaugmentation strategies for remediating mixed chemical effluents. Biotechnology
Progress 19: 1156-1161:
3) van der Gast C.J.and Thompson I.P. (2005) Effects of pH amendment on metal working
fluid wastewater biological treatment using a defined bacterial consortium. Biotech &
Bioeng 89: 357-366).
4) Jagadevan S., Manickam J,, Dobson P.J. and Thompson I.P. (2012) A novel nanozerovalent iron oxidation- biological degradation approach for remediation of recalcitrant
waste metal working fluids. Water Research 46: 2395-2404.
88
B27
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF ENGINNERED
NANOPARTICLES: DECREASING THE UNCERTAINTIES IN
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND RISK CHARACTERISATION
Enzo Lombi1, Erica Donner1, Ryo Sekine1, Gulliver Conroy1, Maryam Khaksar2,
Gianluca Brunetti1, Adi Maoz1, Thea Lund1, Ravi Naidu1, Krasimir Vasilev2 and
Kirk Scheckel3
1
Mawson Lakes Campus, AUSTRALIA
2
Mawson Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, AUSTRALIA
3
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, USA
Enzo.lombi@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade, rapid innovation and commercialisation in the field of nanotechnology
has ensured continuous growth in this sector. As a result, an increasing number of
manufactured nanomaterials have been incorporated into products and manufacturing
processes. This growth has been met with an equivalent increase in concern regarding the
safety of manufactured nanoparticles with respect to human and environmental health. In
response to this increasing cause for concern, the scientific community has begun
investigating the environmental consequences of nanotechnologies. Yet despite efforts on
the part of ecotoxicologists, risk assessment of both existing and emerging nanotechnology
lags significantly behind commercial developments. This knowledge gap is an issue not only
in terms of environmental legislation but also for the sustainability of the industry as public
perception plays an important role in the acceptance of new technologies. The growing
divergence between risk assessment and commercialisation is underlain by two key factors.
Firstly, significant methodological and analytical challenges hinder the meaningful study of
nanoparticles in complex environmental media; and secondly, insufficient interdisciplinary
collaboration between nanotechnologists and environmental scientists has stymied
environmental research in this field.
METHODS
In this study we have investigated the transformation of metallic Ag and ZnO NPs during the
anaerobic digestion of wastewater, which is thought to be the primary exposure pathway of
these NPs to the environment. Three different ZnO and 3 Ag NPs were added, at
environmentally relevant concentrations, to anaerobic reactors containing primary and
secondary wastewater sludge which were run for 30 days. The NPs were chosen to cover a
range of coatings/formulations and the experimental setup was complemented by a control
and a Ag/Zn metal salt control were soluble salts of these elements were added to the same
levels used for the NPs. Furthermore, the resulting sewage sludges (biosolids) were
subjected to aerobic post-processing simulating composting/stockpiling. Metal speciation
throughout the experiment was investigated using X-ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy
(XANES).
Furthermore, we also report on the development of a device for testing of NPs transformation
in the environment. This device consists of a plasma-polymerised support to which
manufactured NPs are attached through the formation of electrostatic or covalent bonds.
Upon deployment into the environment (e.g. water or sediments) the devices are retrieved
and analysed by XANES.
The results indicate that both the ZnO and Ag NPs undergo a rapid transformation in the
anaerobic digestors leading to the formation of sulfides (Lombi et al., 2012; 2013). However,
hydrophobic coating of ZnO NPs significantly retarded this transformation process indicating
89
that degradation processes are influenced by the commercial formulations in which the NPs
are dispersed. Furthermore, in the case of Zn, aerobic post-processing of the sewage sludge
has dramatic implications in terms of metal speciation. In contrast, post-processing of the
biosolids does not change Ag speciation. These results suggest that a significant part of the
environmental risk assessment for metallic NPs, through this pathway of exposure, can rely
on the knowledge gained over decades of investigation of metal behaviour in sewage
sludge/biosolids. However, the effect of commercial formulation/coating on the behaviour of
metallic NPs requires further investigation.
Three types of Ag NPs with different cappings were prepared and anchored to plasma
polymerised substrates of opposite charges (Sekine et al., 2013). The cappings consisted of
negatively charged citrate and polyethylene glycol, and positively charged polyethyleneimine.
The devices were deployed in two field sites (lake and marina), two standard ecotoxicity
media (OECD and f/2), and in primary sewages sludge for a period of 48 hours. XANES
analysis and SEM/EDX were used to assess the degree of transformation as a function of
environmental conditions and NPs’ capping, Thiolation of Ag was found to be the dominant
process involved in the transformation of the NPs, but different extents of transformation
were observed across different exposure conditions and surface charges. These results
successfully demonstrate the feasibility of using immobilised NPs to examine their
transformations in situ in real environments and provide further insight into the short term fate
of AgNPs in the environment.
CONCLUSIONS
Here we have reported the results of some study concerned with exposure characterisation
and progress has been made in the area of risk characterisation. However, at the moment
large uncertainties remain in relation to the modelling of probable environmental
concentrations. This is compounded with the current challenge concerning the direct
determination of NPs concentrations in complex environmental media even though new
techniques, such as single particle analysis, hold promises. As a consequence, the risk
assessment of manufactured nanomaterials will continue to challenge environmental
scientists in the future.
REFERENCES
Lombi, E.; Donner, E.; Tavakkoli, E.; Turney, T. W.; Naidu, R.; Miller, B. W.; Scheckel, K. G.
(2012), Fate of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles during Anaerobic Digestion of Wastewater and
Post-Treatment Processing of Sewage Sludge. Environmental Science & Technology
46, (16), 9089-9096
Enzo Lombi, Erica Donner, Shima Taheri, Ehsan Tavakkoli, Åsa K. Jämting, Stuart McClure,
Ravi Naidu, Bradley W. Miller, Kirk G. Scheckel and Krasimir Vasilev (2013)
Transformation of four silver/silver chloride nanoparticles during anaerobic treatment of
wastewater and post-processing of sewage sludge. Environmental Pollution, 176: 193197.
Ryo Sekine, Maryam Khaksar, Gianluca Brunetti, Erica Donner, Kirk G. Scheckel, Enzo
Lombi and Krasimir Vasilev (2013) Surface Immobilisation of Engineered Nanomaterials
for in-situ Study of Ttheir Environmental Transformations and Fate. Environmental
Science & Technology (in press).
90
B28
RESPONSIBLE INNOVATION IN NANOREMEDIATION?
Fern Wickson
GenØk Centre for Biosafety, Tromsø, TROMS, Norway
fern.wickson@genok.no
In the face of serious concerns about the risks posed by nanomaterials and widespread
uncertainties concerning their ecotoxicological potential, the use of nanoparticles to
remediate polluted soil and groundwater is often held up as one of the main ways in which
nanotechnology can offer significant environmental benefit. Nanoremediation currently
represents the largest point-source release of free nanoparticles into the environment and is
internationally contested, with some countries actively embracing its commercial use (e.g.
the USA), others cautiously conducting controlled field trials (e.g. Germany), and some
explicitly highlighting it as a use of nanotechnology that should be avoided (e.g. the UK). In
an attempt to prevent social controversy and minimize environmental damage from emerging
technologies, the concept of “responsible innovation” is rapidly gaining momentum in
European policy discourse. In this presentation I will describe the outcomes of an
international, interdisciplinary and multi-stakeholder workshop held over three days in
Norway to discuss the potential for, and meaning of, responsible innovation in
nanoremediation. This workshop gathered technology developers, remediation consultancy
firms, environmental non-governmental organisations, ecotoxicologists, social scientists and
philosophers and invited them to jointly explore issues such as: quality in available science
for policy, the benign by design philosophy, environmental ethics and anticipatory
governance. Following an introduction to the concept of responsible innovation and its
uptake in Europe, this presentation will provide an overview of how the different actors and
stakeholders in the workshop conceptualized the potential environmental harms involved in
nanoremediation, as well as the factors they saw currently inhibiting quality in science for
policy, the potential they envisaged for the technology to embody benign by design
principles, and the responses deemed necessary for the enactment of anticipatory
governance.
91
B29
STABILITY OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES COATED WITH
DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER
Laura Chekli1, 2, Sherub Phuntsho1, Maitreyee Roy3 and Ho Kyong Shon1, 2
1
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, Post Box
129, Broadway, NSW 2007, AUSTRALIA.
2
CRC CARE, PO Box 486, Salisbury, SA 5106, AUSTRALIA.
3
National Measurement Institute, PO Box 264, Lindfield, NSW 2070, AUSTRALIA.
laura.chekli@student.uts.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Iron oxide nanoparticles are becoming increasingly popular for various applications including
the treatment of contaminated soil and groundwater; however, their mobility and reactivity in
the subsurface environment are significantly affected by their tendency to aggregate. One
solution to overcome this issue is to coat the nanoparticles with dissolved organic matter
(DOM). The advantages of DOM over conventional surface modifiers are that DOM is
naturally abundant in the environment, inexpensive, non-toxic and readily adsorbed onto the
surface of metal oxide nanoparticles.
In this study, humic acid (HA) and Suwannee River natural organic matter (SRNOM) were
tested and compared as surface modifiers for Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs). The stability of the
coated NPs was evaluated by assessing their aggregation and disaggregation behaviour
over time.
METHODS
Sample preparation
DOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs were prepared by mixing concentrated Fe2O3 NPs with DOM stock
solution and diluted with ultrapure water to obtain solutions with Fe2O3 NPs concentrations of
200 mg/L and DOM concentration of 50 mg/L. While stirring, the solutions were constantly
kept at pH 4, as previous studies demonstrated that this is the optimum pH for DOM
adsorption [1]. Solutions were stirred for 24 h, and at the end of the experiment, samples
were taken and measured by Flow Field-Flow Fractionation (FlFFF) as reference for the
stability study. The final solutions were then stored for 14 days at ambient temperature.
Stability of DOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs and disaggregation study
The stability of DOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs was assessed by measuring their size distribution by
FlFFF 14 days after their preparation, without any perturbation. After measuring the size of
the aggregates formed during this 14-day period, a vortex mixer was used to induce
disaggregation to assess the stability of the formed aggregates and agglomerates.
Figure 1 shows the FlFFF fractograms of both DOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs (freshly prepared
Figure 1a and 14 days after preparation Figure 1b). The size of the HA-coated Fe2O3 NPs
was approximately 200 nm while SRNOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs were larger at 250 nm for all
samples. These values are greater than the size obtained with “fresh samples” indicating the
formation of some aggregates with time.
The stability of the formed aggregates was then assessed by studying the effect of vortex
mixing on the disaggregation of the coated nanoparticles aggregates. For HA-coated NPs
(Figure 2a), the effect of vortex mixing was that the size of the aggregated samples
decreased from 200 nm to 70 nm (i.e. back to the initial size of the HA-coated sample). This
indicates that the HA-coated Fe2O3 NPs were agglomerated rather than aggregated and they
were only held by weak van der Waals forces. The results also suggests that the bonding of
HA-Fe2O3 NPs is strong, otherwise vortex mixing the sample would have also broken the
bonds between HA and the surface of Fe2O3 NPs.
92
a)
b)
Figure 1: FlFFF fractograms of HA-coated Fe2O3NPs and SRNOM-coated Fe2O3NPs (a) after
preparation and (b) after 2 weeks.
For SRNOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs (Figure 2b), the same conditions were used and the results
showed the presence of 2 peaks in the fractogram after vortex mixing. This indicates that
only a fraction (about 50 %) of the sample was disaggregated but the rest remained
unchanged. This could be explained by the structure of the aggregates which may have a
substantial influence on the disaggregation of nanoparticles. In fact, the aggregate structure
(i.e. the conformation and porosity) can vary significantly with the concentration and type of
DOM. A recent study by Baalousha et al. [2] demonstrated that, in the absence of HA,
Fe2O3 NPs formed open and porous aggregates, whereas in the presence of HA, they
formed compact aggregates which were difficult to disaggregate without applying any
exterior mechanical forces. SRNOM has a more complex structure than HA; therefore the
structure of the formed aggregates may be even more complex, making the disaggregation
process more difficult.
a)
b)
Figure 2: Effect of vortex on the disaggregation of (a) HA-coated Fe2O3NPs and (b) SRNOMcoated Fe2O3NPs.
CONCLUSIONS
This study revealed that after 14 days, small aggregates were formed. HA-coated Fe2O3NPs
formed agglomerates which were easily disaggregated using a vortex mixer and returned to
their initial state. The SRNOM-coated Fe2O3 NPs formed more stable aggregates, where only
a fraction of the coated nanoparticles were recovered.
REFERENCES
[1] Chekli, L.P., S.; Roy, M.; Lombi, E.; Donner, E.; Shon, H.K., Assessing the aggregation
behaviour of iron oxide nanoparticles under relevant environmental conditions using a
multi-method approach. Water Research, 2013.
[2] Baalousha, M., et al., Aggregation and surface properties of iron oxide nanoparticles:
Influence of pH and natural organic matter. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,
2008. 27(9): p. 1875-1882.
93
B30
GREEN SYNTHESIS OF IRON-BASED NANOPARTICLES USING
TEA EXTRACT-SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION AND
APPLICATIONS
Zuliang Chen1,2, Mallavarapu Megharaj1,2, Ravendra Naidu1,2
1
Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
2
Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of
Environments, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
Zuliang.chen@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, iron-based nanoparticles (Fe NPs) have used been used in wastewater and
groundwater treatment due to the higher intrinsic reactivity of its surface sites. Fe NPs can
be readily synthesized chemical and physical methods, but the drawbacks of these methods
is to consume high energy and use chemical substances such as NaBH4, organic solvents,
stabilizing and dispersing agents [1], which have toxicity. Therefore, the green synthesis of
Fe NPs has received attention due to the cost effective, environmental friendly [1]. To date,
few studies have been reported on the green synthesis of Fe NPs using tea extract for the
reductive degradation and as a Fenton catalyst for the oxidative degradation of organic
contaminants since both reductive and oxidative degradations are main techniques in the
environmental remediation. In this study, the green synthesis of Fe NPs by green tea
extracts used for the reductive degradation of malachite green (MG) and used for the
Fenton-like oxidation of monochlorobenzene (MCB) has been presented.
METHODS
Green synthesis of Fe NPs
The initial concentration of 60.0 g/L green tea extract was prepared by heating them at 800C
for 1 h. The extract was then vacuum-filtered and a solution of 0.10 mol/L of FeSO4 was
added to the tea extracts at a ratio of 1:2. Batch experiment was carried out using Fe NPs
(0.01 g) added to a solution containing 50.0 mg/L MG or 50 mg/L MCB, which was then
placed on a rotary shaker at 298 K and 250 r/min.
Fe NPs used for the reductive degradation of MG
The degradation of MG using Fe NPs was studied using UV-Vis spectroscopy (Fig.1). The
absorption of the visible bands at 617 nm and 425 nm was significantly reduced when the Fe
NPs were added to the solution containing MG. The removal efficiency of MG was 81.56%
after reacting with Fe NPs. The bands at about 425 nm had obviously declined, which
indicates that the entire conjugated chromophore structure of MG had been destroyed or the
MG may have been adsorbed into the Fe NPs after being treated with MG. This further
indicates that the removal of MG by GT-Fe NPs was caused by some MG adsorbed onto the
surface of GT-Fe NPs and cleaved the -C=C- and =C=N- bonds of MG.
The XRD patterns of Fe NPs before and after reaction with MG are shown in Fig. 2, the XRD
patterns of Fe NPs are deficient at peak (2ș=44.9°) of Fe0 since it is amorphous in nature
and Fe0 is difficult to detect using XRD. Compared to Fe NPs before reaction with MG as
shown in Fig. 2, the diffraction peaks of iron oxide and hydroxides experienced a little
increase after reaction with MG due to the oxidation of some of the Fe NPs.
Fe NPs used for the heterogeneous Fenton-like oxidation of MCB
Fig.3 shows the removal efficiency of MCB in of the presence of a H2O2 only was about
11.31%, which was similar to the blank sample (10.26%). This indicates that MCB cannot be
degraded using H2O2 alone. In contrast, the degradation of MCB was 68.76%, 53.31%, and
94
38.77% with Fe NPs synthesised by various tea extracts. However, 68.76% was obtained
from green tea extracts.
The SEM image of Fe NPs is shown in Fig. 4a, where the morphology and size are
displayed. It tends to form surface irregular spherical particles indicating a chain structure
that is not different from the chemically synthesized Fe NPs. It is evident that the basic
nanoparticles sizes range approximately between 20 and 40 nm. The EDS (Fig.4 b) appears
in the form of intense peaks of C, K and S in addition to Fe and O. Results from the EDS
analysis showed that the atomic percentages were 53.5% C, 23.4% O, 6.07% K, 2.5% S,
and 14.5% Fe.
3.0
10 m in
20 m in
60 m in
MG(control)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
b
2000
Intensity
Absorbance (a.u)
FeOOH
2400
2.5
FeOOH
1600
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
a
1200
800
0.0
400
200
300
400
500
600
700
0
800
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2Theta (degree)
Wavelength (nm)
Fig1. UV-Vis spectra of degradation of MG.
Fig.2 XRD of Fe NPS (a) before ; (b) after
Fig.3.Degradation e of MCB using Fe NPs
Fig. 4. SEM (a) image and EDS (b) of Fe NPs
CONCLUSIONS
Fe NPs synthesized using green tea extracts can be used for the reductive degradation of
MG (81.56%) and as a Fenton-like oxidative degradation of MCB(68.76%). The results show
that that polyphenols/caffeine in tea extract acted as both reducing and capping agents, this
resulted in the production of small sized but highly concentrated Fe NPs, which was
confirmed by SEM, EDS, XRD, UV-vis and FTIR.
REFERENCES
Iravani TS (2011) Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plants, Green Chem. 13
95
B31
TOXICITY OF IRON-NICKEL NANOPARTICLE TO GREEN ALGAE
SPECIES
Biruck Desalegn, Suresh R.Subashchandrabose, Megharaj Mallavarapu, Zuliang Chen,
Ravi Naidu
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR)
CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment
University of South Australia, SA 5095, AUSTRALIA
yirbd001@mymail.unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
The role of iron nanoparticles in the field of environmental remediation and medicine is well
known and widely studied (Huber, 2005). However, in recent years, incorporation of
additional metals such as nickel into iron nanoparticle is gaining attention and emerging as a
potential material for environmental remediation due to its synergistic effects (Wu and Ritche,
2006). On the other hand, there is lack of available information on their toxic influence on the
ecologically important receptors like microalgae. Therefore, in this study, the toxic effect of
iron-nickel nanoparticle to three green microalgae was investigated.
METHODS
Microalgal culturese: Chlorella sp., Chlamydomonas sp. and Eustigmatos sp were obtained
from CERAR microalgal culture collection (Subashchandrabose et al., 2012). Ten millilitres of
the axenic microalgal cultures were grown in Bold’s basal medium as described by Megharaj
(1986) containing different concentrations of iron-nickel nanoparticles and incubated at 24 ±
2 oC on an orbital shaker (120 rpm). Growth inhibition rate and biochemical tests were
performed after 96-h incubation studies (Megharaj, et al., 1986). Differential biochemical
changes in the microalgal cell induced by iron-nickel nanoparticle at three different
concentrations causing 1%, 5% and 50% growth inhibitions were analysed.
Growth rate of all the algal species were affected by the iron-nickel nanoparticle. Iron-nickel
solution at concentration of 30 – 60 mg L-1 caused a 5 – 33% growth inhibition within 96-h.
The Chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids concentration in all the treatment conditions showed a
pattern of dose-dependent reduction. Significant chlorophyll a reduction was noticed
following the iron-nickel exposure at concentration of 30 mg L-1.
Fig 1. Measurements of Chlorophyll a content in the cultures after 96-h
96
The chlorophyll a to b ratio in the Chlorella sp. showed slight increase, however the ratio at
higher concentrations in the Chlamydomonas sp was lower than the control. Elevated levels
of Malondialdehyde content was observed in iron-nickel treated cultures, indicating the
oxidative damage induced by the nanoparticle. Similarly, significant changes in proline
content were also detected between the control grown and iron-nickel nanoparticle exposed
cultures.
CONCLUSIONS
The study suggests the possible role of nano iron-nickel particle in inducing the toxicity to
microalgae. It is evident from the study that the tolerance of the three species to iron-nickel
toxicity was substantially variable. This indicates the differential response of diverse
microalgae on the exposure to iron-nickel alloy nanoparticles.
REFERENCES
Huber, D.L. (2005) Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Iron Nanoparticles. Small.
1(5):482-501.
Wu, L.F. and Ritchie, S.M.C. (2006) Removal of trichloroethylene from water by cellulose
acetate supported bimetallic Ni/Fe nanoparticles. Chemosphere., 63:285–292.
Megharaj, M., Venkateswarlu, K., Rao, A. (1986) Growth response of four species of soil
algae to monocrotophos and quinalphos. Environ Pollut 42:15–22.
Subashchandrabose, S.R., Megharaj, M., Venkateswarlu, K., Naidu, R. (2012) p-Nitrophenol
toxicity to and its removal by three select soil isolates of microalgae: The role of
antioxidants. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 31(9)1980–1988.
97
B32
EFFECT OF NANOSCALE CALCIUM OXIDE PARTICLES IN THE
REMEDIATION OF AUSTRALIAN SODIC SOILS
Prasad N V K V Tollamadugu1, Ravi Naidu2
1
Department of Soil Science, S.V.Agricultural College, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University, Tirupati – 517 502., A.P., INDIA
2
CEO & Managing Director, CRC CARE, Mawson lakes, SA 5065, AUSTRALIA
tnvkvprasad@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Soil degradation caused by sodification and salinization is of universe concern. More than
one billion hectares of soil across the world has some degree of sodification and salinization
problem. In Australia, nearly 30% of land area is affected with sodicity and soils are often
hard setting and susceptible to water logging, poor aeration and erosion. A soil whose
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) more than 15 is considered to be sodic. An
excessive soluble and exchangeable sodium has profound impact on the chemical and
physical properties of soil. When soils are high in sodium, the goal is to replace the sodium
with calcium and then leach the sodium out. There are two possible approaches for doing
this. One approach is to dissolve the limestone (calcium carbonate) or gypsum (calcium
sulfate) already present in the soil and the other is to add calcium to the soil. Gypsum helps
control the problem by providing calcium to replace sodium. However, the required quantity
of gypsum is high. Hence, ameliorating sodic soils is of great importance to render these
degraded soils suitable for agriculture.
Using nanomaterials to solve environmental issues will become an inexorable practice in the
future. Nanomaterials (<100nm size at least in one dimension) have large surface to volume
ratio and large fraction of atoms are available for chemical reaction and hold the potential to
cost-effectively address some of the challenges in the remediation of contaminated sites. In
the present investigation we have synthesized nanoscale calcium oxide particles using novel
sol-gel method and evaluated their effectiveness in the remediation of Australian sodic soils
against gypsum in a batch-column study.
METHODS
Preparation of Calcium oxide nanoparticles
Calcium chloride (Sigma Aldrich, USA) and sodium hydroxide were taken with equimolar
concentrations and mixed thoroughly in double distilled water. The resultant precipitate was
collected and rinsed extensively with double deionized water and dried in air. The powder
was then ground and decomposed in air by placing it in a pre-heated furnace for 45 minutes
at 300 degree centigrade. The characterization of the samples was done by Transmission
electron microscope (HRTEM, JEOL, 3010, USA).
Collection of sodic soil samples and batch column study
The sodic soil samples (ESP>15%) were collected from Barrossa valley and Two wells of
South Australia with the help of soil agar and quadrant method followed by sieving (2mm)
was done to prepare laboratory samples for further analysis. A batch column study was
conducted by filling 500gms of as prepared sodic soil in 50x10cm PVC columns. These
columns were fixed in the laboratory at optimum height from the ground. Six treatments were
imposed, namely T1-Control (No application), T2-Gypsum@500kg/acre, T3-Calcium oxide
nanoparticles@500kg/acre, T4- Calcium oxide nanoparticles@250kg/acre,T5- Calcium oxide
nanoparticles@100kg/acre,T6- Calcium oxide nanoparticles@50kg/acre. The treatments
were added to the columns by mixing them in distilled water and leachates were collected in
every fortnight. The collected leachates were analysed for Na and Ca concentrations using
Inductively coupled optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES).
98
Nanoscale calcium oxide particles were prepared using novel sol-gel method and the formed
particles were in the size range of 80-100nm (Fig.1), with the recorded zeta potential
of -18.2mV. The results of the leachates analysis (First,second and third fortnight) revealed
the higher concentration of sodium was leached out in nanoscale calcium oxide treated
columns compared to gypsum and control (Table 1). This is due to the fact that higher
reactivity of nanoscale calcium oxide with sodium resulted in the leaching down of large
number of sodium atoms.
Fig. 1. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) image of calcium oxide nanoparticles (size
range 80-100nm)
Table 1. The concentrations of Ca and Na present in the leachates collected during first
fortnight and third fortnight respectively (ICP-OES analysis of leachates)
Treatments
Ca
Na
Ca
Na
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
1266±22
855±18
991±11
617±15
603±29
758±18
0±0
1320±32
2084±24
1916±28
1584±20
1312±16
757±16
768±9
648±12
780±20
796±18
825±14
526±12
1624±28
1766±17
1692±10
1446±24
1094±9
*Each value is the ±SE of Two replicates
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the present investigation revealed that the nanoscale calcium oxide particles
can effectively remediate sodic soils compared to gypsum at relatively lower doses of
application. This points to the use of nanomaterials in the remediation of contaminated soils.
REFERENCES
Naidu, R. and Rengasamy, P. (1993) Ion interactions and constraints to plant nutrition in
Australian sodic soils. Aust., J. Soil Res.31:801-819.
Rengasamy, P., and Olsson, K.A. (1991) Sodicity and soil structure. Aust. J. Soil Res.29:
935-952.
99
B33
EFFECT OF NANO-ZEOLITE AND BIOSOLIDS ON PLANTS GROWN
IN SALINE SOILS
Mohammad Mahbub Islam1,2,3, Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman1,2 and Ravi Naidu1,2
CERAR, Building X, University of south Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095,
Australia
2
Environment (CRC-CARE), P O Box 486, Salisbury South, SA 5106, Australia.
3
Department of Agricultural Botany, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka 1207,
Bangladesh
1
INTRODUCTION
Soil salinity poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity worldwide as it impacts plant
growth and yield. Three hectares of cultivated land is lost every minute due to salinization
through anthropogenic activities and one third of irrigated land is already degraded by salinity
(Ghassemi et al., 1995). High concentrations of salts create ion toxicity and nutrient
imbalances which disrupt plant growth and development, as sodic soil is usually low in
organic matter (Naidu and Rengasamy, 1993; Silberbush and Ben-Asher, 2001). Like other
organic materials, biosolids which are rich in organic matter and essential plant nutrients are
often used as soil amendments although they are also a potential source of trace elements
that, if transferred to humans, may cause adverse health effects. Soil salinity usually
increases the bioavailability of heavy metals in soils treated with biosolids. Zeolites are
microporous aluminosilicate minerals that are used as an amendment for the remediation of
contaminated soil. Mineral zeolite has ability to release nutrients slowly and enhance plant
growth. However, it is important to determine the effect of soils treated with nano-zeolite and
biosolids together on plant growth and metal accumulation under salt stress. In this study we
investigate the effect of nano-zeolite in combination with biosolids as a sodic soil amendment
on plant growth and metal accumulation.
METHODS
In this pot experiment, soil was collected from an agricultural site, Virginia, South Australia, in
which particle size distribution was 71% sand, 13% silt and 16% clay and the taxonomic
classification was loamy. The soil and biosolids were oven dried and passed through a 2-mm
sieve and analyzed for pH (8.52 and 7.6), EC (0.4 and 8.21 MS/cm), TOC (41 and 806
ppm), Cl- (60 and 8218 ppm), NO3- (498 and 12094 ppm), SO4-2 (24 and 12930 ppm) and
PO4-3 (17 and 264 ppm) in water and CEC (134 and 412 ppm) in NH4Cl, Na (109 and 1206
ppm), K (530 and 1170 ppm), Ca (9224 and 14088 ppm) in aquia regia, respectively. The soil
was spiked with Na solution as chloride salt for preparing four different Na levels - 0, 20, 40
and 60 dS/m - and biosolids were mixed at a rate of 20% on w/w basis, while 1% zeolite Na
type A (Na2O.Al2O3.2SiO2.4.5H2O) was added according to treatments. The sixteen
treatments were i. control soil, ii. salinity 2.0 dS/m, iii. salinity 4.0 dS/m, iv. salinity 6.0 dS/m,
v. soil + zeolite 1%, vi. salinity 2.0 dS/m + zeolite 1%, vii. salinity 4.0 dS/m + zeolite 1%, viii.
salinity 6.0 dS/m + zeolite 1%, ix. soil 80% + biosolids 20%, x. soil 80% + biosolids 20% +
salinity 2.0 dS/m, xi. soil 80% + biosolids 20% + salinity 4.0 dS/m, xii. soil 80% + biosolids
20% + salinity 6.0 dS/m, xiii. soil 80% + biosolids 20% + zeolite 1%, xiv. soil 80% + biosolids
20% + salinity 2.0 dS/m + zeolite 1%, xv. soil 80% + biosolids 20% + salinity 4.0 dS/m added
+ zeolite 1%, xvi. soil 80% + biosolids 20% + salinity 6.0 dS/m + zeolite 1%.The experiment
was laid out in a randomized block design and replicated four times. Lettuce seeds were
sown in the treated soil and hoagland solution was used as a nutrients source and applied as
needed. The plants were harvested after 8 weeks. The harvested lettuce shoots were
analysed after oven drying and then digested with concentrated nitric acid. Their metal
content was then measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).
100
Compared to the control, the different levels of Na alone and the combination of Na and
zeolite 1% led to reduced lettuce shoot dry weight, while no plant grew at the highest level of
Na (60 dS/m) stress. The biosolids amended soil (20% w/w) resulted in increased shoot dry
weight under all Na stress levels. The combined use of zeolite with biosolids did not show
any significant differences of shoot dry weight at control and 20 dS/m but displayed
significant variation at 40 and 60 dS/m of Na levels (Fig. 1b). These results are consistent
with the plant height (Fig. 1a) and shoot Na and K content (Fig. 1c and 1d) because higher
cellular Na and lower K inhibit the growth of lettuce. This suggests that zeolite Na type A
could not overcome salinity-induced growth inhibition and Na uptake into plants grown in
contaminated soil.
a
b
Soil (100%)
25
20
Soil (80%) + Biosolid (20%)
10
5
2
1
0
0
Control
50000
Soil (80%) + Biosolid (20%) + Zeolite
3
15
c
Soil (100%)
Soil (100%) + Zeolite
Shoot dry weight (g)
Plant height (cm)
4
Soil (80%) + Biosolid (20%) + Zeolite
20 dS/m
40 ds/m
60 dS/m
Control
d
20 dS/m
60 dS/m
Soil (100%)
50000
Soil (100%)
40 dS/m
K content in shoot (ppm)
Na content in shoot (ppm)
40000
Soil (80%) + Biosolid (20%) +
Zeolite
30000
20000
10000
40000
Soil (80%) + Biosolid (20%) +
Zeolite
30000
20000
10000
0
0
Control
20 dS/m
40 dS/m
60 dS/m
Control
Different levels of Na
20 dS/m
40 dS/m
60 dS/m
Different levels of Na
Fig.1 Effect of zeolite Na type A with biosoilds amendment soil on a) plant height (cm); b) shoot
dry weight (g);c) Na content in shoot (ppm) and d) K content in shoot (ppm) of lettuce.
CONCLUSION
Biosolids can be used as effective amendment in sodic soils to mitigate salt stress. However
the addition of synthetic zeolite Na type A was found not to enhance plant growth and K
uptake under salt stress.
REFERENCES
Ghassemi F, Jakeman A J and Nix H A 1995 Salinisation of Land and Water Resources.
Human causes, Extent, Management & Case Studies. University of New South Wales,
Sydney. 526 p.
Naidu R, Rengasamy P. 1993. Ion interactions and constraints to plant nutrition in Australian
sodic soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 801–819.
Silberbush M and Ben-Asher J 2001 Simulation study of nutrient uptake by plants from
soilless cultures as affected by salinity buildup and transpiration. Plant Soil 233, 59–69.
101
B34
RECENT TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN ASBESTOS IN SOIL
(ASBINS) – US EPA PERSPECTIVE
Julie Wroble1, Danielle Devoney2
1
U.S. EPA Region 10, 1200 6th Ave., Suite 900, OEA-096, Seattle, WA 98122, USA
2
U.S. EPA, Science Policy Branch, Office of Solid Waste & Emergency Response, 1200
Pennsylvania Ave., NW (MC 5204P), Washington, DC 20460 USA
wroble.julie@epa.gov, devoney.danielle@epa.gov
INTRODUCTION
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) addresses asbestos in soil
through the Superfund Program at a variety of sites. In addition to mining, manufacturing and
production facilities with asbestos waste which are expected under Superfund, EPA has
addressed disposal sites; sites contaminated by improper demolition of buildings with
Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM); sites where asbestos was a contaminant in the
material being processed; and areas where naturally-occurring asbestos was reworked, or
relocated and posed a novel hazard. The importance of asbestos exposures to the general
public came to EPA’s attention following the World Trade Center collapse in 2001, increased
asbestos-related illnesses in Libby, Montana, around 1999, and concerns in California where
residential development occurred in an area with naturally occurring asbestos. As EPA
scientists began to work together towards investigating these diverse sites, they found that a
variety of sampling and analytical approaches were being used. EPA’s Technical Review
Workgroup for Asbestos was formed to develop consistent approaches for investigation and
assessment of asbestos-contaminated sites nationally. This workgroup consists of scientists
from all 10 EPA regions and Headquarters who meet regularly to develop guidance, weigh
technical issues, and provide comments on research and site-specific assessments. This
workgroup developed the Framework For Investigating Asbestos-Contaminated Superfund
Sites (EPA 2008), and also established several research initiatives to fill critical data gaps in
site assessment and human health risk assessment for asbestos.
OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview of the current techniques within
the Superfund Program that are used to estimate exposure to asbestos and the associated
health risks posed by asbestos-contaminated sites. A few site examples will be examined to
highlight opportunities and challenges in using the framework. Additionally, ongoing
research, new methods and emerging techniques will be described that may streamline the
site-evaluation process and allow for better risk-based decision-making. Finally, issues that
remain unresolved and frame our future research agenda will be reviewed.
FRAMEWORK OVERVIEW
EPA’s Framework for Investigating Asbestos-Contaminated Superfund Sites (Framework)
follows a stepwise approach intended to result in a risk management decision regarding the
need to take an action to address risks to human health. Unlike other contaminants, risk
assessments for soil contaminated with asbestos are not easily based upon soil data, for
several reasons: 1) it is more difficult to collect a representative soil sample for the purpose
of assessing human exposures; 2) analytical methods for soil have poor sensitivities for
asbestos relative to the level that may pose a health concern; 3) the exposure medium of
interest is air; and 4) inhalation exposures vary with soil concentration, the type of activity,
and local conditions. Ideally, a measure of the asbestos concentration that could be released
into air from the contaminated soil is needed. The Framework process begins with a review
of available information about the presence of asbestos at a site and determining whether
asbestos has been released to the environment and whether human exposure is possible. If
after completing these steps, it is determined that additional sampling is necessary to
characterize human exposures, activity-based sampling (ABS) is performed. This type of
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sampling involves human disturbance of soils containing asbestos to generate dust which is
sampled using traditional industrial hygiene techniques. The results of ABS, can be assessed
using standard EPA methods to determine risks to human health. Risk management decision
points allow investigators to decide whether sufficient data is available to require an action or
that no additional investigation is needed. The Framework is intended to be fluid and steps
can be repeated as needed to refine understanding of the hazard posed by asbestos at a
given site. This Framework is EPA’s first technical guidance on how to conduct risk-based
assessments for asbestos-contaminated sites and the major elements include: 1) Flow
diagram for site assessment and risk-based decisions; 2) Application of ABS to evaluate the
exposures at a site in support of risk-based decisions; 3) Resources for sample collection
and analysis; 4) Definition of Phased Contrast Microscopy–equivalent (PCMe) structures for
estimating; 5) Age and duration specific cancer inhalation unit risks (IURs) to address early,
less-than-lifetime exposures to asbestos.
SUMAS MOUNTAIN ASBESTOS SITE
EPA Region 10 has been investigating a site in Washington State that is contaminated with
naturally-occurring chrysotile asbestos. The asbestos is exposed by a landslide on Sumas
Mountain and the slide has been sloughing off material at a rate of about 150,000 cubic
yards per year. This material is transported via streamflow into Swift Creek and the Sumas
River. Historically, Swift Creek was dredged annually to prevent flooding. However, the
dredged materials were used in an unrestricted manner by members of the public, and EPA
requested that these dredged materials no longer leave the site. As a result, the sediment
stockpiles grew to the point that dredging could no longer be conducted. Asbestos
concentrations in the dredged materials average about 2% with concentrations up to about
5%. In areas where flooding has deposited sediments onto the land, concentrations of
asbestos can exceed 25%. Surface water concentrations of asbestos are very high when
flows are at their peak in spring and early summer. ABS has shown that disturbing soils and
sediments that contain asbestos can result in asbestos concentrations in the breathing zone
that pose a risk to human health and this information has been used to educate the public
about ways to reduce their exposures to these materials.
NORTH RIDGE ESTATES SITE
In 2003, EPA was asked by the State of Oregon to assist with assessment of the North
Ridge Estate site. At this site, ACM was found on the ground in proximity to residences. The
source of the ACM was former military buildings constructed in the 1940s. The site developer
did not follow EPA regulations requiring removal of ACM prior to demolition of the buildings.
As such, the ACM was broken into fragments and spread around the site. Subsequently,
homes were built on this 120-acre site and over time, pieces of ACM began coming up out of
the ground via frost-heave, erosion, and other processes. A site-specific risk assessment
based on ABS provided the basis for EPA’s action. In 2011, EPA placed this site on the
National Priority List and a remedy of soil removal followed by capping has been selected as
the preferred remedy to address human health.
CONCLUSIONS
EPA’s Framework has proven to be a useful tool for addressing asbestos in soil and it has
resulted in a more consistent national approach. However, there is still progress to be made
in the areas of sampling and characterization of asbestos-contaminated sites. Areas for
research that will be addressed in the near future include validation studies of activity-based
sampling and evaluation of the fluidized bed asbestos-segregator and other tools.
REFERENCES
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2008) Framework for Investigation of
Asbestos-Contaminated Superfund Sites. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response Directive #9200.0-68.
http://epa.gov/superfund/health/contaminants/asbestos/pdfs/framework_asbestos_guidance.pdf
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B37
ASSESSING THE EXPOSURE-PATHWAY: ASBESTOS IN SOIL TO
AIR ASSESSMENT METHOD (ASAAM)
Benjamin Hardaker1, Angus Leslie1, Ross McFarland2, Gerry Coyle3, Peta Odgers3
1
AECOM Australia, Q410, QVB Post Office, Sydney, NSW, 1230, AUSTRALIA
2
AECOM Australia, PO Box 73 Hunter Region MC NSW 2310, AUSTRALIA
3
Australian Government Comcare, GPO Box 9905, Canberra ACT 2601
Benjamin.Hardaker@aecom.com
INTRODUCTION
A problem not only faced in Australia, but also internationally, is asbestos in soil (ASBINS).
This is due to past poor practices in the management of waste asbestos-containing material
products. There is an increasing amount of information available on occupational exposure,
waste management and toxicology of bonded and friable asbestos; however, the
understanding of the ability of asbestos to migrate from soil to air is limited.
ASBESTOS IN SOIL TO AIR ASSESSMENT METHOD
Current guidance documents state that if asbestos fines (AF) or fibrous asbestos (FA)
concentrations exceed 0.001% (w/w), a site poses an unacceptable risk to receptors (NEPC,
2013; WA DoH, 2009). However, the ability to quantify asbestos in such low concentrations
using available methods in Australia in bulk soil samples is limited to a reporting limit of
0.01% (w/w) (Standards Australia, 2004). This order of magnitude gap requires those
completing human health risk assessments to use a level of professional judgement, often
resulting in conservative measures being taken to account for uncertainty.
The asbestos in soil to air assessment method (ASAAM), being developed by AECOM,
endeavours to provide data to professionals regarding the potential for asbestos to migrate
from soil to air for use in making risk-based ASBINS site management decisions. This work
is currently being completed through a research funding grant from the Australian
Government Comcare’s Asbestos Innovation Fund with an ‘in-kind’ contribution from
AECOM.
Theory of Soil Erosion and the Liberation of Asbestos
The erosion potential of a soil surface, and therefore ability to liberate asbestos fibres, is a
function of the shear force, either natural or mechanical, being placed on its surface and also
the soil matrix properties. Once this shear force reaches a given point, dependent on a
number of factors related to the soil matrix, particles are dislodged from the soil surface and
transported to a new location.
There are two recognised threshold friction velocities in Aeolian transport systems: static and
dynamic. The static threshold friction velocity is the minimum velocity passed across a soil
surface that will cause a particle to become dislodged from a soil matrix and be transported
to another location. The dynamic threshold velocity is the threshold associated with particle
movement where a particle is impacted by another particle referred to as bombardment.
Therefore, if the static threshold friction velocity is exceeded, soil erosion will occur and the
potential for asbestos to be released increases. Soils, however, exhibit properties that may
both inhibit or liberate asbestos fibres from a soil matrix. This is dependent on the soil type
as well as chemical and physical properties. Moisture content has been documented to
suppress the liberation of asbestos fibres from a soil matrix (Swartjes et al., 2008).
Key Elements of the ASAAM Unit Design
The ASAAM unit has been designed as a qualitative assessment tool (i.e. to detect the
presence of asbestos fibres in air) by mechanically disturbing ASBINS. The following outlines
the ASAAM unit design:
x the ASAAM unit disturbs as great a surface area as possible due to the heterogeneous
nature of ASBINS contamination to maximise the potential for asbestos to be liberated
from soil to air;
104
x
x
x
x
x
the velocity of the air stream generated by the ASAAM unit exceeds published threshold
friction velocities for a range of soil types to cause asbestos fibres to be liberated from a
soil matrix;
the velocity of the ASAAM unit’s air stream is variable to allow the unit’s operation to be
tailored to various site-specific conditions such as soil type and environmental conditions;
air sampling for asbestos fibres is conducted using a readily available air sampling
technique, the Membrane Filter Method [NOHSC:3003 (2005)], with the ability to validate
samples using more sensitive microscopy methods such as electron microscopy;
the unit is relatively cost effective to construct, operate and decontaminate and produces
useful data for input into qualitative human health risk assessments; and
operation of the unit meets occupational health and safety requirements for personnel
operating the device by maintaining dust generation and sampling for asbestos entirely
within the unit.
CONCLUSION
The key to ASBINS risk assessment is not to detect whether an ASBINS hazard exists at a
site, but the potential for ASBINS to liberate asbestos into the air for a receptor to inhale. The
ASAAM unit has not been designed as an exposure assessment tool or to quantify asbestos
concentrations in air, but to potentially identify whether an asbestos exposure-pathway
exists.
Laboratory and field testing is required to determine the validity of the ASAAM schematic
design. If determined to be viable, the ASAAM unit will provide those involved in site
characterisation and site management decisions with another tool to determine the potential
risks an ASBINS site poses to receptors. While there are benefits and drawbacks to the
methodology, if applied in appropriate scenarios, the unit has the ability to be a rapidly
deployable and cost-effective tool. Beneficial applications may include delineation of free
fibre asbestos sources at a site, monitoring of worker safety at ASBINS sites where soil
disturbing activities are planned or are occurring, identifying an asbestos hazard in air
resulting from ASBINS, and use as a validation tool to determine if remediation works have
met a defined end-point.
REFERENCES
AECOM Australia Pty Ltd (2012). Asbestos in Soil to Air Assessment Method. Australian
Government Comcare and AECOM Australia.
Hardaker, B. (2009). Risk Assessment of Asbestos-Contaminated Soils: An International
Perspective. Winston Churchill Memorial Trust.
National Environment Protection Council (NEPC) (2013). National Environment Protection
(Assessment of Site Contamination) Amendment Measure 2013, Schedule B1 –
Guideline on Investigation Levels for Soil and Groundwater. National Environment
Protection Council, Canberra.
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (NOHSC) (2005). Guidance Note on
the Membrane Filter Method for Estimating Airborne Asbestos Fibres 2nd Edition
[NOHSC:3003 (2005)]. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Communications,
Information Technology and Arts, Canberra, ACT.
Standards Australia (2002). AS4964 - Method for the Qualitative Identification of Asbestos in
Bulk Samples. Standards Australia.
Swartjes, F.A., Tromp, P.C. (2008). A Tiered Approach for the Assessment of Human Health
Risks of Asbestos in Soils. Soil and Sediment Contamination, Volume 14, Issue 4,
pp. 137 – 149.
Western Australian Department of Health (WA DoH) (2009). Guidelines for the Assessment,
Remediation and Management of Asbestos-Contaminated Sites in Western Australia.
Western Australian Department of Health.
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B38
ASBESTOS IN SOIL – THREE REMEDIATION / MANAGEMENT CASE
STUDIES FROM THREE STATES – AN AUDITOR’S EXPERIENCE
Tony Scott1, Dilara Valiff2, Sally Egan2
1
Coffey Environments Australia Pty Ltd, Level 20, Tower B – Citadel Tower, 799 Pacific
Highway, Chatswood, NSW, 2067, AUSTRALIA
2
Coffey Environments Australia Pty Ltd, Level 1, 33 Richmond Road, Keswick, SA, 5035,
AUSTRALIA
tony_scott@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents three (3) recent case studies of different remediation / management
strategies that have been audited by the author. The case studies cover multiple
jurisdictions: South Australia (SA); New South Wales (NSW); and the Australian Capital
Territory (ACT). This paper focuses solely on the asbestos in soils remediation /
management components of these audits.
METHODS
The author was appointed to conduct contaminated site audits in accordance with the
relevant jurisdictional guidelines for each of the sites the subject of the case studies. At the
time of these audits there was no national guideline on the assessment, remediation and
management of asbestos in soil contamination. Although, at the time of the SA and ACT
audits the Guidelines for the Assessment, Remediation and Management of AsbestosContaminated Sites in Western Australia (WA Department of Health 2009), had been
published which the auditor considered when completing these audits. The NSW audit
predated the WA Department of Health (2009) guidelines; the auditor referred to the
Guidelines for the NSW Site Auditor Scheme (NSW Department of Environment and
Conservation 2006) which requires auditors to “exercise their professional judgment”.
CASE STUDIES, BACKGROUND, RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Case Study 1 – Redevelopment of Mental Health Facility, Adelaide, SA
The audit site had operated as a mental health facility since the mid 1880’s and was being
redeveloped, including a new mental health facility on a portion of the former facility which
was the area the subject of the audit. The site history review identified the presence of
subsurface asbestos conduits (although not all locations known), use of asbestos in existing
and former buildings, possible use of asbestos lagging on steam pipes and potential for
asbestos to be present in fill onsite. The remedial strategy approved by the auditor
comprised various elements related to asbestos including: asbestos awareness training for
all onsite contractors; an asbestos management protocol to manage any asbestos found
during site works; removal of asbestos conduits to the extent practicable where encountered
during site works; and an ongoing Site Management Plan including asbestos management
requirements (acknowledging that some pipes would remain) which was agreed to by the site
owner. During the course of the site development asbestos was encountered in both
expected and unexpected situations. Asbestos was identified principally in the form of
asbestos cement materials with asbestos fibres noted in a small number of samples. The
most notable unexpected form of asbestos encountered during works was 156 asbestos
cement cased piles extending beyond 12 m depth. Following discussions with SA EPA and
WorkSafe it was agreed that the piles would be broken off below the maximum excavation in
the development works, and be incorporated in the ongoing Site Management Plan.
At the end of development works the ongoing Site Management Plan was prepared which
included an In-Ground Asbestos Register and an asbestos site figure (identifying areas of
asbestos risk). The Site Management Plan included a process to be implemented prior to
undertaking any future subsurface works to appropriately manage the potential for
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encountering any residual asbestos. The auditor signed off on the site as being suitable for
the proposed new mental health facility subject to conditions including the following related to
asbestos: the implementation of the ongoing Site Management Plan by the site owners; and
the Site Management Plan to be provided to future owners; and a recommendation to SA
EPA to notate the title with the requirement for implementation of the Site Management Plan.
Case Study 2 – Redevelopment for Residential Development of former Snowy
Mountain Hydro Electric Authority Camp, Cooma (southern) NSW
The audit site was formerly a temporary accommodation camp in Cooma for workers
employed during construction of the Snowy Mountains Hydro Scheme. The local council was
aware there were subsurface asbestos cement water pipes running through the site and
required an audit to be undertaken to confirm that removal of the asbestos pipes was
appropriately completed. The developer had dug a trench down to and around the pipe and
removed the pipe and stockpiled soil beside the trench and the environmental consultant had
undertaken validation sampling of the trench at the time of the engagement of the auditor.
The validation sampling indicated the presence of many asbestos fibre bundles and asbestos
cement fragments in the trench and stockpile. The remediation strategy involved offsite
disposal of all stockpiled soil and re-excavation of trench, beyond the original excavation,
and re-validation. Following removal of all stockpiles and re-excavation of the trench
validation sampling comprising visual inspection, intensive sampling over a 15m interval of
trench and stockpile which had highest asbestos impact in original validation, less intensive
(4 point composites for each 15m interval) sampling of remaining trench and stockpile areas
and air monitoring. Results of all final validation samples observed “no asbestos detected” in
soil samples and air monitoring levels below guidelines. The auditor provided a Part B Site
Audit Statement indicating that the audit site (the trench and a surveyed narrow corridor
beside the trench where soil had been stockpiled) had been remediated and validated with
respect to asbestos. This met the local Council requirements.
Case Study 3 – Redevelopment of Former Industrial Site, Canberra, ACT
The audit site is former industrial site proposed for redevelopment into an industrial estate. A
previous lessee of the site had operated it as a waste recycling centre but had received a
wide range of material including significant quantities of asbestos and asbestos impacted
soils which were dumped onsite, mostly in an old dam. The remedial strategy comprised
removal and separation of wastes with significant quantities disposed of offsite.
Approximately 7000m3 of soil containing a range of building waste (bricks, rubble, glass etc)
and potentially small quantities of asbestos cement fragments was to be contained beneath a
road on the industrial development estate. The contained material was covered by a
minimum 1m cap and roadway. The ownership of the road will pass to Roads ACT and there
was a requirement by the auditor for an Ongoing Site Management Plan to be implemented.
The auditor approved the remedial strategy subject to an acceptable system for ongoing
management by Roads ACT which have registered their interest in the section of road with
Dial Before You Dig to ensure appropriate management into the future.
CONCLUSIONS
Three case studies of different asbestos remediation / management strategies that obtained
auditor sign-off under different regulatory requirements.
REFERENCES
WA Department of Health (2009) Guidelines for the Assessment, Remediation and
Management of Asbestos-Contaminated Sites in Western Australia 70p.
NSW Department of Environment and Conservation (2006) Guidelines for the NSW Site
Auditor Scheme 92p.
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B43
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CONTAMINATED LAND
MANAGEMENT, A CONERSTONE TO SUCCESS OR FAILURE –
CASE STUDIES
Edward K. C. Wu
Coffey, Level 19, Coffey Tower, 799 Pacific Highway, Chatswood, NSW, 2067, AUSTRALIA
edward_wu@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
Contaminated land management is complex and challenging, often involving multiple
disciplines in the wider engineering and science communities. Geotechnical aspect is one of
the most important considerations in contaminated land management, and in many cases, a
cornerstone to success or failure.
OBJECTIVE
This paper discuses selected important aspects in contaminated land management involving
geotechnical considerations, based on examples from four case studies.
METHODS
Four contaminated land management case studies in NSW Australia were reviewed:
(a) A golf course development at a closed landfill
(b) A human health risk assessment at a petroleum site
(c) A harbour-front redevelopment at a former gasworks site
(d) A residential redevelopment at a former brickworks and quarry site
CASE STUDY 1 – GOLF COURSE DEVELOPMENT AT A CLOSED LANDFILL
Increased Contamination Level Due to Fill Surcharge
A golf course development at a closed landfill involved placement of fill to develop landforms
for the golf driving range. Quarterly groundwater monitoring results identified a significant
spike in nitrate levels in the leachate during and immediately following the placement of fill. It
was subsequently identified that the fill presented a surcharge to the landfill material, a
common geotechnical solution to induce and accelerate ground settlement in soft grounds.
However, the fill may have released pore water in the landfill materials, thus promoted the
release of nitrate in the leachate.
CASE STUDY 2 – HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT AT A PETROLEUM SITE
Testing of Material Properties Provided Savings to the Projects
A service station site was impacted by volatile hydrocarbons. A human health risk
assessment was undertaken. Generic and conservative material properties were initially
used in vapour intrusion modelling, but resulted in unacceptable risk levels. Site soil was
then tested for its material properties including particle size distribution and porosity contents.
Instead of using conservative values (sandy clay with an assumed water porosity of 16.8%),
site specific material properties (identified to be silty clay with a tested water porosity of
30.8%) were used in modelling and resulted in acceptable risk levels.
CASE STUDY 3 – REDEVELOPMENT OF A HARBOURFRONT GASWORKS SITE
Application of Geotechnical Containment Solution in Contamination Containment
A large harbour-front redevelopment at a former gasworks site involved construction of a
deep basement. Soil and groundwater at the site were impacted by gasworks chemicals.
Contamination management and site validation required demonstration of stringent
containment characteristics to prevent seepage of contaminated groundwater and vapour
into the basement. Selection of a practical proven construction approach was a major
108
challenge to the project. A diaphragm wall design was selected. It not only met the stringent
geotechnical requirements, but also presented a contamination contaminant accepted by the
site auditor and the consent authority. This containment was able to be constructed using
conventional diaphragm wall installation method.
CASE STUDY 4 – REDEVELOPMENT OF A CENTURY OLD BRICKWORKS & QUARRY
Implementing a Level 1 Geotechnical Earthworks Monitoring Program (AS3798)
The site comprised a large quarry (up to 30m deep) which required backfilling with
engineered fill of approximately 1,000,000m3 in volume (equivalent to 40,000 Olympic pools).
Considerations were made to source clean fill from over 40 source sites with stringent
geotechnical compaction properties to manage ground settlement of thick fill (up to 30m
thick). A special engineering methodology was developed combining geotechnical and
contamination specifications to source, test, import and monitor fill importation. For example,
inspections were required to reject soft clayey materials, derived from shale and sandstone.
The methodology was successfully implemented via a specially designed Level 1
geotechnical earthwork monitoring program (AS3798). Over 400 validation check samples
were tested for contaminated purposes. The program was streamlined to reduce duplications
of geotechnical and contamination efforts to achieve a cost saving exceeding AU$300,000.
Reusing Fly Ash Generated from Brickworks
Substantial volume of fly ash was encountered at the site. The fly ash met the health based
site criteria but it did not have suitable geotechnical compaction properties to be reused as
backfill on site. Combining with a geotechnical solution following compaction trials, the fly ash
originated from kiln waste was successfully blended and reused as an engineered fill instead
of offsite disposal, provided substantial savings to the project.
Overcoming Landslip Hazards during Remediation, Validation & Quarry Rehabilitation
Remedial excavation, site validation and quarry rehabilitation activities involved deep
excavations adjacent to heritage kilns and chimneys, as well as working adjacent to steep
rock faces up to 30m high. Geotechnical solutions (such as maintenance of buffer zones,
utilising specialised earthwork machines, installation of rock bolts and meshes) were
implemented to overcome ground safety hazards.
CONCLUSIONS
There are many connections between geotechnical engineering and contaminated land
management. The above case studies have demonstrated that geotechnical considerations
are an important aspect in contaminated land management. Geotechnical considerations
have the potential to present cost savings to contaminated land management projects, and in
some cases, a cornerstone to success or failure.
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C01
FROM PEACE TO PROSPERITY – BROWNFIELDS AS DRIVERS FOR
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC REGENERATION
Kyle M Alexander OBE
Maze Long Kesh Development Corporation, Halftown Rd, Lisburn, BT27 4AX,
Northern Ireland, UNITED KINGDOM
kyle.alexander@mazelongkesh.com
INTRODUCTION
Remediation of contaminated sites is a means to the end of their positive reuse, enabling
brownfields to become valuable community assets rather than liabilities. Sustainable
development demands a responsible and enlightened approach that doesn’t simply seek to
maximise profit but takes account of environmental, economic and social factors. This is
brought into sharp focus by demonstrating through case studies from Northern Ireland the
significant and symbolic role that brownfields can play in societies emerging from conflict as
sites once associated with decline and division become symbols of hope as economic
development consolidates peace and social regeneration creates shared and inclusive
places that offer opportunities for all.
CONTEXT
As contaminated land is often the outcome of economic restructuring and the decline of
major industries, resultant brownfields are likely to be located in areas of social deprivation.
Many of the neighbourhoods surrounding brownfields were traditionally stable communities
that deteriorated with the departure of local anchor industries. Some of the highest
concentrations of poverty, crime and other social problems are located in areas close to
brownfields. Dereliction also has a negative impact on investors, inhibiting the capacity of
cities to cope with economic transition.
Former military sites present a particular opportunity. Sites that were symbols of conflict can
become drivers for social and economic regeneration and symbols of transformation. Sites
previously secure with restricted access can be opened up for public access as shared
space offering opportunities for previously divided communities.
Given that public intervention is often necessary to bring brownfields back in to use there will
be a requirement to address public policy objectives and an expectation that public benefit
will be an outcome with an improved quality of life for local communities. Responsible clean
up and subsequent development can remove blight and generate jobs and income. The
brownfield project can become the catalyst to revive older communities and neighbourhoods
and have a positive effect on the people and communities who once depended on those
sites for their livelihoods.
CASE STUDIES
Maze Long Kesh – from peace to prosperity
Maze Long Kesh is a former World War II airfield which from 1971 to 2000 during N Ireland’s
‘Troubles’ was a military base, internment camp and prison for paramilitaries and the scene
of the hunger strike in 1981 during which 10 republicans died. As a result of the Peace
Process and following the closure of the prison the site was one of a number of former
military sites transferred by the British government to the N Ireland Executive with the
purpose of the sites being drivers for economic and social regeneration. Since then there has
been extensive demolition and remediation of the 347 acre site which has addressed
hydrocarbon and lead shot contamination arising from the former military and airfield use.
However whilst the site is now decontaminated some still refer to it as ‘toxic’ due to the
sensitivities and conflicting views on its recent history and future use. The emerging vision for
the site recognises the unique opportunity for a transformation of global significance that will
demonstrate in a single site how societies can move not only from ‘conflict to peace’ but
110
through economic development ‘from peace to prosperity’. A Peace-building and Conflict
Resolution Centre designed by Daniel Libeskind will be a centre for international exchange.
This unlocks the opportunity to maximise the site’s economic, historic and reconciliation
potential. Economic development focusing on agrifoods and health and life sciences enables
the site to address three major global issues of Peace, Heath and Nutrition.
Economic development is critical to sustaining the process of peace building in Northern
Ireland and the international significance of this brownfield site cannot be doubted.
Responsibility for regeneration rests with the Maze Long Kesh Development Corporation,
one of only two special development corporations created in the United Kingdom to respond
to the unique challenges of redeveloping catalytic former brownfield sites of global
significance, the other being the London Legacy Development Corporation, responsible for
the planning and management of the 2012 Olympic Park.
Belfast Gasworks – integrating economic and social regeneration
Gas production on this prime piece of city centre land in Belfast ceased in 1987, leaving a
contaminated and derelict 29 acre site straddling a sectarian divide between unionist and
nationalist communities at a time of community conflict. Community representatives
committed themselves to demonstrating to their communities that by working together they
could offer another way than that of violence and conflict. A partnership between local
communities, Belfast City Council and Laganside Corporation has established, through the
integration of new development and built heritage, a shared space that is a vibrant economic
hub. The approach involved land acquisition, demolition, remediation and infrastructure
development with a strong emphasis on high quality landscaping of public spaces. The
objectives of the project were to enhance the quality of life for those living in the neighbouring
communities; to provide a source of employment in the area and to act as a catalyst for inner
city regeneration.
Physical transformation was only one aspect. The identification of broad regeneration
objectives, considering social and environmental priorities alongside more traditional
economic incentives, has been essential for the successful redevelopment of the Gasworks
An innovative employment matching service has been developed that seeks to move people
from long term unemployment and worklessness into employment. It is underpinned by a
genuine commitment that each individual client will be supported, enabled and challenged to
overcome barriers to the achievement of their potential.
CONCLUSIONS
Brownfields offer a significant opportunity to be drivers of economic and social regeneration.
Former military sites offer a particular and symbolic role in post conflict reconstruction. The
requirement for public intervention demands that wider public policy objectives be addressed
in an integrated and multifaceted approach.
There is a logical sequence in the cycle, beginning with physical measures which create the
setting for economic development. This is turns enables social issues to be addressed.
Delivery requires a mixture of vision, ambition and pragmatism, a creative and proactive
mindset, an ability to work in partnership with a diverse range of stakeholders and a
commitment to genuine citizen participation.
REFERENCES
OECD (2000) Urban Renaissance: Belfast’s lessons for policy and partnership. pp 50-53
OECD(2006) Reshaping a local economy through a development agency: the case of
Laganside Corporation, Belfast. pp35-49
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C05
URBAN REGENERATION AND BROWNFIELD REMEDIATION:
ADDRESSING CHALLENGES FOR TAILORED, INTEGRATED AND
SUSTAINABLE URBAN LAND REVITALIZATION
Stephan Bartke
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ, Department of Economics,
Permoserstr. 15 - 04318 Leipzig, GERMANY
stephan.bartke@ufz.de
INTRODUCTION: URBAN REGENERATION AND BROWNFIELD REMEDIATION
Urban development is widespread characterised by sprawl and an unsustainable land-take of
unspoiled habitats or fertile agricultural soils. Then again especially in industrialised countries
there are derelict and degraded areas posing challenges and chances to an urban renewal.
Globally, land is a finite resource. To protect functioning soils for future generations, their use
in the most efficient way possible must be ensured. Though, every year globally hundreds of
thousands of acres are sealed. In the European Union alone more than 1,000km² of
undeveloped land is appropriated for housing, industry, roads and recreation, without full
consideration of diverse tangible and intangible services and values these soils provide. With
uncertain levels of contamination as a result of former industrial, commercial or military use,
brownfield sites consume scarce soil resources and cause environmental and health risks,
as well as economic and social costs. Brownfield remediation as a building block of urban
regeneration represents a valuable opportunity, not only to prevent the loss of pristine
countryside, but also to enhance urban spaces and to remediate often contaminated soils.
The European Environment Agency (EEA) has estimated that there are as many as three
million brownfield sites across Europe, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
estimated that there are more than 450,000 brownfields in the United States of America and
between 10,000-160,000 contaminated sites are assumed to be in Australia (according to
Niall Johnston), often located and well-connected within urban boundaries and as such
offering a competitive alternative to greenfield investments.
Regrettably, widespread an integrated land use regulation is missing. Thus, there is a lack of
impetus for a coherent approach for remedial soil protection, for a harmonised inventory of
potentially contaminated sites and how to regenerate them efficiently. Another concern is the
ongoing unrestrained land-take and continued soil sealing all over the world, especially in the
developing BRICS countries but also often even in regions with shrinking populations—all
calling to address the challenge to foster brownfield remediation and urban regeneration.
ADDRESSING CHALLENGES FOR URBAN BROWNFIELD REVITALIZATION
Contentedly, previous decades increased a broader understanding of soil being a scarce
resource that deserves protection for the sake of a sustainable development. Remediation of
urban brownfields has increasingly been understood as a major building block in strategies to
achieve sustainable cities. In recent years, an abundance of regulations, strategies, tools,
guidelines, documented case studies and communication methods has been produced—
approaching sustainable remediation and management of brownfields within urban
regeneration. Yet, the partly non-visibility and missing integration of now available, innovative
and useful methodologies and tools for risk assessment, re-use planning, prioritisation and in
general for sustainable management of contaminated sites and brownfields are reasons and
the a key challenge, why valuable means of regeneration are not used to their full potential.
Within the European 7th Framework Programme research project “Tailored Improvement of
Brownfield Regeneration in Europe – TIMBRE” researchers from science, regulation and
industry focus on enhanced uptake of innovative and existing methods, technologies and
decision-support instruments. TIMBRE’s objective is to provide contaminated sites’ owners,
local authorities and stakeholders with web-based tools that include (1) integrated re-use
planning options’ assessments, (2) prioritisation and success metrics understanding and (3)
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user-friendly collection and provision of available information related to risk assessment and
sustainable management of contaminated sites. TIMBRE recently guest-edited a special
issue from Science for Environment Policy by the European Commission DG Environment
(2013) bringing together the latest research on brownfield remediation and redevelopment,
exploring new tools and approaches and highlighting successful strategies.
Topics of current interest include how to conduct careful ex ante planning required to ensure
brownfield’s reuse in an effective and sustainable manner. Decision Support Systems
(DSSs) are designed to aid this process; however, there is a scarcity of tools, which can
manage complex spatial information and provide planners with clear results. New DSS tools
are proposed and have been further developed in TIMBRE (e.g. Schädler et al. 2012, 2013)
that combine economic, environmental and social concerns, making planning options clear
for a range of stakeholders to be involved in a sustainable revitalisation procedure.
Once such decisions are made, their impact and success must be evaluated. Successful
planning policies used in different countries can help identify best practice and, provided
local context is taken into account, can be of value to other nations. For example, the ‘green
belt’ planning approach taken in England, which protects a ring of undeveloped land around
cities, was identified as particularly successful in containing urban sprawl. Similarly, certain
‘Brownfield best practices’ showcased flagship developments and demonstrate the potential
of brownfield regeneration to boost economies in poor areas.
There are many benefits of brownfield restoration and re-use; however, decontamination can
be complex and costly, requiring soil, surface and ground-water remediation. This illustrates
the need for an information platform identifying state of the art and best practice proven tools
and technologies—as developed in the TIMBRE project.
Moreover, fiscal instruments to stimulate investment and guide land use to a more
sustainable path are important policy tools to enable brownfield regeneration. As BenDor et
al. (2011) conclude, although governments and investors should be aware that the benefits
of brownfield redevelopment can take several years to accrue, the longer term gains should
not be underestimated. Notwithstanding, aside from financial concerns, as TIMBRE showed
in exemplary case studies in four European nations, success of brownfield redevelopment
relies heavily on the culturally rooted practices of local stakeholders and, as a result, the
most effective strategies for brownfield regeneration may differ between regions.
CONCLUSIONS
Brownfield regeneration and urban land use planning is complex and encompasses many
different environmental, economic and social dimensions, often with consequences reaching
far in to the future. Only a combination of methods, valuation or set of indicators will be able
to cover this complexity, especially given the need to adjust to local context.
The exemplary approaches show that there is no need to reinvent the wheel but bring
together existing knowledge and make this available to the stakeholder. By using
sustainability as the guiding concept, brownfield regeneration then will be a stepping stone
towards efficient use of land resources such as soil, water and nature. Thus, brownfield sites
should be regarded as a valuable opportunity, not a costly problem.
REFERENCES
BenDor, T.K., Metcalf, S.S. and Paich, M. (2011) The Dynamics of Brownfield
Redevelopment. Sustainability 3: 914-936; http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/3/6/914
European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service (ed. SCU, University of the West
of England) (2013) Brownfield Regeneration. Thematic Issue 39, 14 May 2013,
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/specialissue_en.htm
Schädler,S., Finkel, M., Bleicher, A., Morio, M. and Gross, M. (2013) Spatially explicit
computation of sustainability indicator values for the automated assessment of land-use
options. Landscape Urban Plan. 111: 34-45.
Schädler, S., Morio, M., Bartke, S. and Finkel, M. (2012): Integrated planning and spatial
evaluation of megasite remediation and reuse options, J Con Hyd. 127: 88-100.
TIMBRE project: http://www.timbre-project.eu
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C06
FACILITATING THE APPLICATION OF BROWNFIELDS
REMEDIATION TO URBAN RENEWAL
Garry Smith
Smith Environmental, PO Box 68, Miranda, 1490, AUSTRALIA
smithenvironm@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Brownfields land, abandoned, idle and under-used former industrial land where
redevelopment is complicated by environmental contamination, is prevalent in most western
urban municipalities. By their nature and location large brownfields site developments affect
social and economic issues. Some international jurisdictions are achieving successful landuse planning, urban design, and transport planning outcomes in urban renewal through
facilitating urban contaminated sites remediation.
AIMS
To review Australian and international literature, case studies and experience in large-scale
urban brownfields site remediation and its application to strategic urban renewal in Australia
and in developing countries.
Australian, European and US experience illustrates brownfield development-based benefits
for urban housing; jobs; infrastructure; social inclusion; and climate change mitigation
(USEPA 2013). In Australia large-site remediation frequently has resulted in development
near waterways. An appreciation of the potential contribution of more dispersed brownfield
developments in Australian cities will reap benefits in urban densities adjustment and in
urban transit improvements.
International remediation practice has identified an important ‘co-location effect’ (ICMA 2003)
whereby the redevelopment of a brownfield site leads to the nearby development of
properties which, like brownfields, are challenging to redevelop. Adjacent sites and vacant
properties may be revitalised coincident with a large brownfield site. The ‘trigger’ brownfield
development may be facilitated through assistance from government investment, local
government planning processes, and in partnership with communities and national
governments.
Co-location also reflects advantages in ‘leveraging’ the economic value of Brownfield
development through, for example (ICMA 2003):
x enabling assessment, remediation, and redevelopment of Brownfield and other
adjacent sites so that the condition of one property does not negatively impact on the
potential of another;
x combining resources to create a package of planning and remediation tools and
programmes to revitalise areas with distressed properties;
x improving cost effectiveness of area-based planning;
x improving funding for infrastructure improvement such as public transport;
x creating a critical mass of people or activities to make transport access more
effective.
US government multi-agency stimulus programs and case studies illustrate the potential for
targeted brownfields development to contribute to large-scale urban renewal.
Brownfields implementation mechanisms include targeted government brownfield
remediation funding and developer incentives (e.g. funding for liability insurance and
revolving loan funding mechanisms) and planning regulation policy improvement (approvals
fast-tracking, improved floorspace ratios etc.). Such cost-neutral government policies attract
significant private financial investment into a city (U.S. Conference of Mayors 2013, USEPA
2013).
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CONCLUSIONS
Brownfield development has evolved from a tool for ongoing environmental and public health
protection to also stimulate and to deliver sustainable urban renewal.
Appropriately targeted and facilitated brownfields remediation has the potential to provide
economically and socially effective approaches for urban renewal while improving the
environment and reducing urban carbon emissions on a large scale.
REFERENCES
ICMA (2003) Co-location: Facilitating Revitalisation Beyond Brownfield, International
City/County Management Association, Washington D.C.,
http://icma.org/en/icma/knowledge_network/documents/kn/Document/9158/Colocation_Fa
cilitating_Revitalization_Beyond_Brownfields_Boundaries (accessed 11 April 2013).
U.S. Conference of Mayors (2010) National Report on the Status of Brownfield sites in 150
American cities, U.S. Conference of Mayors, http://usmayors.org/brownfields/ (accessed
11 April 2013).
USEPA (2013) Brownfields and Land Revitalization, US Environmental Protection Agency,
http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/ (accessed 11 April 2013).
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C08
CONCEPTUAL SITE OR PROJECT MODELS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
ASSESSMENT
Paul Bardos
r3 Environmental Technology Ltd, Russell Building, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6DW UK
paul@r3environmental.co.uk
INTRODUCTION
A holistic approach to sustainability assessment allows the broadest range of possible
project service opportunities (and their value) to be considered, and provides an
understanding of their wider effects (positive or negative). However, some find such a broad
approach to sustainability assessment overly complex and prefer to focus on just a few
readily usable tools and parameters such as carbon or environmental footprinting.
Unfortunately these do not describe sustainability as whole, nor do they meet all stakeholder
interests. This paper suggests the use of conceptual models for sustainability way as a
forward that supports a more holistic understanding of services, sustainability and value.
APPROACH
A conceptual model for sustainability for a site or a project therefore needs to both represent
services and their relationship with sustainability during project scoping and design. It needs
to support decisions such as prioritisations, choosing between trade-offs and different types
of use. It needs to be fairly simple to allow easy deployment and facilitate communication
between stakeholders. It needs to be capable of being a basis for determining overall value
of projects. This approach adapts well known land contamination risk assessment concepts
to develop an approach for conceptual site models for sustainability. The key elements to
understanding land contamination risks are the connections between sources, pathways and
receptors, referred to in the UK as pollutant or contaminant linkages. Conceptual site models
based on these linkages are widely used in risk based land management. These models
provide a tool for crystallising available and relevant information for “risks” to help
stakeholders recognise, prioritise and deal with the risk assessment and risk management
for a particular site and project. An analogous linkage exists for “sustainability”. For a
sustainability effect to be manifest there needs to be a “pressure” of some kind, a “receptor”
that can be affected by that pressure; and, crucially, a mechanism through which the
pressure influences the receptor. All three: pressure, mechanism and receptor need to be
linked for a sustainability effect to exist – i.e. a sustainability linkage (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Sustainability linkage
Developing a conceptual site model based on linkages allows for duplications to be identified
and discarded, and a clearer way for combined effects on a particular receptor from several
sources to be understood.
Using sustainability linkages clarifies which pressures are
affecting which receptors and how this effect is occurring. Sustainability linkages can have
pressures, mechanisms or receptors in common. A network diagram can exploit this to
simplify the representation of sustainability, removing duplications, and showing common
features across linkages that can be used for better sustainability assessment and
management. The simple rule of thumb is that each pressure, mechanism and receptor is
(as far as possible) only shown once in the network diagram, and arrows are used to show
how they are interconnected by sustainability linkages. Figure 2 shows a network diagram
116
developed for an options appraisal carried out for a case study in Wales for C-Cure Solutions
Ltd, which has been described in more detail previously (Bardos and Menger 2013). This
simple model can assist design, option appraisal, verification and valuation for projects. It
can also facilitate better project design and improve overall project value by explicitly linking
the different services a project is intended to provide to sustainability, and potentially
identifying opportunities for additional services from this broader sustainability outlook.
Archaeological values
Degradation
Availability of financial resources
Drawdown / income
Decision making
Inclusiveness
Direct costs
Payment / revenue
Disadvantage
Transparency
Energy efficiency
GHG generation
Information
Certainty / reliability
Light / activity / noise / vibration
/ litter
Disturbance (nuisance)
Local policy context
Compliance
NOx, SOx from plant and traffic
Emission to air
Atmosphere
Reputation and other intangibles
Property
Plant nutrients
Leaching
Surface water
Procurement
Fairness
Remediation processes
Uplift / discount
Resource efficiency
Consumption / recycling / re-use
production (net use)
Nutrient cycling and other
biological functions
Organisational value
Particulates e.g. PM10
People
People (culture)
People (health)
Site value and liabilities
Soil buffering capacity / CEC
Suitability for biological functions
Vegetative cover
Soil carbon
Sequestration
Soil ecology
Soil condition and WHC
Flood resilience
Soil contamination
Legacy / remediation resilience
Groundwater
Erosion
Soil
Soil pH/redox
Soil structure
Compaction
Traffic off site
Accidents
Transport and machinery on site
Appearance
Vegetative cover
Change in biodiversity
Local ecology
all
Uncertainty
Reliability
Figure 2: Parys Mountain Conceptual Site Model for Sustainability (Network Diagram)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is based on work carried out by the EU FP7 HOMBRE project
(www.zerobrownfields.eu), using information provided by C-Cure Solutions Ltd, supported by
the EU FP7 Greenland Project (www.greenland-project.eu).
REFERENCE
274. Bardos, P. and Menger, P. (2013)
Conceptual Site or Project Models for
Sustainability Assessment. Proceedings Aquaconsoil 2013 Barcelona, Spain. April
2013. www.aquaconsoil.org/AquaConSoil2013/Proceedings.html
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C09
DOES THE CONTAMINATED LAND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK IN
NSW ENCOURAGE LAND DEVELOPMENT?
John Coffey, Niall Johnston, Arminda Ryan
NSW Environment Protection Authority, PO Box A290, Sydney South, NSW 1232,
AUSTRALIA
john.coffey@epa.nsw.gov.au
INTRODUCTION
NSW has a mature framework for identification, regulation and management of contaminated
land. A landowner or party whose activities have contaminated land above defined
thresholds must notify the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) who are then required to
assess the information and make decisions regarding the status of the land. If the land is
determined to be significantly contaminated then its management and remediation may be
regulated by the EPA, or in situations where redevelopment is imminent, required
remediation may be regulated under the planning process to avoid regulatory duplication.
The framework thus facilitates the resolution of contamination issues ensuring that the
community and environment are protected and enabling future productive use or
redevelopment of land.
METHODS
The NSW EPA has a large database on land notified as being contaminated as well as sites
that have been subject to regulation by the EPA. A review of this information was
undertaken. A further review of data on notified sites including some estimates of the cost of
remediation and the valuation of land between the remediated and remediated state was
also undertaken.
Contaminated land in NSW is concentrated in areas reflecting the development of industrial
and urban precincts in NSW. The areas most impacted are around Sydney, Newcastle and
Wollongong with a predominance of contaminated sites in what are or were industrial
precincts. Contaminated sites in regional towns are usually associated with fuel storage and
distribution or manufactured gas plants.
Figure 1 Sites regulated under the Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 as of 2011.
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Many sites on urban harbours and estuaries were initially developed for industrial use due to
the suitability of these sites for transport of raw materials and products while also providing
for waste disposal. Many of these sites particularly around Sydney harbour are now
considered highly valuable for waterfront residential development. The significant increase in
land values, particularly when sites are remediated, means that remediation costs are offset
and are less likely to act as a disincentive.. In rural areas the economics rarely encourage
remediation and more facilitated mechanisms are necessary to ensure remediation occurs.
CONCLUSIONS
The mature framework for regulation of contaminated land in NSW ensures open and
transparent processes and this is reflected in the markets ability to better price and evaluate
contaminated land, as it would any other land attribute. While there will always be inequity
between pricing of metropolitan and rural land, in general, the NSW framework ensures that
contaminated land is both identified and managed.
The most fundamental attribute of the contaminated land management framework in NSW is
the surety that it provides. The second most important attribute is the transparency of the
system and the ready access to information. The certainty provided by the regulatory
framework therefore facilitates redevelopment.
REFERENCES
List of NSW Contaminated Sites notified to the EPA:
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/clm/publiclist.htm
EPA Contaminated Land Record of Notices:
http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/prclmapp/aboutregister.aspx
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C10
CONTAMINATION COMMUNICATON
WESTERN AUSTRALIA’S CONTAMINATED SITES DATABASE
Andrew Miller, Clare Nixon
Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC), Perth 6000 WESTERN AUSTRALIA
andrew.miller@dec.wa.gov.au
INTRODUCTION
When Western Australia’s Contaminated Sites Act 2003 was introduced in December 2006,
one of its main objectives was to give people better access to information about
contaminated sites – where they were located, what contaminants were involved at sites and
to what extent the land and groundwater was affected.
Contaminated Sites Database
The Contaminated Sites Database was set up to provide such information to interested
parties, including prospective purchasers of land and lending institutions, people undertaking
intrusive maintenance or utility works and relevant government agencies, e.g. environmental
and health regulators and planning authorities.
Sites with confirmed contamination (i.e. those classified contaminated – remediation
required, contaminated – restricted use; and/or remediated for restricted use) are listed on
the database and can be freely accessed by the public. A summary or records, detailing the
location and nature and extent of the contamination can be downloaded at no cost.
Fig. 1. How to search for confirmed contaminated sites. The Contaminated Sites Database is
available on DEC’s website www.dec.wa.gov.au/contaminatedsites. Use basic or advanced
search options, zoom in to the site or nearby sites and/or download a basic summary of
records.
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Not to be confused with the Contaminated Sites Register
Information on all other reported sites in WA, including those awaiting classification, is
recorded on the Contaminated Sites Register. Access to details on these sites is only
available upon written request and payment of a fee to DEC. This is mainly to minimise
“blighting” of sites where contamination has not been confirmed or where land has been
decontaminated.
To ensure further transparency and certainty, land owners must provide written disclosure to
any new or potential owners if they are selling or transferring land that has confirmed
contamination or where the land is subject to a regulatory notice, e.g. investigation notice or
cleanup notice.
Table 1. How to access information on contaminated sites in Western Australia.
Memorial
Site classification
registered on How to access information
land title
Contaminated – remediation required
Yes
Search the public database on DEC’s
website.
Mandatory
disclosure
required for property transactions.
Contaminated – restricted use
Yes
website.
Mandatory
disclosure
Remediated for restricted use
Yes
website.
Mandatory
disclosure
Possibly contaminated – investigation
required
Yes
Submit a request for summary of
records to DEC.
Not contaminated – unrestricted use
No
records to DEC.
Decontaminated
No
records to DEC.
Report not substantiated
No
records to DEC.
Database Vital for Property Due Diligence
The Contaminated Sites Database is maintained by a team of data management officers who
process classifications and memorials and respond to an average 200 requests for
information each month. This does not include online requests for information where people
can download reports for free if the site they are interested in is a confirmed contaminated
site (Table 1).
Having information on contaminated sites readily available to the public allows for greater
transparency and enables people to make informed decisions about land sales and
developments. The database offers greater predictability and certainty for people affected by
contamination.
As part of the statutory review of the Act, DEC is now looking at ways to improve efficiency
and turnaround times for information requests and is developing a more streamlined process
to provide automated information requests through Landgate’s Shared Land Information
Platform (SLIP).
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C12
OUT OF SIGHT, OUT OF MIND —
REGULATING THE UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK LEGACY
Danielle McPhail, Kylie Bull
EPA Division, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment,
GPO BOX 1550, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, AUSTRALIA
contaminatedsites@environment.tas.gov.au
INTRODUCTION
It is recognized nationally and internationally that leaking underground petroleum storage
tanks (UST’s) have the potential to contaminate soil and groundwater leading to risks to
human health and the environment. The need to protect groundwater from contamination is
an increasingly important issue in Tasmania, with over 8000 bores supplying water for
irrigation, town water, domestic use, stock watering and commercial purposes.
After 3 years of work by the EPA Division’s policy section, the Tasmanian Government
introduced the Environmental Management and Pollution Control (Underground Petroleum
Storage System) Regulations (the Regulations). The Regulations commenced on 31 March
2010.
The Regulations allocate requirements to systems operators, infrastructure owners and
landowners in relation to:
(a) Registration of active tanks
(b) Use, repair and replacement
(c) Loss monitoring and verification (commenced 31 March 2011)
(d) Decommissioning and removal of active and abandoned tanks
(e) Environmental Site Assessment
(f) Record keeping
The process of developing the Regulations allowed opportunities for stakeholder involvement
and communication, including the establishment of a Reference Group and the release of an
Issues and Options Paper and Regulatory Impact Statement for public comment. Once the
Regulations were introduced, the EPA Division did mass mail outs of letters and brochures to
land owners and infrastructure owners identified through Workplace Standards Records as
well as conducting information sessions around Tasmania. The EPA Division has also
released an Information Bulletin and a Technical Guideline and updated its website to
provide sufficient information for compliance with the Regulations.
The Regulations require system operators with tanks of a combined capacity of more than
5500L to implement a loss monitoring method that is able to detect a leak of 0.76L/hr (18L
per day) or more. Generally statistical inventory reconciliation analysis (SIRA) is the
monitoring method used to detect a leak of 0.76L/hr. Automatic tank gauging in conjunction
with a leak monitoring system for product piping (in accordance with Section 4.5.3 of
Australian Standard AS 4897-2008 can also be used. In 2012 an audit was undertaken in
relation to compliance with the loss monitoring requirements dictated under the Regulations.
METHODS
The audit of compliance with loss monitoring requirements selected twenty two sites across
Tasmania based on the following criteria:
(a) Notifications to the EPA Division in relation to contamination and non-compliance;
(b) The type of loss monitoring method being implemented;
(c) The service station is unmanned; and
(d) The site’s fuel storage capacity and use, including highest capacity farm sites,
commercial properties, heavy industry and service stations in both city and country.
In September 2012, letters were sent to the system operators of the sites as per the details
provided with their UST registrations. The letter requested the provision of their loss
122
monitoring results from April 2011 to August 2012 to the Director, EPA. These results were
reviewed by the Contaminated Sites Unit of the EPA Division.
The results of the audit were
(a) Six (6) sites demonstrated compliance with loss monitoring requirements under the
Regulations;
(b) Seven (7) sites were identified as having implemented SIRA but the data being
inputted was not sufficient or was inappropriate to allow for the detection and
subsequent investigation of leaks in the UST;
(c) Five (5) not undertaking loss monitoring in accordance with the Regulations;
(d) Three (3) did not reply to the request for supply of information; and
(e) One (1) had only just restarted using the UST and therefore did not have sufficient
data for statistical analysis.
All sites that were not undertaking SIRA appropriately or did not have any loss monitoring in
place were sent a letter requiring 3 months of loss monitoring results from 2013 to be sent to
the Director EPA. The information was requested to determine the reasons for the noncompliances and whether further advice or education was required, or whether action will be
taken against them under the Regulations. Enforcement action may include formal written
warnings, a fine under an Environmental Infringement Notice (EIN) and prosecution.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the audit were disappointing, with 80% non-compliance with the requirements
for loss monitoring under the Regulations, despite significant efforts by the EPA Division to
communicate to the owners and operators during development and introduction of the
Regulations. Further communication was required to inform the infrastructure owners that
were part of the audit, of the poor results and to warn them that fines of up to $13,000 for
non-compliance with the Regulations can apply.
The poor results have led to the scheduling of another loss monitoring audit for the latter half
of 2013. The audit will be increased to consider 40 sites across Tasmania.
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C15
THE AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT SYSTEM SINCE 1990 –
ITS EVOLUTION
Peter R Nadebaum
GHD Pty Ltd, Level 8, 180 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne VIC, 3000, AUSTRALIA
peter.nadebaum@ghd.com
In 1989 Dr Brian Robinson, the Director of the Victorian EPA, added the provision for an
Environmental Audit to the Victorian Environment Protection Act 1970, and in 1990 the first
Environmental Auditors were appointed. I was one of these auditors, and undertook the first
environmental audit. Since then the audit system has evolved, and has been taken up by
other Australian States and Territories. This paper outlines my recollections and observations
regarding the system in its various forms in Australia.
The system has many interesting aspects:
x The initial system was conceived as an assessment of environmental impact
undertaken by an independent, accredited individual, ie an audit of environmental
impact. The first audit, which I undertook, was what would now be referred to as an
Environmental Audit of an operating industrial facility – relating to an assessment of
all impacts on air, water, land, groundwater and noise. There was provision to issue a
“Certificate of Environmental Audit” which certified that there was no detriment to any
beneficial use.
x Its initial use was to assess the extent of impact arising from a highly contentious
pollution issue, where media and community were expressing great concern and
there was a need for a rational technical appraisal.
x The system changed the Agency role from being the assessor, to one of managing
the overall assessment process. This provided significant saving to the Agency, with
the private sector paying for the costs of certification of land. It also had the effect of
passing liability to the private sector.
x This system was then applied to assessing land, with auditors skilled in the
assessment of contaminated land and groundwater accredited.
x The initial guidance was a simple two page outline of what was expected when
undertaking an audit of land, which has now evolved into very detailed guidance of
some 40 pages of how to issue Certificates and Statements, with many supporting
guidance papers. The most important of these is the National Environment Protection
(Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999, recently revised.
x It was found that it was unworkable to limit the assessment to a Certificate (no impact
on any use), and instead provision was added in 1994 to issue a Statement that the
land was suitable for certain uses (eg industrial but not residential).
x The concept of an audit of risk was introduced in 2001, where the assessment
focussed on a particular aspect (such as just the impact on a river), rather than a
“total assessment”. This has been applied widely to focus on matters such as impact
of a landfill on groundwater, or impact of landfill gas from a landfill.
x The concept of “Clean Up to the Extent Practicable” (CUTEP) was introduced in
2002, to allow the auditor to refer the matter to the Agency for a determination that
groundwater has been cleaned up to an acceptable level, even though some
contamination remained that adversely affects some uses of the groundwater. This
was important in solving the impasse that would otherwise preclude the auditor
issuing a Statement that the land was suitable for us.
x The Victorian EPA is currently reviewing its audit system, with a view to applying a
risk based approach to simplify the system and reduce costs.
x Other States and Territories took up the environmental audit system in parallel with
Victoria: NSW in 1998, Queensland provided for Third Party Reviewers at about the
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x
same time, South Australia provided guidance to Victorian auditors operating in South
Australia in 1995 and formally introduced its own system in 2007, and Western
Australia soon after. Other states and Territories allow the use of auditors accredited
in other jurisdictions (such as in Victoria or NSW) following the guidance in their
States.
These other systems have varied somewhat from the Victorian system: for example
in NSW and Queensland there is more of an emphasis on auditing the work
undertaken by the assessment consultant (rather than the auditor undertaking the
primary assessment). In Western Australia the auditor provides an assessment of
work undertaken for the Agency to review and make the final decision.
There are now more than 100 accredited auditors in Australia, with more than 1000 audits
being undertaken each year. Remarkably few problems have arisen, and it is generally
acknowledged that the system provides a rigorous process for confirming that land is suitable
for use. Some land owners and developers have complained that the system results in
greater cost and time than it should, and this has led to Victoria assessing its system and
may result in some simplification – this will probably relate to not requiring audits on for some
sites where the risk is low.
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C19
LNAPL REMEDIATION – A UNIFIED APPROACH FOR THE
ANALYSIS, MANAGEMENT AND REMEDIATION OF LNAPL IN
AUSTRALIA
Ed Dennis
WorleyParsons Consulting – Contaminated Site Services, Perth, WA 6000, AUSTRALIA
ed.dennis@worleyparsons.com
SUMMARY
CRC CARE is Australia's leading science-based partnership in assessing, preventing and
remediating contamination of soil, water and air. With a unique mix of industry, university and
government agency partners, CRC CARE's research program focuses on the challenges of
best practice policy, better measurement, minimising uncertainty in risk assessment, and
remediation.
This latest technical guide on the remediation of LNAPL from CRC CARE is aimed at
industry project managers, environmental consultants, remediation practitioners, site owners,
site operators and regulators of contaminated sites in Australia. The guide is primarily
intended to serve as a functional guide to LNAPL remediation by providing a consistent,
pragmatic and systematic process for the management of an LNAPL impacted site in
Australia, irrespective of the pace of change of science, LNAPL remediation technology or
regulatory policy.
Site sensitivity and intergenerational equity, which includes the financial, social and
environmental economics of remediation are key considerations in the decision making
process. The derivation of stakeholder-endorsed LNAPL remedial objectives and the
acceptance of LNAPL remediation end points rely heavily on the quality of the conceptual
site model and the professional judgement of remediation practitioners. Users of the guide
are encouraged to maintain a sense of proportionality in the use of this guide and in the
management of LNAPLs.
The guide takes the user through the development of the LNAPL conceptual site model,
sensitivity assessment and the data integration and interpretation required to support the
derivation of the LNAPL remedial objectives and subsequent agreement of LNAPL
remediation end points. An appraisal of technologies suitable for LNAPL remediation is
included; augmented with a review of the requirements to implement the selected
technology. The process concludes with the requirements for performance monitoring,
system rebound monitoring and LNAPL closeout; acknowledging that the management of the
adsorbed, dissolved or soil vapour phase hydrocarbon impacts is likely to continue.
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C20
COMPARISON OF CONSTANT AND TRANSIENT-SOURCE ZONES
ON SIMULATED CONTAMINANT PLUME EVOLUTION IN
GROUNDWATER: IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROGEOLOGICAL RISK
ASSESSMENT
Jonathan W.N. Smith1,2, Steven F. Thornton2, Kevin Tobin2
1
Shell Global Solutions (UK) Ltd., Lange Kleiweg 40, 2288 GK Rijswijk, THE
NETHERLANDS.
2
Groundwater Protection & Restoration Group, Dept. of Civil & Structural Engineering,
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S3 7HQ, UK
jonathan.w.smith@shell.com
INTRODUCTION
Contaminant fate and transport models used for hydrogeological risk assessment commonly
include an assumed constant source concentration to predict down-gradient concentrations
in groundwater. This assumption is unrealistic in many cases. The effect of assumed
constant and transient (declining) source term on contaminant plume chemistry and
groundwater impacts predicted by a hydrogeological risk assessment model was
investigated for the release of dissolved phase constituents from an unleaded petroleum fuel
LNAPL.
METHODS
Two transient source models were simulated: a mass balance model and an exponential
decay model (Figure 1). Both source descriptions use Raoult’s Law to describe the aqueous
phase partitioning and depletion of organic compounds from a multi-component LNAPL
source to groundwater. The models were used to estimate the changing LNAPL composition
and effective aqueous solubility of six common constituents (benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, xylene, MTBE and TAME) in a representative unleaded petroleum fuel. The
predicted source concentrations were then compared with groundwater quality data from a
contaminated site and found to be a close representation.
Figure 1. Temporal variation in dissolved concentration of organic compounds in groundwater
adjacent to a LNAPL source, based on equilibrium dissolution of LNAPL, predicted by (a) Mass
Balance model and (b) Empirical model. Note that values are presented as relative
concentration, normalized to initial value in groundwater, and 1 pore volume equals 1.89 d.
Data series for MTBE and TAME are superimposed.
127
The source concentrations estimated from these models were propagated into
hydrogeological risk assessment model using the Remedial Targets Worksheet v3.1.
Different groundwater impacts and associated estimates of risk were predicted between the
constant and transient source simulations.
RESULTS
The constant-source model predicted higher contaminant concentrations at the compliance
point, which also persisted over a much longer duration. Consequently, there was a greater
requirement for remedial action estimated using the hydrogeological model in scenarios that
assumed a constant-source (Figure 2). This could result in unnecessary remedial action in
cases where no unacceptable risk is predicted when a more representative description of a
declining source is used.
Figure 2. Comparison of contaminant breakthrough profiles (mg/L concentration) at a
groundwater compliance point located down-gradient of LNAPL source, calculated with the
RTW using a constant source, Empirical transient source model and Mass Balance transient
source model.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights the importance of using transient source models to describe the
temporal variation in contaminants released to groundwater in hydrogeological risk
assessments for petroleum fuel releases in aquifers. This conceptualisation provides a more
representative source term for fate and transport modelling, based on field data for LNAPL
dissolution and contaminant plume evolution. The transient source models developed in this
study both predicted a significant decline in the source concentrations over the six year
modelling period, when compared with a constant source simulation. This decrease in source
concentrations was also observed in field data from the study site. One implication of
considering transient sources is that the more soluble species will be the risk drivers early on
and receptor concentrations may decrease below compliance after a certain time period.
Failing to include a transient source in risk assessments may significantly overestimate the
contaminant concentration that impacts a groundwater receptor, particularly in the later
stages of a plume lifecycle, and overestimate the duration of receptor impact.
REFERENCES
Thornton S.F, Tobin K. and Smith J.W.N. (2013) Comparison of constant and transientsource zones on simulated contaminant plume evolution in groundwater: Implications for
hydrogeological risk assessment. Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation. DOI:
10.1111/gwmr.12008
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C21
MULTI-TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM TO REMEDIATE A LATERALLY
EXTENSIVE HYDROCARBON PLUME WITHIN A SEDIMENTARY
AQUIFER, VICTORIA
Christian Wallis, Geoff Ellis and Jonathan Medd
Golder Associates Pty Ltd. Building 7, Botanicca Corporate Park, 570 – 588 Swan Street,
Richmond, Victoria, 3121, AUSTRALIA
cwallis@golder.com.au
INTRODUCTION
To effectively deliver groundwater remediation projects a single remedial approach will rarely
bring a project to closure. Many groundwater remediation projects utilise a single remedial
approach and then set out to demonstrate that it is not practicable to remediate the
groundwater further. Implementation of a remediation action plan utilising an appropriately
designed and scaled range of complementary technologies to clean up the environment and
restore as far as practical the pre-impact groundwater conditions is more favourably
considered by Regulators and Auditors. The multi-technology remediation plan has drawn
upon a range of interim source control (hydraulic control) and interim risk management
technologies (boundary biosparing curtain) (Stage 1); followed by NAPL source removal
(physical and insitu chemical oxidation) along with dissolved phase plume (air-sparing)
(Stage 2) destruction to support spatial and temporal remediation objectives during the more
than 10 year life of the remediation program. This paper presents on the progress of the
multi-technology remediation program for this laterally extensive hydrocarbon plume within a
sedimentary aquifer of Southwest Victoria.
METHODS
Conceptual Model
A light non aqueous phase liquids (LNAPL) and dissolved phase hydrocarbon plume was
generated from a leaking Underground Storage Tank (UST) at an operating manufacturing
facility. Fingerprinting confirmed the LNAPL to be degraded petrol estimated to be 20 years
of age (+/- 5 years), with a plume diameter of 50 m and a length of more than 300 m.
The unconfined sedimentary aquifer comprises sand, clayey sand, sandy clay, gravel,
quartzite and/or sandy limestone materials. The site is located less than 500 m from a major
surface water body. The groundwater flow velocity has been estimated to be in the order of
1 to 20 m/year. Extensive but largely discontinuous weathered limestone bands have been
assessed to provide potential preferential pathways, resulting in localised variations in
groundwater quality. The aquifer has also been found to be oxygen and nutrient poor.
Selected and Implemented Remediation Technologies
A range of technologies have been implemented to satisfy changing remediation objectives
during different stages of the life of the hydrocarbon plume remediation. During extensive
groundwater investigations (more than 60 monitoring wells), a number of remedial
technologies were reviewed, as accepted in the United States Environment Protection
Authority ‘Superfund Remedy Report’ Thirteenth Edition (USEPA, 2010). The technology
reviews focused on both source control and groundwater remedial approaches which have
been described in this paper as two major implementation stages.
Stage 1 of the remediation program focused around the implementation of relatively simple
low cost remediation technologies to manage LNAPL Source Zone migration and offsite
management using a combination of Stage 1a) hydraulic containment of the LNAPL source
zone supported by the implementation of Stage 1b) low volume air injection biosparging
curtain at the leading edge of the plume to satisfy offsite risk management and compliance
objectives. In addition, works were performed during this stage to understand potential
indoor vapour risks to building occupants.
129
Stage 2 involves the implementation of a significant full scale remediation program of this
groundwater impact to drive the project towards closure, by 2a) Excavation of the slurry filled
UST and source removal using extensive deep excavations using slotted cells, aggressive
insitu remediation of NAPL and dissolved plume using extensive network of 2b) multiple
chemical oxidation (sodium persulphate) injection points and 2c) more than fifty biosparging
wells at frequency of 1 well per 150 m2.
Stage 1a) The hydraulic containment including a total fluids pump that has operated for some
8 years, pumping at a rate of 2000 litres/day providing a radius of influence of some 50
metres, Stage 1b) involved biosparging (injection of 1 to 3 m3/hr of compressed air available
from the facility compressor) at nine locations along the property boundary. Biosparging over
a 2 year period reduced NAPL levels to dissolved concentrations less than risk based
maintenance of ecosystem criteria. The CSM to support the placement of the sparging well
curtain was evaluated using coring, a biosparging trial using tracer testing (sulphur
hexafluoride) indicating a radius of influence of 3 to 5 metres. Regular and ongoing
groundwater monitoring has not indicated impact breakthrough.
Stage 2 of the remediation program focusses around mass removal and degradation of
impacts to progress towards project closure. Excavation of the slurry filled UST with removal
of impacted soils where access allowed. Bench scale testing followed by chemical oxidation
utilising sodium persulphate is planned to remediate residual soil and groundwater impacts
near the former UST. Further developing the biosparge approach, installation of injection
wells was undertaken to support remediation of onsite groundwater impacts between the
source zone and the property boundary.
CONCLUSIONS
The application of a range of technologies has been implemented during the life of the
remediation program to satisfy changing remediation objectives. The Stage 1 system
successfully managed LNAPL, vapour and offsite migration risks through a low cost
construction and delivery design that integrated with existing Plant infrastructure and utilities
(air supply, energy and wastes etc.). The full scale Stage 2 system has been designed and
largely constructed including injection wells connected by semi-permanent subsurface lines
to ensure ongoing Plant operations are not impacted to support long term groundwater
restoration program. Through the effective review of applicable technologies and
understanding project risks and key project stages, a multiple remediation technology
approach can be successfully rolled out to achieve progressive project goals.
REFERENCES
United States Environment Protection Authority (USEPA 2010) Office of Superfund
Remediation and Technology Innovation (OSRTI). Superfund Remedy Report, dated
September 2010.
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C22
A COMPARISON OF REPORTED BTEX CONCENTRATIONS WITH
ESTIMATED EFFECTIVE SOLUBILITIES IN MONITORING WELLS
WHERE LNAPL HAS BEEN GAUGED
W.J. Germs, A.C. Ashworth
Environmental Resources Management, Building C, 33 Saunders Street, Pyrmont, Sydney,
NSW 2009, AUSTRALIA
wijnand.germs@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
At petroleum hydrocarbon release sites the characterisation of the extent of a light non
aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) plume is a key aspect of conceptual site model development.
Concentrations of volatile petroleum hydrocarbons are significantly higher in LNAPL sources
than in the aqueous phase due to the relatively low aqueous solubilities of these compounds,
and volatile petroleum hydrocarbon mass flux is greatest from LNAPL source zones. The
adequate characterisation of the LNAPL plume extent is therefore of specific importance in
assessing vapour inhalation risk at petroleum hydrocarbon release sites.
Gauging LNAPL in a monitoring well with an oil-water interface probe and visual confirmation
with a transparent bailer constitute the primary methods of LNAPL identification typically
employed at petroleum hydrocarbon release sites. Monitoring wells screens are however not
always at appropriate depths to facilitate the ingress of LNAPL into monitoring wells (due to
inappropriate screened depth selection during installation, changes in groundwater levels
following installation etc.).
Reported petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations from groundwater monitoring provide an
additional line of evidence for the identification of LNAPL. For multicomponent LNAPL (such
as petrol, diesel, kerosene and jet fuel) comparing the reported sample concentrations
against the estimated effective solubilities for the compounds can aid in the identification of
the LNAPL. A reported concentration exceeding the upper limit of effective solubility of a
compound is a strong indication that LNAPL is present in close proximity to the sampling
location, with the exceedance likely attributed to non-dissolved petroleum (e.g. a globule of
LNAPL) being entrained in the groundwater sample. It is however recognised that
concentrations below the upper limit of effective solubilities could still indicate the presence
of LNAPL, with Bruce et al (1991) suggesting that concentrations above 20% of effective
solubility may indicate the presence of LNAPL.
The purpose of this paper is to compare reported concentrations for specific petroleum
hydrocarbons in monitoring wells were LNAPL have been gauged at Australian sites against
published effective solubilities. The petroleum hydrocarbons of interest for this paper include
the routinely analysed aromatic hydrocarbons benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and total
xylenes (BTEX), and the effective solubilities utilised are for petrol.
METHODS
The following sections provide background on the effective solubilities and methodology
utilised in assessing reported BTEX concentrations associated with LNAPL groundwater
monitoring wells.
Effective Solubility
The effective solubility of a compound is a function of the mole fraction of the compound in
the fuel mixture and the pure phase aqueous solubility of the compound. For this
assessment, the estimated upper limits for effective solubilities of BTEX associated with
fresh petrol put forward by Friebel and Nadebaum (2011) were utilised. These effective
solubilities are based on fuel compositions of petrol and diesel in Australia, and to allow for
variation in the composition of fuels and the effects of weathering, an adjustment factor of 1.4
has been applied to the effective solubilities by Friebel and Nadebaum.
131
Comparison of Reported BTEX Concentrations
Data from a total of 19 monitoring wells at three petroleum hydrocarbon sites with petrol
LNAPL were selected to form part of the assessment. Data included BTEX sampling results
with sampling data available for dates in-between events where LNAPL was gauged (e.g. if
LNAPL had been gauged in 2007 and 2010, sampling data from sampling events conducted
between those years were utilised); or where BTEX sampling results from monitoring wells
were LNAPL had been gauged within a year of the sampling date. Data points that met the
selection criteria (a total of 46 samples) were collated and compared against the upper limit
effective solubilities for fresh petrol put forward by Friebel and Nadebaum (2011).
RESULTS
The results of the assessment are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Reported Concentration Ranges for BTEX.
Descriptor
Benzene
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
Lowest concentration
1 600 μg/L
630 μg/L
173 μg/L
(% of effective solubility)
(3%)
(1%)
(4%)
Highest concentration
(% of effective solubility)
10th percentile
>58 900 μg/L
(>100%)
> 60 500 μg/L
(>100%)
3 600 μg/L
(6%)
6 400 μg/L
(11%)
>3 850 μg/L
(>100%)
706 μg/L
(18%)
Total Xylenes
750 μg/L
(4%)
> 20 700 μg/L
(>100%)
4 750 μg/L
(23%)
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The 10th percentile, above which 90% of the reported concentrations fell, is seen as the
most appropriate indicator of concentrations indicative of LNAPL in the dataset. The 10th
percentile for benzene of 3 600 μg/L closely correlates with the concentration of 3 000 μg/L
specified by Lahvis et al (2013) as an indirect indicator of residual LNAPL. The 10th percentile
concentrations for toluene, ethylbenzene and total xylenes are further relatively similar to the
20% level put forward by Bruce et al (1991) which equates to approximately 14% of the
effective solubilities put forward by Friebel and Nadebaum (when accounting for the 1.4
adjustment factor incorporated in the Friebel and Nadebaum effective solubilities).
Whilst based on a limited dataset, the differentiation of the 10th percentile concentrations in
comparison with the effective solubilities for BTEX are considered to be indicative of
preferential weathering of the more water soluble compounds. Due to the likely effect of
weathering, it is recommended that the full set of BTEX compounds are evaluated when
using reported concentrations as a line of evidence for the identification of LNAPL.
REFERENCES
Bruce, L., Miller, T. and Hockman B. (1991). Solubility versus Equilibrium Saturation of
Gasoline Compounds: A Method to Estimate Fuel/Water Partition Coefficient Using
Solubility or Koc. In: Proceedings of the NWWA/API Conference on Petroleum
Hydrocarbons in Ground Water, p. 571-582, by National Water Well Association.
Friebel, E., and Nadebaum, P. (2011). Health Screening Levels for Petroleum Hydrocarbons
in Soil and Groundwater. Part 1: Technical Development Document. CRC Care
Technical Report number 10.
Lahvis, M.A., Hers, I. Davis, R. V. Wright, J. an d DeVaull, G. (2013). Vapour Intrusion
Screening at Petroleum UST Sites. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation.
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C23
THE EFFECT OF FREE LNAPL PRESENCE ON THE LIFECYCLE OF
UST SITES
Poonam R. Kulkarni1, Thomas E. McHugh1, Charles J. Newell1, Sanjay Garg2
1
GSI Environmental Inc, 2211 Norfolk, Suite 1000, Houston, TX 77098, USA
2
Shell Global Solutions (US) Inc, Houston, TX 77082, USA
cjnewell@gsi-net.com
INTRODUCTION
Although all Leaking Underground Fuel Tank (LUFT) sites (with or without measurable
LNAPL in monitoring wells) present similar environmental challenges, the presence of free
LNAPL has a negative perception compared to residual LNAPL sites in the United States.
Thus, hydraulic recovery is often required by U.S. State Regulators, and national regulations
require removal of free LNAPL to the extent practicable. For the purposes of this paper, free
LNAPL is defined as LNAPL being measurable in monitoring wells.
Additionally,
technologies such as air sparging, soil vapor extraction and dual phase extraction are not
considered adequate if free LNAPL is present. Ultimately, hydraulic recovery is often
conducted without a clear understanding of whether the site conditions will significantly
improve after the free LNAPL has been removed (API, 2002). Thus, the objective of this
study was to better understand the effect of free LNAPL on the lifecycle of these sites using a
statistical evaluation of UST site data from GeoTracker, an extensive multiple-site database
of chemical release sites in the state of California (GeoTracker, 2012).
METHODS
GeoTracker, a database maintained by the California State Water Board, is a data
management system for chemical release sites undergoing investigation and clean-up
(GeoTracker, 2012). For these sites, groundwater monitoring results, including LNAPL
gauging data, as well as remediation technologies implemented at sites are available in
electronic database form for the time period of 2001 to present. The downloaded version of
the database contained groundwater monitoring results for 12,714 corrective action sites,
including 10,760 LUFT sites. In order to obtain an improved understanding of the lifecycle of
LUFT sites, the subsequent analysis of the database focused on LUFT sites with greater
than five years of groundwater monitoring data for both benzene and MTBE (methyl tert-butyl
ether). Finally, gauging or LNAPL data (in the form of Depth to Product and Depth to Water
measurements) was downloaded for these sites. Based on these selection criteria, 3,225
sites were retained for further analysis. Specifically, this work compares sites from the
California GeoTracker database with and without free product to evaluate the following: i)
difference in groundwater concentrations; ii) difference in source longevity (i.e. attenuation
rate); and iii) impact of LNAPL recovery on concentrations, attenuation rates, and in-well
thicknesses. An additional analysis of the characteristics of sites with effective remediation
was included by assessing “extreme” source attenuation rates (i.e. of the highest/lowest
attenuation rates in entire dataset), with the following categories: 1) fast benzene attenuation;
2) fast MTBE attenuation; 3) fast overall attenuation (both benzene and MTBE); and 4) slow
overall attenuation (both benzene and MTBE). Specific concentration trends were also
studied for these sites over time, and compared against remediation technologies conducted.
Our analysis suggests that the GeoTracker database is a valuable resource for
understanding the lifecycle of UST sites. Specifically, we have evaluated the impact of
measurable LNAPL in monitoring wells:
1. Sites with measurable LNAPL thicknesses in monitoring wells (i.e. LNAPL sites) have
higher maximum concentrations of benzene and MTBE in groundwater. The difference in
133
2.
3.
4.
5.
concentration was statistically significant for benzene (p=0.002), and close to the
threshold for statistical significance for MTBE (p=0.07) based on a two-tailed t-test.
LNAPL sites have slower source attenuation rates (i.e. concentration vs. time at each
site) for both benzene (p<0.001) and MTBE (p<0.001) compared to sites where no
measurable LNAPL thickness was ever observed in monitoring wells (Non-LNAPL sites).
For benzene, median source zone attenuation rates translate to a half-life of 5.5 years for
LNAPL sites, and 3.1 years for Non-LNAPL sites. Similarly, for MTBE, the median half-life
at an LNAPL site is 2.3 years, while at Non-LNAPL sites is 1.8 years.
Free LNAPL thicknesses have no correlation with source attenuation rates, which
suggests that once free LNAPL exists at a site, LNAPL recovery to reduce in-well
thickness has little or no benefit in increasing source attenuation rates.
The majority of sites (both with and without LNAPL) showed decreasing source
concentrations over time (i.e., 72% for benzene and 81% for MTBE at LNAPL sites; 79%
for benzene and 86% for MTBE at Non-LNAPL sites) irrespective of remediation
technologies conducted, indicating that most sites are progressing towards closure, and
that natural attenuation processes are likely a significant contributor.
Qualitative review of remediation and site characteristics at extreme source attenuation
sites suggests that: a) at sites with benzene groundwater impacts, a well-designed soil
vapor extraction and air sparging system has the most effect ; b) at sites with MTBE, a
well-designed pump and treat or dual-phase extraction system has the most effect. These
results are supported by other work that analyzed a significantly larger population of sites
(McHugh et al., 2013). Finally, fast attenuation sites were found to include those with
measurable LNAPL in wells (i.e., 11 out of 21 sites), indicating that technologies other
than hydraulic recovery are effective at reducing groundwater concentrations.
CONCLUSIONS
Our study indicates that the presence of LNAPL in monitoring wells is associated with
significantly slower source attenuation rates compared to sites without LNAPL. However, for
sites with LNAPL, LNAPL recovery has no measureable benefit with respect to increasing
source attenuation rates or decreasing LNAPL thicknesses in monitoring wells. For both
LNAPL sites and Non-LNAPL sites, approximately 66% of sites showed decreasing source
concentrations over time indicating that most sites are progressing towards closure.
REFERENCES
API (2002) Evaluating Hydrocarbon Removal from Source Zones and its Effect on Dissolved
Plume Longevity and Magnitude. Regulatory Analysis and Scientific Affairs Department,
American Petroleum Institute. Publication Number 4715. September 2002.
Geotracker (2012). State Water Resources Control Board, Geotracker. State of California.
http://geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov. Accessed: October 17, 2011 and April 25, 2012.
McHugh, T., Kamath, R., Kulkarni, P.R., Newell, C.J., Connor, J.,A., Garg, S (2013).
Progress in Remediation of Groundwater at LUFT Sites in California: Insights from the
GeoTracker Database. Submitted to Environmental Science and Technology.
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C24
WHERE IS THE NON-AQUEOUS PHASE LIQUID?
Claire Howell, Graham Smith, Tim Russell
Parsons Brinckerhoff Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, AUSTRALIA
chowell@pb.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Health-based screening level assessment of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) in soil is
widely used in the Australian contaminated land industry, in the context of concentration
links to vapour risk, but this theoretical assessment has a more practical application. The
theory can, and should, be applied to sites where hydrocarbon concentrations are measured
in soil to determine the potential for NAPL forming and its ability to move through the soil
profile and reach groundwater. Particularly in the case of audit sites, the ability to make an
assessment as to whether NAPL is likely to move vertically and/or laterally to contaminate
groundwater or stay contained within site boundaries is important.
This paper presents an example of applying theoretical NAPL practices to a former bulk
chemical and manufacturing facility as part of an audit in accordance with Section 53X of the
Victorian Environment Protection Act (1970).
SITE
A large site (~40ha), with over 60 years chemical manufacturing history, consists typically of
fill (granular or granular clay mix) over clay which overlies fractured basalt common to
western Melbourne. The open, unfilled, fracturing of layered basalt provides an unimpeded
pathway for contaminants to travel to groundwater of the shallow aquifer, which stands
approximately 8 to 10m below ground level within Newer Volcanics basalt geology.
Historical chemical usage at the Site resulted in losses to the environment most likely via
losses from underground drains and pits, and possibly via historical effluent treatment
operations and sludge disposal practises. The resulting impacts comprise mixes of
hydrocarbon compounds (BTEX, styrene, alpha methyl styrene, cumene, naphthalene, secbutylbenzene, tert-butylbenzene, 3&4-methylphenol, di-n-octyl phthalate and 1,2dichloroethane).
The local Site geology means that chemicals, of all types, have to travel through a clay soil
profile and underlying fractured basalt, both unaffected by groundwater, to reach
groundwater. It is within the soil profile that we are attempting to ascertain ‘where is the
NAPL?’ Why? Because it is critical to our understanding of the site to know whether
chemical concentrations within the soil profile represent potentially mobile NAPL that might
act as a source of ongoing contamination for the underlying fractured basalt and
groundwater.
METHOD
Measured concentrations of chemicals, with NAPL forming properties, within the soil profile
across the Site are known from soil investigation analysis. An assessment of chemical
concentrations within the soil profile, using over 800,000 chemical data points (or 1550+ soil
bores) was compared to published data (Friebel 2011, Rousseau 2012). Each contaminant,
with the potential to form NAPL, has an individual saturation concentration (Csat) defined as
the value above which a chemical is present in the soil pore water at its aqueous solubility
limit and is present in soil pore air at its saturated vapour concentration. Where soil analysis
results identified hydrocarbon concentrations above Csat we know that NAPL has the
potential to form within the soil at these locations.
Csat is commonly used in health-based screening assessment for the vapour component. For
the purposes of our method identifying concentration greater than Csat narrows the field of
locations for which mobility calculations are required.
135
In order to calculate the potential mobility of the NAPL we need more information about the
soil properties at each location where Csat was exceeded, specifically the porosity and dry
bulk density of each soil type. A concentration of residual saturation (Cres), defined as the
concentration above which NAPL (if present) will migrate due to convection or gravity, was
calculated (Brost 2000, Zytner 1993).
RESULTS
Of the 800,000 chemical data points analysed 312 data points (at 40 bore locations)
measured hydrocarbon concentrations greater than Csat. Of these, 21 data points were
calculated to have concentrations greater than Cres at 11 locations across the Site,
highlighting potential sources (primary or secondary) of NAPL.
CONCLUSION
An assessment of chemical concentrations within the soil profile has enabled further
investigations of contaminant movement due to preferential pathways through drainage
systems or backfilled trenches and the potential for NAPL mobility. Where available soil
contaminant concentrations have been used to assess, and infer, mobile NAPL and support
the potential to contaminate the groundwater beneath the Site. When used in conjunction
with groundwater monitoring results it is possible to investigate whether sources, identified
through this theoretical process, have already contributed to groundwater contamination or
whether removal of the source can prevent future NAPL groundwater contamination.
On this occasion, application of theoretical NAPL has supported the client in meeting their
environmental obligation to ensure that their Site contamination does not pose any ongoing
unacceptable environmental risks to on-site or off-site uses, now and into the future.
REFERENCES
Brost EJ, DeVaull GE (2000) Non-aqueous phase liquid mobility limits in soil. API Soil and
Groundwater Research Bulletin June 2000
Friebel E, Nadebaum P (2011) Health screening levels for petroleum hydrocarbons in soil
and groundwater. CRC CARE Technical Report no.10
Rousseau M, Cushman D, Klepper G (2012) Pragmatic TPH screening values for LNAPL
mobility – where does Csat fit in? Conestoga-Rovers & Associates
Zytner RG, Biswas N, Bewtra JK (1993) Retention capacity of dry soils for NAPLs.
Environmental Technology, 14, 1073-1080
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C25
GUIDANCE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FEDERAL LNAPL SITES IN
CANADA
Brian Drover
1
Environment Canada, Mount Pearl, NL, Canada A1N 4T3
brian.drover@ec.gc.ca
The Federal Contaminated Sites Action Plan (FCSAP) was established in 2005 to address
risks and liability associated with federal contaminated sites in Canada. Of the approximately
22,000 contaminated sites in the federal inventory, a significant number of these have
LNAPL contamination. Approaches to the science and management of LNAPL sites have
evolved in recent years which have led to the acceptance of risk management approaches
by regulators in many jurisdictions.
In 2010, largely driven by requests for advice on specific FCSAP projects like the Goose Bay
Remediation Project (GBRP) in Labrador, FCSAP recognized the need to provide consistent
advice on the management of federal LNAPL sites based on the latest science. In March
2010, Environment Canada, in its role as FCSAP Expert Support, hosted a workshop where
federal stakeholders exchanged ideas on the latest science in the field of the LNAPL site
management with representatives from the US Interstate Technical Regulatory Committee
(ITRC) and representatives from the consulting and petrochemical industries. Shortly after
this, FCSAP finalized an internal guidance document; Technical Guidance for the
Assessment of the Mobility of Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL)/Free Product and
Associated Dissolved Phase Plumes – Technical Support Document. In addition, FCSAP is
working towards finalizing Monitored Natural Attenuation guidance for federal contaminated
sites. FCSAP staff has also participated in site specific workshops and meetings which have
sought to define solutions for the management of specific LNAPL sites in Canada. In the
coming year, based on knowledge gained from previous workshops and guidance
development as well as experience gained in seeking solutions at specific sites, FCSAP will
create a simplified LNAPL management framework document.
The proposed LNAPL management framework will provide a tiered approach where the level
of assessment expected on a particular federal LNAPL site is appropriate to the size of the
site and the risk associated with it. The level of protection will be the same at all tiers. It will
focus on LNAPL contamination only for federal legacy sites eligible for funding under the
FCSAP funding in Canada (contaminated prior to 1998). It will provide consistent advice to
owners of LNAPL sites funded by FCSAP and will assist with managing and “closing” these
sites. The principles outlined in the proposed framework may also be more broadly
applicable to other federal contaminated sites in Canada and elsewhere.
Many jurisdictions have requirements to remediate LNAPL to the “extent practicable”. There
is no such explicit requirement for federal sites in Canada. Canadian federal environmental
legislation is largely focused on protection of receiving environments. The proposed
framework will therefore emphasize requirements to ensure receiving environments are
protected.
This presentation will outline steps that FCSAP has taken to advance the understanding of
LNAPL science and describe how future LNAPL management guidance will be developed
and implemented. This will include a brief overview of Canadian federal legislation and policy
related to the management of federal LNAPL sites in Canada and a case study. It will outline
aspects of a proposed LNAPL management framework for FCSAP sites in Canada.
REFERENCES
ASTM (2006) E2531 - Standard Guide for Development of Conceptual Site Models and
Remediation Strategies for Light Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids Released to the
Subsurface
137
FCSAP (2010) Technical Guidance for the Assessment of the Mobility of Light Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquid (LNAPL)/Free Product and Associated Dissolved Phase Plumes –
Technical Support Document (Conestoga Rovers and Associates)
ITRC (2009) Evaluating LNAPL Remedial Technologies for Achieving Project Goals.
LNAPL-2. Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, LNAPLs Team.
WDNR (2012) Guidance on Natural Attenuation for Petroleum Releases, Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources PUB-RR-614
138
C27
LNAPL — A REVIEW OF COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN REMEDIATION BASED ON
CASES FROM AROUND THE WORLD
Jeffery J. C. Paul
Golder Associates Inc., 3730 Chamblee Tucker Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA
SUMMARY
The art and science of handling free phase LNAPL (often termed Free Product) is often
misunderstood. This tends to lead to undesired remediation outcomes, and is further
complicated by the variability in end goals for free phase LNAPL remediation across the
world. Whilst ASTM, ITRC, and other entities have provided guidelines to produce risk-based
corrective actions at petroleum release sites, site owners often face failure to meet agreed
goals, even after considerable effort. The cause of these failures is often due to lack of an
adequate conceptual site model.
This presentation focuses on key misconceptions that lead to failure of many free phase
LNAPL remedial actions. These include understanding that free phase LNAPLs can and
often do “sink” under the groundwater table, so trapping the product. Physical, abiotic and
biotic methods of stopping migration of LNAPL will be discussed. Finally, a review of
remediation endpoints for free phase LNAPL in various parts of the world from 1974 to
present will be presented.
REFERENCES
ASTM (1995) Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action Applied at Petroleum
Release Sites, ASTM E1739
ASTM (2006) Standard Guide for Development of Conceptual Site Models and Remediation
Strategies for Light Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids Released to the Subsurface, ASTM
E2531
ITRC (2009) Evaluating LNAPL Remedial Technologies for Achieving Project Goals.
LNAPL-2. Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, LNAPLs
Team.
139
C28
GROUNDWATER CO-CONTAMINANT BEHAVIOR OF ARSENIC AND
SELENIUM: IMPLICATIONS FOR REMEDY SELECTION
Richard T. Wilkin, Tony R. Lee, and Cherri Adair
United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research
Laboratory, Ground Water and Ecosystems Restoration Division, 919 Kerr Research Drive,
Ada, Oklahoma, USA
wilkin.rick@epa.gov
INTRODUCTION
Arsenic and selenium are present in groundwater contaminant plumes as anionic species
that are determined by redox conditions and pH. The major forms of arsenic in groundwater
are the inorganic species arsenate [As(V)] and arsenite [As(III)]. The more oxidized As(V)
species exist as oxyanions (H2AsO4- and HAsO42-) at near-neutral pH, whereas the primary
As(III) species remains fully protonated as H3AsO30 at pH below about 9.2. Selenium usually
occurs in water as either selenate (Se(VI), SeO42-) or selenite (Se(IV), SeO32-). Selenate is
the most common form of dissolved selenium in water that is alkaline and oxidizing in nature,
whereas selenite predominates in waters that are moderately reducing. Under more highly
reducing conditions, selenium will partition into the insoluble elemental form while arsenic
tends to remain mobile, absent conditions that favour arsenic sulfide precipitation or arsenic
sorption at the mineral-water interface. In contrast, moderately oxidizing conditions favour
selenium mobilization and arsenic sorption. Contrasting redox-governed mobility behavior of
arsenic and selenium has consequences regarding the nature of groundwater plumes and for
selecting appropriate groundwater remedies at hazardous waste sites.
This presentation will provide: i) site-specific details of arsenic and selenium behavior at a
former metal-smelting facility, ii) geochemical model results, iii) laboratory microcosm data,
and iv) preliminary observations regarding the combined treatment of these anionic
contaminants.
PLUME OBSERVATIONS
The site is a former lead-smelting facility in west-central Montana, USA.
Arsenic
concentrations in groundwater at the site are as high as about 100 mg/L and selenium
concentrations are as high as about 5 mg/L. Arsenic and selenium are negatively correlated.
Figure 1 shows a map with contoured arsenic and selenium plumes. Note that where
arsenic concentrations are high, redox conditions and speciation measurements indicate that
arsenite is the dominant form of arsenic. In the core arsenic plume, selenium concentrations
are negligible (<20 ug/L). Results of microcosm experiments and solid-phase analyses
employing x-ray absorption spectroscopy reveal that selenium is likely attenuated in this core
zone via precipitation of elemental selenium.
Outside of the core arsenic plume, arsenic concentrations decrease to around 1 mg/L, mainly
as arsenate, and selenium concentrations rise to their maximum values near 5 mg/L, mainly
as selenate. Site investigations and historical records indicate that the core arsenic footprint
is in part controlled by a fuel spill that resulted in anaerobic and highly reducing conditions
that favour arsenic mobility and selenium attenuation. The arsenic source zone can be traced
back to a specific waste-handling area (speiss pit); however, the source(s) of selenium have
not been clearly traced back to specific facility processes or waste streams.
REMEDIATION OPTIONS
Remedial feasibility assessments are currently being conducted at the site. A pilot-scale
subsurface installation of a permeable reactive barrier has been tested for arsenic (Beak and
Wilkin, 2009; Wilkin et al., 2009). The reactive barrier was designed to treat groundwater
contaminated with moderately high concentrations of both arsenite and arsenate. Monitoring
results indicate arsenic concentrations >25 mg/L in wells located hydraulically upgradient of
140
the PRB, and within the PRB, arsenic concentrations are reduced to 1,500 to <10 ug/L. This
pilot test, however, has not provided any useful information on selenium uptake behavior,
because influent concentrations in this area of the site are so low. However, other studies
indicate that zero-valent iron could be an effective treatment medium for selenate (Zhang et
al., 2005; Sasaki et al., 2008). We will discuss groundwater compatibility issues related to
contaminant treatment by zero-valent iron in water containing dissolved oxygen, and oxidized
forms of arsenic and selenium.
Figure 1. Groundwater distribution of arsenic and selenium at a former lead-smelting facility.
REFERENCES
Beak, D.G. and Wilkin, R.T. (2009). Performance of a zerovalent iron reactive barrier for the
treatment of arsenic in groundwater: Part 2. Geochemical modeling and solid phase
studies. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 106: 15-28.
Sasaki, K., Blowes, D.W., and Ptacek, C.J. (2008). Spectroscopic study of precipitates
formed during removal of selenium from mine drainage spiked with selenate using
permeable reactive materials. Geochemical Journal 42: 283-294.
Wilkin, R.T., Acree, S.D., Ross, R.R., Beak, D.G., and Lee, T.R. (2009). Performance of a
zerovalent iron reactive barrier for the treatment of arsenic in groundwater: Part 1.
Hydrogeochemical studies. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 106: 1-14.
Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Amrhein, C., and Frankenberger, W.T. (2005). Removal of selenate
from water by zerovalent iron. Journal of Environmental Quality 34: 487-495.
141
C29
IN-PLACE SOIL AND GROUNDWATER CLEANUP OF HEXAVALENT
CHROMIUM AND OTHER METALS AND METALLOIDS BY NANO
SCALE FERROUS SULPHIDE SLURRY
Jim V. Rouse1, Richard H. Christensen2, Steven R. Irvin2
1
Acuity Environmental Solutions, 1328 Northridge Court, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
2
AcuityEnvironmental Solutions, 7965 E. 106th Street, Fishers, IN, 46038, USA
jrouse@acuityes.com
INTRODUCTION
A number of papers by the senior author published over the past two decades have traced
the development and application of in-situ methods of remediation of hexavalent chromium
contamination in soil and groundwater at sites throughout the United States and Australia, by
use of liquid reductants such as calcium polysulfide. In some cases, the inorganic creation of
reduced condition has mobilized various other metals and metalloids such as manganese
and arsenic. Recently, a nano-scale slurry of ferrous sulphide has become available that has
been demonstrated to be capable of remediation of extremely high concentrations of
hexavalent chromium in soil and groundwater, at the same time cleaning up contamination
by other elements, including arsenic, nickel, antimony and lead.
Successful in-place clean-up must include not only the selection of the best reagent, but also
the most effective reagent delivery system, depending on the site lithology and
geohydrology. One recent clean-up project involved all the elements listed, in a complex site
condition including glacial till cut with gravel-filled melt-water channels. Soil contamination
extended to a depth of approximately 5 meters, with groundwater contamination in the
meltwater channels from 5 to 10 meters below land surface, in a 100-meter plume extending
under a land-use mix of former industrial facilities and low-cost housing. The site was
remediated in approximately 2 years at a cost less than half thatof the more conventional
methods, by means of soil mixing and a grid injection of the nano-scale slurry of ferrous
sulphide.
METHODS
Following demolition of the inactive plating shop responsible for the extensive soil and
groundwater contamination, the first task was the selection of the most effective reductant
reagent. The second, equally important task was the selection of in-situ reagent delivery
methods to achieve contact between the complex suite of contaminants and the selected
reagent, in both the clay-rich vadose zone and the saturated meltwater channels cutting
through the low-permeability glacial till.
Reductant Selection
Based on past experience, the reagents tested involved various forms of reduced sulphur
compounds such as meta-bisulfite and calcium polysulphide, and reduced iron reagents
such as ferrous chloride and zero-valent iron. But the sulphur compounds had the
disadvantage of mobilizing other contaminants, and the ferrous solutions tended to create
acidic conditions. By working with the nano-scale ferrous sulphide slurry vendor, an alkaline
‘hybrid’ reagent was created which combined the advantages of both classes of reagent
without the limitations of either.
Reagent Delivery Selection
Past experience had indicated the best chance of successful groundwater remediation would
be the use of ‘top down’ grid injection of reductant through the drill rod, using rotary sonic
drilling rigs, capable of penetrating an indurated layer at the upper surface of the saturated
zone. A Dual-Axis Blender (DAB) mounted on a track-mounted backhoe was selected on the
basis of past experience at other sites as capable of mixing the clay soil and the gravel of
meltwater channels in the vadose zone.
142
REMEDIATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The remediation project was conducted under provisions of the Indiana Voluntary
Remediation Program (VRP) of the Indiana Department of Environmental Management
(IDEM). The first full-scale hexavalent chromium remediation project the senior author
conducted was in the mid-1980s in Indiana, so the agency was familiar with the process,
which facilitated the VRP.
The first task was the in-place soil blending and injection of the nano-scale slurry in a source
zone approximately 30 by 70 meters. The zone was divided into a series of grids
approximately 3 meters on the side. A GPS unit on the boom of the DAP allowed tracking of
the horizontal and vertical location of the mixing and injection points, thus assuring complete
coverage to the 5-meter depth. Approximately 60 litres of slurry were injected into each cubic
meter of soil. While pre-injection hexavalent chromium concentrations were in the grams per
kilogram range, 24 post-treatment cores were found to all contain less than the laboratory
detection limit of 5 milligrams per kilogram.
A layer of crushed limestone was placed on the surface of the source zone to facilitate postclosure coring and subsequent grid injection of the slurry into the saturated zone. This
injection was facilitated by use of two rotary sonic drill rigs. A total of approximately 150,000
litres of 5% slurry were injected during the initial injection program in August 2010.
Monitoring was conducted through monitoring wells in September, 2010. Samples from this
program demonstrated complete remediation of dissolved nickel, to less than the laboratory
detection limit of 0.05 mg/L. Hexavalent chromium concentrations decreased from preinjection concentrations of up to approximately 10,000 mg/L, to non-detection concentrations
by the second post-closure monitoring, except for a limited meltwater channel. A second
injection program was conducted in May, 2011, involving the injection of approximately an
additional 30,000 litres of slurry into this meltwater channel.
After 5 quarters of post-injection monitoring, no hexavalent chromium was detected in offsite monitoring wells, and site-wide concentrations decreased by at least 99.9%. In addition,
antimony concentrations, which had been present at concentrations up to 30 mg/L, were all
less than the laboratory detection limit of 0.006 mg/L. A Closure Report has been submitted
to IDEM, and a determination that the site has been completely remediated is anticipated.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In-place clean-up has been accomplished in less than 10% of the time anticipated for
conventional remedial methods and at a cost substantially less than the anticipated
cost of the conventional methods
2. The remediation was accomplished at a site with a complex site lithology and
geohydrology, and a diverse group of metal and metalloid contaminants.
3. No evidence of mobilization of other contaminants was detected.
4. The nano-scale slurry is easy to transport, store and inject through existing
remediation equipment.
143
C30
UNIQUE IMPLEMENTATION METHOD FOR THE IN-SITU CHEMICAL
FIXATION OF ARSENIC USING CHELATED IRON AND STABILIZED
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Stanley C. Haskins, Kolter Hartman
In-Situ Oxidative Technologies, Inc., 6452 Fig St, Suite C, Arvada, Colorado, 80004, USA
shaskins@insituoxidation.com
INTRODUCTION
Although the use of iron to precipitate and fix arsenic, with and without peroxide, has been
used for years, successful implementation has proven to be the weak link to successful
projects. The technique is generally quite successful in the laboratory, but in-situ application
has been difficult due to a limited distribution of reagent. Limitations are often caused by the
rapid decomposition of peroxide near the injection location and the inability to distribute iron
into the formation before it precipitates. The objective of the process is to co-precipitate
arsenic with iron as part of an iron-arsenic oxyhydroxide. The fixation process requires both
the iron and arsenic to be present in groundwater in an oxidized state (Fe+3 and As+5), while
at the same time there must be sufficient dissolved oxygen available to allow the formation of
the oxyhydroxide.
METHODS
The unique nature of this fixation process is the use of chelated iron catalyst and stabilized
hydrogen peroxide reagents. The combination of these two reagents in-situ allows for optimal
fixation chemistry and physical distribution of reagents. The use of chelating agents allows
for the iron to be stable in the subsurface at neutral pH while the stabilized peroxide is
introduced into the groundwater. The reactions that occur when both peroxide and iron are
present for extended periods of time (hours) allow for the groundwater conditions to become
slightly oxidizing with an abundance of available dissolved oxygen from the decomposition of
the peroxide. All while the arsenic is oxidized from As+3 to As+5 and iron is oxidized from Fe+2
to Fe+3.
In addition, the use of chelating agents and stabilizers slows down the decomposition rate of
hydrogen peroxide. The first benefit of slowed decomposition, is that it gives sufficient time
for the produced gas to expand and generate a significant radius of influence (ROI) through
displacement. The second benefit of slowed decomposition is that the chelated iron and
stabilized peroxide distributed throughout the ROI are still available for the fixation chemistry.
Bench Testing
The chelated iron/stabilized peroxide process was bench tested using a prepared solution of
As+3 at a concentration of approximately 500 micrograms per liter (μg/L). Six 250 ml
containers were prepared with 238 ml of the arsenic solution. Four containers received 6 mls
of chelated iron (2,000 mg/L concentration) plus 6 mls of stabilized hydrogen peroxide at
varying concentrations (12%, 6%, 3% and 1.5%). Two control containers received 12 mls of
distilled water. Containers were allowed to rest for 4 days. Containers where then sent to an
accredited analytical laboratory for dissolved arsenic testing.
Field Testing
The chelated iron/stabilized peroxide process was tested in the field at a site in Wyoming,
USA. The site has arsenic plume with maximum total arsenic concentrations in the 180 to
200 μg/L range. A test area was selected where maximum concentrations were expected to
be encountered. Nine injection locations were used with an equal spacing of 7.4 meters
between them (assumed ROI of 3.7 meters). The test area was further divided into three
areas utilizing different hydrogen peroxide concentrations (3%, 6% and 9%). Each sub area
consisted of three injection locations and one or two monitoring wells. A direct push rod was
installed at injection location with a stainless steel screen deployed from 3.4 to 5.8 meters
144
below grade. A total of 1,140 liters of reagent, 570 liters of chelated iron and 570 liters of
stabilized hydrogen peroxide was injected at each location.
Bench test results showed that the highest reduction of dissolved arsenic concentration
occurred in the container with the lowest concentration of hydrogen peroxide, 1.5%.
Dissolved arsenic concentrations were reduced from approximately 455 μg/L in the control
containers to 9.7 μg/L.
Table 1. Bench study results
Control
Container
Dissolved As (μg/L)
Hydrogen Peroxide Concentration
1
2
12%
6%
3%
1.5%
455
461
193
133
19.1
9.7
At the field test site, total arsenic concentrations showed the greatest reductions in the 9%
peroxide test plot. Here the total arsenic concentration was reduced from 61 μg/L, in a
monitoring well 3.7 meters away from the nearest injection location, to 2.9 μg/L. This postinjection result was reported from a sample collected one week after injection.
Table 2. Field test results. Hydrogen peroxide concentration – 9%.
Total Arsenic (μg/L)
Post Inj. (1 wk.)
Post Inj. (1 mo.)
Distance
Baseline
Post Inj. (2 mo.)
1.8 meters
18
4.4
11
6.3
3.7 meters
61
2.9
6.2
6.6
CONCLUSIONS
The use of chelating agents and hydrogen peroxide stabilizers decreases the decomposition
rate of hydrogen peroxide, which allows for the displacement of the fixation chemistry
reagents (chelated iron and stabilized peroxide) throughout the ROI. In addition, only
minimal amounts of reagent are required to develop the ROI due to the unique
decomposition characteristics of the stabilized peroxide.
Combining the two reagents eliminates the original limitations caused by the rapid
decomposition of peroxide near the injection location and the inability to distribute iron into
the formation before it precipitates.
145
C31
IN SITU GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION OF pH 13 AND 750 ug/L
ARSENIC
Henry Kerfoot
URS Pty Ltd., One Southbank Blvd, Level 6, Southbank, VIC 3006 AUSTRALIA
henry.kerfoot@urs.com
INTRODUCTION
A groundwater plume with pH values up to 13.6 and arsenic concentrations up to over 750
ug/liter originated from a disposal facility for kiln dust from a cement plant located in a canyon
in the Northwest USA. The shallow aquifer was cobbly alluvium atop a silty clay aquitard at
approximately 7 m bgs. Because the plume flowed towards a stream with protected species
of trout, remediation was required by State regulators.
METHODS
Geochemical modelling
Geochemical modelling was used to evaluate the data to assess the factors responsible for
the arsenic concentrations to develop an appropriate in situ treatment method to remediate
the groundwater.
Bench Testing
Batch bench testing was used to evaluate the efficacy of pH neutralization in removing
arsenic, the role of aquifer solids in the process, the effect of added organic matter to
promote sulfide formation, and the use of hydrochloric acid for pH neutralisation.
Pilot Testing
Following the bench testing, a pilot test using permeation of carbon dioxide through a
polymer membrane was used evaluated and downgradient pH and arsenic were monitored.
In order to be more representative of a funnel-and-gate in situ treatment system, the pilot test
was performed near but not in the most affected groundwater.
Geochemical modelling
Based on Eh-pH diagrams and reaction simulation calculations from Geochemists
Workbench, pH was identified as the master variable and pH adjustment was selected as a
cleanup method for bench testing
Bench Testing
Role of Aquifer Solids
Bench tests neutralising the pH to 7 using CO2 showed exponential declines in arsenic and
iron concentrations. Arsenic removal was only observed when aquifer solids were present,
and the concentrations of arsenic and iron showed an exponential decline consistent with
A
B
Fig.1. Changes in arsenic and iron concentrations over time in groundwater
with aquifer solids present for A) CO2-neutralised B) Untreated groundwater (Note that the
scale for the treated water is 1/10 that for the untreated water.)
146
first-order kinetics. The calculated arsenic half-life was 45 days for the water/solids ratio
used in the bench tests, with a shorter half-life expected at site water/solids ratios. Figure1
shows those data.
Aquifer solids were a source of arsenic and contributed arsenic to groundwater. Arsenic did
not leach from aquifer solids into simulated site groundwater after CO2 pH neutralisation but
did leach from aquifer solids into untreated simulated groundwater. Arsenic was also
observed to leach from aquifer solids into bottled drinking water.
Effect of Added Organic Matter
Addition of wood chips to provide organic carbon to promote sulfide formation resulted in
first-order kinetics for arsenic removal with a half-life of approximately 22 days in CO2 treated groundwater with aquifer solids present while arsenic removal was not observed in
untreated groundwater. Iron concentrations in the treated batch did not show the same
behaviour. Figure 2 shows bench test arsenic and iron concentrations for CO2 pH-neutralised
site groundwater with wood chips added with aquifer solids present and without aquifer
solids. The presence of aquifer solids was again necessary for arsenic removal. The arsenic
precipitation process did not occur with previously sterilised batches, suggesting a microbial
process.
A
B
Fig.2. Changes in arsenic and iron concentrations over time in CO2-neutralised groundwater
with wood chips added for A) aquifer solids present B) no aquifer solids
Effect of HCl for pH Neutralisation
To evaluate other acids for pH neutralisation, HCl was used to neutralise the pH to 7 and to 6
with solids present and arsenic removal was not observed.
Pilot Testing
Pilot testing was successful over a period of more than 2 years and a full-scale system is
currently operating. Figure 3 shows upgradient and downgradient arsenic concentrations
during pilot testing.
Fig.3. Changes in arsenic and iron concentrations over time in during CO2 pilot testing
147
C32
IN SITU REMEDIATION OF CHROMIUM IN SOIL AND
GROUNDWATER
Andrew Wollen1, Bernd W. Rehm2
1
ERR – Environmental Remediation Resources Pty Ltd, F4/13-15 Kevlar Close, Braeside,
VIC 3915, AUSTRALIA
2
ReSolution Partners, LLC, 967 Jonathon Drive, Madison, WI 53713, USA
aw@erraus.com.au
INTRODUCTION
A chrome-plating facility in the Midwestern United States was situated over 3 m of silt which
overlay 24 m of sand and gravel. The sand and gravel supported an unconfined aquifer with
a water table ~ 2 to 3 metres below the ground surface. Historical releases of chromium
from plating operations active from 1942 to 1995 resulted in a 900 metre-long plume of
hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) as a result of leaching to groundwater flowing beneath the site.
Concentrations of Cr6+ in the groundwater were as high as 160 mg/L. An interim groundwater
pump and treat system was started in December 1995 to stop the continued migration of
chromium beyond the facility property line. Chromium was removed from the pumped water
using ion-exchange resins and the water discharged to a nearby creek. Regenerant from the
exchange columns were sent off-site for management as hazardous waste.
The plating building was demolished in March 1996, with debris sent to hazardous and solid
waste landfills ($1,270,000US including engineering). This allowed access to soil that
contained to a maximum of 7,500 mg/kg of Cr6+ (40 investigation samples). Maximum total
chromium concentrations were as high as 39,000 mg/kg. Approximately 6,200 tonnes of soil
would be classified as hazardous waste if excavated.
The contaminated soil was a continuing source of Cr6+ contamination to the groundwater.
Numerical modeling of chromium leaching to groundwater indicated that the leachable Cr6+
from the soil should be less than 2 mg/L in order to achieve a chromium concentration of
<0.10 mg/L in the top of the aquifer. A total of 5,800 m3 of soil to depths of ~3 m beneath the
plating building area was targeted for remediation.
TREATMENT DESIGN
The remediation plan called for the in situ treatment of the chromium to convert the Cr6+ to
Cr3+. In the +3 oxidation state the chromium is rendered practically insoluble (lower mobility)
and nontoxic (lower risk). An iron-based remedy using ferrous sulphate/ferric chloride was
selected to form Cr0.25Fe0.75(OH)3 (Palmer and Wittbrodt, 1991). This mineral phase lowers
chromium solubility to <0.10 mg/L at pH’s as low as ~4.5 range. The shallow soil setting was
expected to remain aerobic, supporting the stability of chromium by this approach.
Laboratory treatability studies were used to confirm the chromium sequestration when
leached by simulated acid rain (USEPA SW-846, Method 1312). These studies found that 6
weight percent ferrous sulphate would produce a 99 percent reduction of leachable Cr6+ in
the naturally alkaline soil. Reducing the soil pH to <7 improved the process to a 99.99
percent concentration reduction. Ferric chloride was used to reduce the pH and add more
ferric iron to the soil for chromium-iron mineral formation.
IMPLEMENTATION
Dry reagents were supplied in 0.9-tonne sacks. The site was divided into grids and the
required reagent dose was applied to the grid. A tracked excavator and a MITU-12 soil
mixing machine were used to mix the ferrous and ferric iron reagent to the soil at 6 and 3
weight percent, respectively.
Mixing and stabilization performance were tested with grab samples collected from each grid
volume for in-field analysis of Cr6+. Final determination of remediation performance to meet
regulatory agency requirements was defined by a grid of 26 vertically-composited soil
148
samples submitted to a certified laboratory for chromium analyses. Once the stabilization
was determined to be complete, the area was paved and supported the sale of the site for
continuing site manufacturing operations.
RESULTS
Figure 1 illustrates the performance of chromium stabilization in the soil as a cumulative
probability plot. Concentrations of Cr6+ in the 26 regulatory agency defined grids ranged from
3 to 2,500 mg/kg (median of 67 mg/kg). Grid samples collected after the stabilization was
thought to be complete included four grids with relatively high Cr6+ concentrations (5 to 1,300
mg/kg, median of 1.9 mg/kg). These four grids were retreated and retested to yield the final
results with maximum and median concentrations of 5.3 mg/kg and 1.4 mg/kg, respectively.
Fifty percent of the final results were less than the 1.3 mg/kg laboratory reporting limit and
the overall Cr6+ reduction in soil was 99.4 percent.
Figure 2 illustrates the response of groundwater concentrations to the soil stabilization in two
representative monitoring wells immediately downgradient of the plating facility. These wells
showed 500- to 650-fold Cr6+ concentration decreases. All but well GW-4 decreased below
the 0.10 mg/L remediation target. Well GW-4 showed periodic fluctuations in concentrations
that exceed the goal. Hydrologic evaluation suggested that seasonal increases in water
table elevation likely encountered a small pocket of unstabilized soil immediately above the
water table that is periodically exposed to groundwater leaching. The regulatory agency did
not require additional soil remediation.
The in situ remedy cost ~$1,300,000 including subgrade foundation demolition, grading,
paving, engineering support and documentation. The in situ remedy saved an estimated
$500,000 over excavation and off-site disposal as solid or hazardous waste. The
groundwater containment system collected 847 kg of chromium before the soil stabilization
(annual regenerant disposal cost of ~$260,000 US). Three years after soil remediation the
containment system collected only 21 kg chromium per year. The containment system was
subsequently shut down.
100
Total Chromium Concentration (mg/L)
Final: MED=1.4, MAX=5.3 mg/kg
QL
Cumulative Percent of Samples
90
80
First Treatment: MED=1.9,
MAX=1,300 mg/kg
70
60
50
Initial Conditions: MED=67,
MAX=2,500 mg/kg
40
30
N=26 (all sets)
20
10
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
10.00
GW-8
1.00
GW-4
0.10
Groundwater
Cleanup Goal (0.1 mg/L)
0.01
2
Hexavalent Chromium Concentration (log10 mg/kg)
Figure 1.
soil.
Hydraulic Containment
100.00 Building
Soil
Demolition
Treatment
5 10 12 34 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69
Months
Cr6+ concentration reductions in
Figure 2. Total Cr concentration reductions in
groundwater.
REFERENCES
Palmer, C. D. And P. R. Wittbrodt (1991). Processes affecting the remediation of chromiumcontaminated sites. Environmental Health Perspectives, 92:25-40.
149
C33
IN SITU STABILIZATION OF HEAVY METALS IN GROUNDWATER
John Valkenburg, Alan Seech, Josephine Molin, and Jim Mueller
FMC Environmental Solutions, 1735 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA
John.Valkenburg@FMC.com
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater metals contamination is a complex problem. Careful consideration of site
geochemistry and metal stability is essential. Metals solubility is impacted by shifts in aquifer
redox potential (Eh) and pH. Therefore, any in situ treatment that alters the geochemistry
may potentially affect the mobility of metals in soil and groundwater, where the source of
metals may be natural or anthropogenic.
DESCRIPTION
FMC offers a remediation product, EHC-M, which contains ZVI, a slow-release carbon
source, and a source of sulphate that has been demonstrated in the lab and in the field to
stabilize metals and reduce soluble metals concentrations in groundwater. Following
placement of EHC-M substrate into the saturated zone, a number of chemical and
microbiological processes combine to create strongly reducing conditions under which a
number of heavy metals are sequestered via reductive precipitation as scarcely soluble ironmetal-sulfides and adsorption onto secondary ZVI corrosion products. A wide range of
chlorinated volatile organic compounds (CVOCs) are also degraded in these reduced
environments; as such EHC-M has successfully been used for treatment of mixed plumes
(CVOCs plus heavy metals) and at CVOC sites where mobilization of metals is a concern in
relation to adding a carbon-based electron donor only (i.e., pH/Eh change liberates metals
from the soil matrix yielding secondary plumes). EHC-M could be applied into the subsurface
using a number of installation methods, including direct injection using direct push
technology, hydraulic and pneumatic fracturing, or direct soil mixing. It has also been applied
together with backfill material in connection with excavation work.
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Laboratory studies and field applications have shown that EHC-M is capable of providing a
rapid, persistent and irreversible immobilization of both reducible metals (e.g.; Cr, As, Se,
Mo, U) and metal cations (e.g.; Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni), with treatment efficiencies ranging from
78 to >99%. Some examples of data to be included and discussed in the presentation are
shown below.
Table 1. Laboratory Column Removal Efficiency
Compound
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Zinc
Influent Concentration
Range (ug/L)
24,500
2,000
11
200
210
86
64,000
350
50,400
150
Observed Removal
Efficiency (%)
>99
>99
>99
>99
>99
>99
>99
>99
92
2500
Effluent As Concentration P
( g/L)
Control Colum n Effluent
1%EHC-M Colum n Effluent
Eh>>0
Eh>>0
pH=4
Eh>>0
pH=9
2000
A s in inf lue nt
A s - f re e inf lue nt
1500
1000
500
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Total Time of Test (days)
Figure 1. Arsenic Stability Under Varying Eh and pH Conditions
Figure 2. Lead Concentrations - Field site in Brazil
CONCLUSIONS
EHC-M is highly effective at stabilizing metals in groundwater, and has been demonstrated to
be effective at the bench and in the field.
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C34
IN SITU STABILISATION OF ARSENIC IN GROUNDWATER —
PILOT TEST RESULTS
B. Brewster, K. East, R.A. Brown, W.A. Butler, W.J. Germs & G. Wheeler
Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd, 60 Leichhardt Street, Spring Hill,
QLD 4000, AUSTRALIA
byron.brewster@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
At an active formulation facility in Queensland, soil and groundwater are affected by arsenic
across the site and toluene in an area of limited extent. The site is located adjacent to a large
river and the lithology at the site is a mixture of unconsolidated sediments in a floodplain
environment with distinct sand and clay layers. Two groundwater bearing units (sand) are
also present. The arsenic appeared to be relatively stable throughout most of the site except
for one area of higher arsenic concentrations (up to 100 mg L-1) that is co-located with the
limited area where toluene was present in groundwater at concentrations up to 53.5 mg L-1.
Arsenic is more mobile in this area and fate and transport modelling indicates that arsenic
may reach the river at concentrations greater than adopted trigger values (50 Pg L-1) by the
year 2019. Arsenic concentrations decrease with distance from the primary source area in
the centre of the site. Regardless, the facility owner has proactively taken measures to
mitigate the potential for mobile, dissolved arsenic to migrate toward the river.
APPROACH
Groundwater conditions across the site range between slightly anaerobic and aerobic, except
within the limited area where toluene is present. In the area where toluene is present,
biodegradation of toluene likely lowered the ambient redox conditions to more reduced
conditions, which in turn appears to have resulted in arsenic being reduced from its less
mobile, oxidized form (As5+, arsenate) to its more mobile, reduced form (As3+, arsenite). The
initial remediation approach considered was to oxidise groundwater in the primary source
area to convert As3+ to As5+ while also stimulating aerobic bio-degradation of the toluene.
The approach was to construct an air sparging barrier in combination with several air
sparging points (ASPs) within the toluene source area. The barrier consisted of multiple
ASPs installed in a line perpendicular to the arsenic plume with the aim of creating an
aerobic zone within groundwater that would convert As3+ to As5+ and possibly cause it to coprecipitate with iron. The source-focused air sparging consisted of a few ASPs within the
toluene source area, primarily to enhance the aerobic biodegradation of toluene and, to a
lesser extent, strip toluene from groundwater where soil vapour extraction (SVE) can be used
to capture the stripped toluene vapour.
Pilot testing was conducted to verify whether air sparging would be effective at creating
aerobic, oxidising conditions that would convert As3+ to As5+. Full-scale design criteria were
to be evaluated and developed from the pilot test including air injection rate and pressure,
radius of influence (ROI), and optimum cycle time for pulsed air sparging. Additionally, SVE
was evaluated in the pilot test for its ability to capture stripped toluene vapour, and full-scale
design criteria were obtained for SVE including SVE rate and vacuum, ROI, and
concentration of toluene in the extracted soil vapour.
PILOT TESTING
Wells and Monitoring Points
One ASP and one SVE well were installed for the pilot test to depths of 5 and 2 metres below
ground surface (mbgs), respectively. The pilot testing location was selected near the toluene
source area.
152
Wells installed to monitor the performance of air sparging and SVE comprised:
(a) 6 monitoring points installed to evaluate the ROI from the ASP and to monitor
changes in groundwater quality and speciated arsenic concentration changes
(b) 3 soil vapour monitoring points installed at distances of 1, 3, and 5 metres from the
ASP in different directions to monitor soil vapour concentrations resulting from air
sparging and to evaluate ROI, and SVE ROI
Equipment
Equipment included an air compressor and SVE unit. The SVE unit included a flow meter,
air/liquid separator, a regenerative vacuum blower, two vapour-phase carbon adsorbers in
series, sampling ports, and control panel. The compressed air hose was connected to a
solenoid valve and flow meter to enable pulsed air sparging. The solenoid valve was tied into
the SVE unit control panel and adjustable timer to control the air sparging on-off cycle time.
Pilot Test Operation and Data Collection
The pilot test commenced on 29 August 2011 and was completed on 19 December 2011
with follow up groundwater monitoring in January 2012. The initial week was used to
evaluate SVE rates and vacuum and air sparging injection rates and pressures, extracted
soil vapour concentrations of toluene, and optimum cycle time. The air injection rate used for
the test ranged between 400 and 500 litres per minute (Lpm) at a pressure of 60 to 70
kilopascals (kPa) with an on-off cycle time of 2 hours.
While SVE was tested and found to be feasible, SVE was discontinued for the remainder of
the pilot test as no organic vapours were detected based on measurements using a portable
organic vapour analyser equipped with a photo-ionisation detector (OVA-PID). The data
obtained was sufficient for designing and operating an effective full-scale SVE system if
determined to be necessary for the source-focused air sparging points.
The testing then transitioned into routine data collection, operation and maintenance. Data
collection included:
(a) Air injection flow rates and pressures to maintain the desired air injection rate
(b) Groundwater elevation to evaluate ROI and optimum cycle time for pulsed operation
(c) Total organic vapour concentrations from soil vapour monitoring points and existing
monitoring wells to check for a toluene presence in soil vapours during air sparging
(d) Dissolved oxygen (DO) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) measurements to
evaluate ROI and whether oxidizing conditions are being created by air sparging
(e) Groundwater samples were periodically collected from monitoring wells and analysed
for total and dissolved arsenic and iron, speciated arsenic, toluene, and dissolved
organic carbon
Results are summarised as follows:
(a) SVE is feasible with a ROI of approximately 5m
(b) Air sparging injection rate of approximately 400 to 500 Lpm at a pressure of 60 to 70
kPa with a ROI of between 5m to 10m and optimum on-off cycle time of 2 hours
(c) DO and ORP levels generally rose during the pilot test, indicating a change in the
conditions of the formation from predominantly anaerobic to slightly aerobic
(d) DO and ORP levels then fluctuated rather than continuing to rise, which is a normal
phenomenon observed at other sites that is likely due to oxygen consumption by
aerobic microorganisms that growing as a result of DO introduction and other abiotic
geochemical reactions
(e) Total dissolved arsenic concentrations measured in performance monitoring wells,
generally decreased (by more than an order of magnitude in one well) and speciated
arsenic results indicated a decrease in As3+ concentrations (up to an order of
magnitude in the majority of performance monitoring wells) indicating that air sparging
was leading to the oxidation of As3+.
(f) Dissolved iron concentrations also generally decreased, aligning with dissolved
arsenic concentration reduction, as expected with a transition from anaerobic to
aerobic conditions.
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C36
THE USA’s INTRASTATE TECHNOLOGY AND REGULATORY
COUNCIL’S (ITRC) APPROACH TO THE NAPL PROBLEM
Naji Akladiss1, Tamzen Macbeth2, Charles Newell3
1
State of Maine Department of Environmental Protection, ITRC Integrated DNAPL Site
Strategy Team, Augusta, Maine USA
2
CDM Smith, Helena, Montana USA
3
GSI Environmental Inc., Houston, Texas USA
SUMMARY
The Intrastate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) is a key catalyst in the United
States for promoting use of innovative remediation technologies and remediation strategies.
The organization is composed of integrative teams of federal/state regulators, academia,
industry, and technology vendors. The ITRC’s goal is to develop Technical and Regulatory
documents on key new technologies and approaches and deliver this information via Internet
and in-person training. It is a consensus-based organization, with each document requiring
approval of all member organizations. While the ITRC charter prohibits the organization from
making new regulations, it serves as a key vehicle to help introduce new technologies to
regulators and the rest of the environmental community.
The ITRC model has emphasized applying new solutions to the old problem of Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquids (NAPLs) at contaminated sites. The ITRC’s Integrated DNAPL Site Strategy
(IDSS) Team has integrated three important new developments (matrix diffusion, remediation
performance, and SMART objectives) in their 2011 Technology/Regulatory Guidance. ITRC’s
Bioremediation of DNAPLs team has developed a series of three guidance documents that
explain how in-situ bioremediation of DNAPL source zones works and where it best applied.
Finally, a new ITRC DNAPL team is now working to explain how important new thinking
about matrix diffusion sources, high-resolution sampling, and the IDSS approach can be
incorporated in DNAPL site characterization programs.
Key concepts presented in the ITRC Integrated DNAPL Site Strategy document include:
x Sites contaminated by chlorinated solvents presents a “daunting environmental
challenge.”
x Compounding the challenge is the uncertainty associated with the benefits of partial
source removal and the general lack of interim regulatory metrics or objectives to help
define and incentivize partial source cleanup success.
x An environment management strategy for DNAPL and chlorinated solvent–
contaminated sites should be developed on reliable data, be achievable, and be
performance measureable. It must consider the limitation and uncertainty in our ability
to fully characterize the subsurface and distribution of DNAPL and the removal,
recovery, or treatment limitations of available remediation technologies.
x The document presents the IDSS team’s latest thinking in five key areas: conceptual
site models, remedial objectives, treatment technologies, monitoring strategies, and
the need to reevaluate the strategy repeatedly.
The ITRC’s 2008 Bioremediation of DNAPL source zones document presents these key
conclusions about in-situ bioremediation of DNAPL source zones:
x ISB of DNAPL technology has two main components: 1) enhanced dissolution and/or
desorption of nonaqueous- and/or sorbed-phase contaminant mass; and 2) biological
degradation to nonchlorinated, nontoxic end products.
x advantages of enhanced ISB include its ability to treat other contaminants present
with the chlorinated ethenes, specifically other chlorinated organic compounds, and
its ability to be used in combination with a number of other treatment technologies as
part of a larger overall site remediation strategy.
x ISB can be challenged by low aquifer permeability and/or the presence of aquifer
heterogeneities and preferential pathways.
154
On the LNAPL front, the ITRC LNAPL team has been very active with two recently released
documents that are having significant impact on the management and remediation of LNAPL
sites in the United States. First, the ITRC explains how to evaluate LNAPL remedial
technologies for achieving project goals in a 2009 LNAPL Remedial Technologies
Technical/Regulatory Guidance document. This guidance provides a framework to help
stakeholders select the best-suited LNAPL remedial technology for a LNAPL site and will
help the regulator and others understand what technologies apply in different site situations.
In addition, the ITRC developed a Technology Overview of Natural Source Zone Depletion
(NSZD) of LNAPL zones. New diagnostic and measurement tools in the form of CO2 traps
are making this technology much easier to understand and implement at LNAPL sites.
Figure 1. Generalized LNAPL management overview from ITRC LNAPL Remedial Technologies
Guidance
For this keynote presentation, the three presenters, all members of ITRC, will provide a joint,
“conversational” approach to describing ITRC’s approach to the difficult NAPL problem, both
for LNAPLs and DNAPLs.
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MASS FLUX AND MASS DISCHARGE: THE ITRC APPROACH
Charles Newell1, Naji Akladiss2, Tamzen Macbeth3, Heather Rectanus4
1
GSI Environmental, 2211 Norfolk Suite 1100, Houston Texas 77098 USA
Maine Department of Environmental Protection 17 State house Station, Augusta Maine USA
3
CDM Smith, 50 West 14th Street Suite 200, Helena Montana 59601 USA
1
Battelle, 505 King Ave, Columbus, OH 43201, USA
cjnewell@gsi-net.com, Naji.N.Akladiss@maine.gov
macbethtw@cdmsmith.com, RectanusH@battelle.org
2
INTRODUCTION
Most decisions regarding contaminated groundwater sites are driven by contaminant
concentrations. These decisions can be improved by also considering contaminant mass
discharge and mass flux. Mass discharge and flux estimates quantify source or plume
strength at a given time and location. Consideration of the strength of a source or solute
plume (i.e., the contaminant mass moving in the groundwater per unit of time) improves
evaluation of natural attenuation and assessment of risks posed by contamination to
downgradient receptors, such as supply wells or surface water bodies. This information is
valuable in virtually all aspects of contaminated site management (see figure below).
METHODS
In 2011 the US Intrastate Technology
and Regulatory Council (ITRC) issued a
Technology Overview document that
described the concepts, uses, and
measurement methods for mass flux and
mass discharge, as well as a review of
case studies demonstrating the benefits
of using these data for site management.
The ITRC is a key catalyst in the United
States for promoting use of innovative
remediation
technologies
and
remediation strategies.
Composed of
integrative
teams
of
federal/state
regulators, academia, industry, and
technology vendors, the ITRC’s goal is to
develop Technical and Regulatory
documents on key new technologies and
approaches and deliver this information
via Internet and in-person training.
Mass discharge is calculated by combining concentration data with the Darcy velocity of
groundwater. By evaluating mass discharge at a site and thereby accounting for the
combined effects of concentration and groundwater velocity on contaminant movement,
managers will have a more complete understanding of the site, which will improve
management decisions regarding site prioritization or remedial design and operations. For
example, contaminant concentrations alone cannot provide a complete picture of the
processes governing plume behavior because groundwater velocity (which varies across a
site) is an integral component of plume behavior. However, incorporating mass discharge
information into the conceptual site model (CSM) improves remediation efficiency and
shortens cleanup times, particularly at sites with multiple source areas or where plumes
cross multiple stratigraphic units.
156
The ITRC’s Technology Overview document summarizes the concepts underlying mass
discharge and flux, their potential applications, and case studies of the uses of these metrics.
Specific findings from the case study review include the following:
x Mass discharge and flux data have improved decision-making. For example, they
have been used to trigger transition between technologies.
x Mass discharge and flux data have reduced remediation costs. For example, mass
flux estimates have been used to identify high-priority layers in stratified aquifers,
leading to more cost-effective cleanup.
x Mass discharge and flux data have been used to prioritize sites. For example,
responsible parties have used mass discharge estimates to identify the sites needing
further characterization and remediation within regional flow systems impacted by
multiple sources.
x Mass discharge and flux data have been used to predict remediation performance.
Mass discharge, high-resolution mapping, and available analytical tools have
provided the basis for estimation of natural attenuation rates, plume responses to
source treatment, and remediation time frames.
x Transect testing has been by far the most common method used, and transects have
proven useful for site management. Use of well transects has provided more credible
estimates of natural attenuation rates than the more typical practice of relying on a
line of wells along a flow path because transect data are less susceptible to temporal
variations in flow direction and strength.
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, the ITRC Technology Overview presents these conclusions:
x Mass flux and discharge estimates have proven valuable for contaminated site
management and should be used more frequently.
x Use will increase rapidly as the benefits of mass flux and discharge information are
more widely recognized.
x A specific estimation method may be better suited to specific site conditions and
objectives, so it is important to consider the advantages and limitations of the
methods available.
x Useful mass discharge and flux estimates often can be developed from existing site
data and/or limited site sampling, often for relatively little cost.
x All methods of mass flux and discharge estimation involve uncertainty that should be
recognized and quantified, to the extent practicable, when considering use of the
parameters. However, concentration-only data may have similar, or greater,
uncertainty.
x Strategies to manage uncertainty include pre-characterization and sampling in
stages.
x Mass discharge can also have an important role in regulatory decisions and may
have advantages over concentration data for some purposes. Examples include
deciding when to shift from aggressive treatments to natural attenuation; evaluating
dense, nonaqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL) source remediation efforts; or even
determining when no further action is required at a site.
In summary, the ITRC’s “Measurement and Uses of Mass Flux and Mass Discharge”
Overview Document is intended to foster understanding of mass discharge and mass flux
estimates through description of their development and use. It can be obtained from the
ITRC at this web page: <http://www.itrcweb.org/guidancedocument.asp?TID=82>
REFERENCES
ITRC (2010) Use and Measurement of Mass Flux and Mass Discharge. MASSFLUX-1.
Washington, D.C.: Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Integrated DNAPL Site
Strategy Team. www.itrcweb.org.
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IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF CHLORINATED SOLVENT DNAPL
SOURCE ZONES: STATE OF THE ART
Tamzen W. Macbeth1 and Naji N. Akladiss2
1
CDM Smith, Helena, Montana, USA
Maine Department of Environmental Protection, Augusta, Maine, USA
2
SUMMARY
Dense non aqueous liquids (DNAPLs), primarily those containing chlorinated solvents, pose
one of the most widespread and prominent types of groundwater contamination within the
United States of America (U.S.A.). Treatment of dissolved-phase chlorinated ethenes in
groundwater using in situ bioremediation (ISB) is an established technology; however, its use
for DNAPL source zones is a newer application. In order to advance the use and acceptance
of this technology, the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) brought together
an expert team of regulators, industry, academic, federal and state entities to develop a
Technical and Regulatory Guidance document titled “In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated
Ethene: DNAPL Source Zones” (BioDNAPL-3, 2008). The guidance provides a systematic
understanding of the key aspects of ISB for treatment of chlorinated ethene DNAPL source
zones. A comprehensive evaluation of all facets that lead to successful ISB is discussed
including site characterization, applications and design criteria, process monitoring, process
optimization, and integration of ISB with other remedial technologies.
The DNAPL source zone is defined as subsurface environments that have come into contact
with or contain free phase DNAPL. In addition, recent developments in the understanding of
the impacts of matrix diffusion have resulted in an expansion of this definition to include sites
with significant contaminant mass stored within the soil and/or rock matrix resulting in longterm releases of contaminants to groundwater. The objective of this document is to provide
a systematic understanding of the technical and related regulatory considerations for
implementing ISB remedies at DNAPL sites based upon scientifically sound and credible
evidence supporting the safe and cost-effective application. An overview of this innovative
technology, key elements of the guidance document, and recent advances in the design and
application of ISB for DNAPL sites will be discussed.
Establishing realistic performance objectives for ISB is one of the most critical elements of an
ISB cleanup. ISB is often considered a very cost-effective technology. However,
understanding what is practical and achievable with the technology is key to designing a
successful system. Two goals of any DNAPL source treatment technology are to:
a) reduce the mass of contaminants within the source area and
b) prevent migration of contaminants above unacceptable levels.
One of the primary goals for ISB of a DNAPL source zone is the enhancement of the
dissolution and desorption of DNAPL. Due to their relatively low aqueous solubility, the rate
of DNAPL dissolution to the dissolved aqueous phase, where they are available for
biodegradation through microbial-mediated processes, determines the overall DNAPL
treatment timeframe. In other words, ISB treats contaminants in the dissolved phase, not the
DNAPL directly, resulting in longer treatment timeframes for ISB cleanup of DNAPL source
zones, on the order of years. To reduce the relatively long treatment timeframes, advances in
ISB design for DNAPL sites, include:
a) development of contaminant-degrading biomass at the interface of the
DNAPL/aqueous phase to enhance concentration gradients and flux of contaminants
to the aqueous phase,
b) use of ISB amendments that also enhance the effective solubility of DNAPL, and
c) combinations of ISB with other physical treatment, such as heat, to enhance
dissolution, and therefore, treatment rate of DNAPLs.
158
Use of one or more of these design elements has been demonstrated to facilitate moderate
(factor of 4) to high (factor of 20 or greater) increases in overall DNAPL treatment rates.
These design applications will be discussed along with how they perform in meeting goals for
DNAPL cleanup.
In addition, ISB is also highly effective at reducing contaminant mass flux downgradient of
the source zone. In fact, this is often one of the most useful short-term goals for ISB
treatment because reductions in flux often exceed 90-99%, thereby limiting the risk of the
source to receptors, while facilitating DNAPL cleanup. ISB designs that facilitate reductions
in contaminant mass flux include:
a) encapsulating the DNAPL source with a biological reactive zone large enough to
biodegrade contaminants before they reach the treatment boundary,
b) use of vertical biobarriers to create reactive “walls” that intercept and treat
contaminated groundwater,
c) use of horizontal barriers at the interface of a low-permeability units thereby treating
contaminant diffusional flux out of the low permeability unit, and
d) use of amendments that sequester the DNAPL and then slow release both
amendment and contaminants, facilitating effective treatment and limiting DNAPL
mobility.
Although enhanced ISB of DNAPL source zones has been demonstrated in the field at many
chlorinated solvent sites, expectations for rapid depletion of the source zone must be
realistic. For complex sites, integrating ISB with other strategies can also be highly effective
in treating contaminants within the desired remedial timeframe. Often synergistic
applications, such as the use of heat generated during in situ thermal remediation enhancing
mass removal and kinetic degradation rates for ISB, result in more effective overall
treatment. In other cases, technologies can be less compatible, such as use of in situ
chemical oxidation with ISB. A compatibility matrix will be shown illustrating ISB compatibility
with other remedial technologies.
ISB has been shown to be a highly cost-effective technology for cleanup of DNAPL source
zones, and is one of the most frequently applied technologies for contaminant sites in the
U.S.A. However, the complexity and difficulty in DNAPL source zones cleanup has often
resulted in failures to achieve cleanup goals due to the limitations of the technology.
Successful implementation depends greatly on the expectations and the understanding of
the regulators, public, and remediation team. Accounting for technology limitations when
developing a treatment strategy, however, can result in more successful cleanups using this
cost-effective technology.
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C39
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS FOR MONITORED NATURAL
ATTENUATION OF CHLORINATED SOLVENT PLUMES
Heather V. Rectanus
Battelle, 505 King Ave, Columbus, OH 43201, USA
rectanush@battelle.org
INTRODUCTION
Chlorinated solvent plumes pose a substantial environmental challenge, as these
contaminants are prevalent throughout the world and persistent in the environment. Over the
last several decades, it has become apparent that restoration of sites contaminated by
chlorinated solvents is particularly difficult. For example, the maximum contaminant level set
by United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) for tetrachloroethene (PCE) is
5 parts per billion while source zone concentrations of PCE can be in the parts per million.
The abilities for a single remediation technology to reduce concentrations at least three
orders of magnitude are limited. Thus, site managers need to recognize that restoration for
many of these sites requires an integrated site strategy that involves several remediation
technologies – often including monitored natural attention as a polishing step.
Monitored natural attenuation (MNA) utilizes the in situ capabilities of the aquifer, such as
dispersion, sorption, volatilization and biodegradation, to reduce the contaminant
concentration (Chapelle and Bradley 1998; Wiedemeier et al. 1998) and documents site
progress via long-term monitoring. Under suitable conditions, MNA can be an effective
method for meeting a site-specific remedial action objectives at a site contaminated with
chlorinated solvents. However, the remedial timeframes of natural attenuation can span
decades at some sites. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the long-term sustainability of
the natural processes that attenuate chlorinated solvents. This drive to understand the
essential components for natural attenuation of chlorination solvents led to the development
of several approaches to assess the long-term sustainability of natural attenuation at
chloroethene-contaminated sites (Chapelle et al. 2007; ITRC 2007; ITRC 2008). In this
presentation, the similarities and differences of two approaches – A Framework to Assessing
the Sustainability of Monitored Natural Attenuation (Chapelle et al. 2007) and A Decision
Flowchart for the Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Attenuation at Sites
with Chlorinated Organic Plumes (Interstate Technology Regulatory Council [ITRC] 2007) –
are discussed.
The two independent approaches were developed to aid in the transition from active
remediation to passive remediation by evaluating the ability of a site to achieve remedial
objectives via MNA within a reasonable time. To that end, both approaches developed a
“framework” to lead site managers/site owners through the recommended decision process.
The fundamental aspects of these frameworks for each method are discussed and compared
below.
A Framework to Assessing the Sustainability of Monitored Natural Attenuation
This approach recommends the use of mass and energy balances on electron donors and
acceptors in the groundwater at a site to determine the sustainability of MNA at a site
(Chapelle et al. 2007). Based on the mass of contamination and the energy required to
completely transform contaminants to innocuous products, either empirical or deterministic
models can calculate whether sufficient energy is present in a system to support complete
contaminant transformation. The impact of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) on the time
to remediation is discussed in terms of source removal (be it through dissolution or active
removal). The approach recommends quantifying a range of estimates for the time of
remediation under MNA (not just one predictive estimate) as the values of attributes (e.g.,
groundwater velocity, organic carbon content, and contaminant concentrations) can vary
160
orders of magnitude at a site. Additionally, the ratio of dissolved oxygen to dissolved organic
carbon flux can communicates whether a site manager should expect short-term or long-term
sustainability of natural attenuation at a chlorinated solvent site.
A Decision Flowchart for the Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced
Attenuation at Sites with Chlorinated Organic Plumes
This approach is presented as a flowchart that site managers can follow in a step by step
process. The three step process is as follows:
(a) Review source and/or primary treatment technology
(b) Evaluate plume stability, and
(c) Evaluate enhancement options.
While the process is presented in a step-wise fashion, the authors recognized that the
decision flowchart will be used iteratively. For example, the decision to transition from the
primary treatment technology depends on the stability of the resultant plume and whether
enhanced remediation is preferred over the primary treatment technology assuming natural
attenuation is not sustainable over the long-term. In this document, plume stability is defined
as the balance between the natural attenuation capacity and the contaminant flux of the
system.
Comparison between Approaches
The cores of both approaches are similar. Both advocate the use of a mass balance to
evaluate the long-term sustainability of natural attenuation processes within a system
boundary. The ITRC (2007) provides a flowchart to guide site managers and owners through
each stage of the decision making process while Chapelle et al. (2007) provide the
fundamentals behind the mass balance approach. The differences in approach lie within the
details recommended in the approach. The ITRC approach is a high level document written
for site managers. In contrast, Chapelle et al. (2007) provide the first principles behind the
attenuation processes and offer additional metrics, such as the ration between dissolved
oxygen and organic carbon, to assess a site’s natural attenuation capacity. In the end, both
documents argue that the essential components for evaluating natural attenuation at a site
are delineating contaminant extent and quantifying fluxes (e.g., contaminant, electron
acceptor/donor) through the system.
CONCLUSIONS
The importance to quantifying system flux at a boundary cannot be underscored. The
foundations provided by these approaches drove the industry need for subsequent ITRC
guidance documents on mass flux and mass discharge as well as on integrated DNAPL site
strategies.
REFERENCES
Chapelle, F. H. and P. M. Bradley (1998). Selecting Remediation Goals by Assessing the
Natural Attenuation Capacity of Groundwater Systems. Journal Bioremediation 2: 227238.
Chapelle, F.H., Novak, John, Parker, John, Campbell, B.G., and Widdowson, M.A. (2007) A
framework for assessing the sustainability of monitored natural attenuation: U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 1303, 35 p.
ITRC. (2007) A Decision Flowchart for the Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation and
Enhanced Attenuation at Sites with Chlorinated Organic Plumes. Interstate Technology
& Regulatory Council Enhanced Attenuation: Chlorinated Organics Team. 11 p.
Wiedemeier, T. H., M. A. Swanson, D. E. Moutoux, E. K. Gorden, J. T. Wilson, B. H. Wilson,
D. H. Kambell, P. Haas, R. N. Miller, J. E. Hansen and F. H. Chapelle (1998). Technical
Protocol for Evaluating Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Ground Water.
Washington, DC, U.S. EPA. 78 p.
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TOWARDS CONTAMINANT MASS FLUX CRITERIA IN
GROUNDWATER: SUPPORT FROM LINKS TO MASS REDUCTION
Colin D. Johnston1,2, Greg B. Davis1,2, Trevor P. Bastow1, Robert. J. Woodbury1,
P. Suresh C. Rao3, Mike D. Annable4, Stuart Rhodes5
1
CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag No. 5 PO Wembley, 6913, AUSTRALIA
School of Earth and Environment, Univ. of Western Australia, Nedlands, 6009, AUSTRALIA
3
School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2051, USA
4
Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611-6450, USA
5
Rio Tinto, 120 Collins Street, Melbourne, 3000, Australia
Colin.Johnston@csiro.au
2
INTRODUCTION
The dissolved mass flux (or ‘load’) of contaminants emanating from a DNAPL source zone is
being proposed as a more appropriate criterion for the protection of receiving environments
compared to set concentrations in groundwater. Further acceptance of its use would be
aided by demonstrating reliable and practical methods of determining dissolved mass flux
and relating observed changes in the flux to changes in source mass. Predictions of the
future course of mass flux and source mass would add even further confidence to setting
clean-up criteria and enable better targeted remediation.
Here, we present results of a field trial in a heterogeneous sand aquifer where fine-scale and
integrative measures of dissolved flux from a brominated-solvent DNAPL source were
related to changes in the source mass. Passive flux meters (PFMs) were used to determine
the mass flux density of brominated organic compounds and total mass flux. Source zone
pumping (SZP) was used to reduce the source mass. The source zone pumping also
provided evidence of the trajectory of future depletion of the source. This provided the
means to predict changes in the mass flux. Complementary information on the architecture
and mass of the DNAPL source was provided by a partitioning inter-well tracer test (PITT).
METHODS
The field site was on the Swan Coastal Plain near Perth, Western Australia where the
brominated solvent tetrabromoethane (TBA) and its daughter product tribromoethene (TriBE)
had been released from mineral separation activities into the underlying aquifer (Patterson et
al. 2007, Johnston et al. 2013). The PITT showed the DNAPL source to be within a diameter
of about 8 m over the 10-m thick sequence of the semi-confined ‘intermediate’ aquifer
comprised of sands and silts. Pumping wells screened over the aquifer and multi-level
monitoring wells within the aquifer were used for the characterisation of the source zone.
Immediately down gradient of the source zone, a 16-m long control plane consisting of five
nested wells was placed transverse to the direction of groundwater flow. Each nest consisted
of three 3-m screened wells that spanned the aquifer thickness. PFMs following the design of
Annable et al. (2005) were deployed in the wells in 2006 and 2011 under undisturbed
groundwater flow conditions before and after a measured amount of the DNAPL was
removed in groundwater pumped from the source zone. The PFMs allowed estimates of
groundwater velocity and the mass flux density of brominated compounds (TriBE and other
daughter products) in groundwater at 0.26-m vertical intervals across the sampled profiles.
Local concentrations in groundwater were also measured.
The point flux density
measurements were integrated to provide estimates of profile and control plane discharge of
groundwater and contaminant mass flux. Groundwater extraction as part of the PITT and
later SZP removed 180 kg of the DNAPL between the two deployments of the PFMs
(Johnston et al. 2013). The SZP continued for 285 days (October 2008 - August 2009) from
a well centrally located in the source zone and was used to construct source depletion
relationships from groundwater sampled over the course of pumping (Johnston et al. 2013).
162
Coring within the source zone and analyses of the retardation of partitioning tracers during
the PITT showed a sporadic distribution of low saturations of a mixed TBA-TriBE DNAPL
within the intermediate aquifer. The DNAPL was found near texture contrasts and mainly in
finer textured materials. Laterally, the DNAPL was localised within a cylinder of 4 m radius
although most occurred within a 2 m radius. The total mass of DNAPL was estimated at
around 220 kg. Multi-level groundwater sampling also confirmed the sporadic vertical and
limited lateral distribution of the DNAPL.
The PFMs deployed in the down-gradient control plane wells prior to the PITT confirmed
features of the DNAPL source zone with concentrations showing peaks at different depths in
the profile and the dissolved plume being a comparable width to that of the source.
However, these data also highlighted two zones of high contaminant mass flux density zones
in the profile, the most prominent due to a high groundwater velocity unit near the base of the
intermediate aquifer. The total mass flux was estimated at 104 g day-1.
The SZP showed that appreciable source mass could be removed with sustained pumping –
approximately 152 kg over 285 days. Further, the time history of decreasing concentration in
pumped groundwater could be matched to a range of source depletion models with similar
goodness of fit (Johnston et al. 2013). This enabled the source mass before the start of
pumping to be estimated at around 260 kg. This was similar to the estimate from the PITT.
From these estimates, the PITT and SZP would have removed 70-80% of the DNAPL.
The PFM deployment after the SZP showed an appreciable reduction of the dissolved mass
flux of brominated organics across the control plane from 104 g day-1 to 24-31 g day-1 (7077% reduction) when adjusted for changes in head gradient and measured groundwater flux.
The flux-weighted contaminant concentration reduced from 30 to 6.8 mg L-1 (77% reduction).
Thus both the dissolved mass flux and flux-weighted concentrations across the control plane
matched the reduction in source mass. The spatial distribution of mass flux densities and
concentrations in the profile also revealed pertinent information on the correlation between
mass flux reductions and particular aquifer units in the profile.
The source depletion models provided a means of extrapolating the source mass into the
future under continued SZP. From the correlations with dissolved mass flux from the source
zone under natural groundwater flow conditions, decisions on further source removal to
achieve mass flux targets could be possible. However, the divergence of the source
depletion models under continued SZP means that the certainty of the timing reduces.
CONCLUSIONS
The practical demonstration of a simple relationship between the depletion of source mass
during SZP and mass flux of contaminant from the source zone under natural groundwater
flow conditions enables these metrics to guide remediation of DNAPL contamination.
Coupling this information with the subsequent fate and transport of the contaminants would
allow remedial efforts to be matched to outcomes at receptors. Underlying models of source
depletion are key in allowing predictions of when targets may be achieved. PFMs also reveal
much about source remediation effectiveness and distribution of contaminant flux densities.
This adds greatly to the conceptual site model and confidence in the remediation approach.
REFERENCES
Annable, M.D., Hatfield, K., Cho, J., Klammler, H., Parker, B.L., Cherry, J.A. and Rao, P.S.C.
(2005) Field-scale evaluation of the passive flux meter for simultaneous measurement of
groundwater and contaminant fluxes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 39(18):7194-7201.
Johnston, C.D., Davis, G.B., Bastow, T.P., Annable, M.D., Trefry, M.G., Furness, A., Geste,
Y., Woodbury, R.J., Rao, P.S.C., Rhodes, S. (2013) The use of mass depletion-mass flux
reduction relationships during pumping to determine source zone mass of a reactive
brominated-solvent DNAPL. J. Contam. Hydrol. 144:122-137.
Patterson, B.M., Cohen, E., Prommer, H., Thomas, D.G., Rhodes, S., McKinley, A.L. (2007)
Origin of a mixed brominated ethene groundwater plume: contaminant degradation
pathways and reactions. Environ. Sci. Technol., 41:1352-1358.
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UNDERSTANDING MIGRATION OF A COMPLEX DNAPL MIXTURE
IN FRACTURED BASALT
Frederic Cosme1, Jonathan Medd1, Irena Krusic-Hrustanpasic1, Andrew Cooper2
1
Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Victoria, AUSTRALIA
2
Orica Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Victoria, AUSTRALIA
fcosme@golder.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Understanding the distribution and migration of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL)
in the subsurface is a challenge. This becomes even more problematic when the DNAPL is a
complex mixture of chlorinated and nitrogenated benzenes that has been released in a
fractured rock system such as the Newer Volcanics basalt of the western suburbs of
Melbourne.
This paper presents a number of simple ideas that were used to interpret a large set of data,
generated from over 100 soil sampling locations and 120 groundwater monitoring wells
including a large number of diamond cored boreholes. The data also included compositional
analysis of DNAPL samples.
This interpretation indicated that the distribution of DNAPL mainly occurred in a localised
zone, controlled by internal fracture network. The DNAPL was likely to be of low mobility,
generally residing as residual DNAPL. This resulted in a re-evaluation of the practicability of
the selected remediation approaches, questioning the need to deploy aggressive source
reduction measures.
HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL
An interpretation of the drilling data (predominantly based on rock core samples) enabled the
identification of three main structural zones within the upper basalt flow. The upper zone
included variably fractured and vesicular basalt. The middle zone was thinner, dominated by
closely spaced sub-horizontal fractures. The lower zone included massive columnar basalt,
with inferred widely spaced and tight sub-vertical joints. The upper basalt flow was underlain
by a clayey palaeosol, defining the base of the shallow aquifer system.
The groundwater table was encountered in the middle zone, which was referred as the
horizontally-fractured (HF) sub-aquifer. Groundwater in this sub-aquifer was interpreted to
be perched on the underlying zone of massive columnar basalt.
MAIN SOURCES OF RELEASE
The main sources of release identified were associated with a former nitrobenzene (NB) and
chloronitrobenzene (CNB) manufacturing plant which included two unlined effluent ponds
located outside the footprint of the former plant. The plant closed in 1967. A review of the
industrial processes enabled the identification of the main organic contaminants of interest
(COI) which mainly included NB, benzene, chlorobenzene (CB), CNB isomers and
dichlorobenzene (DCB) isomers.
LINES OF EVIDENCE OF DNAPL OCCURRENCE
Three lines of evidence were used to develop the understanding of DNAPL occurrence:
x Direct observations: DNAPL samples were observed or recovered at seven well
locations. The samples were either observed through collection from monitoring wells or
using flexible underground technologies (FLUTe) liners. DNAPL occurrences were
discrete, irregularly located within a few fractures throughout the vertical and horizontal
profile. Compositional analysis was performed (Table 1) to identify the main constituents.
The analysis suggested at least two differentiable DNAPL releases, one dominated by
CNBs and the other one a blend. Their spatial distribution correlated with the two
effluent ponds (CNBs domination) and the footprint of the former plant (blend).
164
COIs
Well #1
Well #2
Table 1. DNAPL Compositional Analysis (%w/w)
NB
Total CNBs
Benzene
CB
1,2-DCB
7.1
13
3.6
29
34
1.9
0.2
2.7
0.1
94
1,4-DCB
8.1
0.4
x Chemical soil concentrations: Reported concentrations were compared to estimates
of soil threshold concentrations indicative of DNAPL being potentially present. These
were derived for representative COIs using the Feenstra equation (Kueper and Davies,
2009).
x Dissolved phase concentrations in groundwater: For each well location, the
cumulative concentration ratio between the sampled groundwater concentration and the
pure phase solubility for each of the main DNAPL constituents was calculated. For the
constituents that were solid at ambient temperature (CNBs and 1,4-DCB), the liquid
phase solubility was derived from the solid phase solubility following Shiu et al (1988).
The lines of evidence were plotted on a map to develop a realistic understanding of the
potential distribution of DNAPL.
ASSESSMENT OF NATURE AND EXTENT OF DNAPL
The HF sub-aquifer was associated with most of the DNAPL observations. Their spatial
distribution broadly covered an area that corresponded to the well locations where the
cumulative concentration ratio was equal to or exceeded 10 %. This was used as a cut-off
value to assess the likely extent of DNAPL in the HF.
The shape of the 10 %-contour supported the likely role of the structural controls on the
DNAPL migration:
x The contour was mainly spread in a northwest and in a southeast direction, consistent
with the inferred slope of the HF base in these directions.
x The contour was bounded towards the west and southwest, supported by the flat lying
base of the HF in the area.
x The contour was also bounded towards the northeast. While there was an indication
that the HF base mildly dipped towards the northeast, no contamination was detected in
the area. The absence of DNAPL in this area was attributed to a structural trap. The
undulated nature of the HF base potentially arrested DNAPL migration in this direction.
The distribution of the molar fraction in the HF confirmed the presence of at least two
differentiable DNAPL releases, one dominated by CNBs and the other a blend of organic
COI. The DNAPL analysed was of high density and low viscosity, which based on Gerhard et
al (2007), is considered to have migration cessation time in the order of a decade or less.
The 40-year period since the active release and the discrete nature of the DNAPL
observations generally supported that DNAPLs in the HF were of limited mobility, generally
residing in the subsurface at residual saturation.
CONCLUSIONS
The relatively localised zone of the subsurface where DNAPL is likely to reside, its discrete
occurrence and its likely low mobility are expected to limit the practicability of the use of
aggressive source remediation.
REFERENCES
Gerhard et al, 2007. Time Scales of DNAPL Migration in Sandy Aquifers Examined via
Numerical Simulation. Ground Water 45(2).
Kueper and Davies, 2009. Assessment and Delineation of DNAPL Source Zones at
Hazardous Waste Sites. Ground Water Issue. United State Environmental Protection
Agency. 20p.
Shiu et al, 1988. Preparation of Aqueous Solutions of Sparingly Soluble Organic Substances:
II. Multi-component Systems – Hydrocarbon Mixtures and Petroleum Products.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol 7.
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ASSESSMENT OF DNAPL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY
PERFORMANCE AND COSTS
Julie Konzuk1, David Major1, Bernard Kueper2, Jason Gerhard3, Mark Harkness4,
David Reynolds1, Michael West2, Carmen Lebrón5
1
Geosyntec Consultants, 130 Research Lane, Suite 2, Guelph, ON L6P 3C1 CANADA
Department of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6 CANADA
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University,
Spencer Engineering Building, Rm, 3029, London, ON N6A 5B9 CANADA
4
GE Global Research, One Research Circle, Building K1, Niskayuna, NY 12309 USA
5
NFESC ESC 411, 1100 23rd Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043 USA
Jkonzuk@geosyntec.com
2
INTRODUCTION
An assessment of chlorinated solvent dense, non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL)
remediation technology performance was recently completed under the United States’
Department of Defense (DoD) Environmental Security Technology Certification Program
(ESTCP). The research project focused on various innovative technologies (e.g., in situ
chemical oxidation [ISCO], enhanced in situ bioremediation [EISB], waterflooding, various
thermal approaches, in situ chemical reduction [ISCR] with zero-valent iron [ZVI], surfactant
enhanced aquifer remediation [SEAR], and co-solvent flooding). The program included a
combination of case study data collection, numerical modelling, and statistical evaluation of
the correlation between site parameters and remedial performance. The end product of the
project was development of a database and software screening tool (called DNAPL TEST)
that practitioners can use to query the case study database and evaluate typical remedial
performance for these technologies at sites with user-specified site conditions. Details on
the field case study collection, numerical modelling approach, and findings of the study can
be found in Lebrón et al. (2012). Copies of DNAPL TEST can be obtained from
http://projects.geosyntec.com/DNAPL/. Lifecycle unit costs and cost drivers for these
technologies were further evaluated and compared in a separate study, also completed for
ESTCP (Harkness and Konzuk, 2013). The method and results of these studies are
summarized below.
METHODS
Site characteristic and remedial performance (e.g., concentration reductions, mass removal,
mass flux reduction, treatment duration) data were collected from 129 field case studies.
These were supplemented with 87 additional case studies created through numerical
simulations of field scale applications of EISB, ISCO, waterflooding and SEAR technologies.
The numerical simulations included a limited number of template sites, for which various
remedial scenarios were simulated varying one parameter at a time, including the mass of
DNAPL released, DNAPL type, soil heterogeneity/permeability, permeability reductions due
to precipitate formation, and various design parameters including amendment loading,
treatment duration, etc. Similarly, unit costs and cost drivers for each technology were
evaluated through developing lifecycle costs for two template sites and evaluating, through
changes in site parameters such as DNAPL mass, the effect the change has on the costs.
DNAPL Mass Removal
Near complete mass removal has been achieved with all technologies with the exception of
waterflooding. The highest DNAPL mass removal was observed in thermal treatment case
studies (94% to 96%) and the median mass removed for anaerobic EISB, ISCO, SEAR, and
co-solvent flushing ranged from 64% to 81%.
166
Reductions in Groundwater Concentrations
None of the site characteristic or technology implementation parameters that were evaluated
in the statistical analysis were found to be correlated with reductions in groundwater
concentrations, however, there does appear to be a relationship between the amount of
DNAPL mass removed and reduction in groundwater concentrations. This relationship is
nearly linear (i.e., 90% DNAPL mass removal § 90% reductions in concentrations), although
for EISB, greater concentration reductions may be achieved for lower DNAPL removal.
Matrix Diffusion
In fractured rock environments, with an older DNAPL release, matrix diffusion (diffusion of
DNAPL into lower permeability media) has a substantial influence on the distribution of
DNAPL mass. Back-diffusion of contaminant mass out of the matrix will sustain groundwater
concentrations for long periods of time where degradation within the matrix is limited.
Degradation of mass within the matrix is required to shorten plume lifespans substantially.
DNAPL Properties
DNAPL solubility was observed to influence the resulting net benefit of implementing more
aggressive DNAPL treatment technologies over approaches that rely primarily on dissolution
of the DNAPL as the DNAPL mass reduction mechanism. For high solubility DNAPLs such
as trichloroethene (TCE), dissolution of the DNAPL is a significant component of the DNAPL
mass removal. Incorporating degradation or other mass removal mechanisms (e.g.,
oxidation, biodegradation, enhanced dissolution) may only result in relatively small
incremental increases in DNAPL mass removal for high solubility DNAPLs.
Precipitate Formation
The formation of a manganese dioxide rind (resulting in encapsulation of DNAPL pools and
flow bypassing around DNAPL areas) significantly increased the time required to remove
TCE DNAPL in ISCO applications using permanganate. It is anticipated that similar results
may be observed with other technologies that result in the formation of a precipitate or result
in permeability reductions. The influence of the precipitate formation on DNAPL treatment is
anticipated to be particularly pronounced where the precipitate forms within close proximity of
the DNAPL phase, as occurs when permanganate reacts with the DNAPL.
Unit Costs and Cost Drivers
EISB was consistently found to be the lowest unit cost DNAPL remediation technology, even
with higher DNAPL loading scenarios and lower permeability soils. In situ soil mixing
applying ISCR (micro-scale ZVI) was cost competitive with EISB for the low permeability soil
scenario. The unit cost of soil mixing increases substantially and becomes a cost driver as
the depth of the treatment zone increases. Thermal remedies become more cost effective at
larger sites with higher DNAPL loadings. ISCO, SEAR, and ISCR using nano-scale ZVI
(nZVI) are more cost effective at lower DNAPL loadings and are more sensitive to DNAPL
loading, due to the elevated cost of permanganate, surfactant, and nZVI. ISCR using nZVI
had the highest unit costs; however, remedial costs can be lowered by combining ISCR with
EISB. SEAR is also conducive to having EISB in a treatment train, and costs may be
reduced for higher DNAPL loadings by using SEAR to treat a smaller proportion of the
DNAPL mass and including active EISB treatment for the rest. Pump and treat and
excavation, traditional containment/treatment remedies, are the least cost-effective options
for the case studies evaluated.
REFERENCES
Lebrón, C.A., Major, D., Konzuk, J.S., Kueper, B.H., and Gerhard, J.I. (2012) Development
of a Protocol and a Screening Tool for the Selection of DNAPL Source Area Remediation,
http://serdp-estcp.org/content/download/14055/165063/file/ER-200424-FR.pdf, 746p.
Harkness, M., Konzuk, J. (2013) Cost Analyses for Remedial Options, Chapter of ESTCP
manuscript DNAPL Source Zone Remediation, in review.
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PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT OF ISCO REMEDIATION EFFECT
Patrick Baldwin, Leon Pemberton, Chris Bailey
Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd, Environmental and Engineering Consultants, Ground Floor / 95
Coventry Street, Southbank, VIC 3006, AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION
Tonkin & Taylor Pty Ltd (T&T) has investigated practical assessment techniques to evaluate
the effects of injected oxidation agents as part of ongoing work in implementing In-Situ
Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) for remediation of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL) and
dissolved phase contaminated groundwater. Evaluation of the effect of these agents and
assessment of the need for additional injection events has typically been completed by
analysis of dissolved concentration trend data with emphasis on pre and post injection
differences. Review of other methods has identified two techniques easily implemented to
assess both the applicability of additional injection events and assessment of rebound post
oxidant affect.
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT METHODS
Remediation Performance - Concentration Data Vs Time
Using time series data to review injection agent effect is the most accepted current method of
review of remediation performance with respect to injection agents. Typically, pre and post
injection concentrations are reviewed and a reduction in contaminant concentrations is noted
as a percentage of the pre injection concentration at a specific monitoring point. Whilst this
method typically demonstrates a reduction in contaminant concentrations, rebound effects
can be cause for uncertainty in the performance of injection techniques as solute phase
contaminants re-enter the groundwater as unaffected residual NAPL and or matrix diffusion
effects take hold. Sometimes rebound effects occur over a period of months to years after
the initial injection event. Thus alternate assessment techniques are needed to evaluate the
effectiveness of injection events.
May-12
Nov-11
May-11
Nov-10
May-10
Nov-09
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
May-09
1000000
100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
At Source ug/L
Down gradient
ug/L
% Decrease At
Source ug/L
Figure. 1 Example of typical Concentration Data Vs Time Chart with rebound
Additional Injection Events - Molar Mass Vs Oxidant Applied
An alternate method of measurement of performance of injected oxidants is to compare the
mass estimate of the NAPL and dissolved phase contaminant sources with the quantity of
oxidant applied. The concept behind this comparison is to review the inferred stoichiometric
demand for oxidant derived from a mass estimate and review the corresponding effect the
injected oxidant has on the mass estimate and solute phase groundwater contamination. The
objective of this comparison is to assess remediation performance based on the law of
diminishing returns. This is important for injection events as commonly injection events will
not be able to access 100% of the contaminant mass but rather a lesser accessibility based
on geological conditions, injection design, radius of influence and matrix effective porosity. In
some cases additional injection events may not result in any additional benefit thus
assessment of oxidants utilised by the contaminant is an important parameter for decisions
to undertake additional injection events. This assessment tool is considered to be useful for
168
MOL
determination of when and how successful additional oxidant applications may be post the
initial injection event.
40000
40%
30000
30%
20000
20%
10000
10%
0
TCE in MOL
NaS2O8 in MOL
0%
Feb-08
Nov-10
Aug-13
Figure. 2 Example of Molar Mass Vs Oxidant Applied for diminishing returns assessment
Assessment of Rebound Occurrence - Redox Persistence Vs Mass Reduction
Rebound is a common occurrence for injection events. A Measurement of redox potential
provides an indication of the oxidation or reduction potential that exists in groundwater once
an oxidant is injected. Rebound is unlikely to occur whilst redox effects are still present within
groundwater thus tracking of redox potential versus concentration enables a low cost
assessment of the persistence of the oxidant in groundwater and contaminant rebound post
oxidant effect.
10000
400
1000
300
100
200
10
100
1
Redox mV
Nov-12
May-12
Nov-11
May-11
Nov-10
May-10
Nov-09
May-09
0
Down gradient
ug/L
Figure. 3 Example of Redox Potential Vs Concentration Data for rebound assessment
REFERENCES
Kueper B.H and Davies K.L, (2009) Assessment and Delineation of DNAPL Source Zones at
Hazardous Waste Sites.
USEPA, ITRC Technical and Regulatory Guidance for In Situ Chemical Oxidation of
Contaminated Soil and Groundwater (2005), Second Edition.
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LAWRENCE DRY CLEANERS: PROGESS REPORT ON 10 MONTHS
OF FULL SCALE EHANCED IN-SITU BIOREMEDIATION OF
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS IN THE BOTANY SANDS
Jason Clay, Jonathan Ho, Jessica Hughes, Philip Limage
AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, PO Box Q410, QVB PO, Sydney, NSW, AUSTRALIA
jason.clay@aecom.com
INTRODUCTION
The remedial targets for a dry cleaning fluid, tetrachloroethylene (PCE), plume in a sand
aquifer at Waterloo in Sydney were determined by a Management Order (MO) from NSW
Land and Environment Court (LEC) on 26 May 2011. The MO separated the plume into
a ‘Source Area’ and ‘Affected Sites’. The plume had migrated from the dry cleaners
and affected five other properties. The MO required chlorinated solvent groundwater
concentrations to be reduced to 5 mg/L by 26 May 2013 and 0.5 mg/L by 26 May 2016.
MERTHODS
AECOM had demonstrated the effectiveness of enhanced in-situ bioremediation (EISB) with
an expanded pilot trial. This enabled the judge to allow bioremediation to continue at the
site, despite the affected neighbours wanting a faster more expensive approach. AECOM
installed two full scale groundwater recirculation systems: one on the Source Site, also
comprising a hydraulic containment system to prevent continued off-Site migration and one
on the Affected Site.
The system design incorporated a series of groundwater recirculation loops. Groundwater
was extracted down gradient and amended with the electron donor sodium lactate and
reinjected up-gradient. A total of 20 recirculation loops were installed on the Affected Sites
covering an area of almost one hectare. Performance is regularly monitored by testing:
contaminant concentrations, microbial bioassays, compound specific isotope analysis
(CSIA), volatile fatty acids, chloride, ethene, ethane, methane and groundwater indicators.
RESULTS
After ten months of operation the success of the bioremediation programme has been
dramatic on the Affected Sites. The groundwater contaminant concentrations have been
reduced to the 0.5 mg/L (2016) MO criteria on 40% of the area. The EPA acknowledged that
“substantial progress”, an MO requirement by March 2013, had been achieved and all
indications are that the May 2013 concentration of 5 mg/L is likely to be met on all of the
Affected Sites.
CONCLUSION
It has taken over ten years from first discovery of contamination to move to full-scale
remediation of the Lawrence Dry Cleaners PCE plume. Full scale remediation, using EISB,
has been on-going for almost ten months and in that time it has had a dramatic impact on
groundwater chlorinated solvent concentrations. This is one of the first full scale chlorinated
solvent EISB schemes to be operated in Australia and at this point, 10 months in to full scale
remediation it is proving very successful.
As a technique it is labour and analysis intensive but it represents a highly sustainable
alternate to other faster but more aggressive technologies.
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C45
CONTAMINATED SITES – THE PRACTICE OF APPLYING THE
CONTAINMENT OPTION
Peter R Nadebaum
GHD Pty Ltd, Level 8, 180 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne VIC, 3000, AUSTRALIA
peter.nadebaum@ghd.com
When the first contaminated sites were being assessed and remediated in Australia, in the
early 1990s, it was immediately realised that for the majority of sites it was not possible or
sensible to fully clean up the sites, and some contamination would remain. Initially this was in
the context of cleaning up for a less sensitive use (eg industrial) rather than residential. It
was then realised that groundwater was an intractable issue for many sites, and Clean Up To
the Extent Practicable (CUTEP) was introduced to allow some groundwater contamination
and in some cases source material to remain at depth.
“Containment” was not a concept that was recognised or welcomed by the environmental
regulatory agencies, as it had the connotation of “do nothing” for some sites, in conflict with
the aim of the regulatory agencies to effect as much clean up and restoration of beneficial
uses as possible. The NEPM was constrained to “assessment” rather than remediation and
management, and this was interpreted to only consider assessment of contamination in
surface soils that persons would be exposed to, rather than assessment of contained
material where the risk relates more to whether exposure might occur in the future.
However, the horizons of assessment have been gradually expanding, with methods now
considering exposure to contamination that remains at depth (through volatilisation).
As the industry has become more mature, it is becoming recognised that contamination is
remaining on many sites, and with the increasing cost of landfill disposal and treatment,
containment has the potential to offer a more sustainable solution for many sites. For
example, some non-volatile contamination (such as metals) may remain at depth or under
structures (such as buildings) with a management plan, and many hydrocarbon and
chlorinated solvent sites are signed off as suitable for use while some contamination remains
at depth with barrier layers and a management plan being provided where it is possible that
volatiles could pose a risk. It is also recognised that risk arising from remnant groundwater
contamination can be controlled through the application of management measures (such as
a Groundwater Quality Restricted Use Zone) and natural degradation (Monitored Natural
Attenuation). Other regulatory tools are also being introduced, such as Site Management
Plans attached to Title, and financial assurances. Landfills are a prominent form of long term
containment of contamination source material, with assessment methods and management
plans being extended to old closed landfills to ensure their safe containment and
management.
While accepting that contamination will remain on many sites, the regulatory process that
ensures that it will be safe and allows such contamination to remain is still evolving. Auditors
are critical in this process, as they have to confront the issue and provide the sign off that the
land is suitable for use. Ultimately the deciding factors relate to regulatory constraints (such
as the requirement to remove free phase where it will pose a risk), and risk (does the
remnant contamination adversely affect uses that will be realised, and will the remnant
contamination be able to be safely managed so that exposure will not occur in the future).
This paper will outline current practice in the Australian industry relating to the contamination
containment option, how decisions are being made, and how risk may be more formally
evaluated. The relevance of “sustainable remediation” will be discussed, with reference to
the Framework for Sustainable Remediation and Management of contaminated sites
prepared by SuRF ANZ, and the National Framework for Remediation being developed by
CRC CARE. An important aspect of applying the principles of sustainability is to identify
options for remediation and management that achieve an acceptable level of risk and are
171
acceptable to the various stakeholders, and to then evaluated them in terms of their
environmental, economic and social benefits and effects. Such frameworks encourage taking
a structured approach to identifying options, considering methods of remediation and
management that can apply to source and remnant material, control of the pathways of
exposure, and control of the receptors.
Assessing options that allow some remnant contamination requires careful consideration of
the risk that the containment may fail, and confirmation that the containment will be
successfully maintained as long as is required. Reference will also be made to a recent
project carried out by CRC CARE which has involved the development of a discussion paper
suggesting how the risk associated containment of contamination can be assessed. This has
drawn on AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009 (Risk Management – Principles and guidelines),
considering the “likelihood” and “consequence” of failure of contamination, and the resulting
risk.
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C46
TWO CONTRASTING CASE STUDIES ILLUSTRATING USE OF THE
ANZECC 1999 GUIDELINES FOR ON-SITE CONTAINMENT
Ian D Gregson1, Drew D Morgan1, David Gamble2
1
GHD Pty Ltd, Level 3, 24 Honeysuckle Drive, Newcastle NSW, 2300, AUSTRALIA
GHD Pty Ltd, Level 15, 133 Castlereagh Street, Sydney NSW, 2000, AUSTRALIA
ian.gregson@ghd.com
2
INTRODUCTION
Where soil contamination cannot easily be treated to allow re-use of soils, remediation in
Australia has commonly reverted to off-site disposal to landfill (“dig and dump”). Increases in
landfill disposal costs (due in part to levies and to greater recognition of long-term landfill
costs) as well as a greater emphasis on sustainability is leading to more use of on-site
containment as a remediation or management strategy.
There is however little guidance endorsed by the various regulatory authorities in Australia
for design of on-site containment facilities. Landfill design guidelines generally emphasise
management of waste characteristics that may not be applicable to contaminated soil,
leading to over-design or discouraging cost effective on-site containment in preference to
other methods (e.g. back to dig and dump).
A sound set of principles and methodology for design of on-site containment facilities is
required to provide an appropriate level of confidence that this strategy is appropriate for any
particular application. The ANZECC (1999) Guidelines for the Assessment of On-site
Containment of Contaminated Soil are concerned only with a single type of waste:
contaminated soil, originating from the same site at which the waste is to be disposed. The
guidelines are not intended for other types of waste or for landfills receiving wastes from
other sites. They fill a particular need, and for this application, the guidelines provide a
structured methodology and set of guiding principles to assess whether a particular site and
the characteristics of the contaminated soil are such that on-site containment is an
appropriate remediation strategy. The application of the various elements of the guidelines is
illustrated by way of two contrasting case studies.
The first case study involved immobile soil contamination containing asbestos and heavy
metals, complicated by an associated safety risk associated with particular characteristics of
the contaminant source. The site and contaminant characteristics and the stakeholders’ risk
acceptance profile were such that a relatively low degree of containment was considered
acceptable in this case.
The second case study involved containment of over 700,000 m3 of cement stabilised
dredged sediments, contaminated primarily with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as
a legacy of impacts from BHP’s former Newcastle Steelworks. The scale of this project,
combined with the environmental setting of the site and the characteristics of the waste
dictated a much higher degree of containment than for the other case study. The
containment cells were designed and constructed under the provisions of an Environment
Protection Licence (EPL) regulated by the NSW EPA, whereby certain design parameters
were prescribed. The design and construction of the containment cells were subject to
independent verification, resulting in a high level of confidence in the long-term security of
the emplacement.
CONCLUSIONS
Site specific considerations of the particular site characteristics, nature of contamination and
degree of acceptable long-term risk are crucial to deriving a cost effective alternative to less
sustainable forms of remediation such as dig and dump. As illustrated by the case studies,
the ANZECC 1999 guidelines provide a sound set of principles and methodology for design
173
of on-site containment facilities which can provide an appropriate level of confidence that a
strategy of on-site containment is appropriate for a particular application. Due to the absence
of endorsed guidance for this remediation strategy, reference to these guidelines by the
appropriate regulatory authorities would assist in delivering a consistent and defensible
approach to providing more sustainable solutions to contaminated site management.
REFERENCES
ANZECC (1999) Guidelines for the Assessment of On-site Containment of Contaminated
Soil, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council.
EPA (1998) Draft Environmental Guidelines for Industrial Waste Landfilling, NSW
Environment Protection Authority, April 1998.
174
C47
REMEDIATION OF RADIOACTIVE SAND MINE TAILINGS BELMONT
STATE WETLANDS PARK, BELMONT NSW
Laurie Fox1, Robert Blackley2
1
Coffey, 19 Warabrook Boulevard, Warabrook, 2304, AUSTRALIA
2
ANSTO, Lucas Heights, 2234, AUSTRALIA
laurie.fox@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
Monazite is a heavy mineral, commonly deposited in dunes and beach sands along with
rutile and zircon, in coastal Australia and is a naturally occurring radioactive material
(NORM). When concentrated in tailings and not appropriately managed NORM can present
a serious health risk at abandoned mine sites.
The Belmont Sand Mine was rehabilitated by the NSW State government in the early 1990s
following the cessation of mining by BHP. The majority of the heavier non-economic (at the
time) tailings, containing monazite, were taken off site to another operating sand mine and
the site was considered suitable for passive recreational use. The Belmont Wetlands State
Park Trust was formed in 2009 to oversee a Plan of Management for the Park. Anecdotal
evidence, supported by preliminary radiological scanning, showed potential hotspots of
radiation, indicating that perhaps not all the tailings had been removed and that the health of
workers and future visitors was at risk.
Coffey Environments and ANSTO were engaged by the NSW Derelict Mines Branch to
investigate the suspected hotspots and the areas where the former sand mine infrastructure
once stood. A radiological survey was undertaken by ANSTO of the ambient gamma
radiation using sensitive 2 inch sodium iodide (NaI) detectors. These were then compared to
background readings. The initial readings were converted to effective dose using occupancy
times for various exposure scenarios. Table 1 summarises the exposure scenarios and
resultant effective dose.
Table 1. Exposure Scenarios and Effective Dose.
Area and exposure scenario
State
Park
Occupancy
Average dose
Effective dose
(total hours/ yr)
(msv per hour)
(msv per year)
-Short Term (Shed Construction)
288
0.27 x 10
-3
0.78
-Long Term (Workers on site)
400
0.02 x 10
-3
0.008
Scenario 2 (Shed occupancy)
2000
0.27 x 10
-3
0.54
Scenario 3 (Intermittent Use)
400
0.03 x 10
-3
0.01
Scenario 4 (Passive Recreation)
350
0.02 x 10
-3
0.007
-
-
1.0
Scenario 1
Exposure Dose Limit
1
Notes:
1
The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) RPS 1 Recommendations
for Limiting Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1995) and the National Standard for Limiting Occupational Exposure
to Ionising radiation (republished 2002)
175
The following long term management options were considered feasible:
• Monitor the material in situ – passive management with no remediation works.
• Excavate, blend with non-radioactive sands and mix through existing sand dunes.
• Remove and encapsulate on a designated part of the Belmont Wetlands State Park
with a management plan covering the encapsulation area.
• Cap in situ involving redistribution of existing stockpiles with minimal soil disturbance
followed by placement of suitable capping layer with a management plan covering the
capped area.
• Remove and dispose to landfill. The material classified as restricted solid waste and
if removed would be required to be disposed to a landfill licensed to accepted this
waste.
• Blending and mixing with non-radioactive sands, followed by dispersal through
existing dunes, was a cost effective remediation that would achieve the management
goals as well as protect the health of future Park users.
• The Remediation Action Criteria are presented in Table 2.
Blending and mixing with non-radioactive sands, followed by dispersal through existing
dunes, was the cost effective remediation solution that was selected to achieve the
management goals as well as protect the health of future Park users.
The Remediation Acceptance Criteria are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 – Remediation Acceptance Criteria
Area
RAC
Elevated Areas as indicated on
Figure 2
Readings of less than 6,000 cps using Eberline E-600 with PG-2
probe, or similar instrument, will be used to indicate that the
majority of the hotspot has been been removed.
Dispersal Site
Readings of less than 6,000 cps using Eberline E-600 with PG-2
probe, or similar instrument.
*These readings correspond to approximately 0.4 microsieverts per hour at 1 m height, which was
twice the average background dose rate recorded in the area and within variances of background
levels of thorium-232 and its decay chain in natural sand. Based upon a wide variety of anticipated
land uses this would not pose a significant exposure to the public in the future
Successful remediation was carried out by ANSTO and the Soil Conservation Service as
earthworks contractor. A long term Environmental Management Plan prepared by Coffey
provided appropriate management procedures for future construction work and the safe use
of the Park by members of the public.
176
C48
CONTAMINATED SOIL TREATMENT WORKS AND ANCILLIARY
DEVELOPMENT – A NSW PLANNING CASE STUDY
Gregor Riese
OneSteel Recycling, 124 Walker St, North Sydney, NSW 2060, Australia
rieseg@onesteel.com
ABSTRACT
The recent decision by Sheahan in the Land & Environment Court has thrown into doubt
previously accepted understanding of contaminated soil treatment works as defined under
the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act. This means that a number of
developments previously considered not requiring the preparation of an Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) may now be required to go through the EIS process.
Sheahan’s judgement also threw into doubt the application of a 2007 exemption within the
NSW planning legislation which means that some remediation can proceed without an EIS if
the works are “ancillary” to the main development (s37A in Schedule 3 of the Environmental
Planning and Assessment Regulation 2000). Developers, planners and environmental
consultants and should be aware of this exemption in preparing development applications
involving remediation.
As a project manager for the land owner in the Sheahan development case, I’ll be providing
an insight into the development application process and the potential minefields around
existing applications for remediation.
REFERENCES
Korber, Anneliese. Toner Design Pty Ltd v Newcastle City Council [2012] NSWLEC
248. National Environmental Law Review, No. 1, Mar 2013: 31-32.
Sheahan J. (2012). Toner Design Pty Ltd v Newcastle City Council. NSWLEC 248
(7 November 2012).
Smith C. and Hawke R. (2012) Court decision on contaminated soil "treatment" may lengthen
environmental approvals process. Clayton Utz Insights (6 December 2012)
http://claytonutz.com/publications/edition/6_december_2012/20121206/court_decision_o
n_contaminated_soil_treatment_may_lengthen_environmental_approvals_process.page
Wallace P. (2013) Decision on “Treatment” may Lengthen Approvals. WME Feb. 2013 pg36.
177
D01
THE ROLE OF ANALYTICAL SERVICES IN SITE REMEDIATION –
DO THEY MEASURE UP?
Vyt Garnys
National Association of Testing Authorities, 7 Leeds St, Rhodes, NSW AUSTRALIA
neil.shepherd@nata.com.au
INTRODUCTION
The NATA session of Cleanup 2013 is designed as an Environmental stakeholder forum,
which will focus on issues surrounding contaminated site remediation. The intent of the
forum is to bring together regulators, NATA accredited facilities, contractors and
environmental consultants to discuss current issues, trends and where we need to be
heading to meet emerging needs.
Environmental consultants are a valuable group to be involved, as the industry considers
approaches to introducing more rigor into the sampling process.
The program will consist of a series of short presentations from: a regulator, a laboratory
director, an environmental consultant and a contractor. This will then be followed a facilitated
open forum discussion.
WHO SHOULD PARTICIPATE AND WHY?
Environmental Consultants
x To consider the adequacy and quality of data for decision making purposes
x To consider – are consultants maintaining best practice/international practice
x Consider the importance of demonstrating an independent verification
x Who does what (scoping, sampling, independent verification)?
x Do you know what to ask? Scoping of services; technical questions;
x Consideration of commercial imperatives vs sharing information
x Laboratory resources for sampling (soil, groundwater, surface water, air)
x Partnership (consultant lab – NATA)
x Education
Regulatory stakeholders
x To engage with industry participants on effectiveness of regulations; and
x To consider how prescriptive in terms of method selection and sampling regime
should regulations be and still be appropriate for achieving regulatory objectives.
NATA accredited facilities
x To ensure clarity around reporting requirements and uncertainty of measurement;
x To discuss sampling issues
x Provide input into determining best approach to selection of test methods. To include;
standardisation of methods and standard methods vs in-house methods.
Contractors
x To consider the availability of the analytical services sector adequate to meet the
needs of the remediation industry?
x What aspect of the service provided by the analytical services sector is most
important to the industry?
x Which aspects contribute most to the choice of lab? Cost, reliability, turn-around time,
access to technical advice and ability to resolve technical issues, logistics (e.g.
sample receipt), client services, ability to respond to non-routine requests e.g.
sample prep, modification of procedures, new (non-NATA) method development?
Invited stakeholders include users of NATA accredited services, NATA accredited facility
representatives, State and Commonwealth regulators, environmental consultants and
contractors.
178
D09
ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY FOR PRIORITY AND EMERGING
CONTAMINANTS
Lesley A. Johnston, Meg Y. Croft, E. John Murby
National Measurement Institute, PO Box 138, North Ryde, 1670, AUSTRALIA
lesley.johnston@measurement.gov.au
INTRODUCTION
The availability of analytical methodology with sufficient detection sensitivity and selectivity is
crucial to the effective management of environmental contamination. We have recently
completed a literature review of analytical methodology for priority and emerging
contaminants, including assessment of the availability of methodology in Australia. The
review was conducted as CRC CARE project 2.1.03.11/12 and is being published as a CRC
CARE Technical Report. We hope it will contribute to a discussion of emerging
environmental issues among the remediation community.
METHODS
A list of priority and emerging contaminants was developed by consulting CRC CARE endusers, Australian regulators, international experts and the international peer-reviewed
literature. The literature and other publically available information on these contaminants was
then reviewed to identify which were relevant to Australian environmental contamination and
whether appropriate analytical methodology and infrastructure were available. A brief survey
of analytical capabilities was distributed to Australian laboratories listing capability for
chemical testing on the website of the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).
A number of contaminants were identified that were probably better described as ‘priority’
than ‘emerging’. They were considered to be highly relevant to Australian environmental
contamination by CRC CARE end-users, but appropriate analytical methodology was found
to be available for them. These were methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), perfluorooctane
sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), weathered hydrocarbons,
benzo(a)pyrene and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Other emerging contaminants
identified in the international literature (ionic liquids, 1,4-dioxane and organoboron
compounds) were found not to be particularly relevant in the Australian context, as they are
not widely commercially used at this time.
Also considered were perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs), novel flame retardants, shortchain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), methylsiloxanes, benzotriazoles, benzidine dyes, musk
fragrances, microbicides, organoplatinum compounds, arsenic species and nanoparticles.
Benzidine dyes and organoplatinum compounds did not appear to be highly relevant to
Australian environmental contamination. The constituents of personal-care and cleaning
products (methylsiloxanes, benzotriazoles, musk fragrances and microbicides) were
expected to be widespread in the Australian environment, and while analytical methodology
was found in the literature, there did not appear to be significant local analytical capability for
these classes of compounds. Arsenic speciation was found to be performed by several
Australian laboratories, however there was no quality control infrastructure (suitable certified
reference materials and proficiency testing studies) available to ensure the accuracy of the
results.
PFASs, novel flame retardants and SCCPs are classes of industrial chemicals that are
extensively used worldwide, and are receiving serious attention as potentially significant
environmental contaminants. Representatives of these classes are used in Australia, and
some of the compounds can be transported around the world in the atmosphere. The classes
are diverse and analysis is difficult for many of the compounds. Analytical capability in
Australia was found to be very limited.
179
Nanoparticles are widely agreed to be a significant emerging contaminant and there is a
great deal of research into analytical methodology, as well as environmental and health
effects and other aspects. Environmental analysis is extremely challenging and it was found
that routine methodologies are not yet established.
CONCLUSIONS
The review was intended to help determine the direction of future CRC CARE work in
Program 2 (Better Measurement).
Gaps in the Australian analytical quality control infrastructure were identified for a number of
priority contaminants (MTBE, PFOS and PFOA, benzo(a)pyrene, PBDEs and arsenic
species). Certification of environmental reference materials and provision of local proficiency
testing studies for these analytes would significantly improve the quality of measurements
available.
SCCPs, methylsiloxanes, benzotriazoles, musk fragrances and microbicides were all
identified as classes of contaminants for which little is known about their environmental
occurrence and impact in Australia, and analytical methodology is not established locally, if
at all. Development of analytical methodology and studies of the distribution of these
contaminants are recommended.
PFASs and novel flame retardants are significant and diverse classes of emerging
contaminants where many new compounds are being employed as use of the first generation
of perfluorinated surfactants (PFOS and PFOA) and brominated fire retardants (particularly
the PBDEs) is phased out due to their proven adverse environmental effects. Further review
of these classes is warranted, to determine which compounds will be most relevant to the
Australian environment. Analytical methodology is generally not well developed for these
contaminants.
180
D10
TOXIC CHEMICALS FROM PHARMACEUTICALS AND
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Kenneth S. Sajwan
Savannah State University, Savannah, GA 31404, USA
sajwank@savannahstate.edu
The annual global pharmaceutical trade is worth about 300 billion US$. This number
projected to increase to 400 billion US$ with in 3 years. India’s 3.1 billion US$
pharmaceutical industry growth rate is 14% in every year. After North America and Europe,
India has a third largest pharmaceutical industry in the world and its turnover rate is expected
to touch 74 billion US$ by 2020. In addition to environmental concerns, there are huge social
issues to consider: Drug sales have skyrocketed, low compliance, high accumulations, Lots
of unused drugs in people’s homes, and most home poisonings involve pharmaceuticals.
Pharmaceuticals at home increase drug abuse, and leftovers are routinely flushed through
sewer system. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are pollutants, we
find them in high concentrations in our water bodies. PPCPs comprise a diverse collection
of thousands of chemical substances including: prescription and over-the-counter (OTC)
drugs, veterinary drugs, fragrances, cosmetics, sun-screen products, diagnostic agents,
nutraceuticals (e.g., vitamins) and others. But their effect on the environment and human
health is unknown. In the recent past the PPCPs, their fate, and their bioaccumulation and
biomagnification through aquatic food chain has gain serious attention. In this presentation,
various PPCPs that have been identified as potential health risk to humans and aquatic
organisms will be presented.
181
D11
OCCURRENCE OF ILLICIT DRUGS IN ADELAIDE ENVIRONMENT
Pandian Govindarasu1, Mallavarapu Megharaj1, 2, Raktim Pal1, Ravi Naidu1, 2, Paul Pigou3
1
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR), University of South
Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard SA 5095, Australia
2
Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of
Environments (CRC CARE), University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes SA 5095, Australia
3
Forensic Science SA, Adelaide 5000, Australia
pandian.govindarasu@mymail.unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Illicit drugs and their metabolites are the latest group of emerging pollutants (KasprzykHordern et al., 2010). They enter the wastewaters as unaltered drugs and/or their active
metabolites by human excretion after illegal consumption or by accidental or deliberate
disposal from clandestine drug laboratories (Boleda et al., 2011).The parent drugs and
metabolites may escape from degradation and removal processes during water treatment
and could distribute into different environmental compartments. The occurrence and
concentration levels of illicit drugs and their metabolites in environment (e.g., wastewater,
surface waters, groundwater, drinking water, and ambient air) and their potential impact on
the ecosystem have been reported mainly from European countries, USA, and Canada. In
Australia, Irwin et al. (2011), reported on drug use by human population based on waste
water analysis, but there is a lack of information on surface water. These compounds may
have potent pharmacological activities and their presence as complex mixtures in water may
cause adverse effect on aquatic organisms and human health (Binelli et al., 2012). Thus, the
present work was conducted to investigate on occurrence and distribution pattern of this new
group of emerging contaminants in Adelaide environments of South Australia.
METHODS
Surface waters and sediments were collected from different rivers, lakes, and creeks
surrounding Adelaide and activated sludge from Bolivar waste water treatment plant of
South Australia (Fig.1). The target compounds included methamphetamine (MAP),
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, and its major metabolite
benzoylecgonine (BE). The water samples were extracted by solid-phase extraction (SPE).
In brief, 1 L water samples were passed through SPE cartridge (Oasis MCX) followed by two
consecutive elution with methanol and 2 % ammoniacal methanol. The sediment and sludge
were extracted following the method described by Pal et al. (2011). The analysis of target
compounds was performed in HPLC-MS as described by Pal et al. (2011).
The results of the present study recorded the presence of MAP, MDMA, and BE in the test
samples. The Fig.1 shows the distribution pattern and occurrence levels of illicit drugs and
metabolites in surface water, sediment and sludge of the study area. The target compounds
were found to be present in 4 locations out of 33. MAP and MDMA were detected in sewage
sludge collected from location number 33 and surface waters collected from locations 1 and
3. Cocaine was not detected in any of the samples. Benzoylecgonine was only detected in
surface water collected from location 16. The concentration levels of target compounds
irrespective of test samples ranged between 2 and 14 ng/L. The result indicates that ATS
and cocaine are the commonly abused illicit drugs in Adelaide areas. Though the
environmental concentrations of the detected illicit drugs and metabolites are low, because of
their pharmacological activities and chronic exposure as mixtures of compounds in surface
waters may be toxic to aquatic organisms and therefore may pose risk to human health
(Zuccato and Castiglioni, 2009).
182
.
Fig.1.Location of sampling points for surface water, sediment and sludge.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study indicated MDMA as the highly consumed illicit drug in Adelaide and
surrounding regions in South Australia.
REFERENCES
Binelli, A., Pedriali, A., Riva, and C. and Parolini, M. (2012) Illicit drugs as new environmental
pollutants: cyto- genotoxic effects of cocaine on the biological model Dreissena
polymorpha. Chemosphere. 86:906-11.
Boleda, M.R., Huerta-Fontela, M., Galceran, M.T. and Ventura, F.(2011) Evaluation of the
presence of drugs of abuse in tap waters. Chemosphere.84:1601–7.
Kasprzyk-Hordern, B., Kondakal, V.V.R. and Baker, D.R.(2010) Enantiomeric analysis of
drugs of abuse by chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.
J Chromatogr A . 1217:4575–86.
Zuccato, E., Castiglioni, S.(2009) Illicit drugs in the environment. Philos Trans R Soc A .367:
3965–78.
Pal, R., Megharaj, M., Kirkbride, K.P., Heinrich, T., Naidu, R.(2011) Biotic and abiotic
degradation of illicit drugs, their precursor and by-products in soil.
Chemosphere.85:1002–9.
183
D13
EFFECT OF PERFLUOROOCTANESULFONATE (PFOS) ON
SURVIVAL AND DNA DAMAGE OF EARTHWORM IN
OECD SOIL COMPARED TO NATURAL SOILS
Srinithi Mayilswami, Kannan Krishnan, Mallavarapu Megharaj, Ravi Naidu
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR) and Cooperative
Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC
CARE), University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Adelaide, SA 5095, Australia
srinithi.mayilswami@mymail.unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
During the past 50 years, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) containing chemicals have been
widely used throughout the world in fire fighting foams and a variety of house-hold products.
Consequently, PFOS has become ubiquitous in the environment and recently recognised as
an emerging contaminant of public concern due to its extreme persistence, bioaccumulation
and toxic (PBT) nature. Recently, PFOS has been included in the list of Stockholm
convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) which prohibit or restrict their
manufacture and use due to their PBT nature. There is a paucity of information on the
toxicity of PFOS to soil dwelling organisms like earthworms. Hence, we have investigated
the negative effects of PFOS on DNA damage and survival of E. fetida in OECD artificial soil
and two natural soils differing in their physicochemical properties.
METHODS
Two different soils collected from South Australia, Neutral soil (pH, 7.39; Total N, 0.116%;
total organic carbon, 2.38%; sand, 84%; silt, 7.9% and clay, 7.9%), Alkaline soil (pH, 8.67;
total nitrogen, 1.54%; total organic carbon, 1.54%; sand, 81.5%, silt, 7.9%, clay 10.6%) and
an OECD artificial soil (pH, 6.0; sphagnum peat, 10%; kaolin clay, 20%; sand, 70%) (OECD,
1984) were used for this experiment in order to compare the effects of different soil
characteristics on toxicity of PFOS to earthworm. All the three different soils were spiked
using concentrated stock solution of PFOS prepared in carrier solvent acetone to obtain final
soil concentrations of 10, 25, 50, 100, 175 and 200 mg kg-1 dry weight. The soil samples
were thoroughly mixed to obtain uniform distribution of PFOS in soil and solvent was allowed
to evaporate. The spiked soils (200 g) were placed in glass jars (500 ml). The soils were
maintained at 65% of water holding capacity by adding appropriate amounts of deionised
water. All experiments were conducted in duplicate. Soils without PFOS served as controls.
The earthworms (Eisenia fetida) used in the experiment were obtained from the South Coast
Worm Farm, Goolwa, South Australia. The worms were acclimatized for two weeks in the
uncontaminated test soils prior to starting the test at a constant temperature room at 20ÛC,
with a controlled light (500 lux)-dark cycle 8:16 h. Earthworm toxicity test was conducted by
exposing 10 worms (depurated and weighed) per test container in duplicate for 28 days
(Caceres et al. 2011). The comet assay described by Singh et al. (1988) was used to
measure the DNA damage in coelomocytes of E. fetida exposed to PFOS.
Results of this study indicated a greater toxicity of PFOS to E.fetida in OECD soil than the
natural soils. There was no significant effect on mortality of the earthworms exposed to
PFOS up to 300 mg Kg-1 soil in neutral soil, 200 mg kg-1 in alkaline soil and 10 mg kg-1 in
OECD soil. Thus, the LC50 values of PFOS showing 50% mortality in E. fetida were 446.8,
366.6 and 159.9 mg kg-1 soil for neutral, alkaline and OECD soil, respectively. In contrast to
mortality, the comet assay on earthworm coelomocytes showed that PFOS can cause DNA
damage to the worms even at 10 mg kg-1 soil in all the 3 soils.
184
CONCLUSION
This study clearly indicates that (i) the use of OECD soil is not reflective of the real toxicity in
natural soils and (ii) the mortality assays are not sensitive enough to reveal any genotoxic
effects. Thus, the results of this study have significant implications to the environmental risk
assessment of PFOS.
REFERENCES
Caceres, T., Megharaj, M., Naidu, R., 2011. Toxicity and transformation of insecticide
fenamiphos to the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicology 20: 20-28.
Singh, N.P., McCoy, M.T., Tice, R.R., Sxchneider, E.L., 1988. A simple technique for
quantification of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Experimental Cell
Research 175: 184-191.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development), 1984. Guideline for the
Testing of Chemicals: Earthworm Acute Toxicity Tests 207, 9pp.
185
D14
DEVELOPING SURFACE WATER SCREENING LEVELS FOR
COMPOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH
AQUEOUS FILM FORMING FOAMS
Ron Arcuri1, Ken Kiefer2, Belinda Goldsworthy3
1
Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd, Level 3, Tower 3, World Trade
Centre, 18-38 Siddeley Street, Docklands, VIC, 3005, AUSTRALIA
ron.arcuri@erm.com
2
Environmental Resources Management Australia Pty Ltd, 33 Saunders Street, Building C,
Pyrmont, NSW, 2009, AUSTRALIA
ken.kiefer@erm.com
3
AECOM, 17 Warabrook Boulevard, Warabrook, NSW, 2304, AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION
Perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are man-made
compounds mostly commonly used as ingredients in aqueous film forming foams (AFFF); a
component of fire fighting foams used for fire suppression due to their surface-active
properties. These same surface-active properties result in these compounds being
persistent in the environment, being found world-wide in the environment, wildlife, aquatic
species and humans. Once dissolved, they tend to remain in that medium unless adsorbed
onto particulate matter or assimilated by organisms. The potential for these compounds to
bioaccumulate or biomagnify can be estimated via ecotoxicity studies. If PFOS or PFOA
bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, it may result in poisoning of both aquatic and terrestrial
predators and, eventually cause toxic effects to humans, if they consume aquatic species
containing bioaccumulated compounds.
While screening criteria are available for these compounds in groundwater used for potable
purposes (eg, US Environmental Protection Agency), the screening criteria of other pathways
(eg, bioaccumulation within and subsequent consumption of fish) are not available. An
assessment was completed to derive ecological and human health site-specific screening
levels (SSSLs) for a site located in a coastal setting where bioaccumulation of these
compounds may occur in aquatic species, followed by subsequent consumption and
biomagnification in humans.
METHODS
The methodology used to derive the ecological screening criteria was based on the methods
used to derive the ANZECC (2000) trigger values, and is described in detail in Chapter 8.3
‘Toxicants’ of the ANZECC guidelines. The result was a set of surface water SSSLs for
PFOS and PFOA protective of aquatic species present in the site area. Human health
SSSLs were also developed to be protective of humans consuming fish caught within the site
area.
Ecological SSSL Derivation
The methodology for derivation of ecological SSSLs involved assembling and evaluating
published toxicity data in order to select those data that complied with ANZECC toxicity data
standards. Consistent with the ANZECC methodology, only toxicity data representing
chronic no-observable-effect-concentration (NOEC) and acute lethal concentration/effective
concentration (LC50 /EC50) endpoints were included. Similarly, only data from toxicity
testing of species relevant to the site were included in the final dataset.
Where sufficient toxicity data were available (defined as data from at least five (5) different
species from four (4) different taxonomic groups) a SSSL was derived via a risk-based
statistical distribution approach developed by Shao (2000).
When sufficient data were not available, the Assessment Factor (or Safety Factor) approach
described in ANZECC (2000) was used to derive SSSLs. The ANZECC Assessment Factors
186
(AF) are arbitrary values applied to toxicity data where there is a level of uncertainty to
provide more confidence in the data point to sufficiently protect aquatic habitats.
Human Health SSSL Derivation
For the human health SSSL, the only exposure pathway considered was the ingestion of fish
caught by recreational users of the coastal area adjacent to the site. This was the only
pathway considered because it has been identified as the health risk driving exposure
pathway by many countries (eg, The Netherlands (RIVM, 2010)), primarily due to the
bioaccumulative and toxic properties of PFOS. An important aspect of the exposure
assessment, therefore, was the estimation of PFOS and PFOA bioaccumulation in fish
tissue, primarily via intake through the gills into the fish species. The RIVM (2010)
methodology was adopted to estimate bioaccumulation, then subsequently the risk to human
health using exposure assumptions (eg, details regarding the receptors and the amount of
fish consumed). The risk relating to a given concentration of each compound in fish (referred
to as the maximum permissible concentration (MPC)) could then be converted into an
equivalent concentration in marine surface water that is considered to be protective of
humans ingesting fish.
RESULTS
PFOS had sufficient data to generate an ecological SSSL via the statistical distribution
approach. The ecological SSSL for PFOA was generated via the AF approach. Human
health surface water SSSLs for PFOS ranged between 0.3 and 0.82 μg/L and between 171
and 506 μg/L for PFOA.
Table 1. Summary of PFOS and PFOA SSSLs in Surface Water
SSSL
PFOS (μg/L) PFOA (μg/L)
Eco-SSSL
72.6
11.3
Human-SSSL (adult)
0.82
506.5
Human-SSSL (child)
0.3
171
CONCLUSIONS
The assessment of risk relating to compounds commonly associated with AFFF is generally
limited to use of published criteria for potable water use. Derivation of surface water SSSLs
for PFOS and PFOA was completed using ANZECC and other appropriate published
methodology (eg, RIVM, 2010). The assessment included calculating ecological screening
levels using published ecotoxicity study data, followed by a ‘reverse’ risk assessment which
estimated surface water concentrations protective of human health based on consumption of
fish. Like other surface water screening criteria, the application can be either to compare
them against groundwater data collected at the point of discharge with the affected surface
water body, or to compare them against groundwater data which have been adjusted for an
appropriate dilution factor. The process used to develop these SSSLs can be applied to
other compounds for which guideline values were not published by ANZECC(2000)
guidelines.
REFERENCES
ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water
Quality. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and
Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand.
Shao Q (2000) Estimation for hazardous concentration based on NOEC data: an alternative
approach. Environmetrics, 11:583-595.
RIVM (2010) Environmental risk limits for PFOS. A proposal for water quality standards in
accordance with the Water Framework Directive. National Institute of Public Health and
the Environment. Report No. 601714013/2010.
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D16
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF REPORTED AND DOCUMENTED GROUND
WATER CONTAMINATION INCIDENTS ASSOCIATED WITH
UNCONVENTIONAL GAS
Ian Duncan
Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas at Austin, Austin Texas, USA
ian.duncan@beg.utexas.edu
SUMMARY
Leakage from unconventional gas wells has potential environmental and health impacts, with
the threat to groundwater quality being the key issue. Compared to conventional natural gas
drilling, unconventional gas extraction has a relatively short history. The evidence for
contamination of groundwater by the development of coal bed methane (CBM) and shale gas
wells in the US will be critically examined in the context of pre-drilling baseline testing results
as well as regional water quality studies conducted prior to unconventional gas development.
The overall lack of convincing, robust evidence for contamination will be discussed. The only
documented evidence of groundwater contamination is associated with subsurface blowouts
that have occurred in tight gas sand wells. These blowouts involve a significant down-hole
flow of well fluids into a subsurface porous formation or fracture. Statistical information on the
frequency and consequences of subsurface-blowouts is limited, and the consensus in the
gas industries technical literature appears to be that some go unrecognized or unreported
and that the consequences range from being “indiscernible to catastrophic”. Blowouts in
general are fairly rare, typically having a frequency on the order of 10-4 to 10-5 per well drilled.
The potential consequences of underground blowouts depend largely on three issues:
a) the timing of the blowout relative to well activities;
b) whether the breach of containment occur through the surface casing or deep in the
well; and
c) what risk receptors, such a fresh water aquifers and water wells, are impacted.
This talk will discuss the causes and consequences of three subsurface-blowouts associated
with unconventional gas wells in the US. In each case the incident was related to a well bore
integrity problem, in two cases improper cementing and in the third case inadequate design
of the casing string. In at least two cases hydraulic fracturing of the aquifer appears to have
occurred as a consequence of the blowout. Localized BETX contamination occurred in two of
the cases; and the contaminant plume was remediated under regulatory supervision.
Significantly methane dissolved in groundwater is not found; rather it is in the form of bubbles
or free gas in fractures. In one case methane bubbles escaping into domestic water well
resulted in a residential explosion. Perhaps not surprisingly, no confirmed case of chemicals
from fracturing fluid being found in aquifers has been documented from subsurface-blowouts
or any other source. Subsurface-blowouts are dangerous but rare phenomena; that have a
relatively limited localized impact on groundwater where they occur.
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D17
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS AND MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS
USED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
Sophie Wood
Environmental Resources Management, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Sophie.wood@erm.com
With the rapid expansion of the unconventional gas industry in Australia over the last few
years, public concern over the risks associated with hydraulic fracturing has elevated to a
level where it threatens the progress of many projects.
This paper reviews some of the key issues associated with hydraulic fracturing chemicals,
drawing on experiences gained in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia
and Western Australia. Differences between coal seam gas (CSG), tight gas and shale gas
are described, and conclusions drawn regarding the effective management of hydraulic
fracturing chemicals to minimise environmental impacts.
Unconventional gas (UCG) development around Australia can differ significantly, because of
variation in the properties of the rock in which the gas is held. In QLD and NSW, CSG
dominates. Most of the targeted coal seams are between 500m and 1,500m below the
ground surface. In WA, SA and NT shale gas and tight gas reserves dominate. These
generally have much lower permeability than coal seams, and are present much deeper
(>1,000m to 4,000m). Coal seams will often require the water that is naturally occurring in
the coal seam to be pumped in order for the gas to produce, whereas naturally occurring
water rarely produces from a shale.
Hydraulic fracturing is a means of increasing the ability of entrapped gas to flow out of a very
low-permeability rock. It was one of the key technical developments that permitted the US
exploitation of their shale gas reserves, and without hydraulic fracturing economic gas
production from shales would not be possible. Shales and tight gas almost always require
hydraulic fracturing, whereas CSG can often be produced without it.
Hydraulic fracturing works by injecting fluids and proppant (strong sand) at high pressure
into the coal seam or shale, propping open rock pathways through which the gas can flow
more readily. Hydraulic fracturing fluids are mainly water, mixed with small quantities of
chemicals. These fluids are then mixed with proppant while they are pumped into the well.
The proppant remains in the fractures after the water is pumped out to keep the fractures
open.
Fracturing chemicals typically form <2% of the total fluid that is injected. The primary
purpose of chemical additives is to create a thickened fluid so that the proppant can be more
effectively carried to the rock. The identities and purposes of the chemicals used are mainly
publically available and can be accessed on the operators’ websites. The most important
ingredient by mass is usually a salt such as sodium or potassium chloride (NaCl or KCl)
used to create a brine. Other ingredients include thickening agents (eg, guar-gum or
cellulose polymer), acids (eg, HCl) and alkalis (eg, NaOH) for pH adjustment, and biocides.
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) are not permitted for use in QLD, NSW
or WA and are not ingredients in any hydraulic fracturing fluid that ERM has assessed.
Some of the chemicals in their pure product forms are classified as hazardous; for example
the acids and alkalis are corrosive. During the preparation of hydraulic fracturing fluid that is
used for injection into the well, the chemicals are diluted many times.
Typical order of
magnitude concentrations for ecological risk drivers (other than salinity) would be ammonium
ion (200 mg/L) and biocide tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium sulphate (THPS)
189
(100 mg/L). Potassium and chloride ions can be present up to 10%. ERM has assessed
many hydraulic fracturing mixtures used by the hydraulic fracturing service companies, and
those that ERM assessed in Australia have had low human toxicity, and have not contained
persistent or bioaccumulative components.
Although not exhibiting persistent or
bioaccumulative properties, most hydraulic fracturing fluids are considered potentially
ecotoxic if released into freshwater aquatic environments. It is important to note that the
composition of water naturally present in the coal seam or shale to be fractured (termed
formation water) is usually such that it would also have significant ecotoxicity to a freshwater
environment. Typically the target rocks contain high salinity water, which can also contain
hydrocarbons. However, as stated previously, the formation waters associated with shales
are rarely if ever produced to surface.
A common feature of all the studies ERM has carried out is that the operating companies
and their specialist contractors have the infrastructure and procedures in place to minimise
the risk that either raw chemicals or mixed fluids are inadvertently released to the
environment. There is no deliberate release of untreated fluids or chemicals into freshwater
environments, local soils, or resource aquifers. Beneficial reuses of fluids are subject to
testing and treatment to confirm suitability.
ERM has also analysed the probability of the existence of sub-surface pathways connecting
the fractured horizons to resource aquifers. For the majority of coal seam gas wells, and
almost all shale and tight gas wells, the probability of a complete pathway is extremely low.
Reasons for this include: the vertical separation between the fractured horizons and the
nearest resource aquifer generally exceeds the propagation distance of the fractures;
fractures are designed to remain within the target horizon, and the probability of a fracture
propagating outside it is low; and the low permeability of the rocks results in slow movement
of groundwater. In the unlikely event that a pathway for groundwater transport existed,
hydraulic fracturing chemicals travel more slowly than groundwater due to attenuation
processes, reducing the probability that the pathway would be viable for significant chemical
transport. The risk that hydraulic fracturing chemicals could reach a resource aquifer via a
subsurface connection is therefore considered very low.
Based on ERM’s analyses, accidental releases at surface are more likely sources of
environmental contamination than sub-surface pathways. Therefore, management attention
should also be paid to surface containment (eg, bunding, fracture pond and tank design),
integrity of pipes, valves and connections, and training of wellhead personnel.
Understanding the detailed composition of flowback waters by using comprehensive
chemical analysis is also important to prevent inadvertent use of unsuitable water.
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D21
REGULATORY RESPONSE TO CSG IN QUEENSLAND
John Ware
Herbert Smith Freehills, 345 Queen Street, Brisbane, 4000, AUSTRALIA
john.ware@hsf.com
INTRODUCTION
Coal seam gas (CSG) exploration and production has experienced exponential growth in
Queensland in recent years and is now a well-established source of domestic gas. From
2014 it will be exported as liquefied natural gas (LNG) with 3 LNG projects currently under
construction at an estimated cost of $45 billion.
This rapid development of CSG in Queensland has generated enormous opportunities - but
also its fair share of challenges.
Two environmental challenges which are considered here, along with the regulatory
responses, are the potential impacts on groundwater resources and hydraulic fracturing.
The regulatory response to these issues has, like the CSG industry itself, been evolving.
BACKGROUND
The regulatory response to CSG development in Queensland has not occurred in a vacuum.
The rapid development of the CSG industry to feed the proposed LNG plants has required a
rapid response to new issues.
Environmental, agricultural and landowner stakeholders have also launched public
campaigns to express their concerns and in some cases, opposition, to the industry.
Interstate and overseas developments, in terms of publicity campaigns and regulatory
responses to the development of unconventional gas and hydraulic fracturing, have also
been widely reported in the local media and appear to have influenced local attitudes.
GROUNDWATER PROTECTION
One of the key challenges in unlocking CSG resources in Queensland has been the need to
extract large quantities of associated water (essentially saline water found in target
formations) prior to and during gas extraction. This has led to concerns about the impact this
may be having on ground water resources including the Great Artesian Basin, one of the only
reliable fresh water sources in parts of inland Australia.
Amendments were therefore made in 2010 to the Water Act 2000, which is the primary
legislation regulating the use of groundwater in Queensland. The key amendments were as
follows:
(a) A petroleum tenure holder must:
(i) prepare a baseline assessment of each water bore which may be impacted and
an ongoing assessment plan; and
(ii) enter into ‘make good’ agreements with any impacted bore owners.
(b) An Underground Water Impact Report (UWIR) must be prepared to describe, make
predictions about and manage the impacts of extraction of underground water. This
must be prepared by the petroleum tenure holder unless the tenure is in a cumulative
management area (CMA).
Cumulative management areas may be declared where there are multiple tenure holders in a
particular area with overlapping underground water rights. The UWIR must be prepared by
the Queensland Water Commission (QWC) which assigns underground water obligations to
each tenure holder in the CMA, including relevant make good obligations.
The QWC approved an UWIR for the Surat CMA which took effect on 1 December 2012.
Amendments have also been made to the self-reporting obligations under the Environmental
Protection Act 1994 (Qld) (EP Act). The existing notification requirements required
threatened serious or material environmental harm to be reported to the relevant regulator.
This was amended to also require self-reporting if a petroleum activity:
(a) was reasonably likely to negatively affect the water quality of an aquifer; or
191
(b) had caused the connection of 2 or more aquifers.
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
While most CSG wells do not need to be hydraulically fractured, the overall number of CSG
wells being drilled and developed has led to an increase in hydraulic fracturing in
Queensland, and with it, an increase in public concerns about the practice.
The primary regulation of hydraulic fracturing in Queensland has occurred through the
existing environmental approval structure. The EP Act requires the issuing of an
environmental authority before petroleum activities, including CSG, can be undertaken.
Conditions of these environmental authorities have been the major source of hydraulic
fracturing regulation across the state. While environmental authorities issued some time ago
may have little prescriptive regulation of hydraulic fracturing, more recent environmental
authorities impose quite detailed requirements. In particular, the more recent environmental
authorities:
(a) require a detailed hydraulic fracturing risk assessment to be undertaken and
submitted prior to any hydraulic fracturing, including all chemicals to be used in the
fluid (with no protection of proprietary information);
(b) require monitoring up to 5 years after the hydraulic fracturing has been completed;
(c) impose restrictions on hydraulic fracturing fluids containing BTEX and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons; and
(d) prohibit negative impacts on groundwater other than within the target formation.
However, Queensland has also introduced some uniform regulations applying to all hydraulic
fracturing activities.
The Petroleum and Gas (Production and Safety) Regulation 2004 requires all petroleum
tenure holders to disclose the details of any hydraulic fracturing to be undertaken and the
composition of the hydraulic fracturing fluid to the Queensland Department of Natural
Resources and Mines (DNRM) and affected landowners and occupiers. This must be done
by way of a notice before and after hydraulic fracturing has been carried out. A more detailed
hydraulic fracturing fluid statement must be lodged with the DNRM within 3 months after the
hydraulic fracturing has been completed.
Also, on 20 September 2010, the Queensland government announced a ‘zero BTEX’
requirement for all hydraulic fracturing fluids. However, the actual legislation to regulate
BTEX (amendments to the EP Act and the Environmental Protection Regulation 2008) did
not commence until July 2011 and set BTEX limits for hydraulic fracturing fluids which were
related to drinking water standards.
ISSUES
While regulation of CSG to ensure public confidence in environmental impacts is a sensible
and inevitable consequence of the growth of the industry, the following issues have arisen
out of the regulatory response to CSG in Queensland:
(a) Inconsistency in requirements
(b) Complexity of groundwater monitoring required for UWIR
(c) Uncertainty due to political announcements ahead of regulation
(d) Uncertainty in the language of regulations such as BTEX limits
(e) Lack of protection of proprietary information in hydraulic fracturing disclosure
(f) Some overlap between regulatory regimes
CONCLUSIONS
The regulatory landscape for CSG in Queensland has been an evolution rather than a
revolution. It has adapted the existing framework to address particular issues as they have
been identified. In the case of groundwater and hydraulic fracturing, the timing of the
changes appear to have been largely driven, in a timing sense at least, by public concerns.
This has given rise to some sensible reform but further refinement would assist to provide
greater certainty, streamlining of processes and incentives for innovation in the CSG industry
in Queensland.
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D23
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH CURVE FOR BIOREMEDIATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Maureen C. Leahy
ERM, East Hartford, CT, 06108, USA
maureen.leahy@.com
In situ bioremediation has come a long way since its first uses in the 1980s. The success of
ex situ and in situ aerobic biological treatment of petroleum products paved the way for other
aerobic treatments and the development of anaerobic applications for petroleum products,
chlorinated solvents and a wide range of other important environmental contaminants.
Chemicals labelled “recalcitrant” are now routinely treated biologically. Even dense nonaqueous liquids have been shown to be amenable to bioremediation. Fractured bedrock,
while still a challenging environment, is no longer a no-go for bioremediation. But some
potential advances have moved slowly or even stalled. We have seen slow improvements in
amendment delivery and targeting that have been aided by high resolution site
characterization work. Genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) have been talked
about, but for both regulatory and scientific reasons, have not found a place in environmental
remediation. But given the history of bioremediation to date, we can make some interesting
speculations on its future.
The most immediate current impacts to bioremediation are coming from the molecular
diagnostic and isotopic analysis tools that are now available to assess bioremediation
systems. Detection of specific types of microorganisms using DNA probes and polymerase
chain reaction technology provides a means of seeing microbial population changes in
response to amendments. Stable carbon isotope analyses provide the type of performance
monitoring that has long been needed – a way to show that concentration decreases are the
result of degradation processes.
Understanding the interactions of biological processes with geochemical reactions is
providing another expansion of bioremediation. Biogeochemical processes have been used
to treat mine drainage and are now being engineered to treat chlorinated solvents.
Geochemical reactions may have been an important component of bioremediation all along,
but we are now gaining an understanding on how to control and enhance these interactions.
The natural selective pressures put on microbial populations by the presence of new
contaminants may yet yield microorganisms that are even better adapted to the task of
degradation than GEMs. These changes in response to conditions can be further
accelerated in the laboratory.
These techniques hold promise for developing
microorganisms that can degrade fluorinated compounds such as perfluorooctanoic acid,
and other persistent compound that are becoming of regulatory concern in many countries.
Nanotechnology also holds the potential to enhance bioremediation processes. Although
this technology raises a number of concerns, it also has the potential to deliver catalysts and
selective amendments, as well as increase bioavailability and provide active surfaces for
biochemical and biogeochemical reactions.
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E23
BIOREMEDIATION/IN SITU CHEMICAL REDUCTION REMEDIATION
OF TRICHLOROETHENE IMPACTED GROUNDWATER
Rachael C Wall1, Andrew M Cooper2, Tim Robertson3, Jeff Paul4 and Jonathan M Medd1
1
Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Victoria, AUSTRALIA
2
3
Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Perth, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA
4
Golder Associates Inc., Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
rawall@golder.com.au
INTRODUCTION
A trial of technologies to evaluate the efficacy of bioremediation/insitu chemical reduction
(Bio-ISCR) at remediating Trichloroethene (TCE) impacted groundwater within a fractured
basalt environment was commenced in July 2011. A custom iron/organic, a proprietary fine
grained iron/organic and an organic-only amendment were injected into the target treatment
zone at four custom installed injection wells. The effect of augmenting groundwater with a
non-indigenous culture of reductive dechlorinating bacteria was trialled in what was believed
to be an Australian first. While monitoring for long term trends is ongoing, mass reduction
has been observed and there was evidence of molar reduction and complete reductive
dechlorination for at least some of the trialled injection approaches.
METHODOLOGY
A custom blend including organic carbon and zero valent iron, a propriety blend of
controlled-release organic carbon plus fine-grained particles of zero valent iron (EHC-F®)
and a sodium lactate-based organic amendment were injected into separate well arrays
during the trial. Amendment injection was conducted using a helical screw direct
displacement pump and pneumatic packer to transfer the amendment to the treatment zone.
The injection wells were periodically gravity-fed with organic-based amendments. Following
concerns about potential DCE stall, three of the injection wells were bioaugmented with a
culture containing Dehalococcoides ten months after the first injection. The biological
inoculum was cultured by Micronovo Pty Ltd from a feedstock isolated from another site and
gravity-fed to the injection wells under nitrogen.
Each test array consisted of one injection well and up to seven groundwater monitoring
wells. The groundwater monitoring wells were positioned approximately 2 metres, 5 metres
and 7 metres downgradient from each injector, and 2 metres across or up gradient.
Samples were regularly analysed for water quality field parameters, groundwater chemistry
and microbiology. Analysis for microbiology was by quantitative PCR.
There was evidence of mass reduction to varying degrees for the amendments trialled.
Results were encouraging for the arrays injected with EHC-F® and less conclusive for the
custom iron/organic and organic-only amendments. To date, molar reduction of chlorinated
ethenes 1 has been recorded in the wells injected with EHC-F® and in selected 2 m
downgradient wells in these arrays (summarised in Fig. 1). Ethene has been measured at
varying concentrations in all the injection wells and all but one of the monitoring wells in all
four arrays, suggesting that complete reductive dechlorination with resulting molar reduction
is occurring to some extent for each of the amendments trialled.
1
Based on the sum of tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene, cis-1,2-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride.
194
1000
Total Molar Concentration (μmol)
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
Feb/11
Jun/11
EHC-F Injection Well
Sep/11
2m Monitoring Well A
Dec/11
Apr/12
2m Monitoring Well B
Jul/12
Injection Date
Oct/12
Jan/13
Bioaugmentation Date
Fig. 1. Total molar concentration of key chlorinated ethenes in selected wells in the EHC-F®
trial arrays.
Groundwater samples from selected monitoring wells were periodically monitored for
microbiology.
Sampling for microbiology included the analysis of Bacteria and
Dehalococcoides presence and gene functionality. Dehalococcoides and its functional
genes were not detected or detected at very low abundance prior to bioaugmentation.
Dehalococcoides and the reductive dehalogenase genes tceA and vcrA have been
measured at higher concentrations in samples collected since bioaugmentation.
CONCLUSIONS
While monitoring for long term trends is ongoing, there was evidence of mass reduction and
complete reductive dechlorination with resulting molar reduction for some of the injection
approaches trialled.
Based on the outcome of these trials, a full scale injection well network of approximately 90
wells was designed, installed and the wells injected with EHC® in late 2012.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was performed in collaboration with Orica Limited. Golder thanks Orica for the
opportunity to participate in this project.
Micronovo Pty Ltd prepared the biological inoculum for bioaugmentation, performed the
microbial analyses and provided technical advice.
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D25
IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION (ISCO) AND ENHANCED IN SITU
BIODEGRADATION (EISB) OF DISSOLVED BENZENE PLUME
USING HIGH PH ACTIVATED PERSULPHATE
Barry Mann
GHD Pty Ltd, Level 8/180 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne, 3000, AUSTRALIA
Barry.Mann@ghd.com
INTRODUCTION
GHD was retained by Department of Defence to implement and manage groundwater
remediation activities at a site located in Hobart, Tasmania. There had been an extended
period of groundwater remediation activities conducted the site since 2000, when light non
aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) impacts were first identified. Despite these activities, LNAPL
and associated dissolved phase hydrocarbon (mainly benzene) continued to persist at the
site and which was present up to 200 m off-site underneath neighbouring residences and a
primary school.
The primary objective of the remediation works was to conduct more aggressive remediation
of residual-phase LNAPL and associated dissolved phase hydrocarbon impacts, in order to
achieve nominated, risk-based remediation goals within a reasonable timeframe.
Based on a comprehensive technology review, GHD nominated in situ chemical oxidation
(ISCO) based on high-pH activated persulphate (HAPS) which has the ability, unlike
potassium permanganate, to oxidise benzene. In addition, the oxidant byproducts, including
oxygen and sulphate, would migrate downgradient and provide impetus for aerobic and
anaerobic biodegradation of the downgradient off site benzene plume.
METHODS
The groundwater remediation works consisted of the following key tasks:
a) Completion of a bromide tracer test, to provide a better understanding of travel times
in the complex fractured rock aquifer;
b) Provide conceptual design advice for tenderers for the construction of a dedicated
ISCO system for either gravity drainage or pressure injection of activated oxidant
solution into the subsurface;
c) Supervise the system construction and factory acceptance testing and final sign off
on system installation and commissioning;
d) Conduct performance monitoring of the ISCO system using derived remediation goals
as a performance benchmark;
e) Report the results.
The system operated between November 2010 to March 2011, with 12.5 tonne of
persulphate injected into two main treatment areas. Approximately 10,500 L of 48% NaOH
activator chemical was mixed with the persulphate which was batched into the subsurface
through the existing monitoring and LNAPL extraction well network. The distribution of
oxidant in the subsurface was enhanced by the use of recirculation wells, where oxidant was
injected upgradient while groundwater was being extracted from downgradient wells. In this
way, no new water was added to the subsurface and potential dilution effects were avoided.
Figure 1 is a plot of benzene concentrations in monitoring bores MW8 and MW9, which are
located between the injection and extraction bores, that is, centrally located within the
recirculation cell. The results indicate a 70%-80% reduction in benzene concentrations in the
key source zone, and achievement of on-site health-based remediation goals.
196
Figure 1: ISCO Performance Monitoring (MW8, MW9)
Figure 2 is a plot of sulphate concentrations in a key downgradient and off site monitoring
bore. The plot indicates the breakthrough of sulphate in this bore approximately 100 m
downgradient of the main ISCO treatment area. The replenishment of sulphate in this area is
expected to result in enhanced in situ biodegradation (EISB) of the off site benzene plume
via sulphate reduction.
Figure 2: Sulphate Breakthrough in MW14, ~100 m Downgradient of ISCO Treatment Area
CONCLUSIONS
The ISCO treatment has resulted in significant reductions in benzene source concentrations,
and breakthrough of sulphate in downgradient off site bores indicates that conditions are
being established for ongoing remediation of the off site benzene plume via EISB.
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D27
HORIZONTAL REMEDIATION WELLS: TRANSFERRING EFFECTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES FROM THE OIL INDUSTRY TO ENVIRONMENTAL
REMEDIATION
Mike Sequino
Directional Technologies Inc., Wallingford CR 06492, USA
drilling@directionaltech.com
INTRODUCTION
Horizontal well technologies have been applied successfully to remediate environmentally
impacted sites had their origins in the oil fields. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods that
allowed the removal of oil in high dip angle and horizontal formations which remained in
reservoirs after the conventionally drilled wells had decreased in production. These new
wells were re-drilled along the bedding planes for ultimate recovery capabilities, these
technics were developed by reservoir engineers in the last 60 years. For the last 20 years,
environmental engineers have transferred EOR methods to in situ remediation of not only
petroleum hydrocarbons, but also solvents and other contaminants. A critical component of
successful EOR applications in the oil fields was the introduction and development of
directional drilling, which was developed before World War II independently on both the
North American and European continents, but its use rapidly expanded with the introduction
of measurement while drilling (MWD) this allowed for real-time data accusation of hole
location, this has since moved to logging while drilling (LWD) for real-time formation
evaluation and reservoir analysis. Likewise in the environmental field, the need for improved
efficiency of well placement, delivery and recovery for a growing number of subsurface
remediation technologies led to the steadily increasing demand for horizontal remediation
wells that we have seen in the last 20 years. Expanded options for completion materials,
increased sophistication of well screen design, improved well development methods, and
continuous refinement of drilling fluids management systems keep making it easier to find
new ways to use directional drilling to solve environmental remediation and mitigation
problems. Today, horizontal remediation well systems have a proven track record of
reducing environmental liabilities by achieving remedial objectives more quickly and costeffectively than conventional methods thanks to transferred technologies from the oil field.
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D28
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF IN SITU TREATMENT OF A
TRICHLOROETHENE IMPACTED GROUNDWATER SOURCE ZONE
Andrew M. Cooper1, Rachael C. Wall2, Alex Savage2
2
Golder Associates Pty. Ltd, Melbourne, Victoria, AUSTRALIA
andrew.cooper@orica.com
1
INTRODUCTION
A plume of trichloroethene (TCE) impacted groundwater has been identified in the fractured
rock aquifer system of the Newer Volcanics Basalt of the western suburbs of Melbourne.
Following the completion of a series of concurrently run field trials, the fullscale insitu
treatment of the saturated source zone was designed and implemented over the summer of
2012-2013. The treatment method comprised the injection of an amendment to effect abiotic
degradation via chemical reduction, as well as generating appropriate reducing conditions to
promote and sustain subsequent microbially mediated reductive dechlorination.
Bioaugmentation with non-indigenous microbes was also required to enhance the potential
for complete reductive dechlorination.
The design and successful implementation of this project provides an opportunity to share
learnings and some innovative approaches that should facilitate further application of this
technology, particularly within the local remediation industry.
METHODS
A field trial commenced in July 2011 comprising four separate injection wells and associated
monitoring arrays to evaluate the efficacy of three chemical amendments and
bioaugmentation with non-indigenous reductive dechlorinating microbes.
Based on positive results from the trial, a network of 90 injection wells was developed over
an area of 3,500m2 to cover the saturated source source zone of a large TCE plume.
Injection wells were constructed using a production line process with separate crews utilised
for drilling to rock; drilling to depth and installing casing; and annulus and surface completion.
The injection wells were constructed with an open hole section over the target aquifer zone,
and a pressure rated PVC riser to surface using an innovative sacrificial packer system.
The main amendment utilised was EHC®-F; a blend of fine grained zero valent iron (ZVI)
and controlled-release organic carbon material. The EHC®-F was mixed into a 10% slurry
with extracted groundwater and injected at pressures up to 200psi into individual wells
sequentially using a sub-contracted chemical mixing and injection rig.
Developments during the injection phase also led to the utilisation of different amendments
including a soluble form of EHC (EHC®-L) and potassium bicarbonate as a buffer to combat
acid generation.
A rudimentary attempt to propagate the introduced microbial population was made by
extracting small volumes of groundwater from within the bioaugmented field trial array and
gravity injecting to the full-scale array prior to EHC®-F injection.
Analysis of the field trials confirmed the potential of EHC®-F, enabled estimation of injection
well spacing and confirmed the requirement for bioaugmentation to achieve complete
reductive dechlorination. The length of the trials (21 months to date) also provided important
insights to the development of microbially mediated processes such as the reduction of
naturally occurring sulphate, the generation of fermentation byproducts and the depletion of
the organic substrate.
The production line process of injection well installation worked extremely well with 77 wells
installed in 20 operational rig days at significantly less cost than forecast. The sacrificial
packer system also worked well, providing a 3 to 5m zone for slurry injection into the target
aquifer without the complications of well screen or gravel pack. Analytical testing of each well
199
for indicators of grout contamination indicated 100% success, and five months post
installation only one well has been subject to collapse.
A total of 20,200 kg of EHC®-F was successfully injected into the target aquifer in 85 wells
as a 10% slurry in 194,000 L of extracted groundwater. Amendment mass per well typically
ranged from 150 to 300kg. A batch of EHC®-F with coarser grained ZVI was also utilised
and whilst successfully injected, was clearly problematic requiring higher injection pressures.
A total of 2,300L of EHC®-L solution was also successfully injected in a small number of
selected wells. The soluble nature of the EHC®-L allowed for ease of injection.
Injection was completed in 39 operational days in two stages over three months. During
stage one, a number of operational and technical issues were identified including:
(a) day-lighting of amendment in adjacent injection or monitoring wells;
(b) localised sustained pressurisation of the aquifer due to gas generation; and
(c) acidification driving insitu conditions outside of the preferred window for biological
activity.
Procedural and engineering modifications were introduced for stage two.
Injection and monitoring well surface seals were modified from simple J-caps to include an
isolation valve which almost eliminated day-lighting, but increased the potential for
pressurisation of wells. A purpose built transferable device was also employed to enable
monitoring and, if required, controlled release of pressure as part of post injection monitoring.
This modification improved the understanding of pressure dissipation from injection and
sustained pressurisation from gas generation, as well as improving the associated
management of health and safety issues.
Sustained generation of gas, believed to be linked to the localised expedited fermentation of
the organic substrate, was encountered in some portions of the treatment area which led to
unexpected well pressurisation.
Acidification of the aquifer was evident in the injection wells almost immediately. The
naturally neutral pH was pushed below 6 in almost every injection well, and as low as 4.8.
This had the potential to adversely impact upon the desired subsequent biological activity
given most microbial population’s affiliation for neutral pH conditions. Accordingly for stage
two, potassium bicarbonate was periodically added to the feed water supply to provide a
buffering capacity once the fermentation reactions commenced insitu.
CONCLUSIONS
The injection of in excess of 22T of amendment and augmentation with a non-indigenous
culture of reductive chlorinating microbes has been successfully designed and implemented
to commence treatment of the saturated source zone of a major TCE impacted groundwater
plume in fractured rock. Successful implementation has been due to a number of
innovations and learnings that other practitioners, particularly operating in Victoria, should be
aware to increase the efficacy of insitu technologies. These include:
(a) Victorian regulatory acceptance of bioaugmentation of non-indigenous cultures;
(b) successful use of open hole completions in the Newer Volcanics Basalt;
(c) successful application of a solid amendment to a fractured rock aquifer system on a
large scale;
(d) potential for rapid insitu gas generation from EHC®-F fermentation resulting in
pressurisation issues;
(e) associated need for suitable control measures for pressurisation post injection; and
(f) potential for acidification levels unsuitable for subsequent biological activity.
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D29
LABORATORY AND FIELD EVALUATION OF A NOVEL LIQUID
AMENDMENT CONTAINING LECITHIN AND FERROUS IRON
John Valkenburg, Alan Seech, Josephine Molin, and Jim Mueller
FMC Environmental Solutions, 1735 Market Street,
Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA
John.Valkenburg@FMC.com
INTRODUCTION
This presentation focuses on long-term laboratory and field evaluation of a reagent
developed for anaerobic remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons and redox-reactive metals.
The reagent is a buffered micro-emulsion of slow-release, food-grade carbon (lecithin), and
ferrous iron. Bench-scale data show the long-term effectiveness using contaminated site
groundwater. Field data show long-term effectiveness In Situ.
DESCRIPTION/APPROACH
Flow-through column tests were used for all laboratory evaluations. All columns received site
groundwater containing TCE and cDCE. The columns were evaluated under natural
conditions and after bioaugmentation using a Dehalococcoides (DHC) inoculum. The
columns have been operated for 14 months and monitored data included concentrations of
TCE and its breakdown products, TOC, pH, ORP and inorganic parameters.
In the field pilot, an emulsified lecithin and ferrous iron solution (i.e., EHC-L) was gravity fed
into site wells to promote both abiotic and biotic degradation of COIs. Direct injection of more
conventional ISCR amendments with zero-valent iron (ZVI) was not feasible due to geologic
and physical site constraints. The much lower viscosity of EHC-L over slurried ZVI products
allowed for gravity feed and vertical migration into the underlying weathered rock formation.
RESULTS AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Laboratory influent TCE and cDCE concentrations were approximately 5,000 and 600 ȝg/L,
respectively. TCE breakthrough was not observed in the amended column over the course of
the study. cDCE concentrations increased to ca. 5,000 ȝg/L in the amended column effluent
after about 40 days of flow, and corresponded to direct TCE to cDCE conversion. Complete
treatment of cDCE was observed after 75 days, and was accompanied by VC generation
ranging from 500 to 1,600 ȝg/L. The VC generation rate corresponds to molar conversion of
20% to 60% of influent TCE plus cDCE. After about 175 days, the amended column was
bioaugmented with DHC inoculum. Subsequently, complete degradation of the influent
chlorinated ethenes was observed in the effluent of the amended column.
Dissolved organic carbon was generated within the amended column from carbon
fermentation, as expressed by a substantial increase in total organic carbon (TOC) in column
effluent. TOC concentrations of about 950 mg/L were observed in the amended column
effluent in the initial 30 days of flow. Subsequently, the TOC levels decreased to a steadystate concentration of about 10 mg/L above the influent value after 120 days of flow.
The field pilot-scale EHC-L was performed at four locations around a nested performance
evaluation well (screened in the lower overburden and upper weathered rock formation).
Based on preliminary post-injection performance data, the full-scale application was
commenced and involved injection of EHC-L and DHC cultures into 13 injection wells.
Performance data collected 13 days after the field pilot-scale injections showed a sharp
increase in TOC and iron at all depth intervals and a reduction in the redox potential,
confirming a downward distribution of the EHC-L amendment into the weathered dolomite
formation. Following full-scale application of EHC-L, PCE concentrations decreased by an
average of 91% in wells screened between 5 and 15 m bgs. Some examples of data to be
included and discussed in the presentation are shown below.
201
Figure 1. Long Term Treatment Column Results
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
WF-1
WF-2
WF-3
WF-4
0.4
0.2
0.0
Jan-07 Nov-07 Sep-08 Jul-09 May-10 Feb-11 Dec-11
Figure 2. Field TCE Data (mg/L)
CONCLUSIONS
EHC-L has been demonstrated effective at the bench and in the field in long term studies.
Detailed time series concentration profiles and associated discussion of both laboratory and
field data will be presented and discussed to enable analysis and planning. The stepwise
conversion in both the laboratory and in the field of PCE into TCE / DCE / VC suggests that
reductive dechlorination is the dominant degradation mechanism.
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D30
SELF-SUSTAINING TREATMENT FOR ACTIVE REMEDIATION
(STAR): IN SITU TESTING AND SCALE-UP FOR THE SMOLDERING
COMBUSTION TREATMENT OF COAL TAR
Gavin Grant1, Grant Scholes1, David Major2, Dave Reynolds2, Sandra Dworatzek2,
Julie Konzuk2, Peter Dollar1
1
SiREM, 130 Research Lane, Suite 2, Guelph, ON, N1G 5G3, CANADA
Geosyntec Consultants Inc., 130 Research Lane, Suite 2, Guelph, ON, N1G 5G3, CANADA
ggrant@siremlab.com
2
INTRODUCTION
Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR; International PCT Filings
PCT/GB2006/004591 and PCT/US12/35248, Granted Patents US 8,132,987 B2, AU
2006323431 B9, JP4934832, and ZL 2006 8 0052554.X) is a novel technology based on the
principles of smoldering combustion where the contaminants are the source of fuel. This
presentation presents background information on the technology and provides the results of
the pilot testing conducted at a former industrial facility in New Jersey, highlighting the design
factors required for the scale-up of the process to full-scale implementation.
OVERVIEW OF THE TECHNOLOGY
The STAR process is initiated through a short duration, low energy ‘ignition event’, such that
the energy of the reacting contaminants is used to pre-heat and initiate combustion of
contaminants in the adjacent area, propagating a combustion front through the contaminated
zone in a self-sustaining manner (i.e., no external energy input following ignition) provided a
sufficient flux of oxygen is supplied. This efficient recycling of energy is made possible by
the presence of the porous matrix (i.e., contaminated aquifer) that is being remediated.
The above ground equipment used to implement the technology is similar to that used in Air
Sparge (AS) / Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) systems and includes compressors for subsurface air delivery, blowers for ground surface vapor collection, and vapor phase activated
carbon or a thermal oxidizer for vapor treatment. The specialized equipment associated with
the STAR process includes the use of 2-inch diameter, carbon steel direct push ignition wells
with a stainless steel screen, temporary in-well heaters to initiate the process, and
subsurface multi-level thermocouple bundles to track the combustion process.
In situ STAR has been pilot tested at sites in both North America and Europe including an
extensive evaluation program conducted below the water table at a coal tar-impacted site in
New Jersey (Fig. 1).
Shallow fill unit testing at the New Jersey site demonstrated sustained destruction rates in
excess of 800 kg/day supported through air injection at a single well over a four-day period
and resulted in the destruction of more than 4,500 kg of coal tar. Deep sand unit testing
(twenty-five feet below the water table) resulted in the treatment of a targeted six-foot layer of
impacted fine sands to a radial distance of approximately twelve feet. Post-pilot sampling in
both units demonstrated a substantial reduction in coal tar volume within the target treatment
zones, with contaminant concentrations reduced (on average) by greater than 99% in zones
where combustion was observed or detected (Fig. 2).
CONCLUSIONS
In situ pilot testing has demonstrated both the viability and the outstanding remediation
performance of the STAR technology in a real-world environment. Testing as identified some
of the key factors affecting the smoldering combustion process, identified key considerations
for scale-up, and demonstrated the robustness and effectiveness of the technology under
complex circumstances.
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Figure 1. In Situ STAR pilot test equipment layout at the New Jersey Site.
Pre-pilot
Post-pilot
Fig. 2a) Pre-pilot soil core showing the coal tar-impacted soils within the surficial fill unit and
post-pilot soil core showing the extent of remediation within the surficial fill unit.
Post-pilot
Pre-pilot
Fig. 2b) Pre-pilot soil core showing the coal tar-impacted soils within the deep sand unit
(approximately 25 feet bgs) and post-pilot soil core showing the extent of remediation
within the deep sand unit (approximately 25 feet bgs).
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D33
ADVANCED SITE CHARACTERISATION WITH PASSIVE SOIL GAS
Dean Woods1, Lowell Kessel2, Harry O’Neill3
1
2
Douglas Partners Pty Ltd, 68 Brighton Street, Richmond, VIC 3121, AUSTRALIA
Environmental Remediation Resources (ERR) Pty Ltd. F4 / 13-15 Kevlar Close, Braeside,
VIC 3195 AUSTRALIA
3
Beacon Environmental Services Inc. 2203A Commerce Road | Suite 1 | Forest Hill,
MD 21050 USA
Dean.woods@douglaspartners.com.au
INTRODUCTION
A total of four existing USTs and sumps had been removed from a former industrial site in
Southbank, inner Melbourne, however, some residual contamination in validation samples
and moderate groundwater contamination indicated that not all sources had been removed.
High levels of TPH C10-C36 and naphthalene were detected in both soil and groundwater
and further sources were considered.
Douglas Partners Pty Ltd (DP) identified the following assessment options:
(a) Soil sampling on a 5x5 m grid;
(b) Test trenches and commence delineation based on visual / olfactory observations;
and
(c) Passive soil gas (PSG) sampling to guide further works.
In consultation with the client, the PSG sampling technique were selected on the basis that it
would provide greater certainty that further sources of TPH and naphthalene were unlikely to
be detected (or if present enable them to be identified) and additionally that this method of
investigations involved minimal disturbance and disruption to site operations.
METHODS
Taking into consideration site operations history and groundwater quality information from
some on- and off-site wells, the target compounds of concern were identified to be volatile
and semi-volatile organic compounds. Beacon Environmental in Maryland, USA developed a
multi-sorbent based sampler in a rugged glass vial which ‘captures’ organic compounds from
vapours to target a full suite of organics (vinyl chloride to PAHs, including naphthalene) and
provide a quantitative impact map. This was the first known application of the technology in
Australia. The results do not differentiate between soil and groundwater contamination, but
provide a high-resolution data set to guide further soil or groundwater impact delineation.
Beacon Environmental supplied thermally conditioned sorbent PSG Samplers and full
instructions. In consultation with supplier, 21 PSG Samplers were installed on a 7 m grid
across the site and adjacent roadways. Up to 50 samplers can be installed by one person in
a day. Samplers were installed at approximately 0.3 m depth in a 1 m deep hole. At each
sample location, a pre-cleaned pipe provided with the samplers was used to sleeve the
upper 0.3 m of the hole, which was then sealed at the surface. Samplers were left at the site
for 4 weeks and then retrieved, sealed and dispatched to the laboratory for analysis following
US EPA Method 8260C (GC/MS).
Turnaround time was 2 weeks including freight to USA. Separate colour plots for each
contaminant indicated elevated PCE/ TCE/ VC and PAH in different and isolated sections of
the site. Follow-up soil and GW bores (total of 20) did indeed find TCE/PCE that was never
before identified – however concentrations of samples collected from existing off-site
groundwater wells and on-site confirmation soil and groundwater sampling were well below
regulatory limits and were not a concern for the site.
205
Additional Naphthalene Delineation
Two distinct PAH hotspots were identified and a network of test trenches were excavated to
delineate impact. Naphthalene up to 500 mg/kg was noted in soil and full remediation
commenced within a sealed marquee.
Remediation
Full scale remediation commenced after defining the area of soil impact that was guided by
the Beacon PSG survey. Contamination up to 4 m deep was excavated in ‘hit and miss’ slots
and stockpiled within the marquee and then removed off-site. Groundwater contamination
was proven to be decreasing and EPA determined that Cleanup to the Extent Practicable
(CUTEP) had occurred. Total remediation cost was approximately $3 m. An apartment
building with 13 levels is currently under construction.
CONCLUSIONS
Passive soil gas samplers were used as a tool to identify further contamination sources
within and adjacent to a residential redevelopment in Southbank, Melbourne. The approach
is relatively non-invasive and involved minimal disturbance to site operations. Results were
used to guide additional investigation for naphthalene which identified peak concentrations
up to 500 mg/kg, requiring remediation. DP designed a fast tracked remedial program to
remove and replace naphthalene contaminated soil. The site was subject to a successful
CUTEP determination by EPA and received a Statement of Environmental Audit.
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D34
APPLICATION OF LASER INDUCED FLUORESCENCE
FOR OPTIMIZING FUEL OIL RECOVERY
Brendan M. Brodie1, David J. Heicher2, Thomas F. Donn3
1
Environmental Resources Management, 33 Saunders Street, Pyrmont, NSW 2000, Australia
brendan.brodie@erm.com
2
Numac Drilling Services Australia, P.O. Box 502, Altona North, VIC 3025, Australia
davidh@numac.com.au
3
EnviroSouth Inc., 3440 Augusta Road, Greenville, SC 29605, USA
tdonn@envirosouth.com
INTRODUCTION
Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) has recently been utilised to delineate free-phase fuel oil
in subsurface soils and groundwater at a medical supply production facility in the
southeastern United States. Previous site characterization methods failed to accurately
reveal the 3-dimensional shape of the fuel oil plume. Remediation efforts based on the
incomplete plume boundary delineation resulted in minimal progress in reducing fuel oil
thicknesses. After 10 years of using skimmer pumps as the sole method of fuel removal, the
client requested an evaluation of remedial alternatives be performed. The goal was to
identify and select an aggressive remedial strategy that will allow remediation to be
completed in two to three years.
METHODS
Prior to selection of the preferred remediation options assessment, LIF technology was used
to further detail the geometry of the fuel oil plume. LIF allows instantaneous, in-situ field
screening of non-aqueous and residual phase hydrocarbons in vadose, capillary fringe, and
saturated soils and groundwater. This technology utilises an ultraviolet laser emitted from a
direct-push downhole wireline tool to produce highly detailed information about the
distribution of any subsurface petroleum contaminants that contains polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). The laser energy causes the PAHs to fluoresce. A sapphire window
on the side of the tool captures the fluorescing wavelength energy and directs the resulting
electrical signal back to the surface where it is analysed and plotted in real-time on a graph
of LIF signal strength vs. depth.
At the medical supply production facility, the resulting LIF plots for each boring provided a clear
outline of the vertical limits of the fuel oil. The LIF evaluation revealed not only the expected
presence of fuel oil at the water table, but also at a discrete zone several feet above the water
table as well as a zone below the water table. The latter condition is believed to represent fuel
oil that became trapped in low permeability soils during past times of drought-induced low
water table conditions. Using comparisons of LIF plots to known vertical distribution of soil
types, water table elevations at current wells, and LIF operator experience, signal strength
criteria was used to plot assumed limits of mobile fuel oil. The mapped area of mobile fuel oil
clearly outlines two separate plume areas, including a large area of fuel that was completely
overlooked during previous assessment phases that used traditional monitoring well
delineation techniques.
CONCLUSIONS
The LIF data was critical in the selection of high-vacuum recovery well locations, as well as
selection of well screen intervals that precisely target only those zones that contain mobile fuel
oil. An injection of a hybrid oxidation and surfactant chemical (Petrocleanze) is planned. The
data will also allow greater accuracy of the injection point intervals specific to fuel oil
contamination.
Additionally, the instantaneous data allowed minimal time between
assessment and remediation system design and installation.
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D35
HIGH RESOLUTION VERTICAL PROFILING: REAL TIME DATA
COLLECTION FOR COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SITE
ASSESSMENTS
David J. Heicher
Numac Drilling Services Australia, P.O. Box 502, Altona North, 3025 VICTORIA
davidh@numac.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have contaminated subsurface soils and groundwater at
thousands of sites worldwide. Traditional site assessment techniques for contaminant
delineation include drilling, sampling and laboratory analysis, which have proven to be time
consuming and costly. Chemical and litho/hydrogeologic data at a site is usually limited,
hindering the optimal placement of initial soil bores and groundwater monitoring wells. When
these sample locations are incorrectly placed, they contribute little to the site investigation,
causing numerous site revisits for further assessment. Furthermore, soil and groundwater
sample analytical results are often not received for an extended period, prolonging site
assessment reporting. An additional constraint for traditional sampling methods is that
samples from a soil bore or groundwater monitoring well are limited in number, and often are
composite samples comprising of a range of depths. Thus, a dataset for a typical
environmental site assessment is inherently limited.
To expedite site investigation activities, increase the quality and quantity of data collected,
and develop a more comprehensive conceptual site model, innovative High Resolution
Vertical Profiling (HRVP) technologies have been utilised at contaminated sites in the US
and Europe over the past 15 years. These systems are designed to collect data in real-time
and high definition (generating 65 readings per vertical metre), continuously throughout the
subsurface vertical profile. Semi-quantitative data is collected, recorded, and subsequently
incorporated in to modelling software to generate real-time, 2D/3D graphics revealing plume
geometry as an investigation is taking place.
Three HRVP systems are currently used to provide chemical, hydraulic, and lithologic data of
the subsurface. All three tools are offered as attachments to a typical direct push tube
environmental drill rig. By generating large data sets, the instrumentation provides a
comprehensive horizontal and vertical delineation of contamination in the subsurface.
MEMBRANE INTERFACE PROBE (MIP)
The MIP is designed to screen for dissolved-phase petroleum hydrocarbons, halogenated
compounds and methane. As a continuous VOC sampling system, which heats the soil,
water, and vapour matrix as it is driven into the subsurface, the MIP maps contaminants
within the groundwater and the surrounding soil. The VOC mass is extracted across a semipermeable membrane and carried to the surface by an inert purge gas, via small diameter
inert tubing. Once the compounds reach the surface, they are analysed using a Photo
Ionization Detector (PID), a Flame Ionization Detector (FID) and a Halogen Specific Detector
(XSD). Responses are indicated in real-time on a graph of detector signal vs. depth. The MIP
includes an integrated Electrical Conductivity (EC) probe to provide indication of general soil
particle size. This can help determine zones of sands, silts, and clays and hence indicate
pathways for the preferential movement of contaminants through the subsurface.
MIP Case Study
The site, a government manufacturing and production facility, has operated from the 1940s.
The manufacturing process involved the use of the solvent trichloroethylene (TCE),
reportedly used to wash machined parts in numerous solvent baths, along with engine
degreaser bays, and stored in a former drum storage area. Over the years, the solvent bays
were removed and taken out of commission, the building had undergone a number of
208
additions/renovations, and the majority of metalworks has ceased. Currently, the main site
building is used as a production facility.
Numerous environmental site assessments (ESAs) have been conducted at the site over the
decades in an attempt to identify source areas and delineate the contaminant plume. An
extensive network of monitoring wells (numbering in the dozens) has been installed at the
site, but until the MIP investigation, no intrusive sampling had been conducted inside the
main manufacturing facility where the reported TCE baths had been located. Based on
historical site information and the data from previous ESAs, at least five potential source
areas were identified for the MIP project.
Over 18 days of fieldwork, a total of 46 MIP locations were advanced in five areas of concern
(three of which were located inside the facility). MIP detector readings indicated the
presence of petroleum and chlorinated compounds in many of the locations. Significant
solvent contamination was mainly found to be bracketing a clay layer (as determined by EC
data) that exists across much of the site, with the highest concentrations ranging from 812mbgs. Within 2 days of MIP fieldwork, two of the areas of concern were deemed nonsource areas, allowing for MIP work to be focused in other areas of the site. The MIP results
provided evidence that the highest solvent concentrations (encountered from 8-12mbgs)
exceeded the maximum depth of the majority of monitoring wells installed over the years.
Armed with the MIP data, the consultant was able to subsequently install additional
monitoring wells in the appropriate locations and correct screened intervals.
LASER INDUCED FLUORESCENCE (LIF)
Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) is used to identify zones of Light Non-Aqueous Phase
Liquids (LNAPL) petroleum. Petroleum hydrocarbons contain significant amounts of naturally
fluorescent polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Irradiation with ultraviolet (laser) light
from the LIF system causes PAHs to fluoresce. The LIF system uses a sapphire window in
the side of the probe to measure front-face fluorescence of the LNAPL as the probe is
advanced into the soil. PAH fluorescence is directed back to the surface where it is
analysed. Again responses are indicated in real-time on a graph of LIF signal vs. depth.
HYDRAULIC PROFILING TOOL
The Hydraulic Profiling Tool (HPT) is used to determine hydraulic and lithologic properties of
the subsurface. The HPT is a logging tool that measures the pressure required to inject a
flow of water into the soil, as the probe is advanced. This injection pressure log is an
excellent indicator of formation permeability. In addition to measurement of injection
pressure, the HPT can also be used to measure hydrostatic pressure under the zero flow
condition. This allows the development of a hydrostatic pressure graph for the log and
prediction of the position of the water table.
BENEFITS OF USING HRVP
By obtaining data in real time, decisions can be made “on the ground” to help guide field
activities. Using a dynamic workplan, vertical and horizontal delineation can be achieved,
often in just one site visit. Data can be incorporated on a daily basis in to modelling software
to generate 2D/3D graphics (including cross-sections and plan views) to provide a current
“snapshot” of subsurface contaminant distribution.
Compared to conventional sampling methods, HRVP technologies collect exponentially more
data points to reduce uncertainty in assessment, determine specific zones of contamination
and aid in focused remediation efforts. This reduces the potential for numerous site re-visits
to address data gaps; ultimately minimising delays to future works being undertaken on site.
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D36
BACKGROUND FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS – A SIMPLE AND
INEXPENSIVE TECHNIQUE FOR ASSESSING PREFERENTIAL
GROUNDWATER FLOW PATHS
Dinesh Poudyal1, William A Butler1, Martin H. Otz2
1
ERM, Building C, Ground Level, 33 Saunders Street, Pyrmont, NSW 2009. Australia
2
ERM, 5788 Widewaters Parkway, Dewitt, NY 13214, USA
dinesh.poudyal@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
Homogeneous and isotropic movement of groundwater through an aquifer is a common
misconception when interpreting hydrogeology. Instead, groundwater flows primarily along
preferential pathways. Background Fluorescence Analysis (BFA) is developed by the Swissbased company Nano Trace TechnologiesTM. ERM has successfully applied this technique
to assess groundwater preferential flow paths and contaminant migration behaviour at
contaminated sites.
Notable uses and benefits of BFA include the following:
x Differentiating between impacted and non-impacted ground water.
x Locating preferential ground water flow pathways.
x Determining which areas or monitoring wells are or are not hydraulically connected.
x Potentially separating different (and/or similar) organic plumes resulting from releases at
different locations and dates.
x Facilitating the precise application of artificial tracers to irrefutably prove hydraulic
connections.
x Outline the degree of affected ground water within a single plume.
METHODS
BFA is based on the principle that a mixture of most organic compounds emits a
characteristic pattern of fluorescence when exposed to electromagnetic radiation. This
technique includes the following procedures:
x Groundwater samples are analyzed using a spectro-fluorometer resulting in unique
graphical 2D- representation of fluorescence fingerprints (slopes and peaks) for the
dissolved organic fluorescent compounds.
x Fluorescence fingerprints for sample from each groundwater monitoring well is
compared against each other in a matrix.
x Samples showing similar pattern i.e. matching slopes and peaks are concluded to have a
direct hydraulic connection.
x Information regarding contamination migration, its degradation products and natural
attenuation processes are ascertained.
This paper presents the application of BFA in a fractured bedrock environment such that the
artificial tracers can be placed precisely to inform the design for in situ groundwater
remediation.
Fig.1 shows a typical BFA application. Three areas with increased fluorescence intensity
(red-yellow) are readily recognizable. Unaffected ground water is shown in blue. Using BFA
as another line of evidence, the detailed movement of the groundwater in the subsurface,
was qualitatively delineated. Additionally, areas where natural attenuation processes are
intensified are easily identified (green dots). At this Site, a flow of clean groundwater moves
from the east between the organic hot-spots that are still connected through a contaminated
deeper ground water flow pathway (deep blue arrows).
210
Fig. 1 A Typical BFA Application
CONCLUSIONS
BFA was able to reveal the detailed preferential groundwater flow paths at the Site. As a
comparison, the little inset in the upper right corner is the ground water flow direction
evaluated from the conventional hydrogeologic Site assessment. It is obvious that based on
the same well network, the detailed groundwater flow paths remained obscure. BFA, when
supplemented by fluorescent dye-tracing (FDT) testing, provided valuable information for
remediation design. Using BFA and/or FDT tests prior to an in situ remediation helped define
the hydrogeology in more detail and informed decisions for surgical placement of remedial
chemical compounds such that the risk of unexpected distribution could be reduced and the
potential for remediation effectiveness could be greatly increased within a relatively reduced
timeframe and cost.
211
D37
RAPID OPTICAL SCREENING TOOL – AN IN SITU INVESTIGATION
APPROACH FOR HYDROCARBONS
Penelope R. Woodberry1, Keely L. Mundle1
1
Golder Associates Pty Ltd
pwoodberry@golder.com.au
INTRODUCTION
In situ or field screening tools are typically used in contaminated sites assessments to
provide an on-site indication of the presence and extent of contamination. These tools can be
used to guide field programs, as they can provide an indication of subsurface conditions information which can be used to adapt the scope of work (as necessary) to target key areas
of interest. The Rapid Optical Screening Tool (ROST) is an in situ tool for screening of
hydrocarbon impacts in soil and groundwater.
METHOD
ROST is based on Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF), which consists of excitation of
hydrocarbon compounds with monochromatic laser light. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) fluoresce if they are excited by light of a specific wavelength. As PAHs occur in all
types of oil (sometimes in very small amounts) ROST is able to detect contamination by most
petroleum based hydrocarbons i.e. jet fuel, diesel, lubrication oil, petrol, mineral oil, tar,
creosote, etc.
A standard Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) cone can be modified to incorporate the ROST
probe (Fugro Surveys Pty Ltd). CPT is a well-established geotechnical investigation method
used to identify soil types and material strength. Consequently, the ROST probe enables
collection of detailed subsurface information on lithology as well as information on the lateral
and vertical extent of hydrocarbons.
Other advantages of ROST include that it is typically faster and more cost effective than
traditional drilling programs, waste minimisation (no drill cuttings) and health and safety (no
rotating parts). Disadvantages of ROST include lack of familiarity (client, consultant and
regulator) with the technique in Australia and limited access to the equipment and operators.
CASE STUDIES
Three case studies using ROST in Western Australia (WA) have been completed, which are
useful examples for application of the technique:
(a) Former waste control site in Bellevue, WA
This was the first and largest of the three ROST surveys carried out, and is used
as an example to compare of the data obtained using ROST with that obtained
using traditional soil sample and laboratory analysis methods.
A detailed 3D model of soil lithology and hydrocarbon impacts was developed
from the ROST data allowing the preparation of cross-sections and plan views to
assess the lateral and vertical extent of impacts, and the lithologies in which
impacts were present. This provided invaluable information for remediation
planning.
Validation of the ROST data indicated that there was a good correlation with the
site stratigraphy and soil analytical results.
(b) Delineation of free phase hydrocarbons at two sites for an industrial client
Prior to intrusive investigations, the potential risks at Site 1 were assessed to be
high due to the potential for free phase and dissolved phase hydrocarbons
discharging to the marine environment. In addition, Site 1 was underlain by
several aquifers separated by confining clay layers and there was the potential
that these aquifers had been hydraulically connected by existing wells screened
across these clay layers. Therefore the use of ROST was identified as a more
212
cost effective investigation tool in place of traditional installation of groundwater
monitoring wells.
The results of the ROST investigation enabled an on-site assessment that the
hydrocarbons impacts were highly localised. This was used to as a line of
evidence to demonstrate that the risks to the nearby marine environment were
low. The field program was therefore adapted to be more targeted resulting in
further significant cost savings.
Site 2 comprised an assessment of potential hydrocarbon impacts around a
disused UST which was scheduled for decommissioning. The client considered
risks of impacts to be low however, the results of the ROST investigation
indicated impacts were present. The field program was therefore adapted to
provide delineation of the area of impacts, as far as practicable, without needing a
second stage of investigation.
These projects illustrate the use of ROST to adapt field programs - allowing
optimal placement of investigation locations and minimising project costs.
CONCLUSIONS
The case studies presented in this abstract illustrate the potential benefits of ROST in
assessment and management of sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons – benefits
which can include more rapid, targeted site assessments at lower project costs.
REFERENCES
FUGRO CONSULT GmbH In-Situ Technologies (2008) Rapid Optical Screening Tool
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Funding for management of the former waste control site in Bellevue, WA was from the
Department of Environment and Conservation Contaminated Sites Branch’s fund for Orphan
Sites.
213
D38
ADVANCED PASSIVE SOIL GAS SAMPLING – COLLECTION OF
HIGH RESOLUTION SITE CHARACTERIZATION DATA TO
ACCURATELY IDENTIFY SOURCE AREAS AND EFFECTIVELY
GUIDE REMEDIATION STRATEGIES
Harry O’Neill1, Andrew Wollen2, Lowell Kessel2
1
Beacon Environmental Services, Inc., 2203A Commerce Road, Forest Hill, MD 21050 USA
2
ERR Pty Ltd, F4 / 13-15 Kevlar Close, Braeside, VIC, 3195 AUSTRALIA
harry.oneill@beacon-usa.com
INTRODUCTION
Past operations at an industrial manufacturing facility in the piedmont plateau region of the
eastern United States may have resulted in the release of solvent contaminants, including
TCE, PCE, DCE, 1,1,1-TCA, and vinyl chloride. Areas within the facility that were known or
suspected to have used or stored solvents were targeted through a high-resolution site
characterization approach to identify if subsurface contamination was present and, if so, to
define areas of highest concentrations and delineate the lateral extent.
An initial
groundwater sampling program had identified contamination in groundwater beneath the
facility; therefore, at the direction of the state regulators, soil samples were collected to
identify source releases near areas of concern. Soil samples were collected at 11 locations
at depths ranging from the near surface to 12 meters below ground surface. The soil
samples did not identify any source areas. Therefore, a high resolution site characterization
approach was selected using passive soil gas samplers to confirm whether the soil data were
correct or if there were sources present that were not identified with the soil sampling
approach.
METHODS
A minimally intrusive, advanced passive soil gas (PSG) technology was employed to define
the nature and lateral extent of chlorinated and petroleum hydrocarbon contamination across
the industrial facility to guide vertical characterization and subsequent remediation. The
passive soil gas sampler consists of hydrophobic adsorbent traps, contained within a rugged
glass vial, to target a range of compounds from vinyl chloride to polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). A sampling grid was established over the areas of concern (AOCs)
with 7- to 14-meters between sample locations, for a total of 60 sample locations. Samplers
were placed in 2.5 cm diameter holes advanced to a 35 cm depth, sealed, and left in the
ground to adsorb organic compounds for approximately 14 days.
Fig.1 Beacon PSG Sampler
Fig.2 PSG Sampler Installation Options
Following the exposure period, the samplers were shipped to Beacon Environmental, a U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) and ISO 17025 accredited laboratory for the analysis of the
soil gas samples following U.S. EPA Method 8260C (GC/MS). The sorbent samplers were
thermally desorbed and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-
214
GC/MS) instruments that provide high quality data targeting a wide range of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), as well as semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). This approach
where the adsorbent sampler passively collects a time-integrated sample over several days
or weeks and is then thermally desorbed onto a GC/MS system following an accredited
method provides data with greater sensitivity and accuracy than screening methods that only
collect a soil gas sample over a few minutes or hours and do not use an analytical detector
that provides identification of individual compounds based on multi-point calibrations. In
addition, the uniform design of the sampler that contains measured amounts of adsorbent
and no competing adsorbents (e.g., PDMS, ePTFE, or other plastics), results in a more
consistent compound uptake rate at each of the sample locations and, therefore, more
representative data when comparing results between sample locations. During shipment,
no preservatives or ice were required and the holding time for the sorbent samplers was 28
days.
While the soil samples reported non-detects, the passive soil gas survey identified source
areas of several chlorinated compounds, as well as 1,4-Dioxane and petroleum
hydrocarbons, within the areas of concern. The data were used to select the locations for
installing a nest of three wells and for collecting three soil samples to analyse the
contaminant concentrations in soil and assess the depth of the highest contaminant
concentrations. The data were also used to guide the design of the remediation system and
focus where remediation efforts would be most effective.
The following map provides an example of the findings from the passive soil gas survey:
Fig. 3 Passive Soil Gas Results – cis-1,2-Dichloroethene
CONCLUSIONS
The collection of high resolution data using minimally invasive sorbent samplers that
simultaneously sample soil gas over an extended time period provided an accurate depiction
of the location of source areas when a traditional approach of collecting soil samples at a
limited number of locations did not. The collection of high resolution data is important to
meet project objectives of identifying source areas because heterogeneity and significant
spatial variability of contamination is the norm at most sites. When screening sites with a
high resolution approach, it is important that the data produced is also of high quality that
best reflect the changes in subsurface concentrations. An analytical method that uses a
mass spectrometer (MS) for compound identification and with lower detection limits of 0.005
micrograms provides added sensitivity and a higher confidence level in screening data than
is achieved with other methods.
REFERENCES
ASTM Standard D7758: Standard Practice for Passive Soil Gas Sampling in the Vadose
Zone for Source Identification, Spatial Variability Assessment, Monitoring, and Vapor
Intrusion Evaluations, 2011.
215
D41
BIOSOLIDS APPLICATION ENHANCES CARBON SEQUESTRATION
IN SOIL
Nanthi Bolan1,2,*, Anitha Kunhikrishnan1,3, Ravi Naidu1,2
1
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
2
CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation in the Environment, University of
South Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
3
Chemical Safety Division, Department of Agro-Food Safety, National Academy of
Agricultural Science, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 441-707, Republic of Korea
*
Nanthi.Bolan@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Large quantities of biosolids, ranging from approximately 0.07×106 Mg yr-1 in Australia to
7.5×106 Mg yr-1 in the USA are generated from wastewater treatment plants (Park et al.,
2011). Biosolids have the potential for being recycled on agricultural and degraded lands,
and land application of biosolids is considered as an integrated approach to sustainable
management of this waste resource. Applying organic wastes including biosolids and
composts to agricultural land could contribute to both restoring soil quality and sequestering
C in soils, thereby reducing GHG emission (Haynes et al., 2009). Although a number of
studies have examined the potential value of biosolids as a soil conditioner and nutrient
source, there has been only limited work on the impact of biosolids application on C
sequestration in soils. The objective of this study was to examine the potential value of
biosolids in C sequestration in soils.
METHODS
Two types of experiments were conducted to examine the effect of biosolids application on C
sequestration. In the first laboratory incubation experiment, the rate of decomposition of a
range of biosolids samples was compared with other organic amendments including
composts and biochars. In the second field experiment, the effect of biosolids on the growth
of two bioenergy crops, Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) and Helianthus annuus (sunflower)
on a landfill site was examined in relation to biomass production and C sequestration.
The rate of decomposition varied amongst the organic amendments, and followed: composts
> biosolids > biochar. The rate of decomposition of biosolids decreased with increasing iron
(Fe) and aluminium (Al) contents of biosolids (Fig. 1).
a
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
b
0.0004
Rate of decomposition
Rate of decomposition
Fe
Al
Fe+Al
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
200
400
DOC (mg L -1)
600
0
10
20
30
40
Total Fe and Al contents (g kg-1)
50
Fig. 1. Relationships between (a) dissolved organic carbon and rate of decomposition of
organic amendments; (b) total Fe and Al contents and rate of decomposition of
biosolids
216
It has often been shown that the decomposition of biosolids and the subsequent release of
nutrients such as P and metal(loid)s are affected by the presence of inorganic components
such as Fe and Al oxides in biosolids (Novak and Park, 2010). Similarly, Fe and Al oxides in
soils have been shown to immobilize C, thereby preventing it from microbial decomposition
(Chevallier et al., 2008).
Biosolids application increased the dry matter yield of both plant species, thereby increasing
the biomass C input to soils. The rate of net C sequestration resulting from biosolids
application (Mg C ha-1 yr-1 Mg-1 biosolids) was higher for mustard (0.103) than sunflower
(0.087). Biosolids application is likely to result in a higher level of C sequestration when
compared to other management strategies including fertilizer application and conservation
tillage, which is attributed to increased microbial biomass, and Fe and Al oxides-induced
immobilization of C.
Carbon sequestration (Mg ha-1)
50
M-0BS
M-25BS
M-50BS
S-0BS
S-25BS
S-50BS
40
30
20
10
0
0
1
2
3
Years
Fig. 2. Effect of biosolids application (0, 25 and 50 Mg/ha) on the increase in carbon
sequestration in soil (BS-Biosolids; M-Mustard; S-Sunflower)
CONCLUSIONS
Biosolids addition increased C sequestration in soils through directly supplying organic C to
soil and indirectly enhancing root biomass. The net rate of C sequestration resulting from
biosolids application varied between the plant species which was attributed mainly to the
difference in root biomass production between plant species. The value of biosolids addition
in enhancing plant growth decreased with increasing time after application, thereby impacting
its potential for the long-term C sequestration. Therefore frequent application of biosolids not
only helps to maintain the soil quality but also accelerates the C sequestration resulting from
both biosolids C and plant biomass inputs.
REFERENCES
Chevallier, T., Woignier, T., Toucet, J., Blanchart, E. and Dieudonné, P. (2008) Fractal
structure in natural gels: effect on carbon sequestration in volcanic soils. J. Sol-Gel Sci.
Technol. 48:231-238.
Haynes, R.J., Murtaza, G. and Naidu, R. (2009) Inorganic and organic constituents and
contaminants of biosolids: Implications for land application. Adv. Agron.104:165-267.
Novak, J.T. and Park, C.M. (2010) The effect of iron and aluminium for phosphorus removal
on anaerobic digestion and organic sulfur generation. Water Sci. Technol. 62:419-426.
Park, J.H., Lamb, D., Paneerselvam, P., Choppala, G., Bolan, N.S. and Chung, J.W. (2011)
Role of organic amendments on enhanced bioremediation of heavy metal(loid)
contaminated soils. J Hazard. Mater. 185:549–574.
217
D42
CHITOSAN ENHANCES REMEDIATION OF
ZINC CONTAMINATION IN SOIL
Nimisha Tripathi1, Girish Choppala2,3, Nanthi Bolan2,3, Prashant Srivastava3, Raj S. Singh1
1
Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Barwa Road, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
2
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, Building–X,
University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia.
3
Environment, PO Box 486, Salisbury, South Australia 5106, Australia.
nymphaea7@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Zinc (Zn) is released to the environment from both geogenic and anthropogenic sources;
however, releases from anthropogenic sources are greater than those from natural sources.
Zn does not volatilize from soil, but usually remains adsorbed to soil and is leached to the
water bodies. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to
absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese (Emsley, 2001).
Chitosan has received considerable interest for removal of metal ions from wastewaters. Due
to presence of amino and hydroxyl groups, it can act as chelating site for metal ions. The
present work evaluated the effects of pure and modified chitosan beads to consider its
utilization to remediate soils polluted with Zn. The study examined the potential of pure and
modified chitosan beads on the immobilization of Zn in contaminated soils.
METHODS
Pure chitosan gel beads (PCB) were prepared from phase inversion of chitosan acetate
solution using 0.5 M NaOH solution and modified chitosan beads were molybdenum
impregnated (MoCB) and iron doped (ICB).
The soil was collected from an uncontaminated site (0–10 cm depth) at Redland Bay,
Queensland. The air dried soil sample was mixed with Zn (ZnSO4) at a concentration of 50,
100 and 400 mg kg-1 and incubated at field capacity for two weeks. Physico-chemical
characterization (pH, CEC and TOC) was done following standard methods.
Metal immobilization
Immobilization of Zn in contaminated soil was examined at known concentrations (50-400 mg
kg-1). Subsequently, soil was amended with 0.8 g (0.4% w/w) of pure and modified chitosan
beads and incubated at field capacity. Following the incubation for a month, the soils were
extracted with 1 M NH4NO3 solution (soil: NH4NO3 solution = 1: 2.5 w/v) for 2 h and
concentration of Zn was analyzed using ICP-OES (Agilent). The immobilization of zinc was
calculated using the following equation (Park et al. 2011).
Immobilized Zn (%) =
(NH4 NO3 zinc for the control – NH4 NO3 zinc for treated sample)´ 100
NH4 NO3 zinc for the control
Properties of the Materials
Physico-chemical properties of soils and chitosan beads are given in Table 1. Molybdenum
and Iron loadings on chitosan beads were 10.25 and 0.96 g /100 g dry bead, respectively.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) values were higher for MoCB than the pure beads. Greater
CEC value of MoCB compared to PCB may be due to introduction of more molybdate anions
to chitosan bead structure. Iron-impregnated beads were lower in CEC value than chitosan
beads, possibly due to saturation of negative-charged surface of chitosan by iron. The
surface area of MoCB as measured by Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) method was
highest for MoCB, followed by PCB and ICB. Pore size was highest for MoCB, followed by
ICB and PCB. The greater surface area of MoCB compared to PCB and ICB may be due to
intercalation of chitosan structure by molybdate anions. These anion intercalates may have
218
minimized close contact between adjacent of chitosan. Low surface area of PCB was
possibly due to formation of extensive hydrogen between chitosan structures, while ICB may
not have been significantly intercalated by iron as compared to molybdenum.
Zinc immobilization
The effect of chitosan beads on Zn immobilization was monitored through the NH4NO3
extractable zinc concentration in soils treated with different amendments with chitosan
beads. Addition of MoCB, PCB and ICB decreased NH4NO3 extractable Zn by 11%, 11.7%
and 16.9%; 10.16, 7.18 and 8.14%; and 9.57, 6.62 and 7.63% in 50, 100 and 400 mg/kg
spiked soils, respectively. Maximum decrease was observed in soils containing lowest
concentration of Zn in all the amended soils, except MoCB, which caused maximum decline
in soil spiked with highest concentration of Zn. The reduced NH4NO3 extractable Zn indicates
zinc immobilization in chitosan amended spiked soils (Table 2). Piron et al. (1997) reported
the greater ability of chitosan to chelate ions of heavy metals because of the free amine
function. The large surface area of modified chitosan beads indicated their high metal
immobilization capacity. Park et al. (2011) reported that most alkali and alkaline earth cations
undergo non-specific adsorption. In case of chitosan beads, specific and non-specific
adsorption might be responsible for Zn immobilization. Basak et al. (1982) reported that the
application of Mo at lower level (2.5 ppm) could not bring any change in Zn content during
the initial 21 days period of incubation, but during the later period of incubation Mo caused a
rapid decrease. ICB may have reduced Zn concentration in plants due to formation of zinc
hydroxide precipitate or formation of complexes at its inner sphere between iron oxide and
Zn. Basta et al. (2005) suggested the strong binding of Pb, Cu, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni and Zn to Fe.
Samples
pH
Soil
PCB
MoCB
ICB
5.02
-
Table 1: Characteristics of soil and chitosan beads
BET surface
EC
OC
Sand
Silt
Clay
CEC
(μs/cm)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(cmol kg-1) area (m2 g-1)
36
3.92
21
44
35
10.9
21.01
0.186
34.02
6.63
15.75
0.141
Pore
size (Å)
8.34
17.94
11.72
Table 2: NH4NO3 extractable Zn concentrations (mg kg-1) in spiked and amended soils
Treatment
Dose of Zn in Soil (mg kg-1)
0
50
100
400
Control
0.22
WCB (Without chitosan beads)
49.565
96.91
364.88
PCB
44.53
89.95
335.17
MoCB
44.12
85.59
325.63
ICB
44.82
90.48
337.03
CONCLUSIONS
Our findings suggested that chitosan can act as potential amendment material to remediate
Zn toxicity in contaminated and wasteland soils in a cost effective way. Further research
should investigate the potential of the chitosan beads to reduce heavy metal availability over
a longer term. In addition, research should be done to investigate the suitability and
applicability of chitosan materials in the field to measure the effects of treatments on
structure and functions of restored ecosystems. Different doses of chitosans need to be
optimized to reduce the possibility of further leaching to ground water and phytoavailability of
heavy metals.
REFERENCES
Basak A, Mandal L N, Haldar M (1982) Interaction of phosphorus and molybdenum and the
availability of zinc, copper, manganese, molybdenum and phosphorus in waterlogged
rice soil. Plant and Soil 68: 271-278.
Basta N T, Ryan J A, Chaney R L (2005) Trace element chemistry in residual-treated soil:
Key concepts and metal bioavailability. Journal of Environmental Quality 34: 49-63.
219
Emsley J (2001) "Zinc". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford,
England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 499–505. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
http://books. google.com/?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC.
Piron E, Accominotti M, Domard A (1997) Interaction between chitosan and uranyl ions. Role
of physical and physicochemical parameters on the kinetics of sorption. Langmuir
13:1653-1658.
220
D43
EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL BYPRODUCTS ON PHOSPHORUS
MOBILSATION IN ABATTOIR EFFLUENT IRRIGATED SOIL AND
IMPLICATIONS ON BIOMASS IN NAPIER GRASS
Balaji Seshadri1,2,*, Raghupathi Matheyarasu1,2, Nanthi S Bolan1,2, Ravi Naidu1,2
1
Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, AUSTRALIA
2
Environment, PO Box 486, Salisbury, SA 5106, AUSTRALIA
*
Balaji.Seshadri@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
All applied nutrients are not available to plants, mainly because of either adsorption to soil
particles or loss due to leaching/runoff. Phosphorus (P) being one of the growth limiting
nutrients is fast depleting in its natural forms because of excessive usage. Therefore, efforts
are being taken to extract P from anthropological waste resources including abattoir
wastewater, which contains P concentration ranging from 100 to 150 mg/L. Hence, the P in
the effluents can be utilised for plant growth through irrigation where P mobility is the
influencing factor.
Soil pH and pH dependent binding of P to soil cations such as calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and
aluminium (Al) are the most important factors affecting P solubility in soils (Seshadri et al
2013). The abattoir effluent irrigated soil can release P to the surrounding environment.
Therefore, application of liming agents is essential to increase the pH. Industrial alkaline
byproducts (pH>10) such as fly ash (FA) and red mud (RM) can be effective in decreasing
the soil P loss to the environment (Phillips and Chen, 2010; Seshadri et al., 2013). Grass
species such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) can exudate organic acids (e.g.oxalic
acid) from roots to the soil, thereby facilitating the release of bound P (Dakora and Phillips,
2002; Rahman and Kawamura, 2011). Hence, Napier grass was used in this experiment to
determine its P uptake ability in abattoir effluent irrigated soil, amended with industrial
byproducts.
METHODS
The influence of industrial byproducts on P bioavailability in abattoir effluent irrigated (IS) and
non-irrigated (NIS) samples were studied using the soils collected from the treatment sites at
Primos Port Wakefield abattoir, South Australia. The soil amendments used in the
experiment were FA and RM and the non-irrigated soil was treated with inorganic (KH2PO4PP) and organic (Poultry manure-PM) P sources.
Incubation and Plant growth experiments
The IS and NIS samples (200 g each) were incubated separately in plastic bags with FA and
RM at the rates of 0 and 15 % (wt/wt soil) for 21 days. The NIS samples were also treated
with 200 mg/kg (wt/wt) P using PP and PM. The incubated samples were allowed to dry and
analysed for pH, EC, Total P and Olsen P. The Napier grass saplings were grown on the
incubated samples (100 g each) and were maintained with optimal moisture content at the
greenhouse facility. The plants were harvested after three weeks and dry weights measured.
The pH of the IS and NIS were acidic (5.97) and alkaline (7.12), respectively. The abattoir
wastewater irrigation may have lowered the soil pH and also added salts as reflected in the
EC values (Table 1). The high amount of Total P in IS showed P accumulation in these soils
due to discharge of huge volume of nutrient-rich wastewater over the years. The FA used in
this study also contained high P content compared to RM (Table 1). Olsen P values for IS
and FA were around 35% Total P whereas NIS and RM showed lower Olsen P.
221
Table 1. Characterisation of the materials used (soil and industrial byproducts)
Materials
used
IS
NIS
FA
RM
pH
5.97±0.07
7.12±0.11
10.53±0.09
12.37±0.l7
EC
(μS/cm)
1026±23.12
634±14.76
1579±27.28
5283±36.77
Total P
(mg/kg)
267.76±8.23
76.82±2.13
154.31±4.67
35.72±1.32
Olsen P
(mg/kg)
90.53±4.56
13.42±0.37
51.33±2.64
1.23±0.09
The biomass yields of the Napier grass plants grown on the amended soils have been
determined using their dry weights. In the case of IS, both FA and RM increased Olsen P in
soil, with FA being the most effective amendment. The Olsen P value of FA amended IS was
high (153.61 mg/kg) compared to Control and RM amended IS (Figure 1). For NIS samples,
there was a wide variation between P sources in FA amended soils. The PM treated soils
produced higher biomass than PP treatment, which was also reflected in their Olsen P
values. This can be due to the mineralisation effects of FA (Dou et al., 2003). Moreover,
Napier grass has the ability to produce high amount of oxalic acid in nutrient-rich (N, K, Na
and Ca) environment (Rahman and Kawamura, 2011), which can increase the bioavailable P
in soil, thereby improving plant growth.
Fig. 1. Effect of various treatments to abattoir wastewater irrigated and non-irrigated soils on
biomass yield of Napier grass and their corresponding soil Olsen P.
CONCLUSIONS
This research shows that FA can be an effective amendment in increasing the biomass yield
of Napier grass, by increasing the Olsen P levels which is a measure of P availability in soil.
However, the mechanism behind P mobility needs to be studied in detail in terms of
rhizosphere metabolism, especially exudation of organic acids such as oxalic acid.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination
Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC-CARE), Australia for funding this
research work in collaboration with University of South Australia, Australia
REFERENCES
Dakora, F.D. and Phillips, D.A. (2002) Root exudates as mediators of mineral acquisition in
low-nutrient environments. Plant Soil. 245: 35-47.
Dou, Z., Zhang, G.Y., Stout, W.L., Toth, J.D. and Ferguson, J.D. (2003) Efficacy of alum and
coal combustion by-products in stabilizing manure phosphorus. J. Environ. Qual. 32:
1490-1497.
Rahman, M.M. and Kawamura, O. (2011) Oxalate accumulation in forage plants: Some
agronomic, climatic and genetic aspects. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 24(3): 439-448.
Seshadri, B., Bolan, N.S. and Kunhikrishnan, A. (2013) Effect of Clean Coal Combustion
Products in Reducing Soluble Phosphorus in Soil I. Adsorption Study. Water Air Soil
Pollut. 224: 1524-1535.
222
D44
PHYTOREMEDIATION OF RED MUD RESIDUES BY HYBRID GIANT
NAPIER GRASS
Chongjian Ma1, Ravi Naidu2, Beihong Feng3, Changhua Lin1, Hui Ming2
1
Henry Fok Agricultural Science & Bioengineering College, Shaoguan University, Shaoguan
512005, Guangdong, PR CHINA
2
CRC CARE, PO Box 486, Salisbury South, SA 5106, AUSTRALIA
3
Agricultural College, Guangxi University, Nanning 530005 CHINA
flyandy88@sina.com
INTRODUCTION
Red mud (RM) is a solid waste generated during the production of alumina posing significant
risk to air, soil, surface and ground water environment. Remediating red mud residue is one
of the major tasks to alumina industry. Phytoremediation of red mud site using hybrid giant
Napier (HGN) is an attractive and cost effective technique to minimize the risk with little site
disturbance.
OBJECTIVE
To conduct growth study in greenhouse using HGN on several amended red mud prepared
by two different soil preparation techniques for future phytoremediation trial on red mud site.
METHODS
Two soil preparation techniques, spot replacement (SR) and totally mixing (SM) are adopted
to prepare amended RM for growth study. For the former, only the RM around HGN is
replaced with amendment and the latter, RM is completely mixed with amendment for HGN
greenhouse study.
RESULTS
During 12 months growth study, there is general improvement in soil quality on the amended
red mud in Table 1.
Table 1. Improvement in soil chemistry after one year cultivation of HGN in amended red mud
RM
A
Prep
.
n/a
SR
B
SR
C
SR
D
CM
E
CM
F
CM
Amend.
n/a
RM
AW:SD:SS
=1:1:1
BN:SW:SS
=1:2:2
RM:AW =
2:1
RM:BG =
2:3
RM:PG:SD:
SS=8:1:6:4
Time
Year
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
pH
EC
11.4
5.17
4.69
5.38
8.56
6.00
5.31
8.75
8.81
8.87
8.35
8.36
8.04
4.86
0.02
0.10
2.38
2.29
2.33
2.74
2.78
1.57
3.28
2.95
3.16
1.83
Na
g/kg
2.34
0.01
0.01
0.03
1.23
0.00
1.19
1.79
1.46
1.93
1.78
1.92
1.53
C
g/kg
3.2
1.31
2.50
7560
21.4
524
21.6
63.2
92.3
22.4
19.5
58.7
38.6
NH3-N
mg/kg
26.4
224
132
457
85.3
390
72.3
290
249
82.3
48.8
237
171
Ext. P
mg/kg
5.22
11.3
9.35
691
89.4
564
69.7
315
267
8.42
6.87
255
214
Ext. K
mg/kg
214
61.3
43.6
8860
1240
7360
984
3730
2930
283
238
313
2530
AW: agricultural waste; SD: saw dust; SS: sewage sludge; BN: bentonite; BG: bagasse; PG: Phosphorgypsum
The height of the HGN in the amended red mud did not affected significantly with
amendment used among the six amended red mud.
223
Figure 1. Height of HGN in relation to period of growth
Biomass production of HGN during the greenhouse study is varied substantially dependent
on the amendment used in the red mud
Figure 2. Biomass production in relation to the period of HGN growth
CONCLUSIONS
x HGN can grow well in the red mud with proper amendments.
x Soil fertility in the phytoremediated RM mud during the growth study in greenhouse is
improved.
x Amount of biomass produced during the phytoremediation can be affected significantly
by the amendment selected but with little effect in height of HGN.
x SR methods for preparing red mud can provide initial nutrient for HGN development in
the red mud.
224
D45
VERMICULTURE TECHNOLOGY: AN ECO-TOOL IN
SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT AND
LAND RESOURCES REHABILITATION IN THAILAND
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Thammared Chuasavathi
Division of Land Resources and Environment Section, Department of Plant Sciences and
Agricultural Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
chulee_b@kku.ac.th; chuleemas1@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to reviews the role of vermiculture technology as a tool for sustainable waste
management and land resources rehabilitation in Thailand. Earthworms are important in
many applications such as in soil ecosystems, waste management, bioremediation and
biomonitoring of contaminated land, safe food and plant production. Waste disposal has
been one of the big issues in Thailand, due to the expansion of industrial and agricultural
sector and increase human population. That dispersed those waste to the environment, into
food chain and effected human health. Moreover, the solid waste management in Thailand is
not appropriated. In Thailand, municipal sewage sludge from domestic wastewater treatment
is generated in large quantities, is hazardous and creates problem for safe disposal due to
the presence of certain soil contaminants, such as organic compounds, heavy metals, and
human pathogens. Sewage sludge generated in huge quantities has led to indiscriminate
and inappropriately timed application of untreated sludge to agricultural fields as fertilizer
because of its nutrient content, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. The problem of sludge
disposal and management exists in other developing countries and probably prevails also in
other parts of the world. Indiscriminate disposal of sewage sludge on agricultural fields
induces soil and plant toxicity and creates depressive effects on the metabolism of soil
microorganisms by drastically modifying physico-chemical and biological environments of
soil. Therefore it is absolutely essential for sewage sludge to undergo additional stabilization
treatment prior to agricultural use (Hait and Tare, 2011). In Northeast Thailand, soil
deterioration has become a real problem for growers of the region. Vermicompost technology
is ecologically and economically sustainable and has been widely used for processing of
sewage sludge over the years (Sinha et al., 2010). The role of earthworm by using organic
wastes to improve soil properties could be considered as one useful way in waste recycling
for sustainable agriculture resources. The several cases of research studies were conducted
to prove the potential of earthworm in sustainable waste and land resources management in
Northeast Thailand. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the feasibility of utilization of
vermicomposting technology by using the earthworm for ameliorating the wastes by
conversion into beneficial bio fertilizer
METHODS
Cassava industrial wastes, organic waste and municipal sludge were managed by utilizing
vermicompost technology. This study also examined the effect of different industrial and
domestic wastes on changing nutrient (total nitrogen, available phosphorus exchangeable
potassium, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon and carbon-nitrogen ratio) and the
growth and reproduction of the earthworm. The degradation of toxic substances in waste
such as cyanide from cassava, heavy metal and pesticide residues was monitored.
Earthworms and substrate: Earthworms, Eudrilus eugeniae, were randomly obtained from
stock cultures maintained in the earthworm culture laboratory at Khon Kaen University. The
chemical characteristics of the wastes and bulking materials were analysed.
A study of the toxicity of sewage sludge on the survival and growth of earthworms:
The study of the toxicity of wastes on the avoidance behavior of earthworm was performed
with different concentrations of wastes. Avoidance behaviour of earthworms was observed
225
every day. The weight of earthworms was recorded before and after 30 days. After 7 days,
the survival rate of earthworm was measured. Cassava waste was chosen in this study
because cassava industry is main industry in this area and produces a considerable amount
of waste per day.
Vermicomposting process
Experiment design: The vermicompost (VCP) (with earthworm) and compost (without
earthworm) experiment was conducted in plastic buckets (35 cm diameter and 40 cm depth)
and used cassava pulp, cassava peel and 5% sewage sludge in the process. The
experimental design was CRD with 3 replications with a the mixture at a rate of 75%: 25%
(cassava industrial wastes: soil mixture). The 25% in soil mixture was composed of
Nampong soil and cow manure. The moisture content in the mixture was adjusted to 70-80%
of WHC (Water Holding Capacity) by water and 10 earthworms/1 kg were added to the
mixed material which was covered with a dark net to prevent earthworm escape and direct
exposure to light (Wang et al., 2012). The time of study were 0 and 30 days at room
temperature between 28±2 OC
Chemical and Heavy metal analysis: The chemical parameters of substrate were
measured in all treatments before introducing earthworms and after vermicomposting for 30
days. The earthworms were separated by hand at the end of the period. The heavy metal
concentrations of all extracts were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(AAS).
The results found that the application of domestic and industrial wastes by using earthworm
and vermicompost technology could increase the nutrient content and to reduce soil toxicity
and thus provide a sustainable way to manage waste and land resource rehabilitation.
Moreover, the results and knowledge from our studies have been transferred to the public,
farmers, local authorities, school teachers and students, temple practices and people who
are interested in this technology for sustainable community development.
CONCLUSION
This study indicates that wastes could be managed by earthworm treatment through
vermicompost technology, which could be a potential technology to convert toxic organic
waste into nutrient rich biofertilizer. The feasibility of using earthworms to mitigate the metal
toxicity and to enhance the nutrient profile in sludge might be useful to improve the
sustainability of land restoration practices on a low-input basis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and
National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) in 2012 and Research
Center for Environmental and Hazardous Substance Management (EHSM), Khon Kaen
University. Thanks are extended to the Division of Land Resource and Environment, Faculty
of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University for use of the research facility, WNEC and GWRC.
REFERENCES
Hait, S. and Tare, V. (2012). Transformation and availability of nutrients and heavy metals
during integrated composting-vermicomposting of sewage sludges. Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety 79, 204-224.
Sinha, R.K., Herat, S.. Bharambe, G., and Brahambhatt, A. (2010). Vermistabilization of
sewage sludge (biosolids) by earthworms: converting a potential biohazard destined for
land disposal into a pathogen-free, nutritive and safe biofertilizer for farms, Waste.
Manage. Res. 28, 872ʊ881.
226
E01
SOFTWARE PACKAGE: (1) OPTIMAL IDENTIFICATION OF
UNKNOWN GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION SOURCES;
(2) OPTIMAL MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN IN CONTAMINATED
GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS
Bithin Datta1,2, Ranga R Arachchige1,2, Om Prakash1,2, Mahsa Amirabdollahian1,2,
Deepesh Singh3, Chadalavada Sreenivasulu2, Ravi Naidu2
1
Discipline of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical
Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 4811, AUSTRALIA
2
CRC CARE, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, AUSTRALIA
3
I.I.T. Kanpur, India
bithin.datta@jcu.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
In order to design an effective remediation strategy two important steps are (i) identification
of unknown groundwater pollution sources once contamination is detected in an aquifer, and
(ii) efficient and effective monitoring of contaminant plume movement. James Cook
University, Australia and CRC-CARE is collaborating in developing comprehensive and easy
to use computer software that can be utilized for (i) identification of unknown pollution source
magnitudes, location, and its time of activity; (2) optimal design of a contamination monitoring
network that can be implemented in any contaminated groundwater site incorporating site
specific design objectives. Developed software enables water resources managers and
engineers to solve the difficult problems of identifying sources of pollution in a contaminated
groundwater systems, and design optimal monitoring networks that can detect the extent and
movement of contaminants in a contaminated groundwater system. The developed computer
software makes it possible for practitioners with limited knowledge of hydrogeology and
pollutant transport processes to address the source identification issue. This software is
expected to be immensely useful for proper management of contaminated sites with
unknown sources of contamination. The capabilities of the two developed software, the
contamination source identification and the monitoring network design, are briefly introduced
here.
THE CONTAMINATION SOURCE IDENTIFICATION SOFTWARE (GWSID)
The pollutant source characteristics which need to be identified include: 1) source locations;
2) activity duration of sources; and 3) injection rate of the pollutant sources. In the source
identification software (GWSID) the linked simulation-optimization methodology is utilized. In
this methodology the numerical models for simulation of the flow and transport process are
externally linked to the optimization algorithm. This methodology enables the source
identification model to be solved for fairly large study areas. Due to the nature of evolutionary
optimization algorithms, utilizing this technique coupled with evolutionary algorithms is much
simpler where using the linked simulation-optimization approaches.
Objectives and Capabilities
The source identification software provides a user friendly environment using excel
spreadsheet. The model is capable of incorporating real life aquifers including three
dimensional models. The software has the potential to consider heterogeneous and
homogenous study areas. Due to the capability of the software to consider various study
periods, the pollution sources can be characterized in both steady and transient flow fields.
Based on the primary available information, user is capable of introducing potential locations
for contamination sources. The measurement information including monitoring wells, time of
collection and contamination concentration are entered manually in the excel spreadsheets.
Then the user defined aquifer properties are transferred to the flow and transport input files.
The MODFLOW and MT3D input files have specific formats which need to be followed
precisely. Using the developed VBA code, the user can simply insert aquifer properties in the
227
excel files and the VBA code will take care of formatting and precision aspects. Using the
user defined SA optimization parameters, the optimization and simulation models are linked.
Based on satisfying user defined stopping criteria, the solution results are transferred to a
new spreadsheet. Eventually, the user will be provided with the location of contaminant
sources, their activity duration and corresponding pollutant source fluxes.
Source Identification Software Application Results and Discussion
The developed software is able to identify the active contamination sources and the
corresponding contaminant fluxes during different stress periods.
THE MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN SOFTWARE (GWMND)
A comprehensive UI based software (GWMND, 2013) for Optimal Monitoring Network
Design to address various aspects of groundwater management is developed. The specific
objective of this software is determining the optimal locations for implementing monitoring
wells in the field in order to meet an objective of user choice to address site specific
groundwater management problems.
Software Development
The GWMNT is based on an easy to use MS Excel based UI for implementing Optimal
Monitoring Network in groundwater systems. The Excel interface allows the user to input
data, add and edit data, to run the models and to display the results. The data interpolation
model, flow and transport model and the optimization model are in the form of FORTRAN
routines which are executed via Visual Basic Application (VBA).
The developed software for optimal monitoring network design consists of three major
components (1) a data interpolation model (2) groundwater flow and solute transport
simulation model, and (3) an optimization model that can solve three different objective
functions, addressing different groundwater management scenarios.
Various essential model components: kriging (for spatial statistics estimation), MODFLOW
(for flow simulation), MT3D (for transport simulation), and SA/Kriging optimisation are
integrated into a single front-end package using MS Excel, and its inherent programming
capability using VBA. MS Excel serves dual purpose, as a user-friendly front-end, and as a
master program which integrates different modules.
Software Application to an Illustrative Study Area
Monitoring network design software can find optimal well locations in a polluted aquifer
considering any one of the following objectives.
(a) Optimal monitoring locations for minimizing the mass estimation error
(b) Optimal monitoring locations for estimating the plume boundary
(c) Optimal monitoring location with high contaminant concentration values
Monitoring network design problem for delineating the plume boundary is solved for a
contaminated aquifer using GWMNT. Objective function (b) is selected in GWMNT to find the
optimal wells locations for delineating boundary of the plumes. GWMNT finds the optimal
well locations for delineating the plume boundary, from a set of candidate monitoring well
location numbered serially. GWMNT directly displays the result of monitoring network design
by highlighting the optimally chosen well locations, using format of user’s choice.
CONCLUSIONS
GWSID and GWMNT are two comprehensive UI tools that can be used to identify the
contamination source characteristics and design monitoring networks to solved different
groundwater management problems. MS excel based user interface makes it easy to use
and interpret the results. Some of the advantages of GWSID and GWMNT are listed below.
1. Robust and can be applied to different sites with ease
2. New objectives can be easily added
3. New optimization algorithms can be added and tested with ease
4. Portable, low disk space requirement and need not be integrated with the operating
system
228
E02
AN INTEGRATED STATIASTICAL APPROACH TO ASSESSING
CONTAMIANT DISTRIBUTION
Peter Beck
GHD Pty. Ltd, Level 8, 180 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne, 3000, AUSTRALIA
Peter.Beck@ghd.com
INTRODUCTION
There are a range of statistical tools available to assist in the interpretation of contaminated
sites data. The classical approach utilises uni-variant statistics to separately assess
contaminant presence (hot spot), primary concentration data (95%UCL etc.) and QA/QC
data (RPD etc.). In essence this approach uses hypothesis testing at the 95% confidence
level for the individual tests but there is generally no integrated statistical test that provides
an overall statistical confidence level in the contaminant concentration distribution or decision
criteria.
The bi-variant statistical approach developed by Krig for the mining industry offers an
alternative to the classical approach and offers the key benefit of linking concentration and
location providing the best means of interpolation of the concentration data across a site.
Over recent years this approach has been applied to contaminated land data to assist in
decision making. Indicator kriging is another tool that provides a confidence map across a
site to further assist decision makers. This paper examines how these bi-variant methods
can be utilised in an integrated statistical approach that includes the location, primary and
QA/QC data to provide decision makers improved information and greater understanding of
potential uncertainties.
APPOACH
The approach outlined in this paper is adapted from the statistical methods utilised by the
mining industry and utilises the bi-variant statistical approach developed by Krig. The
approach is based on variography and indicator kriging and offers several advantages over
the classical approach used in current practice in that:
x it is not reliant on un-biased sampling;
x it establishes random and spatial components for the concentration variance; and
x it can integrate consideration of sample heterogeneity, laboratory measurement
uncertainty and decision uncertainty (error potential).
Fig. 1. Comparison of variograms developed using primary samples only and primary,
blind duplicate and split samples.
229
The first step is the data preparation for input and analysis. For this all concentration data,
including primary, blind duplicates and split samples are utilised to allow assessment of
micro and macro scale variance.
Once data is compiled a robust variogram is developed to establish the random and spatial
variance components. The variogram results establish the range over which samples are
representative and what the best confidence limit achievable is. This step requires use of
appropriate software that allows manipulation and optimisation of the relevant variogram
parameters to achieve the best model fit. Figure 1 demonstrates the effect of including all of
the concentration data into the variogram development, which achieves a better model fit and
greater consideration of the effect of micro scale heterogeneity.
The final step of the approach involved indicator kriging. Traditionally indicator kriging has
been undertaken on a deterministic basis with values of 0 and 1 assigned depending on the
concentration measured in relation to the decision criteria. However this approach is
simplistic as it neglects to consider the uncertainty associated in the concentration
measurement, which can affect the reliability of the decision being made when the
concentration measured is near the decision criteria. To take this uncertainty into account a
probabilistic approach can be adopted for the indicator kriging (Figure 2). This would allow
integration of measurement uncertainty into the spatial geostatistical process thus allowing
incorporation of all potential sources of concentration variability into one process.
Fig. 2. Difference between the deterministic and probabilistic approach to indicator
kriging.
APPLICATION
Application of the proposed approach was demonstrated on a potentially contaminated site,
where zinc was chosen as the potential contaminant of concern in relation to the ecological
investigation criteria. The case study demonstrated the application of the approach outlined
in this paper for development of the variogram using the completed concentration
measurement data set (primary, blind duplicate and split samples) and shows that results
produced lead to a single integrated assessment of the risk of zinc concentrations exceeding
the decision criteria across the site, as well as the probabilistic indicator krig at each location
that was used to develop the confidence map for zinc distribution across the site.
The case study clearly demonstrates the benefit of the approach outlined over the classical
uni-variant approach in assisting decision makers.
CONCLUSIONS
Combining the bi-variant approach develop by Krig with probabilistic indicator kriging allows
for use of an integrated statistical assessment tool for contaminated land concentration data.
The approach outlined in this paper demonstrates how the location, primary sample
concentration and QA/QC concentration data can be used to develop and understanding of
the potential contaminant distribution and uncertainty related to decision making.
The approach outlined in this paper differs from the classical approach in that it provides a
single integrated process to support decision making, rather than the separate tests of the
classical process that ultimately rely on an experience based judgement decision.
230
E03
EVALUATION OF HANDHELD PDA SOFTWARE/HARDWARE
SYSTEM FOR SITE CHARACTERISATION AND CLEARANCE
SAMPLING
S.Wilkinson, B.Muir
ChemCentre, Resources and Chemistry Precinct, Level 2, South Wing, Building 500
Corner Manning Road and Townsing Drive, Bentley WA 6102, AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION
Investigation of contaminated sites requires careful planning. Sampling is undertaken to
characterise the extent of contamination and also to provide clearance following
decontamination or remediation. The need for a defensible sampling strategy and the ability
to fully document sample collection parameters and to map sampling locations is paramount.
In addition effective management of a large sample database and the appropriate
visualisation tools are critical to an understanding of the extent of contamination.
A handheld PDA hardware/software system for the design, collection and logging of
contaminated site characterisation and clearance samples has been evaluated at a
demonstration site where a simulated attack using biological and chemical agents took place.
This system was developed by Sandia laboratories in the USA for assistance in
characterising sites contaminated as a result of terrorist activities. The hardware consists of a
handheld ruggedized Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) with onboard GPS, camera and
barcode scanner, a Bluetooth capable laser distance measuring device and a PC running an
SQL database, all communicating via WiFi. The system is called Building Restoration
Operations Optimisation Model (BROOM).
AIM
The aim of the project was to assemble the components, establish a fully operational system,
use it at a demonstration site to evaluate its usefulness and provide a report which includes a
recommendation as to whether the system should be adopted nationally by federal agencies
involved in site cleanup following a terrorist incident.
DISCUSSION
We obtained the software and hardware components under a grant from the National
Counter Terrorism Committee, Security Sub Committee (NCTC SSC).
All software was successfully installed and configured on both the Windows PC running the
SQL server containing the contaminated site sampling database, and also on the PDA
running the sample collection and logging software.
The demonstration site was an abandoned building which had previously been used as a test
bed for investigating the spread of a bioaerosol and the subsequent contamination of a
number of offices. We simulated contamination by spraying selected areas of the building
with a commercially available pesticide.
Swab samples taken from the building surfaces were placed in barcoded sample collection
bags and subsequently analysed at the laboratory.
A map of the buildings offices and rooms was created from plan drawings using the drawing
component of the Visual Sampling Plan (VSP) software. Sampling locations were derived by
entering desired alpha and beta error rates into the VSP software. The BROOM PC software
was used to import the project from VSP. Sampling and building maps were then
downloaded to the PDA screen.
After developing a sampling plan using VSP/BROOM we proceeded to use the BROOM
hardware to collect and log swab samples from building surfaces. After selecting the
approximate sample location the Laser rangefinder connected to the PDA was activated and
the distance from the sample location to each wall measured. The laser derived coordinates
were then automatically placed in the PDA sample database thus providing accurate sample
231
location. On the subsequent PDA screens the sample type, sample bag barcode and
optional photograph of the sample location were captured by the PDA. At the conclusion of
all sample taking the sample parameters were uploaded via WiFi to the BROOM SQL
database residing on the PC.
Samples were analysed at the laboratory and the analytical results entered into the BROOM
PC software. Using the mapping components of the BROOM system we were able to create
a contaminant map showing where contamination had spread throughout the building.
CONCLUSIONS
The BROOM system hardware was acquired and all components successfully linked by
Bluetooth and/or WiFi. A contaminated site was produced by dispersing a pesticide
contaminant. A sampling plan was devised using the VSP software and a proposed sample
map generated and downloaded to the PDA. The PDA/Laser/barcode/camera hardware was
then used to precisely locate the sample positions and log the sampling parameters. Finally
analysis results were entered into the SQL sampling database and a contamination map
produced.
The system was able to be effectively operated by sampling personnel wearing protective
equipment. The system enabled rapid identification of sampling locations and effective
logging of all required sample parameters including sample barcodes and photographs of the
sampling location. A consequence of the ease of use of the system is that sample collectors
spent less time in the contaminated zone. The system has been recommended for national
adoption
REFERENCES
Janes, M (2006)
https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2006/broom-commercial.html
232
E04
INTRODUCING LSPECS – A WEB BASED INTEGRATED FIELD
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Tom Wilson, Warwick Wood
EarthScience Information Systems, 5/243 River Street Ballina, NSW, 2481 AUSTRALIA
www.EScIS.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Preparation, delegation, implementation and management of environmental field sampling
programs can be complex and time consuming. In addition, field programs may change midstream, requiring adaptation through the program lifecycle, which can impact on program
delivery if not managed adequately.
The complexity of designing and managing of field programs increases significantly for large
complex sites (such as mine sites or landfill facilities) or for multiple unique sites (such as a
network of service stations).
EarthScience Information Systems (EScIS, the group that created ESdat) have developed a
new web based release of the LSPECs module with the objective of reducing administration
time and increasing dependability of the project management of field programs.
LSPECS CAPABILITY
ESdat has been designed to work with field and analytical data and is widely used by
industry in consulting to manage field and laboratory data as received.
LSPECS (Laboratory Sample Planning Electronic COC and Signoff) is web-based, robust,
updatable software that allows program managers to design, delegate and manage field
programs from a single interface, thereby increasing efficiency, and reducing
management/administration time (and therefore reducing cost).
LSPECS has been developed as an extension of ESdat and integrates seamlessly with
ESdat, providing complete control of field program planning, implementation review and
analysis of results. It can be hosted internally by users, or a Software as Service version is
also pending.
LSPECS, in combination with PLog Environmental for tablet based field data collection,
provides a complete data tracking and management system at the preparation,
implementation validation and reporting stages of field program. Centralised and electronic
storage of program information reduces the potential for error.
Planning Field Events
LSPECS allows field program managers to develop multiple Monitoring Programs (or
Sampling Plans) from a single interface.
LSPECS has been developed to be used for any environmental matrix (or combination),
such as soil, surface water, groundwater, sediment, soil vapour, stack, air and dust.
Sampling locations, required field parameters and analytical suites are determined and
relevant standards/guidelines can be nominated, all through LSPECS.
Analytical laboratories can be selected and quality control / quality assurance programs
defined. A graphical interface allows sample locations to be reviewed prior to commencing
the field program.
Effective Delegation
Following development of a Monitoring Program, individual field events (Monitoring Rounds)
can be delegated electronically to nominated field staff. Field staff can view delegated tasks
using LSPECS through the web, or via a synced tablet using the PLog software.
Notifications and reminders of delegated events are also sent to field staff via email, who are
required to actively accept the notification. This delegation and notification process can be
automated for Monitoring Programs comprising multiple events (such as regular well gauging
events).
233
A schedule of delegated (past, current and future) field events can be viewed by the Program
Manager using a Gantt-chart style calendar, allowing overview of progress.
In the Field
Field data, such as field parameters and observations, and sample identification can be
recorded on site while field work is in progress, using the PLog tablet. Internet connection is
not required on site, as the information collected on the tablet using PLog can be synced
once an internet connection is re-established.
As an alternative to using PLog on site, field data can also be entered directly into LSPECS
on-line. Anticipated ranges of parameter measurements can be pre-set in LSPECS to trigger
instantaneous review of potentially erroneous data.
Once sampling is complete, laboratory analysis is selected though LSPECS and an
electronic chain of custody generated, referencing any required project specific laboratory
quote.
Primary and secondary laboratories can be nominated, sample receipt contact details
defined and project specific instructions forwarded with the COCs. Quality assurance
samples are nominated for analysis and duplicate samples can reconciled with parent
samples within LSPECS (this information is withheld from the laboratory).
Post Field
Laboratory results (reports) upload automatically to LSPECS and reconcile with field details.
Multiple laboratory report results can be viewed in a single chemistry exceedence table
within LSPECS allowing rapid identification results of specific interest.
Exceedences of criteria are easily highlighted (by colour or font) and comments inserted
within the table. Tables can be exported to Excel for printing (or to generate pdf files). This
data tabulation functionality is the on-line equivalent of that already available in ESdat.
Quality control and assurance results can be reviewed and direct, traceable feedback can be
sent to the field team or analytical laboratory within minutes of receiving results.
PROGRAM SITE CONFIGURATION
One of the most powerful features of LSPECS is the ability to accommodate different site
configurations. LSPECS can manage Monitoring Programs designed for large sites
containing multiple sub-sites (such as mine sites) or for many small sites spread over a large
(such as a nationally distributed network of service stations or depots).
CONCLUSIONS
For managers of assets (or associated consultants) with requirements for Monitoring
Programs and/or field sampling events, LSPECS centralises control, reduces administration
and management time (and therefore cost) and helps minimise risk of error.
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E05
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A SCREENING TOOL TO
PREDICT THE EFFICACY OF PAH BIOREMEDIATION
Albert L. Juhasz1, Sam Aleer2, Eric Adetutu2
1
Mawson Lakes Campus, Adelaide, 5095, SA.
2
Environment, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, 5095, SA.
Albert.Juhasz@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Bioremediation is a desirable remediation option for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
contaminated soil due to the low costs associated with its application. However depending on
the nature, concentration and bioavailability of PAHs, bioremediation may not be appropriate
to meet the desired soil remediation end-point.
Defining under which conditions
bioremediation is likely to reach the desired end-point is challenging, however, there is both
scientific and practical interest in developing screening tools that can effectively predict PAH
bioavailability-biodegradability and hence bioremediation end-points. The objective of this
project was to validate an inexpensive, rapid screening tool for determining the suitability of
bioremediation for the treatment of PAH-contaminated soil.
METHODS
PAH-contaminated soils were collected from various locations throughout Australia. For the
initial development of the Bioremediation Screening Tool, 15 soils were included while an
additional 10 independent soils were utilised for validation purposes. Following collection,
soils were air dried then sieved with the < 2 mm soil particle size fraction retained for soil
characterisation, biodegradation and bioaccessibility experiments.
PAH biodegradation was assessed in soil microcosms following the application of an
enhanced natural attenuation strategy (ENA; C:N:P molar ratio of ~100:10:1; 60% water
holding capacity). Replicate soil microcosms (n = 3) were incubated at 25ºC in the dark for 4
months with aeration twice weekly to ensure adequate oxygen availability (Dandie et al.,
2010). PAH bioaccessibility was determined using a non-exhaustive extraction method.
PAHs were extracted from contaminated soils using hydroxypropyl-ȕ- cyclodextrin (HP-ȕ-CD)
(Reid et al., 2000). Recovery of PAHs from soil was achieved using a Dionex ASE® 200
according to Application Note 313. Gas chromatographic analysis of extracts and PAH
standards was performed on an Agilent Technologies 7890A gas chromatogram equipped
with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID).
In order to develop the preliminary Bioremediation Screening Tool (i.e. PAH biodegradabilitybioaccessibility linear regression models), PAH biodegradability data (n = 15 soils) was
compared to PAH bioaccessibility data. Model development was based on individual priority
PAH compounds in addition to grouped three-, four-, five- and six-ring PAHs. To validate the
performance of the preliminary Bioremediation Screening Tool, the relationship between
PAH biodegradation and bioaccessibility for the 10 independent PAH contaminated soils was
assessed and compared to preliminary linear regression models. Variability in data was
expressed as the standard deviation of triplicate analyses and a P < 0.05 was considered
statistically significant.
The total PAH concentration (sum of 16 USEPA priority PAHs) in the initial 15 soils ranged
from 37 to 916 mg kg-1 with mean and median values of 271 and 140 mg kg-1 respectively.
For the 10 soils that were utilised for the validation of the Bioremediation Screening Tool,
total PAH concentration ranged from 58 to 2745 mg kg-1 with mean and median values of
656 and 294 mg kg-1 respectively.
235
In order to develop the preliminary PAH Bioremediation Screening Tool, PAH
biodegradability and PAH bioaccessibility data (15 soils) were compared. The predictive
capabilities of the HP-ȕ-CD extraction were determined using ‘residual fractions’ (i.e. the soilborne PAH concentration remaining after ENA or HP-ȕ-CD extraction) and linear regression.
A strong linear relationship was observed between PAH biodegradability and bioaccessibility.
The slope of the relationships were close to unity (0.90-1.27) for most PAHs indicating that
the capacity of the HP-ȕ-CD extraction method to remove PAHs from contaminated soils was
similar to that that of ENA. However, for some 5-ring compounds, the slope of the
relationship were ~1.60 indicating that larger residual PAH concentrations were present in
soils following biodegradation compared to HP-ȕ-CD extraction. The strength of the linear
regression models was exemplified by the goodness of fit (R2) which ranged from 0.86-0.99
indicating robustness of the models over a wide PAH concentration range. When ENA-HPȕ-CD relationships from the additional 10 soils were compared to those from the preliminary
Bioremediation Screening Tool, there was no significant difference between linear regression
models (preliminary versus validation test) indicating that the relationship between HP-ȕ-CD
extraction and PAH biodegradation was consistent (Figure 1). This data suggests that the
extent of PAH biodegradation can be predicted using the Bioremediation Screening Tool.
400
Pyrene
Residual PAHs following
biodegradation (mg kg -1)
biodegradation (mg kg -1)
400
300
200
100
0
5-ring PAHs
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
0
100
200
300
400
HP-E-CD extraction (mg kg -1)
HP-E-CD extraction (mg kg -1)
Fig. 1. Relationship between the residual PAH concentrations following ENA and HP-ȕ-CD
extraction. As examples, data is shown for an individual PAH (pyrene) and grouped PAHs
(5-ring compounds). Closed symbols () represents data from the preliminary Bioremediation
Screening Tool while open symbols () represents data from validation tests.
CONCLUSIONS
The Bioremediation Screening Tool has the potential to predict the suitability of
bioremediation for the treatment of PAH-contaminated soil. Data could be rapidly generated
which would provide information on whether bioremediation is a suitable technology for
reducing PAH concentrations to clean up targets or whether alternative treatment strategies
are required to achieve remediation goals.
REFERENCES
Dandie, C.E., Weber, J., Aleer, S., Adetutu, E.M., Ball, A.S., Juhasz A.L. (2010). Assessment
of five bioaccessibility assays for predicting the efficacy of petroleum hydrocarbon
biodegradation in aged contaminated soils. Chemosphere 81: 1061-1068.
Reid, B.J., Stokes, J.D., Jones, K.C., Semple, K.T. (2000). Non-exhaustive cyclodextrinbased extraction technique for the evaluation of PAH bioavailability. Environ. Sci. Technol.
34: 3174-3179.
236
E06
GASPE MINES CLOSURE
A SUCCESS STORY IN MINE RECLAMATION
Carl Gauthier
WSP-GENIVAR, 5355, boul. des Gradins, Quebec City, G1J 2C8, CANADA
carl.gauthier@genivar.com
INTRODUCTION
The rehabilitation of the Gaspé Mines facilities was the first project of its kind in Canada
involving a mine and a smelter closure. Located in Murdochville on the Gaspé Peninsula,
Gaspé Mines’s mining site was in operation from 1952 to 1999 and the associated smelter
continued operating until 2002. Once the closure was announced, the final stage of the
mining and metallurgical site’s life cycle began.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE PROJECT
Complexity: This project, completed at a cost of $CND116 million, included the
deconstruction of 38 buildings, the digging of more than 6,000 metres of bypass channels,
the closure of the tailings sites and the handling of nearly one million cubic metres of
material. In addition, the site’s nearly 50 years of mining activity generated airborne soil
contaminants which had dispersed in and around the town of Murdochville. The same
occurred in the Sandy Beach sector of Gaspé, where boat or train transshipment of copper
concentrate was conducted. Remediation work was carried out on a total of 855 residential,
commercial and industrial properties. The work typically included removal of a 30 cm-thick
layer of surface soil. The work also included the complete restoration of land properties to
their original condition.
A Risky Working Environment: Most mining buildings to be demolished were laden with dust
material containing metal concentrations in excess of the applicable environmental
standards. This represented a significant health hazard for workers involved in dismantling
the buildings. A detailed health and safety program was developed and nobody had to be
removed from the site due to occupational exposure during the work.
Implementing a New Regulatory Framework: In 2003, the Government of Québec introduced
significant changes to the existing environmental regulations. However, no industrial activity
the size of Xstrata Copper Canada (XCC) in Murdochville had ceased its operations in
Québec since these regulatory changes had come into force, so the new provisions of the
law had never been tested. The project succeeded in adapting the rehabilitation program to
meet the new law’s objectives.
A Large Number of Permits to be Obtained: In order to carry out the work, a total of 46
requests for certificates of approval and various other authorizations had to be submitted to
the Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement, de la Faune et des Parcs
(MDDEFP). Due to the considerable amount of licensing to be obtained in a short period of
time, GENIVAR developed an administrative follow-up approach with officials of the
MDDEFP, consisting in weekly meetings to monitor and prioritize every step of the process.
This approach helped reduce the processing time for licensing, and work was largely
completed on schedule.
Original Solutions: Promoting on-site reuse of contaminated materials and waste rather than
transporting them to disposal sites or specialized treatment centres was a major factor in
performance improvement.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The project team strived to make the most environmentally sound choices at every stage of
the project.
237
Soil Remediation using Biodegradation: A specialized firm was chosen to perform on-site
treatment of hydrocarbon-contaminated materials using biopile techniques. Materials were
sieved to remove their coarser fractions which reduced the volume of materials to be treated
by 30%. In addition, all materials treated by biodegradation could be reused as backfilling
material in excavated areas. Such a strategy for reuse prevented transportation to a
treatment centre and importation to the site of a volume of about 50,000 m3 of new soil, in
addition to generating significant savings.
Recycling Deconstruction Materials: Deconstruction contractors have developed new
approaches for the initial clean-up of contaminated buildings using dry and/or wet techniques
to minimize the amount of hazardous materials that would have to be managed and to
prevent non-contaminated materials from being contaminated during the process. Metallic
substances were separated and recycled for reuse. For dismantled concrete structures, the
concrete was reduced by crushing it to a reusable fraction that could serve as backfill
material in the deep foundations that were left in place, and the metal frames were recovered
and recycled.
Recycling Mine Tailings Containing High Concentrations of Copper: Surgical excavations of
the areas with the highest concentrations of copper were carried out to enable the recycling
of these contaminated materials as a source of reusable copper.
Recycling of Excavated Soil on Private Properties: The majority of the 150,000 m3 of soil that
was excavated during the rehabilitation of private properties was transported and reused as
cover material on mine tailings sites in Murdochville. Not only was this soil a very effective
means of revegetating the area, but this avoided the necessity of using a huge amount of
topsoil, which is a rare commodity in the Gaspé Peninsula.
Replacing the Water Treatment Plant: After closure of the mining operations, the mine’s
water treatment plant turned out to be too large for future use. It was therefore dismantled so
that a new plant could be built. This plant is far less energy-consuming and uses a more
efficient processing technology that reduces the amount of chemicals needed. The volume of
water to be treated has also been reduced by improving upstream hydraulic controls to
prevent clean water from entering the catch basin.
Social Aspects: An important communication program was initiated and implemented
throughout the project (around ten public information meetings and open-house sessions
lasting 2 to 3 days each). In addition, each one of the owners (about 500 of them) whose
property was to be rehabilitated was individually met before and after completion of the work.
Lastly, despite the closure of its operations in the area, XCC continued to promote the
recovery of the local economy by donating buildings, sponsoring various events and making
other donations. In addition, all tenders issued during the project included an incentive for
local hiring to promote local employment.
CONCLUSION
The rehabilitation of Gaspé Mines is a model of responsible rehabilitation where the
economic, regulatory, environmental, public health and social aspects were taken into
consideration in order to deliver a project that is perfectly aligned with the sustainable
development approach advocated by XCC. In 2011, GENIVAR Inc. won the Association of
Consulting Engineering Companies of Canada’s Schreyer Award to honour the Gaspé Mines
rehabilitation project. This prize is the most coveted consulting engineering award in Canada.
238
E07
THE CHALLENGES OF LIABILITY TRANSFER FOR SOIL AND
GROUNDWATER CONTAMAINTION ON AN IRON ORE MINE SITE IN
THE KIMBERLEY, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Stuart McLaren
AECOM Pty Ltd, 3 Forrest Place, Perth, 6000, AUSTRALIA
stuart.mclaren@aecom.com
INTRODUCTION
In April 2011, AECOM was appointed by our Client to facilitate the transfer of liability
associated with potential contamination resulting from the historic and current uses at an iron
ore mine site from our Client to a prospective purchaser interested in the purchase of the
site. The legal mechanism available for the transfer of liability is the Western Australia
Contaminated Sites Act - Section 30 otherwise known as a Certificate of Contamination Audit
(Certificate).
Certificates are statements detailing the characteristics and extent of any contamination on a
site and can only be issued by the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC). A
certificate is the primary statutory ‘sign-off’ mechanism provided by government for a site and
one of the means of classifying a site in relation to the status of any soil or groundwater
contamination. In most circumstances it will enable the transfer of liability attached to any
site.
The issuing of a certificate provides a mechanism for demonstrating that all, or a portion of a
site has been authoritatively and appropriately assessed and provides a government
assurance as to the suitability of the site for a particular land-use.
A certificate represents the prime decision point on the part of government regarding any
contaminated or potentially contaminated sites. It also represents the point where liability for
negligent decision making is likely to accrue to government, and thus the decision to issue
such a certificate can only be made when the DEC is certain of the facts regarding any piece
of land.
It should be noted that no Certificate of Contamination Audit has, at the time of writing, been
successfully processed in Western Australia (WA). Given the size (600ha) and complexity
(geological, hydrogeological and topographical) of the site in question, the required scope of
work and general logistical challenges of the site’s location (a small island located off the
Kimberley coast) has made this project a particularly challenging one with many lessons
learnt that are considered to be relevant to many other mine site operators across Australia.
As such, this presentation will provide an overview of the project as an interesting case study
as well as providing an overview of the various challenges and lessons learnt on the project.
METHODOLOGY
As a Certificate was being pursued there was a mandatory requirement for the appointment
of a contaminated site Auditor. In addition it was recognised that given the challenging nature
of achieving a Certificate for a site of this complexity, a robust and effective collaborative
approach between all stakeholders (Client, purchaser, DEC, Contaminated Site Auditor and
consultant) was developed.
Assessment of the previous works completed at the site and comments provided by the
Contaminated Site Auditor indicated that significant data gaps were present with insufficient
characterisation of soils, groundwater, sediment and surface water. As such, a
comprehensive site investigation was deemed necessary.
As stated above the mine site is a small island off the Kimberley Coast in WA and has been
used as a mine site for over 50 years. Following an initial site inspection in April 2011, a data
review of previous work and the development of a Preliminary Site Investigation (PSI) report,
32 distinct areas were identified based on various site activities. Review of the site’s geology
indicated moderately complex geological structure with first and second fold structures
239
running along strike of the island’s long axis with all geological units displaying low grade
metamorphism. As such, it was inferred that there was potential for a moderately complex
hydrogeological regime to be present at the site.
Based on the overarching project objective to facilitate the transfer of liability under Section
30 of the Contaminated Sites Act and following discussions with the wider project
stakeholders, AECOM proposed an extensive scope of work which included:
(a) Development of a holistic site wide conceptual site model (CSM) supported by area
specific CSMs considerate of catchment areas and natural drainage routes and
geological and anticipated hydrogeological complexity
(b) Development of a comprehensive sampling and analysis plan (SAP) focusing on
assessing the source, pathway, receptor (SPR) linkages identified in the various
CSMs which included:
(i)
Advancement of 346 test pits across the sites operational areas to assess
shallow soil
(ii)
Geological field mapping to assist in designing groundwater bore designs
prior to drilling (to ensure they targeted specific geological units at depth)
(iii)
Advancement of 20 groundwater boreholes to a maximum depth of 135 m
bgl to assess the hydrogeological regime and groundwater quality
(iv)
Groundwater and Surface water sampling over a dry and wet season
(v)
Background soil assessment in 33 locations to assess natural metal
concentrations
(vi)
Eco-toxicological sampling and risk assessment to assess potential for
toxic affects to the marine environment
(c) Analysis of up to 800 soil samples, 50 groundwater samples, 110 surface water
samples, 50 sediment samples for a wide range of contaminants
CHALLENGES AND LESSONS LEARNT
The project work is ongoing; however, the main stages of works have been completed.
Based on the works completed thus far, AECOM has identified a number of major challenges
considered relevant to industry. A summary of the key challenges identified and to be
expanded on in the presentation are provided below:
(a) Clear communication from the start – ensuring that all stakeholders actually
understand the nature of the site, its operations and the means and methods
employed to assess the potential risks
(b) Building a robust scope of work based on the SPR linkages identified in the CSM
and ensuring that the subsequent assessment continues to link to the SPR linkage
(c) Early communication with relevant stakeholder on potential rehabilitation
approaches so that consideration can be incorporated into the CSM and potential
remediation options following site investigation
(d) Early and frequent engagement with stakeholders – no surprises!
(e) Equipment selection considerate of travel costs and logistics and their potential
impact on programming (e.g. barges, planes, road)
(f) Having contingency measures in place for equipment breakages while on site
(g) Clear and simple contracting approach for all sub-contractors including managing
freight expectation
(h) Ensuring that the laboratory understands the project and its programme –
managing data quality very important
CONCLUSION
The project represents an interesting and relatively unique site assessment of a remote
active iron ore mine site which has been considerate of all the operational areas and
surrounding receptors (i.e. marine environment) within the same assessment. Although the
assessment is ongoing, key observations and challenges have been identified and lessons
learnt. While some challenges and lessons learnt identified are likely to be unique to this
project, many will be relevant to a wide range of sites across Australia.
240
E08
WHAT ARE THE BIG TICKET ITEMS IN MINE CLOSURE?
Geoff Byrne, Leo Guaraldo
ERM, PO Box 266, South Melbourne, VIC 3205, AUSTRALIA
geoff.byrne@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
How does mine closure compare to remediation/closure of an industrial facility? There are
many common elements, such as soil and groundwater contamination and infrastructure
closure, however, there are also aspects that are unique to mine closure that can often dwarf
the more conventional liabilities associated with remediation of an industrial facility.
HOW IS MINE CLOSURE DIFFERENT?
The issues shared by mine closure with remediation of an industrial facility are important
considerations. These include residual soil and groundwater contamination associated with
spills/leaks from fuel and chemical storage/handling, as well as from buried wastes disposed
in on-site landfills. Decommissioning, decontamination and demolition of infrastructure is also
an important issue, especially for more complex mine processing facilities.
With closure of a mine, a range of additional issues and topics also needs to be addressed,
which are briefly described in the following sections.
Pits & Openings
Open cuts and underground openings are often thought to be the most prominent features
associated with mine closure. Often they are simply dealt with by sealing underground
openings and closing open pits by forming them as pit lakes. There are emerging trends
requiring companies to backfill pits as well for greater scrutiny over water discharges from
closed underground mine openings.
Waste disposal
As discussed, historical on site landfills are important issues to be addressed during mine
closure, as they are with many industrial facilities. Waste disposal in the mining sector is,
however, dominated by waste rock and residue/tailings, since they often have very large
disturbed footprints and closure involves costly bulk earthworks.
Residue/tailings
Residue/tailings disposal facilities have the potential to represent long term liabilities for
mining companies for many years, even decades, after cessation of mine production. Many
uncertainties exist including the nature of the cover system, its thickness, complexity, long
term performance, nature of vegetative cover, to name a few. The final landform, its stability
and cultural impact are also important issues that need to be addressed.
Tailings disposal is one of the more controversial issues within the mining sector and
therefore closure of these facilities is gaining increasing focus from both regulators and
community groups. Emerging trends, such as dry stacking of tailings, co-disposal with waste
rock and disposing with/as paste backfill, present reduced closure liabilities, but at
significantly increased capital costs.
Waste rock
Waste rock closure issues include the final landform, encapsulation of environmentally
harmful materials, vegetation cover, runoff, seepage, long term stability and cultural impact.
As with tailings dams, waste rock dumps have significant footprints, and therefore what might
seem like a relatively minor closure decision could have multi-million dollar implications. For
example a decision around flatter final slope angles or geomorphic landforms is likely to
result in significant costs if re-work is required at closure.
Other Wastes
Non-mineral waste issues are likely to be a less significant closure cost issue compared to
tailings storage facilities and waste rock dumps. Notwithstanding, issues such as historical
241
landfills, disposal of hazardous wastes and product inventory will be important. As with an
industrial facility there will be a range of hazardous wastes generated during infrastructure
demolition, including chemicals, oils, fuels, lubricants, asbestos and radioactive sources.
Additionally there will be solid and liquid wastes generated during de-contamination of
infrastructure prior to demolition – this particularly applies to processing plants for lead and
uranium mines.
For many mines there is an historical legacy formed by spillage of concentrate product during
transport and loading/unloading activities. This can result in the requirement for clean-up at
locations some distance from the mine. These can include areas of spillages along the
transport corridor, such as from train derailments, truck accidents or pipeline breaks, as well
as at port sites where there may be contaminated sediment from ship loading.
Water management
Long term water management after cessation of production is a reality that many mines are
facing. There is a growing acceptance in the industry of the concept of in-perpetuity water
treatment.
Most of this water treatment is associated with acid and metalliferous drainage. Often this is
due to the oxidation of sulphidic minerals exposed in waste rock dumps and dry tailings
surfaces. Treatment of these surface water discharges can be complex, very costly and take
many years or decades.
Additionally long term groundwater treatment may be required, due to seepage from tailings
dams and/or from leachate within waste rock dumps. Groundwater contamination from
chemical and fuel spills may also be an issue at some sites.
Legacy sites
Many modern mines are often associated with historic mining operations on the same lease.
These sites sometimes have legacy environmental issues, including poor water quality
discharges; inappropriate caps and covers on tailings facilities and waste rock dumps;
unsafe and deteriorating infrastructure; heritage issues; unstable and eroding landforms; and
unsafe openings. They represent a liability to the owner of the lease, even if that company
has never been associated with the historical operations.
Subsidence
Mine subsidence is typically associated with underground coal operations, although it is also
associated with mining in karst areas, salt extraction and de-watering. Surface expression of
subsidence, whether due to the physical (and often planned) collapse of underground
workings or due to de-watering of surface and underground workings, is mostly addressed
during the operational phase. At closure however, historical legacies may not yet have been
addressed and uncertainties may still exist with the potential for collapses of underground
workings. These are complicated by the reduced resources available to address such issues
after production shutdown.
Community
Unlike most industrial settings, mines are often located in remote areas. In such instances,
local communities have mining dependent economies. Mine shutdown has a major socioeconomic impact, with the loss of direct employment and the loss of a major customer base
to the service and supply sector.
Mine closure must focus on the transition from a mine dependent local economy as one of
the major issues to be addressed.
Sustainable landforms & Post closure land uses
The long term stability of landforms is an issue that is gaining increased scrutiny within the
sector. It is no longer acceptable to consider stability in terms of a few years. Long term
stability has to contemplate timeframes of many decades or even hundreds of years.
Geometric, engineered landscapes are less likely to be accepted for post closure land uses.
Similarly, the choice of “convenient” land uses that are inconsistent with the surrounding
landscape, soils, local economy and community expectations are unlikely to result in lease
relinquishment.
242
WHAT ARE THE KEY ISSUES AND COST IMPLICATIONS?
In summary, there are similarities, but also some major differences in the closure of a mine
site to that of an industrial facility. The major difference of scale and disturbance footprint,
means that the extent of earthworks has major cost implications for closure, especially if it
has not been considered during operations. The other major differences are associated with
long term water discharges and the crucial role that community considerations have in mine
closure.
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E09
REDEVELOPMENT OF A SITE WITH MULTIPLE ISSUES FROM
PREVIOUS MINING
David L Knott1, Jacob Dunstan2, Ruairi Hanly3, Kandiah Pirapakaran2, John Klippen2
1
Coffey, 19 Warabrook Boulevard, Warabrook, 2304, AUSTRALIA
2
Coffey, 47 Doggett Street Newstead QLD 4006 Australia
3
Coffey, Level 2, 12 Creek Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000 Australia
David_Knott@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
A 65ha site near Ipswich, QLD was impacted by previous coal mining activities performed
between 1900 and 1998. The site is being redeveloped for industrial use. It had the following
impacts from mining:
x Underground coal mine workings with entries, slopes, and shafts;
x Areas with coal reject having the potential for spontaneous combustion, and
x Contamination associated with the previous coal preparation plant.
ISSUES AND SITE MANAGEMENT
The mine entries had previously been covered and were located by survey based on
information from mine maps. They were uncovered using test pits. Several entries and
slopes were constructed using the cut and cover method in the upper part and tunnel
excavation in rock in the lower portion of the slope. The entries were over–excavated and the
deeper portion of the slope subject to sinkhole subsidence was stabilised by drilling
boreholes into the entry and injecting a cement – fly ash grout. A 17m deep shaft had
previously been backfilled with coal reject covered with a clay cap. It was felt that the long
term stability of the backfill could not be guaranteed and that a sinkhole could occur over the
shaft. The shaft was exposed and capped with geotextile layers with compacted fill designed
to span the shaft.
Coal reject materials were present on the site and they were subject to potential
spontaneous combustion, also known as “heating”. In some areas, these materials were not
burning and over-excavated and placed in containment cells and capped or sold for
beneficial use in brick making. In another area, the reject that had been placed in an
abandoned open cut mine on the western part of the mine site was burning. This heating
has been actively combusting since the 1990’s, and a clay cap had been placed to limit the
intrusion of oxygen and reduce the combustible potential of the material within the
disturbance. During the remediation work, some of this material was over-excavated to
lessen impact to the development. The over- excavation was about 75m in diameter and up
to 17m deep below the former land surface. About 70,000 m3 of burning coal reject were
over-excavated. The over-excavation created a cut off for the burning from impacting the
remainder of the development. Thermal imaging was performed during the work to assess
the extent of heating. The recovered coal reject was stockpiled and capped.
REMEDIATION
A remediation plan had previously been developed for the site as it was listed on the
Queensland Environmental Management Register. Execution of the Remediation Plan
included the following, in addition to the management of the coal reject:
x Excavation and soil validation of the former coal wash plant area;
x Assessment and validation of imported fill material to ensure that it was suitable
(contamination wise) for the proposed land use;
x Validation sampling of the final landforms to ensure they were suitable for the final
land use;
244
x
Assessment of soil gas to determine if any risks were present associated with the
historical use of the area for coal mining and the containment of contaminated
material/coal stone;
x Preparation of Site Management Plans for the on-going management of
contaminated material/coal stone containment areas;
x Preparation of Remediation and Validation Reports documenting the results of the
remediation works and the validation results.
In addition, approximately 300,000 m3 of earthwork was performed to create a suitable site.
In summary, a variety of methods were used to mitigate potential mining impacts and allow
the site to be used for industrial purposes.
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E10
MANAGEMENT OF SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION EMISSIONS.
COLLINSVILLE COAL MINE: A CASE STUDY
Kate Cole
Thiess Services, L3, 88 Phillip St, Parramatta, 2150, AUSTRALIA
kcole@thiess.com.au
INTRODUCTION
A number of Australian coal mines present unique occupational hygiene management issues
due to gaseous emissions arising as a result of spontaneous combustion and/or degassing
of coal. This abstract presents an Australian case study, which includes identification,
monitoring and management of occupational hygiene issues arising from spontaneous
combustion during operation of a gassy coal mine.
The Collinsville Coal Operations Project (CCOP) is an open cut coalmine located at the top
of the Bowen basin in Queensland. An increase in emissions from spontaneous combustion
of naturally occurring pyritic soils and carbonaceous material was reported at the mine in
early 2012. Those emissions were the suspected cause of a string of events that involved
potential inhalation exposure to miners in early 2012. An immediate need eventuated to
design and implement an improved system to assess and predict those emissions in real
time to enable the proactive management of controls and consequently, the prevention of
worker exposure to those gases.
This paper presents details of that system, which included primary source characterisation,
static real-time monitoring stations with telemetry alarm capacity, mobile monitoring devices
for workers, a qualitative and quantitative exposure assessment, and extensive worker
training.
BACKGROUND
The CCOP is an open cut coal mine owned by Xstrata that produces approximately 4.5
million tonnes of coking and thermal coal per year. The gaseous emissions are generated
from the spontaneous combustion of carbonaceous material and the oxidation of pyritic
material and can include a range of potentially hazardous substances.
In March 2012, five workers were taken to hospital with symptoms ranging from nausea,
irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract, and difficulty in breathing during night shift
operations. A further nine people were taken to hospital as a precaution. All workers were
able to return to work to perform their regular duties.
Extensive media coverage of that event ensued and created great angst amongst mine
workers and management alike. Thiess voluntarily suspended night-shift operations for a
period of time and commenced thorough investigations to quantify the risk of exposure to the
workforce.
METHODS
Real-time monitoring
Stationary real-time monitors were installed between known source areas and the location of
mine workers as part of a trial system. Monitors were set to be compared to certain ‘trigger’
levels and in turn send alarm notifications via email or SMS text message to management
personnel. Mine workers were also provided with calibrated portable multi-gas monitors with
pre-programmed alarm notification. Mine workers received extensive training in the
appropriate use of such devices.
Occupational Exposure Assessment
A qualitative occupational exposure assessment was performed to identify the main
chemicals of concern, the potential exposure pathways, and the groups of workers with
observed similar exposure profiles. The potential for over-exposure to gaseous emissions of
spontaneous combustion was assessed per similarly exposed group (SEG).
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Nine SEGs were defined primarily based on their potential exposure to gaseous emissions. A
quantitative exposure assessment was then performed over a four-month period with
personal exposure samples collected randomly per SEG over a representative period of the
mine workers 12-hour shift.
Stationary real-time monitors were able to successfully record real-time concentrations of
gaseous emissions and send collected data in real-time to management personnel.
A total of 375 personal exposure samples were collected from within the breathing zones of
mine workers and assessed for exposure to the products of spontaneous combustion.
Throughout the assessment period, weekly occupational health and hygiene reports were
discussed, presented, and made freely available to mine workers. Those reports included the
results of personal exposure data received that reporting week, along with graphical
summaries of data recorded from the static monitoring system.
Gradually, over a number of weeks, the increased presence of occupational hygienists
collecting and communicating exposure data resulted in a general increase in confidence
from mine workers on the effectiveness of management controls in place and the actual risk
of exposure.
The implementation of a real-time monitoring framework in parallel to compliance with
internally adopted trigger levels, afforded the opportunity for intervention at selected
thresholds and enabled the selection and implementation of appropriate real time controls to
reduce exposures to mine-workers.
By following the protocols in place, personal exposures to the products of spontaneous
combustion were adequately controlled as confirmed through statistical analysis of personal
exposure data.
CONCLUSIONS
Often the perceived risk of exposure can be vastly different to the risk quantified through
rigorous statistical analysis of personal exposure data. An exposure assessment performed
over a four-month period demonstrated that exposures to the products of spontaneous
combustion were adequately controlled. The continued use of a real-time monitoring
framework to assess the concentrations of gases in real-time is a necessary ongoing control
strategy for the early detection and prevention of over-exposure of mine workers.
REFERENCES
Thiess Services (2012) Occupational Health and Hygiene Assessment, Final Report
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E11
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES WITH METAL/METALLOID MINING:
EXTRACTING VALUE FROM OUR PAST SO THAT WE CAN MOVE
FOWARD
Gary M. Pierzynski and Mary Beth Kirkham
Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66505, USA
gmp@k-state.edu
SUMMARY
The extraction, processing, and smelting of metal/metalloid ores has occurred for thousands
of years with ancillary environmental impacts ranging from extreme to negligible. Currently,
regulations for mining and mine closure in developed countries are fairly effective in
minimizing environmental impacts, while in less developed countries regulations are nonexistent, poorly conceived or not enforced. Globally then one can find positive examples of
active mining and mine and pit lake closure that return land to productive uses with little in
the way of permanent environmental impacts. Conversely, numerous examples exist
whereby mistakes of the past continue to be made, and the resulting environmental
degradation is significant. When the value of the ore is constant over time, a quantifiable
balance exists between the costs of environmental regulations relative to the potential profit
from the mining activity. Fluctuating ore prices can reduce profitability and increase the
chances of mine abandonment, making proper mine closure or remediation more difficult.
The environmental costs from poorly regulated mining, or from legacy mining activities, are
difficult to quantify but substantial.
The purpose of this presentation will be to provide a review of select literature and mining
regulations that pertain to environmental issues from mining, mine closure, mine pit lake
closure, and remediation of abandoned mine sites during and after the extraction of
metal/metalloid ores. Given the growing world population, and the rising affluence of a
significant portion of the population, strong demand for metals is expected to continue well
into the future.
In the United States, Canada, and Australia, national guidelines exist for mining and mine
closure, but detailed plans are generally approved and monitored at the state level. This is
consistent with the philosophy that each plan is site specific, and such matters are generally
handled better at the local level. Ideally, the process of mine closure begins when a mine is
in the initial planning stages, as strategies to be employed during closure may impact the
mining activity itself as well as the handling and storage of mining by-products. Plans also
generally contain descriptions of the mining operations and waste isolation methods,
reclamation and remediation plans for all facets of the operation, risk assessment as
appropriate, long-term monitoring and maintenance plans, landscape performance goals for
post-closure land use, metrics for assessing performance goals, schedule of costs, and
financial assurances. Provisions should also be included for temporary or premature closure.
Under active ore extraction and processing, activities aimed at reducing present and future
environment issues generally involve movement and storage of overburden for surface
mines and containment of dust and environmental contaminants, all of which represent
significant engineering components. Dust control measures are well known. Containment of
environmental contaminants involves proper construction of tailings pits to prevent breaches
and seepage, proper construction of leaching operations to collect and contain extracting
fluids, and control and treatment of water discharges from the operation to both surface and
groundwater. Routine monitoring methods via air quality sampling, monitoring wells, and
surface water sampling are well established. Control of acidification due to oxidation of
sulphides may need to begin immediately after the mine starts operations.
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One of the most significant challenges during closure is the establishment of vegetative
cover on the reclaimed land that is consistent with the desired land use. Most often this will
be with perennial plants as a permanent vegetative cover. Soil removed at the beginning of
the mine operations, even if initially very suitable for supporting plant growth, will be of lesser
quality if stockpiled for long periods of time. In addition, often the final cover that is to be used
for establishing and maintaining vegetation will be of very low quality for that purpose. Arid or
semi-arid climates, low water holding capacity, compaction, poor aeration, low soil fertility,
phytotoxic metals, salinity, acidity, and alkalinity are common issues. Clean soil covers are
employed at times to help overcome these limitations, but that requires a source of clean soil
that can have environmental costs of its own. Methods to resolve these issues will be
presented.
Abandoned mine sites often are in need of remediation to prevent further dispersal of
contaminants, reduce human and ecological risk, and to return sites to useful purposes.
Many of the issues faced during mine operation and closure are also present with
abandoned mine sites. A proper risk assessment is required. A variety of remediation
approaches exist. Some involve simply stabilizing the contaminants in place through
chemical fixation or phytostabilization, or a combination of the two. Establishing a vegetative
cover is often a goal and the plant growth limiting factors described above often exist. The
addition of soil amendments to correct growth limiting factors or to stabilize contaminants is
commonly employed. Contaminants can also be removed to adequately designed disposal
facilities.
The remediation or closure of mine pit lakes present unique and significant challenges. The
water contained within the lake must often be properly treated before discharge, if that is an
option, and additional water cannot be allowed to refill the lake. The degree of seepage
below the lake and into surrounding shallow groundwater must be assessed and might
indicate additional remedial actions are necessary. Shallow lakes can be filled and capped in
a manner similar to municipal solid waste landfills.
Experience has also clearly shown that the environmental costs of inadequate closure are
unacceptable. However, over time, lower cost and efficient closure methods have been
developed. While each site is unique, many of the issues are shared across multiple sites,
and a common set of remedies and approaches exists to use as a starting point. Profitable
and environmentally sustainable metal and metalloid extraction is a reality for much of the
world.
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E12
DIFFICULTIES CONDUCTING SITE ASSESSMENTS AND
REMEDIATION ON AN OPERATING MINE SITE
Brendan May, Bert Huys
BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA), PO Box 7122, Cloisters Square, Perth, Western Australia, 6850,
AUSTRALIA
Brendan.May@bhpbilliton.com
INTRODUCTION
There are significant challenges that exist in conducting site assessments and remediation
activities at an operating mine site. BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) operations are between
1200km and 1600km from the state’s capital city, Perth. These large distances pose both
planning and logistical challenges for projects in addition to the associated increased costs
for mobilisation and freight.
The climate in the Pilbara region of Western Australia is typified by extremely hot summers
and cool dry winters. The summer months are characterised by extremely hot days, with
temperatures regularly exceeding 40°C. These hot humid periods are punctuated by
seasonal cyclonic activity that can result in heavy rainfall and extreme winds, sometimes
resulting in site closure.
Strict health and safety guidelines, such as regular drug and alcohol testing, limits on the
number of hours and days that can be worked in a shift and stringent training and
competency requirements are further considerations that need to be addressed prior to
commencing investigations on an active site. Supervision requirements also need to be
taken into account prior to commencing field works, as personnel availability can be
impacted by shut down requirements. Shut down activities also have the potential to have
impact on obtaining access to operational areas that contain suspected or known
contamination.
Unparalleled levels of growth within the industry have also added to operational constraints,
including obtaining access to areas, consultant availability and accommodation shortages
within towns and camps. Changing land use within an operation can result in the removal of
monitoring bores, or restricted access to monitoring sites. This can potentially lead to
incomplete data sets and increased costs associated with reinstallation and/or re mobilisation
of field staff and equipment.
Despite these many and varied challenges, several investigations are concurrently being
conducted by BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) across several operations. Detailed Site
Investigations are being conducted at Nelson Point, Finucane Island and Rail Operations
within Port Hedland. Further investigations have also occurred at the Mount Whaleback
Operation and the Newman town site. Remediation activities at the former Newman Landfill
facility are now complete and remediation work is proposed at both the Finucane Island
facility in Port Hedland and the Mount Whaleback Operation in Newman.
BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) have an ongoing research partnership with CRC CARE. This
partnership has achieved positive outcomes for both BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) and the
contaminated sites industry as a whole with research outcomes transferable to other sites
and facilities.
METHODS
BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) is committed to reducing the environmental impact within the
environments in which it operates. Several Detailed Site Investigations are currently
underway or have recently been completed at many operations. Many of these investigations
involve the delineation of known or suspected hydrocarbon plumes associated with historical
practices. The Company, in conjunction with CRC CARE, have developed rankCARETM, a
software package that assists in determining the risk posed by a suspected or known site
based on a series of factors including: what are the known or suspected contamination levels
250
at the facility; what are the contaminants of concern; how long is it expected to take these
contaminants to reach a sensitive receptor; and how sensitive is the receptor to these
contaminants.
Figure 1 is an example output from rankCARETM for the Company’s Port Operations. Despite
the numerous challenges many contaminated or suspected contaminated sites, particularly
those deemed high risk, have had investigations commence to determine the possible
extent, if any, of contamination present. Following these investigations, the information
collected is used to review the sites risk score.
Figure 1: Screenshot of RankCARE risk ranking tool identifying the known or suspected
contaminated sites at BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) Port Operations
CONCLUSIONS
Despite the many challenges associated with conducting contaminated site assessments
and remediation activities at an operating mine site, several investigations have now been
completed. This allows the Company to make informed decisions regarding the ongoing
management of these sites.
The long standing research partnership between BHP Billiton Iron Ore (WA) and CRC CARE
is identifying many positive techniques and tools that can be utilised by the broader industry
to manage contaminated sites The Company looks forward to continuing this partnership and
thanks CRC CARE for their on going commitment to this program.
REFERENCES
CRC CARE. 2012. rankCARE – site ranking software. www.crccare.com/rankcare/
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E13
USE OF BIOSOLIDS FOR THE TREATMENT OF
ACIDIC METALLIFEROUS MINE DRAINAGE
Jamie Robinson
SKM, 33 King William Street, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
INTRODUCTION
Biochemical treatment of acid mine drainage can be effectively applied through the use
constructed anaerobic wetland (biochemical cells) and Successive (or Reducing) Alkalinity
Production Systems (SAPS or RAPS). These systems comprise mixtures of organic material
such as wood waste, composted manures, hay, and limestone. They are designed to
encourage sulfide precipitation through sulfate reduction (bacteria). Sulfate Reducing
Bacteria use the decay products of organic substrates (eg CH2O) and sulfate as nutrients
which then enable precipitation of heavy metal sulfides and alkalinity generation. One such
source of organic material is biosolid waste from sewage treatment farms.
SKM is researching the use of biosolids as the organic material alone or in combination with
other naturally occurring material in these RAPS or SAPS systems to treat acidic
metalliferous mine drainage (AMD). The study is being undertaken with a local mining
company in Darwin and has involved ‘proof of principal’ static testing. Such testing is the first
stage of a tiered assessment of potential organic material candidate substrates.
METHODS
The project selected acidic drainage from a site and used a variety of organic and inorganic
material as static jar tests. The reasoning was to use material which contained sulfate
reducing bacteria and also organic material which sustained their growth.
The material used in the project included:
Biosolids. Biosolids were sourced from sites owned by Power and Water in and around
Darwin and included biosolids which had been chlorinated and those which had not.
These ranged in age of stockpiles ('fresh' Ludmilla biosolids and older stockpiles at
Leanyer Sanderson). The older and more established stockpiles were considered more
likely to contain sulfate reducing bacteria.
Manure. Manures from cows and crocodile were collected from local farms in the area.
Carbonate Source. The mine site contains a geology which includes dolomite and this
was crushed and used in the study. In addition a local supply of spent oyster shells was
obtained as a different carbonate source.
Vegetative Organic Carbon. A selection of woody and green material was obtained from
the mulch produced at the mine site.
Rubber Tyres. Shredded tyres were also used in the study to assess if they altered the
acidic water chemistry. This was to establish if they were inert and did not leach
unwanted metals or organic compounds. The intention being they would be used as a
sustainable source for drainage material in the base of a wetland at the site.
PROOF OF PRINCIPLE TESTING
The Proof of Principle Testing involved the use of substrate or mix of substrates which were
placed in a 250ml amber jar. Each jar was filled to brim, sealed with a Teflon lid and kept in
an air conditioned room at the mine site. At weekly intervals each jar was opened and visual
olfactory observation noted. The temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen
and redox of mine water in the jars were also tested at weekly intervals.
Upon the culmination of 6 weeks of testing the contents of the jars were filtered and treated
water analysed for a variety of metals, metalloids and major ions. The results of the study
are due for reporting in by the end of May 2013 and will be presented at the conference.
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These show that the successful candidate substrates (aged biosolids and crocodile manure)
managed to reduce the metal content by 90 to 100% in many cases. Aluminium has been
reduced to due to the shift in pH which makes in insoluble as a metal hydroxide. The oyster
shell has caused a pH change which means redox insensitive metals (such as Al) will
precipitate, but also sulphate reducing bacteria are more prevalent in circum-neutral
environment.
The reduction in sulphate is attributed to both the inorganic reaction with
calcium (from the oyster shell) and also sulfate reduction.
The impact of the latter can be seen when examining the cobalt and nickel results. With
oyster shell alone around 32 - 40% reduction is measured, however when an organic source
is added the reduction changes to over 90 - 98%. Given the increased reduction of sulphate
which coincides with the increased reduction in metal, sulphate reducing bacteria are most
likely responsible. Future studies include bench scale testing through dynamic flow cells.
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E14
HIGH RATE TREATMENT METHODS FOR MINE PIT SLURRY
CASE STUDY: OPEN CUT COAL MINE
W. Gary Smith, Adrian Widjaya, Alex Horn
URS Australia, 1 Southbank Blvd, Melbourne VIC 3006, AUSTRALIA
gary.w.smith@urs.com, adrian.widjaya@urs.com, alex.horn@urs.com
INTRODUCTION
URS Australia (URS) was engaged by a major coal mining company in equatorial Indonesia
to assess the status of flooded open cut coal mine pits containing clay slurries, and to
develop concepts for slurry treatment with discharge of effluent water to achieve mine
receiving water quality limits. Mine pit slurries are created by the dissolution of highly
erodible sandstone and siltstone geologic materials that surround the coal bearing deposits,
and very high rainfall amounts that periodically overwhelm the ability of mine pit pumps to
maintain desired pit water levels. In addition, several mine dewatering drains discharge
groundwater into the mine pits continuously. Mine pit slurry is currently pumped from the
open pit at multiple locations to surrounding overburden water treatment facilities that are not
designed for clay slurry treatment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINE PIT WATER SLURRIES
Mine pit water slurries vary in total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations from about 4% by
wt to about 30% by wt, depending on the depth from which water slurries are dredged and
pumped from mine pits. The composition of mine pit water slurries includes minerals varying
from coarse to fine sand derived from sandstones, to fine to very fine dispersed clay
particles derived from mudstones and siltstones. Chemically, the slurries have no
hazardous characteristics and are very low in concentrations of dissolved metals and
organic carbon. However, the nature of dispersed clays in the slurries presents challenges
for separation of TSS and dissolved solids (TDS) from aqueous solution. Water discharges
from the mine site are limited to 150 mg/L (Low Wall discharges) to 170 mg/L TSS (High
Wall discharges), respectively, on an average daily basis.
HISTORICAL MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR MINE PIT SLURRY
Water treatment primarily in the form of TSS removal from mine wastewaters has historically
been the primary environmental regulatory driver. The mine operator has progressively
developed a series of large pond-based settling basins at the toe of overburden areas to
receive overburden runoff as well as pumped mine pit slurry. The pond systems consist of
an in-line series of sediment basins (to capture heavier readily settleable sands), storage
dams or reservoirs with large holding capacities (to hold wet weather flows), and mud ponds
with chemical treatment to separate TSS/TDS (providing treatment prior to offsite effluent
discharges). Settled solids are dredged periodically from sediment, storage and mud ponds
and stored/disposed in overburden areas. In practice, heavy rainfall into these ponds has
caused significant dilution and even emergency overflows during extreme rainfall periods.
Because of the overwhelming scale of water flows during wet weather (up to 1.5 GL/day
over the total mine site), high rate water treatment and management methods are necessary
to provide practical solutions that work integrally with the existing water treatment facilities to
achieve regulatory compliance for offsite discharges, and to provide high quality water for
reuse in mine operations.
HIGH RATE TREATMENT FOR MINE PIT CLAY SLURRY
A conceptual study has included development of a potential high rate treatment method for
mine pit slurry, involving separate treatment of pumped mine pit discharges and replacing
the existing co-treatment of slurry with overburden runoff. Across the mine site, such
254
facilities will need to have capacities of up to several ML/day to manage mine pit flows such
that the mine can remain continuously free of excess water and allow deeper coal extraction.
As envisioned, the miner would construct several high rate treatment facilities at locations
convenient to the outflows from mine pit pumping facilities, providing compliant effluent
gravity discharges from the mine site.
The proposed high rate treatment process consists of the following wastewater treatment
processes operating in conventional (but high rate) scenarios:
x Coagulation and flocculation of incoming water slurries to create floc that will rapidly
settle in a high rate clarifier setting
- Chemical treatment using commercial reagents such as polyacrylamide
polymers to successively complete coagulation and flocculation
- Influent sand particles potentially to provide nuclei around which clay-based
floc will form and settle rapidly (so-called “ballasted flocculation”)
x Flocculation of chemically treated solids in a slow mix vessel to grow floc to a
sufficient density for rapid settling
x High rate lamella or center well clarification to rapidly separate and settle solids in the
form of floc
x Discharge of treated water from clarifiers to water storage facilities for subsequent
discharge or reuse
x Discharge of settled solids from clarifier bottoms, with addition of a second polymer
reagent, to promote additional water release from solids (secondary flocculation)
x Disposal of settled and dewatered solids to purpose-designed cells within overburden
areas that will further dewater solids streams using conventional tailings dam
dewatering methods
- Discharge solids around the periphery of cells across a 2 to 4% slope with
gravity flow to the center of the cell
- Elutriate water from dewatered solids is pumped from the center of the disposal
cell back to the high rate treatment process and mixed with influent
- Solids are disposed in-place with capping closure as overburden placement
proceeds through the area of the disposal cells.
ONSITE PILOT TRIAL TO DEMONSTRATE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
URS is currently implementing an onsite pilot trial to demonstrate technical and economic
feasibility of the proposed high rate treatment method for mine pit clay slurry. Pilot trial
operations will provide optimisation of chemical treatment dosages, hydraulic behaviour of
clarification at high flow rates, and settled solids dewatering and disposal characteristics. It
is envisioned that pilot trial data will then be used to develop a site-wide treatment scenario.
This presentation will present the current status of the ongoing trial of high rate treatment
methods for mine pit slurry at a very large equatorial coal mine site.
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E18
STATUS OF IN-SITU THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR EFFECTIVE
TREATMENT OF SOURCE AREAS
Gorm Heron
TerraTherm Inc., Keene, CA 93531, USA
gheron@terratherm.com
INTRODUCTION
By now, over 200 source zones have been remediated using In-Situ Thermal Remediation
(ISTR). Most of these sites have been treated using one thermal technology applied to the
entire treatment volume.
A brief introduction to thermal treatment and mechanisms will be provided, with illustration of
the key physical and chemical changes caused by the heating. The focus will be primarily on
VOC properties, but changes affecting SVOCs will also be reviewed. The production of
steam once pore water is vaporized, and its capture, will be emphasized.
The importance of having a thorough site investigation and understanding of the site
conceptual model will be illustrated though examples. This will include an illustration of using
Membrane Interface Probe (MIP) to allow for a dense spatial coverage, combined with
traditional soil and water sampling for calibration.
Thermal vendors have evolved, typically tied to certain intellectual property developed for
each technology and marketed under a commercial abbreviation:
x SEE (Steam Enhanced Extraction) – developed at University of California
x ISTD (In Situ Thermal Desorption, which makes use of Thermal Conduction Heating,
TCH) – developed by Shell Oil Company
x ERH (Electrical Resistance Heating) – developed by ARCO and the U.S. Dept. of
Energy
x ET-DSPTM (Electro Thermal–Dynamic Stripping Process) – developed by McMillanMcGee corporation
Per their nature, these technologies work best in certain conditions, and are not always
applicable at a site. Cases studies will be presented to illustrate the use of each technology.
One part of this presentation is based on full-scale ISTR projects where combinations of SEE
with ISTD or ET-DSPTM were used to solve site-specific problems, which could not have
been addressed by a single thermal technology. This presentation will focus on the geologic
and hydrogeologic conditions that led to the choice of the thermal remedy. The lessons
learned and presented will include:
x Groundwater flow in permeable strata can hamper or delay thermal treatment
dramatically, unless the cooling associated with the groundwater is overcome.
x Combining SEE with methods such as ISTD, ERH or ET-DSPTM may increase the
ISTR efficiency and save cost and resources.
x Heating an aquifer quickly using steam injection may accelerate the heating of
surrounding clay layers, as the heat losses are mitigated. This can save time and
money during treatment of the clay zones.
x ISTR systems with multiple heat delivery mechanisms are more robust than single
ISTR technologies.
The presentation will conclude with a brief overview of availability of the thermal technologies
in Australia, and a discussion of how the equipment needed for thermal treatment can be
made available. Recent work by TerraTherm in Victoria will be the base of this segment.
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E19
ELECTROKINETIC-ENHANCED AMENDMENT DELIVERY FOR
REMEDIATION OF LOW PERMEABILITY AND HETEROGENEOUS
MATERIALS: RESULTS OF THE FIRST FIELD PILOT
David A. Reynolds1, James Wang2, Evan Cox3, David Gent4, Charlotte Riis5
1
Geosyntec Consultants, 427 Princess St., Kingston, Ontario, K7L 5S9, CANADA
Geosyntec Consultants, 10220 Old Columbia Road, Columbia, Maryland, 21046, USA
3
Geosyntec Consultants, 295 Hagley Blvd., Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 6R5, CANADA
4
U.S. Army Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Rd., Vicksburg, MS, 39180
USA
5
Niras A/S, Sortemosevej 19, DK-3450, Allerod, Denmark
DReynolds@Geosyntec.com
2
INTRODUCTION
In situ remediation for sites contaminated by chlorinated solvents and energetic materials,
such as perchlorate and RDX, often faces a major challenge: effective delivery and
distribution of remediation reagents into low permeability materials. At numerous sites,
contaminant mass retained in low permeability materials acting as a source either prevents
successful site remediation, or at minimum extends the duration of the remediation program.
Hydraulic flow-based techniques for amendment delivery often fail at such sites due to the
large pressures required to access low permeability regions, as well as the preference for bypassing due to preferential flow.
Electrokinetic-enhanced (EK-enhanced) delivery
techniques, relying on the electrical properties, not the hydraulic properties, of aquifer
materials represents a fundamentally innovative solution. EK-enhanced delivery technology
involves the establishment of an electric field induced by the application of direct current
(DC) in the subsurface to transport remediation reagents, including electron donors for
microorganisms, chemical oxidants, and even bacteria, through heterogeneous and low
permeability systems. EK transport relies on three mechanisms: electromigration,
electroosmosis, and electrophoresis. A distinct advantage of the technology is that EK can
achieve uniform transport in clays and sand, even when the hydraulic conductivities vary by
orders of magnitude.
In 2010 a bench scale treatability test demonstrated the potential to apply electrokineticenhanced bioremediation (EK-BIO) for tetrachloroethene (PCE) source remediation at a site
in Skuldelev, Denmark. The test showed that by applying a direct current electric field,
effective transport of both electron donor (lactate) and dechlorinating microorganisms
(Dehalococcoides Dhc) in PCE contaminated, low permeability soil were achieved. An active
microbial population capable of completing PCE dechlorination to ethene was established
within the clay matrix under EK conditions.
FIELD PILOT TEST
In 2011 a pilot test was carried out at the Skuldelev site. PCE DNAPL contamination is
located in interbedded glacial deposits of sand and clay till. Highest concentrations (up to
11,000 mg PCE/kg) were observed in the clay till between 3 and 7 meters bgs. The EK-BIO
pilot test was designed with the objective to demonstrate effective transport of lactate, the
viability and migration of augmented Dhc, and PCE dechlorination achieved within the pilot
test area.
The pilot test design covered an area of approximately 3 meters by 2 meters. The test
included 3 pairs of anodes and cathodes, 3 amendment delivery wells, 4 monitoring wells,
257
and 4 multilevel well systems to allow detailed performance monitoring. The monitoring
programme included baseline sampling of both groundwater and soil, groundwater
monitoring of field parameters, alkalinity, VOCs, dissolved hydrocarbon gases, TOC/NVOC,
key cations and anions, and Dhc. This project represents the first rigorous field pilot test of
EK with a bioaugmentation element in the world.
Post EK
During EK
Baseline
Post EK
During EK
Baseline
Post EK
During EK
Baseline
Post EK
During EK
Baseline
Post EK
During EK
Baseline
Following 74 days of EK operation (55 days after bioaugmentation) to transport lactate and
augmented bacteria, enhanced reductive dechlorination was demonstrated within the test
area. A lactate transport rate in the test area was estimated to range from 2.5 to 5 cm/day.
Molecular biology analytical data indicated that EK operation was successful in distributing
Dhc throughout the clayey formation within the test area. Active reductive dechlorination
treatment capacity was established as indicated by evident increases of degradation
products and Dhc levels. Soil sampling towards the end of the active EK period, as well as 3
months following the cessation of the EK-facilitated transport phase demonstrated a
significant shift in the compositional signature of the chlorinated ethenes away from PCE and
towards the ethene and vinyl chloride end products (Figure 1). Similar results were observed
for contaminants in the groundwater phase.
100%
90%
80%
Molar Fraction
70%
60%
VC
DCE
50%
TCE
40%
PCE
30%
20%
10%
0%
A3.8 B
m C
D4.2 Em F
G4.8Hm I
J 5.2Km L
M6.6Nm O
Approximate Depth Below Ground Surface (m)
Fig. 1. Concentration of chlorinated ethenes in soil at central monitoring location.
Three sampling times are prior to inception of test, two months after startup,
and three months after conclusion.
CONCLUSIONS
The ongoing success of this project (the project has since gone to full-scale with initiation of
the EK phase in January 2013) suggests that biological EK approaches offer a unique and
cost-effective solution for the problem of chlorinated solvents in low-permeability materials
and sites with high degrees of heterogeneity in formation permeability.
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E20
COMBINED APPLICATION OF INSITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION AND
MULTIPHASE VACUUM EXTRACTION
Daniel Guille, Andrew Labbett, David Lam
Coffey, 126 Trenerry Crescent, Abbotsford, VIC 3067, AUSTRALIA
daniel.guille@coffey.com
INTRODUCTION
In Situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) has become an accepted technique for the remediation of
soil and groundwater at sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. There are however
persistent issues with the delivery of ISCO chemicals in the formation. Issues are particularly
significant with percarbonate which generate degassing reactions, which can pressurise and
fracture the vadose zone, and lead to surfacing of injection fluids. Such issues can limit the
quantity and distribution of ISCO chemical that can be applied at a site (particularly in the
presence of sensible receptors), and ultimately the success of an ISCO project.
MultiPhase Vacuum Extraction (MPVE), which is the extraction under vacuum of the vadose
air, groundwater and or free-phase product, is a technique commonly used for the
remediation of petroleum contaminated sites. Because MPVE has the potential to absorb the
excess of vadose pressure generated by ISCO, the combined application of MPVE and
ISCO was tested at a petroleum contaminated site.
METHODS
The study site
The site is a former service station where the entire infrastructure has been removed.
Neighbourhood uses include residential (immediately cross and down gradient from the site)
and a second active service station (up gradient from the site across a street).
The geology consists of sandy clays to a depth of 5 m over clayey sands. The static water
level is at approximately 7 mbgs.
Residual groundwater impact, including localised Liquid Non-Aqueous Phase (LNAPL), was
the driver for remediation.
The injection and MPVE program
A series of three five-day events was conducted at three months intervals and targeting
groundwater impacts. The ISCO chemical used was percarbonate at a concentration of 5%
activated by sodium sulfate. Percarbonate injections were conducted via 12 injection wells
while MPVE was applied on neighbouring up-gradient wells, where available. A pilot trial
previously identified an effective radius of influence >13 m for MPVE at the site.
Monitoring
Continuous monitoring of water levels and vadose pressure was conducted on available
neighbouring monitoring wells.
RESULTS
Total Volumes and Quantities of Percarbonate Injected
A total volume of 48 kL of percarbonate solution was injected and during the three combined
MPVE and injection events. A total of 36 kL was injected in the eight wells within the MPVE
ROI, with an average volume of 2 kL per well and per event. The average volume injected in
the four wells outside the MPVE ROI was 12 kL, with an average volume of 1kL per well and
per event.
Surfacing of Injection Fluids
Surfacing was observed in the vicinity of one well after injecting 1,200 L at an average of
8 L/min. However, when resuming injection in that well at a lower flow rate (of ~4 L/min),
surfacing was not observed and an extra 800 L were injected.
259
Surfacing was observed at two locations outside the MPVE ROI. In all cases, surfacing
would reccur almost immediately when resuming injection (after 20-40L), even at a
significantly lower flow rate.
Vadose Pressure and Injection Volumes
The injection flow rates ranged between 3 and 11 L/min and were adjusted continuously in
order to limit the injection pressures recorded at the well head to <3-400 kPa. With the
exception of spikes up to +20 kPa and lasting for 2 to 3 minutes, negative pressures in the
order of -100 to -400 Pa were recorded at neighbouring monitoring wells within the radius of
influence of the MPVE.
In the cases where injection was conducted in similar conditions but without the support of
MPVE, a continuous increase in pressure was generally observed in neighbouring monitoring
wells, limiting the flow rates.
Mobilisation and Recovery of LNAPL
One well had been historically occasionally impacted with LNAPL (thickness up to 35mm),
but not immediately before the remediation works. LNAPL (30mm) reappeared in the well
after one day of MPVE and simultaneous injection in neighbouring wells. The presence of
percarbonate was detected in the LNAPL impacted well, indicating that the percarbonate
solution had migrated through the LNAPL impacted formation. LNAPL rebounded in that well
during the interim period between events, with decreasing thicknesses (from 35mm to nondetect) over the following 4.5 months as MPVE events were continued on that well and
injection on neighbouring wells. LNAPL has not been observed in that well during the
monitoring events conducted for two years following the remediation
DISCUSSION
It is considered that the percarbonate solution moving through the formation has mobilised
the LNAPL present in the vicinity of the well. Percarbonate has been noted to decrease the
surface tension of water, hence facilitating the desorption of hydrocarbons into the injection
solution. It is also considered that LNAPL could have migrated by convection, carried by the
injection fluids moving in the formation, up to MPVE extraction well where it was recovered.
While MPVE limits the over-pressurisation of the formation, it prevents the vertical fracturing
that leads to surfacing of injection fluids. It is estimated that the gases generated by
percarbonate are a significant cause of surfacing, as gases are less viscous and more fluids
than injection liquids, and when mixed with liquids tend to migrate vertically towards the
ground surface.
By limiting the risk of surfacing associated with degassing, MPVE allows to inject greater
volumes of percarbonate solution, at greater flow rates, hence reaching greater and faster
distribution.
As a fact, once surfacing has been observed in the vicinity of a well, it is very unlikely that
injection will be feasible at that well as the breakthrough to the surface is the path of least
resistance. In some cases where the breakthrough to the surface and wells are within the
ROI of MPVE, it is possible to continue injecting fluids, though at lower flow rates, if MPVE is
effective at reducing degassing pressure.
CONCLUSIONS
The MPVE absorbs the over-pressurisation due to percarbonate degassing reactions in the
formation, which limits the risk of surfacing. This enhances the ability to inject greater
volumes of solution, which increases their distribution in the formation. The percarbonate
solution injected increases the mobilisation of hydrocarbons and their recovery by the MPVE.
MPVE and ISCO can be applied synergistically to increase their respective effectiveness at
petroleum contaminated sites.
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E21
AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY – REFRIGERATED CONDENSATION
FOR TREATMENT OF OFF-GAS FROM SOIL VAPOUR EXTRACTION
SYSTEMS
Grant Geckeler1, Noel Ryan2, Graham Smith3, Andrew Wollen4
1
Good Earthkeeping Organisation, Inc (G.E.O.), 1612 Jenks Drive, Corona, CA 92880, USA
2
Huntsman Polyurethanes (Australia) Pty Limited, 454-460 Somerville Road, Brooklyn,
VIC 3012, AUSTRALIA
3
Parsons Brinckerhoff, Level 15, 28 Freshwater Place, Southbank VIC 3000, AUSTRALIA
4
Environmental Remediation Resources, F4/13-15 Kevlar Close, Braeside, VIC 3195,
AUSTRALIA
grant.geckeler@tpstech.com
INTRODUCTION
A pilot trial for treating off-gas from soil vapour extraction (SVE) systems using refrigerated
condensation [will have] been completed at Huntsman Chemical Company Australia Pty
Limited (HCCA). This paper presents outcomes of the pilot trial and illustrates broad
applicability of the refrigerated condensation technology for treatment of vapour streams
containing high concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). High concentrations of
these pollutants may come from the vapour or dual-phase extraction of NAPL, as well as
from thermal remediation projects.
Victoria’s Hazwaste Fund is supporting the introduction of refrigerated condensation as an
innovative, efficient and sustainable method for treating VOCs in off-gas vapour streams,
thereby contributing to reduction in the volume of contaminated soils being directed to landfill
disposal.
OVERVIEW OF SITE AND TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION
At the HCCA site in Brooklyn, Victoria, shallow aquifer LNAPL and vadose zone impacts
have been identified within in a specific area. Depth to groundwater is 8-9 meters below
ground level and the LNAPL plume covers and area of approximately 50 x 50 meters,
varying in apparent thickness between 5-20cm. Contaminants of concern include isopropyl
benzene, methyl styrene, cyclohexane, benzene, xylenes plus a range of other VOCs each
representing less than 1% of the total. The pilot trial deploys SVE in combination with heated
air sparge to recover contaminants from the subsurface and refrigerated condensation for
treatment VOCs in the vapour stream.
Cryogenic-cooling and compression (C3) technology, developed by Good Earthkeeping
Organization, Inc (GEO) is designed to condense VOCs from the vapour phase into liquid
phase product through a process of compressing the SVE off-gas to approximately 150 psi
(1000kPa) then cooling to approximately -40°C through refrigerated heat exchangers. In
combination with proprietary regenerative desorption technology, more than 99.9% of the
VOCs are removed from the vapour stream and the resulting chemical is recovered as nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL) which can potentially be re-used or recycled.
Treated air discharge from the C3 plant complies with local air emission limits, however, if
required the discharge can be passed through small filter vessels containing granular
activated carbon (GAC) for polishing of residual VOCs.
C3 technology is applied to the treatment of petrochemical and chlorinated contaminants
without thermal destruction and does not require dilution of the air stream. As the system
focuses on treatment of VOCs in off-gas streams, it is compatible with a variety of
applications including SVE, Air Sparge/SVE, MPE and in-situ thermal heating. However it
has the potential to reduce treatment times substantially. The technology has a record of
proven performance at multiple sites in United States and Europe for over two decades.
261
Results of the pilot trial will be present in graphic format and discussed to demonstrate
outcomes as follows:
(a) Contaminant mass recovery – weekly and cumulative mass recovered in kg
(b) LNAPL response, illustrating apparent thickness of NAPL over time.
(c) VOC concentrations in vapour stream – inlet to C3 plant and emissions to
atmosphere
(d) C3 system performance in terms of run time and power consumption
(e) Influence of heated air sparge
(f) “Time-to-complete” comparison with alternative technologies
CONCLUSION
An overall evaluation of the refrigerated condensation treatment method is to be provided as
a comparison to traditional methods, demonstrating its effectiveness in shortening project
times, cost effectiveness and enabling potential reuse and recycling of recovered product.
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E22
A NEW, CATALYZED PERSULFATE REAGENT WITH BUILT-IN
ACTIVATION FOR THE IN SITU CHEMICAL OXIDATION OF
GROUNDWATER AND SOIL CONTAMINANTS
Ben Mork, Bryan Vigue
REGENESIS, San Clemente, CA 92673, USA
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally in situ chemical oxidation using sodium persulfate has been widely used as a
mass removal reagent for the treatment of a range of soil and groundwater contaminants. To
increase the effectiveness of sodium persulfate for contaminant destruction, separate
physical or chemical activation technologies (activators) have traditionally been combined
with the material. In practice four different types of activation have been used: heat, chelated
metals, hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide (base), with the use of sodium hydroxide
being the most prevalent in environmental remediation. However, the use of these separate
activation technologies can have significant drawbacks and generally speaking are inherently
complex, expensive and pose certain health and safety risks - including pH affects and
exothermic reactions. A new catalyzed persulfate technology has recently been developed
that effectively reduces the complexity and potential hazards associated with activated
persulfate. Catalyzed persulfate offers remediation practitioners an all-in-one (activator and
oxidant built-in) replacement for traditionally applied sodium persulfate with oxidation
performance equivalent to best alternative persulfate activation methods. This new
technology also provides users with a relatively safe and easy to apply reagent with minimal
heat generation. Finally, this catalyzed persulfate also employs a unique and patented
surface-mediated oxidation process that allows liquid-phase oxidant and contaminant
reactions to take place on a heterogeneous catalytic surface. This unique surface mediated
process enables several contaminant-eliminating functions including: the generation of
sulfate radicals and other oxidizing species, acceleration of chemical oxidation through the
adsorption of contaminant molecules and other oxidizing species, and catalyzed direct and
free-radical-mediated oxidation by sodium persulfate. This presentation will cover the
development, efficacy and use of catalyzed persulfate including case study information for
field validation purposes.
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E24
HORIZONTAL REMEDIATION WELL IN-SITU CHEMICAL
OXIDATION: A CASE STUDY
Michael Sequino
Directional Technologies, Inc., 26 Windsor East, North Haven, CT, 06473, USA
INTRODUCTION
Horizontal directional drilling technology is a mature technology that has useful applications
to environmental remediation. The flexibility of horizontal remediation wells permit them to be
used for multimedia remediation and multiple remediation systems, which is particularly
beneficial and cost-effective for hazardous waste sites. Horizontal remediation wells help to
solve three major problems in hazardous waste cleanup: (1) sampling using vertical wells
often provides statistically incomplete information about the extent of contamination and (2)
In-situ delivery of soil treatments such as soil vapour extraction, air sparging, chemical
oxidants and reductants, and thermal treatments are limited by the use of vertical wells that
limit treatment zone of influence, and (3) in-situ treatments often treat aqueous and
physisorbed chemical species, but leave source material in place such that over time,
dissolved chemical species “rebound” because of reequilibration of the source (solid or
liquid) contaminant material with the water column.
METHODS
Horizontal remediation well (HRW) technologies were used in conjunction with in situ
chemical oxidation (ISCO) to remedy a PCE-contaminated dry cleaner site in Parole, MD,
USA. There was limited access for vertical wells. The HRW-ISCO remediation took place
on an active construction site. Site soils were silty sand; the groundwater flow was 0.2-0.4
feet per day. The contaminated groundwater zone was 25 to 55 feet below ground surface.
To obtain, the maximum zone of influence in the soil, the delivery of the permanganate
solution was modelled to obtain the optimal screen slotting for uniform flow using
MODFLOW. Ten horizontal wells of a total of 3,875 feet at two soil depths were installed.
Two injections were completed: the first delivered 340,000 gallons of permanganate solution
and the second delivered 1,032,333 gallons of permanganate solution.
CONCLUSIONS
The HRW-ISCO treatment reduced PCE groundwater concentrations in the source from
13,000 ppb to 400 ppb. Downgradient, the treatment reduced PCE concentrations from
8,000 ppb to a maximum of 1,840 ppb, though most wells were ND. The length of screen in
the horizontal wells permitted faster and more effective delivery of the in situ chemical
treatment. The large permanganate zone of influence permitted a more complete reaction
with the soil and groundwater PCE such that rebound did not occur and the site was closed.
264
D26
USE OF IN-SITU THERMAL TECHNOLOGY IN COMPLEX
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS TO DELIVER SUSTAINABLE, RAPID AND
COST EFFECTIVE ENDPOINTS: GLOBAL CASE STUDIES
Neil Gray1, James Baldock2, Jay Dablow3
1.
ERM, Level 3, Tower 3, World Trade Centre 18-38 Siddeley St, Docklands, VIC 3005, Australia
2
ERM, Eaton House, Wallbrook Court, North Hinksey Lane, Oxford, OX2 0QS, UK
3
ERM, 2875 Michelle Drive, Suite 200, Irvine, California, 92606, USA
neil.gray@erm.com
INTRODUCTION
In-situ thermal technologies were first applied to remediate contaminated soil and
groundwater in Europe and North America in the 1980’s. Thermal technologies are attractive
as part of contaminated site closure strategies for the following reasons:
x Performs independently of variations in lithology;
x Removes both Light and Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) and/or a
mixture of organic contaminants with different physical/chemical properties;
x Undertaken rapidly (operational time is typically between 3 and 6 months);
x Achieves a high percentage of contaminant concentration reduction (typically >90%)
with lower rebound compared to alternative in-situ treatment technologies; and
x Despite energy consumption to generate heat input, thermal technologies have been
shown to have a lower carbon footprint compared to more traditional longer term
alternatives such as pump and treat.
METHODS
In-situ thermal remediation offers an alternative approach or is sometimes the only plausible
technique for the full destruction and removal of highly persistent organic pollutants including:
TPHs, VOCs, SVOCs, PCBs, Dioxins and Furans. It provides a quicker and more thorough
treatment of NAPL/DNAPL (heavy oils and creosote) source zones, through applying some
or all of the following mechanisms:
x Mobilization;
x Recovery of buoyant separate-phase material;
x Volatilization of semi-volatile fractions; and
x Enhanced aerobic and thermophyllic biodegradation.
The most widely practiced thermal techniques include Electrical Resistance Heating (ERH),
In-Situ Thermal Desorption (ISTD) and Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE). Radio Frequency
(RF) heating has also been applied. The main difference between technologies is their mode
of energy delivery; however each relies on elevated temperatures to promote fluid mobility,
volatilization, and/or contaminant destruction.
This paper presents several ERM case studies about the application of thermal technologies
which used a variety of mechanisms to deliver heat into the ground, in both unconsolidated
deposits and fractured bedrock environments.
Case Study 1: Steam Enhanced Extraction Project, London, UK
At a former manufacturing site in London, impacted by chlorinated solvents and petroleum
hydrocarbons (xylene, trichloroethene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane) SEE was implemented
within a confined sand and gravel aquifer. To allow residential development to commence
within a faster timescale, the SEE system was combined with an existing dual phase vapour
extraction system. This system was the first full scale in-situ application of the SEE
technology in the UK. The maximum groundwater temperature measured was approximately
90°C, and an evaluation of the data shows that approximately 2 metric tonnes (2,000 kg) of
265
contaminant mass was recovered within a 12 week time period compared to an originally
predicted system operational time of circa 52 weeks if conventional SVE had been applied.
Case Study 2: Radio Frequency Heating Project, North America
A historical release of TCA occurred at an active manufacturing facility.
DNAPL
contamination was identified in a source zone at concentrations between 410 to 1,100mg/l.
The target treatment area was located beneath an occupied commercial building. After
evaluating several in-situ treatment technologies, an integrated Radio Frequency (RF)
heating and Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) system was designed, constructed and began
operation in December 2003. This system is the first in-situ application of RF heating to treat
TCA DNAPL in fractured bedrock.
The application of RF energy to the fractured rock aquifer resulted in temperature related
TCA transformation and abiotic degradation. After 12 months of RF system operation,
groundwater temperatures have increased from 18°C to a high of 52°C at which the half-life
of TCA transformations was reduced from three years to less than one month. Average TCA
concentrations in the treatment zone in the bedrock aquifer have decreased 92%, from an
average of 150,000 ppb to below drinking water standards (i.e., 200 ppb) in wells located 150
metres to 300 metres downgradient of the source area.
Case Study 3: Electric Resistance Heating, North America
At the Pemaco Superfund site in Maywood, CA, the first EPA Region IX project to implement
full-scale ERH, an aggressive thermal technology for the area with the highest groundwater
and soil contamination was implemented. The target area for ERH had an area of 14,000
square feet and a volume of approximately 30,000 cubic yards. The ERH extraction system
was incorporated with the area-wide dual-phase extraction, and groundwater pumping
system. The design incorporated state of the art flameless thermal oxidation for dioxin/furan
destruction to meet the community air quality concerns. The design also provided the
interconnection of existing groundwater and soil vapour pipelines from two separate systems
– an existing dual phase extraction system and the full scale ERH system. The full-scale
ERH operated for seven months. Sampling of groundwater and soil determined that the full
scale ERH remediation achieved 99 percent reduction of dissolved and absorbed
concentrations in soil and groundwater within the ERH area.
CONCLUSIONS
The case studies demonstrate the advantages of the application of in-situ thermal
technologies on a global basis, where these have been used to realise significant benefits
compared to traditional alternatives, including the ability to meet stringent remedial targets in
a variety of geological settings, more rapidly and sustainably than the implementation of
longer term alternatives and are considered applicable in the APAC region.
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E26
REMEDIATION OF A FORMER GASWORKS IN ALBURY, NSW,
USING IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Paul Carstairs1, Clayton Cowper2, Bengt von Schwerin2
1
AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, Level 9, 8 Exhibition Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, AUSTRALIA
AECOM Australia Pty Ltd, Level 21, 420 George Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, AUSTRALIA
paul.carstairs@aecom.com
2
INTRODUCTION
The proposed upgrade of an existing carpark on a former gasworks site in Albury, NSW,
resulted in the site owner identifying significant residual gasworks impacts (despite
remediation activities having been undertaken 16 years earlier). Subsequent detailed
investigations undertaken by The Albury Gas Company, and proof of performance bench
scale and field pilot trials of in situ solidification has enabled the selection of a remediation
approach that is both cost effective and addresses the future site needs. The remediation
strategy incorporated a holistic approach to managing site issues. Impacted shallow soil was
remediated separately to liquid tar impacts in soil and impacted groundwater. Community
and key stakeholders’ communication was critical to delivering a successful remediation
project spanning the planning and delivery works.
BACKGROUND
Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) was identified as the primary source responsible
for an approximate 300 m long dissolved phase groundwater plume. This plume was
migrating towards the Murray River, located approximately 500 m from the site. These
impacts resulted in the issue of a Remediation Notice by the NSW EPA, primarily due to the
potential health risks posed by soil vapour to occupants of commercial premises south of the
site.
REMEDIAL TECHNOLOGY SELECTION PROCESS
Impacted soil above the water table, tar and grossly tar impacted soil below the water table,
and dissolved phase impacted groundwater were the key areas considered for remediation,
with tar DNAPL representing the primary source of ongoing groundwater contamination.
Selection of a remediation approach was based upon addressing this source material to the
extent practicable to mitigate the ongoing contamination of groundwater, with the aim that
this in turn would result in improved groundwater quality, reduced potential risks associated
with future on-Site and surrounding land use and withdrawal of the ‘Declaration of
Remediation Site’ notice.
Technology Screening Process
A multi-criteria analysis (MCA) approach was used to screen a range of remediation
technologies potentially suitable for the DNAPL plume, along with impacted soil above the
water table, and dissolved phase groundwater contamination.
Shortlisted remediation options were assessed based upon four primary criteria, with these
criteria weighted to reflect their importance as part of the decision making process.
The score for each category was multiplied by a weighting factor and then summed to
provide a total score for each technology. Sub-criteria were also considered for the various
categories to address site specific issues such as ability to meet clean-up goals,
sustainability, secondary treatment requirements, impact upon the local community (traffic,
odours, noise, dust) and monitoring requirements.
Selected Remedial Strategies
The preferred remediation strategy(ies) based upon the technology selection process and
proven international application of the preferred remediation strategies at gasworks sites are
summarised in Table 1 below.
267
Impacted Feature
Table 1 Preferred Remediation Strategies
Remediation Activity
Impacted Soil above the Water
Table
Excavation of impacted soil, off-Site stabilisation and disposal into
an off-Site containment cell (monocell).
Tar and Grossly Tar Impacted
Soil and below the Water Table
In situ solidification (ISS)
Impacted Groundwater
Pump and treat system. Groundwater pumped from a groundwater
well extraction network to an above ground treatment facility,
incorporating air stripping with air emissions controls, and carbon
filtration, when required. Treated water is disposed to sewer.
Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) following the completion of
pump and treat operations.
TECHNOLOGY TRIALS
Technology trials were undertaken in parallel with the technology screening process to
provide input into the remediation technology selection process. The limited application of
ISS in Australia required significant interaction with the NSW EPA to prove the method
through bench scale and field pilot trials. The Australian team was able to access the
significant experience of its AECOM colleagues in the USA to assist with the trials. In the
absence of relevant Australian guidance, reliance on USEPA guidelines (USEPA, 1993) was
required to demonstrate the performance of the trials.
A strong, proactive community engagement program has been developed and implemented
for the project, starting with the more intrusive Site investigation works and trial excavations
through to the remediation works. The approach has included newspaper advertising, media
releases, community open days and question and answer sessions, meetings with local
representatives and surrounding businesses, meetings with the teachers and parents at the
adjacent school, community newsletters, and a web site providing project updates. As a
result of the transparent approach to the work being undertaken and the community
relationships built at the outset of the investigation works, there has been very little
community concern associated with the investigation and remediation works.
SUMMARY
Remediation works are now mostly complete at the site. Previous remediation works had
been undertaken at the site but never addressed the deeper impacts associated with
historical activities nor the off-Site groundwater impacts. The proposed Site redevelopment
and subsequent investigations provided better characterisation of the site and surrounding
areas and enabled a pragmatic, cost effective, risk-based solution to be developed that met
stakeholders’ objectives. A rigorous remediation options screening and planning process
and demonstrated proof of performance trials (both bench scale and field pilot trials) enabled
the In Situ Solidification technology to be accepted by EPA for one of the first full scale
implementations of its kind in Australia.
REFERENCES
AECOM, various unpublished reports, 2006-2012.
USEPA (1993) Technical Resource Document Solidification/Stabilization and its Application
to Waste Materials. United States Environment Protection Agency, EPA/530/R-93/012.
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E27
THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN
DECISION MAKING TOOLS
Toni Meek
Yarra Valley Water, Private Bag 1, Mitcham, 3132, AUSTRALIA
toni.meek@yvw.com.au
INTRODUCTION
The role of community engagement has evolved and gained prominence over many years in
addressing important matters of public interest and concern about land contamination other
environmental issues. In the early 1990s in Victoria the community impacts of land
contamination had become a significant issue. The importance of effective community
engagement in addressing these was highlighted for the author, then working at EPA
Victoria. Government responses to these issues helped to shape the way current and future
state and federal governments began to address them. The complexity of these issues has,
and continues to pose challenges for how responsible organisations effectively address
these community concerns.
Responses to community perceptions of risks and the willingness and effectiveness of
organisations charged with the responsibility to deal with these can have a direct impact on
these organisations’ longer term credibility and reputation. Effective community engagement
and communications can play a pivotal role.
While community engagement approaches have been continuously evolving to better
respond to these concerns the challenge still remains to ensure greater involvement of
directly affected communities in working towards mutually acceptable solutions. Successful
resolution of issues is more likely occur through greater collaboration between the
organisations dealing with, and the communities affected by, these important issues.
DISCUSSION
Factors Influencing Community Engagement Approaches
The literature on best practice community engagement is extensive. The recently amended
National Environment Protection (Assessment of Contaminated Sites) 1999, Schedule B8
Guideline on Community Engagement and Risk Communication (www.comlaw.gov.au) has
an accompanying comprehensive bibliography of these kinds of approaches. While these
approaches and their intent may appear reasonable and difficult to argue against in theory,
their practical application can be variable depending on the circumstances. This seems to be
the case with more contentious public interest issues.
From the author’s direct experience, when risks are perceived to be low or the issue is not
considered to be overly contentious, it is easier for organisations to follow best practice
engagement principles. When stakes are higher, however, particularly when dealing with
potentially controversial issues, adherence to these principles may be prone to lapse and
lead to an escalation in community concern and conflict. The reasons for this are varied but
can include concerns about reputational or brand risk. These kinds of concerns can manifest
in the need to over control the nature and extent of communications potentially leading to a
loss of confidence and trust in the organisation dealing with these issues. The risk
communication literature, see for example the work of Peter Sandman
(www.petersandman.com) that documents many real life case study examples of this.
Grattan (2012) highlights various polling results that monitor public perceptions of a range of
Australian organisations and institutions. She describes a growing loss of public confidence
in a variety of institutional structures, corporate organisations, political parties, the Reserve
Bank, High Court and non-government organisations. The 13th Edelman Trust Barometer
(Edelman 2013) reports similar global trends and provides suggestions about how to build
trust. These include effective engagement (listening to and providing constructive responses
to feedback as well as open and transparent communication); and acting with integrity
269
(including ethical business practices and taking responsible actions to address any
concerns).
These kinds of contextual issues are an important consideration for organisations needing to
undertake community engagement. A careful assessment of public perceptions of their
organisation is going to be useful to inform and guide the approaches ultimately developed.
Controversy Builds Opportunity
There are some interesting approaches being increasingly practised in the public
engagement field based on the principle that very early engagement will achieve more
success particularly with matters of considerable public interest. Involving the notion of
‘sharing the dilemma’, these approaches might be generally described as ones that involve
the concept of ‘co-design’ or ‘collaborative governance’. See for example the work of
Twyfords (www.twyfords.com.au).
This kind of collaborative governance model fosters approaches that aim to ensure that all
potentially affected parties to an issue work cooperatively with the particular organisation
dealing with the issue from the start. For this process to have the best chance of success it
requires a mutual commitment to collaboration, co-defining the dilemma, co-designing the
engagement process, co-creating solutions and co-delivering actions. The intent underlying
this approach is that it can lead to more widely supported solutions.
CONCLUSION
When best practice principles inform organisations’ community engagement processes –
committing to openness, fairness, transparency, and a real willingness to engage with
change in a truly open way, community respect is more likely to grow rather than diminish
even when dealing with more controversial issues.
There are many more examples now, where, when these kinds of principles genuinely drive
engagement efforts, even those with strongly opposing views, while still not agreeing with the
final decision, are more likely to speak positively about the engagement process and the
organisations undertaking the engagement find that their reputation remains intact.
REFERENCES
Edelman (2013) ‘2013 Trust Barometer’, viewed 10 July 2013, www.edelman.com
Grattan, M. (2012) ‘The glass of public trust in politics is nowhere near half full’, The Age, 15
June 2012, p 11.
National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure (1999),
see Schedule B8 Guideline on Community Engagement and Risk Communication
www.comlaw.gov.au
Sandman, Peter M. (2009) ‘Trust the Public with More of the Truth: What I Learned in 40
Years in Risk Communication’. The 2009 Berreth Lecture, presented to the National
Public Health Information Coalition, Miami Beach, Florida, October 20, viewed 2 July
2013,
http://www.psandman.com/articles/berreth.htm
Twyfords (2011), ‘Collaboration - the Power of ‘Co’ ’ viewed 4 July 2013,
www.twyfords.com.au
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RISK-BASED COMMUNITY CONSULTATION AS A BASIS FOR
REMEDIATION PARTNERSHIPS
Garry Smith
Smith Environmental, PO Box 68, Miranda, 1490, AUSTRALIA
smithenvironm@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
The process of identifying, cleaning up, and reusing both small contaminated sites and large
urban or peri-urban sites affects both existing adjacent communities and future generations
through social, including financial, effects. Community consultation on proposals for site
investigation, and on remediation project planning and practices, may be designed to include
important ethical, regulatory, and project-efficiency considerations.
Risk-based
communication has proven to be an effective approach to community inclusion and
engagement and to improve project implementation and outcomes.
AIMS
To review Australian and international literature and case studies in site remediation relevant
to community engagement and partnership by site remediators and proponents and
addressing regulatory expectations.
Remediation of chemically-affected urban or regional land represents an important public
and environment health protection process. Significant additional benefit of large-site
remediation to urban renewal, including in socio-economically disadvantaged areas, is also
evident. Some jurisdictions, for example the United States, have identified community
consultation inclusion programs for site investigation and remediation which facilitate
‘brownfields development’ (USEPA 2013).
Key aspects of community engagement include:
1. Stakeholder identification and involvement
Informed decision-making, including project financing, planning, regulatory approvals,
and stakeholder engagement, is important at the project conceptualization, initiation,
management and finalization stages. The perspectives of a variety of stakeholders,
including the community, are relevant to project decision-making and their consideration
contributes to establishment of trust between parties (Arnstein 1969). Equally, an
important element of successful project completion is that key project management
decisions remain with those who bear the financial and outcome responsibilities for the
project.
2. Community Inclusion
Jurisdictions with policies on contaminated land remediation commonly recognise the
importance, both ethically and in a project operational efficiency sense, of informing local
communities about a proposed remediation. This means including community members
in appropriate aspects of project decision-making and consideration of the community’s
vision for the local area plus perceptions of ‘quality of life’. Liaison with communities
about project planning, reporting on the remediation, and on addressing likely land quality
outcomes are important and a number of engagement principles have proven effective in
remediation projects (Heath et al. 2010).
Health and environment risk–based communication is a particularly valuable tool in such
stakeholder and community contact (USEPA 2013). Relevant issues in community
consultation may include some special components including gender, faith, race, disability,
and access to education/technical knowledge
271
Accountability of remediation project final outcomes against those communicated to key
stakeholders at the commencement of remediation is important to closure of social
expectations and to the value of a remediated site.
Communication considerations relevant to owners or investors of the land on which the
contamination is located may include:
- community health and mental well-being (how this may be affected by the
remediation and how it is being addressed);
- adjacent private land value impacts (can one sensibly identify and articulate potential
economic uplift associated with the remediation?);
- community social equity (are there examples of how this will be affected with the site
remediation?);
Matters which local communities and local government generally expect to be part of the
dialogue include:
- project planning, reporting, and likely land quality outcomes;
- the design of contaminant retrieval and treatment, chemical contaminant destruction
or disposal, and residue transport;
- project soil, groundwater and air emissions control, site closure, and reporting;
- health and environment risks, both short and long-term;
- evidence of regulatory approval, quality control in site investigation, and remediation
targets delivery.
CONCLUSIONS
Important community social expectations and perceptions about a remediation may,
addressed by clear and inclusive dialogues with stakeholders, improve project
implementation and outcomes. Risk-based communication techniques have been observed
to facilitate stakeholder and community engagement and to generate workable partnerships
in light of the potential benefits of a well-managed remediation project.
REFERENCES
Arnstein SR (1969) A Ladder of Citizen Participation, JAIP, Vol 35, No4, July 1969, pp 216224.
Heath L, Pollard SJT, Hrudey SE, and Smith G (2010) Engaging the Community: A
Handbook for professionals managing contaminated land, CRC for Contamination
Assessment and Remediation of the Environment, Adelaide, Australia.
USEPA (2013) Community Initiatives, US Environmental Protection Agency,
http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/policy/initiatives_co.htm (accessed 11 April 2013).
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E29
TARCUTTA STREET FORMER GASWORKS REMEDIATION –
Rhys Blackburn1, Prudence Parker2, Vanessa Keenan3
1
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd, 16/390 Eastern Valley Way, Roseville, 2069, AUSTRALIA
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd1/4 Revelation Close, Tighes Hill, NSW, 2297, AUSTRALIA
3
Wagga Wagga City Council, 243 Baylis Street Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, AUSTRALIA
Rhys@enviropacific.com.au
2
INTRODUCTION
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd (EPS) have been engaged by Wagga Wagga City Council
(WWCC) to undertake the remediation of the Former Tarcutta Street Gasworks Site, Wagga
Wagga NSW (the Site). This abstract provides insight into the advantages of a proactive
approach to community engagement and the benefits of a constant flow of information.
The Site was historically used for gas production from the late 1800s until its closure in 1964.
Residual materials created as by-products of the coal gasification works were either used to
reclaim land or injected into the ground. This poses both an environmental and health risk
due to the proximity of the Site to the Murrumbidgee River. Investigations of the extent of
contamination began in 1992 and consequently a Voluntary Remediation Agreement (VRA)
was entered into by WWCC with the Department of Environment and Climate Change
(DECC) in 2007.
The key issues regarding community concerns for the works include:
a) Closure of the largest unrestricted car park in the CBD
b) Local government funding with the assistance of an Environmental Trust grant;
c) General lack of urgency due to the length of the investigation process;
d) Public health and amenity associated with removal of contaminated materials.
COMMUNITY ENGAGMENET APPROACH
WWCC implemented a community engagement plan to provide consistent, regular and
detailed project information to the community. The primary aim of the consultation was to be
proactive and provide sufficient details of the project to allay curiosity and media speculation.
A combination of both traditional and contemporary methods was the centre mechanism of
the consultation approach. Traditional methods of communication such as community
information sessions, mail outs and printed advertisements were used prior to works
commencing onsite. These referred community members to the project website if further
information was required. The website provided regular updates and information regarding
changes to city parking, weekly progress reports, photographs, video and time lapse
photography of site activities. The information was able to be shared using social media
sites; in particular Twitter and Facebook. In addition to the above, signage was placed
around the site, clearly labelled with WWCC and EPS logos as well as a Quick Response
(QR) code for direct access using enabled smart phones.
Both approaches presented the community with information addressing the community
impacts and technical aspects of the project from the WWCC and EPS areas of expertise.
The proactive approach to providing the information ensured that questions regarding the
upcoming works were answered through one or both of these sources.
The webpage statistics on visits plotted against time is presented in Figure 1.
It is evident from the above figure that peaks in interest correlate to information releases
provided by WWCC and EPS as well as major onsite events such as the site mobilisation.
During the time period shown above more than 2,000 individuals accessed the site and more
than 1,600 documents were downloaded. These patterns indicate that the website was
273
established as a direct source for the community, with individuals returning multiple times for
further information.
Primary access to the site by the community was through Google, Facebook mobile and
Facebook, which were the largest source of webpage views. This indicated the potential to
communicate information to an increased demographic proportion of the community and that
the flow of information was being accessed when searched.
A media report containing incorrect information, which could have potentially caused a peak
in the data contained in Figure 1, was published on the 3rd of April 2013. From the above
data there is no evidence of a peak at this date. This indicated that the flow of information
prior to this report had deflated the potential impact it may have had if a proactive approach
had not been adopted. This is in comparison to previous media coverage which provided
new and credible information at the beginning of the project.
From this it is evident that the saturation of information available and level of accessibility
has sufficiently addressed community concerns of the public at this time.
Fig. 1. Number of Page Views in Response to Key Events in Project Timeline
CONCLUSION
The effectiveness of traditional forms of community consultation alone, whilst containing
relevant information, has a limited potential audience. The combination of both contemporary
and traditional methods allows up-to-date information to be provided and accessed at the
convenience of the public directly and accurately. The flow of information created by the
collaboration of WWCC and EPS provides a credibility of source which the community are
utilising as indicated by the website statistics. The benefit of the ability to provide an
instantaneous source of information and track website interaction allows the project team to
gauge community responses and the cost effectiveness of consultation measures. This is a
tool that should be utilised on future projects particularly those with sensitive community
issues. Whilst it is clear that the proactive approach has been effective to date, the test will
be if it continues as works progress and have a greater impact on the community.
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HISTORY IS THE HAND ON OUR SHOULDER —
THE RHODES PENINSULA REMEDIATION LEGACY PROJECT
Kate Hughes
Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Box 123 Broadway NSW, 2007
KathryneTeresa.Hughes@student.uts.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
When communities experience brownfields remediation at close quarters, it can be a
worrying time. Pre-project communication from the regulator or the proponent may not be
clear, correct or comprehensive and project start-up may be noisy and inconvenient. Affected
communities may be sceptical about how the remediator or developer responds to
unexpected impacts and question whether adequate funds have been allocated to manage
all eventualities. Is the industry response open and accountable? Does it indicate “best
practice?” Communities do not always trust developers because some have shown
themselves to be untrustworthy.
Remediation projects typically deal with managing and sometimes destroying soils or
sediment contaminated with hazardous chemicals. Impacts may include noise, odour, dust
and “air toxics” pollution, all of which can disrupt neighbourhood amenity and in some cases,
affect people’s health. Sometimes human error may occur in the management of the process
and there is always the chance of an unexpected event. Equipment may break down or
unidentified pollutants be discovered on site. There may be a weather event like gale force
winds, creating an unforeseen challenge in pollution management for those responsible.
Peoples’ experience of toxic chemical pollution is very variable but often has common
characteristics, not the least being the primal fear of being poisoned. This basic emotion
shapes peoples’ attitude to pollution clean up and where brownfields remediation is involved,
confidence building about project integrity is extremely important. In particular, when
brownfields remediation leaves dioxins buried at depth under residential buildings, it is
essential that a comprehensive and accessible record of the clean up process in its entirety
be provided. This was done after the completion of the remediation of the Homebush
Olympic site and also after the Rhodes Peninsula dioxin clean-up, taking the form of a series
of legacy web pages, hosted by the City of Canada Bay.
AIMS
This paper will provide some background about the Rhodes Peninsula Remediation Legacy
Web Pages project which was prepared to ensure that the history of the area, the
remediation process and its’ outcomes were recorded. The paper begins with a brief
description of the project’s origins in the community consultation process for the “Sydney
2000” green games and its’ successor, the Rhodes Community Consultative Committee. A
description of the City of Canada Bay’s role in supporting the project will be provided,
followed by information about the structure of the actual project.
METHOD
The Legacy Web Pages project began in early 2011 when the City of Canada Bay mobilised
a developer’s contribution that had been specifically assigned to finance it. In October the
year before, Council had resolved to enter into Voluntary Planning Agreements with
developers of the Peninsula which included the setting aside of $50,000 to provide “an
information legacy about the remediation and redevelopment of the Rhodes Peninsula”.
Council then prepared a scope of work that and engaged a contractor, requesting the
provision of written content provided in a plain English and concise format for the following
subjects:
The remediation of Rhodes
x Overview and history
x The process
275
x Key outcomes
x Current situation
x Milestones
x Research papers (bibliography/links) and Quick Links
Industry
x Overview
x Brief history
Photographs
x A Photo gallery of relevant photographs with accompanying captions.
Council also requested the provision of relevant publications and newspaper clippings.
RESULTS
A contractor was engaged to prepare the web pages. Issues encountered on the way
included the need to source and ensure the veracity of, documents about the pollution of
Homebush Bay and the complex regulatory response to the impacts that it created. Another
challenge was to compress the 100 year story of the industrialisation, contamination,
remediation and development of the Rhodes Peninsula into something that fitted Council’s
wider goal of delivering a new website to suit the needs of the growing community. The
project content was finalised in December 2012.
CONCLUSION
With the City of Canada Bay experiencing the fastest urban growth of any area in NSW, the
need for information about the brownfields clean up was critical. Over 40% of the Rhodes
community was borne overseas and many are unfamiliar with the geography of their local
environment and unaware of its industrial past. The importance of communicating the
message about the scope of the clean up, the residual sediment pollution and resultant
restrictions on fishing west of the Gladesville Bridge cannot be underestimated. At Rhodes,
there will be probably pressure to expand marine-based recreational activities, including
sailing, however one thing is for sure, the sediments of the Bay are best left undisturbed, and
recreational activities cannot be unconstrained. The owners of the Bay, Roads and Maritime
Services are now considering these and other matters. Once they have completed the
Management Plan for the Bay, there will be a need for ongoing communication about why it
is not suitable for all water-based recreational activities. After all, the Bay remains regulated
as a remediation site and an essential element of best practice remediation is good quality
communication. Also critical is the need to ensure that all future purchasers of some of the
apartments are made aware of the layered residual soils under these buildings. For these
reasons, it was essential that the record of the area's industrial history and rehabilitation was
retained and a high quality, accountable and visible environmental management program be
put in place.
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E32
CHRISTCHURCH, CONTAMINATION AND THE EMOTIONAL
COST OF LAND REPAIR
Isla Hepburn1, Davina McNickel1, Barbara Campany2
1
Canterbury Regional Council (Environment Canterbury), Christchurch, NZ
2
GHD, Sydney and Christchurch NZ
isla.hepburn@ecan.govt.nz, davina.mcnickel@ecan.govt.nz
INTRODUCTION
The region of Canterbury suffered three significant earthquake events between September
2010 and June 2011, in addition to over ten thousand aftershocks since that time. These
earthquakes had a widespread and devastating effect, particularly on New Zealand's second
largest city, Christchurch. The loss of life was high, and for those who have survived, the
emotional, physical and financial strains over the last few years have been unprecedented.
The authorities and local community have worked tirelessly since that time to recover and
rebuild this popular city.
The earthquakes caused extensive damage to large areas of land across the city including
potentially contaminated sites. Environment Canterbury is responsible for identifying land
that is potentially contaminated in the region, and had been doing so over a number of years.
However, the process in Christchurch was fast tracked in order to help the earthquake
recovery as much as possible. Consequently, the regional council has had to deal with site
identification and landowner notification on an unprecedented scale and within short
timeframes.
This paper discusses the approach developed by Environment Canterbury, in conjunction
with the stakeholder engagement and risk communication team within GHD, to engage with
those affected communities and the outcomes of that engagement.
BACKGROUND
Under the Resource Management Act (1991), regional councils in New Zealand have a
function to investigate land for the purposes of identifying and monitoring contaminated land.
To help with this, the Ministry for the Environment compiled a list of activities and industries
which have the potential to contaminate land, surface water and ground water by their use,
storage or disposal of hazardous substances. This is called the Hazardous Activities and
Industries List (HAIL) and includes land uses such as fuel storage sites, timber treatment
yards and landfills.
Environment Canterbury uses their Listed Land Use Register (LLUR), a spatial database, to
manage information about HAIL sites. Information is gathered and corroborated from a
variety of reliable sources, including council records, trade directories and aerial
photographs. Typically, once a site is identified, the site is registered on the LLUR and the
property owner is sent a letter informing them they are on a HAIL site. The Council is not
legally required to notify those affected landowners; however, Environment Canterbury has
established internal processes, based on central government guidelines, to inform
landowners in writing and offer an opportunity for them to provide further information.
In most circumstances, the actual presence of contamination is unknown and therefore
owners are simply informed of the potential for contamination, which can often be
misconstrued.
HAIL Sites Impacted by the Earthquake Events
The extensive damage to residential properties, particularly in some areas of the city,
requires complex land repair strategies, involving large scale earthworks and stabilisation of
soils. It became imperative that all HAIL sites in Christchurch were identified as quickly as
possible so that an assessment could be made as to whether earthworks required to repair
the damage might cause contaminants to be mobilised. With this knowledge measures
277
could then be put in place to protect the health of residents, contractors, and the
environment.
REQUIREMENT FOR A RISK COMMUNICATION APPROACH
Within Christchurch there are many residential areas that are known to have been built on
sites that previously accommodated a HAIL, such as former horticultural sites. This means
entire neighbourhoods could be affected by the same land use, and notification to these
neighbourhoods posed significant communication challenges. The scale of the potential
impact of this notification work was significant because it would potentially trigger a
community reaction much greater than that experienced under normal circumstances. Two
years on, community resilience is waning, and the mental, physical and emotional stress of
facing the frustrations of rebuilding is higher than ever. The community concerns related to:
(a) Potential health impact and quality of life.
(b) Financial impact – who will pay?
(c) Property value and stigma – who will buy?
(d) Blame – whose fault is it?
(e) Perceived lack of care by previous governments to allow this to occur.
(f) Ongoing fatigue and emotional impact.
Environment Canterbury applied the risk communication framework adapted from Health
Canada 2000, as cited in CRCCare’s publication Engaging the Community to the
development of its framework and risk communication plan, in addition to the IAP2 principles
of public participation. This Risk Communication Framework has been an important step to
help articulate the overall approach to responding to the key communication challenges.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
At the time of preparation of this Abstract the community engagement project was still
underway. The outcomes of the application of a risk communication approach and the
learnings from Environment Canterbury’s experience will be presented prior to or as part of
the conference in September.
REFERENCES
Heath, L, Pollard, S.J.T., Hrudey, S.E., and Smith, G , Engaging the Community: a handbook
for professionals managing contaminated land.
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UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF PARTICIPANT VALUES IN
REMEDIATION DECISION MAKING
Jason Hugh Prior
Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway,
NSW, 2007, Australia
jason.prior@uts.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Decisions about the technologies, methods and desired outcomes from the remediation of
environmental contamination are increasingly made through decision-making processes that
involve a multitude of different stakeholders ranging from representatives of major
multinational corporations through to local neighbours. There is increasing recognition of the
role that participant values play within these processes and how they affect and guide
decision outcomes (Abbotts and Takaro, 2005). Pollard et al. (2004) has identified
considering participant values and how those values are incorporated into remediation
decision making (RDM) as a key challenge of the scholarly and professional communities
dealing with remediation.
Whilst few studies provide insight into the ways in which values influence RDM for
contaminated environments, no studies have investigated the association between
stakeholder values and the diverse rules and norms operating within these processes. To
address this last research omission, this study seeks to develop a better understanding of
the associations between the rules and norms governing RDM and stakeholders values. The
study focuses on two types of institutions: rules and norms. Given the diversity of values and
institutions that are likely to be operating within decision-making processes for contaminated
environments we chose to narrow the scope of our research by focusing on notions of
sustainability within RDM. Over recent decades the desire to achieve sustainability has been
increasingly recognized as a driver within decision-making processes in diverse jurisdictions
such as the European Union, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Australia
and New Zealand (Bardos et al., 2011,p.79; Pollard et al., 2004,p.15)
METHODS
To address the studies aim, we carried out a systematic analysis of norms and rules that
were being used by participants involved in RDM processes at three different sites across
Australia, using in-depth interviews conducted with 18 participants. To protect the
confidentiality of participants involved within each RDM processes, only generic information
is provided on the processes and interviewees at each site. One site was located in Western
Australia, the second in New South Wales, and the third in South Australia. Whilst our
analysis is focused on RDM processes at three specific sites, this study generalized findings
beyond the unique instances of these three RDM processes. It did so by using a systematic
analysis to elicit those rules and norms that are common to all three RDM processes, and to
examine how participant values are associated with these rules and norms (Byrne, 2009).
Within the systematic analysis rules were principally understood as being driven by formal
sanctions (e.g. penalty), whilst norms were principally understood as being driven by social
and personal values. The University of Technology Sydney Human Research Ethics
Committee approved the research.
A semi-structured interview instrument was designed to obtain data on norms, rules and
values within the RDM processes at the three Australian sites. For the purposes of this study
we interviewed the same six participant types in each of the three Australian RDM
processes. These included the problem holder, the local environmental regulator authority
representative, the auditor, the remedial service provider, neighbors, and local or regional
government planners. In this study the problem holders were all owners of the sites that
were the points of origin of the environmental contamination (e.g. the source site).
279
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study addressed a significant omission in that it provides some of the very first insights
into the associations between participant values, and rules and norms within the context of
site remediation. The study exposed a broad range of norms and rules operating within the
RMD processes. These norms and rules were built up around aims focused on incorporating
sustainability into RDM processes, aims that were valued differently by the participant types
involved in the RDM processes. Furthermore, the study suggested that far more norms than
rules are used, both to make RDM processes sustainable and to support sustainable
outcomes from the RDM processes. Finally, the study provides insights into the social and
personal values that drove participants to address those norms.
Whilst the analysis does not discard tangible sanctions (e.g. monetary penalty, proscribed
consultation methods) as a driver within RDM processes, the analysis highlights what many
scholars have already pointed out: how particularly important social values and personal
values are for operationalizing decision making processes (see e.g. Smith and Dickhaut,
2005). In acknowledging this point it is worth recognizing that some social values and
personal values may be a lot more powerful than others, or more powerful than tangible
sanctions (e.g. monetary fines) in driving RDM processes.
The study opens up several new perspectives on how such processes operate. The
evidence from our analysis provides compelling support for the development of pragmatic
tools, studies and methods to encourage and enable participants within RDM processes to
make explicit the diverse values, norms and rules within RDM processes and the
associations between them.
REFERENCES
Abbotts J, Takaro TK. (2005) The Hanford 100 area: The influence of expressed stakeholder
values on remediation decisions. Federal Facilities Environmental Journal, Vol.16,
pp. 71-87.
Bardos P, Bone B, Boyle R, Ellis D, Evans F, Harries N (2011) Applying sustianable
development principles to contaminated land managemnet using the SuRF-UK
Framework. Remediation Journal, Vol. 21: 77-100.
Byrne D. (2009) Case-Based Methods: Why We Need Them; What They Are; How To Do
Them. In: Bryne D, Ragin CC, editors. The SAGE Handbook of Case-Based Methods.
SAGE Publications, London.
Pollard SJT, Brookes A, Earl N, Lowe J, Kearney T, Nathanail CP (2004) Integrating decision
tools for the sustainable management of land contamination. Science of The Total
Environment, Vol. 325, pp15-28.
Smith K, Dickhaut J. (2005) Economics and emotion: Institutions matter. Games and
Economic Behavior. Vol. 52, pp. 316-335.
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ASSESSING MERCURY AND METHYL MERCURY BIOAVAILABILITY
IN SEDIMENT USING MERCURY-SPECIFIC DGTS
Paul Goldsworthy1, Nicholas Steenhaut2, Aria Amirbahman3, Delia Massey3,
Guilherme Lotufo4, Lauren Brown5, Victor Magar6
1
ENVIRON Australia, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
ENVIRON International Corporation, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
3
University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
4
US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA
5
ENVIRON International Corporation, Portland, Maine, USA
6
ENVIRON International Corporation, Chicago, Illinois, USA
pgoldsworthy@environcorp.com
2
INTRODUCTION
The primary objective of our research is to develop engineering tools for more cost effective
assessment of mercury (Hg) and methyl mercury (MeHg) bioavailability in undisturbed
sediment. We have developed and optimized mercury-specific hydrogels, which operate on
the principle of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), and provide a measure of Hg and
MeHg lability in sediments. In a series of laboratory experiments, we evaluated the
correlation between chemical lability and bioavailability by assessing the respective Hg and
MeHg uptake dynamics of DGTs and macroinvertebrates. The results of these exposure
experiments were used to assess the potential of the DGTs as biomonitoring surrogates.
METHODS
In a first phase of work, we optimized DGTs for deployment in mercury-impacted sediments
by evaluating the effects of the DGT material, thickness, deployment time, and extraction
methods on the overall performance. In a second phase of work, we deployed test
organisms and DGTs simultaneously in a series of bench-scale time-series experiments to
assess the relationship between DGT and benthic invertebrate tissue data. These
experiments have been performed using various benthic organisms, and sediments with a
range of organic carbon (OC) contents and Hg concentrations. The strength of the
correlative relationship between tissue and DGT data was assessed for each of these
experiments.
In the first exposure experiment, we deployed three organisms with separate feeding
strategies (Macoma nasuta, Leptocheirus plumulosus, Nereis virens) together with DGTs in a
series of exposure vessels containing estuarine sediment from the Penobscot River in
Maine. Correlation between tissue and DGT data was good for M. nasuta and L. plumulosus
(M. nasuta Total Hg shown in Figure 1), but not for N. virens, which physically damaged the
DGT devices and oxygenated the DGT/sediment interface.
In the second exposure experiment, we deployed M. nasuta together with DGTs in a series
of exposure vessels containing estuarine sediments from the Penobscot River in Maine with
varying OC contents (8%, 4%, 2%, and 4% with activated carbon amendment). Correlation
between tissue and DGT data was good in the 8% and 4% OC vessels, but generally lower
than the previous M nasuta experiment.
In the third exposure experiment, we deployed Lumbriculus variegatus together with DGTs in
a series of exposure vessels containing freshwater sediments from Dodge Pond
(Connecticut, USA) with varying Hg contents (10 ppm, 4 ppm, 1 ppm). Correlation between
tissue and DGT data was good for total Hg, but no material amounts of MeHg were observed
in tissue samples, despite observing clear MeHg uptake in the DGTs.
281
Figure 1:
M.nasuta and DGT total mercury (THg) uptake.
CONCLUSIONS
Although more experimental work and field testing is needed to assess the range of
conditions suitable for this application of DGT technology, initial laboratory results
demonstrate the potential of DGTs as a tool for assessing Hg and MeHg bioavailability in
contaminated sediments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We gratefully acknowledge the Strategic Environmental Research and Development
Program (SERDP) for funding this work.
282
E36
ORAL BIOAVAILABILITY OF BENZO[A]PYRENE SOILS —
THE USE OF A SWINE MODEL
Luchun Duan1,2, Thavamani Palanisami1,2, Yanju Liu1,2, Mallavarapu Megharaj1,2,
Jean Meaklim3, Ravi Naidu1,2
1
Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR), and
Coorperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the
Environment (CRC CARE), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5095, Australia
3
URS Australia Pty Ltd, Level 6, 1 Southbank Boulevard, Melbourne, VIC3006, Australia
2
INTRODUCTION
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in the terrestrial environment.
Ingestion of PAH contaminated soil is considered to be a major route of exposure1. The
absorption of soil borne contaminants in the gastro-intestinal system may be modulated by
the soil-chemical interaction2. The physicochemical properties of soil which influence the
affinity of the hydrophobic organic compounds to the soil matrix could probably change the
bioavailability of these chemicals. Thus, the present study selected four contrasting soils
varying in organic carbon, clay content and pH to evaluate the effect of these soil properties
on a model high molecular weight PAH Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)’s oral bioavailability. BaP was
selected given its toxicity, carcinogenicity and presence in the environment subjected to
certain industrial activities. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the role of soil
properties on extractability and oral bioavailability of BaP in animal model.
METHODS
The soils were spiked with 50 mg/kg of BaP and the swine model was chosen to simulate its
absorption in human digestive system.
Soil spiking and extraction of BaP from soils
Soils (<2-mm) were spiked with BaP using toluene: acetone (1:2, v/v) mixture solvent at 1%
(v/w) dry weight basis. The solvent was allowed to evaporate overnight in fume hood and the
spike recovery (1.5g soil, n=3) was checked thereafter by extracting subsamples of soils
three times with 10 ml (1:1, v/v) dichloromethane(DCM)/Acetone facilitated by sonication 15
min repeated twice. Extraction was carried out again at the time of dosing the animals.
Swine model for oral bioavailability
Dosing:
The spiked soils were rehydrated to 60% of their water holding capacity and allowed to
incubate for 6 days for stabilisation following which the soils were air dried one day prior to
dosing. The pigs were fasted for 16 hours and the soil was mixed with food while dosing
(n=3). Blood samples were taken following dosing of the contaminated soils to the animals
(n=3). The BaP concentration in plasma was plotted over time.
Sample treatment and oral bioavailability calculation:
The blood sample (10 ml) was drawn at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 24, 30, 48, 72, 96
hours post dosing through the jugular vein catheter inserted via operation at least one day
before dosing. Plasma (4 ml) was separated immediately by centrifugation (4200 rpm,
20min) and extracted with 12 ml hexane facilitated by sonication 5 min twice. The solvent
extracts were evaporated and concentrated to 100 ul in acetonitrile before analysed on
HPLC using a Fluorescence detector.
Data analysis
The oral bioavailability of BaP was expressed as the area under the curve (AUC). Silica sand
which does not bind to the chemical was used as a control to derive relative bioavailability.
Data of AUC was calculated using Origin Pro 8.0 SR1 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton,
MA, USA).
283
The spike recovery of BaP varied from 85.2 to 92.6 % in the study soils and was strongly
correlated with soil TOC and pH (spike recovery=-1.3 TOC+93.9, R2=0.86 or 3.65 pH+66.9,
R2=0.99). However, after 6 days, the extractable fractions showed no correlation with either
TOC (R2 <0.02) or pH (R2 <0.07) while weak correlation was found with Clay (extractable
fraction=-0.65Clay+66.7, R2=0.41).
Table 1. Description of the soils used for dosing the animals
Soil
TOC
(%)
Clay
(%)
pH
MTA
BDA
I
N
7.50
3.27
5.06
1.71
21.2
30.9
10.7
5.7
5.1
6.0
5.1
7.1
Extractable Fraction1 (%)
Spike recovery
Day1
Day 6
85.2±0.4
63.6±4.8
89.4±5.8
41.8±0.6
85.6±1.6
50.8±0.8
92.6±4.8
66.0±2.8
Relative
Bioavailability2
(%)
55.0±49.4
63.7±43.7
73.6±21.2
100.8±27.5
1
Extractable Fraction in soils were determined using a DCM/Acetone sonication method specified in METHODS after spiking
(Day1) and at the time when dose to animal (Day6)
2
Relative Bioavailability were calculated by AUCsoil/AUCsand and the standard deviation of AUCsand was 11.0% (n=2).
The relative bioavailability of each soil varied largely within each soil group however a strong
correlation was found between the DCM/Acetone extractable fraction and the relative
bioavailable fraction when soil MTA was excluded (Figure1). Further investigation is in
progress using MTA soil.
140
relative bioavailability (%)
120
y=1.6x-8.7
R2=0.97
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Acetone/DCM extractable fraction (%)
Fig. 1. Correlation between soil Extractable Fraction using DCM/Acetone and Relative
Bioavailability in Swine Model
CONCLUSIONS
It is evident from the present study, that soil properties influence both oral bioavailability and
extractability of BaP from spiked soils. The extractability of spiked BaP was influenced by
specific soil properties such as TOC, Clay, pH. The present results also suggest a
prospective way using solvent extraction method to estimate oral bioavailability although
further work is necessary to validate these using additional soils.
REFERENCES
Hansen, J. B., Oomen, A. G., Edelgaard, I., & Grøn, C. (2007). Oral Bioaccessibility and
Leaching: Tests for Soil Risk Assessment. Engineering in Life Sciences, 7(2), 170-176.
Van Schooten, F. J., Moonen, E. J. C., van der Wal, L., Levels, P., & Kleinjans, J. C. S.
(1997). Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and Their Metabolites
in Blood, Feces, and Urine of Rats Orally Exposed to PAH Contaminated Soils. Archives
of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 33(3), 317-322.
284
E37
DECISIONS, DECISIONS, DECISIONS – THE UNIVERSAL
TECHNICAL CURSE OF HONEST ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION
OF NASTY, TOXIC SVOC (PAH) SITES
Allen W. Hatheway
Private Consultant, Rolla, Missouri, USA
allen@hatheway.net
SUMMARY
Over the past 45 years since the true dawn of the Environmental Era (1969, with the U.S.
National Environmental Policy Act), the best engineering and science minds of the modern
world have concentrated on defining the honest truths of the Alternatives and their
constituent Technologies best suited to carrying out the technical side (minus socio-political
influences), for offering the greatest protection to the citizenry and at the lowest possible
actual risk, and at the most reasonable cost. Choosing derelict gasworks as the most
appropriate all-around master technical challenge, we herewith examine an honest appraisal
of what we are up against and how we are accomplishing remediation in a responsible
manner.
Clearly early emergent in the best of overall deliberation was the umbrella body known as
Ex-Situ Remediation, and this becomes the body of discussion. For handy and intense
reference, I here dwell on the U.S. trends, having just emerged from casework on the great
SUPERFUND NPL (National Priority List) Gowanus Canal, Borough of Brooklyn, and also
the Queens West State-Sponsored private-sector redevelopment of the former Hunters Point,
Long Island City (Borough of Queens); both integral parts of New York City, separated only
by the also infamous Newtown Creek. Into this witch's cauldron I pour my understanding of
key Australian "bugger" coal-tar sites!
The main points to be presented and stimulated are these interwoven concerns:
Planning (Feasibility) Stage
x Clear Understanding of Gasworks Operational History
x Accurate Site Characterization
x Relating Actual or Potential Hot Spots to Operational History
x Selection of Contaminants of Concern (CoC's)
x Concern for the Fate & Transport of the CoC's
x Choice of Action Level as the Outer Bound of the Hot Spots
x Potential Need to Apply Operable Units
x Never Lose Sight of Relative Cost/m3 of the CoC Removals
Design & Conduct of Remediation
x Selection of Ex-Situ Remediation (the Alternative) Component Technologies
x Need to De-water each CoC mass
x Doctrine of Contaminant Separation (strictly grossly physical/chemical)
x When to Resort to the Use of Barrier Technologies
x Control of Vapor Emissions during Application
x Strive to Treat the CoC Masses on Site
x Aim to Detoxify to the Level of Returned Backfill
x Wear a White Hat and Honor the Public
The lessons that emerge here are applicable to virtually all waste-generic and industrygeneric hazardous waste sites. And in parting, the attendees should know that Hatheway is
no friend of the dastardly practice of "risking away" actual citizen risk, with convoluted
assumptions of 'what might happen' – rather than to pay attention to 'what has and is
happening.'
285
E38
REMEDIATION OPTIONS FOR HEAVILY CONTAMINATED TPH
SEDIMENTS
Euan Smith, Thavamani Palanisami, Kavitha Ramadass, Weihong Wang, Ravi Naidu,
Prashant Srivastava, Megharaj Mallavarapu
Environmental Building, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, 5051, AUSTRALIA
CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment, P.O. Box 486,
Salisbury South, Adelaide, 5095, AUSTRALIA
euan.smith@unisa.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Petroleum hydrocarbons are a widely utilised global resource but their use has led to the
contamination of many environments (Pollard et al., 1994). Australia is not immune from the
issue of hydrocarbon contamination and the contamination of soil, sediments and water is
common in many Australian settings (Clements et al., 2009). There are a plethora of
approaches and techniques that may be utilised to remediate hydrocarbon contaminated
sites. But the remediation approach and selection of remediation methodology depends on a
host of various parameters including; environmental, economic, and the ecological and
human health outcomes expected. One of the constraints for remediating hydrocarbon
contaminated soils is the degree of weathering of the hydrocarbon contamination that has
taken place. The weathering process leads to difficulties in the selection of technologies to
remediate petroleum hydrocarbons. In this research, a number of engineered approaches
were investigated to remediate residual petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sediment soil
located in the Pilbara region.
METHODS
Petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sediment from the Pilbara region was utilised to
evaluate techniques that could potentially be used for on-site to remediation of sediment. The
remediation techniques assessed included; biopiling, bioslurry and chemical oxidation.
Sediment Characterisation
Sediment samples from various depths and locations within the main sediment receiving
lagoon were analysed for mineralogy, physio-chemical characteristics and microbial
physiognomics.
Remediation Assessment
Laboratory based microcosm studies were undertaken to investigate the efficacy of the
biopile and bioslurry treatment techniques and ex-situ chemical oxidation studies were also
evaluated at the bench scale.
Microcosm studies
Microcosm biopile studies investigated the addition of soil amendments to improve the
physical characteristics of the contaminated sediment and C14-hexadecane was added to
evaluate the bioremediation efficacy of the amendments. Bioslurry microcosm studies were
undertaken in a similar manner after C14-hexadecane was added to the soil evaluate the
bioremediation efficacy of the bioslurry treatments.
Chemical Oxidation studies
Sodium persulphate was added to bioslurry treatment in the presence of different surfactants
and activated by either adjusting the slurry pH, or by the addition of a ferrous-EDTA complex.
The bioslurry treatments were monitored over a 21 day period and analysed when the
surface tension was equal to deionised water.
286
The TPH concentration in the contaminated sediment ranged from <5000 to >100000 mg
kg-1. The sediment was mainly comprised of silt (78±4%) and clay (15±2%) fractions.
Hematite, quartz and kaolin were the main minerals present in these fractions. The sediment
was slightly alkaline (pH 8) but the EC1:5 was elevated (1.8 mS cm-1). Microbial growth
studies on agar plates with a low hydrocarbon concentration identified the presence of few
bacterial colonies after 7 days exposure. Biopile microcosm studies using C14-hexadecane
found that there was little degradation of C14-hexadecane even after 75 days of treatments
(Fig. 1). The opposite was true for the bioslurry studies where nearly 100% of the C14hexadecane was degraded after 40 days after the addition of amendments to the bioslurry
(Fig. 2). Chemical oxidation studies identified that base activated persulphate was markedly
more effective than either biopile or bioslurry in degrading weathered TPH in the sediment
but required the presence of surfactant to enhance sediment TPH into the aqueous phase.
Fig. 1. Effect of soil amendments on degradation of C14-hexadecane under biopile conditions.
Fig. 2. Effect of soil amendments on degradation of C14-hexadecane under bioslurry conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
Laboratory based studies identified that biopiling of weathered hydrocarbons would not
remediate TPH contaminated sediment. Bioslurrying and chemical oxidation were successful
in remediating TPH contaminated sediment and would provide a favourable outcome if
employed on-site.
REFERENCES
Clements, L., Palaia, T., Davis, J. (2009) Characterisation of sites impacted by petroleum
hydrocarbons: National guideline document. CRC CARE Technical Report No. 11, CRC
CARE, Adelaide, Australia.
Pollard, S.J.T., Hrudey, S.E. and Fedorak, P.M. (1994) Bioremediation of petroleum- and
creosote-contaminated soils: a review of constraints. Waste Manage. Res. 12:173-194.
287
E39
THE EFFECTS OF AN ORGANIC BARRIER ON CHROMITE ORE
PROCESSING RESIDUE
Regin Orquiza1, Chris Conoley2, Philip Mulvey2
1
EESI Contracting, PO Box 425, Yarraville, 3013, AUSTRALIA
Centre for Contaminant Geoscience, PO Box380, North Sydney, 2059, AUSTRALIA
rorquiza@environmentalearthsciences.com
2
INTRODUCTION
Chromium is an important industrial metal. Millions of tonnes of chromite ore processing
residue (COPR) have been produced worldwide. In the United States, chromium is the
second most common metal contaminant at sites that Records of Decision have been signed
(USEPA 2000).
Chromium in the natural environment consists of either the tri-Cr(III) or the hexavalent Cr(VI)
form due to their superior thermodynamic stability. Most of the Cr(VI) is due to human
activity, which is highly oxidizing, soluble, mutagenic and toxic. Cr(VI) can be reduced to the
less toxic and less bioavailable Cr(III).
This paper reports on the use of an organic mulch to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III) from a chromium
ore processing residue (COPR). The remediation of COPR material has limitations due to the
complexity of the material, the varied nature of the material and the high acid neutralising
capacity (ANC) values which buffers the material to a high pH. The use of acid to reduce the
pH of the COPR material allowing chemical and biological methods to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III)
has been shown to be expensive (>$1000/m3 for hydrochloric acid at 2009 prices) and is
unlikely to succeed as acids at these levels will change the elemental and mineralogical
composition of the Cr(VI) solids (Tinjum 2008).
It is clear that a reduction of Cr(VI) by biological means is achievable (Whittleston 2011,
Stewart et al 2010) providing alkaline buffering does not occur. Trailing a similar approach
we neutralised the alkaline pore water in the soil ex-situ and returned the soil to a cell
covering a biological reduction layer and then monitored the outcome.
METHODS
An in-situ field trial was commenced in August 2009. The experiment consisted of excavating
a larger pit 5 x 5 m to a depth of 1.63 m. The bottom of the pit was ripped, rolled and
compacted so that the floor of the pit had a slight fall to the centre where two agricultural
pipes were connected to PVC risers. This was covered with 200 mm of blue metal gravel.
Approximately 2,000 L of town water were added to cover the blue metal gravel. A 0.3 m
layer of organic material with microbial inoculants was placed above the blue metal.
Approximately 25m3 of soil taken from one of the CLRP and was used to backfill this pit.
These soils were mixed using the Mobile Unit for Soil Treatment (MUST) and a mixture of
660 L of 5% HCl and 99 kg of iron sulphate was sprayed onto the soil as it passed through
the MUST. Treated soil then put back into the hole and trackrolled. The pore volume of this
soil was 0.46 g/cm3. At the end of 13 months, soil cores where taken from the pit using a
50mm geoprode plastic lined corer driven in with the Environmental Earth Sciences soil
sampling rig. The cores were driven to a depth until they impacted with the organic layer at
the bottom of the pit, these cores were then brought back to the laboratory and divided into
30mm sections.
The soil water was monitored over a period of 13 months with both field observation and
laboratory data taken at regular times throughout the trial. The soil water was sampled from
the PVC access pipe using a small submersible pump with 10L purged before a sample was
taken for analysis.
288
The initial total soil chromium concentrations were 11,000 to 14,000 mg/kg and the
hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) concentration of between 850mg/kg and 1,000 mg/kg with a
pore water Cr(VI) concentration of 130 mg/L to 160mg/L. The entrapped water sampled
throughout the trial had chromium concentrations ranging from 21mg/L to < 1 mg/L and the
hexavalent chromium < 0.01mg/L.
At the end of the trial 7000 L were pumped from the piezometer and then a water sample
was taken with chromium at 0.19mg/L. Additionally at this time soil cores were taken down to
the gravel layer, a depth of approximately 1m below the surface. The cores were then
sectioned into 30mm segments and analysed for total chromium and hexavalent chromium.
The results showed no change in the total chromium values 10,000mg/kg to 15,000mg/kg
and hexavalent chromium at 800 to 1200mg/kg except in the soil above the organic layer
where the values were 23 - 570 mg/kg and at the pit surface 120 – 220mg/kg.
The data we obtained were due to the soil being saturated with water resulting from a rainfall
event about a month into the field trial which allowed the pore water to be reduced under
anaerobic conditions with a negative redox potential. The microbial population was able to
shift from aerobic respiration to methanogenesis and in the process reduce the available
Cr(VI) to Cr(III) (Stewart 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
The pore water in the CORP soil which had been treated with a mixture of hydrochloric
acid/iron sulfate was passed through a mulch layer with no Cr(VI) found in the water below
the mulch layer. Soil cores taken from the CORP material after 13 months showed a
reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in the soil above the organic reactive barrier. Thus not only has
immigration of Cr(VI) to the groundwater been neutralized by the organic reactive barrier but
soil treatment is occurring passively
Therefore the use of an organic barrier to passively treat the COPR pore water (and as seen
in soil cores the COPR material as well), is a faster in-situ reduction than that achieved by
slow weathering.
REFERENCES
Whittleston, R.A. (2011) Bioremediation of chromate in alkaline sediment-water systems.
PhD thesis, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds UK.
Stewart, I.S, Burke, I.T. and Mortimer, R.J.D. (2007) Stimulation of microbially mediated
chromate reduction in alkaline soil-water systems. Geomicrobiology Journal. 24:655-669.
Stewart, I.S, Burke, I.T. Hughes-Berry., D.V., and Whittleston, R.A. (2010.) Microbially
mediated chromate reduction in soil contaminated by highly alkaline leachate from
chromium containing waste. Ecol. Eng. 36, 211-221.
Tinjum, J.M., Benson, C.H.and Edil, T.B. (2008) Mobilization of Cr(VI) from chromite ore
processing residue through acid treatment Sci. Total Environ. 391 13-25
USEPA Technical Resource Guide. (2000). In Situ Treatment of Soil and Groundwater
Contaminated with Chromium.
289
E40
CHEMICAL IMMOBILISATION OF LEAD IMPACTED SOILS
Annette Nolan and Fred Lunsmann
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd, PO Box 295, Wickham, NSW, 2293, AUSTRALIA
annette@enviropacific.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Waste materials contaminated with inorganic contaminants are usually remediated by
chemical immobilisation, where the contaminants are chemically bound in the waste as
insoluble minerals. Chemical immobilisation is generally a better alternative to cement
stabilisation or physical encapsulation (solidification) as the stability of the contaminants is
not dependent on maintaining the structure of the physical encapsulation. The aim of
chemical immobilisation is to reduce the leachability of the contaminants in order to facilitate
on-site placement of the treated waste or disposal to landfill at a reduced hazard
classification.
This paper investigates the chemical behaviour of lead in soil from two sites in NSW,
Australia that were recently remediated by Enviropacific Services. The site at Alexandria was
a former Service Station and the site at Young was historically used for metal recycling and
processing of lead acid batteries. The remediation methodology involved chemical
immobilisation of leachable lead to form insoluble lead phosphate minerals, with 5000 tonnes
of impacted soil from the two sites successfully treated.
METHODS
Treatment trials were conducted prior to the full-scale treatment projects in order to optimise
reagent addition. Bulk samples (20 kg) of highly impacted soil were collected from each site,
located at Alexandria and Young in NSW. A hand-held XRF (Olympus Innov-X, Alpha model)
was utilised to target the most highly impacted soils for the treatment trial. The bulk samples
were homogenised and then 1 kg subsamples were sampled for treatment. The treatment
process utilised triple superphosphate and rock phosphate, plus magnesium oxide to buffer
the soil pH. Soil pH and pH buffering capacity are important to the long term success of the
stabilisation process for soils in order to prevent lead remobilising with time. Rock phosphate
has also been shown to improve the long term stability of lead. The subsamples were mixed
with the different reagents and allowed to cure for 3 days before being tested at a NATA
accredited laboratory for leachable lead (TCLP, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure,
1992; or ASLP, Australian Standard Leaching Procedure, AS 4439.3-1997).
The results in Tables 1 and 2 are for the optimal treatments from the bench-scale trials.
These reagent ratios were subsequently utilised in the full-scale treatments. The results in
Table 1 (Alexandria, NSW) demonstrate that leachable (TCLP) lead was reduced by >99%
and were well below the General solid waste criteria of 5 mg/L. The results in Table 2
(Young, NSW) demonstrate that leachable (ASLP-DI water) lead was reduced by >97% and
were well below the site criteria of 0.1 mg/L. The final pH of the treated wastes were
9.3 - 9.5, which are within the target pH for minimum solubility of lead phosphate minerals
(pH 6 – 10; ITRC, 2003).
290
Table 1. Total and leachable (TCLP) lead concentrations in the untreated and treated waste
(TSP = triple superphosphate; RP = rock phosphate; MgO = magnesium oxide) (Alexandria,
NSW).
Reagent(s)
Sample ID
TSP
RP
MgO
Pb
TCLP Pb pH (1:5)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(mg/kg)
(mg/L)
General solid
1500
5
criteria
Restricted solid
6000
20
criteria
7.9
2600
32
Alex-UNTR1-1
8.0
4800
43
Alex-UNTR1-2
3
1
2
0.43
9.3
2100
Alex -TR03-1
3
1
2
0.27
9.3
2900
Alex -TR03-2
1
UNTR = untreated soil
Table 2. Total and leachable (ASLP-DI water) lead concentrations in the untreated and treated
waste (TSP = triple superphosphate; RP = rock phosphate; MgO = magnesium oxide) (Young,
NSW).
Reagent(s)
ASLP Pb
Sample ID
TSP
RP
MgO
Pb
(DI water) pH (1:5)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(mg/kg)
(mg/L)
Site criteria
0.1
1
0.26
7.4
7400
YR-UNTR -1
0.20
7.3
8700
YR-UNTR1-2
2
1
2
0.007
9.5
11000
YR-TR01-1
2
1
2
0.006
9.4
11000
YR-TR01-2
1
UNTR = untreated soil
CONCLUSIONS
A process for chemical immobilisation of lead impacted soils was developed and tested at
bench-scale. Specific Immobilisation Approvals were issued by NSW EPA and the treatment
process was utilised in field-scale operations that involved on-site treatment of 5000 tonnes
of impacted soils using Enviropacific’s Hitachi Soil Recycler. The treated soils were
subsequently either disposed of to landfill at a reduced hazard classification (Alexandria) or
placed on-site in a containment cell (Young).
REFERENCES
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (1992). US EPA Method 1311.
Australian Standard Leaching Procedure (ASLP) (1997). AS 4439.3. Wastes, sediments and
contaminated soils - Preparation of leachates - Bottle leaching procedures.
Interstate Technology and Regulator Council (ITRC) (2003). Characterization and
Remediation of Soils at Closed Small Arms Firing Ranges.
291
E41
EX-SITU REMEDIATION OF THE OLD TOOWOOMBA GASWORKS
David Bax
Thiess Services Pty Ltd, PO Box 201, Parramatta CBD BC, 2124, AUSTRALIA
dbax@thiess.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Operating from 1870 to 1970, the old Toowoomba Gasworks provided an important supply of
town gas for Australia’s largest provincial city. As with most gasworks, the legacy left behind
from producing this gas was ash, tar and heavily contaminated soils and groundwater. This
contamination was on the move, heading off site past property boundaries and downwards
towards Toowoomba’s drinking water supply.
Site owners ENERGEX asked tenderers to present a range of possible remediation options,
however they adopted the same low-risk cost-effective solution used on their previous
gasworks site, offsite disposal. Thiess Services was awarded the contract to remediate the
site in March 2013 following the successful completion of the West End gasworks for
ENERGEX and the Newstead gasworks which was remediated to a level that allowed the
huge site to be removed from the Environmental Management Register (EMR).
THE PROCESS
The primary objective of the remediation work was not to remove all of the site from the EMR
but to reduce and/or manage contaminant concentrations to a level that does not
compromise or put at risk the health of site users and local receptors, and which does not
cause an unacceptable impact on the local environment. The site is being remediated to an
extent suitable for medium density residential purposes with minimal opportunities for soil
access.
Contaminants
Ash and tarry wastes exist on the site to depths up to 14 metres. Concentrations are
particularly high in the vicinity of the former gas scrubbers, purifiers and tar wells. The
contaminants of concern include total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH); monocyclic
hydrocarbons such as benzene, ethyl-benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTEX); poly aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) including benzo(a)pyrene; phenolic compounds; heavy metals
including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, mercury and zinc; cyanide; and
ammonia.
Demolition
In order to remediate the contaminated soils, all site structures had to be demolished. This
included the two retort houses, motor vehicle workshop, governor building, sheds, and the
chimney which may be reconstructed on an alternative location on the site to form part of a
monument to the now redundant industry of manufacturing gas from coal. The demolition
works involved the removal of asbestos roof sheeting using specialised teams and strict
safety procedures. It also resulted in considerable recyclable materials being salvaged
including steel, timber and rubble.
Materials Management
Based on years of environmental investigations by numerous consultancies, a notional
contour map showing the depth of contamination was developed by the site remediation
consultant GHD. This map provided Thiess with a guide to expected excavation levels.
The site was broken up into various cells for material tracking purposes. Excavation began in
the northern areas where contamination was shallow, and moved progressively towards the
south gradually increasing in depth. As the predominant direction of groundwater flow is to
the south, contamination had migrated past the site boundary in this area and into a
neighbouring public carpark which also had to be remediated and thus temporarily became
part of the work site.
292
Excavation was carried out with a number of excavators ranging from 14t to 30t. A fleet of
truck and trailers with spill-proof tailgates and tarps were loaded for the long journey to the
specialist disposal facility near Ipswich. Most of the soil transported was stockpiled within the
facility and underwent classification sampling by GHD as pre-classification on site was not
possible due to site and odour constraints. Results from this analysis were used to determine
whether the soils were classified as daycover, lined, unlined or monocell, after which they
were then relocated into these various landfill cells. At times material was pre-classified on
site as monocell through visual and olfactory methods. Free tar was often evident.
After excavation was complete, GHD would undertake validation sampling of the base and
walls of the excavation. If the results indicated remaining material met site cleanup criteria,
then Thiess would backfill the void with VENM. Further excavation was required at times
when this criteria was not met. A total of 100,000 tonnes of material is expected to be
removed, disposed and replaced.
THE CHALLENGES
As the site is on the fringe of Toowoomba’s CBD, it is surrounded by businesses and
residents. Careful management of site impacts was therefore of primary importance.
Odour
When gasworks-contaminated soil is disturbed, it becomes highly odorous. Thiess managed
this problem in a number of ways. The most substantial and effective method, was to utilise a
large diffusive odour control enclosure (DOCE) that was successfully employed at the
previous West End gasworks remediation project.
At West End, Thiess designed and constructed the structure over the most odorous parts of
that site. Thiess developed the structure in such a way that it could be used again at
Toowoomba. It was made of steel frames 9m high, 42m in width and spaced 8m apart. It was
clad in an industrial grade shadecloth. It was 96m long at West End but due to its modular
construction, only 48m was required at Toowoomba.
For Toowoomba, as was the case at West End, it was anticipated the most odorous material
would be found in the vicinity of the underground tar wells and gas purifiers..
The DOCE is an innovative solution that minimises odour in a number of ways:
1. Firstly, it creates a stable air environment over the physical excavation works. Without
the tent, wind would normally blow across the site and push odours into the path of
neighbouring residents. In this case, wind is diverted around and over the structure.
2. In doing so, the redirected air moves at a higher velocity, and any odour particles that
may escape the tent are quickly dispersed.
3. The shadecloth material is specially selected to have a small pore size, so that the
rate at which odour particles disperses through the structure is minimised.
4. The structure provides the opportunity to drape a series of deodorising mist sprays
directly above the offending soil.
Misting sprays are a major component in Thiess’ strategy to combat unpleasant odours.
Attached to the underside of the roof of the DOCE are spray nozzles that atomise a purposemade odour-control product. The fine fragranced droplets float around air currents and
collide with the offensive odour molecules, after which the resultant odour smells quite
pleasant.
The DOCE also provides additional benefits beyond odour control such as privacy from
passers-by, sun and wet-weather protection, and dust mitigation.
Deodorising sprays were not confined to inside the DOCE. Site perimeter sprays were
mounted to the top of the boundary fencing on all sides of the site to act as a last line of
defence.
A fourth odour control method involved portable high-pressure deodorising sprays aimed
directly at the source of any offensive odours if a particularly pungent hotspot was being
excavated.
Whilst odour control on site will be primarily controlled through state-of-the-art fragranced
misting sprays, another less-sophisticated, yet very effective odour control technique
adopted was the use of ‘mulch’. Areas of odorous soil left for any period of time, such as
293
overnight, were covered by recycled mulch. The mulch smothers the odour, and minimises
the chance of it escaping from the site.
Finally, Thiess used one further odour suppressing technique. Vapour suppressing ‘foam’
was applied to the soil. The white spray had the appearance of fire extinguisher foam and
acts in the same way as mulch by smothering the soil.
Water
Whilst Toowoomba is over 600m above sea level the volume of groundwater is immense,
perhaps not surprising as the name ‘Toowoomba’ means ‘two swamps’. During excavation
works, groundwater was almost always encountered. Like the soil, this underground water
has been impacted by the gasworks contaminants and so it required treatment before being
discharged back into the environment. To do that, Thiess installed a water treatment plant.
The predominant treatment process in the plant was to filter the water through sand and
activated carbon.
The site contained a natural spring which entered from the eastern boundary. This was the
primary source of groundwater and so Thiess remediated this part of the site early. A well
was installed to intercept the spring at the site boundary. A submersible pump was placed in
the well and the drinking-quality springwater was diverted around the site to minimise its
infiltration into excavations, thus reducing the amount of water requiring treatment.
Deep Excavations
The depth of contamination ranged from surface level to 12m. Deep excavations are
generally possible on large sites however when excavating close to site boundaries this
becomes difficult and can be unsafe. At Toowoomba, in order to achieve a deep excavation
adjacent to the neighbouring highway, a steel sheetpile wall was constructed. As the wall
became exposed during excavation works, rows of anchor bars were then installed through
the wall into the underlying strata behind, thus providing extra stiffness to the sheets and
giving us the ability to excavate to a greater depth.
In some areas of the site where deep excavations were only battered, their angle and
stability were evaluated by geotechnical engineers. Geotechnical advice was also used to
determine the optimal slot excavation dimensions when excavating vertically against property
boundaries. Slot excavation is the technique used to remove soil several metres deep
against a property boundary. Basically it involves determining the greatest height a soil wall
will stand vertically and for how long before being promptly backfilled.
Deep excavations often correlate to excess groundwater. In order to combat this issue
Thiess adopted a series of sumps and pumps to extract the water and pump it to treatment
ponds which had been specifically constructed on the site. Water management was a key
factor in maintaining high production levels of excavation and disposal.
Services
The Toowoomba site, although no longer involved in gas production, still contains a number
of live gas mains within it. It was of paramount importance that no mechanical excavation
was used to remediate the soil around these mains, so a combination of vacuum excavation
and hand digging was used.
Community
Thiess understand the importance of meaningful community involvement and the significant
benefits that all parties derive from open communication. With this in mind, a number of
community engagement methods were utilised at Toowoomba.
During the early stage of the project, an Open Day was held to inform local residents and
businesses about the works. This was held in the large odour control enclosure. On display
in the enclosure were excavations exposing contamination, odour control equipment, site
photographs and plans, and site representatives to explain the process.
To facilitate complaints and enquiry management, a site hotline was established and was
operational around the clock. A measure of the project’s success was the minute number of
complaints received.
At Toowoomba Thiess developed regular project newsletters and distributed them to the
local community. These flyers provided an outline of the project, its key issues, progress
294
updates, and interesting photographs. It also provided another reminder of the site contact
hotline. Further to the newsletters was the establishment of a project website. The website
contained facts, photographs and updated commentary on progress.
CONCLUSION
The remediation of the Toowoomba Gasworks was a success by all measures. It showed
that large scale remediation of odorous material can be achieved in built up areas if
managed well. Thiess’ arsenal of odour management techniques proved successful with no
formal complaints received.
295
E42
ODOUR ABATEMENT FOR LOADING A COAL TAR SHIP
Matt Fensom and Pearce A. Anderson
Enviropacific Services Pty Ltd, 1/4 Revelation Close, Tighes Hill, NSW, 2297, AUSTRALIA
matt@enviropacific.com.au
INTRODUCTION
Enviropacific Services (Enviropacific) were approached by Koppers to treat the displaced
vapour resulting from coal tar being loaded into the hold of a cargo ship. A trial was
undertaken to examine the cost effectiveness and efficiency of Granulated Activated Carbon
(GAC) adsorption, and Thermal Oxidation. The initial stages of the loading operation are
considered particularly challenging due to the high temperature (approximately 80qC) of the
ship’s hold which causes a higher load of flashed hydrocarbons. Emission odour was caused
primarily by naphthalene and to a lesser extent ammonia. Naphthalene was particularly
difficult to manage as it sublimes at 70qC, causing the vapour transfer lines to be fouled with
solid naphthalene as it cools.
Environmental odour complaints had drawn attention from the EPA, and Koppers were
required to implement an odour abatement program to eliminate odour complaints during the
ship loading process.
METHODS
Enviropacific designed and constructed a bespoke treatment system. The system was
designed to capture the emissions from the ship’s vent line, transfer the emissions to a pretreatment scrubbing/quench cooling unit, chill the vapour stream, and either adsorb the
hydrocarbons using GAC, or oxidise the emissions using a thermal oxidiser.
Process Equipment
The process consisted of a 2.5 m3 Knockout Pot to simultaneously quench-cool and scrub
the vapour and remove naphthalene and condensable gases from the vapour. A 600 m3/hour
blower moved the vapour through a heat exchanger (chiller) to further cool the vapour to
maximise GAC adsorption efficiency. The vapour stream could then be split between the
GAC adsorbers and the thermal oxidation treatment to evaluate the performance of each.
Table 1. Koppers coal tar ship loading GAC treatment results.
Time
18:35
18:45
19:15
20:00
20:50
21:00
Pre Chiller
Knockout
vapour
Pot water
temperature temperature
(0C)
(0C)
Fresh new GAC + chiller ON
11121
30
28
28
24
26
22
26
26
Inlet
PID
(ppm)
Post Chiller
vapour
temperature
(0C)
15
12
13
16
Pre
Chiller
PID
(ppm)
Pre
GAC
PID
(ppm)
Post
GAC
PID
(ppm)
3565
3873
5085
3461
3804
4995
15
30.6
51.1
69.2
70.1
GAC
Temperat
0
ure ( C)
Odour
detection
(Y/N)
30-38
30-38
30-38
30-38
30-38
30-38
(a) It was determined that the full vapour flow at the initial loading stages could be treated
effectively using thermal oxidation.
(b) It was found that the vapour could not be cooled sufficiently using only the Knockout Pot
to enable effective GAC adsorption of vapour organics to occur. The chiller system was
required to provide additional cooling.
(c) It was found that 150kg of GAC was depleted (PID exceeding 70ppm) in approximately 2
hours and 25 minutes.
(d) Subsequent trials using 450 kg GAC have shown that odour emissions due to
naphthalene can be controlled for at least 11 hours. Although the PID measurements
296
N
N
N
N
N
N
were elevated to greater than 150ppm during this extended exposure, naphthalene was
not detected.
CONCLUSIONS
The thermal oxidiser was operated at a stable temperature even during the highest coal tar
loading rates. In order to ensure stable operation of the thermal oxidiser during the initial
period of loading when flash vapour flow is greater, a larger thermal oxidiser is required. This
was not tested during the trial as the expected vapour surge at the commencement of
loading is expected to overload the existing thermal oxidiser causing it to trip on high
temperature cut-out. There is a 15 minute restart delay on the unit if it does trip.
It was found that the vapour is typically too hot to safely adsorb in a GAC system without the
chiller. The chiller was found to be highly prone to fouling by residual naphthalene. Whilst this
did not stop the loading operation, it is a costly system to clean.
Both thermal oxidation and GAC were found to be effective for odour control. Thermal
oxidation, whilst more capital intensive, has a lower operating cost and is the preferred
approach for odour management of subsequent unloading events.
297
E43
TECHNICAL ADVANCES OF INDIRECTLY HEATED VACUUM
THERMAL DESORPTION (VTD) FOR SOIL REMEDIATON
R&D Department econ industries GmbH, Würmstrasse 4, Starnberg, 82319, GERMANY
info@econindustries.com
INTRODUCTION
Indirectly heated vacuum thermal desorption (VTD) – also called `vacuum distillation´ - has
been applied for recycling and remediation projects since the 1970’s. Due to ever more
stringent environmental legislations and the ever increasing energy costs this technology is
becoming more and more important. This paper intends to summarize the applicability and
limitations of VTD for soil remediation.
METHODS
Indirectly heated vacuum thermal desorption is essentially a thermally induced physical
separation process. The solid matrix is heated up and a technical vacuum is applied to
reduce the boiling points of contaminants. Water and contaminants vaporize depending on
their boiling points at different instants and enter into the gas stream. The gas stream is lead
off and subsequently the contaminant-laden gas-stream is treated while passing through a
specially designed condensation unit. Within the condensation unit the gas stream is cooled
down, leading to a liquefaction of water and contaminants. Due to variances of specific
boiling points, different compounds evaporate at different times, making it possible to collect
different substances such as mercury, oil and water separately. The condensates, which are
composed of differing fractions, can be collected, post processed and brought back to the
material cycle.
To determine the applicability of VTD for the treatment of varying contaminants, a thermal oil
heated VTD with a maximum material temperature of 400 °C and a pressure between 50 880 mbar(a) was utilized. The tests were conducted by gradually increasing the temperature
whilst reducing pressure. The tests were ended when at the maximum temperature and a
pressure of 50 mbar(abs) no more particles were evaporated.
The input material, the dried output material and the resulting condensates were weighed
and analysed for each contaminant respectively by an accredited laboratory, using the
appropriate technologies. The acquired data were used to determine mass balances and
cleaning effectiveness.
The tests carried out showed that the VTD is extremely efficient with regard to the treatment
of materials containing mercury, hydrocarbons and a wide spectrum of predominantly
organic compounds, such as POPs. On the other hand, depending on the molecular
structure of the input material, for hydrocarbons above C40 (typically asphaltenes) the
efficiency of the treatment declined significantly.
The treatment results are always dependent on several factors such as the chemical
characteristics of the input material, grain size distribution, contaminant concentration etc.
Most of all it depends on the compounds present and their respective boiling points. A
qualitative analysis of the elements (e.g. XRF) does not always provide the relevant
information to finally determine whether or not a contamination can be treated using VTD. In
practice this means that for the majority of applications a theoretical analysis of the feed
material delivers good information on whether VTD is applicable or not, but to be on the safe
site individual pilot tests are recommended.
298
Table 1. Example of treatment results of VTD for selected contaminants.
Trial
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Contaminant
Metallic Mercury
Hg leach in mg/l
Metallic Mercury
Hg leach in mg/l
PAH (16)
PCB
PCB
BTEX
Hydrocarbons C5-C40
Total Aliphatics C5-C35
Total Aromatics C6-C35
Total Aliphatics C5-C35
Total Aromatics C6-C35
Contaminant
concentration
(mg/kg)
Input
Output
90,000.00
30.00
78.00
0.0004
4,800.00
0.50
0.28
0.00*
4,280.00
63.00
180.00
<0.14*
66.00
<0.14*
7.10
<0.50*
230,000.00
4,850.00
810.00
3.60
6,400.00
24.00
60,000.00
18,000.00
31,000.00
4,000.00
Effectiveness
(%)
99.97
~100
99.90
~100
98.53
>99
>99
>93
97.89
99.56
99.63
70.00
87.10
Retention
time
(h)
Max.
Temp.
(°C)
5
375
6
360
6
6.5
3.5
6.5
6
400
312
315
312
400
6
312
5.5
309
*below limit of detection
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
x No formation of toxic exhaust gases
x Technology
requires
detailed
due to low treatment temperatures
knowledge about contaminants and
what compounds they are forming,
x Low process gas volume
only suitable for contaminants with
x Low energy costs
boiling points up to approx. 450 °C
x Oxygen free inert process
(individual pilot tests recommended)
x Contaminants are not transferred to
x Relatively high initial investment for
other media (air, water, etc.)
smaller remediation projects (to be
x Leaks in the system do not lead to
considered: a) buy treatment facility
escape of hazardous gases
b) external service provider c) rental
x Suitable for all types of soil, rubble
solution)
and sludges
x Simple
environmental
approval
procedure
CONCLUSIONS
VTD is ideally suited for soil remediation at larger sites containing complex contaminants.
The extremely low emissions resulting from this technology make it particularly suited for use
at environmentally sensitive locations.
At the same time the application is limited to contaminants with boiling points below
approximately 450 °C. Contaminants with higher boiling contaminants such as heavy metals
cannot be removed using this technology.
299
E44
STUDY ON THE ORGANIC SOLID WASTE THERMO-CHEMISTRY
CONVERSION FOR METHANE PRODUCTION
Bo Xiao1, Shiming Liu1, Jingbo Wang1, Ravi Naidu2, Hui Ming2, Nanthi Bolan2
1
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and
Technology, Wuhan 430074, PR CHINA
2
Environment (CRC CARE), University of South Australia, SA 5095, AUSTRALIA
xiaobo1958@126.com
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the quantity of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased significantly in the
industrialized and developing countries raising the question of its sustainable disposal
management (Sakai 1996). Yields of MSW reach approximately 900 million tons in the world
each year, while over 200 million tons in China. Recently, MSW increased at an annual rate of
8-10%, and it reached 150×106 tons in 2004 (NBS China 2004). MSW contains a high
proportion of renewable materials with high hydrocarbon content. So the MSW can be used
for energy recovery. Gasification is an important process as regards the utilization of organic
solid wastes in energy recycling, namely, converting organic solid waste into a product gas
mixture consisting of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and other
trace species. As the gas mixture has a low energy density, its utilization value is very low. To
increase the energy density or calorific value, because CO2 is the most difficult producer
gases to convert, part of producer gas (CO + CO2) is often reformed to produce useable H2,
CO and synthetic natural gas (SNG).
Among these studies, the investigated of Ni-based catalyst for CO methanation was the most
active. Therefore, Ni-based catalysts remain the most extensively studied materials, and high
loading is also always desirable. However, most of the commercially available Ni catalysts
display a moderate to rapid deactivation due to the build-up of surface carbon. In order to
prevent coke deposition on the Ni-catalyst surfaces effect, some active elements such as
lanthanide and iron have been doped in nickel-based catalysts. Published studies have
established the validity of the Ni-La-Fe tri-metallic catalyst for the reforming reactions of
methane (Rapagna 2002, Provendier 1999).
In this work, the La0.5Ca0.5Ni0.5Fe0.5O3 (LCNF) nano-catalyst was prepared by co-precipitation
method. The catalytic activity of the La0.5Ca0.5Ni0.5Fe0.5O3 (LCNF) nano-catalyst for CO
methanation in the organic solid waste pyrolysis process was investigated.
OBJECTIVES
This study targeted the development of a novel and low-cost La0.5Ca0.5Ni0.5Fe0.5O3 (LCNF)
nano-catalyst for CO methanation and tar removal in organic solid waste catalytic
gasification.
METHODS
La0.5Ca0.5Ni0.5Fe0.5O3 (LCNF) nano-catalyst was prepared by co-precipitation method. X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), and Thermogravimetric Analysis
(TG-DTA) were adopted to characterize the synthesized catalysts. The effect of the catalyst
on methane production from the steam gasification of organic solid waste was investigated in
a lab-scale fixed bed reactor.
RESULTS
The results show that calcination at 600 C for 6h is the suitable conditions for synthesis of
LCNF nano-powders when ammonium carbonate is used as the co-precipitation agent and
polyethylene glycol (PEG)

CleanUP 2013

Transcription

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