Study of Social and Economic Impacts of Construction of

Transcription

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST – 6TH , 2014
Study of Social and Economic Impacts of Construction of
SIAHBISHEH Dam Using Rapid Matrix Method
Roohollah Mohammadvali Samani
Site Manager, Dam, Water & Wastewater Division, KAYSON Co., Iran.
Samanirm@yahoo.com
Kazem Heidarpour Chenar
HSE Supervisor, KAYSON Co., Iran.
Fatemeh Iravaniniay Tehrani
Advisor to Managing Director, KAYSON Co., Iran.
ABSTRACT:
Considering to the growing needs of society for more water and energy resources, Nowadays
construction of dams and hydroelectric power plants appear as an applicable solutions for the
problem. Hence many countries have turned to the construction and use of these resources. Such
that from 1950 the number of large dams with a height of over 15 meters in 5700 has reached more
than 41,000. Dam construction along with the benefits and valuable impacts has disastrous effects
on the environment and surrounding community and that’s why having provided grounds for so
many criticism. Industrial processes in the world to protect the environment and its associated
parameters are in more attention and development by the day. In dam construction industry, this
monumental task of screening is responsibility of professionals of this scope that are work In order
to more correspond and coordinates between this industry and environmental factors. On the other
hand, due to the growth and development of science in various fields, deployment of new and
modern ways seems necessary and useful to achieve different and useful results. One of these
methods is the analysis of the effects that reported by EIA. In order to fulfill these tasks and to
reduce the social and economic consequences and improvements in the construction and operation
of dams and case study of SIAHBISHEH pumped storage dams in Iran, extensive research has been
conducted by the present authors. This paper with considering the current situation, proceed to
assess the social and economic impacts of the project on the rapid matrix in EIA and have to offer
the results were analyzed to improve the situation and solutions, strategies and experiences in this
area.
Keywords: Dam, Environment, Rapid Matrix, EIA.
1. INTRODUCTION
The efficient economic aspects of dam construction and the amount of the electricity
produced are the matters to be considered in the studies of prefabricated constructions; this
is while the dam construction is of great environmental importance in the way that it will
affect both the region and the community of it. These cases are of direct and indirect socioeconomic effects that are to be taken into consideration at the proposal level to prevent
their negative effects.
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In almost all the pre-studies of dam construction the ultimate focus has always been on the
environmental factors; the socio-economic factors were considered to be of less
importance, and the typical number of the predictions were far from the reality; this makes
the control and the reduction of the damage on the socio-economic aspects’ preparations
less efficient.
Of some the effects of the dam construction on the social aspects and their possible side
effects we can count: the reduction in the size of the farms, the increase of the salt in the
lower parts, the reduction in the nutritional elements of the soil, etc. Side effects like the
reduced productivity of the farms, the land-use change, moving of the local nomads,
population change, and change of occupation and income, which can, in their turns,
accelerate the change in the environmental and economic situations. So the considerations
of the socio-economic conditions could reduce the environmental risks, which presuppose
more attentions to this matter.
2. METHODOLOGY
After the general and the local studies of the needed data such as the population data used
in this study from the Statistical Center of Iran, other data apropos the prediction of the
events and the population effects with a case study on the Iran’s dam constructions, such as
Karkhe and Alborz dams and their effects on the immediate covered society and the use of
the experts’ opinions, were collected and Siah Bishe’s socio-economic population
susceptibility of construction of a dam was predicted. Then suggestions were made by the
experts for the executors for the future preparations and the rapid matrix was used for the
comparisons among the dam construction activities.
3. THE INTRODUCTION AND THE FEATURES OF THE EIA
The assessment of the environmental effects is a way of identification and measuring the
environmental aftermath of the construction and the utilization of the construction projects
that can have bad effects on the environment of the project’s base in global terms.
Therefore, before implementing a project, we should do an assessment of the side effects to
make sure that it does not have bad effects on the environmental factors and to propose
corrective measures and the projects is to be implemented as long as it does not have
negative side effects. In Iran, according to the proceedings of the Iran’s Grand Council of
the Environmental Care in 23/12/1997, the executors of the construction projects such as
dam construction with the height of more than 15 meters are bound to find the feasibility
and locating studies along with the assessment of the environmental factors. There are a
number of different methods to assess the environmental effects of the plan, methods such
as the use of the check-list, matrix, explanatory index, and the addition and the analysis of
the system which are used in predicting the environmental effects of the construction and
the in the implementation of the projects. The most common method used in these cases is
the matrix; the method of the rapid matrix is used in this study to assess the socioeconomic effects of the construction of Siah Bishe’s dams, which are under construction,
to propose some corrective measures after the passage of a long time after their primary
assessments. In this method the assessment criteria are divided into two groups:
1. The groups which are of prime importance and have great impact on scoring (A).
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2. The groups whose locations are of great importance but are of less impact compared to
the first group (B).
As it is shown in Table 1, the scores of the first group which consists of two sub-groups:
A1 and A2 are multiplied and scores of second group consisting of three sub-groups of B1,
B2, and B3 are added, the sum of the first group is multiplied by the sum of the second one
and the environmental score of the ES which is achieved from the equation 1 and is shown
compared in the range of the scores of the Table 2; and in the analysis part the best
possible method with the least amount of damage to the environment and society is chosen.
1
2
1
2
3
(1)
Table 1. Classification of Assessment Factors in Rapid Matrix Method
Factors
Effects
Importance
(A1)
Effects
Amounts
(A2)
Effects
Sustainability
(B1)
Effects
Reversibility
(B2)
Effects
Sum ( B3)
1
4
National/
International
Importance
3
Very Positive
Change
1
Without
Change
1
Without
Change
1
Without
Change
2
3
Local/ National
Importance
2
Considerable
Improvement in
the Situation
2
Temporary
2
Reversible
2
NonCumulative
3
2
Important for
Local Areas
1
Improvement in
Situation
3
Permanent
3
Irreversible
3
Cumulative
4
1
Important for
Local
0
Without
Change
-
-
-
5
0
Without
Importance
-1
Negative
Change
-
-
-
-
-2
Considerable
Negative
Change
-
-
-
-
-3
Severe
Negative
Change
-
-
-
Row
6
7
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Table 2. Classification of Environmental Scores
Description
Group Skirt
(ES) Environmental Scores
Very Positive Effect
E+
72<ES<108
Considerable Positive Effect
D+
36<ES<71
Average Positive Effect
C+
19<ES<35
Little Positive Effect
B+
10<ES<18
A+
1<ES<9
Without Effect
N
0
Negligible Negative Effect
A-
-9<ES<-1
Little Negative Effect
B-
-18ES<-10
Average Negative Effect
C-
-35<ES<-19
Considerable Negative
Effect
D-
-71<ES<-36
Very Negative Effect
E-
-108<ES<-72
Negligible Positive Effect
4. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CASE STUDY OF THE PUMPED-STORAGE
DAMS PROJECT OF SIAH BISHE
Siah Bishe’s dam and PSH (Pumped-storage hydroelectricity) project is located 150 kms
on the north of Tehran, Iran in the central Alborz. This project consists of two rock-fill
dams with CFRD that is to initiate a 1040MW power station. The pumped-storage system
used in this project among the higher and lower dams make the generation and the
compensation of the power in the peak times at night and the adjustment of the peak-time
load for pumping operations at different times during the day possible. This project is
adjacent to one of the busiest entertaining mountain roads of Iran and there are a lot of
small villages around it that provide the socio-economic connections of these two
population centers.
5. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATIONS OF THE PROJECT’S LOCATION
The higher dam is located on Chaloos River and the lower one at the confluence of
Chaloos and Garmroodbar and is in the heart of Hirkani Forrest. Daryabak, Siah Bishe’s
villages, Verkloo, Harijan, and Vali Abad which are some the environs of Marzan Abad,
are some of the villages close to the dam’s location. The climatic condition of the region is
cold and damp with the average temperature of 7 to 9 °C which is a popular mountainous
countryside. There are many seasonal moving in these villages and some of these villagers
move to the adjacent towns and come back again at the end of the spring. The dominant
occupation of the people is traditional animal husbandry and keeping the local road inns.
Women are generally in charge of the house and sporadically produce handicrafts. Vali
Abad village has an elementary school to which many students from adjacent villages
come to study. There are no health centers in the local villages and the people seek medical
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help from Marzan Abad’s health center. According to the data collected form Statistical
Center of Iran 69.7% of the villagers and 77.9% of Marzan Abad’s inhabitants are literate
and the human sex ratio of the males to females is 86%.
6. THE DESCRIPTION OF THE CONNECTION BETWEEN EIA AND SIAH
BISHE’S DAM’S BASE
Given the fact that it has been a long time since the primary assessments and the
implementation of the proposal and the changed conditions of the region, it was necessary
to have a second assessment of problems analysis, the environmental aftermath, and socioeconomic effects of the project under construction to think of some corrective measures in
the face of the possible issues. Therefore, by consulting specialized experts, studying the
other dams constructed in Iran, and the conditional changes from the start of the project,
we assessed the socio-economic effects of the dam construction both during and after its
implementation.
7. THE ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE DAM
CONSTRUCTION BY THE RAPID MATRIX
Given the fact that Siah Bishe is a seasonal tourist attraction and is located in TehranShomal’s road, it is considered to be a recreational area and the entertainment is up to
some measures part of it. Nevertheless the education opportunities have not been improved
and the students have to travel to the adjacent towns to study at the boarding schools. With
the start of Siah Bishe’s dams’ construction, some temporary clinics will start giving health
service to the locals, and the transferring of the patients to the adjacent towns will be
stopped. Most of the local pieces of land belong to the Natural Resources Organization and
only a few numbers of them are in private ownership. Given the nature of the region and
the locals’ jobs, animal husbandry, the construction of the dam will cover some of the land
that is at the back of the dam in water and the region will enjoy less pastures. With the start
of the construction process the price of the locals’ land will increase that will encourage
them to sell their land to non-locals. In addition to employing many of the locals in the
construction process, many others will inhabit and find jobs in the region, making the
region a temporary cultural melting pot, and at same time prevents the locals to move from
one place to another to find jobs and will increase their earning income. These criteria are
shown in Table 3 to assess the social-economic effects of Siah Bishe’s dams’ construction
at the present time of the project’s implementation.
With the current state of the affairs in the predicted location and the implementation plan,
after the construction, the region turns into an unofficial recreation area for both the people
who inhabit in the neighborhood and the visitors passing by; and given the fact that the
proper facilities are not provided for the people some shortcomings in facilities and needed
resources will emerge which will result in a collective environmental crisis that will
gradually makes the number of the visitors less and less. At the end of the project the local
young workers will have to leave the place and move to somewhere else in search of jobs,
this will change the sex ratio of the region, land will be sold and villas will have been built
by that time, and women will stop producing handicrafts, and the locals’ income will
decrease accordingly. After the end of the project, the workers’ clinic will shut down and
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the locals have to take long ways to Marzan Abad to seek medical help. According to all
these, the criteria for the socio-economic assessments under analysis are shown in Table 4.
Table 3. Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at
Implementation Stage
Description
Factors
Social-Economic Factors
Skirt
ES
A1
A2
B1
B2
B3
Fun and Entertainment
A+
8
1
1
3
3
2
Schools Situation
N
0
1
0
3
3
2
Situation of Medical Centers
C+
20
2
2
2
2
1
Land Use Change
D-
-54
2
-3
3
3
3
Changing Role of Local People
D+
36
3
2
2
2
2
Changing Women’s Roll
N
0
1
0
1
1
1
Local Land Worth
B-
-18
1
-2
3
3
3
Change in Minority Groups
A-
-4
1
-1
2
1
1
Changing in the Living Location of
Residents
N
0
2
0
3
3
3
Change in Sex Ratio
A+
9
3
1
1
1
1
Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s
Age
B+
10
2
1
2
2
1
Change in the Natives Income
C+
24
2
2
2
2
2
Change in Tourism
B+
18
2
1
3
3
3
Immediately after the prediction of the likely socio-economic situations after the
construction of the dam, and other constructed dams inside the country, some measures
were taken to reduce the negative side effects of the construction and at the same time
improving the corrective procedures, these considerations made the assessment of the EIA
like the ones in Table 5. It was ruled out that the region is to be a tourist attraction site with
the help of the Environment Protection Organization of Iran and the local people are going
to be used in the corrective procedures. Not only will this direct the region’s tourism, but
also it will make the locals stay in the region possible and stop their moving from one
place to another. It will also keep the region’s climate stable and will keep the supervision
of the land-use more in control. Moreover, a clinic is going to be built to improve the
health conditions in the area and give people social services.
In the end, as far as the traditional ways of comparing the range of the socio-economic
scores are concerned, in three different stages of implementation, the post-construction
stage, and the post corrective-procedures stage, the bar charts of the different stages were
drawn and compared, and the result is shown in Table 1.
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Table 4. Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at Post
Construction Stage without Corrective Procedure
Description
Factors
Skirt
ES
A1
A2
B1
B2
B3
Schools Situation
C-
-28
2
-2
2
2
3
N
0
1
0
3
3
2
C-
-20
2
-2
2
2
1
Land Use Change
D-
-54
3
-2
3
3
3
D-
-54
3
-2
3
3
3
A-
-7
1
-1
3
2
2
Local Land Worth
D-
-36
2
-2
3
3
3
N
0
1
0
2
1
1
Changing in the Living Location of Residents
C-
-32
2
-2
3
2
3
Change in Sex Ratio
B-
-9
3
-1
1
1
1
Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s Age
B-
-10
2
-1
2
2
1
C-
-12
2
-1
2
2
2
Change in Tourism
C+
24
3
1
3
2
3
Table 5. . Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at Post
Corrective- Procedure Stage
Description
Factors
Skirt ES
A1
A2
B1
B2
B3
Schools Situation
B+
14
2
1
3
2
2
N
0
1
0
2
2
1
B+
18
1
2
3
3
3
Land Use Change
N
0
3
0
3
3
3
C-
-21
3
-1
3
2
2
A+
7
1
1
3
2
2
Local Land Worth
D-
-36
2
-2
3
3
3
N
0
1
0
2
1
1
Changing in the Living Location of Residents
N
0
2
0
3
2
3
Change in Sex Ratio
N
0
3
0
1
1
1
Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s Age
N
0
2
0
2
2
2
B+
12
2
1
2
2
2
Change in Tourism
C+
24
3
1
3
2
3
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12
10
Score Number
8
6
4
2
0
E-
D-
C-
B-
A-
N
A+
B+
C+
D+
E+
Score Range
1)Implementation Stage
2) Post Construction Stage
3) Post Corrective-Procedures Stage
Figure 1. Scores Comparison of Different Stages of Implementation, Post Construction and Post
Corrective- Procedure
As it is seen in Chart and Table 6 the condition at the implementation stage was in its
height and that it was worsen by the end of the project; and after applying the corrective
measures it has been improved.
Given the difficulties of the interpretation of the number of the scores of the comparison
chart in Table, a simplified quantative method of showing the conditions differences was
used; in this study, the coefficients of each of the ranges and their algebraic additions were
used to have the least range of the difference in the output data. Therefore, in this study the
score ranges were given coefficients and the number of the existing ranges in each of
conditions is multiplied by their own coefficient and at the end all the conditions’ numbers
are added up and the quantative sum of each effect is calculated as the calculation method
is shown in Formula 2.
The reducing scoring method of the effects was considered in the way that the N range’s
coefficient was zero and other ranges of the A, B, C, D, and E were 1,2,3,4, and 5
respectively. The positive and the negative coefficients were added up at the end.
QuantityofSituation
∑ Xi
n (2)
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Table 6. Comparison of Socio- Economic Score of SIAHBISHE Dam
Kind of Effect
Sum of
E- D- C- B- A- N A+ B+ C+ D+ E+ Quantative
Situation
Effects
Implementation
0
1
0
1
1
3
2
2
2
1
0
+9
Stage
Post Construction
0
3
4
2
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
-27
Stage
Post Corrective0
1
1
0
0
6
1
3
1
0
0
+4
Procedure Stage
8. CONCLUSION
According to the results derived from Tables 3, 4, and 5, we observed that by the start of a
dam construction project many of the socio-economic factors of the region have had
positive growth and make the whole region’s condition better, some of the betterments are
seen in the raised amount of salary earned by the locals and the growth of the tourism
industry and job opportunities in the region which are closely counter-related to the
corrective measures to be taken after the project’s completion in the way that will directly
affect or reduce the positive effects. At the same time, the land’ indices that relates to their
value and the use had negative growth which will be aggravated in case of improper
supervision and will result in land-use change. Given the fact that the Iran’s Natural
Resources Organization is the owner of the big shares of the land, it can have more
supervision over the region and the land by employing the local people and will prevent
the land-use change and property speculation.
As it was pointed out earlier, the project is located in the crowded road of Tehran-Shomal
and regarding the high number of road accidents in Iran and the area’s need for a health
center, the construction of a round-the-clock medical center according to Table 3 will
contribute greatly to the medical indices of the area, will save the time, accelerates the
process of medical diagnosis, and will save the precious time of saving people’s lives in
emergencies, all of which would be impossible if the center is not built by the end of the
project, creating numerous problems in the area according to Table 4. Therefore, proper
arrangements of building a medical center in the region were settled with the Ministry of
Health and Medical Education, and a permanent medical center was built in the region.
Due to the scattering of the villages and the low number of their population, building
schools for each of them is not possible, making this index intact. Given the distance
between the workers’ hostel and their houses it might create negative temporary social
issues which will be over when the project is finished.
According to the results derived from Table 6, if the corrective measures are carried out
properly and completely, the socio-economic condition of the area will see a drastic
improvement.
Study, investigation, and accuracy in different areas of dam construction projects to deal
with their negative effects which is the source of much criticism about such projects is for
construction experts, and as it was observed we can make considerable progress by
employing different and various forms of new science and technologies available in the
world today to improve and contribute to the industry.
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of the Diama dam on the Senegal River Delta wetland (Mauritania) using a model based
decision support system, Hydrology and earth system sciences, Vol. 7: pp.133-146, Centre
for Ecology and Hydrology, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, UK.
Ghannad, Z., Modarres, L. (2011): Constructions methods in Siah bishe CFRD, Sixth international
conference on dam engineering, C.Pina, E.Portela, J.Gomes, Lisbon, Portugal.
Kawabena, K.Y., Enoch, B. Asare., Philip, Gyau, Boakye. And Makoto, Nishigaki. (2005): Rapid
impact assessment matrix (RIAM) – an analytical tool in the prioritization of water
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development projects in Rural areas, Department of agriculture economics north Dakota
agricultural experiment station north Dakota state university Fargo,US.
Leistritz, F.L., Maki, K.C., (1981): Socio-economic effects of large-scale resource development
projects in rural areas: the case of McLean County, North Dakota.Department of
Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, N.Dak.
N. Lohani, B., Warren Evans, J., R. Everitt, R., Ludwig, H., A. Carpenter, R., Liang Tu, S. (1997):
Environmental impact assessment for developing countries in Asia, Asian Development
Bank.
Morris, P., Therivel, R. (2001): Methods of environmental impact assessment, by Spon Press,
London.
Wathern, P. (1988): Environmental impact assessment theory and practice, by The academic
division of Unwin Hyman, London, England.
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The Evolving History of Lake Biwa Weir
hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
Masahisa Nakamura
Research Center for Sustainability and Environment, Shiga University, Japan
Scientific Committee, International Lake Environment Committee Foundation, Japan
Katsuki Matsuno
River Basin Policy Bureau, Shiga Prefectural Government, Japan
ABSTRACT
The management history of Japan’s Lake Biwa - Yodo River basin may be characterized by the
conﬂicting interests between upstream Shiga Prefecture and downstream Kyoto-Osaka-Hyogo
Prefectures, with the central government playing a role to mediate as well as to dictate the
situation. Over the course of basin history, it was the Lake Biwa communities that had to suffer
from the occasional severe ﬂooding, allowing those downstream to be spared of the flooding risk.
The catastrophic and historic flooding in 1896 led to the construction of a flood control weir in
1905, bringing about a significant reduction in risk. The weir was replaced with a new structure in
1961. Development of lake water resource has also been a central issue of Biwa-Yodo basin
management, as exemplified by the inauguration in 1972 of the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (LBCDP). Completed in 1997, the Project included water resources
development, enhanced flood control measures and economic development and environmental
conservation for Shiga Prefecture. Together with the construction of an around-the-lake levy
system, Lake Biwa was effectively turned into a huge reservoir. Over the past decades following the
completion of LBCDP, there has been emergence of an array of new issues, with gradually
changing upstream-downstream relationship. This article is meant to introduce the Lake Biwa
Weir implication depicted in Chapter 6, “Evolving History of Lake Biwa and Yodo River Basin
Management”, in the book entitled “Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People, cited in
REFERENCE.
Keywords: Lake Biwa, Water Resources, Flood Control, Upstream-Downstream Conflict,
Ecosystem Concerns
1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE WEIR HISTORY
Lake Biwa water flows down through part of Kyoto Prefecture over the distance of some
twenty kilometers, reaching the jurisdictional boundary of Osaka Prefecture and then all
the way down to the Osaka Bay some seventy kilometers away from the lake. The
topological and hydrological features are such that the riparian land of Lake Biwa is
naturally flood prone. The Lake Biwa region residents always wanted the flood water to be
quickly released downstream to save the riparian lands from inundation, while the
downstream Osaka region residents always wanted the flood water to be kept within the
lake to save the highly populated downstream. This contentious relationship has persisted
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over the period of more than a century, having led to the need for a flow control weir that
have undergone three phase transformations, the first being its construction in 1905 (the
Nango Weir), the second being its replacement with a new one (the Setagawa Weir or Seta
River Weir), and the third being its renovation with construction anew of an accompanying
bypass structure for more precise flow control.
2. FLOOD CONTROL
2.1. Constraining Topography of Lake Biwa
There are some 120 or so inflowing rivers to Lake Biwa originating from the surrounding
mountains. These short and steep rivers discharge the collected precipitation from the
mountainous terrains almost instantaneously into Lake Biwa. At times of severe rains, the
lake would swell to the extent that the inflowing river water would be prevented from
entering the lake, causing flooding along the shore as well as along and upstream of those
feeder rivers. The above phenomenon is also exasperated by the hydro-topography of Seta
River, the only outflowing river from the lake. The flow of water used to be impeded by a
constriction point caused by the natural protrusion a few kilometers downstream of the
river mouth. During the record-breaking flood of September 1896, for example, the lake
water level rose up to 3.76 m above the normal level, causing unprecedented flooding
around the lake, inundating most of the towns and villages around the lake and along the
inflowing water courses.
2.2. Upstream–Downstream Conflicts over Dredging of Seta River
Since the mid-19th Century, there have been a number of proposed attempts to dredge the
Seta River to increase the discharge volume of the lake water, particularly for dealing with
the above-mentioned natural topographic feature impeding the river flow. These proposed
attempts by the upstream local leaders always met severe opposition by the leaders of the
downstream Osaka, the political power house of the region at the time. The simple
dredging along the shallow and constricting stretch of the Seta River would mean sending
flood waters to the downstream, potentially jeopardizing the human lives and valuable
properties, rather than keeping the damage within the upstream farmland and villages. In
other words, the downstream region wanted the flood water to be kept upstream as long as
possible, allowing its gradual release over a prolonged time, rather than to be released all at
once. It was only after the above record flooding in 1896 that the central government
agreed to undertake a major channelization work, together with installation of a flow
control weir.
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SETA RIVER DREDGING AND THE WEIR
3.1. Synchronizing the Weir Operation for Upstream and Downstream Needs
The dredging of the Seta River and operation of the weir are inextricably linked. The weir
controls the Lake Biwa water level in such a way that, under predicted heavy rains, the
lake level may be reduced to lower than the normal level and, in turn, the dredged river
bottom at the lake outlet would allow flooding water stored in the lake to be quickly
released when the downstream flooding risk has been sufficiently reduced. Dredging alone,
however, would pose the problem of causing the lake water level to decrease too much at
times when there is little rain. The weir prevents this from happening by holding back the
water and allowing the lake to function as a reservoir for downstream water uses. The
I - 12
dredged channel, in turn, allows passage of the amount of water required by the
downstream, as regulated by the weir.
Under conditions of heavy rains, the peak discharge from Lake Biwa can be controlled,
whereas the peak flow of the Yodo River below the weir cannot be controlled. This results
in a „time lag‟ between the impacts of heavy rains on Lake Biwa versus the downstream
Yodo River because of the topographic and hydraulic characteristics of the Yodo River
catchment area. This lag is actually beneficial for managing the Yodo River flooding.
When there is heavy rain, the Lake Biwa discharge may be restricted or completely shut
off. Once the downstream flow starts to subside, the weir operation may be synchronized
to allow discharge of lake water, thereby allowing the lake water level to slowly decrease.
Applying this principle, the weir may be operated in such a way that dredging would not
increase the risk of downstream flooding. When it rains, the rise in water level can be kept
within certain bounds, such that the duration of peak water level may be promptly reduced.
3.2. Conflicts over Fully Closing the Seta River Weir
Before the Seta River Weir was installed, people living downstream strongly opposed
dredging of the outflow channel, arguing that Lake Biwa was a self-regulating natural lake.
They believed that increasing the flow capacity would upset the lake‟s natural equilibrium.
Once the weir was installed, however, it became possible to carry out large-scale dredging
of the Seta River. The increase in the discharge capacity of the Seta River allowed
lowering of the Lake Biwa water level at times of floods, therefore, reducing the flooding
damages around the lake. However, the weir would have to be kept fully closed to prevent
lake water passing down to the Yodo River at times when it is already on the verge of
flooding with waters coming from the Katsura River and Kizu River watersheds. Thus,
what is beneficial for upstream, i.e., opening the weir at times of flooding, is not likely to
be beneficial for downstream residents, being the fundamental cause for the upstream–
downstream conflict.
4. WATER RESOURCES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
4.1. A Brief History of Water Resources Development
Water resources development in the Lake Biwa and Yodo River basin may be told in three
major episodic tales. The first pertains to Osaka whose water resources come directly from
the downstream Yodo River. As the main use of water in the region historically was for
irrigation, there were a large number of irrigation barrages and intake structures scattered
around the mainstream and its tributaries of the Yodo River portion of the basin. Between
1896 and 1905, the first large-scale water resources development project was implemented
here, synchronically with the various flood control measures for Lake Biwa to be described
in 4.4. The main project components included widening of the channel and consolidation
of many of these barrages and intakes. As a consequence, Osaka benefited greatly from the
resultant increase in water intake capacity. The second pertains to Kyoto. The Metropolitan
Kyoto area does not lie along the Yodo River, and therefore the improvement of the Yodo
River infrastructures does not necessarily benefit Kyoto. The Kyoto Governor at the time
foresaw the need for Kyoto to be supplied water directly from Lake Biwa through a canal.
After five years of construction work since 1885, directed by a young legendary engineer
Sakuro Tanabe, the canal was completed in 1890, sparing this water-constrained city from
a serious economic decline. The third and the latest pertain to Osaka, Kyoto and the Lake
Biwa region. It took shape when Osaka and the entire downstream Yodo River region
I - 13
began to regain its industrial strength in the early-1950s after the World War II
devastations. By the early 1960s, the existing water rights from the Yodo River flow had
already been exhausted, and Osaka was eyeing the use of abundant Lake Biwa water. This
thirst of Osaka, no longer being fully satisfied with the previous infrastructure
improvements mentioned above, culminated to the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (LBCDP).
Figure 1: A Bird‟s View of the Lake Biwa - Yodo River Basin
4.2. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project (LBCDP)
As industrialization and urbanization got accelerated in the post-war period, Osaka began
to demand that more lake water should be released from Lake Biwa, particularly during the
drought periods. The Nango Weir which had been constructed more for flood control
purposes than for water resource development. It was in 1961 that the new Seta River Weir
was constructed at a short distance downstream, both for flood control and water resource
development. More than a decade of heated political exchange took place among the
downstream local governments (mainly Osaka Prefecture and Osaka City), the National
Government, and the Shiga Prefectural Government with regard to the potential gains and
losses of this action, in terms of accrued benefits, financial burdens, and environmental
implications of transforming Lake Biwa into a sort of man-made reservoir. Increasing the
amount of flow through the Seta River channel meant the need for enlargement of the weir
capacity, as well as for dredging of the constricting channel. However, reconstruction of
the weir to provide a greater water volume in the lake, in preparation for extreme droughts,
also meant an increased probability for flooding damage around the lakeshore lands.
Combined with the need to protect the downstream Yodo River from still imminent
flooding, the ultimate solution was to construct a levy around the lake to impound more
water within the lake in anticipation of possible droughts, and in preparation for protecting
both the downstream Yodo River and Lake Biwa coastal areas from flooding. This agreed
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scheme of Lake Biwa water resource development is called the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (hereafter referred to as LBCDP).
4.3. Policy Framework of LBCDP
Having turned out to be a 25-year plan (1972-1997), rather than the originally anticipated
10-year plan (1992-1981), LBCDP has expended 1.9 trillion JPY. The broader goal of the
project was developing and managing Lake Biwa in order to contribute to the sound
development of the Kinki Region (the entire Lake Biwa - Yodo River basin and the
surrounding prefectures) and to the well-being of everyone who relies on the lake.
Specifically, the objective of the LBCDP was to make proper and effective use of Lake
Biwa‟s resources, while conserving the lake and its surroundings, improving the quality of
polluted lake water, and protecting the natural environment. The policies of the project
were guided by three main concerns, i.e., management of Lake Biwa water quantity to
further reduce flooding around the lake; development of the water resources for
downstream users, as well as for Shiga Prefecture; and improvement of Lake Biwa water
quality and conservation of the natural environment. Practical targets included
development of water resources for the downstream use amounting to a maximum 40 m 3/s
at times of droughts, construction of flood control embankment around the lake, and
dredging of the Seta River, together with installation of pumping stations to drain the
inundated fields. The local development projects, including road construction, sewerage
installation, establishment of nature conservation parks, solid waste disposal facilities,
water quality monitoring stations, and irrigation return flow pollution treatment facilities,
were to be implemented by Shiga Prefecture and the Water Resource Development
Corporation, with financial support coming from the national as well as the downstream
prefectural and municipal governments, apart from the due payment to be made by the
Shiga Prefecture itself.
4.4. Implementation Schemes of LBCDP
4.4.1. Planned Management of Lake Biwa Water Level
The purpose of the LBCDP was to fulfill the water supply needs of the downstream
Keihanshin (the general designation of the greater metropolitan region encompassing
Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe Cities and their Suburbs) area, based on the arrangement to release
the Lake Biwa water down through the Seta River Weir (at a maximum of 40 m3/s during
extreme droughts), as well as coping with the floods of a scale that may occur once in a
hundred years. Consequently, the maximum draw down level of lake water was set at
B.S.L. (the Biwako Basic Surface Water Level) -1.5 m. In addition, a special arrangement
was made for the Shiga Prefectural residents that any damages incurred due to the water
level decline between B.S.L. -1.5 m and -2.0 m would be compensated by the national
government and downstream local governments. The agreed process is that the
contingency plan would be implemented for the domestic, industrial, and agricultural
waterworks to continue to function when the lake water level declines toward -2 m, and
that the compensatory payments would be made for wells that may run dry. Other
provisions include compensation to the fisheries to offset income losses related to reduced
fish catches. On matters pertaining to the maximum water level, the planned high water
level is set at B.S.L. +1.4 m to cope with the once-in-a-hundred-year floods, in conjunction
with other countermeasures carried out around the lake. The Lake Biwa Flood Protection
Plan was drawn up after considering the flood protection and water supply needs of the
Yodo River system as a whole.
I - 15
4.4.2. Seta River Dredging and Shoreline Flood Management Measures
The Seta River, the only outflow channel from Lake Biwa, was excavated during LBCDP
to increase the lake water discharge rate. The increased discharge allows for lowering of
the lake level in anticipation of increased rainy season water inflows. This „pre-lowering‟
of the water level also would allow the lake to accommodate once-in-a-hundred-year
floods, with the lake level reaching its high water mark of B.S.L. +1.4 m. Further, the
increased discharge capacity of the lake will enable the prompt reduction of its water level,
which would lessen the potential flooding damages around the lake peripheries. Prevention
of overflow from the lake and removal of inundating water, were also major goals in the
LBCDP. Consequently, the construction of the round-the-lake levees and the river channel
improvements were key elements. To allow for 1.2 m headroom over the B.S.L. +1.4 m
planned high water level, the levy embankment was constructed up to the height of B.S.L.
+2.6 m around the lake. Channel improvement of inflowing rivers also was carried out, and
pumping stations were installed to remove water that might spill over from flooded rivers
to cause lowland inundation around the lake that was blocked by the levy structure.
4.4.3. Formulation of Weir Operating Principles
Even after the weir was installed, regulations for its operation were still undecided because
of continuing opposing upstream and downstream interests. As LBCDP neared completion
in 1992, the downstream governments were finally able to execute their acquired right to
draw up to 40 m3/s of water from the Yodo River during times of severe droughts. The
Seta River Weir has been managed and operated based on these regulations since April 1,
1992. Under these regulations, the planned peak water level is set at B.S.L. of +1.4 m.
Seasonally, during the potential flood periods, the level is reduced to B.S.L. –20 cm or –30
cm (between 16 June and 15 October), while at other times, when there is a low risk of
flooding, the water level may be allowed to reach B.S.L. +30 cm (between 16 October and
15 June the next year). Accordingly, water discharges through the weir are finely
controlled so not to exceed the regulated values. During times of downstream water
shortages, the weir would be finely controlled. If the Lake Biwa water level decreases to
below B.S.L. –1.5 m, however, the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism decides the weir operation policy, after consulting with the Governor of Shiga and
the other concerned prefectures.
4.4.4. Development of the Yodo River Basin Management Plans
The Rivers Act of 1896 was revised in 1964 to promote the integrated management of both
flood control and water supply in the entire drainage systems. Based on the revised Act,
the first Yodo River Improvement Master Plan was developed in 1965, covering the entire
Yodo River and Lake Biwa. In 1971, recognizing the need for security for the increased
population and the expanded industrial areas in the Yodo River basin, the goal of
preventing the flood damages was set at once-in-two-hundred-year flooding. The 1964
Rivers Act was revised in 1997 for the environmental aspect of river management to be
brought forth as an important consideration as flood control and water resources
management. In conformity to this revised Act, the Fundamental Yodo River Management
Policy was formulated in August 2007, and the Yodo River Improvement Plan (YRIP) was
developed in 2009 through an elaborate and quite controversial participatory process
spanning several years. Nonetheless, the spirit of the Policy was agreed to be: “rather than
sacrificing one area of a region to protect another, the intention is to improve security from
flooding in the entire river system; and “after the downstream flood control infrastructure
development has been completed and as long as there would be no threat of flooding
downstream, the weir would not be completely closed.”
I - 16
5. RESTORATION OF ECOSYSTEM INTEGRITY AND WATER QUALITY
5.1. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (LBCCP)
While the downstream governments acknowledged the LBCDP accomplishments, their
gained benefits were more of an expectancy nature, i.e., more water during times of severe
droughts (which may happen once in ten years), and reduced loss of property and human
lives from major flood incidents that may happen once every few hundred years. On the
other hand, the benefits gained from the LBCDP for the Shiga government and its residents
were more direct and explicit. They saw ports and harbors renovated, levees and
embankments constructed around the lake that also now serve as a major artery road
Box 1: Outline of Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (ML21 Plan)
a) Targeted Geographic Coverage
The jurisdictional area of the Shiga Prefectural Government, taking cognizance of
the implications to the downstream Yodo River region;
b) Planning Horizons
The specified period is from April 1999 through March 2020, in two phases; the
first was from 1999 to 2010, and the second is from 2010 to 2020;
c) Measures of Achievement
Improvements in overall quality of Lake Biwa water, in water infiltration and
retention capacities of watershed soils, and in the natural environment and
landscape ecology;
d) Compatibility with Other Plans
To be consistent with plans formulated by the existing national and local plans:
e) Implementation Emphasis
Promotion of citizen engagement and networking at sub-basin levels across the
watershed, and of information dissemination and research promotion;
f)
Financial Provision
Mainly through the existing prefectural government sector agency budgets:
around the lake, paddy lands extensively improved with large-scale pumping facilities for
irrigation with lake water, and even basic urban infrastructure provided for industrial
developments. The Shiga population has increased by nearly three quarters of a million
over the period of LBCDP implementation, and its per capita income, which was
previously ranked as one of the lowest among the forty seven prefectures, increased to be
among the top incomes, thanks largely to the transformation of the Shiga economy from
being primarily agricultural in nature to being primarily industrial, due in part to migration
of population and industries from the downstream Osaka region to the Lake Biwa
watershed.
This dramatic change in the profile of Lake Biwa watershed, now very urbanized and
industrialized, also meant that the paddy-wetlands along the lakeshore, which used to
provide prolific fish habitats, have been lost. During the same period, quite extensive land
conversions also have taken place, e.g., from paddy land to housing and industrial estates,
forest land to industrial estates, etc. Thus, despite the introduction of significant structural
and non-structural environmental control measures, the water quality and ecosystem
integrity of the lake and its watershed began to deteriorate. While the point source
pollution load has been significantly reduced as a result of the sewerage coverage
I - 17
implemented during this period, the restoration of the natural self-purification capacity lost
through transformed land uses remained as a major challenge at the time of LBCDP
completion.
Consequently, toward the terminal years of the LBCDP, the Shiga government decided to
pursue a new post-LBCDP project focusing on ecosystem restoration. In March 1997, the
Shiga Prefecture compiled the results of the deliberations of a national council established
for this purpose, and prepared a plan called the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation
Plan (LBCCP), dubbed “Mother Lake 21 (ML21).” The plan emphasizes that the ultimate
solution to the problems facing Lake Biwa lies in restoration of the natural and ecosystem
capacities of the coastal zone and watershed, while also pursuing the revival of an
environmental culture to allow such re-transformation to occur. The Plan is being financed
basically under sectoral budgets, with some preferential subsidy based on their merit
within already-existing sectoral plans and programs. Specific elements of the ML21 plan
are elaborated in Box 1.
5.2. Appraisal of First 10 Years of LBCCP (1998-2010)
In March 2010, with the first phase
of LBCCP having reached its
terminal year, and the second phase
about to be launched, the LBCCP
scientific advisory committee issued
a review report of the first phase,
with recommendations for the second
phase. The report‟s appraisal was that
the Plan has generally played a
significant role as a long term vision
for Lake Biwa, with the first phase
attaining
some
significant
achievements in lowering the
concentration of total phosphorus
(TP), although the rate of reduction
in
the
total
nitrogen
(TN)
concentration was not as impressive
as that for TP. The chemical oxygen
demand
(COD)
has
actually
gradually increased during the period,
being, a puzzling phenomenon whose Figure 2: Shoreline Landscape Alteration and Its
Ecological Impact
implications are not yet clearly
understood scientifically. In terms of
the inflowing pollution load, the point-source contribution has been significantly reduced,
although the nonpoint contribution remained much the same as ten years earlier.
In regard to improved water infiltration and retention capacities of the watershed soils, the
results are not so significant. Among others, the report points out, more profoundly, the
need for the Japanese forest industry to gain competitive strength over inexpensive
imported forest products so that an institutionalized system of forest maintenance would be
established both for providing for economic viability and for healthy forest land. Further,
the report points out that the 1st period target was not very clear for the on-the-ground
implementation of plans and programs, particularly with regard to "land acquisition for
I - 18
ecosystem restoration." But most of all, the report pointed out that there are issues and
problems that did not exist before the LBCCP that are now posing serious threats to the
natural environment and landscape ecology of Lake Biwa, including the loss of habitat for
indigenous species of fish, and the prolific growth of macrophytes in the South basin of
Lake Biwa, particularly in relation to the changed operational procedure of the Seta River
Weir, all indicating that the future of the LBCCP is directly linked to the Yodo River
System improvement policy.
6. THE CHALLENGES AHEAD
The
topographical,
climatological,
hydrological
settings of the Biwa-Yodo basin
have fostered the peculiar
human geography of the region,
with its resulting unique
demographic,
socioeconomic,
and
political
interactions.
Historically, the pressures put on
to Lake Biwa and its watershed
from the downstream water
users has been enormous
because of the latter‟s political,
economic, and industrial power. Figure 3: Transformation from Conflict to Cooperation
The restrictions on the discharge
of Lake Biwa flood water, both
geophysically and geopolitically, had been causing an insurmountable stress on the
relationship between the upstream and the downstream communities, until a series of
physical interventions was introduced in the first half of the twentieth century, including
construction of a flood control weir at the outlet of Lake Biwa. With additional
interventions to expand the role of the weir to accommodate water resources development
through LBCDP, the strained relationship between the upstream and downstream entities
seemed to have been ameliorated, at least superficially. The Biwa-Yodo system is today
providing water, flood, and drought mitigation, as well as environmental and livelihood
amenities to the population of over 18 million living in Shiga and the Keihanshin area,
totaling some 1,200 km2 .The Biwa-Yodo basin is also characterized by the historic timing
of key policy interventions. Whether they were construction of monumental water control
facilities, development and implementation of instrumental plans and programs, and/or
emergence of controversial and conflicts, their timing seem to have helped shape lake
basin governance since they relate to the region‟s social and economic profile.
LBCDP has brought about a dramatic change in the management profile of water resources
and flood control, accompanied by the emergence of new economic geography within the
Biwa-Yodo basin, and in the entire downstream region. Thereafter, people and industries
began to migrate from the densely packed downstream region to the more spacious
upstream region around Lake Biwa. The underlying intricacy of this fundamental linkage
dynamics resurfaced as a dictating factor in the evolving process of policy development for
the post-LBCDP water and environmental management, in relation to implementation of
LBCCP.
I - 19
The overriding issue in the former is whether or not it will be possible for LBCCP to play a
catalytic role in accelerating the lake‟s ecosystem integrity when the national government
and the downstream governments and people consider that they have already fulfilled what
they were obliged to do for the lake over the past decades. On the other hand, the
overriding issue for the latter is if, and how, the Shiga Prefecture together with the
downstream governments may be able to develop a regional institutional framework for
resolving the contentious issues imbedded in the YRIP. Among the emerging frameworks
is a regionally autonomous governance structure for the Biwa-Yodo basin, with the
national government probably playing a much less prominent role in having “the last say,”
as having historically been the case since the late 19th Century.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the coauthors of Chapter 6, “Evolving History of Lake Biwa and
Yodo River Basin Management” in the book titled “Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and
People, as cited in the REFERENCE Section below. This article is meant to present an overview of
the Chapter, particularly in regard to the evolving history of Lake Biwa Weir. We would like to
acknowledge in particular that the information on flood control mainly prepared by one of the
coauthors of that Chapter, Mr. Y. Moriyasu. Part of that information was presented here in a
summary form.
REFERENCES
Matsuno, K. (2011): Aiming at Integrated Basin Management in the Lake Biwa-Yodo River
Basin, 14th World Lake Conference, Austin, Texas USA.
Nakamura, M. (1995): Lake Biwa: Have sustainable development objectives been me?t,
Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management, 1:1. pp. 3-29, Blackwell Publishing
Asia Pty Ltd. Australia.
Nakamura, M. (2002): Lake Biwa Watershed Transformation and the Changed Water
Environments, Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol, 28: pp. 1-15. Stuttgart, Germany.
Nakamura, M., Ogino, Y., Akiyama, M. and Moriyasu Y. (2012): Evolving History of Lake
Biwa and Yodo River Basin Management in “Lake Biwa: Interactions between
Nature and People” by Hiroya Kawanabe et al. (eds.), Springer Dordrecht
Heiderberg New York London.
I - 20
Environmentally friendly water-powered DTH drilling in dam applications
- The history of Down-The-Hole-Drilling and
use of water-powered hammers
[Blank line 11 pt]
Dr. Donald A. Bruce
President, Geosystems, L.P., P.O. Box 237, Venetia, PA 15367, U.S.A., dabruce@geosystemsbruce.com
[Blank line 10 pt]
Rudy Lyon
Research and Development Manager, Center Rock Inc., 1 W. 4th Street, Salem, VA 24153, U.S.A.
[Blank line 10 pt]
Stefan Swartling / M. Sc. Michael Beas
Managing Director / Dam Application Responsible respectively,
LKAB Wassara AB, Rosenlundsgatan 52 SE-118 63 Stockholm, Sweden
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
ABSTRACT
Down-the-hole drilling has been a feature of dam anchoring and rock mass grouting in the U.S. for
many decades. Until quite recently, this rotary percussive drilling method was synonymous with
the use of compressed air. Within the last decade, however, increasing use has been made of
water-activated, down-the-hole hammers. These provide many significant advantages, especially
for rock fissure grouting where the use of water flush is now regarded as standard, and the use of
compressed air is not advisable. This paper provides a brief history of the development of downthe-hole hammers in U.S. practice, and describes the numerous steps which have been followed to
make contemporary hammers especially efficient and cost effective. The paper also describes the
operating principles of water-powered hammers, and reviews the numerous, significant advantages
these tools have brought to the dam remediation community.
[Blank line 10 pt]
Keywords: water power drilling environment safety
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PERCUSSIVE DRILLING METHODS
[Blank line 10 pt]
Air-flushed drilling with top hammers began in the mining industry in Sweden in 1873,
while down-the-hole (DTH) drills, again with air flush (and activation) became operational
in 1950. During that same interval, Simon Ingersoll had patented the first steam-powered,
top hammer rock drill to provide higher productivity in blast hole drilling. It is well known
that water, as an activating, flushing and cooling medium, has many significant advantages
over the use of air. However, it was not until 1973 that top hammer systems (either air or
hydraulically activated) for larger rigs were adapted to the use of water flush, typically via
“under the head” swivels.
[Blank line 10 pt]
The concept of a water-powered, down-the-hole hammer (WDTH) had been explored prior
to G. Drill acquiring the original patent from Atlas Copco in 1988. LKAB, a huge
underground mining company, owned by the Swedish Government and providing about
90% of the European Union’s iron ore, purchased G. Drill in 1991 and encouraged the
I - 21
commercial development of the WDTH for mining-related operations. The first full-scale
WDTH production works were carried out for LKAB in 1995, since when over 25 million
lineal meters of drilling have been recorded in both underground and surface applications.
[Blank line 10 pt]
In 2001, G-Drill was renamed Wassara, which today still holds the worldwide patents for
WDTH technology. Regarding North American usage, the first significant application was
by Advanced Construction Techniques (ACT) Ltd. during the test grouting program
conducted for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at McCook Reservoir, Chicago, in 2002.
Since then, WDTH has become the tool of choice for specialty drilling and grouting
contractors on rock grouting projects for dams and other major structures throughout the
U.S.
[Blank line 10 pt]
Other DTH variants have been developed over the last 15 years or so, and are based on air
activation and flush. These are described in Weaver and Bruce (2007) and include:
[Blank line 10 pt]
•
•
Reverse circulation (air flush)
Dual-fluid system (using air as the activator but permitting water flush also)
[Blank line 10 pt]
However, the purpose of this paper is to focus on WDTH technology for dam-related
projects, and to contrast it, wherever appropriate, with corresponding direct air flush,
conventional DTH systems.
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
2. GENERAL BACKGROUND TO AIR-POWERED, DOWN-THE-HOLE
HAMMER DRILLING (DTH)
[Blank line 10 pt]
For production hole drilling, there are fundamentally three basic methods, as illustrated in
Figure 1: rotary; rotary percussive top drive; and rotary percussive down-the-hole
hammering (DTH). An elderly but still useful application chart was produced by
McGregor (1967) and is reproduced in Figure 2. As noted above, in the 1960’s both top
hole percussion and DTH drilling were synonymous with the use of air flush. It is now
generally recognized and widely accepted in rock fissure grouting circles that water flush
is far preferable, since compressed air tends to force rock cuttings into fissures, so greatly
reducing the ability of the formation to accept grout.
Down-The-Hole
Top-Hammer
Rotary
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
Figure 1. Schematic showing basic rock drilling principles.
[Blank line 10 pt]
I - 22
[Blank line 10 pt]
Figure 2. Basic drilling method selection guide for rock using non-coring methods
(Littlejohn and Bruce, 1977. Adapted from McGregor, 1967).
[Blank line 10 pt]
Of course there have been many significant developments and modifications in the
intervening period, but the basic guidelines remain the same:
[Blank line 10 pt]
•
•
•
Rotary drilling is economic in all hole sizes in soft-medium rocks. This method requires
high bit load (“crowd”) and high rotary torque. This was the standard method of drilling
grout holes for dams in the U.S. since earliest times (i.e., the 1890’s) as only rotary drilling
could permit water flush to be used.
Rotary percussive (top drive) is economic in materials of all types, up to about 5-inch
diameter. It has low crowd and torque requirements and typically modest flush pressure
and flow demands (both for air and water).
Rotary percussive (down-the-hole hammer) drilling is typically preferred in medium-hard
materials for holes over 4-inch diameter and over 40 feet deep. High pressure, high volume
flushing media are required, whereas low feed and torque requirements are relatively low.
[Blank line 10 pt]
DTH drilling has many advantages over top hammer drilling for larger, deeper holes in
medium-hard formations:
[Blank line 10 pt]
•
•
•
There is minimal power loss as the hole is deepened and so penetration rates do not
markedly decline with depth provided that back pressure does not rise significantly in the
borehole.
The low crowd pressures, coupled with the relatively large diameter rods which are used,
combine to promote much straighter holes.
The lower rotational speed reduces vibrations to the drill head and rig.
[Blank line 10 pt]
In relation to pure rotary drilling, DTH drilling is faster, due to the more focused and
intensified stresses imposed on the rock, and does not require sophisticated drilling mud
preparation, handling and cleaning systems. Air-powered equipment has the obvious yet
distinct advantage of exhausting energy-depleted air directly into the atmosphere, where
the difference between rock and air density makes separation direct and simple.
[Blank line 10 pt]
For the conventional, air-powered DTH (as shown in Figure 3), there are three basic
considerations:
[Blank line 10 pt]
1. Compression of the air to operate the DTH by generating impact energy.
2. Energy transmissions from the piston to the rock.
I - 23
3. Removal of cuttings from the hole by the exhausted air.
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Figure 3. Components of a typical air-powered Down-the-Hole Hammer
(Courtesy of Center Rock, Inc.).
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Each of these considerations has, in turn, many controlling factors and nuances: suffice it
to say that the contemporary hammers continue to undergo progressive development as
consequences of close field monitoring and highly sophisticated computer modelling at the
design stage. A particularly critical factor — for all types of the DTH’s — relates to the
cycling of the piston. The objective is to consume the activating medium with the highest
level of efficiency. Bearing in mind that the drill penetration rate is proportional to the
power applied, it will therefore be dictated by the energy imparted to the piston times the
frequency of the blows. Hence, it follows that a prime goal is to maximize the area of the
piston and the effective air pressure, and to minimize leakage or bypass. The interested
reader is referred to Lyon and Soppe (2012) for detailed considerations
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3. GENERAL BACKGROUND TO WATER-POWERED, DOWN-THE-HOLE
HAMMER DRILLING (WDTH)
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WDTH’s are used in hard, stable rock drilling, and with casing systems for overburden
drilling. Compared to conventional air driven down-the-hole hammers or top hammers,
these WDTH’s provide many advantages, including low energy consumption, reduced
environmental impact, minimal hole deviation, deeper drilling, high output power and
minimal impact on the surrounding ground.
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A WDTH has only two moving parts, the piston and the valve. This simplicity contributes
to its high degrees of reliability and performance, especially noteworthy in more difficult
drilling conditions. Water at up to 180 bar delivery pressure is used to activate the impact
mechanism of the hammer at high frequency and with high power. When the water leaves
the hammer, it has a low pressure and very low flush velocity (100-500 ft/min) which is
still adequate to bring the cuttings to the surface and to clean the borehole. Further, the
hydrostatic column created above the hammer helps to keep the hole stable and prevents
collapse, while in strata with high water tables it prevents ground water being sucked into
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the hole, as would be the case with air flush, giving rise to hole stability problems and
potentially environmental implications.
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4. WDTH EQUIPMENT DETAILS
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Table 1 shows the range of hammer and bit sizes, while the overall system organization is
shown in Figure 4. With respect to the individual components, the following points are
especially relevant:
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Table 1. Range of hammers, bits and operating parameters (courtesy of LKAB Wassara).
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Figure 4. WDTH system components (courtesy of LKAB Wassara).
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•
•
•
Drill Bits: These are of premium quality, incorporating an impact surface and flushing
channels, specifically designed to enhance productivity and improve wear resistance.
Check Valve: This is used to ensure that the hammer function is not disturbed by particles
entering the hammer through the drill bit when the hammer is shut off when, for example,
changing drill rods. This feature is particularly useful when drilling deep holes or when
drilling through fine grained sediments. The check valve has also a fully closed / fully open
function which can be activated.
Drill Rods: These are thick-walled, friction welded tubes with O-ring sealed tube threads, to
minimize water loss at these locations. If leakage should occur, the pump delivery rate is
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increased slightly to maintain the target hammer operating pressure. It may be noted that the
use of water, and sealed-connection rods greatly reduces the safety risk arising from spraying
of debris, which often occurs when drilling with air, and standard thread rods. The typical
combinations for hard rock drilling are as follows:
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HAMMER
W50
W80
W100
W120
W150
ROD
DIAMETER
(mm)
48
76
89
102
114
ROD
THREAD
(inches)
API NC13
API 2⅜
API 2⅜
API 3½
API 3½
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Table 2. Hammer and drill rod set-ups.
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These rods are manufactured in standard lengths of 3.3; 4.6; 6.6; and 10.0 feet. Casing
diameters of 4½ to 8½ inches can be accommodated.
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•
•
•
•
Swivels: Two different designs are available to permit drilling rigs to operate WDTH, and
are built to be maintenance free. They have a roller bearing-free design, with water
lubricated sliding bearings and seals. Swivels can be mounted either on top of the rotary
head, or under the head (and so directly above the uppermost rod).
Water Pump Units: Dedicated units are used for each of the different hammer sizes. The
pump features include a water inlet buffer tank if drilling with an irregular water supply, a
dampening system for the pressure return pulses generated by the hammer, and a control
system that optimizes the drilling operation as well as the fuel consumption. The operation
of the pump is highly automated, so reducing labor requirements and maintenance. It is
standard to have diesel power, but electric drive pumps are often used in urban
environments, and soundproofing is also a common option.
Water Supply and Consumption: Water should be fresh, and contain particles of no larger
than 50 μm. The WDTH pumps contain an inlet water filter to further prevent
malfunctions of the hammer. Salt water can be used, but special maintenance details need
to be implemented, such as flushing the system with fresh water before stand-down
periods. Recirculation of the flushing water is not recommended as this can cause
accelerated wear of the internal components of the hammers. Water consumption is
modest: for example, when drilling a 4½ -inch hole with the W100 hammer at full power,
the requirement is 55 to 90 gpm (at service limit). This is equivalent to an hourly
consumption in the range of 9.2 to 16.2 cubic yards at 60% drilling activity.
Flushing Water Treatment: The activating water is not contaminated since no lubricants are
used in the hammer. Thus, if the ground itself is not contaminated, the flush return cannot
be contaminated and so requires no special measures during the collection and disposal
processes.
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5. SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES OF WDTH
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5. 1. Cost Effectiveness
The hammer is always in contact with the bit, and so impact energy does not diminish with
depth, when increasing water heads are encountered. Drilling depths of around 1,500 feet
can be readily achieved. For WDTH drilling, the hammer, and the high pressure pump, are
much more energy efficient than an equivalent air-powered DTH system, resulting in
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significantly lower fuel consumption. For illustration, a typical air compressor has an
efficiency of 7-10%, compared to a plunger pump’s efficiency of about 90%. Typical
values for average fuel consumption when drilling with the W120 hammer and a 5⅛-inch
bit are:
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•
•
•
Idling, 1.1 to 1.3 gallons/hour (gph)
Medium power (including when casing), 4 to 5.3 gph
Maximum power, 6.6 to 7.9 gph.
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These are measured values, based on 60% drilling time. A study by Lindholm (2011)
confirmed that fuel consumptions for air DTH (i.e., for the compressor) average around 0.8
g per meter drilled, a figure 3 to 4 times higher than for WDTH.
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5. 2. Clean Water for Powering the Hammer is Environmentally Harmless
The use of clean, oil-free water for powering and lubricating the hammer means that
neither the borehole nor the flushing water carrying the cuttings is contaminated by oil.
Lubricating oil consumptions for standard size air-powered DTH’s vary from about 0.05 to
0.4 gph, depending on hammer diameter. Likewise, there is no dust or oil mist which can
cause air pollution, or which needs to be captured.
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5. 3. Drilling System Advantages
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•
•
There is reduced component wear since the velocity of the flushing water is
relatively low, resulting in low rates of wear on the surface of the hammer and drill
rods. It is not unusual for the service life of the W100 hammer body to be up to
30,000 l. ft. even in very abrasive conditions, while the limitation on rod usage is
typically thread wear at over 100,000 lft. Hammers are serviced every 5,00010,000 l.ft. of drilling, depending on water quality. Lindholm (2011) recorded air
hammer and rod longevities of 11,000 lft. and 2,300 lft., respectively
Less harm is caused to the ground since the flushing water exits the hammer under
low pressure and, given the fact that the rate of flow is moderate, the up-hole
velocity is correspondingly low. Further, the hydrostatic pressure created by the
flushing water helps stabilize the hole wall and therefore promotes straightness in
soft formations or overburden by reducing “overbreak.” Likewise, such low uphole velocities permit the use of tight tolerance hammer and rod stabilizing devices
further enhancing straightness, and deviations in the range of up to 1 degree can be
anticipated, and values less than 0.2 degree can be achieved. This “gentle” drilling
mechanism supply reflects the fact that water is an incompressible medium, unlike
compressed air – the volume of which expands as pressure reduces (such as occurs
when air flush passes out of the hammer and begins to move up the drill hole
annulus).
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6. SUMMARY OF DISADVANTAGES OF WDTH
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Water consumptions are not insubstantial and so WDTH may not be a potential tool in
very arid areas, especially since recirculation of flush water is not advisable. Also, it is fair
to say that the components (however, rods and pumps especially) are higher priced than
conventional air-powered DTH. However, in this regard, WDTH will still prove attractive
when its advantages, in terms of productivity, depth, environmental impact and so on, are
weighed.
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7. WDTH APPLICATIONS
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7. 1 Routine construction drilling for grout curtains
WDTH is routinely used for drilling production holes for grout curtains throughout the
world. The fast, straight, environmentally favorable nature of the drilling is particularly
appreciated in this application where water flush is essential for the high efficiency of the
subsequent grouting operations. Significant examples in North America from 2002
onwards include McCook Reservoir and Thornton Reservoir, Chicago, IL; Wolf Creek
Dam, KY (where both 4-inch and 8-inch holes were drilled for grout holes, and for guided
pilot holes, respectively); Niagara, ON, Clearwater Dam, MO; Center Hill Dam, TN
(Bruce, 2012), Logan Martin Dam, AL, and Mormon Island Dam, CA (Bruce 2012).
WDTH’s have also been used on dams throughout Europe, Asia and Central America.
Other applications include drilling for anchors and micro piles, typically in the range of 3 6½ inches in diameter.
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As noted in Section 1 (above), the first U.S. application was at the McCook Reservoir,
where a test program was conducted partly to determine the optimal drilling method. Two
parallel rows of inclined grout holes were drilled, each row containing 128 holes to depths
over 400 feet. One row was drilled with conventional rotary methods, the other with a
Wassara W80 hammer, 3.75-inch diameter bit, and 3-inch diameter drill rods. In the
Silurian Dolomites and limestones of the site, the test results showed the WDTH to be over
100% more productive then the rotary system, while the average deviation at maximum
depth was restricted to just over 1%. As a result, the WDTH was specified by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers for the following 874,000 lft. of production drilling for the grout
curtain.
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7. 2 Drilling in sensitive areas
Urban areas are usually “sensitive” in the sense that they have limited capacity to absorb
movements and/or changes in groundwater level due to drilling operations. This equally
applies to dam drilling applications. Furthermore, the injection of air or oil into the ground
is typically prohibited. Due to the incompressible nature of the water flush, and its low uphole velocity, over-pressurization risks are minimized unlike the case with compressed air.
WDTH’s are also very quiet, do not create dust, and do not use lubricants.
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7. 3 Overburden drilling:
WDTH’s can be used with a variety of overburden drilling systems, most notable and
recently the Rotolock system of Center Rock Inc. (Bruce, 2012a). The water helps to
lubricate the system, promoting a smoother drilling operation even through complex and
variable conditions, from soft clays and sands to boulders and old timber piles. WDTH’s
are particularly efficient for deeper holes in areas of high water tables and, as noted above,
cannot cause over-pressurization of the formation, as compressed air can do. The
environmental advantages (e.g., no oil, dust, reduced noise) are as described for the
previous applications. Casing systems of diameter 4½ to 8½ inches are standard. When
drilling with overburden systems or in soft rocks, the hammer pressure is reduced to about
50% of that for harder rock drilling.
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7. 4 Geothermal Drilling
This typically involves the drilling of deep holes which have to be very straight to avoid
intersection. This plays to the WDTH’s strengths, especially in urban areas where space
for installing replacement holes may be at a premium. The environmental and operational
advantages listed for previous applications remain in play. On a recent project in Malmö,
Sweden, 75 holes each 900 feet long were drilled through saturated soil and rock
formations. The maximum allowance for return water to the sedimentation system was
about 250 cyds per day, which was satisfied by WDTH drilling. A previous test with air
DTH drilling had produced about 130 cyds per hour which had to be contained.
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7. 5 Jet grouting
When jet grouting in difficult bouldery conditions, it is a common requirement to have to
predrill the hole to permit the jet grouting rods and monitor to be subsequently placed.
This newer development in WDTH technology permits single pass jet grouting whereby
the jetting can be conducted through the specially adapted hammer, and the sealedconnection drill rods. Precutting of the formation during drilling with water or air can still
be accomplished, leading to enhanced column diameter with this otherwise conventional,
one-fluid jet grouting system. The standard hammer is the W100 JG hammer, equipped
with a 6-inch diameter bit. This requires 52-93 gpm of water at 170 bars. A maximum
grout delivery pressure of 500 bars can be accommodated. The hammer activation, and the
jet grouting operation, are each controlled independently by different pumps.
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7. 6 Marine and reservoir drilling operations
The main advantages of WDTH’s in this applications are:
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•
•
•
Penetration rate does not decrease with depth as is the case with air-powered hammers.
No oil is introduced into the water.
Minimal risk of over-pressurizing the formation.
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7. 7 Exploratory drilling
WDTH is being increasingly used to lower exploration costs by providing relatively fast
methods to penetrate to the “pay zone” which is to be cored or otherwise logged or tested.
Such non-cored horizons will typically comprise overburden, fills, moraine/till, and rock
above the ore body. This WDTH drilling can be conducted for both surface and
underground excavation, in conjunction with standard core rigs (which also use water
flush). Experience shows that the average WDTH penetration rate is up to 5 times that of
core drilling. The extreme straightness of the WDTH holes is also a considerable
advantage of this application. Figure 5 shows the details of the exploratory drill system
setup, designed to accommodate N-size (3-inch) coring afterwards.
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It is specifically recommended that:
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•
•
•
To avoid the risk of wear being caused by the vibrations from the hammer, “weight rods”
be incorporated in the standard drill string.
The WDTH should operate at around 70 bars during casing installation, and up to 180 bars
during rock drilling.
PCD (Poly-Crystalline Diamond Composite) bits limit wear on the bit perimeter promoting
hole verticality and optimizing bit life. However, traditional TC (tungsten carbide) bits
can be used if the formation is favorable (i.e., non-abrasive).
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Figure 5. WDTH system for Exploration (courtesy LKAB Wassara).
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7. 8 Mining
The particular demands of the deep mining industry (especially fast penetration, hole
straightness, reduced rate of bit wear, and enhanced safety and environmental
considerations) initially drove the development in Sweden of WDTH’s. In the words of
the Wassara promotional brochure, “In short, it (i.e., WDTH) enables mining companies to
scale up, improve safety, lower their energy consumption and minimize the impact on the
environment.” The fundamental driving principle was that pressurized water can provide a
high frequency and high energy per blow and, when exhausted through the hammer, still
had sufficient up-hole velocity to flush and clean the hole. In support of these claims,
Wassara claims:
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•
•
•
•
Deviations < 1% as opposed to 10-20% with top hammers.
Energy consumptions are about 20% that of an air compressor and 33% that of a top
hammer.
Uphole velocity of 100-500 ft./min. as opposed to air at over 7,000 ft./min.
Frequency of blows (3,600 bpm) higher than air DTH (2,000-2,700 bpm).
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8. FINAL REMARKS
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WDTH’s are a proven method for safe and efficient drilling in all — and especially
sensitive — formations and applications. The use of water as a power transmitter to the
hammer has fundamentally changed DTH drilling principles and, being incompressible,
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ensures minimal power loss to great depths under the ambient water table. WDTH drilling
is applied from both surface and underground locations and already has a rich history of
usage in dams in North America. Its other main advantages over conventional air-powered
DTH’s include superior productivity, straighter holes, protection to the environment
(subsurface and atmosphere), and much reduced energy requirements.
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WDTH’s are a proven method for safe and efficient drilling in all — and especially
sensitive — formations and applications. The use of water as a power transmitter to the
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9. REFERENCE PROJECTS
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Some projects of reference where the water-powered drilling technology has been
successfully used will be presented more in details at the ICOLD 2014 Bali Symposium:
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•
•
•
The McCook Reservoir in USA (rehab)
The Wolf Creek Dam in USA (rehab)
The Angostura Dam in Chile (new dam)
(2006-2009)
(2007-2011)
(2012)
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REFERENCES
[Blank line 9 pt]
Bruce, D.A. (2012): Specialty Construction Techniques for Dam and Levee Remediation,
Spon Press an imprint of Taylor and Francis, 304 pp.
Bruce, D.A. (2012a): The Evolution of Small Hole Drilling Methods for Geotechnical
Construction Techniques, ADSC EXPO, ADSC: The International Association of
Foundation Drilling, March 14-17, San Antonio, TX, 18 pp.
Lindholm, J.A. (2011): Cost Calculation and Market Analysis of Geothermal Drilling
Methods, MSC Thesis, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden, January, 75 pp.
Littlejohn, G.S. and D.A. Bruce. (1977): Rock Anchors - State of the Art., Foundation
Publications, Essex, England, 50 p. (Previously published in Ground Engineering in
5 parts, 1975-1976.).
Lyon, R. and Soppe, R. (2012): Drill Tooling: Down Hole Hammers, Presentation at the
ADSC Drill Operator School, September 11, Greensboro, NC.
McGregor, K. (1967): The Drilling of Rock, C.R. Books Ltd., London
Weaver, K.D. and D.A. Bruce (2007): Dam Foundation Grouting, Revised and Expanded
Edition, American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE Press, New York, 504 p.
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Development of Cruising RCD Construction Method
2(14pt)
Y. YAMAGUCHI, T. FUJISAWA & Y.YOSHIDA
Japan Dam Engineering Center, Taito, Tokyo, Japan
yamaguchi@jdec.or.jp
T. SASAKI
Large-scale Hydraulic Structure Division, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
ABSTRACT:
The RCD construction method is a rationalized construction method for concrete dams which was
originally developed in Japan in 1970’s. The RCD construction method has been applied to about
50 concrete gravity dams in Japan, and has achieved reduction of the construction period, the
labor cost, the environmental issue, and the hazard in safety for the constructor. However, under
the current social and economic conditions, it is necessary to develop technologies to achieve
further rationalization in order to cut costs.
The conventional RCD construction method has two major problems to be solved for the further
rationalization, such as alternate placement of RCD and external concretes and setting of crossforms along transverse joints at the stopping of RCD concrete placement in a lift. The “cruising
RCD construction method” has been newly developed to solve these problems.
In this paper, we will introduce an outline of this technology including application cases based on
“Engineering Manual for Cruising RCD Construction Method Technology” published by the
Japan Dam Engineering Center.
Keywords: Cruising RCD Construction Method, Concrete Dams, Rationalization
1. INTRODUCTION
The RCD construction method, which is a rational construction method for concrete dams
developed originally in Japan in the 1970’s, is a roller compacted concrete construction
method which preceded the RCC method. In Japan, about 50 dams have been constructed
by the RCD method, contributing to the shortening of construction periods, reduction of
labor costs, resolution of environmental problems, and ensuring safety during construction.
But as a result of social and economic conditions which have appeared in Japan in recent
years, there is a demand for the development of technologies to further speed up and lower
the cost of dam construction, so technologies that permit faster and more efficient
execution of the conventional RCD method have been developed.
But the conventional RCD method still has two major problems to be resolved for the
further rationalization. One is an alternate placement of RCD concrete and external
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concrete in order to fully integrate the two types of concrete, and the other is the need to
install cross-forms at placing ends of RCD concrete while aligning them with the
transverse joint locations. To resolve these problems, the “Cruising RCD Construction
Method” was developed as a new construction method. This method can speed up
execution of construction by placing the RCD concrete prior to placing the external
concrete and by stopping placing of RCD concrete without using cross-forms.
The cruising RCD construction method was established through a technology development
study that began in 2006 at the Kasegawa Dam (Kyushu Regional Development Bureau,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), dam height, H=97m, dam
body volume, V=941,000m3), where it was applied to the upper part of the dam body,
confirming its effectiveness. And beginning in 2010, at the Yunishigawa Dam (Kanto
Regional Development Bureau, MLIT, H=119m, V=1,060,000m3), technology was studied
and developed to permit continuous placing of an entire lift in order to further rationalize
the cruising RCD construction method, confirming that this new technology further speeds
up and improves the workability and safety of construction.
Based on these successes, the Japan Dam Engineering Center (JDEC), which has led the
development of the cruising RCD construction method and the first application of it,
published the “Engineering Manual for Cruising RCD Construction Method” in June
2010 [JDEC, 2010] and a revised edition in February 2012 [JDEC, 2012]. Since the
publication of the revised edition, the application of the cruising RCD method has
expanded as it has, for example, been applied to construct the Tsugaru Dam (Tohoku
Regional Development Bureau, MLIT, H=97.2m, V=717,000m3) and the Gokayama Dam
(Fukuoka Prefectural Government, H=102.5m, V=935,000m3).
This paper outlines this construction method and introduces the basic technologies which
achieved this construction method and, based on actual applications, demonstrates its
effectiveness.
2. CHRACTRISTCS OF THE CRUSING RCD CONSTRUCTION METHOD
The cruising RCD construction method has the three execution characteristics shown
below which distinguish it from the conventional RCD construction method (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Concept of cruising RCD construction method
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[1] Advance placing of the RCD concrete
When applying the conventional RCD method, placing is performed while ensuring mutual
integration of the external concrete and RCD concrete by complying with placing time
regulations, so external concrete and RCD concrete are repeatedly placed alternately. This
is a major factor causing a decline of the placing efficiency.
When applying the cruising RCD method on the other hand, prior placing of the RCD
concrete permits the external concrete and RCD concrete to be executed separately and
independently. This means it is not necessary to alternately place external concrete and
RCD concrete, maintaining high placing speed that takes full advantage of the equipment
capacity beginning immediately after the start of placing, and at the same time, improving
placing efficiency.
Photo 1 is a view of the cruising RCD method being executed by prior placing of the RCD
concrete.
Photo 1. View of cruising RCD construction method
[2] Later independent placing of external concrete
The external concrete is placed independently of the RCD concrete after it has been placed,
in small block units enclosed by upstream- or downstream-surface form, RCD concrete
and transverse joints (see Photo 2). And the placing joints between the external concrete
and RCD concrete do not, in practice, require placing time restrictions. For the above
reasons, the execution plan is extremely unrestricted, improving the efficiency of placing,
and at the same time sharply improving the safety of the execution.
[3] Omitting the cross-forms at placing ends of RCD concrete
When using the cruising RCD construction method, instead of using the placing method
performed by installing cross-forms at the transverse joint locations and placing slump
concrete at the edges of these forms, which is done using the conventional RCD method, a
placing stop execution method at any optional location is executed by generally forming an
end slope with gradient of 1:0.8 at the RCD concrete placing. This eliminates the need to
temporarily stop placing RCD concrete by installing cross-forms, and the complexity of
the execution accompanying the installation of cross-forms.
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The RCD concrete, whose placing was stopped at an optional location, is jointed to the
RCD concrete by carefully applying mortar to its placing joint surface.
Photo 2. View of Placing of External Concrete using the Cruising RCD Construction Method
3. BASIC TECHNOLOGIES FOR CRUSING RCD CONSTRUCTION METHOD
[1] Technology for advance placing of RCD (internal) concrete
End slope compaction technology
With the cruising RCD construction method, the RCD concrete is placed prior to the
external concrete, so that end slopes are formed at the outside edges of the RCD concrete.
These end slopes are formed with a slope gradient of 1:0.8, and compacted firmly by a
specialized machine so that its density is equal to that of the general part of RCD concrete
(see Photo 3).
Photo 3. Compacting end slope of RCD concrete
[2] Technology for independent and later placing of external concrete
Confirming integration of RCD concrete and external concrete
With the conventional RCD method, after advance placing of the external concrete, RCD
concrete is subsequently placed within 4 hours, and they are integrated by concrete
vibrators.
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In contrast, when executing the cruising RCD method, the external concrete is placed later
in small blocks enclosed by its end slopes, upstream- or downstream-form and transverse
joint panels with the end slopes of the previously placed RCD concrete already compacted
to firmly integrate the two kinds of concrete (see Photo 2).
[3] Technology for placing stop of RCD concrete without using cross-forms
Confirming integration with placing joints of RCD concrete by end slope compaction
With the cruising RCD construction method that does not use cross-forms, in some cases,
two blocks of RCD concrete are jointed with each other, but generally end slope formed at
a gradient of 1:0.8 (see Photo 4). When jointing RCD concrete placing at the end slope, the
careful application of mortar to the end surface of RCD concrete formed at a gradient of
1:0.8, is required.
Photo 4. Stopping placing with 1:08 end-slope in cruising RCD construction method
[4] Technology for continuous execution
Horizontal placing joint surface treatment technology for external concrete and RCD
concrete
To apply the cruising RCD construction method, it is necessary to start horizontal placing
joint surface treatment as soon as RCD concrete placement is finished, and at the same
time, improve treatment speed to keep pace with the rise of placing speed.
Because bleeding of the external concrete occurs after it is compacted, it is necessary to
perform placing joint surface treatment by a method that can effectively remove laitance.
When doing this while applying the cruising RCD construction method, it is necessary to
have a technology that permits good reliability and workability with curing time shorter
than that of past placing surface treatment and reliable treatment of the narrow spaces at
form edges and transverse joints. In past cases, treatment was done by pressurized water.
But bleeding of RCD concrete does not occur, so placing joint surface treatment is done by
a method that can reliably removing the concrete sludge leakage formed on the surface by
roller compaction done using a vibrating roller. It has been confirmed that before setting, it
is possible to perform appropriate placing joint surface treatment using the so-called “soft
treatment”, which is removal using water washing with an appropriate pressure (see Photo
5).
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Photo 5. Soft treatment for RCD concrete placing joint surface
Next, regarding the placing joint surface of the RCD concrete end compacted slope, unlike
horizontal placing joint surface compacted with a vibrating roller, this slope need not be
treated by water washing that is done on horizontal placing joint surfaces to prevent the
occurrence of concrete sludge leakage.
4. EFFECTS BY THE CRUSING RCD CONSTRUCTION METHOD
4.1 Faster placing speed
So the placing speed improvement effectiveness is analyzed based on the past application
of the cruising RCD construction method at the Yunishigawa Dam. At the Yunishigawa
Dam, the cruising RCD construction method was applied to build approximately
180,000m3 from EL.621m to EL.640m, and of this part, from EL.621m to EL.631m
(Range [2] in Fig. 2) was placed at 3 days per lift, and from EL.631m to EL.640m (Range
[3] in Fig. 2) was placed continuously at a rate faster than 3 days per lift.
[1] Conventional RCD construction method
(placing in 3 blocks per lift)
[2] Cruising RCD construction method (placing at
3 days per lift)
[3] Cruising RCD construction method
(continuous placing faster than 3 days per lift)
Figure 2. Execution locations and categorization of construction method at Yunishigawa Dam
At the construction of the Yunishigawa Dam, the placing equipment with higher capacity
than that for previous RCD construction cases was prepared. Therefore, even conventional
RCD construction method achieved a high average placing speed of 142.7m3/h. But, the
average placing speed by the cruising RCD construction method executed at 3 days per lift
was 153.8m3/h, and was improved by about 7% over the average placing speed by the
conventional RCD construction method. In addition, by the application of the cruising
I - 37
RCD construction method executed continuously faster than 3 days per lift, the average
placing speed was 155.7m3/h, and was improved by about 9% above the average placing
speed of the conventional RCD construction method.
In addition to increasing placing speed, the cruising RCD construction method shortens
interval periods. When using the conventional RCD construction method, when placing is
done with 1 lift divided into 3 sections, the period from completion of one section to the
start of placing of the next section is, based on past works, an interval of between 2 and 3
hours needed to move the materials and machinery, and three of these intervals occur for
each lift. At Yunishigawa Dam, there were 3 interval periods per lift, taking an average
total of about 6 hours.
But when using the cruising RCD construction method to perform continuous placing at a
rate faster than 3 days per lift, the execution was continuous without any division of the
lifts and placing continued as the machinery was moved, so no intervals were needed while
placing each lift. Only one interval was needed: that when the placing advanced to the next
lift. The interval period per lift was an average of 2.2 hours at the Yunishigawa Dam. This
means that the work period could be shortened by about 4 hours for each lift.
4.2 Raising speed improvement and work period shortening effect
Figure 3 shows monthly average raising speed of the RCD part of the Yunishigawa Dam
compared with those at other dams.
Figure 3. Relationship of RCD part height with RCD part average raising completion speed
This figure shows that the monthly average raising speed of the RCD part of the
Yunishigawa Dam constructed by the conventional RCD construction method was
6.0m/month due to the higher capacity of placing equipment, and was higher than that of
previous large-scale dams of 3.4m/month. Besides, when using the cruising RCD
construction method at the Yunishigawa Dam, the execution efficiency was improved
I - 38
largely, and construction monthly average raising speed of the RCD part of the
Yunishigawa Dam increased to 9.0m/month.
4.3 Improving workability
(1) Improving workability when temporarily stopping and resuming placing
[1] Improving workability in response to rainfall
Using the cruising RCD construction method, even when rainfall is predicted, it is possible
to stop placing RCD concrete at an end slope of 1:0.8 at an optional place at a location
which avoids the surrounding of transverse joints, permitting placing to continue until the
just before rain begins and leaving time needed for placing stop treatment. And after the
rain has fallen, execution can begin by applying mortar to the end slope, permitting quick
resumption of concrete placing. For this reason, it is possible to make on-site decisions to
temporarily stop and restart placing in hour units, permitting the minimization of stopping
placing work during a period when no rain will fall.
When using the conventional RCD method on the other hand, it is necessary to stop
placing by installing a transverse joint in response to a prediction of rainfall, so it is
impossible to continue placing until immediately before the rain starts, and even after the
rain has stopped, it takes time to revise the lane demarcation plan, so it is difficult to
quickly restart placing.
[2] Improving workability the day before a holiday
When executing work the day before a holiday, it is necessary that the placing plan should
also consider extending the work period in response to unpredictable events. In this case,
when using the cruising RCD construction method, it is possible to continue placing almost
up to the predicted time of completion, by considering the placing stop work time.
When using the conventional RCD construction method, the quantity executed tends to
shrink for the similar reason mentioned in [1].
[3] Response when execution is only possible for a short period
There are days during placing of the body of a dam when the number of hours placing can
be executed is shortened because of various circumstances. Using the conventional RCD
construction method, even when it is necessary to suspend placing on a specific day, for
the same reason cited in [1] and [2] above, using the cruising RCD construction method, it
is possible to place according to the time, so it is possible effectively use times when
placing is possible.
(2) Improving freedom of placing external concrete
When using the cruising RCD construction method, the external concrete is independently
placed in small block units enclosed by the RCD concrete which was placed earlier,
upstream- or downstream-surface form, and transverse joint panels installed at transverse
joints (see Photo 2).
I - 39
(3) Improving freedom of lane dividing for concrete placing
When using the conventional RCD construction method, there is a placing time restriction
stipulating less than 4 hours between placing adjoining slump concrete and RCD concrete.
In contrast, using the cruising RCD construction method, there are no placing time
restrictions between different kinds of concrete, so it is possible to relatively reduce the
quantity of slump concrete, which is executed slowly, boosting the overall execution speed.
(4) Improving workability of placing concrete in contact with rock foundation
Using the cruising RCD construction method, slump concrete including that in contact
with rock foundation is independently placed after other concrete, so after prior placing of
the RCD concrete, there are no restrictions on placing time period.
4.4 Improving execution safety
The work of placing RCD concrete and slump concrete is done by two teams: an RCD
concrete placing team and a slump concrete placing team.
Using the conventional RCD construction method, because RCD concrete and slump
concrete are executed at adjoining places, there are time periods when the two teams are
working at the same place. This means the ensuring safety of workers from the other
team’s heavy execution machinery is an important challenge.
In contrast, using the cruising RCD construction method, the RCD concrete and the slump
concrete placing locations are completely separated, eliminating working at the same place
as another team, greatly improving execution safety.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PLANS
Japan has developed the cruising RCD construction method, as a concrete dam
construction method that can speed up execution by placing RCD concrete prior to the
external concrete and at the same time, stopping placing of the RCD concrete without
using cross-forms. This construction method is a technology established by verifying its
applicability while executing it at actual dams, that is, the Kasegawa Dam (Kyushu
Regional Development Bureau, MLIT) and the Yunishigawa Dam (Kanto Regional
Development Bureau, MLIT), and it has already been summarized in the “Engineering
Manual for Cruising RCD Construction Method” (published in June 2010 and revised in
February 2012) [JDEC, 2010 & JDEC, 2012]. Its application is expanding, as it is now
adopted as the dam body construction method for two new dams.
This paper outlines this construction method and introduces the basic technologies which
achieved this construction method and, based on actual applications, demonstrates its
effectiveness.
In the future, we must introduce new innovations to further rationalize the construction
method. Examples of challenges that must now be faced include improving workability of
end slopes, further speeding up placing and placing completion by continuous execution of
two lifts as an advance of the 1 lift continuous execution method, and applying the cruising
I - 40
RCD construction method from river beds through upper elevations, including the lifts
installed to build a structure.
REFERENCES
Japan Dam Engineering Center (2010): Engineering Manual for Cruising RCD
Construction Method, (in Japanese), Japan Dam Engineering Center, Tokyo, Japan
Japan Dam Engineering Center (2012): Revised Engineering Manual for Cruising RCD
Construction Method, (in Japanese), Japan Dam Engineering Center, Tokyo, Japan
I - 41
Public participation, Human Security and
Public Safety around Dams in Sweden:
hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf
A case study of the regulated Ume and Lule Rivers fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
Dr. M-B Öhman
Technoscience, Centre for Gender Research, Uppsala University
may-britt.ohman@gender.uu.se
M. Palo
Technoscience, Centre for Gender Research, Uppsala University, Sweden
Dr. E-L Thunqvist
Centre for Health and Buildings, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
ABSTRACT:
This paper presents findings of an empirical study of the current situation with geographical focus
on two rivers in the north of Sweden, the indigenous territory Sápmi.The major focus in Sweden
within “dam safety” is on the prevention of dam failure, and emergency preparedness. The issue of
“public safety around dams” is left aside to the detriment of “human security”. While a major dam
failure may cause the death of hundreds up to thousands of people, the current rate of human
deaths caused by dam failure the last 40 years is one person. The number of fatalities that may be
referred to as “public safety around dams” on the Lule River only amounts to 1-2 persons per
year. The risks and dangers involved also cause stress, anxiety, and difficulties on an everyday
basis for residents along the regulated rivers and water courses. From a study of literature,
available statistics, interviews and newspaper reports we discuss the accidents and incidents over
the last decade (2002-12), how these may be defined as “public safety around dams”, the void of
work to prevent such accidents and how the surrounding societal contexts play in, such as the lack
of availability to fast and efficient emergency rescue services to be able to save lives.
Finally, we also discuss the current void of public participation and make recommendations to
enhance public participation and thereby possibilities to an enhanced public safety around dams in
Sweden. The research is funded by Swedish research councils VR and FORMAS.
Keywords: Public Safety, Sweden, Sápmi, Human Security
1. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION, HUMAN SECURITY AND PUBLIC SAFETY
1.1.Summary of findings
This paper presents part of the findings of an empirical study of the current situation in
regard to Public Safety around dams in Sweden. The geographical focus is on the Ume and
Lule Rivers, in the northern part of Sweden.
The empirical study is mainly qualitative with interviews, participatory observations and
literature studies. The studies have been made as part of three different research projects,
from June 2008 and is still ongoing. In terms of resources, we have due to limited funding,
I - 42
not been able to do the study to the extent that we would have wished for. Also the limited
understanding of “public safety around dams” where the majority of actors involved
(police, local authorities, rescues services, regional authorities, power companies/dam
owners) do not address the issue in any coordinated way, means that much of the time has
had to be spent at finding out if at all work is being done in this sector.
We have come to the conclusion that in Sweden the issue of ”Public Safety around dams
and reservoirs” is currently more or less a non-issue. As an example, the latest state inquiry
(SOU 2012) does not discuss public safety around dams at all. The same goes for several
earlier studies (Idenfors et al 2012). For instance drowning accidents which take place on
hydropower reservoirs are not necessarily categorized as dam safety – public safety around
dam issues. Furthermore a number of other, apart from drowning, accidents and incidents
caused by the regulation of the rivers, are not considered as part of the dam safety
discourse (Idenfors et al. 2012).
We find that despite a quite strong legislation (SFS 2003:778) that holds the dam owner
responsible for the safety of the public, as well has holding the local authorities responsible
for making sure that the dam owners fulfill their responsibilities, public safety around dams
is to a large extent neglected. We argue that this an important problem that needs to be
resolved, in particular as the number of deaths on regulated rivers is relatively high and
because the worry, anxiety and distress that the public is subject to due to the dangers on
and around the regulated rivers. We argue that the concept of “human security” (UNDP
1994) should be used to discuss and resolve the situation.
The problems are located on several levels, ranging from responsibilities of the dam
owners and local/regional authorities as well as support to the public for them to be able to
avoid the dangers. We have amongst other identified a void of statistics as grounds for
analyzing accidents and incidents; lack of information on and support for legal instruments
to enter court processes to determine legal liabilities related to actual accidents and
incidents; lack of information to the public to avoid getting hurt; lack of fast access to
rescue services and also lack of local action plans to reduce the number of incidents and
accidents.
Finally, in regard to being able to advance the situation, we have identified a void of public
participation. So far little to no work is taking place from the local authorities or dam
owners to involve the public in addressing the issues around Public Safety around dams.
(Idenfors et al 2012, Palo 2013) We argue that involving the public is an important task as
people reside, live, work and have their leisure time along the regulated rivers. In short, the
people were there before the regulation took place, and the rivers became industrialised
(Jakobsson 1996; Öhman 2007; Össbo 2013) - regulated, and thus dangerous industrial
areas and this needs to be addressed in regard to the issue of “Public Safety around dams”.
]
2. REGULATED RIVERS AND THE PUBLIC IN SWEDEN
[Blank line 10 pt]
2.1. Hydropower regulation, production and location of dams in Sweden
[Blank line 10 pt]
There are about 10 000 dams in Sweden. Of these there are approximately 2000
hydropower plants and dams. Out of these 190 dams are so called large dams, according to
the international definition, with dam walls measuring at least 15 meters from foundation
to crest. Hydropower stands for approximately 50% of the entire power production within
Sweden. The majority of the hydropower dams were constructed between 1950s and the
1970s. (SOU 2012:46; RiR 2007:9)
I - 43
The majority of the large dams and regulated water courses are located in the northern part
of Sweden, known as “Norrland” and also “Sápmi” – the traditional core area of the
indigenous people Sámi, which is also reindeer grazing lands. Sweden has about 9,5
million inhabitants. Norrland - Sápmi has about 1,1 million residents (SCB Befolkning
2014).There are a great number of tourists coming in to these areas throughout the whole
year. For instance Norrbotten, the northern most county, topped the statistics with of a
quarter of a million foreign guest nights during July 2013 (SCB Gästnätter 2014). How
these tourists interact or not with regulated rivers is difficult to estimate as there is
currently no such specific statistics available.
By all these regulated rivers – and thus regulation reservoirs or just downstream of
hydropower plants, as well as dry beds due to regulation, there are homes, industries and
infrastructure close by. Many people reside, work, or visit as tourists during all seasons of
the year. Reindeer herders have to cross the regulated rivers to take care of their reindeer.
Other locals do leisure or professional fishing, sports, bathe, sun bathe, drive snow mobile
in winter or go out by boat in summer. We have not been able to estimate the number of
people who are on the regulated reservoirs at each given moment, as there is no such
statistics available. However, the number is likely to be high, as the regulated rivers were
and are as important for transports and all other activities as they were before regulation
took place.
2.2 Human security
The concept of human security was popularized through the United Nations Development
Programme’s 1994, Human Development Report (UNDP, 1994). Traditional security
policies are designed to promote demands ascribed to the state, and other interests are most
often considered subordinated to those. We therefore depart from the human security
concept which focuses on people and the protection of individuals. The original meanings
of security : “security—from the Latin securitas—refers to tranquility and freedom from
care, or what Cicero termed the absence of anxiety upon which the fulfilled life depends”
(Liotta and Owen 2006) . Security is relevant to feelings of safety and stability, routines, or
rather, security of expectations, whereby we can count on certain things for our future, that
which we most value, upon which we can build capacity (Hoogensen 2005, Wibben 2010)
2.2. The Lule River – Julevädno – and the Ume River - Ubmejeiednuo
The geographical focus of the empirical study is on the Ume and Lule Rivers, in the two
northern most counties, Västerbotten and Norrbotten.
The Lule river – in Sámi language “Julevädno” - measures 461 kilometers from mountain
regulated source lakes to the coast and is dammed with 15 hydropower plants. The Lule
River produces around 10 per cent of the totality of electricity produced within Sweden –
or 13-16 TWh per year. In 2012, 16, 4 Twh was produced, which corresponds to ten per
cent of the totality of power production and 21 per cent of the hydropower produced (78,0
TWh) within the Swedish borders (Svensk energi 2013). All dams and power plants on
the Lule River are owned and run by the Swedish state owned power company Vattenfall.
Regulations started in 1910, and peaked during the 1950s-1970s.
There are around 100 000 inhabitants residing in the municipalities located along the Lule
river from the mountain to the coasts. The majority of these (around 75 000 inhabitants) do
not reside permanently near the reservoirs, but downstream of the last of the 15
dams/hydropower plants (Boden) in the municipality of Luleå. However, many of the
inhabitants of Luleå travel up towards the mountain areas for both work and leasure.
I - 44
Furthermore, this is a river with the majority of reindeer herding enterprises in Sweden.
Along the Lule river there are 224 registered reindeer herding companies, and a maximum
of 40 800 reindeer in the winter herd (Sametinget 2014).
The Ume river – Ubmejeiednuo in Sámi language - measures 470 kilometers from
mountain regulated source lakes to the delta at the coast and is dammed with 21
dams/hydropower plants. During 2012 the Ume river produced 9,4 TWh, or 8,3 per cent of
the totality of hydropower production and five per cent of the totality of power
production,162,0 TWh (Idenfors et al. 2012; Svensk Energi 2013). In the whole of the
Ume river valley there is approximately 150 000 inhabitants within six municipalities
(SCB 2010). Furthermore there are 53 reindeer herding companies, within three “sameby”
and a maximum allowed of 24 300 reindeer (Sametinget 2014).
The dams/hydropower plants along the Ume River are owned by four different companies;
the Swedish state owned Vattenfall, the Norwegian state owned Statkraft, the private
owned companies Eon and Vattenregleringsföretagen, jointly owned by the different
power producers in the rivers ( Länsstyrelsen Västerbotten, 2011).
3. TYPE OF ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS – LACK OF STATISTICS
BLANK LINE
3.1. Identifying a void of official statistics on accidents related to public safety
BLANK LINE
Within our empirical study a lot of effort has been devoted to find if there is official
statistics available to easily identify accidents and incidents which can be considered as
“public safety around dams” related. The result of the investigation shows that there is
currently no such data available and there is currently no ongoing effort to collect such
data.The power companies do not keep such records, nor do the local rescue services
(Idenfors et al 2012; Palo 2013).
There is a national database available on drowning accidents – fatalities. But within this
database lake is equated to regulated reservoir (MSB 2014). Thus one has to identify the
accident by geographical location and then find out if the location is on a reservoir or on an
unregulated river/water course. Furthermore, to be able to establish whether it was an
accident caused by the regulation – for instance more release of water causing the ice to
crack up faster in combination with increasing temperature (Öberg 2009) – there is much
more information needed than what is currently available.
For other information regarding the circumstances to be able to identify to what extent the
power company could have prevented the accident, information is needed from the local
rescue services or the police. When asking for such information from the different local
rescue services, it turned out that at some cases we could get good help while in other cases
we did not receive help within the time limit of the empirical study (Idenfors 2013; Palo
2013).
To the question if it possible to receive statistics regarding accidents on or nearby a
reservoir the answers were from local rescue services by the Lule River:
Jokkmokk municipality: ”I can not provide you with such statistics, it might be better if
you contact Vattenfall regarding this issue” (Ström 2013).
Boden municipality rescue services responded: ”Our system unfortunately has deficiencies
in its search functions. Therefore it takes very much working time to go through the data
base which I do not have the time for at this point”(Lindvall, 2013).
The Gällivare municipality rescue manager stated that he had no information whether there
is any specific statistic available on accident near to dams. He also stated that he had no
I - 45
information regarding what statistical system that is used in Gällivare for such reporting
(Sonesson 2013).
We also contacted the police authorities of the Norrbotten County, to get more information
on the accidents on the Lule River. We were provided a number of accident reports from
2004 until 2012. However, the details in these reports were not exact enough to be able to
define whether the regulation was the cause of the accident or not (Palo 2013).
As many accidents in winter are related to snow mobile transportations – for work or
leisure – we contacted the Non-Governmental organization (NGO) SNOFED, the Swedish
Snowmobiles owner national association, where one part of the tasks is work with
information to avoid accidents. The response regarding statistics on accidents on regulated
water courses was: “the exact geographical position is not information that we receive, or
we have difficulties to verify. […]When and if we get exact position data we cannot enter
this into our data base other than as place or lake names. We invest the time we have
possibility to in this registration, and more deeper analysis would request more staff
resources than what we have today. Also we do not have the possibility to access details
today. It is only a small part of our and my work time that is dedicated to this task”
(Persson 2013)
For the Ume River, the situation is equal to that of the Lule River. Information on
accidents and incidents are difficult to access and there is no specific data base available
for “public safety around dams” accidents and incidents at any official level. Nor are there
any records kept by power companies/dam owners (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013).
3.2. Types of accidents and incidents
Within the research project, despite not being able to receive official relevant statistics, the
interviews and requests for information have provided a certain, although not full,
understanding of the situation. We have interviewed both rescue services and also people
living and working along the rivers.
According to the local rescue services the number of fatalities that may be referred to as
“public safety around dams” on the Lule River only amounts to 1-2 persons per year.
(Lundström 2010; Nilsson 2013). On the Ume River and regulated river courses adjacent
to the Ume River the number of drowning or incidents – with injuries or no injuries amounted to ten during the period of 2002 to 2013 (Backman 2013; Asp 2013).
Secondly, there are other types of accidents that fall out of the category of drowning. For
instance, the danger in winter time is to fall into holes in the ice. One may not drown, but if
one does not get help within a short period of time, one is likely to die out of hypothermia
within very short time, depending on location and actual air temperature. This is in
particular a problem for reindeer herders who work a lot on their own and thus can be
subject to accidents without anyone being informed.
One of our informants speaks of such an accident, by a regulated water course adjacent to
the Lule River. The accident occurred around 2005-2006:
“A man froze to death here. They went into the water with their snow mobiles. I don’t
know how wet he got, but he never made it to the cabin. His friend made it to the cabin and
survived.” (Pittsa, 2011).
I - 46
The informant continues stating regarding the ice situation in the area that ”it is very bad
ice here. The whole of this stretch is really bad ice, the whole of this stretch is river course.
[…] it might be considered a ‘snow mobile accident’ but I am not so sure the accident
would have happened if it was not regulated. The stream would not be the way it is
[without the regulation] (Pittsa, 2011).
Participatory observations – field studies and interviews provides a number of other types
of accidents, incidents and also risks that can be categorized as “public safety around
dams”. Below are some examples of accidents, incidents and risks identified through
interviews and participatory observations –field studies:
-
-
-
-
-
Cracks in the ice that can cause snow mobile accidents, broken limbs for both humans and
animals, and also become traps for children and animals (:
One woman having a residence by the Suorva reservoir – Lule River - tells how she
managed to save her two year old daughter from slipping into such a crack at the last
second ( Harnesk 2009). Öhman herself when walking on the ice-track at Suorva reservoir
happened to step into a crack covered with snow and fell. (Öhman 2009). Accidents of this
type was reported also by the security co-ordinator of Storuman Municipality – Ume River
(Sundqvist 2013).
The regulated reservoirs becomes large inland seas, in the mountain areas. As people need
to travel on these lakes, to and from their residences, they need big boats which become
difficult to handle at the eroded shores, especially when one is alone and especially for
older people. (Öhman 2008, 2009, 2010).
In the mountain areas, storms can come very suddenly, and as the shores are heavily
eroded at the Suorva reservoir, it can become impossible to land the boat and get into
safety (Harnesk 2009).
Erosion caused by the regulation causes holes in the bottom. An older woman told how she
stepped into such a hole when getting out of her boat and thereby getting injured
(Nordqvist 2009).
The four regulations of the Suorva reservoir has forced people to move up on the hillsides
at Änonjalme and Vaisaluokta. Combined with the regulation amplitude makes it difficult
to access the houses from the boats, or snow mobiles in winter when the snow is not good
enough to get close to the houses. It is especially difficult for older people and people with
disabilities and when carrying baggage. Also for tourists there are reports of problems
when the elevators do not function properly. (Öhman 2008, 2009; Palo 2013).
Figure 1: The hole in the ice created by water release from the Ritsem power station, Suorva
reservoir, Lule River. Two men died as they went through the ice near this hole, May 2008.
I - 47
4. ACTORS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND VOID OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
4.1 Strong legislation but weak enforcement of laws
blank
The dam owners along Ume and Lule Rivers do work with certain preventive measures,
although it is to a quite small extent. For instance, the state power company Vattenfall
provides for the maintenance of ice roads at two locations on the Lule River, at Ritsem –
Änonjalme, and at Saltoluokta (Palo 2013). However Vattenfall does leave the most of the
responsibility with the individuals, which are more or less considered to be out on the ice
or the waters of the reservoirs at their own risk (Palo 2013). Also the ice roads are closed
by the end of April – beginning of May each year, which is the time when the reindeer
herders come with the reindeer, and the local Sámi residents starts coming into the area for
the summer residence (Öhman 2008,2009,2010).
The work with “public safety around dams” is not defined at all in most of the
municipalities which we have contacted. It seems overall as a concept that is not discussed
or analyzed at all. However, during the interviews that were made by telephone many of
the informants started thinking around the concept, and agreed that it is an important issue
that is far too neglected. A response was that there is certainly room for more work in this
regard (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013). In regard to the existing legislation the informants at the
rescue services of the municipalities claim that the legislation regarding public safety is
potentially very strong. However, several of them stated that the legislation is not enforced
to the extent which it potentially could be and that there seems to be a void of actually
prosecuting dam owners when accidents and incidents regarding public safety around dams
occur (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013).
Also, the responsibilities of the municipalities to work with prevention against such
accidents is according to the interviews not something that is spent time or efforts on by
the municipalities along the Ume River (Tapani 2013;Wiklund 2013; Jonsson 2013) and to
a very little extent along the Lule River (Nilsson 2013).
According the “law on protection against accidents” (2003:778) the responsibilities are
quite clear. According to this law the dam owners are responsible to both warn and either
keep or finance emergency preparedness including staff, property as well as other
measures to hinder or limit damages and accidents. Furthermore, the dam owner is
responsible to analyze all serious risks for accidents that may be a threat to person’s life or
health (SFS 2003:778 §2:4). Apart from the dam owner, also the local authorities – the
municipality – is responsible to work with accident prevention, as well as through advice,
information and by other means ensure that dam owners to comply to their responsibilities
according to the law LSO (2003:778 §3:2). The municipality is furthermore required to
have an action plan of preventive actions, within which the organization of such acitivies
should be defined. This action plan is to be renewed for each electoral period, that is every
four years (2003:778 §3:3). Also the state has according to this law certain responsibilities.
In the mountain areas the state should delegate to specific rescue services to assist and
rescue those that have had an accident (or a disease) and who needs a rapid medical care or
other assistance (2003:778 §4:1).
blank
4.2 Lack of available rescue services as cause of unnecessary fatalities
blank
Despite that the legislation is very far stretching regarding what has to be done to prevent
accidents and actually places are large responsibility with the dam owner, as well as with
I - 48
the local and state authorities, our study indicates that this legislation is currently far from
enforced. For instance, one problem is the time for rescue services to be able to assist.
Interviews with the rescue service in Jokkmokk, where the number of fatal accidents –
drowning – on the regulated rivers amounts to 1-2 per years, indicates that although that
the rescue services can be ready to assist anyone in danger within five minutes – the
distances are long and there is a need of helicopters. The local rescue services however,
does not have access to any rescue helicopter, which is the responsibility of the mountain
rescue service (Lundström 2010).
For instance, despite the legislation, the State power company Vattenfall does not finance
any helicopters stationed by the Suorva reservoir to support rescue operations. There are no
other available resources by the reservoir that can be operated by people who are
witnessing an accident. One accident on the Suorva reservoir in 2008 where two men went
down a hole in the ice on the snow mobile had several witnesses, not far away from the
accident location. (See Fig 1), But due to the condition of the ice, no one could reach them
in time to save their lives. The ambulance helicopter, stationed by the closest helicopter in
Gällivare, which arrived on site after 32 minutes, was not equipped for life saving
operations. The helicopter staff could not even take care of the bodies of the men
themselves, but had to be assisted by some people on site (Pittsa 2011). This may be
compared to another occasion, in Porjus, 2009, when three men went into a hole in the ice.
Due the private helicopter station in Porjus, where there were people available two of the
men could be rescued (Pittsa 2011). Thus the access to fast rescue is obviously the
difference between death and survival in these situations.
So far in our study, we have not been able to follow up if in any of the fatal accidents there
has been any legal consequences for the dam owners or the local authorites/rescue services.
4.3 Void of public participation in the understanding of public safety around dams
The interviews made within the study indicates that first of all there is a lack of discussion
of what “public safety around dams” should be defined as, and secondly that there is
currently little or no work to change this situation. The majority of the informants
responded that issues of dam safety – in particular the issue of “emergency preparedness”
is discussed to a large extent within a specific setting named “River groups” (Älvgrupper)
involving different local and regional authorities as well as the dam owners (Idenfors et al
2012). One informant stated that sometimes issues of what can be defined as “public safety
around dams” is discussed, but to a very limited extent (Tapani 2013).
These River Groups seems to be a potential way for highlighting the issues of public safety
around dams, although at this moment they do not involve professional groups such as
reindeer herders or professional fishermen/women (Tapani 2013).
Within our empirical study we have found that there is a wide knowledge and
understanding among communities as well as individuals that could be made use of to
enhance the safety for the public around the existing dams, but that this knowledge and
understanding is today not considered of importance. Another explanation may be that the
issue of public safety around dams has not been invested in, and thus the need for
understanding the problems, risks, and worries of the public, has not been dealt with. Some
of the explanation may reside within that the hydropower exploitation era, the
overwhelming focus was on power production, and that all other uses of the river and
water courses were more or less completely neglected (Jakobsson 1996; Öhman 2007;
Össbo 2013).
BLANK
I - 49
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Our study clearly indicates a large need to direct focus towards Public Safety around dams
in Sweden. There are a great number of accidents, incidents and also perceived risks and
threats in regard to the regulated rivers. The current lack of attention to the issue means a
continued distress and anxiety for the local inhabitants along the rivers, as well as visiting
tourists. Thus an obvious recommendation based on the findings is to immediately invest
into further studies and actual work to enhance public safety around dams, involving the
public from all parts of society, taking into account the different age groups, gender,
ethnicities, language, disabilities, professional groups and the indigenous Sámi and other
local inhabitants cultural and traditional relationships to the rivers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was/is funded by the research projects “Situated perspectives on hydropower
exploitation in Sápmi: Swedish technological expansion in the 20th century and its impacts
on indigenous peoples” (Swedish Resaerch Council, VR, 2009-2010); “DAMMED:
Security, Risk and Resilience around the Dams in Sub Arctica (Swedish Research Council,
VR, 2010-12) and “Rivers, resistance, resilience: sustainable futures in Sápmi and other
indigenous peoples’ territories” (FORMAS, 2013-16) All research projects are led by Dr.
Öhman.
REFERENCES
[Blank line 9 pt]
Interviews and email exchanges:
Asp, M. (2013), MSB- Swedish Civil Contingencies Authorities, Email June 10.
Backman, G. (2013) Emergency preparedness coordinator (Beredskapssamordnare)
Storuman Municipality (Ume River), Telephone interview, June 2013.
Harnesk, V. (2009), Resident of the Suorva reservoir, Personal interview, April 2009.
Jonsson, G. (2013), Fire inspector, Lycksele Municipality. Email May 27.
Lindvall, T. (2013), Security coordinator, Boden Municipality, Email March 21.
Lundström, G. (2010), Security coordinator, Jokkmokk Municipality, Personal Interview,
Oct., 2010.
Nilsson, B. (2013), Security manager (Räddningschef), Jokkmokk and Boden
Municipalities, March 2013.
Nordqvist, S. (2009), Resident of Maksjonjalme. Personal Interview.
Persson, P. (2013), SNOFED, Email March 27.
Pittsa, B-E (2011), reindeer herder and consultant for Vattenfall ice tracks at Suorva dam.
Personal Interview, April 2011.
Sonesson, K. 2013) Rescue services manager (Räddningschef), Gällivare Municipality,
telephone interview 07-05-2013.
Ström, N. (2013) Security coordinator, Jokkmokk Municipality, Email March 19.
Sundqvist, L-E. (2013), Security co-ordinator. Storuman Municipality, June 2013.
Tapani, L. (2013), Fire brigade manager, Umeå Municipality. Email May 31.
Wiklund, E.( 2013) Emergency preparedness coordinator, Vännäs Muni., Email June 3.
Öberg, B. (2009), Resident of Björkudden and responsible for maintenance of ice track.
Personal Interview.
I - 50
Field studies - participatory observations- notes from empirical study
Idenfors, A. (2013) Unpublished notes from empirical study on public safety around dams,
Ume River. May to June 2013.
Palo, M. (2013) Unpublished notes from empirical study on public safety around dams, the
Lule River, March to August, 2013)
Öhman, M-B (2008; 2009;2010) The Suorva reservoir – notes from field studies and
participatory observations.
Literature:
Hoogensen, G. (2005) Gender, Identity, and Human Security: the case of women
terrorists. Canadian Foreign Policy. 12(1):119-140.
Idenfors, A.; Sandström, C; Öhman, M-B; Hanberger, A; Thunqvist, E-L, (2012) När det
brister: En studie av dammsäkerhet och säkerhetsarbete mot översvämningar längs
Skellefte och Umeälven, Umeå universitet, Umeå
Jakobsson, E. (1996) Industrialisering av älvar: studier kring svensk vattenkraftutbyggnad
1900-1918. Doctoral Dissertation. Göteborg Universitet, Göteborg.
Länsstyrelsen Västerbotten (2011). Risk- och sårbarhetsanalys för Västerbottens län 2011,
Länsstyrelsen Västerbotten, Livsmiljöenheten, Umeå
Liotta, P. H. and Taylor Owen (2006). "Sense and Symbolism: Europe Takes on Human
Security." Parameters Autumn 2006: 87.
MSB (2014), IDA MSB:s statistik och analysverktyg - Döda till följd av skador 1972-2012,
Dödsorsaksregistret (DOR) (Swedish Civil Contingencies Authorities statistic &
analysis tool.) [http://ida.msb.se/ida2#page=a0145] acc. March 10, 2014.
Riksrevisionen (2007). Säkerheten vid vattenkraftdammar, Riksrevisionen RiR 2007:9,
Riksdagstryckeriet, Stockholm
Sametinget (2014) Rennäringens markanvändning , Sametinget, Giron/Kiruna.
http://sametinget.se/8382 acc. 09-03-2014
SCB Folkmängd (2014) Folkmängd i riket, län och kommuner efter kön och ålder 31
december 2013 (Population statistics in Sweden, per Dec 2013) http://www.scb.se/
(acc. 03-10-2014)
SCB Gästnätter (2014), (Statistics guest nights data base) Gästnätter för samtliga hotell,
stugbyar, vandrarhem, campingar, förmedlade privata stugor och lägenheter efter
region. Prel. statistik. 2008M01 - 2014M01 [www.scb.se] (acc. 03-10-2014)
SCB (2010). Folkmängd i riket, län och kommuner 31 december 2010 och
befolkningsförändringar 2010. [www.scb.se]
SFS 2003:778 Lag om skydd mot olyckor (Law about protection against accidents)
http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/lag/20030778.htm , acc. 20140309)
SOU 2012:46. Utredningen om översyn av de statliga insatserna för dammsäkerhet.
Dammsäkerhet - Tydliga regler och effektiv tillsyn: betänkande. Fritze, Stockholm
Svensk Energi (2013) Elåret 2012, Svensk Energi – Swedenergy – AB, Stockholm
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1994). Human Development Report,
UNDP, New York
Wibben, A (2010), Feminist Security Studies: A Narrative Approach, Routledge: New
York
Öhman, M-B. (2007) Taming Exotic Beauties: Swedish Hydropower Constructions in
Tanzania in the era of Development Assistance, 1960s-90s. Diss. KTH: Stockholm.
Össbo, Å. (2013) Nya vatten, dunkla speglingar: Industriell kolonialism genom svensk
vattenkraftutbyggnad i renskötselområdet 1910-1968. Diss. Umeå Univ.:Umeå
I - 51
Roadmap of pre-investment process for a hydropower project.
Case study Tarnita-Lapustesti pump-storage hydropower
plant.
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2(14pt)
Ph. D. Eng. Irinel Daniela Iacob
Hidroelectrica SA,Bucharest, Romania
irinel.iacob@hidroelectrica.ro
ABSTRACT
Building a high power hydro plant with accumulation through pumping is an old interest of the
specialists within the romanian national energy system.
The location of the project is Somesul Cald River, Cluj County. Hydropower parameters are:
maximum installed capacity 1000 MW; hydro-mechanic equipment motor-generator reversible
units (no. of units: 4 pieces x 250 MW); pumping cycle: weekly; quantity of energy generated in
generator mode: 1,625 GWh/year; quantity of energy generated in pumping mode: 2,132
GWh/year; transformation coefficient: 0.76.Investment cost on 1.01.2009 is 1,029 million euro
(VAT exclusive).
This material aims to present the roadmap of national interest project Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP
(pump-storage hydropower plant), pre-investment process :
• strategic environmental assessment (SEA) procedure;
• environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedure;
• public consultations held ,public acceptance of the project;
• land acquisition and resettlement;
• historical monuments assessment procedure .
Keywords: pump-storage hydropower plant
I. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PROJECT
Building a large pumped storage hydropower plant became a need ever since the year
1975.
More localtions on the territory of our country have been inspected during the period of
1975 – 1985, and about 17 locations were considered fit for building a pumped storage
power plant.
During the period of 1985 – 1988 the option became clear and the hydrographic basin of
the Somesul Cald River was chosen, as the existent Tarnita Reservoir could accomplish the
role of a lower reservoir. Such a location is most valuable since it is placed close to an
important consumption center – Cluj Napoca industrial area.
I - 52
Figure 1. The hydrographic basin of the Somes River.
Throughout the period that followed, various study reports evaluating the conditions of
carrying out the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP have been drawn up. Such study reports were
written by some prestigious design and consultancy institutions such as: the Institute of
Hydroelectric Studies and Designs (ISPH), the Institute of Energy Studies and Research
(ISCE), Electric Power Development Co. (E.P.D.C.) from Japan, following to a grant
awarded by the Japenese government, the IPA/Verbund/Poyry Consultant within the
SEEREM program of the World Bank in 2005 – financed by IBRD.
As soon as the study reports were done, two equipping scenarios were primarily outlined:
the scenario with the plant equipped with four reversible hydro-aggregates, with the
turbine – pump having each the capacity of 250 MW, and the scenario with the plant
erquipped with three reversible hydro-aggregates having each 330 MW.
These study reports were written considering the power equipment offers from behalf of
some famous companies such as: Ansaldo GIE from Italy, Toshiba – Japan, Alsthom –
Neyopic from France, Hitachi and Mitsubishi from Japan, etc., a good estimation of cost
and efficiency was therefore provided.
All the study reports highlighted the strategic importance of commissioning the TarnitaLapustesti PSHPP for the National Energy System (SEN) to run under safe conditions for:
 Re-commissioning the SEN (black out);
 Providing the frequency-power regulation;
 Providing the rapid tertiary reserve;
 Providing the short-run breakdown reserve;
 Providing reactive power, running in compensatory mode with respecting the
quality standards of electric energy;
 Providing the optimal conditions for developing the wind and nuclear power
generation sectors;
I - 53

Enhancing the running mode of the large units in Cernavoda NPP and of the
fossil and co-generation condensation thermal power plants (the power
generation on the condensation tail is thus avoided) by transferring electric
energy from idle to peak;
 Improving SEN’s participation in the sole energy market, and increasing the
SEN’s global safety, and making possible the SEN’s running in higher technical
and cost-effective conditions;
 Inter-connection exchange within UCTE;
 Cutting off the utilization of the pretious fossil fuel resources,
besides the strengths we detailed above, we also add the fact that the project will use clean
and renewable energy resources.
II. TARNITA-LAPUSTESTI PROJECT GENERAL DATA
II. 1. Construction characteristics
The principal construction parts of the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP are:
The Upper Reservoir (Lapustesti Storage) has a volume of 10 mil. cubic meters, is located
on Lapustesti plateau at an elevation of 1070.00 m.a.s.l., and will be erected by digging
and dyking, having in mind the principle that the volume of digs should be equal to the
volume of fills from the dykes.
The Lower Reservoir (Tarnita Storage) is an existent objective, has an efficient volume of
15 mil.cubic meters, is located on the Somesul Cald River at the thalweg elevation of
441.00 m.a.s.l., is accomplished by the Tarnita Dam (double arch reinforced concrete),
and has a normal top water level of 521.50 m.a.s.l. and a minimum operation level of
514.00 m.a.s.l.
Figure 2. Tarnita dam
The cavern, which shelters the electro-mechanic equipment, is an underground building
placed in the left slope of the Tarnita Storage, in the area of Somesul Cald – Valea
Farcasului. The cavern is made by the machine hall cavern and the transformers cavern and
I - 54
has some access tunnels and connection tunnels between them, suction galleries, gates
inspection shafts, cable tunnel, and operational personnel’s access.
The inter-basin diversions, which are the hydraulic transportation works between the upper
reservoir and the undergound plant, and the underground plant and the lower reservoir, are
made of the following galleries :
- The high pressure gallery, an underground construction, inclined to 45°
between the upper reservoir and the underground plant. Length L = 1096 m;
Diameter Ø = 6.00 m.
- Two low pressure galleries, underground constructions, almost horizontal,
for discharging the turbined water and sucking the water pumped between
the plant building and the lower reservoir. Dimensions: Length: 2 wires x
1,325. Diameter Ø = 6.20 m.
Electro-mechanic equipment is made of reversible units (pump and turbine mode, with a
capacity of 4 x 250 MW) and its related installations of control, automation, and
connection to the National Energy System (SEN).
Figure 2. Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP Development Scheme.
This location benefits from some natural conditions that are favourable to such a
development. The lower reservoir is the existent Tarnita storage lake itself, meanwhile
there is a plateau on the Laupstesti hill placed on the left slope at the elevation of 1070
m.a.s.l., which allows the erection of the upper reservoir. The level difference is 560 m and
the Hmax/Hmin ratio is of maximum 1/1. It is a weekly regulation storage with a volume of
about 10 mil.cubic meters and an inslalled capacity of about 1,000 MW. The diversion has
a H/L = ¼ ratio and is quite short. A vital criterion in choosing the development location
I - 55
was that it could be executed technically and that it provided the necessary of materials for
executing the dykes from the site excavations. The sources of construction materials were
detailed in the geological reports, for which some digging works and lab tests were made.
The geological conditions, both of the plateau and for the underground works, are good
and are certified by the results of the land survey reports.
II.2. Execution technology
In order to execute the development project, some execution technologies of great
potential were investigated:
The Upper Reservoir (Polder type, V = 10 mil.cubic meters) is executed on the Lapustesti
plateau by building dykes of an average height of 35 m and of a length of about 2,600 m.
In order to execute it, the excavated material from the polder’s cuvette is used, so that the
quantity required for filling should be supplied from the excavations. The excavation
volume is 6.64 mil.cubic meters, and the volume of dykes fills is 5.16 mil.cubic meters.
The upper reservoir is tightened all over the area with a two-layered 16 cm thick asphalte
concrete blanket. The works will be developed on three sectors, with 8 work locations,
using excavators of very big capacity.
The main diversion works taken into account are: the high pressure gallery (the diameter of
which is  6 m and serves the 4 units), the low pressure galleries (one to 2 units, so 2
wires), suction galleries (to every unit), surge tanks (one to 2 suctions in the downstream,
so one to one wire), lower and upper intakes, and valve chambers to both intakes that will
be executed in wet shaft. The high pressure gallery, with L = 1,096 m, will be built with a
15-60 mm thick tunnel lining, which is variable according to the water column height. The
low pressure galleries, with L = 2 x 1,325 m, of which diameters are 6.20 m, will be built
with multiple reinforced concrete linings of up to 60 cm thikness. The high pressure
gallery with a 6.00 m diameter and a 1.096 m length will be executed at a 45 slope, with a
drilling machine, at a full section and in an ascendant tunnel face, with no intermediary
adits.
The underground plant is made of 2 caverns, the machine hall cavern and the transformers
cavern and more galleries: the main adit, the secondary access tunnel, the cable tunnel, and
ventilation gallery, as well as the connection galleries between the 2 caverns in order that
people should have access or for technological flows.
All the underground works are developed in the rock from the area: quartz-mica schists –
detailed in the geological report and given in procentage according to their various types of
toughness. The machine hall cavern with a length of 115 m and width of 25 m will be
executed starting with the arch with development drifts and then in the longwall mining,
the arch having been concreted on the lifts placed on the cradles. The structural work is
made of reinforced concrete and holds the equipment and the 2 travelling cranes, each of
200/ 50 t, for mounting the equipment. The transformers cavern is 115 m long and 19 m
wide and will be executed in the same manner as the machine hall cavern will be executed.
The electric wire connection tunnels between the generators and transformers will be
shored and then concreted. The adit between the caverns and also all over its length will be
initially shored in steel supports for underground excavation and then concreted. The
connection tunnel from the end opposite to the mounting platform will be executed the
same way. The cable tunnel will be developed with a horizontal canal reach of about 600m
I - 56
from the outside and the canal reach inclined to 1:1.5 from the inside. It will be concreted
and departmentalized.
II.3. Functional and technological data
The Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP will have high maneuverability and consequently it will be
capable to timely respond to load variations. The operational period in the turbine mode
depends on the peak load period during daytime. The operational period in the pump mode
depends on the off-peak period during non-business days. Depending on the operational
periods (pump-turbine mode) the volume of the upper reservoir was established (10 mil.
m3). The discharge of the hydro-aggregate is different in the turbine mode as compared to
the discharge in the pump mode. To prevent hydraulic hammering in the pump mode due
to some failures, which could occur at nuclear or thermal energy generators, the turbinepump hydro-aggregate must be capable to adjust the absorbed load.
Figure 3. Synoptic profile of the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP
While running in pump mode, both at start and at shut down, there is a frequency variation
in the national energy system, namely: at soon as the pumping starts, the frequency
decreases under 50 Hz (for a unit of 250 MW it decreases to 4.92 Hz). As soon as the
pumping stops, the frequency increases over 50 Hz in the national energy system (for the
same unit of 250 MW it increases to 50.08 MW). The scope of this frequency of variations
is tightly connected to the power of the aggregate adopted for the PSHPP, but also to the
feedback of the national energy system when the PSHPP starts to run in the pump mode.
From this point of view and according to the capacity of the thermal or nuclear units,
capacities as higher as possible would be highly recommended for the turbine-pump hydroaggregates installed in the PSHPP. But, the higher the capacity installed in these
aggregates is, the higher the frequency variations in SEN produced at shut down or at start
of the pump mode are.
I - 57
For the actual capacity of SEN and in the light of the years 2015 – 2020, focusing on
developing the nuclear, thermal (by refurbishment), and wind power capacities, the
scenario of equipping the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP with 4 tubine-pump hydro-aggregates
of 250 MW each was therefore adopted (4 x 250 = 1,000 MW).
III. COMMUNICATION WITH THE LOCAL COMMUNITY
According to the law, the public is to be consulted for the environmental permit for the
construction. Up to this date, there aren’t significant negative opinions or opposition of the
public regarding the project. Feasibility studies show that the project of Tarnita-Lapustesti
PSHPP does not impact the protected natural areas of community interest.
Tarniţa – Lăpuşteşti PSHPP is located in rural Mărişelu , Capusu Great Râşca , Gilău ,
Dângăul Great Big Hill , Lăpuşteşti , Warm Somes Cluj County .
For the the communication with the local community, Hidroelectrica hired a consultant.
The consultant proposed action plan in consultation with representatives of the local
community.
There were numerous contacts with local media and local NGOs . After identify key NGOs
active in the Cluj Country and held preliminary identification of areas of activity and
interest for each such organization. Afther that, consultant prepared joint meetings and
presentations of the project. Hidroelectrica, held several meetings with NGOs local
representatives. Mr. Dorin Chiorean , project manager from Hidroelectrica participated in
meeting to provide some details on project promotion by authorities.
NGO representatives reactions can be classified into two main areas :
- Such a massive and spectacular project will significantly impact the landscape and
environment in the construction. Even if the impact of plant construction and higher
accumulation can be considered limited to the construction area at the colony;
- Such a project could create 5,000 temporary jobs would have a social impact . NGOs
active in the area would like to have more information about structure professions
workforce will be employed by the project ( many employees with university high or
medium , many employees in various specialties , etc. ) , considering that this such persons
during the 5-7-8 years will influence economic and social development of the region.
Immediate conclusion is that a study social impact would be absolutely necessary.
Regarding relations with the local community, we can mention frequent contacts with
Mayors of Mărişelu , Capusu Great Râşca , Gilău , Dângăul Great Big Hill , Lăpuşteşti ,
Warm Somes Cluj County. It was noted a total openness of local authorities to support
project implementation. They understood that the project would bring significant benefits
for local infrastructure development, job creation and development of tourism in the area.
Meanwhile for the project permitting were held with the participation of community
members locale and representatives Hidroelectrica. In these meetings were made detailed
presentations of the project and were given answers on the implications of the project.
I - 58
Figure 4. Meanwhile the project permitting process under way
In the ongoing campaign to promote the Tarnita project among the local community in the
20th September was organized a visit to the leading journalists on the Lapustesti plateau
.This meeting was attended by project Mr. Dorin Chiorean. The most important local
publications have participated. On this occasion, journalists traveled route the plateau
Tarnita-Lapustesti, being informed of the details of hydropower construction and its
implementation status. It has also been made a visit to the hydroelectric Mariselu for a
concrete view of a construction of this kind. In addition, there where organized public
debates The Hall of Rasca.
Figure 5. Visit to the plateau Tarnita-Lapustesti
At long last, sustained media campaign and open permanent dialogue with representatives
of local communities gave the expected result. The project was approved by local
community members, they have given their consent for the project.
I - 59
CONCLUSIONS
From the point of view of the national energy sector development, the accomplishment of
the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP is a must and opportune. In the light of the years 2015 –
2020 when the following are forecasted: developing the nuclear, thermal (by
refurbishment), and wind power capacities, the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP responds to the
concrete need of the National Energy System of existing a generation capacity that could
store efficiently the energy produced for which there is no immediate consumption and
contributes to increasing the quality of the power supplied by participating to the
frequency-power regulation and to providing the rapid tertiary reserve.
According to the law, the public is to be consulted for the environmental permit for the
construction. Feasibility studies show that the project of Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP does
not impact the protected natural areas of community interest.
After a sustained campaign of public information, community members understood the
importance of the project to the national energy system and the benefits of developing such
a project for the local community. The project has approved the local community.
It can be concluded that the key to success of the roadmap of preinvestment process for
Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP was the open and sustained communication between the
beneficiary Hidroelectrica and the local community.
REFERENCES
Irinel Daniela Iacob: ”Effectively Sourcing Funding Solutions for Developing and
Managing Renewable Power Generation Projects”, The annual European Power
Generation Strategy Summit 2010, Prague, 2010;
Irinel Daniela Iacob and Dragos Zachia Zlatea: The Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP,
European Club Symposium Saring experience for safe and sustainable water storage, 10-12
April 2013, Venice, Italy.
Oprea Traian, Razvan Cojoc and Irinel Daniela Iacob: “Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP, the
first pumped storage plant in Romania”, The 10th Regional Energy Forum - FOREN,
Neptun-Olimp, 2010 ;
I - 60
INTERNA
ATIONAL SYMPOS
SIUM ON
Bali, In
ndonesia, Ju
une 1ST – 6THH , 2014
Evaluatioon on the Effect off Dam Engineeringg to Atmoospheric Ecosystem
E
m
Linzhang Gao, Fuh
hai Yao & Bin
B Duan
Dadu River
R
Hydropow
wer Developmen
nt Co., Ltd. Cheengdu Sichuan,, China
130904040
06@qq.com
ABSTRAC
CT:
Sincee 1961, withh the increassing global population and consum
mption of fosssil fuel as coal and
petrooleum, globall temperaturre has been rising
r
continu
ually at an average speedd of 0.2oC peer decade.
dams are pllaying more and more important
As ann engineerinng measure to
t harness hydropower,
h
i
role in
i slowing down
d
the gloobal warmingg process. In
I this paperr, by comparring the Dag
gangshan
hydroopower statiion in Chinaa with a therrmal power station of the
t same insstalled capaccity, both
positiive and negaative effect off dams to thee atmospheree ecosystem are analyzedd thoroughlyy. For the
positiive effects, (11) hydropow
wer station caan reduce thee release of CO2 by 648gg/kWh compa
ared with
therm
mal power sttation; (2) Reeservoirs forrmed by dam
ms can improove the meteoorological conditions
in thee reservoir area,
a
enhanccing the capaacity of plan
nts above thee water levell to absorb CO
C 2 . For
the negative effeccts, (1) the sccale of damss is usually large
l
and itss constructioon will consu
ume large
amouunt of electriicity, petroleeum and connstruction ma
aterial, indirrectly emittinng some CO2; (2) the
reserrvoir createdd by dam will
w inundatte plants whose
w
rottingg will also release som
me CO2.
Compparing the above indicces of CO2 release, thee positive efffects of poower-generatting dam
enginneering is farr more superrior to their negative
n
effeccts to the atm
mospheric eccosystem.
Keyw
words: dam, CO2 release,, reservoir, atmospheric
a
temperaturee
1. GE
ENERAL INSTRUCT
I
TIONS
Atmoosphere is a necessity for the survvival of man
nkind. How
wever, with tthe large am
mount of
consuumption off coal, petrooleum and other
o
fossil fuels, the ecological environmen
nt of the
atmoosphere is experiencinng unprecedented desstruction. According
A
tto statisticss, China
consuumed 1.32 billion
b
tonss of coal andd 224 millio
on tons of petroleum
p
inn year 2000, and the
figurres reached 2.167 billioon tons andd 325 millio
on tons resppectively in year 2005 with the
averaage annual growth of 10.15
1
percennt. Due to the
t significaant increasee of CO2, SO
O2, NO2,
etc inn the atmossphere, abnnormal weatther appearred in manyy places of China, succh as the
heat island effecct in metroppolitans durring summeer time, acidd rain in thhe South. Th
herefore,
from
m year 20000, the Chinaa Governmeent began to
t implement a new eenergy deveelopment
strateegy: to devvelop hydroppower and wind poweer vigorouslly, nuclear power activ
vely and
naturral gas-geneerated power rationally, and to optimize
o
thee proportionn of coal-generated
poweer constantlly. At the saame time, ennergy-savin
ng and wastte-reducing work is listted as an
impoortant targett of nationall economic developmen
nt by Chinaa governmennt, and by 2010,
2
the
energgy-consumiing index iss planed to reduce
r
from
m 1.22 ton of
o standard ccoal in yearr 2005 to
1.0 ton
t
for eveery 10,000 yuan of GDP.
G
In Ju
uly’s G-8 summit
s
helld in Japan
n, China
I - 61
Government support the decision to reduce the release of greenhouse gases by 50 percent
of the present level by 2050.
During the past 10 years, dam construction, as a necessity for hydropower development,
has been questioned. One argument is that hydropower plants transmit clean electricity, so
the dam itself is an environment-friendly facility, while the opposite view that dam
construction occupies a large number of farmland and woodlands and consumes a large
amount of building material, its reservoir filling inundates a large number of woodland and
farmland and destroys the local ecosystem.
Obviously, for the dams to be constructed in China, it’s necessary to use scientific attitude
to evaluate theirs advantages and disadvantages to the atmospheric ecosystem thoroughly,
thus to reach a consensus and to create a good external environment for construction.
2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DAM CONSTRUCTION TO THE
ATMOSPHERIC ECOSYSTEM
2.1. The ecological benefits of dammed water resources to atmosphere
The dams have three main functions: (1) Flood control and disaster reduction. (2) Breed
aquatics and tourism. (3) Hydropower generation. The first two have not direct relationship
to atmospheric ecosystem. Upon the completion of a dam, a hydropower station with a
capacity of a kWh can reduce the release of CO2 by 0.648a kg and SO2 by 0.0044a kg
annually. The figure is based on unit coal consumption of 0.35 kg / kWh and CO2 release
of 0.648 kg / kWh in thermal power plants provided by China government.
2.2. Dam construction consumes a large amount of building materials and energy and
releases CO2 indirectly
Construction of dam and its affiliated power plant involve excavation and filling of earth
and stone, production of sand and aggregate, concrete casting, electrical and mechanical
equipment installation and so on. With the continuous progress of dam construction
technology, a dam construction can be finished within 10 years from planning to
completion. If the construction consumes energy of bi for the i year (i<10) and the
transportation of cement and steel and other bulk goods consumes energy of ci, then the
total energy consumption during construction of the dam is Σ (bi + ci). This part of energy
consumption is equivalent to 0.648 Σ (bi + ci) (kg). of CO2 release to the air, based on the
release index of thermal power plants.
2.3.The plants in the reservoir area cannot absorb CO2 after filling
For the fast-growing forests in mild region, their absorption capacity of CO2 is 270 t/km2
annually. When they are destroyed, the decay of plant residues accumulatively releases
CO2 of 500 t/km2. If the total area for the construction of a dam and its reservoir is S
square kilometers, then the ability of CO2 absorption will reduce by 270 S (t), and the
decay of underwater plant residues will add another 500 S (t) accumulatively.
2.4 .Comprehensive analysis of dam construction to the atmospheric ecosystem
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From above analysis, dam construction has both advantages and disadvantages to
atmospheric ecosystem. If the life of the dam is n years, and the total amount of CO2
released from both dam construction and the plant decay under its reservoir is averaged by
n year, then index of dam to the reduction of CO2 release would be F = [0.648 Σ (bi + ci)
+5 ×105S] / n +27 ×104S -0.648a, where the unit of F is kg, i ≤ 10, n ≤ 200. If F <0, then
index of dam to the reduction of CO2 release is good.
3. CASE HISTORY
3.1 Impacts of Dagangshan hydropower station, Dadu River to atmosphere
Dagangshan Hydropower Station is composed of a 210 m-high concrete arch dam and an
underground powerhouse with an installed capacity of 2600 MW. Upon completion, the
power station bears a multi-year average power-generating capacity of 11.4 billion kWh.
Major indices of the project include excavation of earth and stone 12.77 million m3,
concrete casting of 4.57 million m3, mechanical and electrical equipment installation of
24,000 ton. It takes about nine years from 2006 to 2014 to finish the dam. The multi-year
average temperature is 15.40 C and the rainfall is 642 mm in the dam area, and the total
area of the reservoir-inundated woodland is 13.56 km2.The impacts of the dam to
atmospheric ecosystem are analyzed as follow.
fig1. Dagangshan dam
(1)The annual 11.4 billion kWh of hydropower saves 3.99 million tons of standard coal,
reducing 7.39 million tons of CO2 release each year based on release index of thermal
power plants.
(2)Within the nine years of construction, the yearly average power of all kinds of
construction equipment is 3000, 4000, 4500, 4500, 6000, 7000, 7000, 8000, 9000 and 6000
kW respectively. Supposing the average usage of the construction equipment is 6000 hours,
the total consumption of electricity during the construction is 354 million kWh, which is
equivalent to CO2 release of 228,700 tons in thermal power plants.
(3)Within the nine years of construction, the yearly average power for transport
equipmenta is 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 5000, 5000, 5500 and 5000 kw respectively,
the energy used for transportation of bulk materials is 175 million kWh, which is
equivalent to release 113,400 tons of CO2 in thermal power plants.
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3
(4)After the 13.56 km2 of woodland is inundated or decomposed in the damsite and in the
reservoir area, the total CO2 release will be 6780 tons.
(5)After the 13.56 km2 of woodland is inundated or decomposed in the damsite and in the
reservoir area, 3661 tons of CO2 absorption by local environment will be reduced.
fig2. Dagangshan reservoir area
If Dagangshan arch dam can stands for 200 years (a conservative figure), then index of
dam to the reduction of CO2 release is 0.174 +0.3661-739 = -7.3846 million tons. That is,
when various factors are considered, the dam can reduce the release of CO2 by 7.3846
million tons to the atmosphere annually, compared with an equivalent thermal power plant.
If compared with a thermal power plant of capacity of 11.4 billion kWh, its total amount of
engineering is equivalent to concrete casting of 300,000 m3, its plant electricity usage is
7%, construction period is three years and the plant can be used for30 years, then the
equivalent CO2 release will amount to 203,000 tons for its material transport and
construction, and to 7.9 million tons annually during operation period, 29.7 times as that by
the construction and reservoir filling of Dagangshan Hydropower Station.
3.2 The environmental benefits of Ertan Dam, Yalong River
The China Ertan concrete arch dam is 242 m high with an installed capacity of 3300 MW
and a multi-year average generating capacity of 17 billion kWh. Its reservoir extends for
145 km long with an area of 102 km2. The dam construction commenced in 1989 and
ended in 1998. After the completion of the dam, climate in the reservoir area changes
drastically. Its winter temperature increases by around 20C, while its summer temperature
drops almost 20C than before. Before dam construction, the multi-year average rainfall in
the dam site area is 700 mm and it seldom rains during the dry season. After dam
construction, the average rainfall in the reservoir area increases by 50 mm and it often has
flurry in the dry season. According to statistics, 90 percent of electricity consumption of
Panzhihua City, 46 km away from the Ertan Dam, is from the clean energy supplied by
Ertan power station, which greatly improves the city’s the atmospheric environment with
the reduction of coal consumption. In May 2006, the Ertan dam won the national
environment-friendly project prize awarded by China Government.
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4
fig3. the ertan dam
4. CONCLUSION
(1)The dams with power generation function can do more advantage than harm to the
atmosphere ecosystem.Dagangshan hydropower station in China can reduce the CO2
emission by 7384.6 million tons each year.On the other hand, the rotting plants below the
reservoir water level can release some CO2 during the building time and operating time,and
it will release 1.74 million tons every year. Though the reservoir would inundate woodland,
reducing the absorption of CO2 by 3.66 thousand tons each year, the negative effect is far
less than the positive effect.
(2)Reservoirs formed by the dams can improve the local climate conditions.After the
adjustment of the reservoir,the temperature and the water vapour content will be more
suitable for the survival of animals and plants .
REFERENCES
"China's energy Yearbook" (2007) China Plans Press, Beijing, China
ZHENG Shou-ren: China's water resources utilization and environmental protection issues.
"Water Science and Technology forefront of the new century" (2005) Tianjin
University Press, Tianjin, China
I - 65
5
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DURING CONSTRUCTION
IN COMPLIANCE WITH MEXICAN REGULATIONS
M.A. Gomez-Balandra
Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del agua
magomez@tlaloc.imta.mx
C. Lecanda Terán, A. Hollands Torres and R.D. Llerandi Juárez
Comisión Federal de Electricidad Subgerencia de Anteproyectos
ABSTRACT:
Due to the advance in environmental regulations, impacts related to land use and forest loss, noise,
atmospheric emissions, solid and hazardous wastes, as well as water use and discharges during
construction are being managing and enforcing through auditing and certification. The Federal
Commission of Electricity and contractors are accomplishing several environmental standards
which are becoming best and common practices through the planning, bidding, construction and
operation phases. As a part of the environmental impact assessment procedure, projects' activities
and works are described and analyzed twofold spatially and temporary. For each project it is
important to establish the direct impacted zone, and its area of influence or Environmental
Regional System, where natural processes are going to be modified. In the first area the project
needs to solve the compatibility with the policies of land use, either it allows some uses or reserves
land for conservation. For forested area, even with arid or semi-arid vegetation, the project need
to submit an additional study denominated Technical Justificatory Study as a kind of dasonomic
inventory to go into a process of forest compensation through the National Forestry Commission.
In addition, each project is required estimate and gets authorizations to deal with urban solid and
hazardous wastes. In the case of construction or excavation wastes, they are considered of special
management since are produced in large volumes and need disposal mechanisms. In this paper the
experiences gained by the environmental management and certification of La Yesca dam are
described and discussion is focused on the procedures efficiency. Overcoming the associated
impacts to this environmental management will help to focus and to develop approaches to deal
with impacts in the environmental regional system such as ecosystems fragmentation,
environmental flows, biodiversity stress and regional cumulative impacts.
Keywords: environment, land, wastes, discharges, emissions, certification.
1. INTRODUCTION
As in many developing countries, Mexico has issued a large number of criteria and
standards to regulate the activities and economic development. Some are specific for each
sector for example energy, tourism, etc. while most are of general application to
environmental protection, pollution control and compensation for loss of natural areas.
In Mexico several institutions have been responsible for the environmental management
and protection since the beginning of the 70 decade to date. During this period of time a
I - 66
comprehensive environmental legislation and regulations have been issued at federal and
state level, so the hydroelectric projects should be subject to the procedures and
regulations.
Due to the nature of hydroelectric projects, especially large dams are subject to the
environmental impact assessment procedure in the early stages of planning. However,
these undergo when technical and economic studies are in advanced. Thus it is difficult to
change the site but some can be done for the generation scheme. Currently for site
selection a strategic is being tested to match lesser environmental impact with greater
energy generation.
From this point, detailed information is required for the project and its area of influence to
evaluate their impacts and make decisions. Specific environmental studies are
commissioned to different institutions and universities and their results integrated in the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
At the same time, it is compulsory to follow a land use change procedure, and integrate
detailed information on the forest to be impacted and the mitigation measures taken by the
project, mainly during construction phase in a justificatory technical report (ETJ).
The Ministry of Environment carries out a consultation process with institutions and
interested parties if a public audience is requested. Thus stated mitigation in the EIS,
petitions and recommendations under the environmental compliance are integrated in a
final resolution issued for the project.
This resolution outlines conditions under which the project was authorized and the
proponent must meet an Environmental Management Program (EMP), to present
semiannual reports to the Ministry of Environment. Besides carrying out negotiations with
other federal, state and municipal institutions as the land use change, the solid waste
management and wastewater discharges, among others.
During the tender process these requirements are established as clauses of contracts for
contractors to implement them under the local supervision of the Federal Commission of
Electricity (CFE). This paper describes the main aspects and procedures of environmental
management projects in their planning and construction stages. Recommendations to
improve its efficiency are included, as well as to incorporate more holistic approaches to
solve complex issues such as environmental flows, ecosystems fragmentation, biodiversity
stress and regional cumulative impacts.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND PROJECT STAGES
It is important to recognize that at the different stages of each hydroelectric project
development, the environmental management that need to be accomplished, for example
during planning at feasibility stage there are regulations from geological exploration and
until the resolution of the environmental impact procedure. Figure 1 point out the general
environmental management at each stage of hydro projects development in Mexico.
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Figure 1. Environmental Management for Hydro Projects in Mexico (modified from GómezBalandra et al, 2006).
The organizational structure within the CFE for environmental management of a project
like La Yesca included the technical and operative areas shown in Figure 2. This scheme
must be read from bottom to top. Then compete to CFE’s Initial Projects Sub-management
determine the project technical, economic and socio-environmental feasibility, as well as
obtain the resolution granted by the Ministry of Environment. Specifically for La Yesca
this was carried out by at the North Pacific Initial Projects Centre with support of central
headquarters (Hydropower Projects Coordination).
On the other hand, the Environmental and Archeological Heritage Department and The
Environmental Protection Management help to review and submit EIS’s at the Ministry of
Environment. Finally, the Financed Investment Project management alongside the
Hydropower Projects Coordination is in charge of the bidding process.
I - 68
Figure 2. CFE organizational structure for environmental management
Once the bid succeeded and was formalized, a local Social-Environmental Residence is
established, under the General Residence for Construction (Figure 3). Its main objectives
are to conditions of approval compliance, implement the EMP and monitoring mitigation
measures. The Social-Environmental Residence in La Yesca had five areas to: 1) address
mapping and databases, 2) environmental, 3) social and liaison with agencies, 4) property
rights acquisition and 5) social and infrastructure compensation. At this residence 78 field
and office employees were assigned.
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Figure 3. Structure of the Social and Environmental Residence.
3. MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS FOR HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
A hydropower project is regulated in accordance to its activities during the site preparation,
construction and operation. Thus since the geological exploration there is a standard to
regulated how the site must be leave it (Official Mexican Standard NOM-120SEMARNAT-2011), for the environmental protection specifications for direct mining
exploration activities in agriculture, livestock or abandoned areas with dry and temperate
climates with desert scrub vegetation, tropical deciduous forest, coniferous forest or oak.
The main standards to be met at present by any hydropower project are listed in table 1.
These must be declared in chapter III of EIS indicating which are the project activities and
strategies for its compliance.
Table 1. Main standards for hydropower projects
Official Mexican Standard
NOM-001-SEMARNAT-1996
NOM-017-STPS-2008
NOM-031-STPS-2011,
Environmental Protection
Wastewater discharges to water bodies
Sludge and bio-sludge disposal
Vehicular emissions (oil)
Solid particles from fix sources
Vehicular emissions (diesel)
Noise by mobile sources
Noise by fix sources
Hazardous wastes
Native and protected species
Personal equipment
Security and health at work
In addition the project must be in accordance with compulsory and guiding instruments for
conservation, in the first category: Ecological and Territorial Ordinance Program (POET)
I - 70
and its environmental management units; Management plans of Natural Protected Areas
(ANP), Ramsar sites, etc. Examples for the second category are: Priority Terrestrial and
Hydrological Areas, Sites of importance for birds, among others.
During the EIS integration is necessary to review the scope of laws and its regulations
(including updates) such as the general or federal laws for:





Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection,
Sustainable forestry development
Prevention and Integrated Management of Wastes
National Waters
Archeological zones and Monuments
4. GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPING
An Environmental Regional System (SAR according to its name in Spanish) is required for
each hydropower project which is the area that comprises the impacted surface by the
works, activities, and project operation. In those areas a land use change permit is needed.
Apart from the directly impacted area it is necessary to include the area of influence,
mainly downstream, in the reservoir catchment limits and some areas to be occupied
temporarily. In the SAR the natural processes and structures modified by the projects must
be analyzed such as hydrological changes, biological corridors and vegetal communities.
For La Yesca located in the Santiago River Basin Northwest Mexico in a cascade scheme,
its Environmental Regional System reached the 1,000 m elevation in the plateau, as the
limit in the contour around the reservoir. The SAR was 65,000 ha, initiating upstream of
Rio Santiago from Santa Rosa Hydro and ending 5 km downstream at the terminal part of
the El Cajon reservoir (Figure 4). In this area, 3,492 ha belong to the reservoir, plus 200 ha
for project activities at the dam site. Both comprise the impacted area, where a Technical
Justificatory Study as a kind of dasonomic inventory was carried out to estimate the forest
and environmental services (mainly carbon capture and groundwater recharge) to be
compensated through the National Forestry Commission. The main structure and content is
as listed:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Uses that are intended to give to the acquired or expropriated land;
Location and area of the property or set of properties, and delimitation of the
portion you intend to remove forest lands, through geo-referenced maps;
Description of the physical and biological elements of the hydrological-forest basin
where the project site is located;
Description of project site conditions including the purpose for which it is intended,
climate, soil types, average slope, landform, hydrography and vegetation and fauna
types;
Estimation of volume by species of forest raw materials resulting from the change
in land use;
Time and manner of implementation of land use change;
Vegetation to be respected or established to protect fragile lands;
Prevention and mitigation measures of impacts on forest resources, wildlife,
applicable during different developmental stages of land use change;
Environmental services under jeopardy by the proposed change of land use;
I - 71
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Technical, economic and social justification to motivate the exceptional
authorization of land use change;
Inscription data in the register of the person who made the study and, if applicable,
responsible for directing the implementation;
Application of the criteria established in land’s ecological regulation programs in
different categories;
Economic Estimation of biological resources to be protected in the area subject to
land use change;
Cost estimation of restoration activities due the change of land use, and
Where appropriate, other requirements specified by the applicable provisions.
For La Yesca project, in the corresponding Regional Environmental System 65,000 ha, the
expected impacts were analyzed including changes in surface hydrology, groundwater,
topography, demography, environmental and social aspects with data integrated into the
EIS.
At present more databases and geographic tools are available to set the Environmental
Regional System under criteria (figure 5) such as:





Limits of basin, sub-basin and micro-basins
Landforms
Limits of vegetal or forest communities
Zoning criteria in management instrument such as POET and ANP plans and others
Biological corridors
Figure 4. La Yesca Hydro ERS
Figure 5. Pescado Hydro ERS
5. FUNCTIONAL HOLISTIC APPROACH
The large dams’ impacts cannot be analyzed out of their natural context including the
position in the basin, since the ecosystems fragmentation is an important issue to preserve
environmental flows, sediment transport and hydro-geomorphology. Wildlife and aquatic
biodiversity depend on these natural processes and have been impacted by regional
cumulative impacts, including dams. (Bratrich et al, 2004; Richer et al, 2010; Kibler et al,
I - 72
2013). Some provisions are being taken by CFE to incorporate these criteria for site
selection at early planning stages.
In addition, environmental flow strategies are being included in the hydropower operation
to resemble natural variability even though a loss in generation, because of a technical
regulation to promote that was issued in September 2012. An adaptive approach to make
the project profitable and preserve aquatic ecosystem is discussed for new projects and its
implementation will be a real challenge for CFE or any other electricity public or private
company (Arthington et al, 2006).
Our Environmental Federal Law issued in 1988 with its several amendments (last during
this year) considered initially topics such as ecosystem functionality and little by little has
been introducing more complex topics such as ecological integrity, load capacity and
ecosystem services to be evaluated by project proponents with so few available official
data and accepted methods. Nevertheless, some consultants and academic institutions have
some advances in these topics and they have included at least frameworks for its analysis.
In Mexico, many impacts of large dams are classified as significant due to the definition
as: alteration in ecosystems, its natural resources or health that create obstacles for the man
and other life forms development and in the continuity of natural processes. Because of iIts
recognition as residual or cumulative impacts is also important to promote specific
assessments and mitigation among the most important are: (Brismar, 2004; Bratrich et al,
2004; Kibler et al, 2013 )







Reservoir surface area as quantity of riparian and terrestrial habitat inundated,
including habitat losses for wildlife.
River channel inundated or dewatered with impacts on aquatic habitat in the
reservoir and downstream
Riparian and terrestrial diversity loss
Catchment and basin-scale connectivity, impounded free streams of different order
and cascade systems
Hydrologic and sediment regimes due to flow modification and the barrier effect of
dam and impacts downstream
Residence time change and water quality in the reservoir and downstream
Potential growth of invasive species in the reservoir
6. CONCLUSIONS
Due to advances in environmental management required by the Ministry of Environment
and the Environmental Attorney to deal with air emissions, wastewater discharges, solid
and hazardous wastes, noise and other issues during planning and construction stages,
associated impacts can be overcome and manage properly.
For that reason the stress of Mexican legislation to submit an EIS for its review and
authorization is on differentiate ordinary or controlled impacts (by standards) from those
significant which are affecting functional features of ecosystems and provoking cumulative
effects.
Focus on developing strategies and data generation is needed for more complex
environmental processes, for example not only on environmental flows but hydro-regime
I - 73
and sedimentary - habitat processes, biological structures and relationships between cycles
of dry seasons and floods, etc.
These kinds of issues need more comprehensive assessments, rather than just the
information to be included in an EIS and for that reason encouraging the participation of
institutions and universities is an urgent need, as well as promoting sectoral programs to
produce data and measurements.
It is also important to demonstrate the dams’ positive and negative externalities and work
in improving the social inclusion from the assessment to the decision making, under an
informed and participatory process.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank José Antonio Dehesa Ortega and The Residence of Environmental
and Social issues for their contribution to describe part of their work in this paper.
8. REFERENCES
Arthington Angela H., Stuart E. Bunn, N. LeRoy Poff, and Robert J. Naiman 2006. The
challenge of providing environmental flow rules to sustain river ecosystems.
Ecological Applications 16:1311–1318.
Bratrich, C., B. Truffer, K. Jorde, J. Markard, W. Meier, A. Peter, M. Schneider, and M.
Wehrli (2004), Green hydropower: A new assessment procedure for river
management, River Res. Appl., 20, 865–882.
Brismar A. 2004. Attention to impact pathways in EISs of large dam projects
Environmental Impact Assessment Review Volume 24, 59–87.
Gómez-Balandra M. A., P. Saldaña F., C. Lecanda T. and E. Gutiérrez L. 2006. Advances
in integrative approaches for dams’ viability in Mexico in: Dams and Reservoirs,
Societies and Environment in the 21st Century. Bera et al. editors. Proceedings of the
Intrnational Symposium on Dams in the Societies of the 21st Century. ICOLDSPANCOLD. Barcelona, Spain. Taylor & Francis. Volume 2 1187-1193.
Kibler Kelly M. and Desiree D. Tullos. 2013 Cumulative biophysical impact of small and
large hydropower development in Nu River, China. WATER RESOURCES
RESEARCH, VOL. 49, 1–15, doi:10.1002/wrcr.20243,
Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable, 2003. Artículo 117, ley publicada en el
Diario Oficial de la Federación el 25 de febrero de 2003, última reforma publicada:
DOF 07-06-2013. Congreso de la Unión, México D.F.
Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente. 1988, ley publicada en
el Diario Oficial de la Federación el 28 de enero de 1988, última reforma publicada
DOF 16-01-2014. Congreso de la Unión, México D.F.
Poff, N. L., J. D. Olden, D. M. Merritt, and D. M. Peppin (2007), Homogenization of
regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implications. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 5732–5737.
Reglamento de La Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable, 2005. Artículo 121,
reglamento publicado en el Diario Oficial de la Federación el 21 de febrero de 2005,
última reforma publicada: DOF 24-02-2014. Congreso de la Unión, México D.F.
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Richter, B.D.; Postel, S.; Revenga, C.; Scudder, T.; Lehner, B.; Churchill, A. and Chow,
M. 2010. Lost in development’s shadow: The downstream human consequences of
dams.Water Alternatives 3(2): 14-42.
Vörösmarty C. J.,
P. B. McIntyre,
M. O. Gessner,
D. Dudgeon, A.
Prusevich,
P. Green,
S. Glidden, S. E. Bunn, C. A. Sullivan,
C.
Reidy Liermann
& P. M. Davies Affiliations Global threats to human water
security and river biodiversity Nature 467, 555–561.
Winter T. A. 1988 Conceptual Framework for Assessing Cumulative Impacts on the
Hydrology of Nontidal Wetlands. Environmental Management Vol. 12, No. 5: 605620
.
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GREENHOUSE METHANE GAS EMISSION FROM RESERVOIRS IN
JAVA, INDONESIA.
By:
Simon S.Brahmana
Water Resources Research Center,Bandung, Indonesia
simsgk@yahoo.com.
Tontowi
Tontowi-tontowi@yahoo.com
Sukmawati
safriana@yahoo.com
Yani Sumarriani
yaniblk@yahoo.com.
ABSTRACT
Global warming may cause climate change followed by a negative impact, namely: increased
rainfall, increased frequency of disease, rising sea levels , declining biodiversity. Global
warming is mainly caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) , namely CO2 ,
CH4 , N2O , HFCs , SF6 , PFCs in the atmosphere . Reservoir waters are considered by
some researchers as a very potential source of methane (CH4). In connection with this,
research was done on the emission of methane gas in the reservoirs in Java. The study of
methane emissions in these reservoirs was done by direct field measurement by means of
Fluxmeter. The results showed that the amount of methane gas emissions from 14 reservoirs
in Java ranged from 0.094 to 4.461 g/m2/day with an average of 1,705 g/m2/day. Reservoir
water quality, especially organic content , depth and season have a great affect on methane
emissions. Reservoirs in Indonesia cover approximate an area of 98 269 ha, thus, the
amount of methane gas emissions is estimated to be around 1,675 tonnes/day. Based on these
result, is indicated that the contribution of methane gas from reservoirs in Indonesia is very
little when compared to the source of the swamps, rice paddies, livestock and garbage.
Methane emissions from wetlands, rice paddies , livestock and garbage in Indonesia is
respectively 529,590 tons/day 17,986 tons/day, 1,477 tons/day and 6,673 tonnes/day.
Key words: reservoirs, global warming, potential, emission, methane gas
I - 76
1.BACKGROUND
Since year 1990, one of main issues for environmentalist is global warming. Global
warming has been widely reported to cause adverse effects, such as the occurrence of
extreme climate change on earth, degraded ecosystems, sea levels resulting in island nations
such as Indonesia will have a huge influence.
Global warming is happening on this planet is mainly caused by increasing levels of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol classified the six types of
greenhouse gases , namely carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and
industrial gases containing fluorine hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons ( PFCs)
and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
In an agricultural and tropical countries like Indonesia, the issue of global warming
associated with GHG emissions, many focused on methane gas. This is because methane can
occur naturally in wetlands such as swamps, reservoirs and paddy farming is widely available
in Indonesia. Other GHGs such as N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 are generally produced by
industrial processes. Methane gas needs serious attention because it has a value of Global
Warming Potential ( GWP ) 21, meaning that each molecule of methane has the potential to
heat up the earth 21 times greater than CO2 molecules. Besides causing a greater warming
effect, methane gas also can not be absorbed by the chlorophyll of plants so that more setabil
in the atmosphere than CO2. Given the things mentioned above, this study is limited to
investigational GHG methane alone.
Sources of natural gas such as methane can be emitted from wetlands and geothermal areas.
Moreover, it can also come from human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture
mining and fuel consumption ( US- EPA, 2010). Globally, livestock are the largest source of
methane gas that comes from human activities (US-EPA, 2011b)
Lately, there is the assumption that the reservoirs and dams in tropical countries is a source of
methane is quite large and is the cause of global warming potential. This assumption is still
controversial and generated much debate. Some researchers claim that the reservoirs and
dams are a source of methane gas which is quite large and potentially cause global warming .
However, some other researchers disagree and consider that statement was a mistake and just
based on assumptions that are not necessarily were correct. (MED India net working for
Health, 2007, PM Fearnside 2007, and International Rivers Press Release, 2007). In fact,
research on methane emissions in the reservoir is still rarely carried out, including in
Indonesia.
.
To determine the amount of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia, the
measurement had been carried out in the reservoir, particular in Java Island. The study
conducted in April 2012 until in October 2012. Location of the study methane gas emissions
from reservoirs in P.Jawa is showed in Figure 1.
I - 77
Figure 1 . Area measurements of methane in reservoirs in Java
2. METHODOLOGY
Measurements of methane emissions from reservoirs was carried out direct on reservoirs
using the equipment Fluxmeter from West System. Fluxmeter equipment consists of a
floating lid that is connected by an infrared spectrophotometer, This equipment can measure
the levels of methane gas directly in the field. This equipment is also equipped with GPS,
(Global Positioning System), thermometers, pressure gauges, as well as special programs for
calculating methane emissions are being measured.
3.1 The amount of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Java.
1. Measurements of methane emissions was conducted on 14 reservoirs in Java Island,
namely 3 reservoirs in West Java Province (Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoir ); 6
reservoirs in Central Java namely: Cacaban reservoirs, Mrica, Kedungombo Wadaslintang
and Gajahmungkur reservoir and 5 reservoirs in East Java Province namely: Sengguruh,
Karangkates, Lahor, Selorejo and Wlingi reservoir. The location number of measurements
on each reservoirs is different amount, depend on the area of reservoir and its morphology.
Result of measurements showed that, emission of methane gas can be detected in each
reservoir more than 70 % of total amount locations except in the Wadaslintang reservoir. In
Wadaslintang reservoir, from the number of locations as much as 8 locations, methane
emissions were detected only 2 locations, or about 25 percent. In the Mrica reservoir,
Saguling, Sengguruh, and Wlingi, methane emissions can be detected up to 90 % of the total
measured location. The results of measurements of methane emissions from 14 reservoirs in
Java island is varied between 0 to 18.691 g/m2/day. The largest emission of methane gas
found in reservoirs Selorejo, in the province of East Java, namely 18, 691 g/m2/day ; while
the average emissions of methane gas in the 14 reservoir varied from 0.094 to 4.461
g/m2/day with average average 1.705 g/m2/day. The total amount of methane gas emissions
to 14 reservoirs was measured as 333.3 tons/day ( Table 1, and Figure 1 ) .
I - 78
Table 1 : Emissions of methane gas reservoirs in Java
No
Name of
reservoirs
Locatio
ns
amoun
t
measur
ement
Locations
amount
(CH4)
detected
Emissi
on Min
(CH4*)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Emission
Max
(CH4*)
Emission
average
(CH4*)
Reservoirs
area
(Ha) **)
Saguling
12
11
0
8.174
Cirata
15
10
0
2.262
Jatiluhur
19
8
0
5.70
Cacaban
7
4
0
5.715
Sempor
6
5
0
8.717
Mrica
12
12
0.67
2.023
Wadaslintang
8
2
0
0.637
Kedungombo
6
4
0
2.902
Gajahmungkur
18
15
0
9.163
Sengguruh
10
9
0
9.582
Lahor
14
10
0
12.107
Karangkates
13
7
0
1.237
Wlingi
9
8
0
13.386
Selorejo
10
6
0
18.691
Emission Average
1.705
Emission total
* ) . Unit g/m 2/day
** ) Source : Research Institute for Water Resources , Large Dams in Indonesia in 1995 .
I - 79
Emission
total
(Ton/day)
57,60
38,39
31,96
10,45
5,77
12,47
1,24
43,24
84,27
8,88
6,51
5,71
16,95
15,86
333,3
Emission CH4 ton/day
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Name of reservoir
Figure 1: Emissions of methane gas reservoirs in Java inland (Tons/day)
To determine the variation of methane emissions in the reservoir during 24 hours, had been
measured every two hours in Saguling reservoir. Results of these measurements showed in
table 2. At location 1, the value of the methane emissions varied from 0.1675 g/m2/day to
4.711 g/m2/day with an average of 1.5457 g/m2/day. At location 2, the values methane
emissions varied from 0.005 g/m2/day to 2.1491 g/m2/day. Statistical analysis at level of
(p <0.05) was obtained results there is no significant difference between the emission of
methane gas during the day and night.
Table 2.Variation of emission methane gas during 24hour in Saguling reservoir.
No
1
Location1
Time
7.oo
Emission CH4
0.023
Time
7.oo
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
9.oo
11.oo
13.oo
15.oo
17.oo
19.oo
21.oo
23.oo
1.oo
3.oo
5.oo
2.6134
1.108
0.3669
2.1672
0.1675
1.082
2.972
2.763
4.711
2.432
2.284
9.oo
0.0233
11.oo
1.1315
13.oo
0.7738
15.oo
0.5715
17.oo
1.097
19.oo
0.005
21.oo
0.264
23.oo
1.oo
0.225
3.oo
0.794
5.oo
1.017
2
Unit: g/m /day
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Location 2
Emission CH4
2.1491
3.2 Discussion of Methane Emissions from the reservoir
Based on the results of measurements, methane emissions per unit area is very fluctuating.
The fluctuation are depend on time, location, temperature, water flow. The fluctuation of
methane emissions in the reservoir is different from one location the other locations. For
example in Saguling reservoir, fluctuations between locations of the other locations ranged
from 0.00 to 8.174 g/m2/day. The fluctuations in methane emissions also occur between
reservoirs each other reservoirs. For example, the average emissions of methane gas in the
reservoir at 0,094 g/m2/day Wadaslintang, whereas in Wlingi of 6.154 g/m2/day. (Table 2).
Wawan Herawan et.al, (2011), shown that concentration of methane gas is largest in
Saguling reservoir than Cirata reservoir. and Jatiluhur reservoir. The concentration of
methane gas in Saguling reservoir varied from 0.9 to 1.9 mg/L, in Cirata reservoir varied
from 0.9 to 1.6 mg/L and in Jatiluhur reservoir varied from 1,2 - 1,4 mg/L. Measurement of
methane gas used by Gas Chromatography. Measurement of the methane gas is not direct
in the field. Brahmana et .al, (2011) shown that emission methane gas at Saguling varied
0,272 to 71,47 mg/m2/hour, with average 13,446 mg/m2/hour (5 locations ); at Cirata varied
from 0,080 to 10,658 mg/m2/hour , with average 2,664 mg/m2/hour (4 locations ) and at
Jatiluhur reservoir varied 0,097 to 0,474 mg/m2/hour with average 0,274 (5 locations).
Wawan Herawan et.al, (2011) Brahmana et .al, (2011) were analysed the methane gas is
not direct in the field but in laboratory and used gas Chromatogrhy Shimadzu A8. Saguling
,Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoirs located in catchment area of the Citarum river. The Saguling
reservoir located in upstream, followed by Cirata reservoir, and Jatiluhur reservoir. The
Saguling reservoir more polluted than Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoir.
The methane emissions from reservoirs fluctuate greatly also occurs in reservoirs the others
countries. The results of the study of methane emissions in Nielisz Reservoir in Southeast
Poland showed
that methane emissions fluctuated between 0.256 to 6.138 g/m2/day (
Gruca - Rokosz, R at.al, 2012 ). Research in Reservoir Funil, San Antonio and Tres Maria
in Brazil also showed fluctuating values each between 0.005 - 0.159 g/m2/day ; 0,00 to
0,634 g/m2/day and 0.000 to 0.007g/m2/day (Emma,2012).
Conditions at the bottom of the reservoir is very influential on the emission of methane
on the surface of the reservoir, due to the formation of methane gas occurs at the bottom of
the reservoir. If the reservoir is widely available on the basis of crop residues and plants or
contain lots of organic matter and an aerobic, then the bottom of the reservoir occurs
significant methane emissions. The reservoir contains a lot of organic matter, (concentration
of BOD, and COD very high), will produces lot of methane gas. If concentration of BOD,
COD are high in the water and the concentration of the dissolved oxygen are low, and
condition anaerobic situation triggers the decomposition of organic materials will produce
methane gas.
Reservoir water quality also affects the emission of methane gas. The reservoir which contains a lot
of organic matter , both derived from domestic sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes will cause
oxygen levels in the water is reduced or even depleted. This situation triggers the decomposition of
organic materials that produce methane gas. Water flow that occurs in the water reservoir can cause
methane gas to move from one location to another to follow the direction of the current. Therefore, if
in a location at the base of the formation of methane gas reservoirs, not necessarily at the surface
location of the large emissions. With respect to emissions of methane on the surface of the reservoir
fluctuates widely from one location to another, then to determine the amount of methane gas
emissions at the surface of the reservoir is required observations at many locations and represent a
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reservoir of water quality conditions and reservoir morphology. The more locations the better
repeatability of measurements and data obtained.
3.3 . Comparison of methane emissions from reservoirs with emissions from other sources
Based on the research that has been done in P. Java to examine 14 of different reservoir
conditions are obtained values of methane emissions from the reservoir per unit breadth ranged from
0.094 to 4.461 g/m2/day with an average 1,705 g/m2/day. Based on the data area of reservoir
obtained , in Indonesia namely 98 269 ha (Ministry of Ocean and Fisheries , 2011), thus the amount
of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at about 1,675 tons /day .
Emissions of methane gas , generated by the dam in addition can also be generated by other sources
eg landfills (landfill) garbage, swamps and paddy cultivation process and ranch activities .
a.Emissions from Landfill.
Landfill waste is a potential source of methane gas . In developed countries even utilized landfill
waste to generate energy. The production of methane gas at landfill waste is also influenced by
several factors including: waste composition, levels of available oxygen, moisture, acidity,
nutrient availability, size and density of litter (Purwanto, 2009).
Measurement of methane gas emission from garbage in the field has been conducted in Indonesia. .
Based on the number of Indonesian population reached 218.8 million, and estimated each person
generates garbage of 0.61 kg/person per day (Purwanto , 2009), the waste generated reaches 133 468
000 kg/day or approximately 133 468 tonnes /day . Based on estimates each ton of waste can produce
50 kg of methane (Sudarman , 2010) so that methane gas emissions in Indonesia can reach 6,673
tons/day.
b. Emissions from the Swamp and Peat Soil
The swamp/peat soil is one of main a sources methane gas. In the swamp area and peat
soil there are many organic materials , such as grass or plants from rotting. Furthermore,
these organic materials with the help of microorganisms methanogens and certain conditions
(especially the lack of oxygen) will decompose produces methane gas. The study gas
methane emission in swamp area in Indonesia is still rare. Instead a special study of
carbon dioxide emission in peat soil has been done. Loss of carbon dioxide (C2O) gas for
10 years in the peat soil 69.9 ton/ha/year. (Miswar 2013). Research the amount of methane
emissions from swamp conducted in Canada shows a very fluctuating emission values
between 0.39 to 197.81 mmol/m2/day (Pelletier, et al, 2007) or 0.00624 to 3.16496 g/m2/
day. Assuming the average value is the average value of the minimum and the maximum
value of the average emissions of methane gas in the swamp is at 1.5856 g/m2/day. Based on
extensive swamps in Indonesia reached 33.4 million hectares (Simatupang, P and
A.Adimiharja, 2004), it can be estimated magnitude of methane emissions from marsh
reached 529 590 tonnes/day.
c. Emissions from Paddy field
Paddy field is a source of methane emissions. Release of methane from paddy crop can
occur through three processes, namely through aerenchime vessels of rice plants, through a
process of diffusion in air bubbles and dissolving in water through irrigation. The amount of
methane emissions from rice cultivation process is very diverse, among others, depend on
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how the management of the land. Research conducted by Prihasto and friends give methane
emissions from rice cultivation process in Indonesia amounted to 169.9 kg /ha/cropping
season (Prihasto et. al, 2008). If the year consisted of 3 seasons, the methane emissions from
paddy field is estimated at 0.1396 g/m2/hari. Based on statistical data, extensive rice crops
in Indonesia reached approximately 12.88 million hectares, the estimates of methane
emissions from rice fields to reach 17, 986 tonnes/day.
d. Emission from Livestock
Farm business is a source of methane is also considered potential. In America's farm business
is the largest source of methane emissions third ( US- EPA, 2011b ). At the farm business ,
methane emissions to the atmosphere can occur in two ways. The first way is called "enteric
fermentation" that occurs in the stomach of ruminant animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
At the time of these animals did digestive methane gas formed in considerable amounts . The
second way is through the feces of these animals. The animal waste contains a lot of organic
ingredients. If the organic matter decomposes in the anaerobic atmosphere, it will produce
methane gas. Based on the research that has been conducted emissions of methane gas from
one cow in developing countries is estimated at 95.9 g/head/day (Veerasamy, S., et al., 2011).
From the data released by the Central Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture
recorded the number of cows and buffaloes around 15.4 million head, thus the methane
emissions from the livestock sector is estimated at about 1,477 tons/day. This value does not
include that derived from horses, pigs, goats, sheep, ducks, chickens, ducks, geese and other
species. Based on the data and the calculation above shows that although the reservoir as a
source of methane gas, but in general the amount is relatively small compared with other
sources such as swamps, rice, garbage, livestock and industry (Figure3.)
e.Emissions from Industrial waste.
Industrial waste that contains organic substances such as food and beverage industry also
produces methane gas. The numbers are big enough, but in this paper not yet metioned.
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Figure 3 : Comparison of methane emissions from a variety of sources ( in tons/day )
From the figure 3 above show that the greatest emissions generated by the swamp. This
value is the result of calculations based on the assumption that the data of methane emissions
per unit area were taken from the results of studies elsewhere. In addition to the value of
emissions per unit area which is still based on the assumption, the amount of methane
emissions is also due to the enormous swamp in Indonesia . Instead most small emissions
generated from the farm. Compared with the situation in the livestock business overseas in
Indonesia remain undeveloped so that emissions of methane produced is relatively small.
Methane emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at 1,675 tons per day . This
value is below the value of methane emissions from wetlands, rice plants and garbage.
4.CONCLUSIONS
a. The methane emissions from reservoirs is different from one reservoir to anothers
reservoirs and one location to others locations in same reservoir.
b. Value of methane emissions in reservoirs in Java ranged from 0.094 to 4.461 g/m2/day
c. with an average 1,705 g/m2/day
d. Based on the data, area of reservoirs in Indonesia around 98,269 hectares the amount
of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at about 1,675
tons/day .
e. When compared to other sources such as swamps, rice or the value of the waste sector
is very small.
f. In an effort to reduce methane emissions from reservoirs can be done in several ways,
among others :
g. Reservoir will be impounded, must be clean up his plants and others materials. It is
important to be reduced emission methane gas.
h. For long- stagnant reservoirs, if on the edge of the reservoir there is a lot of wild plants
or other plants at low tide when the water level needs to be cleaned, thereby reducing
the decomposition process of organic matter in the reservoir when the water level
rises.
i. The quality of river water into the reservoir needs to be maintained so as not to contain
many pollutants, especially organic pollutants as organic pollutants in water reservoirs
will ultimately lead to increased emissions of methane gas.
j. Other efforts to reduce methane emissions is to look for microbes that consume
methane and oxidize.
REFERENCES
1. Brahmana et.al 2011. Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca (metana) di Perairan Waduk . Prosiding Kolokium
Puslibang Sumber Daya Air ,Bandung Maret 2011.
2. Emma Hällqvist, (2012), Methane emissions from three tropical hydroelectrical
reservoirs, Committee of Tropical Ecology, Uppsala University, Sweden
3. Gruca-Rokosz, R., , E.Czerwieniec, J.A. Tomaszek, (2011), Methane Emission from the
Nielisz Reservoir, Environment Protection Engineering, Vol. 37, 2011, No. 3
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4. Hapsari, C. (2011), Studi Emisi Karbondioksida (CO2) dan Metana (CH4) Dari Kegiatan
Reduksi Sampah di Wilayah Surabaya Bagian Selatan, Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan,
FakultasTeknik Sipil dan Perencanaan, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November. Surabaya.
5. International Rivers Press Release, (2007), India_Dams_Methane_Emissions. http:
www//.internationalrivers.org.
6. Kem. Kelautan dan Perikanan (2011), Kelautan dan Perikanan Dalam Angka 2011, Pusat
Data Statistik, Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan.
7. Keppler F. et al (2006), Methane emissions from terrestrial plants under aerobic
conditions. Nature 439. 187-191.
8. MED India net working for Health, (2007), Capture-and-Burn-Methane-in-Dams-a-NewProposition-to-Counter-Global-Warming. http://www.medindia.net/news
9. Pelletier, L, T. R. Moore, N. T. Roulet , M. Garneau , V. Beaulieu-Audy (2007),
Methane fluxes from three peatlands in the La Grande Rivière watershed, James Bay
lowland, Canada, Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 112, G01018, 12 PP., 2007
10. P.M.Fearnside (2007), Why Hydropower is Not Clean Energy. http://scitizen.com/futureenergies/
11. Prihasto,S., A.K.Makarim, H.Pawitan, I.Anas, L.I.Amien dan E.Sumaini, (2008),
Indonesia Experience in Determining Country Spesific Emission Factor in Agriculture
Sector.
12. Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air 1995. Bendungan Besar di Indonesia. 80 hal.
13. US-EPA, (2010),Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Natural Sources, United
States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Atmospheric Programs, Washington
DC.
14. US-EPA, (2011), Greenhouse Emissions, United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
15. US-EPA, (2011), Ruminant Livestock, United States Environmental Protection Agency.
16. Wawan Herwan et al 2010. Potensi Emisi Gas Metana dari Genangan Air Waduk
Kaskade Saguling-Cirata-Jatiluhur. MakalaH Kolokium Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air
2011.
17. Vincent, L.St. Louis, Carol A. Kelly, Eric Duchemin, John W. M. Rudd, and David M.
Rosenberg, (2000), Reservoir Surfaces as Sources of Greenhouse Gases to the
Atmosphere: A Global Estimate, Bio Science 50(9):766-775.
18. Wahyu Purwanta, (2009), Perhitungan Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca (GRK) dari Sektor
Sampah Perkotaan di Indonesia, Jurnal. Tek.Lingkungan, Vol 10, No. 1, Jakarta.
19. West System, 2006, Portable Diffuse Fluxmeter, Pontedera, Pisa
20. W.V. Department of Health and Human Resources (2006), Methane in West Virginia
Ground Water, West Virginia.
21. Zakarya,I.A., H. A. Tajaradin, I. Abustan dan N. Ismail, (2008), Relationship between
Methane Production and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in Anaerobic Digestion of
Food Waste, ICCBT 2008 - D - (03) - pp29-36
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European Working Group "Management of dam incidents"
Case study: Finland
Mr. Juha Laasonen
Fortum Power & Heat Oy, Power Solutions, Finland)
juha.laasonen@fortum.com
ABSTRACT
European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" was established in Venice Italy
in April 2013 to study European dam safety practices and experiences. The study will comprise at
least following items: the dam safety legislation, the guidelines and the documentation related to
the dam incidents, the training activities of dam incidents, the roles of the authorities and the dam
owner, the safety arrangements practices and the analysis of the dam incidents and failures. The
management of the dam safety at the tailings dams is included in the scope. The objectives of the
Working Group are to improve the practices handling dam incidents and to collect the best
practices of the member countries. In this paper the work on Finnish ICOLD committee are
presented by introducing some characteristics of Finnish dam safety legislation and experiences.
Keywords: dam safety, management, legislation, dam incidents.
1. INTRODUCTION
The dam owner’s responsibility is to ensure safety in the construction, maintenance and
operation of a dam and reduce the hazard and the consequences, which the dam incident or
accident may cause. The dam is monitored and inspected in order to detect changes or
abnormal operation. The upgrading or the repair of the dam is carried out to avoid any dam
accidents or incidents. However the changes in the dam condition may occur instantly and
without warning. The dam owner shall start emergency repair. The alarming, evacuations
and rescue operations shall be initiated, if the situation is critical (Figure 1).
European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" was established in
Venice Italy in April 2013 to study European dam safety practices and experiences. The
study will comprise at least following items: the dam safety legislation, the guidelines and
the documentation related to the dam incidents, the training activities of dam incidents, the
roles of the authorities and the dam owner, the safety arrangements practices and the
analysis of the dam incidents and failures. The tailings dams are included in the scope. The
objectives of the Working Group are to collect experiences and the best practices and
improve the practices handling dam incidents. Possibly the recommendations may be
given.
Although best European dam safety practices for managing dam incidents are collected.
The objectives is also to improve national dam safety practices. FINCOLD has established
I - 86
a national working group to collect and analyze Finnish experiences. In this paper is
described some Finnish dam safety practices and experiences. The paper includes the
issues on Finnish dam safety legislation, practices on emergency preparedness plans and
training of rescue actions also some dam safety incidents are presented.
Dam safety
Failure Mode
Dam
Breach
Changes
Abnormal operation
Normal operation
Measurements
Alarm
Rescue
Evacuation
Operation
History data
Data Analysis
Corrective
measures
Detection
Inspections
Management
Dam safety reports
Structural safety
- appropriate design
Instructions for
Monitoring and
Maintenance.
Emergency Action
Planning
Rescue Actions
Dam rehabilitation and repair activities
Legislation, State of art practices, ICOLD
Authorities
Dam safety authorities
Rescue authorities
Figure 1. Dam safety activities and players
2. FINNISH DAM SAFETY LEGISLATION RELATED TO MANAGEMENT OF
DAM INCIDENTS
Finnish dam safety legislation was enacted in 1984. The dam safety legislation was
presented in the act, the decree and the guidelines. However the dam safety practices
described in the guidelines had not any legislative ground. Therefore Finnish dam safety
legislation was renewed and the practices were included in the Dam Safety Act (429/2009)
and in Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010). In addition the renewed dam safety
legislation are applied to the tailings dams.
The dam break hazard analysis and the dam owner's emergency action plan have to
prepared for the high consequence class dams (class 1-dam) (Section 12 in Dam Safety Act
(429/2009). The dam hazard analysis is further described in Section 6 of Government
Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010) and it contains dam break flood wave analysis, the
determination of the maximum coverage of dam break flood flow (flood hazard area),
identification of the objects (people at risk, private and communal houses, industry, etc.)
I - 87
in the flood hazard area and an estimation of the damages. The information and the
documentation of the dam break hazard analysis are used in the preparation of the
emergency action plan and rescue service plan.
The measures to prevent personal accidents in case of dam incident and to prevent and to
limit the damages at the dam are presented in dam owner's emergency action plan (Section
7 in Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010). The measures shall protect humans,
property and environment against damage. The dam owner shall alarm and report the dam
incident. The plan is developed based on the dam failure scenarios and their possible
hazard. The dam owner's organization and responsible persons with contact information
are included. Possible ways to receiving information on the dam incident or hazard and the
alarming of the authorities, personnel and people are described. The dam repair materials
and its storage, the contractors and their equipment and own staff are listed with contact
information. The document shall continuously updated.
Specific technical requirement for class 1 and 2 dams is that the crest throughout its length
must be passable to traffic (Section 4 and 5 in Government Decree on Dam Safety
(319/2010). The access of the dam maintenance must be ensured during the flood and dam
accidents.
Dam Safety Act (494/2009) comprises 7 chapters and "the preparations for the accidents
and actions in the event of accidents" are described in the Chapter 5. The dam owner with
due consideration of the dam hazard must take the necessary action to prevent dam
accident and to limit the damages caused by an accident (Section 24: Preventing
accidents). The dam safety authority submits the information in its possession necessary
for preparing the rescue service plans as requested by the rescue authority (Section 25:
Rescue Service Plans). Provisions on rescue activity are laid down in the Rescue Act. The
owner of a dam and dam safety authority must assist the head of the rescue activity in
performing rescue activity. In addition, the dam safety authority participates, where
necessary, in the work of the steering group (Section 26: Rescue activity). The declaration
of an emergency and an exceptional situation are described in Section 27. It also states that
the dam owner must notify the dam safety authority without delay.
3. RESCUE SERVICE PLANS AND TRAINING OF RESCUE ACTIONS
The operations of the rescue authorities are guide by Rescue Act (379/2011). The officer in
charge of the rescue operation has the overall charge and is responsible for maintaining
the situation picture and for coordinating the operations (Section 35: Command of rescue
operations in situations involving co-operation). External emergency plans are prepared for
the waste sites for extractive waste referred to in section 45a(2) of the Environmental
Protection Act (86/2000) (Section 48: External emergency plans for sites posing a
particular hazard), which may be applied some tailings dams with hazardous chemical
content.
The training on the rescue actions based on dam break flood analysis has become a
practice in Finland. First exercise was held in Rescdam-project in 2001 (Finnish
Environment Institute, 2001). The dam breach situation of Kyrkösjärvi embankment dam
was simulated in the exercise. The rescue and dam safety authorities were responsible for
the execution. The objectives of the exercise was to test and improve: the emergency
I - 88
action plan, the alarming system and its coverage area, the operation of different parties in
the crisis management center, the co-operation of the authorities and the volunteers, the
leadership of the regional rescue operations, the intercommunications and the
communication during the dam breach accidents.
Second exercise was held in 2006. The dam breach of Seitakorva embankment dam in
Northern Finland was simulated in the exercise. Third dam exercise will be held in 2014.
4. DAM INCIDENTS IN FINLAND
The dam owner is responsible to give notice concerning an exceptional situation (dam
incident) to the dam safety authority without delay (Section 27 in Dam Safety Act
494/2009). The dam safety authority is collecting the dam incident reports and some
preliminary analysis has been carried out (Kirves, 2010).
The earth fill dams with glacial till has had problems with internal erosion in Finland.
Several cases with increased leakages, sink holes and turbid water has occurred.
The springs at Peltokoski embankment dam appeared during the first fill of the reservoir in
1950's and second one in 1980's. In late winter 1987 the spring collapsed approx. 60 meters
from the left embankment dam. A large sink hole of 3 meter deep and a settlement of 29
cm at the dam crest were formed (Figure 2). The collapsed bank was repaired by
constructing inverse filter with stones on the surface and with grouting of the embankment.
Two Thompson overflow weir were constructed behind the inverse filter. Total leakage
was 35 l/s. The water was clear without any sediment suspension. Main reason for the
internal erosion was the leakages through the fissured bedrock (Laasonen, 2010).
Figure 2. A large sink hole appeared at the place of spring in 1987 (Laasonen, 2010)
Uljua homogeneous earth fill dam is situated in the River Siikajoki watercourse. The
leakage was noticed during the first filling in 1970, which was turbid after one month. The
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embankment dam was repaired with cement grouting. The cause was estimated as possible
frost action in the upper part of the moraine core (glacial till) and deficiencies in the fine
filter. Further a turbid water was found in the tailrace channel in 1990. Several sink holes
of 3 meter diameter was found at the bottom of the reservoir. The leakage through the
fissured bedrock was considered as the cause.
Melo embankment dam is situated in the River Kokemäenjoki. The leakage and a sink hole
with the depth of 3.5 meters and a diameter of about 4 meters was noticed in 2005. The
leakage was repaired with sheet piling and with grouting. The repair activities lasted 10
months. The cause for the internal erosion is considered the differential settlement of the
core at the cast-in-pile, which was considered under the core.
Pamilo embankment dam in the eastern part of Finland has had several dam incidents. first
one during the first filling and the latest sink holes appeared in 2008 and 2012. The sink
holes were filled and emergency grouting was carried out. Several causes for the internal
erosion have been considered improper construction of the core (the frosted moraine core
was not removed), the deficiencies of the filter and the leakages through the fissured
bedrock.
The emergency grouting were carried out in all the cases. In addition extensive site
investigations were started in order to find out the cause of the internal erosion (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The site investigations at Pamilo embankment dam.
The causes of the internal erosion have been the deficiencies with the filter, insufficient
filter coverage between the ground moraine and the embankment dam, frost action in the
core, the differential settlements of the moraine core due to the partial sheet piling and
fissured bedrock under the moraine.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
The work on European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" has
started. Some characteristics of Finnish dam safety legislation and experiences are
presented in this paper. It requires more detailed analysis of the case studies i.e. how the
emergency cases were handled. The internal erosion cases presented in here show one type
of the dam incidents. Several other hazards and uncertainties e.g. malfunction of the
mechanical and electrical equipment of the gates can lead to a dam incident. The
management of dam incidents requires comprehensive understanding of the dam risks and
its mitigation measures. Each dam is an individual structure with specific features.
However the "Management of dam incident"-study may improve dam owner's
understanding and give tools to handle the abnormal situation.
The questionnaire is prepared for collection of European practices and experiences. The
preparation of the conclusions requires discussions in the workshops to understand
different aspects and opinions.
REFERENCES
Kirves, R. (2010): Häiriötilanteet Suomen padoilla (Incidents at Finnish dams), in Finnish.
Häme Centre for Economic Development, Transport and Environment, 48 p.
Finland. http://www.ymparisto.fi/download/noname/%7B4CE06AE1-83AE-4D7185FF-C6E1610C1F13%7D/57453
Laasonen, J. & J. Autio (2010). Maapatojen sisäinen eroosio - pohjoismainen ongelma
(The internal erosion - Nordic problem of embankment dams). in Finnish.
FINCOLD. Finnish National Committee on Large Dams 1960 -2010. History and
activities. 152 p. FINCOLD. Finland. pp. 112-125.
Laasonen, J. (2010) Internal erosion and duration of grouting works. Case History of a
small embankment dam. Proceedings of 8th ICOLD European Club Symposium.
Dam Safety - Sustainability in a Changing Environment. 22nd - 23rd September
2010. Innsbruck, Austria (Edited by ATCOLD). ISBN 978-3-85125-118-0. pp. 393396.
Laasonen, J. (2012). Dam owner's perspective to the dam safety legislation in Finland. 3rd
National Symposium and Exposition on Dam Safety. October 10-12, 2012.
Proceedings. Editors: Dr. Hasan Tosun, Dr. Murat Türköz & Dr. Hasan Savas. 646 p.
Eskisihir, Turkey. pp. 15-19.
Finnish Environment Institute (2001). Rescdam. Final report. Grant Agreement No Subv.
99/52623. Helsinki, Finland.
http://ec.europa.eu/echo/civil_protection/civil/act_prog_rep/rescdam_rapportfin.pdf
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La Romaine Hydroelectric Complex, Canada
fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
Management of the Riparian flow at Romaine
2
during construction and reservoir filling
2(14pt)
Jean-Pierre Tournier, Luc Roy, Redha Kara & Isabelle Thériault
Hydro-Québec Équipement et services partagés, Montréal, Canada
tournier.jean-pierre@hydro.qc.ca
ABSTRACT
Hydro-Québec is developing the Hydroelectric Complex of La Romaine, on the North shore of the
St Lawrence River, in Quebec, Canada. The project consists of building 4 generating stations with
a total installed capacity of 1550 MW and an energy output of 8 TWh. Environmental studies and
measures carried out before, during and after construction until 2040 will cost over $385 million
altogether.
The construction of the Complex started with the Romaine-2 facility, which will be commissioned
in 2014. Romaine-2 reservoir filling is planned to begin with the spring flood of 2014. Planning of
the reservoir filling and design of the outlet works present many challenges due to the riparian flow
requirements that have to be met and the important variation of the reservoir level during filling.
Hydro-Québec managed to find an environmentally acceptable, cost effective and reliable solution
to meet this requirement: riparian flows required during Romaine-2 reservoir filling will be
provided by three different structures that define the three phases of the reservoir filling: diversion,
dedicated structure and spillway.
The Romaine-2 river diversion is more complex than many previous diversions conducted in the
past 40 years, since it will be used to modulate discharge during the first phase of the reservoir
filling. A dedicated structure was required to ensure a minimum flow for the whole water level
range during the second phase of Romaine-2 reservoir filling. It will be, in fact, the first time that
Hydro-Québec (HQ) will simultaneously water up a reservoir against an asphalt core dam, use the
diversion gate to modulate discharge, use a temporary structure to fulfill the riparian flow
requirements and proceed to reservoir filling in three phases.
Keywords: Romaine Hydroelectric complex, Reservoir filling, ecological flow, riparian flow,
Diversion.
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1. ROMAINE-2 HYDROELECTRIC FACILITY
The La Romaine hydroelectric complex is located on the North Shore region of the SaintLawrence river in the province of Québec (Canada). The project consists in building four
generating stations with a total installed capacity of 1550 MW and an annual energy
output of 8 TWh (see Figures 1 & 2).
Romaine-2 is the first facility to be developed and the first kilowatt is expected to be
produced in 2014. The project will continue with the construction of Romaine-1 and
Romaine-3 facilities and finally, Romaine-4, which should produce its first kilowatts in
2020. The total cost of the power generation project (without transmission infrastructure)
is estimated at $6,5 billion CAD (Alicescu and al., 2013).
The Romaine-2 layout includes a powerhouse equipped with two Francis generating units.
The nominal installed capacity is 320 MW for each unit. The headrace tunnel is 5.5 km
long and conveys the water from the intake structure to the powerhouse. The reservoir
closure is ensured by a 110 m high main dam and six dikes with heights up to 80 m
(asphalt core type). The main dam crosses the Romaine River at KP 90.4 and will create a
reservoir of approximately 86 km2 at the full supply level of 243.8 m.
On the left abutment of the dam, the spillway is equipped with three gated passages and
has a capacity of 3000 m3/s at full supply level. On the right abutment of the dam, one
finds the temporary diversion structure and an intake tunnel for the dedicated structure to
provide ecological flow during reservoir filling.
2. ROMAINE HYDROLOGICAL REGIME AND RIPARIAN FLOWS
The total catchment area of the Romaine river is 14 500 km² at the mouth of the Saint
Lawrence river. At its source, between the 440th and 217th kilometers, the Romaine river
has a long mildly longitudinal profile. Immediately upstream from the Romaine-4 dam to
the downstream of the Romaine-2 power plant, the river is deeply coffered on high rock
surfaces. On this portion, the river presents a high elevation difference which is close to
300 m with a steep slope. The large waterfall located at KP 52.5 marks the beginning of
the coastal plain. On this portion, the river is punctuated by a few rapids, but most of them
have a milder slope.
The hydrological regime of the Romaine River has been documented since 1956. A
hydrometric station belonging to the Centre d’Expertise Hydrique du Quèbec is located
16 kilometers from the mouth of the river. The area drained at this station is estimated at
13 140 km² and the average annual flow is 288 m³/s.
The Romaine-2 dam is built at KP 90.5 of the river and the catchment at this location has a
total area of 12 200 km². The average annual flow is 270 m³/s. A hydrometric station
operating at this location since 2001 shows that the natural hydrological regime is closely
correlated to the one measured at the kilometer 16 of the river. This allowed the production
of a long series of daily flows which were representative of the hydrological regime at
Romaine-2. Figure 3 shows superimposed hydrographs representing the cumulative natural
flow of the Romaine-2 site for the years 1956 to 2010.
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Figure 1. La Romaine Hydroelectric Complex, with its four facilities
Figure 2. Schematic Profile of La Romaine Hydroelectric Complex
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The hydrological regime of the Romaine River is characterized by important flows during
the spring flood caused by the melting of the accumulated snow during winter. The flood
begins on average at the end of April and the flows remain higher than the average flow
until the end of June. The peak of the flood is attained around the end of May; at that time
the average maximum flow will be 1450m³/s at this location. The summer/fall regime is
characterized by low flow and floods caused by rainfall resulting in large flow variability.
The winter regime is characterized by low flow generally at the beginning of December.
The minimum flow generally occurs in mid-April and varies between 35 and 85 m³/s
depending on the year.
The operation of the hydroelectric scheme for the entire La Romaine complex will change
the hydrological regime of the Romaine river, this will occur as soon as the Romaine-2 site
becomes operational in 2014. The reservoir levels will generally be close to the maximum
operating level in the month of December. This will favor a larger production of electricity
during the winter months, where the demand for energy increases significantly. Reservoir
management foresees a progressive drawdown during winter; the objective is to have
access to a large portion of the active storage before the spring flood. The turbined flows
during the spring floods will be closer to the maximum power plant capacity. The
reservoirs will fill rapidly during the spring flood and the spillways could be used during
more important floods. During the summer/fall period, the reservoirs will be operating with
the purpose of optimizing the hydroelectric output of the complex within the operating
constraints (dam safety, environmental needs).
2500
2000
Flow (m³/s)
1500
1000
500
0
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
Month
Figure 3. Daily flows hydrographs reconstructed at Romaine-2 for the period 1956-2010
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In order to favor the natural habitat and favorable living conditions of aquatic species, an
ecological flow regime has been established for the Romaine complex. The basic principle
that has been adopted is to guarantee a minimum flow from KP 51.5 located downstream
of the Romaine-1 site. In fact, downstream of Romaine-1 all the way to the river mouth,
the water level is not influenced by a structure and the hydraulic conditions depend
essentially on the outflow from the upstream site.
The ecological flow regime was established following the environmental impact study,
which included an inventory of the present aquatic species, the surveying of many potential
sites or the inventory of aquatic habitats and the hydraulic modeling which allows
evaluating the area of productive aquatic habitats for different flow conditions.
The minimum required flow varies according to a specific period of the year and its
amplitude depends on the biological function associated to that specific period. Table 1
presents the minimum flows required downstream of Romaine-1. These flows apply
primarily during the operational phase, as well as the particular requirement during the
filling period; this will be described in the next section.
Table 1. Minimum flow required downstream Romaine-1 (KP 51.5) after reservoir filling
Period
Minimum flow
Motive/Intention
November 16th to June 6th
140 m³/s
Survival of fish eggs
June 7th to July 7th
200 m³/s
Downstream migration of
fish
July 8th to October 15th
170 m³/s
Alimentation
October 16th to November 15th
200 m³/s
Spawning
3. ROMAINE-2 RESERVOIR FILLING AND OUTLET WORKS
At its maximum operating level, the Romaine-2 reservoir length will be around 65 km and
will cover a surface area of approximately 86 km2. To take advantage of the considerable
inflow during the spring period, the reservoir filling is planned to begin in April 2014. The
upstream water level at the beginning of the filling period will be around 146 m and must
reach the maximum operating level of 243.8 m, for a range close to 100 m. The
corresponding total volume of the reservoir is around 3 720 million cubic meters.
During the filling of the reservoir, Hydro-Quebec is committed to maintain a minimum
flow downstream of Romaine-1, based on the same principle adopted for the operation
phase. Nevertheless, the minimum required flows during the filling period can be different
from those presented in Table 1.
Due to the large variation of the water level during the filling period, planning and design
of the environmental flow release structures represented a great challenge. The structures
initially envisaged for the construction and operation phase, namely the temporary
diversion and the spillway, were supposed to be used also as flow release structures. But a
dedicated flow release structure was also needed to cover the entire range of water levels
outside the operation limits of the two other structures.
Hence, three structures are planned to ensure that during the filling period, the minimum
required flow at KP 51.5 is met. These three structures identify the 3 phases of the
reservoir filling. The minimum required flow for each phase, the design specifics of these
structures and their operation limits are summarised in the following sections.
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Phase 3
Phase 1
Phase 2
Figure 4. Layout of dam area with the outlet works for the 3 phases of Romaine-2 reservoir filling
Figure 5. Schematic view of the 3 phases of Romaine-2 reservoir filling
3.1 Phase 1: Diversion
The aim of the Romaine-2 temporary diversion is to allow an unrestricted flow of the river
during the construction period; the construction area is protected by cofferdams and the
enclosed area is pumped out creating a dry work environment. The diversion consists of a
tunnel dug through bedrock with a concrete intake structure equipped with gates allowing
the closure of the tunnel to begin the filling. The design flow capacity of the temporary
diversion is 2115 m3/s.
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During the first stage of filling, the minimum required flow downstream at KP 51.5 is
140 m3/s. When taking into account the different tributaries between Romaine-2 and
Romaine-1, the returned flow could be less. The temporary diversion was designed to
regulate the ecological flow during the first phase of filling.
The control of the environmental flow is achieved by manoeuvring one of the two
diversion gates; the gates are manoeuvred by a hoist system. Small scale models and
numerical models were conducted during the design phase to make sure that each structure
functioned properly, to determine the design criteria and to establish its operational mode.
Among the elements that were validated was the position of a hydraulic jump that takes
place downstream of the diversion gate. The position of the hydraulic jump was a critical
element during the design phase. To ensure that the hydraulic jump is far from the gate,
the intake concrete structure was placed asymmetrically with respect to the tunnel
alignment. The gate used for flow regulation and the tunnel are in the same flow axis.
Besides the geometry, the position of the hydraulic jump is a function of the outflow and
the hydraulic head or the upstream water level. The tests on the small scale models were
conducted under different condition to identify the minimal required gate opening as a
function of the upstream water level to ensure that the hydraulic jump takes places at least
6 meters from the gate. The maximum pressures and speeds at different location in the
diversion channel were also measured for the design of mechanical equipment.
The temporary diversion operational mode was established to ensure an environmental
flow during phase 1 of the Romaine-2 reservoir filling .The filling can begin once a
minimum inflow of 250 m3/s is reached, in other terms, once the inflow is larger than the
flow that needs to be released via the diversion. The minimum water level required to use
the temporary diversion for the release of the environmental flow was set at 148 m. To
reach this level, a short period of time with the gates closed is required; this duration is not
long enough for the KP 51.5 flow to drop below the minimum required mark. The
diversion gate that will be used for flow regulation shall thereafter be left partially open to
release a flow of 225 m3/s for an upstream level of 148 m. The gate opening will be
adjusted periodically with rising water levels. The temporary diversion will be used until
the water level reaches 165 m, the released flow at Romaine-2 will then be around
135 m3/s. The duration of this phase is 5 days on average but it can vary from 2 to 8 days
depending on hydrological conditions. The second phase of the filling can then begin and
the temporary diversion can be permanently closed.
3.2 Phase 2: Dedicated structure
For phase 2 of the reservoir filling, a new dedicated structure was built in order to provide
the minimal flow during that period. Given the characteristics of the spillway which was
planned for phase 3, the planned structure for phase 2 will have to be used with an
upstream water level varying between 165 m and 232 m. This considerable variation in the
hydraulic head influenced the mechanical equipment selection.
The flow to be provided at Romaine-2 during phase 2 of filling was another important
design criterion. During the feasibility studies and the different stages required to obtain
proper government authorizations, Hydro-Quebec analyzed different alternatives with the
aim of maintaining adequate conditions for the habitat of the aquatic species downstream,
while maintaining an acceptable filling rate to meet its project deadline.
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Considering that phase 2 of filling will coincide essentially with the spring flood period
and that a significant natural inflow will come from the tributaries downstream, an
ecological flow from Romaine-2 varying between 20 m³/s and 50 m³/s was accepted by
the governmental authorities. To provide the required maximum flow for the maximum
predicted hydraulic head, high head gates (Jet flow) were selected for this structure.
The selected gates and structure configuration should allow a simple and secure operation
during filling. The design of the equipment should be demonstrated within similar
operating conditions. Alike the temporary diversion, the hydraulic operating conditions of
this structure were analyzed numerically and on small scale model 1:25; the energy
dissipation downstream of the control gates was one of the main subjects of interest.
The selected configuration for this temporary diversion structure consisted of one tunnel
dug through bedrock with an entrance located near that of the diversion channel but at a
slightly higher level. This tunnel connects to the temporary diversion tunnel upstream of
the Romaine-2 main dam centerline (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Schematic view of the dedicated structure
The flow within the first section of the tunnel will be pressurized. Following this, the flow
will then be divided in the two conduits, each controlled by a gate installed in the gates
chamber. Thereafter, the flow falls into a plunge pool that discharges into a free-surface
flow tunnel connected to the temporary diversion tunnel.
For levels varying between 165 m and 179 m, the structure's two gates will be completely
open and provide a total flow varying between 35 m³/s and 50 m³/s depending on the
upstream level. Once the reservoir level reaches elevation 179 m, the gates will be closed
progressively in a symmetric way to maintain the flow close to 50 m³/s. As soon as the
level reaches 231.7 m, the spillway can be used and phase 2 will end with the closure of
the gates of the dedicated structure. This filling phase has an average duration of 37 days,
but it may vary between 22 and 100 days depending on the inflow.
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3.3 Phase 3: Spillway
The spillway is located on the left bank of the Romaine River. It has three gates of 8.85 m
width and the invert of the spillway is at elevation 228.3 m. The discharge capacity at the
maximum operating level of 243.8 m is 3000 m³/s. The spillway is capable of evacuating
the 1:10000 years flood with a maximum encroachment on freeboard of 0.3 m.
The use of the spillway to contribute to the minimum required flow requires that the
upstream level reaches a certain elevation which will allow restituting a sufficient
discharge. The minimum required flows at kilometer 51.5 for phase 3 of filling are listed in
table 2. For example, to restitute a 200 m³/s flow with three gates fully opened an upstream
level of 231.7m is required.
Table 2. Minimum flow required downstream Romaine-1 during stage 3 of reservoir filling
Period
Minimum flow
April 1st to May 31st
70 m³/s
June 1st to June 30th
140 m³/s
July 1st to September 30th
170 m³/s
October 1st to October 31st
200 m³/s
November 1st to end of the filling
the less between 140 m³/s and the
natural flow at Romaine-1
Since the minimum required flows are defined for the downstream location of Romaine-1,
the spillway discharge may be set as a function of the natural inflows of the tributaries
downstream. The spillway gates can be used with partial openings; for example, an
opening of 1 m with a reservoir level at 243.8 m will provide approximately 100 m³/s flow
for each gate. Furthermore, when the first generating unit will be in operation, the outflow
will be provided by the powerhouse which will allow energy generation at Romaine-2.
The outflow of the Romaine-2 reservoir during phase 3 filling will vary primarily between
70 m³/s and 200 m³/s. However, once the maximum operating level is attained or during
an important flood, the released flow can be considerably higher. This filling phase will
last an average of 47 days but may also be completed in 10 days only in the case of high
inflow. Conversely of a low runoff occurs, phase 3 of filling will extend to the winter
period of 2014-2015 and will be completed only during the spring flood season of 2015.
4. FLOW CONDITIONS DOWNSTREAM DURING RESERVOIR FILLING
Numerical simulations of the Romaine-2 reservoir filling have been performed to establish
the hydraulic conditions for the different periods previously mentioned. These simulations
helped the designers identify the probable dates and durations of each of the filling phases.
Furthermore, by including the tributaries downstream of Romaine-2, the flows at specific
sites were available to establish hydrological conditions during the filling period. These
results were very useful for the design stage, for the environmental impact study and for
the planning of some construction works which will take place downstream of Romaine-2
during the filling.
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Maintaining the minimum flow during the filling of the Romaine-2 reservoir prevents 90
km of the river from drying.out Knowing that the flow values were determined after the
analysis of the aquatic wildlife needs; this attenuation measure limits the lowering of the
water level in the river in correlation to the natural conditions to a value which is between
0.6 m to 1.6 m depending on the location. This will also allow the navigation to be
maintained during the filling period for the most of the currently used segments.
CONCLUSION
In order to favor the natural habitat and living conditions of aquatic species, an ecological
flow regime was established following a thorough environmental impact study. Planning
of the reservoir filling and design of the outlet works presented many challenges due to the
riparian flow requirements and the important changes of reservoir level during filling.
Hydro-Quebec managed to find a solution environmentally acceptable, cost effective and
reliable. Ecological flows required during Romaine-2 reservoir filling will be provided by
three different structures: diversion tunnel, dedicated structure and spillway. It will be the
first time that Hydro-Québec will use the diversion gate to modulate discharge and will
use a dedicated temporary structure to provide the riparian flow requirements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Hydro Québec for permission to publish this article.
Appreciation is also extended to a number of colleagues for their support and willingness
to provide review and technical information.
REFERENCES
Alicescu, V., Tournier, J.-P., & Kara, R. (2013). Developing great hydroelectric projects
in a challenging social and economical environment: La Romaine complex, situated
in northern Quebec, Canada. Canadian Dam Association 2013 Annual Conference,
Montreal, Canada.
Bérubé M. (2013). Les principaux effets du complexe de la Romaine sur le milieu
aquatique. Canadian Dam Association 2013 Annual Conference, Montreal, Canada.
Génivar (2007). Complexe de la Romaine. Détermination du régime de débits réservés.
Rapport sectoriel. Hydro-Québec Équipement. Montréal, Canada.
Hydro-Québec (2007). Complexe de la Romaine. Étude d’impact sur l’environnement
(10 volumes). Hydro-Québec Production. Montréal, Canada.
Hydro-Québec (2009). Complexe de la Romaine. Réévaluation des impacts sur les
poissons et leurs habitats en présence d’un régime de débit réservé pendant la
seconde étape du remplissage Complément à l’étude d’impact sur l’environnement
du complexe de la Romaine. Hydro-Québec Production. Montréal, Canada.
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Technical, Socio-Economic and Environmental aspects
in converting Devsari H.E.P. (252MW)
from Storage to Run of the River Scheme
Deepak Nakhasi & Harsh Bhaskar Mehta
SJVN Ltd, Shimla, India
harshbmehta7@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
India ranks third in the world after China, USA and Russia in terms of number of dams. India has so
far constructed about 4818 large dams which have provided about 225 BCM of storage. Another 375
large dams with storages of about 63.9 BCM are under construction. Large dams in India alone are
estimated to have submerged 37500 sq km of land area. About 10 million of people has been displaced
or affected.
While on one hand, storage schemes yield multipurpose benefits like irrigation, hydropower, flood and
silt control, on the other hand various associated issues like environmental degradation, Resettlement
and Rehabilitation and earthquake hazards also need proper attention and solution.
More than 45,000 dams constructed around the world have helped many communities and countries’
economies in utilizing and harnessing water resources from half of the world’s dammed rivers. Dams
supported 30- 40% of the entire irrigated area of the world and thus supported 12-16% global food
production. Around 12% of all dams supply water for drinking and sanitation. The dams of 75
countries have a flood control function to safeguard nearby communities. But, the above mentioned
benefits from dams are just one side of the story. On the other side are the social and environmental
impacts.
While Hydropower provides about 19% (2,650 TWh/yr) to more than half of 63 countries’ electricity
supply, it can have adverse impacts on the environment and can be mitigated if well managed.
Construction of Diversion dam as part of Run of the River development instead of Storage dam is one
such solution.
Devsari Hydro Electric Project (DHEP) in Uttarakhand, India was originally conceived as storage
scheme with 90 m high concrete gravity dam having installed capacity and design energy as 300 MW
and 856 MU respectively. However, in view of huge submergence involved (522 ha) and other
technical and environmental issues, it was modified into a Run of the River (RoR) scheme with much
less submergence (82 ha) having 35 m high concrete gravity dam with installed capacity of 252 MW.
This paper discusses the various alternatives for arriving at the most optimum solution involving least
submergence and maximum power benefits taking into considerations various technical, socioeconomic and environmental issues involved.
Key words: Hydropower, Technical, Socioeconomic, Environmental, Dam
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1. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DEVSARI HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECT
Devsari HEP is project located in Chamoli District of Uttrakahand having a installed capacity
of 252 MW. It is located on River Pinder which originated from Pindari Glacier. It is run-of –
the- river scheme with all components except dam and pothead yard, located underground. Its
diversion structure 1.75 km downstream of confluence River Pinder and Kailganga is a
concrete gravity dam 35 m (from river bed level) high, having five low level sluices to pass
design discharge of 6969 cumec and facility for flushing of silt annually. The live storage of
the Devsari dam reservoir with FRL at El 1300 m is 9.02 MCM .The reservoir shall also act as
desilting basin. The head race tunnel carrying water to the surge shaft is 17.9 km long having
6.9 m diameter designed for discharge of 120.76 cumec. The surge shaft of 21.5 m diameter
has a depth of 78 m. It is restricted orifice type. One steel lined vertical pressure shaft, 4.8 m
dia having length of 248 m take off from the surge shaft and connect to three units of power
plant after trifurcating into 2.77 m dia meter branches .Each of the three units are Francis
turbine operating under rated head of 230.42 m utilizing a discharged of 120.76 cumec These
are housed in an underground cavern of size 80 m(l)X20m(w)X 39.86 m(h).The layout of the
project is shown.(see Fig. 1.)
.
Figure1. Layout of the Devsari H.E.P., Uttarakhand
2. ALTERNATIVE STUDIES CONDUCTED FOR CONVERSION FROM STORAGE
TO RUN-OF –THE RIVER SCHEME
Following four alternative studies were carried out taking into consideration Technical, Socioeconomic and environmental factors
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•
Alternative 1
90 m high dam at 1.75 km D/S of confluence of River
Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL= El 1370 m with
TWL= El 1120 m and HRT Length =12.445 km
•
Alternative 2
Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL= El 1325 m with
TWL= El 1120 m and HRT length=12.445 km
•
Alternative 3
Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL = El 1300 m with
TWL = El 1120 m and HRT length =12.445 km
•
Alternative 4
Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL =El 1300 m with
TWL =El 1046.5 m and HRT length=17.9 km
3. ALTERNATIVE 1: 90 M HIGH DAM AT 1.75 KM D/S OF CONFLUENCE OF
RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA HAVING FRL= EL 1370 M WITH TWL= EL
1120 M AND HRT LENGTH =12.445 KM
3.1 Technical Considerations
In this alternative, dam is located at 1.75 km D/S from confluence of Pinder river with
Kailgnaga. In the PFR prepared for this alternative ,the installed capacity was 300 MW based
on design discharge of 149.37 cumec .However during detailed studies conducted based on the
topographical, hydrological and geological data it was found that installed capacity shall be
250 MW with following features given in table -1.
Table1. Features of the Alternative-1
Components
Detail
250 MW
1.75 km d/s of confluence
90m -from river bed level
El 1370m
192 MCM
83.5MCM
12.445 km
120.76 cumec
Downstream of Pranmati Nallah
El 1120 m
890MU
Installed Capacity
Dam Location
Dam height
FRL
Gross Storage
Live Storage
HRT Length
Design Discharge
Powerhouse Location
Tail water Level
Design Energy
Besides the above factors, feasibility of constructing 90 m high dam at the present locations
has been found to be unviable on following consideration:
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3.1.1 Geology
Physical inspection of left bank at dam site shows that the river terraces deposits occupied 45m above river level almost 100m upstream of dam axis of left abutment. Also, along the dam
axis, left abutment is occupied with slope wash materials and thereafter the rock appears to
lie under a veneer of debris. The rock exposures are not visible at higher levels which indicate
that lot of stripping will be required for the left abutment. The rocks are also traversed by three
set of joints i.e., one set parallel to foliation with 2-3 cm opening and another two sets inclined
and perpendicular to the foliation. The strike of foliation is northeast-southwest with 50°60°dip in northwest direction i.e. dipping towards river side.
The right bank occupied by an overburden of 12-15m thick slope wash material below the
road level. Above the road level and along dam axis, exposure of augen gneiss/mylonitic
gneiss with occasionally pyritiferous muscovite schists and micaceous quartzites with welldeveloped foliation joints are seen. Rocks are exposed on the right bank of river bed as well as
on Debal-Tharali road section which is approximately 88m above the River bed level. The
quartzite-phyllite sequence of rocks exposed at the site strikes N10E°-S10W° and dip 40°
towards NW i.e. downstream. The rocks are traversed by few sets of joints.
A thrust is observed near confluence of Kail Ganga and Pinder river and truncated by another
fault which is aligned parallel to the Pinder river i.e. NW-SE direction(GSI, Dehradun, 2007).
The Devsari HEP reservoir area is devoid of any lime/calcareous formations of highly
previous gravelly material. The ground in this area contains fractured and sheared
quartzite/phyllite and schists which are relative permeable. This may result in water loss from
the reservoir if water level is increased above an altitude of El 1335m. There are no adverse
features for seepage losses from the reservoir below this level.
Hence, the geology of reservoir is not suitable for constructing a dam above El 1335 m, both
in Kailganga valley and Pinder valley because of presence of multiple shears and disturbed
rock strata. A fault trending NNE-SSW has been noticed along river Kail Ganga (see Fig 2).
These disturbed strata on saturation with the filling of dam beyond El 1335 m may result in
multiple slides and destabilization of both the banks in the reservoir. Since the rock/strata
above El 1335m is not water tight and whole area cannot be treated, if water level is increased
above El 1335m, this might result in heavy water loss from the reservoir.
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Figure2. Geological map of the reservoir area
3.2 Socio-economic considerations
3.2.1 Submergence
The storage scheme with 90m dam height involves large submergence involving 522 ha of
total land (203.6 ha of Agriculture Private land, 47 ha of Private scrub land, 182.7 ha of forest
land and 88.7 ha of river bed). 13 villages were expected to be submerged.
Besides the above villages, the storage scheme involved submergence of many
historical/religious places and public structures such as Main road leading to Deval Market
and other villages. This road goes upto the border connecting number of villages on route and
is main road being used for Nanda Devi Raj Jat Yatra and Rupkund. It could have submeregd
Nanda Devi Temple at Purna, Shiv mandir at Sailkhola village (1346m) and Shiv Mandir near
Devsari bridge.
The photographs showing the important structures/historical place are below (see Fig.3 and
Fig.4)
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Figure3. Historical Nanda Devi Temple
Figure4.Historical Shiv Temple
3.3 Environmental Considerations
The Pinder valley upstream of confluence is full of dense forest consisting of Deodar, Pine,
Chir and the protected species viz. Banz Oak (the major species given below). The storage
scheme will involve submergence/cutting of more than 20,000 trees.
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3.4 Discussions on Alternative-1
From studies carried out as mentioned above, it was decided that going ahead with a storage
scheme having 90m high dam was not feasible from technical, socio-economic and
environmental considerations.
1120 M AND HRT LENGTH=12.445 KM.
4.1 Technical considerations
In this alternative study dam height has been considered 60m at the same location. With this
alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 201 MW. Description of the
Alternative -2 is shown in Table-2 below.
Table2. Description of the Alternative 2
Components
Details
Installed Capacity
Dam height(from river bed level)
Dam Location
FRL
HRT Length
Design Discharge
Powerhouse Location
Tail water Level
Design Energy
201 MW
60m
El 1325m
12.445 km
120.76 cumec
El 1120 m
753.36MU
Besides lesser installed capacity, feasibility of constructing 60 m high dam at the present
location has been found to be unviable on the grounds explained below.
4.1.1 Geology
As discussed under alternate 1(a), the geology of the reservoir area was still not favorable for
the construction of 60m high dam as many shears/discontinuities exposed in the Kailganga
valleys around El + 1315m on the road to Melkhet near bridge may get activated by the water
level of the reservoir resulting in multiple slides and destabilization of left bank of Kailganga
river.
4.2.1 Submergence
The scheme with 60m dam height involved submergence of 220 ha of total land involving 3
villages.
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This scheme also involved submergence of historical/religious places and public structures
such as: Road leading from Dewal to Melkhet and beyond upto the border connecting number
of villages shall get submerged at many reaches on route in addition to Nanda Devi Temple at
Purna and Shiv Mandir near Devsari Bridge.
The upstream Pinder valley is full of dense forest consisting of Deodar, Pine, Chir and the
protected species viz. Banz Oak (the major species given below). This scheme will still
involve submergence/cutting of more than 10,000 trees.
From the studies carried out as mentioned above, it was opined clearly lead to conclusion that
going ahead with a scheme with 60m high dam was also not feasible from Technical, socioeconomic and environmental considerations as it would have involved submergence of
religious/historical places and could be not favorable to local sentiments.
1120 M AND HRT LENGTH=12.445 KM
5.1 Technical Considerations
Feasibility of constructing 35 m high dam at the present location is explained below:
In this alternative study, dam height has been considered as 35m at the same location. With
this alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 176 MW. Description of the
Alternative 3 is shown in table: 3.
Table3. Description of the Alternative 3
Components
Details
Installed Capacity
Dam height(from river bed level)
Dam Location
FRL
HRT Length
Design Discharge
Powerhouse Location
Tail water Level
Design Energy
176 MW
35 m
El 1300m
12.44 km
120.76 cumec
El 1120m
646 MU
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5.1.1 Geology
The geology of the reservoir area with a 35m high dam was found favorable for the
construction as most of the shears/discontinuities exposed in the Pinder and Kailganga valleys
are above El 1315m.
Whereas with 35 m high dam, the FRL remains at El 1300m as such and there is no chance of
the shears/discontinuities getting charged by the reservoir level. On inspection from left bank
of the Pinder river, it was noticed that rock is exposed upto the level of + 1300m on right bank
and chances of water loss from the reservoir is negligible.
5.2.1 Submergence
The storage scheme with 35 m dam height involves minimum submergence of 82 ha of total
land including 12 ha of Agriculture Private land, 70 ha of forest land and a part of one
Shoding village involving 26 families is being displaced. This scheme does not involve
submergence of any historical/religious places and public structures.
This scheme involves cutting of only about 2000 trees in submergence area.
The studies carried out as mentioned above lead to conclusion that this alternative involved
minimum submergence and was most viable dam height from Technical socio economic, and
Environmental consideration.
However, another alternative was considered to optimize energy generation discussed here
under as Alternative No 4, in which power House has been shifted further downstream.
1046.5 M AND HRT LENGTH=17.9 KM
6.1 Technical considerations
In this alternative study dam height has been considered as 35m at the same location but
Power House was shifted downstream from the original location to Simli gad. With this
alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 252 MW. Description of the
alternative -4 is shown at table-4.
Table4. Description of the alternative 4
Components
Installed Capacity
Details
252 MW
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Dam height
Dam Location
FRL
HRT Length
Design Discharge
Powerhouse Location
Tail water Level
Design Energy
35m -from river bed level
El 1300 m
17.903 km
120.76 cumec
Upstream of Simli Gaad
El 1046.45m
937 MU
In this scheme, the dam location remained at the same place as mentioned in Alternative -3
and all the benefits of Alternative 3 were available for this alternative too.
The studies carried out with 35m high dam, as mentioned above, lead to conclusion that it was
most viable scheme from Technical, Socio-economic, and Environmental aspects.
7. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS ALTERNATIVES
The comparison of the storage and RoR alternatives is summarized below (see table 5)
Table5. Comparison of various alternatives
Details
Location
Dam Height
FRL
MDDL
Gross
Storage
Live Storage
HRT Length
Design
Discharge
Powerhouse
Location
Installed
capacity
Tail water
level
Design
Energy
Alternative 1
1.75 km d/s of
confluence
90 m
El 1370m
El 1355m
192MCM
Alternative 2
1.75 km d/s of
confluence
60 m
El 1325m
El 1310m
65.32 MCM
Alternative 3
1.75 km d/s of
confluence
35 m
El 1300m
EL 1295m
9.02 MCM
Alternative 4
1.75 km d/s of
confluence
35 m
El 1300m
El 1295 m
9.02MCM
83.5 MCM
12.445 km
120.76 cumec
28.64 MCM
12.445 km
120.76 cumec
3.21 MCM
12.445 km
120.76 cumec
3.21 MCM
17.9 km
120.76 cumec
D/s of Pranmati
Nallah
250 MW
D/s of Pranmati
Nallah
201 MW
D/s of Pranmati
Nallah
176 MW
Near Simli gad
El 1120m
El 1120m
El 1120m
El 1046.5 m
890 MU
753.60 MU
646 MU
937 MU
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252 MW
8. LOCATION UPSTREAM OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL
GANGA
In addition to above alternative location upstream of the confluence was also studied taking
into consideration technical, socio economic, environmental angle.
Considering the above aspects, it was not feasible and viable to construct a high dam upstream
of confluence on Pinder river upto Milikhet Village. Kailganga water will not be available for
use and will remain unutilized. The available design discharge would be only about 87 cumec
due to deduction of Kail ganga discharge which contribute 30% of discharge to the Pinder
river below the confluence. With this design discharge, the installed capacity would be further
reduced to 145 MW. With reduced inflows, it would have been uneconomical to construct a
storage dam.
9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Keeping in view the various technical, Social-economic and Environmental considerations,
Alternative 4 with 35 m high concrete dam having 17.9 km long HRT was considered for
adoption. The installed capacity of the project shall be 252 MW and design energy of 937 MU.
The submergence involved shall only be 82 ha with only 26 families of one village getting
displaced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is made possible through the help and support from Site Engineers and Geologist
of Devsari H.E.P, Tharali, Uttarakhand, India and colleagues in Civil Design Department,
SJVN Ltd., Shimla, India. Our acknowledgment of gratitude toward the following significant
advisors and contributors:
We would like to thank Er.K.L.Aumta, AGM (Civil Design) and Er. Vinod Kumar, Sr.
Engineer (Civil Design) for their most support and encouragement. They kindly read our paper
and offered invaluable detailed advices on the theme and grammar of the paper.
REFERENCES
Report on studies conducted by SJVN Ltd on “Conversion of Storage scheme to RoR scheme“
as per observations of Standing Technical Committee(STC) submitted to CEA vide
letter no SJVN /DHEP/CEA/11-239-241 dated 07/12/2011.
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Implementation of the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol:
ProProtocols:jsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf
Romanche-Gavet’s project under construction in France
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Emmanuel BRANCHE
Senior Economist Engineer, Sustainable Development Department, Hydropower Division, EDF
emmanuel.branche@edf.fr
ABSTRACT:
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (HSAP) is a framework to assess the
performance of hydropower projects according to a defined set of sustainability topics,
encompassing environmental, social, technical, and financial issues. Developed by the
International Hydropower Association (IHA) in partnership with a range of government, civil
society and private sector stakeholders, the Protocol is a product of intensive and transparent
dialogue concerning the selection of sustainability topics and the definition of good and best
practice in each of these topics. The main objective of an official assessment is to obtain impartial
and verifiable findings on the performance of the project in relation to the sustainability issues set
out in the tool.
The Electricité de France (EDF) Romanche-Gavet project is a 94 MW project in the
implementation stage, located on the Romanche’s river in south-eastern France. The project will
replace six facilities on the Romanche River which were built in the early 20th century and have a
total capacity of 82 MW, thereby increasing average annual generation by over 30%.
An official assessment by external accredited assessors was carried out over the period May to
July 2013. This paper will present the sustainability profile of Romanche-Gavet’s project under
construction. It has relatively limited adverse environmental and social impacts, and has the
potential to deliver long term benefits for the local community. The findings of this assessment
reflect very high performance against the Protocol topics and criteria. EDF and its partners meet
this high level of performance through a combination of corporate management systems,
compliance with applicable legal requirements, and an open working relationship between the
EDF people and the local community.
Keywords: Sustainability, assessment, social & environmental, dam construction, governance,
stakeholder engagement and participation.
1. WHAT IS THE HYDROPOWER SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT
PROTOCOL?
[Blank line 10 pt]
1.1. Introduction
Hydropower is the world’s largest source of renewable energy and plays a vital role in
reducing the world’s dependence on carbon. As a renewable energy, it is important that
hydropower is also developed sustainably.
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (HSAP) is a new tool that promotes
and improves the sustainable use of hydropower. It provides a common language that
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allows governments, civil society, financial institutions and the hydropower sector to talk
about issues of sustainability.
The HSAP offers a way of assessing the performance of hydropower in more than 20
sustainability topics. Assessments are intended to be objective and are based on
documented evidence, and the results are presented in a standardized way, making it easy
to see how existing facilities are performing and how new projects are being developed.
The HSAP is a new tool that promotes and improves the sustainable use of hydropower. It
provides a common language that allows governments, civil society, financial institutions
and the hydropower sector to talk about issues of sustainability. The HSAP:
 Is a framework for assessing the sustainability of hydropower projects,
 Distils hydropower sustainability into more than 20 clearly-defined topics,
 Provides a consistent, globally-applicable methodology,
 Is governed by a multi-stakeholder Council,
 Is regulated by a Charter and Terms and Conditions of use.
The Protocol is the result of intensive review from 2008 to 2010 by the Hydropower
Sustainability Assessment Forum. The Forum’s members came from: social and
environmental NGOs (Oxfam, The Nature Conservancy, Transparency International,
WWF); governments (China, Germany, Iceland, Norway, Zambia); commercial and
development banks (Equator Principles Financial Institutions, The World Bank
[observer]); and the hydropower sector, represented by IHA (International Hydropower
Association). Many of these organizations are now represented in the Hydropower
Sustainability Assessment Council.
1.2. The Structure of the HSAP
The HSAP can be used at any stage of hydropower development, from the very earliest
planning stages, right through to operation. It has also been designed to work on projects
and facilities anywhere in the world.
To assess the sustainability of hydropower projects at all stages of development, the
Protocol comprises five documents – a Background document and four assessment tools
for the different stages of the project life cycle as described in figure 1 below:
[Blank line 10 pt
Figure 1. Protocol Assessment Tools and Major Decision Points
[Blank line 10 pt
HSAP has been designed to work on projects and facilities anywhere in the world.
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1.3. The Sustainability Topics
Sustainable development requires people to look for synergies and trade-offs amongst
economic, social and environmental values. This balance should be achieved and ensured
in a transparent and accountable manner, taking advantage of expanding knowledge,
multiple perspectives, and new ideas and technologies.
Within each HSAP assessment tool is a set of topics important to forming a view on the
overall sustainability of that project at that point in its life cycle. Topics, when taken
together, provide the list of issues that must be considered to confidently form a view on
the overall sustainability of a hydropower project at a particular point in its life cycle.
The HSAP offers a way of assessing the performance of hydropower in more than 20
sustainability topics. Assessments are intended to be objective and are based on
documented evidence, and the results are presented in a standardized way, making it easy
to see how existing facilities are performing and how new projects are being developed.
The table 1 below shows some of the topics addressed during an assessment:
[Blank line 10 pt
Table 1. Sustainability topics addressed during an assessment
[Blank line 10 pt
Economic
Financial
Environmental
Social
Biodiversity and
Invasive Species
Indigenous People Financial Viability Siting and Design
Water Quality
Resettlement
Economical
Viability
Erosion
Sedimentation
Public Health
Project Benefits
Downstream Flow Cultural Heritage Procurement
Technical
Hydrological
Resources
Asset Reliability
and Efficiency
Cross-Cutting
Climate Change
Human Rights
Gender
Infrastructure Safety Livelihoods
Blank line 10 pt]
1.4. The Sustainability Profile
[Blank line 10 pt]
The Preparation, Implementation and Operation assessment tools enable development of a
sustainability profile for the project under assessment. For each topic, scoring statements
describe what should be exhibited by the project to address that important sustainability
issue. It is recognised that different organisations may have the primary responsibility for
different sustainability topics. Because it is likely that these responsibilities vary amongst
countries and at project life cycle stages, no specification on organisational responsibilities
is made in the HSAP scoring statements. It would be expected in the assessment reports to
indicate where organisational responsibilities lie.
In the Preparation, Implementation and Operation assessment tools, each topic is scored
from Level 1 to 5. The Level 3 and Level 5 statements provide meaningful and
recognisable levels of performance against which the other scores are calibrated.
Level 3 describes basic good practice on a particular sustainability topic. Level 3
statements have been designed with the idea that projects in all contexts should be working
toward such practice, even in regions with minimal resources or capacities or with projects
of smaller scales and complexities. Note that the HSAP does not state that Level 3 is a
standard that must be achieved; expectations on performance levels are defined by
organisations that make decisions or form views based on assessments.
Level 5 describes proven best practice on a particular sustainability issue that is
demonstrable in multiple country contexts. Level 5 statements have been designed with the
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idea that they are goals that are not easy to reach. However, they have been proven that
they can be attained in multiple country contexts, and not only by the largest projects with
the most resources at their disposal. 5s on all topics would be very difficult to reach,
because practical decisions need to be made on priorities for corporate/project objectives
and availability/allocation of resources (time, money, personnel) and effort.
The spider diagram provides a snapshot of how a project scores against the HSAP. This
sits at the front of a full assessment on each topic. This format allows for an overview of
the entire project as well as the ability to find more information on specific topics if
required. For each sustainability topic assessed, performance is scored from 1 to 5, with 5
being proven best-practice, and presented in an easy-to-read profile, as presented in figure
2 below on an illustrative case:
Figure 2. Spider diagram of an illustrative HSAP’s sustainability profile
1.5. The Governance
The Protocol will be overseen by the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Council, a
multi-stakeholder body building on the success of the Forum that helped the International
Hydropower Association (IHA) develop the Protocol.
The Council will include representatives from social and community organisations,
environmental organisations, governments from around the world, banks and investors,
and the hydropower sector.
The Council will work to ensure that all voices are heard with regard to the use of the
Protocol and its future development.
It will make decisions by consensus, and follow principles of transparency and goodwill.
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The Council will be formed of several Chambers, each reporting back to the elected
Governance Committee. The Governance Committee is responsible for upholding the
integrity of the HSAP and its use.
IHA acts as a Management Entity within the Council. IHA is responsible for day-to-day
operations, as well as other tasks such as overseeing training and accreditation in the use of
the HSAP and serving as the secretariat for the Governance Committee.
2. SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ROMANCHE-GAVET
[Blank line 10 pt]
2.1. Presentation of Romanche-Gavet project
The Romanche‐Gavet project is a 94 MW project in the implementation stage, located on
the right bank of the middle section of the Romanche river, 30 km from Grenoble, in the
Isère department in south‐eastern France.
The project will replace six facilities on the Romanche River which were built in the early
20th century and have a total capacity of 82 MW. Romanche‐Gavet has an expected
average generation output of 560 GWh/yr, greater than the average output of 405 GWh of
the six facilities to be replaced.
Under the French concession system, the French State remains the owner of the facilities.
A range of governmental and regulatory authorities are also involved in the preparation
and implementation of the new project, and the decommissioning of the existing plants.
EDF (Électricité de France SA) holds two concessions concerning the Romanche‐Gavet
project:
 Concession ‘Moyenne Romanche’ (middle Romanche) to operate the six existing
plants, with decommissioning required by 2020;
 Concession ‘Gavet’ for the construction of the new plant, and its operation until
2070. The main features of the new plant are:
o Head of 270 m;
o An intake with a maximum capacity of 41 m3/s;
o A headrace tunnel, 9.3 km in length and 4.7 m in diameter;
o A vertical surge shaft, 180 m deep with an excavated diameter of 5 m;
o A steel‐lined pressure shaft, 170 m deep and 3.3 m in diameter;
o An underground power plant excavated 160 m below ground;
o Two Francis turbines of 47 MW;
o A tailrace tunnel, 170 m in length with an excavated diameter of 5.3 m;
o Outlet structures consisting of a regulating weir and gates, and a concrete
structure housing four energy dissipators; and
o A new 63 kV transmission line.
Apart from the intake and outlet structures and the transmission line, all structures of the
project will be wholly underground. The transmission line will be partially underground.
The reservoir will have an insignificant capacity, but will be kept level at El 705, and the
plant will be operated as run‐of‐river.
The facilities to be decommissioned are, from upstream to downstream: Livet, Les Vernes,
Les Roberts, Riouperoux, Les Clavaux, and Pierre Eybesse. The structures to be removed
will include power intakes, galleries, headrace channels, penstocks, powerhouses,
generating units and transmission lines.
The Figure 3 below presents a schematic view of the Romanche-Gavet’s project.
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Figure 3. Schematic view of Gavet-Romanche’s project
Implementation and operation of the new plant, and decommissioning of the old plants is
managed by Unité de Production Alpes (UP Alpes), one of five units of production
(corresponding to regions of France) in EDF’s Hydropower Generation and Engineering
Division (Division Production Ingénierie Hydraulique, DPIH). UP Alpes is the region for
the northern Alps.
UP Alpes has commissioned the DPIH’s Centre d’Ingénierie Hydraulique (CIH) to manage
implementation of the new plant and decommissioning, through two separate projects.
EDF is part of the multinational EDF Group, which also owns or has holdings in
transmission companies in France, and utilities across Europe and internationally. EDF
Group is 80% owned by the French State.
2.2. EDF’s objectives for this assessment
EDF, as a Sustainability Partner of IHA, has received capacity building around the
Protocol. This assessment took part within the Hydro4LIFE program (a European
Commission-funded project to assist the implementation of the Protocol in the European
Union Life+).
The main objective of an official assessment is to obtain impartial and verifiable findings
on the performance of the Romanche‐Gavet project in relation to the sustainability issues
set out in the implementation and preparation tools.
In addition to this main goal for the assessment of Romanche‐Gavet EDF expects:
 To identify how appropriate the HSAP is for EDF and France in general;
 To benchmark EDF to international companies and best practices;
 To evaluate the sustainability of the Romanche‐Gavet project (the biggest project in
development in France) by preparing this official assessment;
 To identify risks and thus to find improvement opportunities in the project both
during construction phase of the new plant and preparation of the decommissioning
of the six existing HPPs; and
 To ensure transparency of the project and engagement of stakeholders.
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2.3. The Assessment Process
The assessment has been conducted using the Implementation assessment tool, which
contains 20 individual topics addressing governance, technical, financial, social and
environmental issues.
It is important to note that this assessment addresses the entire Romanche‐Gavet project,
including both the new project that is under implementation, and the decommissioning
project which is under preparation.
Reference has been made to the Preparation tool in specific cases where it offers relevant
additional guidance for the assessment of the decommissioning project.
This assessment was carried out as part of the IHA – EDF Sustainability Partnership. IHA
provided a team of independent accredited assessors to conduct the assessment. The on‐site
phase was conducted over 10‐14 June 2013, and comprised a site visit, and interviews held
mainly at the Gavet Maison Romanche Energie and in Grenoble, but also at Saint Egreve,
Vif, and videoconference with Paris and the University of Liège in Belgium.
There were 46 people interviewed within 41 meetings during the on-site assessment:
 Internal EDF: 12
 External EDF: 34 (AAPPMA, ABF, Agence Eau Rhône-Mediterranée-Corse, AIG,
Alstom, APAVE, Association Patrimoine Romanche, CBR, CG38, CLE,
Conservatoire d'espaces naturels Isère – Avenir, DREAL, FRAPNA, habitant de
Gavet, maire-adjoint de Gavet, GC Conseil, Mission locale, ONEMA, Musée de
Rioupéroux, SIERG, SPIE, Médecine du travail, Université de Liège, VCT).
It should be noted that 354 documents have been presented and considered as evidences for
this official assessment.
2.3. The findings of this assessment for Romanche-Gavet
Romanche‐Gavet has relatively limited adverse environmental and social impacts, and has
the potential to deliver long term benefits for the local community. The design of the
project directly addresses the need to reduce adverse impacts of hydropower generation in
the Romanche valley through the removal of the old plants and water transport
infrastructure, improvement in conditions for recreation and tourism, and use of some of
the decommissioned plants for cultural heritage conservation or economic purposes.
The findings of this assessment reflect very high performance against the Protocol topics
and criteria. EDF and its partners meet this high level of performance through a
combination of EDF’s corporate management systems, careful compliance with applicable
legal requirements, and an open working relationship between the EDF project office and
the local community.
Romanche‐Gavet satisfies the Protocol’s criteria of ‘proven best practice’ on eleven out of
eighteen topics: Communications and Consultation; Integrated Project Management,
Infrastructure Safety; Financial Viability; Project Benefits; Procurement; Project‐affected
Communities and Livelihoods; Public Health; Biodiversity and Invasive Species;
Reservoir Preparation and Filling; and Downstream Flow Regimes.
It meets or exceeds the Protocol’s criteria of ‘basic good practice’ on all remaining topics.
On six of these, basic good practice is exceeded, owing to only one significant gap against
proven best practice. Most of these gaps concern the absence of management processes to
anticipate and respond to opportunities that become evident during implementation (on the
Management criterion of the Protocol).
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One remaining topics performs with two gaps against proven best practice, resulting in a
score equal to basic good practice under the Protocol’s scoring system. On I‐13 Cultural
Heritage, there is an absence of adequate processes both to respond to the risk that EDF
will be required by its concession obligations to destroy heritage, and to respond to the
opportunity to conserve heritage for the economic development of the valley (on the
Management criterion). In addition, there are no plans to mitigate the loss of some of less
valued components of the heritage of the decommissioned plants (Outcomes criterion).
EDF is not the owner of the facilities, and these gaps are not a reflection on EDF’s
performance, but result from the authorities’ governance of the decommissioning process.
As described above, the performance of the Romanche-Gavet project is very high. The
results show a striking pattern: no significant gaps on the Stakeholder Engagement,
Stakeholder Support, and Conformance/ Compliance criteria; very few on Assessment and
Outcomes; and on the Management criterion, gaps across a number of topics that reflect
the absence of processes to anticipate and respond to opportunities, which at a level of
proven best practice is defined as beyond what a project would be required to do manage
its impacts responsibly.
Two topics, I‐10 Resettlement and I‐11 Indigenous Peoples, are Not Relevant to
Romanche‐Gavet. The scores for all topics are summarized in the following Figure 4 that
presents the sustainability profile of this project:
Figure 4. Sustainability Profile of Romanche-Gavet project
This spider diagram provides the sustainability profile of the project, i.e. a snapshot of how
the project scores against the HSAP. A score of 5 represents the proven best-practice, and
3 the basic-good-practice.
Protocol assessments in the public domain are shown on the HSAP website. Comments on
those reports can be made within 60 days of their publication date. It should be noted that
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no comments were received for the Romanche-Gavet project by public, NGO, etc. during
this period of comments.
3. CONCLUSIONS
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Hydropower utilities (developers and operators) face challenges in proving the
sustainability of their projects. There is broad agreement among industry experts that
sustainability is not as easily quantified as engineering or economics. In addition,
measuring the impact of sustainability on the financial performance of a business/strategy
is a similarly difficult task.
Based on this first EDF’s hydropower official assessment, the HSAP provides a conclusive
framework for communicating sustainability topics both internally and with the public at
large.
The Romanche-Gavet’s assessment succeeded in identifying concrete value drivers, and
insights gained during its pioneering execution in France might pave the way for
embedding the HSAP into gated project decision-making processes.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Emmanuel BRANCHE would like to thank all EDF staff involved, and all EDF interviewees and
external interviewees that accepted participating in this official assessment, and providing their
time to gather and provide a wealth of evidence. The author also would like to thank the assessment
team for its tremendous work (Doug Smith, Senior Sustainability Specialist, International
Hydropower Association; Simon Howard, Sustainability Specialist, International Hydropower
Association; Dr Bernt Rydgren, ÅF Industry; Inger Poveda Björklund, Senior Consultant, ÅF
Hydropower).
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REFERENCES
[Blank line 9 pt]
IHA. (2011): Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol, International Hydropower
Association , November 2010
The full report could be downloaded for free at:
http://www.hydrosustainability.org/getattachment/7e212656-9d26-4ebc-96b8-1f27eaebc2ed/TheHydropower-Sustainability-Assessment-Protocol.aspx
Smith, D, Howard, S, Rydgren, B and Poveda Björklund, I. (2013): Hydropower
Sustainability Assessment Protocol - Official Assessment EDF Romanche-Gavet
France Final, Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Accredited Assessors,
September 2013
The full report could be downloaded at:
http://www.hydrosustainability.org/IHAHydro4Life/media/ProtocolAssessments/PDF%20Reports/Ro
manche-Gavet-Final-Report-18-Sep-2013.pdf?ext=.pdf
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Silvan Project
Implementation by Participation
and Impacts on the Society, Economy and Environment
Önder Özen
Deputy Coordinator, Dam Projects Coordination Department, İLCİ Holding & TRCOLD Member, Ankara, Turkey
onderozen@ilci.com.tr
Ergün Üzücek
Head of Dams and HEPPs, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works & TRCOLD Member, Ankara, Turkey
Tuncer Dinçergök
Deputy Head of Dams and HEPPs, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works & TRCOLD Secretary General, Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Turkey, being one of the leading countries in terms of hydro potential development, has numerous
completed and ongoing projects ranging from small hydro schemes to large hydro schemes. The
Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) is one of the World’s biggest social and economic
development projects including 22 dams and 19 HEPPs which will create an irrigable land of 18’000
km2 by utilizing the hydro potential of Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
With an approximate investment value of $3.5 billion, Silvan Project, located in Diyarbakır, Turkey,
is one of the largest components of GAP and is the last step to complete GAP. The project includes
8 dams, 1 hydropower station, 242’000 meters of irrigation channel, 2 tunnels with a total length of
15’360 meters and 21 pumping stations. After completion, the project will create 2’570 km2 of
irrigable land, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and will have a great impact on the social
and the economic development of the region. The annual income is estimated to be $63 million from
energy production and $460 million for the agricultural development. Taking into consideration the
social impacts combining with the economic development, it is upmost importance that the
Governmental Institutions and the Public cooperate at the upmost level to realize the project as soon
as possible.
This paper focuses on the steps taken by the Government for the public and private sector
participation in the project and the effects on society and the government in terms of social, economic
and environmental factors.
Keywords: Development, Public & Private Sector Participation
1. INTRODUCTION
Silvan Project, being one of the largest components of Southeastern Anatolian Project
(GAP), was initially planned as a water resources development package within the
framework of a development program in provinces of Southeastern Turkey in the 1970’s.
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Within time, the project has evolved to a multi-sectoral, socio-economic development
program in the 1980’s. The Silvan Scheme has finalized in 2001 with Southeastern Anatolian
Project Silvan Project Planning Report.
The project has been implemented by State Hydraulic Works of Turkey (DSİ) and GAP
Regional Development Administration (GAP-RDA), a separate entity responsible for the
coordination of development of the Region in terms of economic, social and environmental
development. Once completed, Silvan Project will create an irrigable land of 2’570 km2,
employment opportunity to 320’000 people and annual income of $63 million and $460
million from energy production and agricultural development, respectively.
2. PROJECT DEFINITION
Silvan Project is located in Silvan of Diyarbakır, Turkey. The main purpose of the project is
to increase the development level of the region by utilizing the hydro potential of Ambar,
Kuruçay, Pamukçay, Salat, Sinan and Batman creeks, which are tributaries of Tigris River.
The project includes 8 dams, 1 hydropower station, 242’000 meters of irrigation channel, 2
water conveying tunnels with a total length of 15’360 meters and 21 pumping stations. Table
1 summarizes the main components and Figure 1 shows the general layout of Silvan Project.
Table 1. Main components of Silvan Project
Component
Short Information
Silvan Dam and HEPP
Concrete faced rock fill dam with a height of 174.5 meters.
Hydropower plant has an installed capacity of 160 MW with an
annual energy production of 681 GWh. The storage capacity is 6’840
hm3 and will irrigate a land of 2’454 km2.
Babakaya Water
TBM twin tunnels with an internal diameter of 7.00 meters and length
Conveying Tunnel
of 10’210 meters.
Silvan Water Conveying
TBM twin tunnels with an internal diameter of 7.00 meters and length
Tunnel
of 5’150 meters.
Irrigation Channels
Irrigation channels with a total length of 242’000 meters.
Karacalar Storage Dam
Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 33.5 meters with a storage
capacity of 24.49 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 51 km2.
Kıbrıs Storage Dam
Bulaklıdere Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 31.0 meters with a storage
Başlar Storage Dam
Pamukçay Storage Dam
Kuruçay Storage Dam
Ambar Storage Dam
Pumping Stations
Various pumping stations with pumping capacities ranging from 0.5
m3/s to 26.36 m3/s.
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Figure 1. General layout of Silvan Project
The majority of water which will be utilized for irrigation will be obtained from Silvan Dam
reservoir (Silvan Dam itself will irrigate an area of 2’024 km2 and also support the storage
dams for an irrigation area of 431 km2). The water will be taken from the reservoir by
Babakaya and Silvan Tunnels and will be distributed to the west and east side of the main
channel. The capacity of the east side main channel is 5.38 m3/s with a length of 15’773
meters and the capacity of the west side main channel is 208.32 m3/s with a length of 116’534
meters. Additionally, a channel with a capacity of 26.36 m3/s with a length of 126’846 meters
will be constructed for pumping irrigation. The storage dams will also have irrigation
channels with capacities ranging from 0.79 m3/s to 15.21 m3/s.
Silvan Project includes construction of numerous dams and long channels with water
distribution pipelines. Since construction of such a project requires a lot of money and time,
the project is divided into 4 stages defined in time intervals of 6 years. Within completion of
each stage, some part of the land will be able to be irrigated. Since the development will be
in stages, the amount of water that will be conveyed from Silvan Reservoir will be increased
in time, thus the energy production of Silvan Dam will decrease from 681 GWh to 88.41
GWh. Table 2 shows the development stages of the project. Figure 2 and Figure 3 shows the
irrigable land amount for each stage and water usage, respectively.
Table 2. Development stages of Silvan Project
Stage
Development Plan
Stage 1
 Silvan Dam and HEPP
 Babakaya and Silvan Tunnels
 Silvan east and west main channels construction starts
Stage 2
 Karacalar, Kıbrıs, Bulaklıdere and Başlar storage dams and related
components
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 71.6 km of west main channel and related components
 East main channel and related components
 Pamukçay, Kuruçay and Ambar storage dams and related
components
 West main channel
 Various pumping facilities
 P5 pumping irrigation and related components
Stage 3
Stage 4
3000
2570
Total irrigable land (km2)
2500
2143
2000
1500
1000
857
500
0
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Figure 2. Total irrigable land for each stage
2500
Irrigation
Energy
Water usage (million3/year)
2056
2000
1791
1597
1500
1410
1000
654
450
500
254
0
0
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Figure 3. Water usage for irrigation and energy production for each stage
3. AIMS OF THE PROJECT
Being one of the major components of GAP, Silvan Project is a multi-sectoral development
project which will utilize the water potential of Tigris River’s creeks for a sustainable
development for irrigation, flood control, drought control and hydropower generation for
Silvan, Diyarbakır area. Being an integrated project, the project aims to improve economic
development as well as the social development. The development areas can be divided into
3 categories; agricultural development, industrial development and social development. The
main aims of Silvan Project are given as follows:
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 Management and development of water resources for irrigation, industrial and urban
purposes
 Improvement of land usage by optimizing crop patterns and agricultural applications
 Promoting agro-industry
 Increase the level of social services, education and employment opportunities
4. CURRENT STATUS OF THE PROJECT
As stated in Chapter 2, the project is planned to be developed in stages since it is a large
scale and multi sectoral huge project which requires an investment time of about 20 years
and cost of $3.5 billion.
Although the global economic crisis has some effect on the project finance, the construction
works as defined in the stages of the project are ongoing and summarized in Table 3. As can
be inferred from the table, there are some deviations from the original plan. The reason for
this deviation is to utilize some of the storage dams earlier than planned so that the irrigation
operations planned for these dams can be started as early as possible without Silvan
Reservoirs contribution. Since the irrigation capacities will not be maximized until Silvan
Reservoir contribution is completed, the overall benefits and planning will not be affected,
however the society will get used to new and modern agricultural methods.
Table 3. Current status of the Project
Component
Construction Status
Silvan Dam and HEPP
The construction has started in year 2012 and planned to be
completed in year 2016.
Silvan Tunnel
Babakaya Tunnel
Pamukçay Dam
The construction has started in year 2010 and completed in year
2013.
Ambar Dam
Figure 4 shows some photos from the ongoing construction works for Silvan, Pamukçay and
Ambar dams and Silvan Tunnel, respectively.
5. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
As part of Southeastern Anatolian Project, Silvan Project is an integrated sustainable socioeconomic development project focusing on investments end development in agriculture,
industry, education, health and infrastructure building both urban and rural. After
completion, the project will create 2’570 km2 of irrigable land, employment opportunity to
320’000 people and will have a great impact on the social and economic development of the
region. Taking into consideration the social impacts combining with the economic
development, it is upmost importance, even an obligation, that the Governmental Institutions
and the Public cooperate and coordinate at the upmost level to realize the project as soon as
and as effective as possible.
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Figure 3. Some photos from the Silvan Project construction works
In addition to the Government and Public cooperation, it is also compulsory to attract private
sector to the region so that the economic development and rapid increase in employment
speed is maximized. To be able to achieve this aim, not only the hydro potential should be
developed but also the transportation, energy, industrial and urban infrastructure services so
that access of firms to financing sources, building incentive mechanisms in line with the
production features of the region, making services by other agencies in the region more
effective are improved. Taking into consideration interaction of such different areas should
be achieved for a complete realization of the project, one should conclude that extensive
planning and coordination is required for the implementation of the project.
The above said points are being realized by mobilizing local initiatives and by joint
cooperation of different agencies.
5.1. Implementation Principles
The implementation principles are basically as follows:
 The environmental effects will be minimized as much as possible both in short and long
term
 A sustainable agricultural and industrial development plan will be implemented
 The public and the private sector participation will be maximized
 The programming and the implementation will be based on partnerships and cooperation
and special attention will be given to inter-agency coordination and action synchronization
 The implementation will be differentiated with respect to both centers with high
development potential and rural/urban settlements
 Self-sufficiency principle will be taken as the main approach for economic and social
support schemes
 Efficiency will be ensured in terms of resource utilization by detailed and time based
prioritization
 The municipalities will be involved in implementation and coordination
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5.2. Implementation Policies and Strategies
The basic policies for implementation of Silvan Project are as follows:
 To be able to provide new business opportunities, economic growth will be maintained by
the opportunities created by Silvan Project
 The productivity and competitiveness of enterprises will be enhanced by bringing in more
flexibility to labor markets
 The quality of labor force will be improved through active employment policies so that the
employment will expand in parallel to regions economic growth
 Institutional capacity will be increased so that the services delivery is more effective and
makes the region more attractive by introducing various incentives
 The trade with the bordering countries will be increased
To be able to improve the business environments, the competitive power of the region will
be increased by developing a production culture and developing labor force in parallel to
economic development. After full development of Silvan Project, the economic relations
with bordering countries will be expanded so that the goods produced from the region can
be exported. The labor market, which is one of the most important parameters for
development, will be enhanced by providing education and practices so that further skills
and qualifications are gained. Labor productivity will be increased, productive employment
opportunities will be provided and finding creative jobs will be encouraged. The Silvan
Project construction, itself will create a lot of employment opportunities and will add quality
to the labor force of the region. The cooperation between private sector, universities and the
public sector will be increased and the administrative defects will be eliminated which is
expected to create a dynamic and competitive social and business development environment.
To be able to implement the mentioned policies the following strategies are being followed:
 People’s participation in project development and implementation will be ensured for
sustainable development. To ensure participation, emphasis will be given to training and
organization of people in all related matters and dimensions.
 To be able to minimize the costs, priority is being given to efforts to streamline information
exchange between the project’s planners, executors and its users
 The efforts for the project development will be supported by public administration and
efficient coordination is being achieved between the parties
 A variety of financing methods including private sector, public-private partnership models
and direct foreign investments will be supported
5.3. Actions
The actions for the implementation of the Silvan Project are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of actions for the implementation of Silvan Project
Action
To attract private sector investments, the system of incentives
developed for the country as a whole are being re-arranged by
taking into consideration regional and sectoral characteristics.
Special programs are being implemented to increase Regions’
export capacity
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Responsible Institutions
Undersecrecretariat
of
Treasury
Undersecrecretariat
Foreign trade
of
Cooperation between enterprises are supported
The financing opportunities are being increased
Investment projects are being supported
Cultural assets will be protected and promoted
Forests will be expended and dams will be protected from erosion
Agricultural productivity is being increased and agro-based industry
will be promoted
Enrollment ratio in secondary education will be raised to 95%
Labor force training programs will be expanded
Delivery of training and consultancy services to people who wants
to start their own business is being provided
A grant programme for creating employment will be developed and
implemented
Continuous education centers will be established
Health infrastructure is being increased
Social status of women are being increased
In projects under construction, priority is given to main channel
construction
Irrigation network will be completed as soon as possible
On farm drainage works will be completed
Energy transmission lines to be renewed, completed
Waste water network will be improved and treatment facilities will
be built
Ministry of Industry and
Defense
Undersecrecretariat
of
Treasury, Development
Bank, Agricultural Bank
Small
and
Medium
Industry
Development
Organization
Ministry of Culture and
Tourism,
General
Directorate of Foundation
Ministry of Environment
and Forestry
Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Affairs
Ministry of National
Education
Turkish
Employment
Institution
Turkish
Employment
Institution
Turkish
Employment
Institution
Dicle University
Ministry of Health
Governorships,
GAP
Regional
Development
Agency
State Hydraulic Works
Turkish
Electricity
Distribution Company
Municipalities
Although numerous agencies and institutions are involved in the implementation of Silvan
project, 2 of them become prominent, namely GAP Regional Development Administration
(GAP-RDA) and State Hydraulic Works (DSİ). GAP RDA was established upon the Law
Decree no 388 to ensure rapid development of the project by administering and coordination
of different stakeholders involved or effected by the project in 1989. DSİ, established in
1954, on the other hand, is one of the most important and active institutions of Turkey
responsible for the planning, designing and developing water resources. It has succeeded
many projects and made a great contribution to the development of Turkey.
6. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
6.1. Social Effects
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Silvan Project’s main target is to create a sustainable development model which at the end
will decrease the difference between the region and Turkey’s other regions social and
economic development. Within this framework, as briefly summarized in the previous
chapters, numerous organizations and institutions are involved for the social development of
the region. Being known that economic development is one of the first priorities for the
social development, for the time being the most of the focus is given on the timely
completion of the Silvan Project Construction. The social effects of the project are
summarized below:
 The ratio of literacy level especially for women will be increased. According to the
statistical data, the literacy level for women has increased from 71.9% to 90% between
years 1990 and 2012.
 A participatory and democratic culture is being developed in the region.
 With the establishment of community-based women’s Centers (ÇATOMs), women and
girls are receiving health care services and gain skills in areas such as hygiene, home
economics and income generation. In the long term, the abilities and knowledge gained
from these centers will be transferred to the children which at the end will increase the
regions social development level and economy.
 “Start Your Own Business” trainings are being received by the local people. Such
initiatives will make the people to interact with the developed areas more densely and this
will increase the social and economic perspective of the regions people.
 With the establishment of youth centers, the living standards of the low income families’
children are being developed.
 The education quality is being increased. For example the number of students per teacher
has decreased from 31.1 to 30.4 between years 1990~2012.
 The quality of health services is being increased with a high rate. The number of hospitals
has been increased from 722 to 857 between years 1990~2012, whereas number of persons
per doctor has decreased from 2152 to 750 (this data is for all the GAP region)
 Infant mortality rate has decreased to 0.031 from 0.066
Since the project is a long term project, it is expected that the social impacts will be more
visible in the long term. However, according to the initial observations and raw data, the
project has a positive effect on the society.
6.2. Economic Effects
With an approximate investment value of $3.5 billion, Silvan Project will create 2’570 km2
of irrigable land, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and will have a great impact
on the social and the economic development of the region. The annual income is estimated
to be $63 million from energy production and $460 million for the agricultural development.
 The net annual income from the agricultural land will increase by 640% in case the full
development of Silvan Project is achieved.
 The net annual income per family will be increased by 475% in case the full development
of Silvan Project is achieved.
 The need for labor will increase 78.15 days per year, which will increase the employment
ratio.
 The gross domestic product composition will increase to 29.8% from 15.69% and to
47.00% from 44.75 for the industrial and services sectors, respectively.
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6.3. Environmental Effects and Measures
Silvan Project is a large scale project extended in the whole Silvan region. The
environmental effects during construction will be minimized by applying standard practice
measures during construction works.
There will be some expropriation and resettlement operation, especially for the reservoir
areas. A total number of 31’400 people in the whole project area will be resettled because of
the reservoir creation. The total forest area of 150km2 will be inundated and a total area of
about 50km2 will be expropriated. The forest areas will be deforested before impounding
operation and new forest areas will be created. There is no historical areas being effected
from Silvan Project.
The main focus in fact is given to minimize the environmental effects after full development
of the project which will be due to irrigation and industrial development. The mitigation of
all environmental impacts, included in the environmental management plans, covers all
direct and indirect impacts in all phases and the plans will be followed strictly. The potential
environmental impacts in terms of hydrology, pollution, geology, ecology and health are
assessed and positive and negative effects and relevant mitigation measures are defined.
 The GAP Administration gives priority to projects related to the environment to balance
the possible effect of dams, promoting water recycling and avoiding environmental
problems such as salinity and waterlogging.
 Eco-City approaches are being promoted.
 Municipalities are being promoted for the utilization of treatment facilities since the
industrial activities are being expected to be increased after project development.
 Some hotspot areas are determined so that the effects of the project on the environment can
be followed closely.
 The farmers are being trained to promote soil conservation
 The project will not affect the aquatic ecosystem since there is no fish live in the creeks.
 There is a wide variety of land ecosystem in the region. Although the project components
are not expected to give damage to this ecosystem it is expected that after full development,
there is risk of contamination from disease and insect control methods for the agriculture.
To minimize this effect, the farmers are being educated for the optimum usage of chemicals
and organic farming is being promoted.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Silvan Project is a social development project giving focus on sustainable development. As
defined by World Commission on Environment and Development for sustainable
development, the project will “meet the needs of present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”.
Under the above said perspective there is a huge amount of issues such as social, economic,
cultural, gender, health, agricultural and environmental. To handle such variety of issues,
human being is selected as the main focus of the project both as an object and an agent for
the project. Numerous Governmental, Private institutors and Society are cooperating for the
realization of the project with the Government’s support.
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Once completed, it is expected that the regions’ social and economic level will be increased
considerably with a sustainable development project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writers wish to thank to State Hydraulic Works and GAP Regional Development Agency for
providing of information related to the Silvan Project. Also we want to acknowledge the people who
has been involved in the project from the project planning stage to the construction stages for the
realization of such kind of a project. Their past efforts and future efforts will never be forgotten by
the Turkish Nation.
REFERENCES
Suİş Engineering and Consultancy & Sial Engineering and Consultancy (2001): GAP Silvan
Project Planning Report, Ankara, Turkey
Muammer, Y.Ö. (2004): Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) as Sustainable Development
Project, Fourth Biennal Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy, Ankara, Turkey
GAP Regional Development Administration (2008): Southeastern Anatolian Project Action
Plan (2008-2012), Ankara, Turkey
Ali, E.E. (2006): Social and Economic Impacts of the Southeastern Anatolia Projects, Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East
Technical University, METU, Ankara, Turkey
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Study onand
environment
Construction
friendly
of Hydropower
hydropowerproject
project(14pt)
construction
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2(14pt)
Xu Zeping
China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research
Beijing 100048, China (xuzp@iwhr.com)
ABSTRACT
With the rising level on social and economic development and people’s consciousness on
evironment protection, environment impacts of dam construction are more and more concerned.
For most of the developing counties, to protect environment and ecological system in the
development of hydropower resources is the important issue in its sustainable development. How to
harmonize the development of hydropower resources and the protection of evironment, and to
reach the win-win goal for economic benefits and environment protection is the key problem that
should be considered in dam construction. By analyzing the impacts of hydropower project on
environment and ecological system, the paper discussed the ecological and environmental
concerns in the design and construction of hydropower project and proposed some mitigation
measures. Besides, the creteria for building an ecological friendly project are also studied.
Keywords: hydropower, environment, design, construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
As a clean energy resource, hydropower is always considered as the key aspect in energy
development. For most of developing counties, its modernization needs the development of
hydropower resources. But, on the other hand, the ecological and environmental problems
caused by dam construction will directly related to the sustainable development of river
basin. How to harmonize the development of hydropower resources and the protection of
environment and ecological system, and to make people friendly living with nature will
become an importment issues for dam industry. It could be expected that the restriction
from the requirement of environment protection will become more and more important
factors for hydropower development.
The ecological and environmental impacts of hydropower development involve many
problems. Among these, engineering design and construction is one of the important
aspects. In the traditional construction manner of hydropower project, large amount open
excavation of mountains and earth borrow for dam filling are the common practices of civil
works. Thus, the local environment will be severely damaged. In the future, this rough
construction method will be restricted by the consideration of environment protection.
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How to shift traditional idea of project design and construction and to build environmental
friendly project is an urgent problem to be solved by present hydropower engineers.
Fro protecting environment during design and construction of a hydropower project, the
first thing is to follow the principal of sustainable development in the design. The concept
of environment protection should be fully considered in every aspects of the project, such
as: selection of dam-site and dam type, general layout, etc. During construction, all the
feasible environment friendly measures should be applied. Take an example of earth and
rockfill dam, large-scale open excavation of abutment should be avoided and most of the
affiliated structures could be set underground. But even though, it still has the problems of
utilizing the excavated material. In the design and construction, the discarded or rejected
material should be minimized to keep the balance of excavation and filling. Besides, in the
construction of earth dam, the clay material for core is usually taken from farmland, which
could cause ruin of arable land. To extend scope of core material usage by systematic
researches, such as using weathered material or other wide gradation gravelly soil, reduce
or not use farmland clay material, is also an important way to construct environment
friendly hydropower project.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HYDROPOWER PROJECT
During past practices of hydropower development, the impacts on environment are often
neglected. In recent year, with economic development and people’s awareness of
environment problems, the protection of ecological system and environment has gained
more and more attentions. But then, it should also be point out, when dealing with the
problems of hydropower development and environment protection, the negative effects are
more emphasized. In fact, the effect of hydropower development on environment has both
negative and positive aspect. As a clean and renewable resource, hydropower plays an
important role in reducing greenhouse gas emission and air pollution. In river flood control
and flood disaster mitigation, the functions of large capacity reservoir are even more
important and could not be superseded. Besides, a well-planned and properly operated
hydropower project may create a better environment. At the same time, by rational
distribution of water resources, the environment of those ecological weakly or endangered
areas could be improved, such as the ecological water supply for Talimu Lake and
Baiyangdian Lake in China.
Based on present knowledge, the main negative impacts of hydropower development could
be summarized as follows:
（1） Impact on river ecology. After dam construction, the natural river flow was blocked.
It could alter the river flow regime and the original rules of sediment movement.
Furthermore, the hydrological characteristics of upstream, downstream and estuary
will also be changed. All these could result in ecological environment changes of
the whole river.
（2） Impacts of inundation. After dam construction, many people will be resettled. This
issue is more severe in China for its large population. Besides, the rising water level
will inundate farmlands, mineral resources and culture relics. Especially, for some
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remote area, reservoir inundation may destroy the particular local culture heritage.
（3） Impacts on biodiversity in the river basin area. The construction of dam and the
existence of reservoir could lead to rapid changes of ecological environment in
dam-site area and reservoir area. The natural habitat may be damaged. Plant and
animalcule resources may be seriously affected which might even lead to the lost of
some species. At present, the most concerned problem is the impact on migrating
fish. Besides, the impact on forest resources by civil works such as: excavation,
slop cutting, access road construction, etc. is also one of the important issues.
（4） Geological disaster caused by reservoir. After dam construction, the variation of
hydrological and geological environment in reservoir area may lead to some
geological disasters caused by reservoir impoundment, such as: landslide, bank
collapse, etc.
（5） Water interception or river break caused by water diversion project or diversion
type power station. Water diversion project and diversion type power station that
are not properly planned could lead to water interception of the river. It may cause
ecological problems and difficulties for local people’s livelihood.
（6） Ecological impacts of dam-site area caused by civil works. Construction of largescale hydropower project will involve many civil works, such as: slope cutting,
quarry or borrow area excavation, river diversion, spoil dumping, etc. Improper
dealing with these works will cause soil erosion or mud-rock flow. At the same
time, the vegetation and landscape will also be affected. Besides, improper dispose
of the redundant excavated material or discarded concrete will also have some
impacts on environment.
（7） Dam breaching. After dam construction, the safety of dam will be a kind of risk
that may cause fatal flood to the people living downstream. If the safety measures
and mitigation measures are not sufficient, it may bring about great losses of
people’s life and properties.
In the past practices of hydropower project construction in China, the basic principals are
safety, economic and technically feasible. With the social progress and economic
development, environment protection in hydropower development is greatly concerned. In
recent years, the report of feasibility study or preliminary design of a hydropower project
must include an independent chapter on environment assessment. But even though, in most
of the cases, ecological and environmental problems are still not highly emphasized in
decision making. In the design and construction of future’s hydropower project, the
requirement on economic, social, ecological will be higher and higher. So, environment
problem should be put in a very important (or principal) position. In every stage, like:
planning, investigation, design, construction and operation, ecology and environment
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protection should be considered with priority. This is a win-win strategy for resources
development and ecological environment protection.
3. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY PROJECT
To construct an environment friendly hydropower project, the most important aspect is the
idea of decision makers. Actually, every hydropower project has multi-functions. For the
past projects, economic benefit is more emphasized. In the future, the construction goal of
all the hydropower projects must follow the principal of sustainable development and the
factors of social, ecology and environment should be put in an important and conditional
position.
Construction of an environment friendly hydropower project should consider many
influential factors. In the engineering design of a project, the concept of ecological design,
which is accepted in industry in 1990’s, should be used for reference. Ecological design,
also called green design, life circle design or environment design, is a kind of design
method that could include ecological factors in consideration and help designer to
determine the correct direction in decision making. Ecological design request the factors of
environment be considered in the every stages of the project and to mitigate environment
impacts in the whole life circle of the project. All these efforts will finally lead to a
sustainable hydropower project.
By taking examples of embankment dam and rockfill dam, several aspects on environment
issues in the design and construction of hydropower project are discussed as follows:
3.1. Determination of dam site and dam type
In conventional design concept of earth and rockfill dam, dam site and dam axis are mainly
determined by topography, geology, general layout and construction conditions. For
different dam site, its environmental and ecological impacts could not be the same. In the
planning and design, several possible plans should be presented for comparing the
ecological and environment impacts. The final decision will be made by integrated
consideration of ecological, environmental, economic and technical aspects. Here, the main
considerations on ecological environment are: inundation of natural habitat for wildlife and
plants, protection of peculiar terrestrial wildlife, protection of culture relics, avoiding soil
erosion, etc. Inundation caused by dam construction is unavoidable. In some cases, by
creating artificial ecological protection area, the environment losses could be partly
compensated. But the adjustment of dam site or reservoir water level may be the ultimate
solution, although it may cause some economic losses.
In the design of earth and rockfill dam, the most commonly used dam types are:
homogenous earth dam, central core or inclined core rockfill dam, concrete faced rockfill
dam, etc. As a dam mainly use local materials, earth and rockfill dam usually have great
advantages in economic comparison. But as its large volumes and most of the construction
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materials will come from excavation, the construction impacts on ecological environment
are also obvious. For some cases, the clay core material may take from arable lands, which
could directly destroy farmlands. Thus, for dam type selection, local situations and
material sources should be fully considered to minimize the impacts on ecological
environment, such as: using sandy gravel material in flood plain, using excavated material
of tunnel or spillway excavation, using other materials substitute the clay core by meeting
the same requirement for strength and permeability.
As the relatively weak scour resistance of earth and rockfill dam, it cannot bear reservoir
water overflow. For reducing breaching risk, the selection of dam site and dam type will
also need careful studies on reservoir bank stability, to let the dam site keep a certain
distance from the potential landslide area.
3.2. General layout
In addition to dam, the general layout of a hydropower project will also includes flood
discharge structures, powerhouse, navigation structures, fish pass, etc. Besides, it also
involves: cofferdam, diversion structures, access road, etc. A rational layout of hydropower
project should minimize the impacts on environment.
In the layout of rockfill dam, there are four kinds of powerhouse, which are: bank side
powerhouse, downstream powerhouse, separate bank side powerhouse and underground
powerhouse. For the bank side powerhouse, it usually involves high slope excavation. To
avoid this effect, the powerhouse could be arranged at downstream side of the dam or
underground by considering the topography and geology conditions.
Figure 1 Typical underground powerhouse
In the construction of hydropower project, the arrangement of access road and camps will
also have certain effects on the environment of dam site area. The access road should keep
away from the ecological corridor of wildlife to minimize the related impacts. When
necessary, tunnel connecting can be used for avoiding large-scale excavation. At the same
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time, the road engineering should also ensure proper drainage to protect natural waterways
and minimize erosion.
In the layout of flood discharge structure, the effect of scouring and atomized rain is one of
the main reasons for causing bank slide. For rockfill dam, whether the spillway is properly
designed will directly relate to the safety of the dam.
3.3. Section design and material sources
In the section design of rockfill dam, the main target is the zoning of different materials. In
the past, some research works were carried out in rational utilization of different materials
for the dams. But the start point for these research works are mainly focus on economic
benefit or due to the lack of available materials. Problems on ecological environment are
seldom considered as the main factor in decision-making.
Figure 2 Typical section of rockfill dam
Except for the homogenous earth dam, most of rockfill dams are generally composed with
different material zones, which include: impermeable zone, filter zone, transitional zone
and permeable zone. For rockfill dam, especially for high rockfill dam, this zoning
structure is very important. In the zoning design, the basic principal is try to use local
materials adequately, and rational put the materials in different zones according to its
engineering properties, distribution in time and space and the impacts on dam structure. In
the consideration of environment, the primary issue is the source of construction materials.
As the large volume of rockfill dam, the amount of fill material is huge. What material can
be used? Where these materials come from? The decision of the questions will definitely
have direct impacts on environment of engineering area. In the past practices, core
materials are usually taken from the deep overburden area near dam site. These areas are
usually suitable for plant growth. Large-scale excavation may destroy the original plant
ecology. Besides, in some cases, the core material is directly taken from farmland. This
could destroy many arable lands and further affect local people’s livelihood and cause
social problems. The rockfill material of rockfill dam may involve large-scale quarry
excavation and thus may cause the damage of natural habitat and biodiversity. By
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considering the above facts, in the dam section design, the selected materials should have
less environment impacts. And on the other hand, the range of materials usage could also
be expanded by further research on the engineering properties of construction materials. In
this field, Chinese scholars have done a lot of research works and made fruitful
achievements. Such as: the weathered rock material was used as core material in Lubuge
Project, wide gradation gravelly soil were used as core materials in Pubugou Project, soft
rock materials were used in Daao, Yutiao and Panshitou CFRDs.
For reducing the environmental impacts of quarry and borrow area excavation, the
excavated materials from the construction of other structures should be fully used to get a
balance between excavation and fill. By using the excavated materials sufficiently, the
amount of quarry excavation will be reduced or even not be used. For example, for
Tianshenqiao-1 CFRD, the spillway was arranged at a solution limestone saddle with
large-scale excavation of approach channel. Although the excavation amount was
increased, all the excavated materials were use for dam construction. The 180 million
cubic miters rockfill of the dam was mainly come from spillway excavation. Another
example is the Ming tomb pumped storage station. The upper reservoir was formed by
excavation. All the excavated materials were used for dam construction. No special quarry
was used. Thus, the environment and landscape of the circumjacent area were protected.
For the fully use of the excavated material, the zoning and slope of the dam were also
modified in the final design.
In planning the source of construction material, the quarry and borrow area should be set in
the upstream inundated area. If the topography and geology condition are not allowed,
corresponding ecological compensation measures should be considered in the planning.
Such as: to creation artificial wetlands with the function of ecological improvement by
using the low areas formed by material excavation.
Figure 3 Ming Tomb pumped storage station
3.4. Application of the ecological friendly construction methods
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The principals for building an environment friendly hydropower project should be: to
minimize the damage of the natural environment, to harmonize the engineering structure
and environment.
Specially, the every aspects of construction process should be restricted by the
requirements of environment protection. The construction organization and
implementation must be elaborate. By using information technology and GPS technology,
the scale of excavation and fill should be accurately controlled. For the contractors,
effective review and supervision should be carried out in camp setting, auxiliary facilities,
waste dispose, waste water treatment, management of workers, etc.
For the application of construction material, it should be keep in mind the principal of
harmony with natural environment. The green and ecological friendly materials should be
used with priority. When building slope protection or earth retaining structures, proper
drainage passage should be arranged. The best materials for this structure should be that
with pore canal, easy for plant growing, accord with living environment of local aquatic
animals or amphibious animals. An example is shown in Fig. 4. The protection of slope
foot is a placed rockfill structure. The material and appearance of this structure has a
natural form. The gaps can be used for plant growth and animal living.
Figure 4 Earth retaining structure by placed rockfill
Besides, for the structure of riverbank protection, gabions made by high strength
geosynthetic are usually better than concrete structure in adapting environment. As its
flexibility in adapting deformation and friendly for plant growth, gabion structure always
provides better landscape. Also, the earth retaining structures constructed by geosynthetic
or geo-grid and the slope protection net made by geodynthetic can adapt the topography
conditions of engineering site. At the same time, the surface of the structure can be jetted
with grass seed or planted with tress. When grasses or trees grow up, the structure will get
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along the surrounding environment. In addition to the function of landscape, it can also
provide living environment for small animals or insects.
Figure 5 Bank protection by gabion
Figure 6 Culvert pipe passage
For keeping biodiversity in dam site area, the natural passage of animals should not be
blocked by access road construction. The original waterway system in dam site area will
also be protected. These passage or drainage could be established by bridge or culvert pipe.
3.5. Ecological rejuvenation after construction
From the procedures of hydropower project development, although some environmental
protection measures are applied in design and construction, the impacts on ecological
environment still cannot be fully avoided. As compensation measures, ecological
rejuvenation after construction should also be considered in the construction of an
environment friendly project. For this purpose, the first thing is the clear classification of
the ecological and environmental damages caused by project construction. Ecological
rejuvenation and treatment measures should be considered in advance during design and
construction. And the measures will be properly applied after project construction. The
main contents of ecological rejuvenation will be: recovery of forest resources, recovery of
landscape, setting artificial fish hatcheries, setting protected area for wildlife rescue, waste
water treatment, recovery of the quarry or borrow area pits or using it to create artificial
wet lands. Here, ecological rejuvenation does not only means recovery or compensation.
With proper measures, a more beautiful ecological environment can be created. Such as:
create valuable lands by using waste rockfill or by leveling the quarry or borrow area, keep
the cultivated soil of the quarry surface and pave it on the ground for agriculture, soil and
water conservation measures at dam site, developing new scenery sight by using dam
created lake, etc.
4. CONCLUSION
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In summary, the development of hydropower resources needs comprehensive consideration
and review of the social, economical and ecological factors. By investigating the past
experiences and applying proper mitigation measures, the negative impacts of hydropower
project construction can be minimized to an acceptable level while its huge economic
benefit and positive ecological effects can be fully bring into play. The key for this goal is
to establish a design principals based on sustainable development. Former engineers
mainly care on how to construct a safe and economic viable dam. The development of
future’s hydropower project requires engineers to responsible both on hydropower
construction and environment protection. To establish a framework on ecological friendly
hydropower project construction is the only way to harmonize the resources development
and ecological environmental protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author thanks Professor Jiang Guocheng’s comments on the paper and also appreciates chief
engineers He Shaoling and Yang Xiaoqing’s review.
REFERENCES
Proceedings of Symposium on Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Dam Project,
ICOLD 72nd Annual Meeting, May 16-22, 2004, Seoul, Korea.
Final Proceedings of Symposium on Benefits and Concerns about Dams, 13th Sept. 2001,
Dresden.
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Integrated Water Resource Planning for South Africa: Water Use Efficiency
T Nditwani, Chief Water Resource Planner, Directorate: National Water Resource Planning
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Private Bag X313, Pretoria 000, Republic of South Africa (RSA)
NditwaniT@dwa.gov.za
ABSTRACT: INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE PLANNING FOR SOUTH
AFRICA: WATER USE EFFICIENCY
South Africa is a water scarce country with a very uneven distribution of rainfall and the resultant
run-off in its rivers. This is further exacerbated by the fact that the large urban development's took
place far from the largest available water resources. The rainfall is very erratic with long droughts
followed by periods of above normal flows and floods. The only way to utilize the water was to
develop dams to store the water for use over the long dry periods. Over the years many dams were
built to supply water for irrigation projects, as well as to supply the metropolitan areas and
industries. Complex interbasin transfers were required to link catchments where water was
available with those where water was short. The Department of Water Affairs has in years
identified the need to develop to ensure sufficient water for users. Reconciliation Strategies have
been, or are in the process of being developed. The studies include scenarios of future water
requirements, determine all possible options to manage water requirements and increase
efficiency, determine options to supply more water from ground and surface resources, provide for
the possible impacts of climate change and propose strategies to reconcile the growing
requirements with the available resources. While the strategies differ in the detail from area to
area, a number of common strategies emerged: (a water conservation and water demand
management will have to be undertaken for all the areas to ensure more efficient use of water.
Keywords: Efficiency, Reconciliation, Strategy, Water and Availability.
1. INTRODUCTION
While the Reconciliation Strategies differ in the detail from area to area, a number of
common strategies emerged: (a water conservation and water demand management will
have to be undertaken for all the areas to ensure more efficient use of water. These are
targets that would entail a reduction in the requirements of a minimum of 15% over a
period of five years. The implementation of such measures will now receive high priority
to keep the assurance of supply to these areas at reasonable levels until other measures that
require longer lead periods, can be implemented. (b) The re-use, or recycling, of water.
Feasibility studies will now be done in all cases where re-use has been indicated as a
potential augmentation source. (c) Further surface water development and associated interbasin transfers would be required. These will only be implemented after careful
investigations. From the investigations undertaken it has become clear that large-scale
desalination of seawater is on the horizon as a viable option for the coastal metropolitan
areas. Strategy steering committees are being formed to ensure that the strategies are
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implemented, as well as to update the strategies as new information on growing water
requirements and information from feasibility studies become available.
Planned and unplanned Water Conservation/ Water Demand Management (WC/WDM)
has been taking place in the past, however, dedicated programmes of loss control,
increasing efficiencies and consumer awareness are now key activities essential to make
the slogan “some for all” a reality.
The Government as custodian of the water resources are combining efforts with
municipalities (responsible for service provision) to formulate integrated water resource
management plans, referred to as Reconciliation Strategies.
Reconciliation Strategies are developed for all significant water resources in SA
encompassing detail plans of action which stipulates how sufficient water can be made
available for next thirty years.
Two strategies, the first for the Vaal River System located in the centre of the country and
the other covering the KZN Coastal Metropolitan area in the east demonstrate that by
combing demand side management and augmentation interventions offers effective water
management solutions.
2. OBJECTIVE
This paper aims to present the SA Government’s view on WC/WDM as reflected in the
recently published strategies such as Water for Growth and Development Framework
(WfGDF), National Development Plan, National Water Resource Strategy and how it is
incorporated in detailed Reconciliation Strategies as to :




Describe the water supply situation for one coastal and one inland system and
present the current planning activities.
Present a proposed WC/WDM communication strategy.
Suggest the integration of WC/WDM planning into other water resource
management processes.
The Western Cape Water Supply System supports the country’s second largest
economy and provides water to more than 3 million people clustered around the
City of Cape Town. Of the current available system yield of 556 million m3/a, 493
million m3 was used in 2008, 63% for domestic and industrial purposes, 32% for
irrigation and 5% by smaller surrounding towns.
3. VAAL RIVER SYSTEM
The Vaal River System with the main component as the Vaal Dam (see Figure 1) provides
water to about 12 million people producing 40% of the country’s economic output and
supply cooling water to most of the thermal electrical power stations in Southern African –
a strategic asset fueling the economies of the region.
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Figure 1. Vaal Dam
In a nutshell the five point strategy (see Figure 2) to secure enough water from the Vaal
River System encompasses:
•
•
•
•
•
Eradicate unlawful irrigation water use by 2014;
Roll out WC/WDM programs to achieve the target savings by 2015 – Project 15%;
Implement Phase 2 of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project to deliver water to the
VRS by the year 2020;
Mine water effluent (acid mine drainage) must be treated and ready for use by
2015.
Continuation of the Strategy Steering Committee to monitor implementation and
adjust the actions to adapt to changes in the socio-economic landscape.
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Figure 2. Vaal River System Reconciliation Strategy
4. KWAZULU-NATAL
Kwa-Zulu Natal metropolitan area is third largest contributor to the national economy and
second largest population concentration in SA. It is the economic hub of KwaZulu-Natal
and very important for the economic well-being of the province. The area is experiencing
rapid growth in water demand because of the influx of people from the rural areas and
economic growth.
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Figure 3. Midmar Dam
To overcome the current deficit in water supply (red area in Figure 4) various
interventions are needed including:



Implementation of priority infrastructure projects (Spring Grove Dam and
conveyance infrastructure).
WC/WDM measures to subdue the growing water use.
Studies investigating the feasibility of:
o Reuse of treated effluent.
o Large dam development in adjacent river with transfer infrastructure.
o Desalination of see water at a large scale – possible alternative to the large dam
option.
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Figure 4. Kwa-Zulu Natal Reconciliation Strategy Graph
The re-use feasibility study by EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality encompassed:
 Direct and indirect re-use options were investigated.
 Study considered, infrastructure, social, financial and environmental aspects to
compare alternatives.
 Although it was found that direct re-use is technically and economically preferred,
objections to direct re-use by communities require review of the approach.
5. RECONCILIATION STRATEGY COMPONENTS
The questions, how much water is needed, what resources are available, and which
interventions are needed to achieve a balance between demand and supply are answered at
the centre of Figure 5.
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Figure 5. Reconciliation Strategy Components
The coloured boxes list the aspects that are synthesise when formulating a suitable strategy
to reconcile the water resources with the requirements.
6. RIGOROUS RISK ANALYSIS: FOUNDATION FOR RECONCILIATION
STRATEGIES
Developing a reconciliation strategy requires rigorous risk analysis (see Figure 6).
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Figure 6. Schematic Representation of Rigorous Water Resource Analysis
7. RIGOROUS RISK ANALYSIS: FOUNDATION FOR RECONCILIATION
STRATEGIES
All municipalities are required to prepare detail WC/WDM project plans supported by
motivated funding requirements.
The four largest municipalities give progress twice a year at the Strategy Steering
Committee (SSC) meeting, indicating what savings have been achieved, highlighting
successes, hurdles and identifying opportunities.
Progress reports and media releases serve to communication outcomes to institutional
managers and the public – a means to promote Integrated Water Resource Management
and overcome inefficient silo-thinking.
Table 1.Project 15% Facts
None Revenue Water (%)
Saving Target (million m3/annum)
Capital required over 10 years (US$/ year)
Operation requirement (US$/ year
(Excludes assets renewal and replacement costs)
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34
196
75 million
35 million
8. COMMUNICATION STRATEGY
The overarching aim is to spread the message, “water is a precious resource worth
conservation”, among all involved in the water provision cycle including the public.
Formulate coherent messages from government and municipalities informed by progress
with the implementation of the reconciliation strategies.
Solicit participation of water users, local municipalities, to take up WC/WDM in their
areas of influence.
The most important element of the communication strategy must be open information
sharing, by conveying messages of successes, hurdles and opportunities.
8. CONCLUSION




WC/WDM measures and the efficient us to water are key components of each
reconciliation strategy.
Multiple interventions are needed to maintain a positive water balance over the
planning horizons.
Clearly defined actions assigned to responsible institutions such as Government,
Municipalities, Water Service Providers or bulk water users are key factors for
successful implementation of the reconciliation strategies.
Continuous monitoring against targets is essential to track progress and timeously
respond with appropriate adaptive management measures
REFERENCES
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa, Report No. PWMA
08/000/00/0304. Internal Strategic Perspective: Upper Vaal Water Management
Area. Compiled by PDNA, WRP Consulting Engineers (Pty) Ltd, WMB and KweziV3 on behalf of the Directorate: National Water Resource Planning, 2004. Pretoria,
South Africa.
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Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST – 6TH, 2014
PUBLIC SAFETY AROUND THE DAMS IN SLOVENIA
Nina Humar,
Hidrotehnik d.d., Ljubljana, Slovenia
humar.nina@gmail.com
Andrej Kryžanowski
Faculty of civil engineering, Ljubljana , Slovenia
andrej.kryzanowski@fgg.uni-lj.si
ABSTRACT
Until recently, public safety has been a rather neglected topic in Slovenia. To ensure
public safety, safety-aware companies have used the existing legislation governing the
provision of safety in construction sites and on identified bathing waters. As in Slovenia,
water and waterside land (watercourses, water bodies) is mostly characterised as public
asset, there was, in general, a lack of legislative basis that would enable the managers to
restrict movement and activities in the areas lying within close proximity to dams.
However, the accident at the Blanca HPP and the recent review of the state of water
management works in Slovenia have shown the necessity of dedicating more attention to
the problem of public safety and public awareness. As an upgrade of the analysis of the
current state and instructions for improvement of public awareness and emergency
procedures for the population, an on-line presentation of dams, their characteristics and
problems associated with their existence, which also touched upon the problems
originating from insufficient maintenance, problems and risks caused by improper
operation, exploitation of the dams and the reservoir area was prepared for the Ministry of
Defence.
The paper presents the current situation of public safety in Slovenia and searches for the
opportunities to make a better use of the existing legislation and for rapid actions that
could contribute to improve the situation in this area.
Keywords: Dam safety, upgrade of the monitoring system, operative monitoring, early warning
system, public defense
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1. INTRODUCTION
For a long time in Slovenia, the problem of public safety around dams had been somehow
misunderstood and only partially treated. This aspect of safety was often confused with the
aspect of public protection. The attempts to raise public awareness often revolved around
the discussion about the impact of the dam on the environment and space. However, the
majority of the owners and managers adopted some basics measures to ensure better public
safety. Accidents that occurred in the last years on some of the dams as well as the recent
review of the state of the Slovene dams with water management purpose have prompted
the reflection and discussion about the responsibility for such accidents, resulting in people
and owner awareness that something should be done to increase and encourage a broader
view of the problem. In recent decades, several accidents occurred on the dams in
Slovenia:
• Mavčiče (1993) as a consequence of irregular operation of hydro mechanical
equipment
• Drtijščica (2010) as a consequence of improper design of dam evacuation structures
• Formin (2012) as a consequence of improper operating regime of a hydropower plant
chain during extreme floods
Luckily, only material damage was caused in all the events, despite the potential threat to
human life based on the degree of the events. Of more concern are cases that caused
human casualties through negligence and disregard of safety measures of participants in
the accidents:
• Blanca (2008) – the accident caused 13 fatalities due to disregard of safety protocols
and failure to comply with restrictions of movement at the HPP Blanca construction
site
• Solkan (2012) – the accident caused one fatality due to disregard of warning signs
regarding the risk of operational waves downstream the dam
It is only after the accident on the Blanca dam that the responsible parties – the authorities
and involved organizations – started to look at the problem as a whole, not only from the
perspective of ensuring the safe operation and prevention of access by unauthorized
persons to vital equipment or parts of the dam, but also from the perspective of identifying
the possible hazards and ensure safety of the beneficiaries of dams and reservoir and of the
river as well as the safe use of the reservoir and possible consequences of interaction
between the public and the dam, reducing in this way the possibility of occurrence of
situations that could cause significant damage on the dam, the population and stakeholders.
2. THE IMPACT OF THE PURPOSE ON THE APPROACH OF PUBLIC
SAFETY
There are over 68 dams in Slovenia, 39 of them are large dams according to the current
ICOLD categorization (35 higher than 15 m). The first dam was constructed in 1769, while
the majority of dams were constructed between 1950 and 1990. While smaller reservoirs
are mainly intended for water management and irrigation, among large reservoirs those
intended for hydro power production prevail. The primary purpose of 54% of
aforementioned 39 large dams is hydropower production, 35% of dams were constructed
for flood protection, water management and irrigation, and 5% of the dams were
constructed for commercial purposes such as recreation. In many cases different during the
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life of a dam unforeseen uses of the reservoir (for example recreation, nature protected
areas) and in dam influence area join the basic design purpose of the dam; indeed,this
unforeseen “associated uses” of the reservoirs have significant affect on the normal
operation and maintenance and can even cause major problems.
Figure 1: Dams in Slovenia
A major part of large dams in Slovenia is state-owned, i.e. only few are owned by private
companies or municipalities. According to legislation, the owner is responsible for dam
safety and also for the safety of the facility in terms of safe use and exploitation. In most
cases the management and operation is entrusted to different public and semi-private
companies (hydro power companies and water management companies etc.). These
companies take care of the operation and maintenance of the dams as well as the
performance of monitoring.
However, there is a major difference between the dams for hydropower production and the
dams for water management purposes: the dam meant for hydropower production are
handed over to the concessionaires with a full concession, which transfers all the
obligations of the owner to the concessionaires, including the management of the financial
assets. In these cases the concessionaire is responsible for dam and public safety in the area
of influence.
Dams for water management purposes rarely have incomes as high as dams for
hydropower purposes; the funds for regular maintenance and also the activities to ensure
safety of dams and public safety, as well as the approval of all activities depends on the
government services. Therefore, the responsibility itself is shared and unclear.
Large dams are under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment
(2012) and the Inspectorate of RS for Agriculture and the Environment. The emergency
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preparedness plans are under the supervision of the Ministry of Defence. Smaller and
medium size dams are not explicitly subject to Inspectorate’s supervision. But the
supervision covers mainly the basic control of proper operation and the availability and the
adequacy of the operational documentation, rather than the safety aspect of the dams and
proper use of the reservoir.
At first sight more attention to public safety is being paid on the dams for hydropower
production. The access to the dam site is in most cases completely restricted. Indeed, the
recent accident on HPPs excluded the liability of the operators who are under a legal
obligation to define the platform for provision of public safety at the stage of spatial
contextualisation of dams and the elaboration of the EIA study (Environmental Impact
Assessment). On the other hand, dams for different water management purposes are easily
accessed. Access is limited only in areas of lifting mechanisms and to the control facility.
The range of measures to ensure public safety is therefore somewhat limited, but jet far
from being absent and sometimes oriented even more in elimination of possible hazards.
Picture 2: The dams for water management are easily accessible – signs warning about dangers,
and restriction of movement
For the dams owned by private owners, the extent of measures to ensure public safety still
vary depending on operator awareness, but is in general much more limited than in both
cases mentioned above and sometimes even absent.
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Figure 3: Privately owned dam very poorly mantained – a picnic area downstream of the dam
3. OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC SAFETY AROUND DAMS AND CURRENT
SITUATION
Already before Slovenia’s declaration of independence, there were no legal provisions that
would refer only to measures for public safety around dams and many owners have relied
on other provisions and acts, such as the former Construction Act and Occupational Safety
Act and Rules on the provision of security in mobile construction sites. Today we still lack
provisions that would stipulate the requirements for the provision of measures to ensure
public safety. Although the requirements have not changed much, a look at the current
state of public safety reveals that the measures for public safety around dams in Former
Yugoslavia were conceived wider and were stringent than they are now in Slovenia.
If we give a very general overview of the measures that were intentionally or
unintentionally adopted and implemented on the dams in the past, we can say that the level
of care for public safety (although taken to protect the equipment more than to protect the
beneficiaries from injuries or damage) was higher in the Former Yugoslavia, since already
the access to the infrastructure and facilities was more restricted than nowadays. Today, as
in the past, the scope of the measures for provision of safety depends on the purpose of the
dam. The range of measures that were in some way related to the security and public safety
was understandably higher for the dams for hydropower production already in Former
Yugoslavia. The reason for this less strict approach could be found in the change of the
classification and definition of these structures, particularly the dams retaining water. The
water is defined as a public good by the Water law. That means that the infrastructure that
was once classified as the infrastructure of national importance is now considered as water
infrastructure in many cases and therefore the object of public good or the area of influence
is considered such. The decision to limit the access to the dam site and to the impact area
and restriction of activities in the areas of influence is therefore hardly made by the owner
(especially when the owner is the state itself).
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Figure 4: Restriction of the access to the mechanical equipment
On the other hand, parties such as environmentalists and fishermen, supported by the
Environment Protection Act and Nature Conservation Art, are very firm and opinionated
when setting the conditions that can also affect the operation and maintenance of the dam.
When comparing the dams built in the former country to the dams built after the
independence we can see that:
• The dams built after the independence are easier accessible and less protected
• There are less restrictions in terms of use and associated use (recreation, fishery
ect.)
• Due to unregulated property ownership, there is high interference of owners of the
land in proximity of the dam and the reservoir and in the impact area
As in the past, today the care for public safety is higher on dams for hydroelectric
production, but it is still largely based on the aspect or principle of preventing direct access
of unauthorized persons to the dam site and equipment, and not on the identification of
hazards that could lead to malfunction, damage and, finally, injuries or casualties.
Therefore associated uses of the reservoir, the recreation areas downstream of the dam or
navigation in the reservoir still remain improperly addressed – with inadequate or absent
signs, audio signals and detected (unpunished) access and without a legal basis for
objection to environmentalists conditions (e.g. the expansion of Natura 2000 sites is
underway without regard to other stakeholders).
After the accident on the Blanca dam, an attempt has been made by the Ministry of
Defence to raise the public awareness and to draw the owners and public attention to the
problem of ensuring dam safety and safe operation. As a result of the study, some
recommendations were elaborated to ensure safe operation and appropriate action in
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response to all the situation a dam may face. In addition, some proposals to improve public
safety in normal and exceptional conditions have been prepared.
Although the attempt to inform the people – both those who deal with dams on a daily
basis and those who are only occasional users – about the hazards and possible measures
resonated strongly, the awareness, particularly of general population, visitors and users still
fail to detect the hazards associated with improper use of the dams. This mainly reflects in
the setting-up of public areas (picnic places, cottages etc.) where people gather and stay
downstream of the dams, where the impacts of the operation of the facilities can be still
detected, or in sailing, swimming or navigation in close proximity to the facilities for the
evacuation of water, gates etc.
Figure 5: Children paddling upstream of the gates
As mentioned, the main problem of providing public safety is that dams retaining water
have been classified as water infrastructure and that water is defined as public good. This is
one of the main reasons why restrictions of movement in dam areas are rarely put in place.
Most dams can be easily reached from land or water and are often seen by the public as a
great place for leisure activities and recreation.
4. UTILIZATION OF EXISTING LEGAL PROVISIONS GRANTING SAFE USE
AND PUBLIC SAFETY
The legislation concerning dam safety may be scattered and loose, but there is, in fact, no
legislation addressing the problem of public safety around the dams. Despite the absence of
the legislation covering the public safety directly, we can find many provisions that can be
used as a basis for provision of public safety around dams.
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Even though it is written for employers and employees, the basis of public safety is laid
down by the Occupational Health and Safety Act which imposes the employer to provide
the necessary actions to ensure the safety of workers and other persons present in the work
process, including prevention, elimination and control of hazards at work, information and
training, with proper organization and necessary material resources.
The employer should take into account the following basic principles:
- Avoiding hazards;
- Risk assessment;
- Managing the risks at source;
- Adapting to Technical Progress;
- Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or the less dangerous;
- Developing a comprehensive security policy;
- Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures;
- Giving appropriate instructions and information to workers.
The Construction Act stipulates that each construction should meet one, several or all of
the following essential requirements in all phases of life, i.e. mechanical resistance and
stability, fire safety, hygiene and health protection, environmental protection, and safety of
use.
According to the Waters Act everyone has the duty to protect the quality and quantity of
water and reduce the environmental consequences to a minimum. The law imposes to the
owners of the infrastructure intended for hydropower production, irrigation to ensure safety
of the facility and equipment from harmful effects of water, and sets the restrictions
associated with the general use of water and water infrastructure that offer the basis for
public protection.
For the dams with the reservoirs retaining water the Act on Protection against drowning
should be considered, as well as the Rules on technical measures and requirements for the
safe operation of natural and organized pools and nevertheless the Act on natural and other
disasters protection.
The Act on Protection Against Drowning says that the owner or other person entitled to
water and waterside land or the water rights holder must ensure the conditions for the
prevention or mitigation of drowning and conditions for water rescue.
The laws mentioned above are complemented by the Penal Code (the section thirty
“Offences against the general safety of people and property deals with and section thirty
two “Offences against the environment and natural resources”), as well as the Rules on
technical measures and requirements for the safe operation of natural and organized pools
and, last but not least, the Protection Against Natural and Other Disasters Act (Regulation
on the provision of occupational health and safety at temporary or mobile construction
sites).
The listed provision set the basis for the organisation of Public Safety around dam, but on
the other hand, the Water law demands from the owner of the dam and reservoir, coastal or
other land also to permit harmless passage over the property to the water and allow the
general use of water, unless the water, coastal or other facilities are meant for the use of
water, to ensure the safety of navigation and protection against drowning in natural pools,
constructions intended for the protection of waters against pollution, and constructions
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intended for national defence, protection and rescue of people, animals and property. He
also must allow the use of coastal land for gathering, disposal of items for swimming,
diving, ice skating, sailing, etc and other activities, i.e. if with such use no damage is
caused to the owner of the waterside land. According to the law, it is not allowed to place
obstacles that would prevent free passage to or next the water.
Indeed, these stipulations make it harder to adopt and implement restrictions and measures
needed for provision of public safety. Even though the legislation stipulates that water
infrastructure may be used for other purposes, if these purposes are not in contradiction
with, or restricting, the activities for which the infrastructure was originally built – despite
the fact that the owner of the structure is given the opportunity to exclude any general use
at the site of the structure if this is necessary due to protection of human life and health – in
the case of state-owned dams for water management purposes, the state rarely resorts to
such measures.
Apart the free passage and use of the waterside for the activities of general use, the law
also allows for the construction of additional agro-forestry buildings at the waterside land
in the floor width of 15 metres from the boundaries of the land to the outer limits of coastal
land in the water policy areas outside the village and in this way expands the possibility of
improper use and access of non-authorized persons.
Figure 6: Additional use – Reservoir used for fish breeding
5. CONCLUSIONS
For a long time in Slovenia, the problem of public safety around dams had been
misunderstood and neglected. This aspect of safety was often confused with the aspect of
public protection in cases of extreme conditions or natural disasters connected with dam
break of floods. Accidents that occurred in the last years on some of the dams as well as
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the recent review of the state of the Slovene dams with water management purpose have
prompted the reflection and discussion about the responsibility for such accidents, resulting
in people and owner awareness that something should be done to increase and encourage a
broader view of the problem., but accidents.
The overview of the legal provisions shows there is no legislation addressing the problem
of public safety around the dams directly. Despite the absence of the legislation covering
this aspect of safety, we can find many provisions that can be used as a basis to ensure of
public safety around dams.
The main problem is the classification water and water courses as public good. This
definition reflects on both: the dams with water management, as well as the dams using
water (i.e. hydropower production), since the range of actions to prevent injuries and
fatalities is limited by the provisions relating to water as a public good. The other problem
is the still is still not sufficient public and owners awareness about the possible hazards that
a dam and its operation may bring along.
REFERENCES
Rajar, R, Kryžanowski, A., (1994): Self-induced opening of spillway gates on the Mavčiče
dam – Slovenia, 18th Congress on large dams ICOLD, Vol.1, Q68, Durban, South
Africa
Humar, N., Žvanut, P., Detela, I., Širca, A., Polič, M, Ravnikar - Turk, M., Kryžanowski,
A., (2013): VODPREG - state of dams for water management purpose in Slovenia,
Ministry of defence of Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia
Humar, N., Kryžanowski, A. (2012): Drtijjščica case study – restoration of the stilling
basin for improvement of hydraulic conditions, 24th Congress on large dams ICOLD,
Q94, Kyoto, Japan
Occupational Health and Safety Act – Official Gazette N°56/1999 and amendments
64/2001, 43/2011
Water act – Official Gazette N°67/2002 and amendments 57/2008, 57/2012, 100/2013
Construction Act – Official Gazette N°110/2002 and amendments 97/2003, 41/2004,
45/2004, 47/2004, 62/2004, 102/2004, 126/2007, 57/2009 108/2009, 20/2011
57/2012, 110/2013
Penalty code - Official Gaztte N°55/2008 and amendments 39/2009, 55/2009, 56/2011,
91/2011, 34/2012, 50/2012, 63/2013
Act on Protection against drowning - Official Gazette N°44/2000 and amendments,
26/2007, 42/2007, 9/2011
http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zadnji_spust_po_Savi
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MANAGEMENT AT DOWNSTREAM OF Ir. H. DJUANDA DAM
WITH PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Djuanda, H. Rachmadyanto & L. Agustini
Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation, Purwakarta, Indonesia
djuanda68@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Government Regulation No. 7/2010, about Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation (PJT II), establishes
duties and responsibilities of water resource management which advancing and aligning social,
environmental and economic functions in water resource management, organize qualified and
sufficient public water utilization for fulfilling lives of many people, including provision of surface
water for daily basic needs; irrigation water through existing systems; flood control; water
resources conservation and development of drinking water provision system and sanitation for
households.
The main problems in water resources management are the environmental issues that arise
because of interaction between economic activities and limited environmental capacity, either
because of natural influence or due to human activities itself, including reduced water quality,
flooding, inefficiency of irrigation water, etc. Community involvement is required considering these
problems arise as a result of society activities itself.
PJT II is trying to align social, environmental and economic functions in water resources
management by growing public awareness and participation in management and utilization of
available water resources in the form of Pilot Demonstration Activity (PDA). Community
empowerment that have been done among others are: community based compost production,
provision of clean water and sanitation, water management at paddy fields to improve water
delivery efficiency, and river bank management with community participation approach.
The results from these activities are improving community empowerment to preserve water
resources and assist the government in the implementation of water resource conservation, control
the destructive force of water, and increase the economic value of water resources management.
Keywords: PDA, community empowerment
1. INTRODUCTION
Government Regulation No. 7/2010 about Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation (PJT II)
establishes the duties and responsibilities of water resources management in the working
area of PJT II with advancing and aligning social, economic and environmental functions
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of water resource management, organize qualified and sufficient public water utilization
for fulfilling lives of many people, including provision of surface water for daily basic
needs; irrigation water provision for agricultural community in the existing irrigation
systems; flood control; water resources conservation and development of drinking water
provision system and sanitation for households.
The main problems in the water resources management are the environmental issues that
arise because of the interaction between economic activities and limited environmental
capacity, either because of the natural influence or due to human activities, including
decreased water quality, flooding, irrigation water use inefficiency, etc.
PJT II continues its efforts to overcome those problems emerged in existing water sources
in PJT II working area, such as quantity and quality of water, operation and maintenance of
infrastructure and services to public. Community involvement optimization is required
considering these problems arise as a result of the society activities itself.
PJT II is trying to align social, environmental and economic functions in water resources
management by growing public awareness and participation in management and utilization
of available water resources in the form of Pilot Demonstration Activity (PDA).
Implementation of PDA on community development, in the R & D fields, that has been
done by PJT II, among others : (1) source of water quality: compost production from rivers
and channels waste with community based, (2) sanitation: clean water and sanitation
provision around banks of West Tarum Canal, (3) food security: water management in
paddy fields on Jatiluhur irrigation system in order to improve the efficiency of water
distribution, and (4) disaster mitigation: Citarum river bank management with community
participation approach.
The PDA activities undertaken by PJT II plays role as to increase community
empowerment in maintaining water sources, and assist the government in water resources
conservation implementation, water damaged control, as well as increasing the economic
value of water resources management. PDA models is very useful to (1) increase public
awareness and involvement in environmental management, (2) improve the effectiveness
and efficiency in water delivery, (3) facilitate the channel maintenance, (4) as it also to
explore business potential in water resources management.
2. METHODOLOGY
Implementation of the PDA programs in of R & D field that were conducted by PJT II
always involve and empower communities as stakeholders of water resource management.
PDA implementation and community empowerment methodology of each R and D field
that have been done can be seen below.
2.1. Compost production from river and channels waste with community based
Appropriate technology such as compost, in addition to the pollution load reduction on
water bodies, it also has economic value where the revenue generated could be used as
source of fund for the activities. Compost production is done through local communities
empowerment assisted by PJT II. The compost produced will be marketed externally to the
farmers, florists, etc. or internally to PJT II to support conservation programs carried out
regularly.
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These activities will raise public awareness and participation in utilizing organic waste in
rivers, channels and agricultural into compost, will provide availability of organic
fertilizer/compost as one of the alternative fertilizer for artificial fertilizers/chemicals, as
well as exploring business potential in organic waste utilization into compost.
Basic framework of the implementation:
a. Site selection, the selected location is a location that has potential of compost base
material, local community groups as a potential manager of compost production, and
areas for compost making processes with minimum of ± 100 m2.
b. Work program socialization, conducted by PJT II on the working groups and related
agencies in the location, in collaboration with local communities, community leaders
and Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs). It contains, among others, purpose of
the activities, parties will be involved, scope and stages work, responsibilities and
contributions, including the role of the local community, and financing aspects.
c. Preliminary studies, after accepted socialization, further maturation of the work plan
conducted through initial study (preliminary study), with study outputs, among others,
are raw materials volume and its continuity, community groups that can be empowered,
involvement of local authorities/other parties, implementing organization/manager
plan, working area design, implementation guidelines/SOP, and identification of
markets and marketing mechanisms plan of fertilizer product.
d. Empowerment of communities/farmers, at the beginning of the implementation process,
community/farmers empowerment as prospective managers/implementers was
conducted with several inserts, among others, are understanding of compost
production, understanding the use of cutting machines, implementing
organizations/managers plan, understanding of marketing concepts, etc. The
empowerment mechanism is in form of on-site training by bringing instructors/resource
persons.
e. The results of compost production.
f. Compost marketing, based on the existing market potential and marketing mechanisms
that have been agreed within the corridor of PJT II regulations, such as plantation,
ornamental plant industries, residential (household), and agriculture, both direct sales
to the buyer, or through the second party (distributor/stall).
g. Monitoring and evaluation, carried out at every stage of the implementation in order to
optimize the results of the intent and purpose of the PDA's.
Compost production methodology is adapted from a book titled "Membuat Kompos"
written by H.S. Murbandono and published in 2000. It contains the basic process of
making compost, raw material selection, preparation of ingredients pile, pile temperature
and humidity monitoring, maturation, sifting, as well as packaging and storage.
2.2. Water supply and sanitation provision around banks of West Tarum Canal
(WTC)
The demolition of individual water uptake from WTC by domestic and small home
industries, through direct pipes installation into the canal (illegal water extraction) and
construction of latrines/floating toilets, should be done on some stretches of WTC, in order
to improve the quality of water resource management in the PJT II working area. This
activity was aimed to reduce illegal water extractions, which interfere the process of water
distribution in WTC, facilitate canal maintenance, growing community awareness and
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participation in managing the banks of WTC, improving people's access to clean water and
sanitation and exploring business potential in clear water supply from WTC.
The basic framework of the implementation:
a. Site selection, there are many water uptakes, at WTC, by domestic and small home
industries on individual basis through direct pipes installation into the canal (illegal
water extraction) and construction of latrines/floating toilets.
b. Work program socialization, it was conducted by the relevant unit of PJT II working
together with local village/district officers, community leaders and NGOs that exist for
mutual understanding, with substance among others are objectives of the activity,
parties that will be involved, scope and phases of work, responsibility and the
contribution of each parties, including the role of the local community, and financing
aspects.
c. Availability and water provision analysis, quantification of clean water provision was
done by analyzing the total population (number of households) around the area to be
served, with some assumptions: 1) the individual demand 100-150 liters/person/day, 2)
20 - 30% water losses, 3) the maximum operating hours of water treatment plant is 20
hours, 4) the maximum capacity of water treatment plant is 5 liters/sec for delivering
services up to 350 - 400 households. Based on the number of households that will be
served, it can be calculated the quantity of water demand.
d. Land preparation and design, land required: 1) building retrieval (intake), 2) retrieval
pipe from the intake to the water treatment plant, 3) water treatment plant construction
and distribution pipelines. Land for intake construction is determined based on field
recommendations issued by PJT II. Not subject to any financing for this the land use.
The land for pipes and water treatment plant construction is owned by local community
which was submitted for this activity based on community agreement mediated by
local village/district officers. Written documentation of the agreements made should be
pursued and can be obtained at the time of dissemination of the activities.
e. Construction, technical criteria of the intake and public toilet construction shall comply
with the detail criteria set forth in technical recommendations provided by authorized
unit in PJT II. Water measuring devices should be placed before the intake pump or
before the distribution line, to determine the amount of water taken. The intake and
sanitation constuction should be design so as not to be influenced by the existing
buildings around it and secure against the influencing technical forces.
f. Operation and maintenance, operations and maintenance mechanism (O&M) was
arranged based on mutual agreement between PJT II and the community, with the
concept of local community’s empowerment, through existing organizations such as
Koperasi, NGO and Taruna Karya.
g. Monitoring and evaluation, done periodically and in particular to the potential
problems.
2.3. Water management in paddy field on Jatiluhur Irrigation System in order to
improve efficiency of water distribution
Efficiency of water resources utilization is needed in order to improve the quality of water
resource management in the PJT II working area, by providing a model of communitybased agricultural activities with collaboration between PJT II, water users soceity
(farmers) and agricultural extension (Ministry of Agriculture). An increase in the
efficiency of water and fertilizer through technical guidance could reduce production costs.
Therefore community can be more involved in the management of irrigation infrastructure.
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The purpose of the PDA program is to 1) provide information on paddy irrigation
requirements, the effect of doses of water and fertilizer on paddy productivity in intensive
rice fields, 2) provide recommendations of water efficient irrigation techniques and
efficient fertilizer for paddy in intensive rice fields, and 3) increasing community
awareness and participation as a model of community empowerment in irrigation
management.
a. Site selection, with the criteria of lands with good-stable rice production per planting
season, based on the results in the last 5 years production (more than 5
tons/ha/planting season), lands with irrigation water use intensity is greater than 5,000
m3/planting season/ha and lands with a relatively stable embankment and watertight
condition.
b. Seed selection, rice seed that was recommended to be planted is non- hybrid varieties,
such as Ciherang, Muncul and Ketan.
c. Seedbed, was held on a special area of each farmer , including tillage, making beds and
trenches, urea fertilization, and seeding.
d. Land preparation, plowed land, then left for a week in a state of wet. After the first
plowing, the second plowing was done, then raked up into mud and flattened.
e. Planting, planting is done with treatment spacing of 25 x 25 cm, legowo system 4 and
5, the amount of seed planted 2 - 5 seeds (still the traditional systems).
f. Fertilizer, the non-organic fertilizer recommended for every area of 1 ha is 100 kg
urea, 300 kg Fonska, 125 kg SP36 and 75 kg KCL.
g. Plant maintenance, weeding is done at the age of 2 MST (one day before the first
subsequent fertilization), 28 days after planting (fast growing weeds) and ahead of
subsequent fertilization 7 MST.
h. Harvest, performed at physiologically ripe seed or plant has yellowed over 90 %. How
to harvest in general is by cutting the 20 cm part of rice from the ground and separate
the pithy full parts.
i. Monitoring and evaluation, done periodically and in particular to the potential
problems.
Criteria for the implementation of irrigation water provision:
a. Water delivery technique, disconnected irrigation techniques is an interrupted irrigation
techniques of so that inundation does not occur. Irrigation provision is given according
to crop needs with time interval determined based on the results of soil analysis and/or
based on observations of field conditions. The supply of water is based on conditions at
the time the observations were made, when Macak Rambu has occurred at the paddy
field.
b. Crop water requirements analysis, performed based on the estimated water
requirements of plants according to the FAO method. Crop water needs are reflected
through water demand deficit in the period characterized by the ratio ETR ETM < 0.80
(Balitklimat, 2009). If the ETR/ETM close to 1, means that the plants use water
effectively, which in turn will result in higher production. Conversely, when the
ETR/ETM less than 0.80 means that plants experience water shortages or water stress
and will lead to a fall in production.
c. Water provision quantification, measured during the growth of rice (ranging from land
preparation to harvesting), requires measurement tools that are relatively accurate but
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easy to operate and inexpensive in installation. A triangular (V - Notch) weir to
estimate the discharge was built at the intake gate. Observation of water level at the
weir is done on daily basis. As for calculating the additional water due to rain, rain
gauge will be installed at the demonstration plot observations.
2.4. Management of Citarum river banks with community participation approach
The decrease in the capacity of Citarum River at the downstream which is caused by
sedimentation, also caused by a variety of community activities, such as illegal
settlements, waste and perennials that grow on the banks of the river which is intended for
the drainage of flood discharge. PJT II is very interested in natural resource management,
especially in the lower reaches of the Citarum River. It is in line with the basic tasks of
PJT II, in particular watershed management, such as protection, development, and use of
water and water resources.
This activity is aiming to arrange riparian land which involving surrounding community, to
organize and restore the function of the Citarum river banks at the downstream in
accordance with the flood drainage capacity, to prevent flooding in Bekasi and Karawang
Regency which causes loss of agriculture, aquaculture, property and possible loss of life,
to increase community participation in the river banks management, to increase the
business potential on the river banks through land dues participation.
a. Site selection, through surveys and investigations carried out on the banks of the
Citarum River with abundant crops that intrude the flood discharge and on locations
where many flood discharge function changes expected.
b. Work program socialization, conducted by the authorized unit of PJT II in coordination
with local village/district officers, community leaders and existing NGOs for mutual
understanding. Substances delivered among others are objectives of the activity, the
parties involved, the scope and phases of work, responsibilities and contributions of
each party, including the participation of local communities, plans for enforcement
action at the field against squatters, crops that obstruct water flow nuisance, and
financing aspects.
c. Preliminary studies, after socialization accepted, further maturation of the work plan
done through the initial study (preliminary study) with some relust such as, the volume
of raw materials and its continuity, community groups can be empowered, involvement
of local authorities /other party, plan of implementing organization/manager, work area
design, implementation guidelines/SOP, and identification of markets and plan of
productmarketing mechanisms.
d. Preparation, logging and land clearing done in the area of the Citarum River
embankment which extensive agreed in socialization and coordination, using saws
(chain saw), axes, machetes and as well as other tools recommended by PJT II.
e. Land management, land plots pattern adapted to the existing Stewardship Permit
(SIPL) and the field is determined by considering the recommendations of PJT II, the
manufacture of land plots bounded by the size of the dike (3 x 5) meters, and the
construction of a simple irrigation system.
f. The selection of plants and planting seedlings, plant species and varieties to be planted
is done by coordinating with the Department of Agriculture and local government
plantation, cultivation and selection must consider the useful life of the plant which is
less than 3 - 4 months.
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g. Operation and maintenance, maintenance and care of plants is done by groups of
farmers, together compose guidelines for the implementation of O&M, in the
formulation of the O&M mechanism and O&M cost needed.
h. Monitoring and evaluation, done periodically and in particular to the potential
problems
3. THE RESULT
The results of the implementation of water resource management programs by engaging
and foster public awareness and participation in management and utilization of water
resources available, in the form of a PDA, that has been done by PJT II period from 2010 2011 include:
3.1. Compost production from river and channels waste with community based
a. The selected locations are Cibeet Syphon and Curug Weir.
b. The production analysis was estimated ± 5 m3/day. Cpacity analysis at early stages of
production assumed to be ± 637.5 kg/day.
c. Optimum land requires was 200 m2.
d. The estimated need for tools and materials for composting are tool counter, 0.1875
liters per day activator, bags of 13 pieces/day, 1 liter/day solar and 0.1 liters/day engine
oil.
e. Needs minimal 3 manpower to implement composting with the estimated load time is 8
hours of work per person per day.
f. Operational costs were calculated based on operating costs estimation alone and
materials supplied by PJT II. Estimated operational costs required for the composting
of Rp 231,000/day.
g. Estimated revenue of Rp 406,500 per day.
The problems that arose were improper composting, required clear goals of marketing
either directly to consumers or through cooperation with relevant agencies, man power
from the local community and authorities, must maintain continuity and cohesiveness of
work, and explained the expenditure and revenue composting with direct supervision from
PJT II.
3.2. Water supply and sanitation provision around banks of West Tarum Canal
(WTC)
a. The location selected was in B.Tb. 19.d, West Telukjambe District, Karawang
Regency.
b. The capacity is 5 liters per second. WTP in Rural Margakaya serve 100 households and
280 families are served from WTP Rural Karangmulya.
c. An area of approximately 20 m2 was donated by the community through the Village
Head for this activity.
d. The water supply system managed by the community, then Perum Jasa Tirta II in this
case acts as a provider of raw water for the drinking water provision.
The problems that arose were intention and purpose of the activity could not succesfully
delivered to the community partly due behavior of people and their understanding about
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the activity was not maximal, the intention of local community to construct their own
facilities sometimes make the yield and quality of the building was not optimal, and
society is always eager to get external funding continuously, this is not in line with the
concept of community empowerment is the mission activities.
3.3. Water management in paddy field on Jatiluhur Irrigation System in order to
improve efficienc 1 ) The location selected
a. Selected location was at B.Tt.5 East Tarum Canal, Khanewal district.
b. The study concluded that intermittent irrigation technique was providing irrigation dose
equivalent to only 67% of the dose in conventional irrigation.
c. The intermittent irrigation techniques dose was at 5118.00 m3/MT/ha.
d. The productivity was very low due to air attacks that have marred the brown plant
hopper (± 20 % of the experimental plots).
e. Statistical test results showed that the water savings that can be made through the
application of intermittent irrigation did not affect the rice production.
The problems that arose the very were climatic conditions reduced the dosage, the
topography of the land was very diverse, some rice fields were relatively very broad, does
not have a stable and impermeable, and water delivery to the field requires very good
supervision from the interpreter/analyst at a local wetland observation.
3.4. Management of Citarum river banks with community participation approach
a. Selected location was at the lower reaches of the Citarum River, the Tunggak Jati
Village, West Karawang District, Karawang Regency (in the working area Division II).
b. The coordination with the local community, the Department of Agriculture and
Plantation of Karawang District, and university students from UNSIKA.
c. Based on the soil research plants that were tested are local varieties of maize plants and
Bangkok, local varieties of soybean plants, and local varieties of peanut plants.
d. The area of plots for each crop were corn crop of 3000 m2, 2000 m2 peanuts and soy
beans of 2000 m2.
e. From pasca flooding, which occurred in March of 2010, the critical locations that have
vegetation were located on the banks of the downstream of Citarum River barriers,
namely: the right and left banks of nearby Kedung Gede Bridge at the Tanjung Pura to
Purwadana Village; right riverbank at Purwadana to Teluk Jambe village, as well as the
right banks of the Teluk Jambe village until Walahar Weir.
The problems that arose were the compensation for the crops is high, understanding and
the purpose of the activity from government officials/community leaders/NGOs involved is
less, generally are low-income people, flooding will make the plants harvest failed.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Research and development activities of water resources management with the pattern of
community development were done through pilot activities (PDAs) such as 1) to reduce
the organic solid waste in a river or channel by making compost, 2) the arrangement of
illegal water intakes and floating latrines/toilets on West Tarum Canal that contributes
pollution load and decrease the aesthetic value of raw water supply for drinking water, 3)
structuring riparian land with crop patterns as well as organize and restore function in
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accordance with the flood drainage capacity of Citarum River banks, and 4) water saving
agriculture and fertilizer through coaching techniques with coordination PJT II, farmers,
and agricultural extension (Ministry of Agriculture).
Through these PDAs, information, science and technology transfer in natural resource
management from competent actors/agencies/individuals to the community as and
stakeholders , can be done effectively and efficiently. People understood the stages of the
process, follow/engage in activities and participate to benefit from these activities.
PDA's activities can be applied to other locations to increase community empowerment in
water resources management, water resources conservation, control the destructive force of
water, and increasing economic value. Through these PDAs it were useful to increase
public awareness and involvement in environmental management, to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency in water delivery, facilitate the maintenance of the channel,
and to explore business potential in water resources management.
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ENHANCING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DAM MANAGEMENT
(PREPAIRING EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN) USING VISUAL
COMMUNICATION MEDIA CONCEPT
(Case Study : Krisak Dam, Wonogiri, Central Java, Indonesia)
Juliastuti
Civil Engineering Department, Bina Nusantara University,Jakarta, Indonesia
Juliastuti.juliastuti@gmail.com
Sari Wulandari
Visual Communication Design Department, Bina Nusantara University,Jakarta, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Dam performance degradation that also affects dam safety is related with a well-known
problem, which is change of land use both upstream and downstream, and lack of care
from the society to take care the area surrounding the dam. However, the local rules say
that society have the same right to take place in dam building and maintenance. So, we
need to have an activity that involves the society around it.
Much of the program that involves society around it has been done in DOISP (Dam
Operational and Improvement Safety Program) that have purpose to maintain the dam
itself and water catchment area and to educate the society itself so they could help in
maintaining both of them. Beside that for preparing if the dam collapse, using
information and knowledge of both profile and characteristics of a dam collapse
scenario, to know the action for preparing before the disaster, what to do at the disaster
itself, and disaster recovery efforts. Then we need to socialize to the society about this
disaster scenario using integrated information, from government to people, both in
content and method of distribution, so when the disaster itself happens, everyone already
have that awareness and preparedness, reducing disaster casualties.
For that we need to have visual communication design team to help us make the
information itself, to persuade people, give understanding, give the information, even
make signs on the field so people could identify the problem fast and exact, especially
when the disaster happens. This paper will explain one of the Emergency Action Plan
which already been done to society around Krisak Dam, that based on Dam Break
Analysis calculation they created a Emergency Action Plan guideline using visual
communication media concept.
Keywords: Emergency Action Plan, Visual Communication Design, Dam Break Analysis
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1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the Government Regulation of Indonesia number 37 of 2010 on Large Dam
(PP 37/2010) which refers to the ICOLD Regulation (International Committee on Large
Dam) : every dam required to have Emergency Action Plan (EAP). The purpose of the
EAP is to minimize the risk of loss of life and property which may be caused by dam
break which would cause flooding in downstream areas which have population higher
than upstream areas. The EAP will be socialized to every stakeholders including people
that live around dam which are potential to be victims when dam break happen.
Thus the public eventualy need to have been given by information and knowledge about
disaster that might happen, preparation in facing of disaster, the action to be taken when
disaster occurs as well as how to handle it. The information has to be socialized to the
community through an integrated and systemic information, between public and
Governments that are represented by the BPBD (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana
Daerah), both in content and ways of distributing information so that when disasters
happen all parties have vigilance and readiness.
In the socialization, Visual Communication Design play important roles in order to give
information, education, urge people in persuasive way, even make a field marker system
so that the public can identify the information easily, quickly and precisely, especially
when disasters occur.
2. THE ROLE OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN IN CREATING
INFORMATION MEDIA TO SUPPORT EAP
For EAP purpose, Visual Communication Design used information design which
presenting information in a way that fosters efficient and effective understanding of it.
The term has come to be used specifically for graphic design for displaying information
effectively, rather than just attractively or for artistic expression. Information design is
closely related to the field of data visualization and is often taught as part of graphic
design courses.
Some of Visual Communication Design convey message by graphic design. It takes
graphics because they communicatie preverbally. Viewers see and get them before they
ever read a word. In fact graphics may be all that foreign, illiterate, or even busy or
stressed viewer get, so they depend on universal images that tell the story without
words. Other viewers use their first graphic impression to make the decision.
Map is one of various forms of information design media which use graphic. In the
Information Design discussed some of the principles which include Cognitive
Principles, principles of communication, Aesthetic Principles, so the factors that can
affect successful a information design can be optimized. Information Design created to
help explain things and use language, typography, graphic design, systems and business
process improvement as a tool.
It is important to make integrated information system that involves several media that
will support each other according to their functions. A leaflet that contains a map of the
evacuation and other informations regarding anything that need to be prepared in the
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face of a disaster and what to do when a disaster occurs, will support a directional sign
which serve people to go into a safe place.
3. DESIGN CONCEPT IN MAKING VISUAL COMMUNICATION MATERIAL
FOR EAP
These are some stages to make the concept of visual communication material which will
be used to disseminate EAP:
- Bathimetry and Tachimetry survey
- Topography survey
- Hydrology analysis
- Dam Break Analysis
- Innudation map
- Social Economic survey
- EAP Draft
- Consult with stakeholder (goverment, community leaders, BPBD and others )
- Approval Draft
- Making leaflet and animation
- Dissemination
4. CASE STUDY
4.1 Krisak Dam
The Krisak Dam is located in the Singodutan Village, Wonogiri District, Central
Java Province, ± 8 km southeast of Solo. Krisak Dam is the aging dam in Indonesia
because it was built 1943. Thats why the risk of dam break is higher than the other
dam. The area of watershed Krisak dam is ± 3,46 km2. Currently the dam is managed
by the Central River Region (BBWS) Bengawan Solo and Central Water Resources
Managament (Balai PSDA) Bengawan Solo. The type of dam is homegenous earth
dam to purpose for irrigation. At downstream is a residential areas. Livelihood of the
population is primarily farming.
Figure 1. Krisak Dam Location
Technical data of Krisak dam are follows:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
General
- Location Village/District
- Regency
- Province
- Benefits
- Year of Construction
- Manager
- Catchment Area
- Annual Rainfall
Reservoir
- Flood Water Elevation
- Normal Water Elevation
- Minimum Water Elevation
- Volume Reservoir on:
- Dead Storage
- Effective Storage
Dam
- Type
- Height
- Length
- Width
- Crest Elevation
Spillway
- Type
- Flood Design (PMF)
- Elevation
- Length
Instrumentation
- Piezometer
: Singodutan
: Wonogiri
: Central Java
: Irigation 1.500 ha
: 1943
: Balai PSDA/BBWS Bengawan Solo
: 3.46 km2
: 1.900 mm
: El.+ 113,75 m
: El.+ 113,50 m, 3.72 million m3
: El.+ 102.92 m
: 1,025 million m3
: 2,692 million m3
: Homogenous Earth Dam
: 20 m
: 350 m
:5m
: El.+ 114,50 m
: Free flow Ogee
:: El.+ 113,50 m
: 33 m
: 28 Unit, hydraulic
Figure 2 Cross Section
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4.2 Existing Condition
In 1998, the elevation of crest dam is become 115.50 WSL (the original of elevation
crest dam is 114.5 WSL . Based on the hidrology study, the spillway can reduse
discharge from 136.46 m3/s to 62 m2/s. All piezometer have broken. V Notch need to
be improved and no lighting. The capacity of resevoir is to reduse from 3.72 million m3
to 2.55 million m3 because of sedimentation.
Crest Dam
Downstream
Outlet
Spillway
Figure 3. Existing Condition
4.3 Dam Break Analysis
Dam break analysis would lead to the occurrence of flash floods in the downstream area
of dam. In order to guide the preparation of Emergency Action Plan Krisak Dam, the
areas expected to be affected by flooding would be mapped.
Map of flooding Krisak collapse will be made in several possible mechanisms and
conditions of the collapse of the dam, so that it can be seen flooding the greatest impact,
which will be designated as a flood inundation map Krisak Dam.
Impacts do not occur at the same flooding from one area to another area, so the flood
map will be divided into multiple zones based on the depth of the flood hazard area. In
addition to the flooding maps will be posted information about the arrival time along the
river. Preparation of flood maps consists of three activities:
- analysis of dam collapse
- inundation maps
- evacuation route
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Some activities that should be carried out to make a guide for Preparation Emergency
Action Plan are :
- Topography and Tachimetry Analysis
- Hidrology Analysis
- Dam Break Analysis
Hidrograf Banjir Waduk Krisak(Metode Nakayasu)
160,00
140,00
QPMF, Qp = 136,46 m3/dt
120,00
Q1000, Qp = 37,18 m3/dt
Debit (m3/dt)
100,00
Q100, Qp = 31,79 m3/dt
80,00
Q25, Qp = 24,95 m3/dt
60,00
40,00
20,00
0,00
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Waktu (jam)
Figure 4 Situation Map Krisak Dam
(Based on measurement and calculation)
Figure 5 Krisak Dam Hydrograph
(Based on calculation)
The analysis of dam break is performed by a variety of alternative conditions
that can cause the collapse of the dam, while the parameters condition are:
- At the top of dam elevation (on the overtopping)
- At lower, the middle and upper dam elevation (on the piping)
Analysis of the collapse of the dam using a standard formula that is used in
Indonesia (including the metric unit used).
For calculations using a software Zhongxing-HY21.
a. Overtopping
To evaluate overtopping, the modelling based on reservoir routing dam.
Reservoir routing of Dam Krisak based on the PMF Q = 136.46 m3/sec.
b. Piping
To evaluate piping, the modelling consist 2 (two) conditions, i.e normal
condition and the PMF conditions. In each of these conditions, will be analyzed
at three (3) approximate locations piping : at the bottom of the dam, middle and
the upper of the dam.
c. Result
As has been explained that the analysis of the collapse of the Krisak Dam
reviewed based on overtopping for PMF condition, and piping, which under
normal condition and the PMF condition.
From the analysis using software Zhongxing-HY21, known maximum flood
height due to collapse of the Krisak dam along the downstream dam for PMF,
both due to overtopping and piping is 3.50 m. This results ( for two conditions)
are not much different, only the collapse models are different. As for the piping ,
the maximum flood height due to collapse of the Krisak Dam along the
downstream dam is 2.10 m.
The result of overtopping calculation results can be seen in the figure below:
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3 hour
2 hour
7 hour
5 hour
15 hour
10 hour
Figure 6 Dam Break due to Overtopping
Figure 7. Inundation Map due to
Overtopping (Arrival)
Figure 8. Inundation Map due to Overtopping
(Receding)
Based on dam break analysis and social survey , the risk areas of flooding
covering 4 villages : Singodutan, Kaliancar, Gemantar and Jaten which time of
arrival, recending time, distance and risk population can be see at Table 1.
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Table 1. The Risk Area of Flooding
4.4 Evacuation Route
To determine the evacuation route is based on the inundation map of dam break, where
the determination of the path is based on capacity, distance, elevation , transportation
and social-economic survey (see table 2 and Fig. 9).
Table 2. Evacuation Location
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Figure 9. Evacuation Route
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5.
COMMUNICATION VISUAL CONCEPT FOR DISSEMINATION EAP
GUIDE
In order to socialize the EAP to the community, they certainly needs to know in advance
the situation and conditions of the environment where they live. They understand the
importance of EAP, what is important to prepare, and not lose the orientation when the
disaster occurred.
Therefore need to make a communication media that can convey that information to the
public. One of the popular media used by the society is leaflet. It can keep information for
long time and can be read back anytime, anywhere and easily to produced. It is important
to note that to visualize the information on the leaflet should be done properly by arrange
the layout hierarchical so reader can get the point easily, especially when emergency case
occur. Some group of information with bold or big typography used to make emphasis and
eye-catcher.
In this leaflet contained some information that is important to note in the EAP
communication material:
Cover:
- Title and mandatories
- profile of EAP
- equipments need to be prepared
- what people have to do
- who to call in case of emergency
Inside:
- a map of the location and evacuation routes
- location outside to evacuate
- evacuation process
HUBUNGI !
Kesbangpol dan Linmas
Kab.Wonogiri
Telp : 0273-325373
Balai PSDA Bengawan Solo
Telp: 0271-825361
Figure 10. Visual Communication Design for EAP in Leaflet (cover)
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Jalur evakuasi desa : Brajan
Lokasi pengungsian : Terminal Adipura
Jarak
: 0,5 km
Jalur evakuasi desa : Singodutan
Lokasi pengungsian : Balai Dusun
Sanggrahan
Jarak
:
0,5 km
Jalur evakuasi desa : Gempeng
Lokasi pengungsian : Balai Gempeng
Jarak
: 0,5 km
Jalur evakuasi desa : Tenongan-Gunan
Lokasi pengungsian : Masjid Nurul Fikri
Jarak
: 1 km
Figure 11. Visual Communication Design for EAP in Leaflet (inside)
In addition to leaflet, can be used audio-visual electronic media for media integration
besides leaflet for dissemination the information. Through this medium cold use sound and
motion picture in text an infographic so that the information presented could more
memorable. This audio visual media can be aired on local television or played on public
screen at village halls.
6.
CONCLUTION
In order to conveying information about disaster alert to the people, need to get
accurate data for everything telated to evacuation such as :
1. The system and procedure for prepare and execution
2. People need to be given information as clear as possible and easy to remember
that when disaster occurred people can taking action directly, quickly and
properly.
With involvement in a social campaign for disaster preparedness by Visual
Communication Design, all of these information are expected to be conveyed in an
integrated, effective and efficient communication through infographic visualization
on leaflets, video and signage.
7.
REFFERENCES
-
Mollerup, Per, (2005) Wayshowing: A guide to environmental Signage Principles &
Practices, Baden: Lars Muller Publishers,.
-
O'Grady, Jenn, Ken Visocky, (2008) The Information Design Handbook, Mies,
Switzerland : Rotovision.
-
Samara, Timothy. (2005). Publication Design Workbook. Beverly: Rockport Publishers.
-
Knight, Carolyn. (2003). Layout: Making It Fit. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers Inc.
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Landslide Prevention
On Reservoir of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower
Based on Community Development
Buchari Zainal Arifin & Nurmala Fauzia
PT PLN (Persero) Unit Induk Pembangunan VI, Bandung, Indonesia
Buchari.zainal@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT:
Indonesia, as one of the developing countries, in the process of growing, hence needs huge amount
of electrical energy supply. Specifically for the Java-Bali region, the peak load in 2012 reached
21.237.000 MW, an increasing of 7.59%. In order to meet the electricity needs during peak hours,
PT PLN (Persero) is building Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower 4x260MW. This power
plant is the first pump system in Indonesia. The working principle is storing energy in the form of
water pumped from the lower reservoir into the upper reservoir during off-peak load and at high
electrical demand (peak load), the water released from the upper reservoir into the lower reservoir
to generate electricity. It will always change the reservoir water level fluctuations at 19,5 meters in
6,5 hours. Changes in water level fluctuations can rapidly influence reservoir slope stability,
thereby potentially having catastrophic landslide.
Examination of the reservoir slopes through investigations Light Detection and Ranging(LIDAR)
Map, Study of Watershed Management Plan, Previous Reports, and the physical properties of
geological parameters. Based on these data, further modeling is conducted using the program
Slope / W, it was found that there is potential land slide due to the low safety factor.
Through this research, it can be seen the influence of the pumped storage operating system on the
reservoir slopes. Prevention of lanslide is done by involving the community through disaster
prevention, emergency response, rehabilitation, etc. Thus, the slopes of which may potentially
collapse can be done early treatment, so the slopes are out of landslide danger and no fatalities
when the upper cisokan pumped storage hydropower operating.
Keywords: Pumped Storage System, Water level fluctuations, Safety Factor, Slope Stability,
Community Development
1. INTRODUCTION
Hardiyatmo (2006) states that the mass movement of soil or often called a landslide is one
of the natural disasters that frequently hit the hills in the wet tropics. This mass movement
is the process of establishing equilibrium in the world caused by a variety of factors, both
natural factors and human factors. Cruden (1991, in Deasy, 2010) briefly explain that the
landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris or soil material down the slope.
1
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Terzaghi cause avalanches divide into two, namely:
1. External effect: the effect of shear forces resulting in increased without any change
in the shear strength of the soil. For example: sharpen the slope of the cliff,
deepening the excavation and erosion of the river;
2. Internal effect: increasing the influence of pore water pressure in the slope.
According to Terzaghi, which became one of the causes landslide is the increasing
influence of pore water pressure in the slope (Hardiyatmo, 1992). Lower water levels
suddenly (rapid drawdown) resulted in the addition of loads by heavy layers previously
submerged land becomes submerged.
Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower is a power plant with the first pump system
in Indonesia. With the principle works, it will always be a change of reservoir water level
fluctuations, both at the upper reservoir and lower reservoir. Changes in water level
fluctuations that can rapidly affect the stability of slopes around the reservoir.
2. GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower will be located in the Cisokan River which
has a mountainous topography with altitude ranging from 700 m to 1000 m. As one of the
tributaries of the Citarum River, Cisokan River comes from Sukanegara and meandering in
a deep gorges. Strata of geological formations including Oligosen (Rajamandala
Formation), Miocene (Citarum Formation), Pliosen (Pb Formation), as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Geological map in Area of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower
3. LAND USE CONDITION
Interpretation of satellite imagery results produce land use maps of 7 classes of land use,
such as: forest, garden / farm, residence, rice, bush / scrub, moor / farms and water bodies,
as can be seen in Table.1 and Figure 2.
2
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Table 1. Land Use Condition
No.
Land Use
1
Forest
2
3
4
5
6
7
Garden/ Farm
Residence
Rice
Bush/ Scrub
Moor/ Farm
Water Bodies
Total
Wide (Ha)
14.915
Percentages
39,85%
5.993
1.283
6.121
5.855
3.034
241
37.441
16,01%
3,43%
16,36%
15,65%
8,11%
0,59%
100%
Moor/farm Water bodies
1%
8%
Bush/Scrub
16%
Forest
40%
Rice
16%
Residence
3%
Garden/ Farm
16%
Figure 2. Land use satellite imagery interpretation
3. LANDSLIDE AVALANCHE
The selection of areas which may experience sliding slope under the influence of the upper
reservoir water level fluctuations are determined for the slopes (7 pieces area) which
located around the area of the Upper Reservoir based on sliding trail has gone before, as
shown in Figure 3. The slope piece then modeled using program Slope / W to determine
the stability of the slope on the pieces. As each piece in each area shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Traces of previous avalanches
3
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4. SLOPE MODELLING USING SLOPE/W
Slope stability analysis was conducted using slices ( Slice Method) with a field of circular
sliding through the program Slope / W analysis of the slope stability due to the change of
water level fluctuations in the upper reservoir modeling performed with several conditions
, among others : First , Low Water Level ( LWL ) the height of the water surface elevation
of 777.5 above sea level. Secondly , the High Water Level ( HWL ) with a height of water
level of 796.5 above sea level. Third , Full Water Level ( FWL ) the height of the water
surface elevation of 799.5 above sea level. In this condition that the modeled water surface
elevation exceeds the elevation of HWL due to very high rainfall and ground water level
equal to the height of the soil surface . Fourth , Low Water Level ' ( LWL ' ) which is the
current state of the model has undergone rapid drawdown of the initial height above sea
level of 796.5 and the final height of 777.5 above sea level.
The physical properties of geological input parameters include: unit weight , cohesion and
friction angle . The physical properties of each geological layer on slopes that were
analyzed are described in Table 2.
Table 2. Physical properties of geology
Rock Class
CL
Unit Weight (kN/m³)
25
Cohesion (MPa)
0.5
Friction Angle (degree)
38
D
23
0.1
36
Top Soil
15.64 ~ 16.30
17 ~ 18
28.5 ~ 30.1
Figure 4. Map of Potential Sliding Area
4
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4. RESULT OF SLOPE MODELLING
The results of the calculation of slope stability analysis using program Slope / W which
covers the area around the Upper Reservoir experienced a catastrophic landslide potential
are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. The Value of Safety Factor Base on Slope
AREA DAN POTONGAN
FAKTOR AMAN PADA SETIAP KONDISI MUKA AIR
LWL
HWL
FWL
LWL'
1-1'
4.00
1.84
1.74
0.75
AREA A
2-2'
3.18
3.31
1.79
1-1'
2.15
2.08
2.09
1.49
AREA B
2-2'
2.80
2.79
2.79
1.68
1-1'
1.82
2.59
2.72
1.67
AREA C
2-2'
0.74
2.55
2.54
1.68
3-3'
1.60
3.42
3.41
2.10
4-4'
1.26
5.85
5.79
3.53
1-1'
7.01
1.30
1.42
0.35
AREA D
2-2'
2.21
3.77
2.68
1-1'
1.05
2.02
1.95
1.41
AREA E
1-1'
10.44
2.74
3.23
1.30
AREA F
2-2'
4.92
2.45
2.48
1.28
1-1'
3.01
1.99
2.06
1.26
AREA G
2-2'
0.96
1.63
1.64
0.99
5. LANDSLIDE PREVENTION BASED ON COMMUNTY DEVELOPMENT
One way to prevent the occurrence of landslides is to empower the community . This
method provides the opportunity for the public to participate directly in the avalanche
prevention programs .
The detailed stages of the process of empowerment is through the facility to :
1 . Policing needs and participatory problem analysis
2 . Formulation of alternatives and the selection of actions based on priorities
3 . Action plans ( activities , outcomes , ukutan success , time , person in charge , location
and cost )
4 . Developing the capacity and capability of community groups
5 . Implementation of action plan
6 . Cooperation and information networks as well as access to venture capital
7 .Strengthening community institutions to study and determine the water resource
management decisions are made and action plans
8 . Periodic monitoring and evaluation of participatory
9 . Independent
Community empowerment assumes and believes that people have the ability to solve their
own problems through certain facilities by other parties . That means there must be mutual
5
I - 186
trust between the companion and the accompanying ( departments, agencies , NGOs ,
companies , etc. ) who do empowerment
Build participation is determined by the type of participation that will be realized . Some
types of participation reflects the different degrees of involvement , such as :
1 . Manipulative and decorative
2 . Passive
3 . Provide information and consultation
4 . Material incentives
5 . Functional
6 . Interactive participation
7 .Self Mobilization
FORUM SADAR BENCANA
PROVINCE
ADMINISTRATION
COMPANY (BUMN)
COMDEV
DONOR AGENCIES
DISTRICT
ADMINISTRATION
HIGHER EDUCATION
DISTRICT
ADMINISTRATION
VILLAGE
Figure 5. Flowchart of stakeholder participation on PLTA Cisokan
6. CONCLUSION
Some of the conclusions obtained from the results of the study are as follows:
1. Based on observations, it is known that the reservoir area Upper Cisokan Pumped
Storage Hydropower potential is experiencing catastrophic landslide in Upper Reservoir
area, it is marked with a landslide scars that are found in the area;
6
I - 187
2. Modeling using program Slope / W to get that on the slopes (7 pieces area) around the
upper reservoir was found as a result of fluctuations in the potential sliding the upper
reservoir when the water level of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower
operational, namely: Area A (piece 1-1 '), area C (pieces 2-2 '), area D (pieces 1-1'), area
E (pieces 1-1 ') and area G (pieces 2-2');
3. In general, potential landslide dominated when the reservoir water level decline (rapid
drawdown) at the level of a LWL 'than when impounding at an altitude of LWL
4. landslide prevention through community development programs proven to be effective
in order to prevent a sustainable basis. besides it along with environmental protection,
stakeholders can also empower the local community progress.
REFERENCES
Ambarsari, Deasy, 2010, Evaluasi dan Analisis Stabilitas Lereng Di Desa Tenglik
Kecamatan Tawangmangu Karanganyar Jawa Tengah, Jurusan Teknik Sipil dan
Lingkungan FT UGM, Yogyakarta.
Anonim, 2004, Geostudio Tutorials, Geo-slope International Ltd, Alberta, Canada
Bowles, Joseph E., 1984, Sifat-Sifat Fisis Dan Geoteknis Tanah (Mekanika Tanah), Edisi
2, Erlangga, Jakarta.
Hardiyatmo, H.C., 2006, Penanganan Tanah Longsor dan Erosi, Edisi Ke-4, Gadjah Mada
University Press, Yogyakarta.
Karnawati, D., 2005, Bencana Alam dan Gerakan Massa Tanah di Indonesia dan
Upaya Penanggulangannya, Jurusan Teknik Geologi FT.UGM,Yogyakarta.
PT PLN (Persero), Suplementary Study of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric
Power Plant Project, Newjec.
United States Geological Survey, 2011, Lanslide Types and Processes,
www.pubs.usgs.gov.
PT PLN (Persero), Preliminary Geotechnical Baseline Report of Upper Cisokan Pumped
Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant Project,Sinotech JV.
PT PLN (Persero), Laporan Studi Pengelolaan Daerah Aliran Sungai Cisokan Hulu untuk
Menunjang PLTA Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage ,Geotrav Bhuana Survey.Author
7
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Strategies of public awareness on dams and reservoirs
J. Polimón
Spanish National Committee on Large Dams (SPANCOLD), Spain
presidente@spancold.es
ABSTRACT:
Public awareness relating to dams and reservoirs has become one of the main concerns of
professionals and therefore of ICOLD and National Committees.
The evolution of society in this subject has gone from a clear support to the construction of large
dams to provide water needed for life and human and social development, to a contrary position.
Especially in countries with a high level in the development of their water resources, this allows
them to think that these needs are already resolved.
This approach has two serious drawbacks: 1) in many countries water is needed to have a
reasonable standard of living and to alleviate the effects of arid climates and droughts, and 2) the
expected effects of climate change make it clear that we need to adapt the strategy in water
management to a new scenarios, even in developed countries, as seen in the flooding of large areas
of Europe and America in the years 2012 and 2013.
.
Given these new situations ICOLD, through its Department of Communication and its Committee
on Public Awareness and Education (COPAE), is developing a comprehensive information strategy
to provide the public with objective data on the benefits of dams, reservoirs and regulating rivers.
This strategy is being implemented in some countries by their National Committees. A good
example of these new activities is the SPANCOLD mirror Committee of COPAE, named CIPE,
which has a composition in which, besides engineers (some with extensive experience in
communication), there are journalists, environmentalists, historians, geographers and other
professionals with experience in communication.
The strategy implemented by SPANCOLD and its special features are given in this paper.
Keywords: public awareness, benefits of dams, communication with media
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INTRODUCTION
Public awareness relating to dams and reservoirs has become one of the main concerns of
professionals and therefore of ICOLD and National Committees.
The evolution of society in this subject has gone from a clear support to the construction of
large dams to provide water needed for life and human and social development, to a
contrary position. Especially in countries with a high level in the development of their
water resources, this allows them to think that these needs are already resolved.
This approach has two serious drawbacks: 1) in many countries water is needed to have a
reasonable standard of living and to alleviate the effects of arid climates and droughts, and
2) the expected effects of climate change make it clear that we need to adapt the strategy in
water management to a new scenarios, even in developed countries, as seen in the flooding
of large areas of Europe and America in the years 2012 and 2013.
Given these new situations ICOLD, through its Department of Communication and its
Committee on Public Awareness and Education (COPAE), is developing a comprehensive
information strategy to provide the public with objective data on the benefits of dams,
reservoirs and regulating rivers.
This strategy is being implemented in some countries by their National Committees. A good
example of these new activities is the SPANCOLD mirror Committee of COPAE, named CIPE,
which has a composition in which, besides engineers (some with extensive experience in
communication), there are journalists, environmentalists, historians, geographers and other
professionals with experience in communication.
The communication strategy is divided into a set of strategies that should cover the
following aspects: direct and clear information to the public, information through the
media, dissemination of positive news about the dams and reservoirs, collection and
dissemination of historical data, frequent relationship with the media (to be always
available to answer their questions or doubts) and to support the media giving them
accurate information to help them to present it in the right way (verbal notes, figures,
graphics, photos, videos, documentaries, etc..) depending on the medium to be used (press,
radio, TV, case reports, monographs, etc.).
Then, these strategies are described below.
LESSONS LEARNED IN COMMUNICATING TO SOCIETY 2.0
Some years ago, the communication to the public was given only by the traditional media
mentioned above. Today´s society called 2.0 has new available communication tools
(blogs, social networks, etc.) and we have to use them to communicate the benefits of dams
and reservoirs. These new tools allow direct dialogue with the receptors of content, but this
may be a double – edged sword. See Figure 1.
On the one hand provides the following benefits:
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⎯ Allows you to answer and debate with opponents of the dams, which in most cases
(made based on personal experience) do not know really how dams work, how a
flood can be managed or that dams have a monitoring system.
Figure 1. Society 2.0. Media available.
⎯ Allow virally spread content. A post on a topic that appeals to the public can
become a viral phenomenon and reach millions of users.
⎯ SPANCOLD experience shows that when you explain face to face the operation of
a dam and existing security tools to a person unaware of these issues, it is often
possible to convince them. This is much more difficult but even sometimes people
laden with prejudices against dams may accept some positive arguments.
The counterpart of these advantages can be summarized in the following:
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⎯ Opponents of the dams very commonly used a counterexample as strategy to
discredit dams. If a thousand large dams that have worked perfectly ( regulating
floods , increasing the security of supplies and irrigation , generating hydroelectric
power, etc. . ) but if a dam has generated a problem, is sure they speak only about
that dam, ignoring the great services that other dams have rendered to society.
⎯ Another problem in communicating the benefits of dams is the demagoguery that is
determined by the use of malicious slogans, by the opponents of the dams, that
easily captures the public opinion. Against that, the explanation of the benefits of
dams is often filled with technical nuances that are hard to convert into easily
assimilated slogans to make them have a high circulation.
⎯ Finally, dams have become more a part of the political confrontation, so that
sometimes the politicians use their benefits or their problems as part of their
political message in search of votes.
The lessons learned from these experiences, and we consider them very useful to
communicate the benefits of dams, are:
⎯ It is necessary to value the importance of reservoirs for the society in the media. In
Spain of the information given in the newspaper is the volume stored by the dams ,
which fortunately is an indicator of the concern that society has for existing water
reserves . Apart from this interesting fact, that does not happen in almost any other
country, other strategies to add value to the reservoirs can be the following two:
• Publishing Media press releases by the agencies responsible for the
operation of a reservoir whenever the use of a reservoir reported a benefit to
society.
• Publishing directly in social networks, like Twitter, using short and very
clear (impacting) messages.
For instance, the following messages may be used by both media: traditional and social
networks:
• Every time a reservoir (or set of reservoirs) regulates a flood. In this case
there is the possibility of using slogans and catchy phrases for the public such
as:
• "The reservoir received water entries higher than 2,000 m3/s,
maintaining at all times an outlet lower than 200 m3/s, avoiding major
damage downstream.
• "The large amount of incoming water in the reservoir was controlled
at all times and the simultaneous use of several dams allowed to store all
the water."
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• "Despite the severe weather drought, the water impounded will
ensure irrigation season."
• "The abundant reserves in reservoir XXX this year are recharging
the aquifer YYY" .
• The existence and location of reservoirs to hold top-level sporting or
popular events.
• World championship triathlon in a reservoir allows press releases
such as "The XXXX reservoir hosts world championship triathlon";
"over a thousand athletes participated in the event" "an economic impact
of XXX million Euros are expected" Obviously if there was no dam
could not do the championship, and this represents a generation of
economic benefits to be transmitted to the community surrounding the
reservoir.
• Even can be used for other popular events well known by the public.
For example, in Asturias (Spain) the first weekend of August there is an
international canoe race attracting a lot of tourist coming to " The Sella
River race". When there are drought the upstream water reservoirs of the
stretch where the event takes place increase the flow during the race and
it is held successfully.
STRATEGIES TO MEDIA
As for the press and media, SPANCOLD has decided to launch, through its Spanish
Committee on Public Awareness (named CIPE in Spanish) the following activities to
convey to the public the benefits , the usefulness and necessity of the construction of dams
and the maintenance and conservation of existing dams and reservoirs .
First, CIPE has conducted an approach to specialized journalist working in issues of public
infrastructures and environment both major national agencies (EFE, Europa Press, Colpisa,
Servimedia ) and in the major national newspapers (El País, El Mundo, ABC, La Razón).
CIPE is also approaching to specialized journalists working in financial newspapers
(Expansión, Cinco Días, El Economista), or in large regional media (Vanguardia, El
Periódico, Voz de Galicia, El Correo, ... ) , as well as radios, TVs and larger audience
digital media.
Once identified these journalists CIPE has developed a list that, besides these journalists, it
has been included the main columnists, radio commentators and TVs and other leading
opinion makers.
Every 15 days, it is sent via email to this list of journalists a comprehensive summary of
the most important news related to dams and a series of articles on topics related to dams.
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This email consists of headlines and summaries, on which interested journalists can click
for the full news or article.
News relating to matters such as new construction projects of dams, maintenance and
repair, technical improvements, operation of early warning systems (SAIH), contribution
of dams and reservoirs in flood prevention, irrigation, power generation, recreation,
fishing, water sports, etc.
This summary includes headlines and also a short summary of various articles written by
members of CIPE about history and culture related to the dams (Roman dams in Spain,
dams of particular cultural or technological value,...).
SPANCOLD is considering to held annually a breakfast briefing with the media in which
an annual report on all activity related to dams in the relevant year will be presented . The
contents of this report will also be used for publication in subsequent press releases that
will be dosed properly for a period of one or two months to keep the attention of the media.
The report will be also distributed to SPANCOLD members and will serve as a working
document but also giving prestige to the sector. The report will be presented to the media,
and also to the sector at a side event.
Periodically, it will be organized “one to one” meetings to present the world of dams and
reservoirs to the journalists who figure in the list of media. The objective is to become a
reference on dams, prescriber and source of opinion and information for the media at the
time of writing or making articles, reports or add additional information when related to
the world of dam’s news.
SPANCOLD, through its CIPE experts will develop an agenda to be sent to the media with
the names and contact addresses of the members of CIPE. These experts will be ranked
according to their specialties, their academic records and outstanding professionals.
Through this agenda, it will be possible to strengthen the contact with the media and to
facilitate the work of journalists. Thus, they will have within their reach in newsrooms a
tool that allows them to find information sources for reports, news or monographs.
Another foreseen action that will perform to help spread among the general public the
benefits and advantages of dams and reservoirs for the society is the call for a journalism
awards for the best information on dams.
These annual awards, would have a cash prize not too high but that makes them
interesting, where there is a winner and several accesits, and can be established for
different categories, such as newspaper articles, radio or TV reports.
With these awards it would be possible to encourage journalists to publish articles and
make programs and reports glossing benefits of dams and reservoirs, as well as increase
the level of awareness of the work on dams by the media.
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Both the presentation of the awards as the ceremony will be also utilized to turn them into
events that convene every journalist in the water and energy sector, and where they can
meet with policymakers, with officials from the sector: administration, water supply,
hydropower, engineering, construction, maintenance of dams and reservoir management,
with the assistance of engineers and technicians in the field of dams.
Finally, SPANCOLD will contact Network Television to explore the possibility that these
chains produce and broadcast documentaries on construction and operation of dams, flood
management by watershed, functioning SAIH in periods of heavy rainfall , new
techniques to repair dams, developed by Spanish companies, etc.
CONCLUSSION
Social networks ironically very used against technological advances and in particular
against dams and reservoirs, are a powerful tool that our sector have to use to transmit
directly to the public the benefits of dams.
For this purpose, a short message spread virally is much more effective than any technical
report full of good details that neither the public nor the media can understand.
At the same time, it is our duty to help the media and to prepare good and easy to
understand information to support them in the correct transmission of the benefits of dams
and reservoirs to the public.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express his gratitude to the members of CIPE (Spanish Committee on
Public Awareness and Education) and also acknowledges the special contributions made
by engineers E. Echeverría and P. Sánchez-Ortega, and journalist D. Jalón.
REFERENCES
ICOLD COPAE (Committee On Public Awareness and Education) Meetings Minutes,
Kyoto 2012 and Seattle 2013.
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Multi-Criteria Studies for the Sustainable Management of Excavation Waste
from three major Pumped Storage Power Plant Projects in Spain.
V. Mendiola, M.E. Polanco & A. Zamora
Gas Natural Fenosa engineering
vmendiola@gasnatural.com
ABSTRACT:
In order to meet the challenge of integrating renewable energy into an efficient and flexible
electricity market, Gas Natural Fenosa is developing three major Pumped Storage Power Plant
(PSP´s) Projects in Galicia (North-western Spain): PSP Belesar III with 212 MW, PSP SalasConchas with 371 MW and PSP Edrada with 763 MW. For the design of the three aforementioned
projects, Gas Natural Fenosa has been reviewing the state of the art of technology and has
included sustainability and security criteria.
The necessary construction work to build these new projects will involve the execution of
approximately 22 km of tunnels as well as several shafts and caverns. These actions will generate a
significant volume of excess excavation material of around 3,600,000 m3 for which a final deposit
will need to be found if its re-use as a raw material is not possible.
Both the high volume of material to be managed as well as the complex orography and social
dispersion in the territory in addition to the significant natural, sociocultural and landscape wealth
of the area around the three sites have made it necessary to conduct an extensive study of
alternatives to define the most appropriate locations for the deposit of these materials and the final
distribution as well as the rehabilitation projects associated with each one.
Thus, the result aims to not only take into account traditional technical and economic criteria such
as the proximity to the extraction points, morphology and capacity of the final deposits, etc. but
also other factors such as landscape integration, biodiversity projection and the minimisation of
disturbances to the resident population and heritage-related elements.
Keywords: Hydroelectric, sustainability, excavation materials, mine waste management
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydroelectric energy has had different roles throughout the history of Spanish electricity
generation.
In the first third of the 20th century, Spain was an eminently hydroelectric power producer.
With the passing of time, hydroelectric energy made room for co-existence with different
energy sources which were on the rise.
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In the 21st century, Spain faced a new challenge: the integration of different renewable
energy sources which have significantly increased as far as their participation in the
Generation System, especially wind energy which is non-manageable. This new context
includes, among other elements:



a very diversified generation “mix” with non-manageable energies
very demanding greenhouse gas reduction objectives
and the highest environmental quality standards
.
Hydroelectric energy can introduce a stabilizing and organization function to the system
with one of the already contrasted technology: “Pumped Storage Power Plants”.
Thus a new generation of large power hydroelectric projects is developed which will be
implemented in parallel to the new wind energy projects, with the technical and
environmental optimisation of the already existing infrastructures as the main design
criteria.
In this context, Gas Natural Fenosa has three major pumped storage power plant projects
underway in north-western Spain: Belesar III PSP with 210 MW (Fig.1), Salas-Conchas
PSP with 380 MW (Fig.2) and Edrada PSP with 770 MW (Fig.3).
The main characteristics of these power plants are shown in Table 1.
Situation
Table 1. Characteristics of the GNF PSPs in Spain
Belesar III PSP
Salas-Conchas PSP
Miño River
Salas and Limia rivers
Upper Reservoir
Lower Reservoir
Flow rate (m3/s)
Turbine mode
Pumping mode
Max turbine output power (MW)
Tunnel length (km)
Power plant type
Belesar
Peares
Salas
Conchas
Edrada PSP
Mao and Sil
rivers
Edrada
San Esteban
180
167
210
4
Cavern
150
124
380
10
Cavern
150
115
770
8
Cavern
The underground work necessary to build these new projects will generate a significant
volume of excess material for which a final deposit will be needed if it cannot be re-used
as raw material.
This article outlines all of the criteria that have been considered when selecting the
different areas, as well as the preventive and corrective measures proposed, so the new
generation of Gas Natural Fenosa hydroelectric projects in Spain provide an example of
sustainable technological development.
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Figure 1. General isometric sketch and characteristics of the Belesar III PSP Project
Figure 2. General layout and characteristics of the Salas-Conchas PSP Project
Figure 3. General isometric sketch and characteristics of the Edrada PSP Project
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2. ISSUE
The works necessary to build these new projects involve the execution of approximately 22
km of tunnels (between permanent hydraulic or access tunnels, and auxiliary tunnels for
the construction phase), in addition to several shafts and caverns. These actions will
generate a significant volume of excess excavation material of around 3,600,000 m3 (Table
2) for which a final deposit will be needed. The bulking factor considered to estimate the
final volume needed was 1.6.
Situation
Excavation material
volume (m3)
Table 2. Excavation material volume
Belesar III PSP
Salas-Conchas PSP
Lugo
Orense
608,000
1,880,000
Edrada PSP
Orense
1,100,000
The high standards required in order for the projects to be considered Environmentally
Feasible, such as those outlined and the Gas Natural Fenosa corporate policy, have meant
that environmental and socio-cultural criteria must be taken into consideration along with
the traditional technical and economic criteria during the design and selection of
alternatives phase for these deposit areas (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Limiting environmental and socio-cultural factors for the selection of alternatives.
3. STUDIES DEVELOPED
Both the high volume of material to be managed as well as the complex orography and
social dispersion seen in the territory, added to the important natural, socio-cultural and
landscape wealth of the environment at the three sites, have made it necessary to conduct a
broad study of alternatives to select the most appropriate areas to deposit these materials,
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and decide upon the final conformation as well as the restoration projects associated to
each one of them.
An exhaustive analysis and selection work plan has been followed to conduct the specific
studies of deposit area alternatives for the materials, including the following phases:
1. Phase I: Identification of potential material deposit areas.
Firstly, the volume of material to be deposited was analysed and a preliminary territory
study was conducted to identify the population centres and the presence of natural spaces
as environmental conditioning factors.
Later, the corresponding field work was done for in situ reconnaissance of the territory and
to verify the environmental conditioning factors identified.
Based on the results obtained from these preliminary studies, a first proposal of areas that
could potentially hold the materials from the excavation of these sites was made.
2. Phase II: Selection of material deposit areas.
The following limiting environmental and socio-cultural conditioning factors were
considered in order to estimate the feasibility or exclusion of the different areas identified
in the prior phase (Fig. 5):
 The material deposit areas will be situated as close as possible to the worksite, so as to
reduce the haulage distance from the extraction point to the deposit point as much as
possible.
 To the extent possible, the accesses to these surface areas will be already existing roads
that are feasible for use by lorries, with the aperture of a new one only proposed if
essential, and as long as the environmental feasibility is guaranteed.
 Crossing villages while transferring the materials will be avoided to the extent possible,
meaning the accesses to the surfaces selected from the excavation area are to be outside
said villages.
 No protected areas or unique natural assets of high ecological interest will be affected.
 No historical or archaeological heritage elements will be affected.
 The possible landscape impacts that may be considered severe or critical will lead to the
rejection of the enclave. This impact rating is understood to be after any landscape
integration measures are applied.
 The morphological conformation of the deposit area will be respected, avoiding any
surfaces with strong slopes which could compromise the stability or where the
stabilisation measures would be complicated and very costly, as long as there are other
more reasonable alternatives.
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NON-FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVE
FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVE
.
Figure 5. Result of the study to choose the material deposit areas for the Salas-Conchas PSP which
considers environmental, social and archaeological aspects.
The ideal situation would be to be able to find degraded areas (old quarries, mainly) near
the worksite which could hold the excavation volume or a good portion of it, and later
backfill it and complete the landscape integration. This would meet a dual objective,
situating a significant volume of material in an area already affected by prior activity, and
recovering said space in the environment. One example of this is the old Belesar dam
quarry, which will be restored with materials from the Belesar III PSP underground works
to recover the landscape by integrating it into the environment.
Below is an example of the results obtained to identify the material deposit areas for the
Salas-Conchas PSP (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. Salas-Conchas PSP deposit area selection criteria.
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3. Phase III: Landscape integration.
With an aim to reduce the impact on the landscape in the deposit areas selected, a
series of measures is proposed for its integration and restoration.
These measures have been established individually for each specific surface, in
accordance with the different environmental characteristics and their locations.
Firstly, the deposit surfaces have been sized considering the slope and land
topography, on the one hand, and the material height limits on the other. Thus, the aim
is to achieve topographic integration into the environment so the visibility is as low as
possible.
Later, and in order to achieve total environmental integration, the accumulations
formed will be re-planted with native and easily-rooted plant species.
Below is an example of the landscape integration in a deposit area (Fig. 7). Advanced
infographic simulation technologies were used to optimise the results of this
integration.
Figure 7. Landscape integration of the Edrada PSP deposit area. Current situation, situation
without applying any type of measure, and future situation with landscape integration measures.
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4. RESULTS AND SPECIAL CASES
The resources and knowledge invested have made it possible to find the best locations for
the deposit areas as well as for the most suitable connecting roads from the worksite
generation point, in the effort to seek the least possible environmental and social impact,
and incorporating territorial sustainability.
Below are some cases that need to be highlighted:
A) Recovery of degraded areas
There was a search for degraded sites such as old abandoned quarries (Fig. 8), some of
which had even remained following the construction of the original dams and reservoirs to
repair the topography with the excess excavation materials from new projects and thus
correct the impacts of the construction of the infrastructures completed decades before.
Figure 8. Current and future situation of the old Belesar dam quarry which will be restored with
materials from the Belesar III PSP project work, thereby recovering the landscape.
Nonetheless, some of these quarries over time have become ideal habitats for species of
high ecological interest and are now classified as protected. These naturalised quarries
have been excluded as deposit areas (Fig. 9).
Figure 9. Salas-Conchas PSP. A naturalised quarry protected as a priority habitat (“temporary
Mediterranean lagoons”) near the Salas reservoir.
B) Environmental restrictions on deposit area delimitations.
In the particular case of deposit areas A.13 and A.17 for the Salas-Conchas PSP, the size
was restricted to prevent potential environmental effects. To minimise the impact on the
Corga de Dormes creek “reception basin” in the case of area A.13 and the future use of the
area partially re-populated with pine trees by the government in the case of A.17. (Fig. 10).
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Figure 10. Delimited material deposit areas.
C) Special measures for hauling the excess excavation material.
In the specific case of the Edrada PSP project, the main material outlet will be situated next
to the “San Esteban" lower reservoir which is hidden in a deep valley near protected areas,
with important natural and landscape value.
The difference in level that must be overcome between the bottom of the valley and the
upper plateau would require opening up new roads on the slope and intense lorry traffic,
which would cause significant effects on the well-conserved natural and social
environment. To prevent this situation, a system has been planned to evacuate more than
half of the excavation materials by means of conveyor belts that will run through the open
corridor of an existing penstock on the slope (Fig. 11).
Figure 11. System to bring up excavation materials from the Edrada PSP project through the existing
penstock corridor on the slope (left image shows the current state and the right image shows the state
expected with a conveyor belt).
D) The opening of new roads to minimise the environmental and socio-cultural impacts of
hauling the material.
The opening of new access proposed for the Salas-Conchas PSP project was designed to
avoid affecting the nearby population centres, the local cultural heritage and high quality
tree masses (Fig. 12), and thus seeking the lowest possible environmental and social
impact.
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Figure 12. New layouts for the Salas-Conchas PSP accesses.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SIMILAR CASES
Considering prior experience with power plants of this type, companies must help improve
and optimise the technology and project designs by introducing environmental, social and
cultural aspects in the early phases of the work.
The significant volume of excess excavation material generated with this kind of work,
along with the high environmental standards required by all parties involved in this type of
project, means more and more detailed studies and analyses are required in order to
determine the final destination for these materials from the design phase.
Conducting multi-criteria studies to select material deposit alternatives, as well as the
participation of a multi-disciplinary environmental and socio-cultural team are key during
the design phases to reaching the best solution possible in all areas, and preventing
problems in the procedural phase (denial of environmental feasibility or longer processing
periods) as well as in the construction phase (work stopped because impacts were not
adequately forecasted).
In order to do these studies, environmental and social surveys are required to provide data
from representative periods so the infrastructure can be well fitted during the design phase.
The selection criteria used in these studies, as well as the preventive and corrective
proposed measures, will along with the rest of the aspects considered in the design phase,
contribute to make the new generation of hydroelectric projects in Spain an example of
sustainable development.
REFERENCES
GNF Engineering (2010): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de Belesar III Peares III, Spain.
GNF Engineering (2011): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de CHR Salas - Conchas”, Spain.
GNF Engineering (2012): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de CHR Edrada, Spain.
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Blasting Vibration Control in Residential Area near Cheragh - Vays Dam
Amir Hafezquran
Mahab-Ghodss Consulting Engineers, Cheragh-Vays dam, Saqqez, Kurdistan, Iran
ahafezquran@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Blasting operation for rock excavation is a most common activity in dam construction projects. The
reduction of ground and air vibration to the defined level and control of fly-rock phenomena are
important environmental aspects of rock blasting near residential area. Geological conditions,
distance of existing structures from the blast point, structures resistance degree and charge weight
per delay are the most important parameters that should be considered in blasting design to ground
vibration control. The design of blasting parameters for rock quarry of Cheragh-Vays dam is studied
in this paper from environmental point of view. Two villages with weak clay houses, dam structures
and an earth materials slope with critical potential to sliding are the main structures that should be
considered in defining of ground and air vibration levels.
Keywords: blasting, ground vibration, environmental aspects, dam.
1. INTRODUCTION
Blasting operation is a most common and economic method for rock excavation during dam,
tunnel, highway, mining and foundation construction activities. Detonation of confined
charges can produce high under-pressure gas and expand the blast-hole up to 10 times from
the original volume in a very short time (Matti 1999). This process cause crack propagation
in surrounding rock and finally yield to rock breaking. Based on early studies only 20% to
30% of explosive energy are used for rock fragmentation (Singh et al. 1993). The rest energy
generates undesirable environmental effects such as ground vibration, fly-rock, air blast and
noise (Duncan et al. 2004).
Blasting program near residential area should be accurately planned to protect peoples and
structures from undesirable and deleterious effect of blasting environmental damages
(Mostafa 2000 and Birol et al. 2010). The parameters which affect the blast induced vibration
are classified in controllable and uncontrollable categories (Lopez et al. 1995). The
controllable are parameters mainly related to blasting design and explosive characteristic
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and uncontrollable parameters mainly are geological and topographical conditions. (Mostafa
2000 and Birol et al. 2010)
2. A REVIEW TO THE GROUND VIBRATION CRITERIA
Ground vibration is a major environmental problem in blasting operation. Although ground
vibration can be described in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration of the ground
particles, but particle velocity is the best predictor for measurement of structural damage
from blasting vibrations (Siskind et al. 1976, ISRM 1992, Dowding 1996 and Hustrulid
1999). The particle velocity is a measure of the ground particle velocity during passage of
the shockwave. The main parameters that affect particle velocity include: Explosive charge
weight per delay, Distance from blast point and frequency of vibration (Hustrulid 1999).
Several researchers have studied ground vibrations from blasting and have developed empirical
formulas for ground vibration estimation. The general form of these formulas can be described
as follows:
=
(1)
Where: Vp (mm/s) is the peak particle velocity; Q (kg) is the maximum charge weight per
delay; R (m) is the distance from blast point; K, m and n are empirical site constants. For
determining the constants for a given site, number of blast tests are performed and the peak
particle velocities of the ground are recorded. Then, the peak particle velocities (PPV) are
plotted on log-log scaled axes as a function of scaled distance (R/Qs) based on 95%
confidence level, where s is a root scaling.
The square-root, cubic-root and two-thirds scaling equations which are the widely used
formulas for determining of the particle velocity are summarized in table 1(Liang 2011).
Table 1. The Widely Predictor Equation for Particle Velocity
Square-root scaling formula proposed by USBM
Vp = K1(Q1/2/R)α1
Cubic-root scaling formula
Vp = K2(Q1/3/R)α2
Two-thirds scaling formula proposed by Indian Standard Vp = K3(Q2/3/R)α3
Where K and α are the site constants.
Based on Liang et al (2011), both cubic-root and square-root scaling formulas give good
fitting results, whereas two-thirds scaling formula produce poor fitting result. They
recommended square-root scaling formula for scaled distance less than 0.1 and cubic-root
scaling formula for otherwise.
The Office of Surface Mining (1983) has established the following peak particle velocities
(PPV) for safe blasting near residential area as a function of distance from blasting site. This
reference also has proposed the scaled distance factor (SD) as a safe blasting criterion in
absence of seismic monitoring based on square-root scaling function (see table 2).
The U.S. Bureau of Mines (1971) defines three types of structural damages due to blast
induced vibrations as follow: Cosmetic or Threshold damage, Minor damage and Major
damage. The USBM (1971) also has established damage criterion for residential dwellings
based on peak particle velocity (see table 3).
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Table 2. The Recommended SD and PPV as a Function of Distance from Blasting (OSM, 1983)
Distance from Blast Point (m)
PPV (mm/s)
SD (m/kg1/2)
0-90
18.1
41
91-150
20.4
34
151-300
22.1
30
301-900
24.9
25
901-1500
26.9
23
>1500
30.5
19
Table 3. The Damage Criterion based on PPV (after USBM, 1971
PPV(mm/s)
Damage
<51
No damage
51 - 102
Plaster cracking
102 - 178
Minor damage
>178
Major damage
Despite that the allowable level of ground vibration criteria has been proposed by several
organizations, this was not enough to protect structures from blast induced vibration
damages, because the vibration frequency and type of structure has not been seen in this
criteria (Abdel-Rasoul 2000). Mostafa (2000) has summarized the most important peak
particle velocities limit criteria based on vibration frequency and type of structure (figure 2
and table 4).
19 mm/s
0.1
25
250
50 mm/s
2.5
1
Maximum Allowable Particle
Velocity (USBM, 1980)
Drywall
19 mm/s
1
13 mm/s
Plaster
0.1
10
100
Blast Vibration Frequency (Hz)
25
PPV (mm/s)
PPV(in/s)
50 mm/s
1
10
250
PPV (in/s)
10
PPV (mm/s)
Maximum Allowable Parrticle
Velocity (OSM 1983)
2.5
1
10
100
Blast Vibration Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2. The OSM and USBM frequency-depended criteria for safe blasting
Based on table 4, different peak particle velocities levels for safe blasting near different types
of structures are suggested by different standards. Svinkin (2007) has compared the OSM
criteria with the German standard for example. He concluded that the German standard
criteria for residences are very conservative and its specified limit levels are not damagebased. The German standard criterion intends to minimize human perceptions and
complaints; therefore the German standard and the OSM criteria have the different
applications. According to Svinkin (2007), measurement of ground vibrations is not an
appropriate approach for protecting of structures form blasting damages, because ground
vibration criteria does not take into account soil-structure interaction and natural frequencies
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of structures. He proposed the direct measurement of structural vibrations as a good criterion
for safe blasting near different types of structures and defines the frequency-independent
safe limit of 51 mm/s for multi-story residential, commercial and industrial buildings.
Table 4. The Most Important PPV Limit Criteria based on Structure Type and Frequency
Office of Surface Mining Standard (OSM, 1982)
Type of structures
PPV (mm/s) in frequency range
<10 Hz
10 – 40 Hz
>40 Hz
Sensitive or protected structures
13
13
13
Older homes more than 20 years old
19
25
51
Modern homes less than 20 years old
25
38
51
Structures with safety consideration
51
51
51
Structures resistant to dynamic loads
PPV determined by engineer
British Standard
Type of building
4 to 15 Hz
15 Hz and above
Reinforced or framed structures.
50
50
Unreinforced or light framed structures.
15 to 20
20 to 50
Indian Standard
Owner
Type of structures
<8 Hz
8 – 25 Hz
>25 Hz
Belonging to the
Domestic Houses
10
15
25
owner
Industrial Building
15
25
50
Sensitive Structure
2
5
10
Not belonging
Domestic Houses
10
15
25
to the owner
Industrial Building
15
25
50
German Standard
French Standard
Structure
PPV (mm/s) in frequency
Structure
PPV (mm/s) in frequency
Type
range
Type
range
<10
10-50
50-100
<10
10-50
50-100
Hz
Hz
Hz
Hz
Hz
Hz
Commercial
20
20-40
40-50
Resistant
8
12
15
Residential
5
5-15
15-20
Sensitive
6
9
12
Sensitive
3
3-8
8-10
Very Sensitive
4
6
9
Critical slopes should be protected from high vibration velocity, because these slopes may
be unstable under high dynamic loads. Unfortunately, the few existing criteria of blast
induced vibrations for soil and rock slopes are still questionable, and further investigations
need to solve this problem (Wong 2000, Svinkin 2007 and Choi et al, 2012). Svinkin (2007)
has collected numbers of case histories which studying the effect of blast induced vibration
on soil slopes. Qasimi (2005) and Charlie (1992) have reported blast induced vibration limits
of 130 and 160 mm/s for occurrence of zero effective stress condition in loose and dense
saturated sand, respectively. Choi et al (2012) have mentioned the problem of establishing
safe ground vibration limits for cut slopes. They reported the Russian criterion as an only
clear blast vibration criterion for pit slopes. The peak particle velocity of 60 mm/s and 120
mm/s for repetitive blasting conditions has proposed by Russian criteria for saturated sandy
slopes and soil slopes, respectively.
Blasting operation near uncured concrete is a most common activity in almost all of dam
construction projects. Under these circumstances, explosive charge weights per delay should
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be designed based on the age of the concrete, the distance of the concrete from the blast, and
the type of structure in order to protect uncured concrete from blast induced vibration
damages (Duncan et al. 2004). Table 5 show the peak particle velocity limits based on the
concrete age. In this table, df is a frequency attenuation factor as a function of distance from
blasting, and equal to 1 for distance below 15 meters and decrease to 0.6 for distances over
80 meters (Oriard et al. 1980).
Table 5. The Peak Particle Velocity for Blasting near Uncured Concrete (Oriard et al, 1980)
Time from
PPV for non-structural fill,
PPV for structural concrete walls
batching (hours)
mass concrete (mm/s)
and slabs (mm/s).
0-4
100df
50df
4-24
25df
6df
24-72
40df
25df
72-168
75df
50df
168-240
200df
125df
>240
375df
250df
3. CHERGH-VAYS DAM SPECIFICATIONS
The Cheragh-vays dam is under construction in the northwestern Iran at Kurdistan province
(see figure 2). The dam is clay core rock-fill dam type with a height of 67 meters, 980000
cubic meters embankment volume and 270 meters crest length. The dam is designed for
supplying drinking water of Saqqez city and irrigation purposes.
Figure 2. The general view of under-construction Cheragh-vays dam
4. BLASTING PROGRAM OF ER QUARRY
The rock-fill materials of Cheragh-Vays dam are supplied from the ER quarry located 500
meters upstream the dam axes. The quarry is located in the Sanandaj - Sirjan zone and
consists of strong grano-diorite to diorite igneous rocks with seams of schist and
hydrothermal quartz. The blasting program for rock-fill material excavation from ER quarry
planned based on the probability of vibration damage to near structures. The project aims to
limit blasting to one blast per day, carried out during afternoon hours, in order to minimize
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impacts on residents. ANFO, gelatin dynamite and electric delay detonator were used as
explosives in ER quarry blasting. The main structures that should be considered in defining
of vibration level are presented in table 4 (see also figure 3).
Table 4. The Main Structures near ER Quarry
Structure type
Minimum distance from blasting site (m)
Cheragh-vayse village
350
Mazoj-dareh village
1200
Dam body
300 to 500
landslide
150
structural concrete of bottom outlet
250
The ER quarry is divided in three zone (1 to 3) based on structure resistance and distance
from near structures. The Cheragh-vays village, the bottom outlet structural concrete and the
landslide area are the important structures witch affect the maximum charge weights per
delay based on structure resistance and/or distance from blasting point (figure 3)
Figure 3. The plan view of structures near ER quarry
Before to define a safe blasting program for ER quarry, the safe vibration limit of individual
structures should be determined based on the Iranian Standards (Code No. 410). This
standard propose the square-root scaling distance method for the peak particle velocity
limits. The maximum charge weights per delay at ER quarry is determined based on the
scaled distance method (SD) because of absence of seismic monitoring data.
4.1. Residential Area
Two villages with old weak clay houses are located in south and east of the ER quarry at the
minimum distance of 400 and 1200 meters, respectively. Before starting the blasting, houses
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of the villages have inspected and several old cracks have found in the walls of the houses
(figure 4). Svinkin (2007) has points out that structures with existing damage may be affected
by blast in a greater degree than sound and it is necessary to inspect such structures before
and after blasting. The safe vibration limit based on the Iranian standard is 50 mm/s for new
drywall houses. This standard also has proposed 25 and 12.5 mm/s as a safe vibration limits
for old wet hoses under single and repetitive blasting, respectively.
Old Crack
Figure 4. The picture of weak clay house at Cheragh-vays village
Figure 5 shows the peak particle velocity limits against scaled distance for Cheragh-vays
village, landslide area and structural concrete of bottom outlet structure. The peak particle
velocity of 15 mm/s is selected for safe vibration limit in weak clay houses near ER quarry,
based on Iranian standard. The scaled distance of 36 m/kg0.5 was selected to protect village’s
houses from blast vibration damages. This value is selected based on the OSM (1982)
criterion for square-root scaling in absence of seismic monitoring, as proposed by Iranian
standard.
Figure 6 shows the maximum allowable charge weights per delay as a function of distance
from Cheragh-vays village, landslide area and bottom outlet structural concrete, based on
peak particle velocity proposed in figure 5. Comparing Figures 5 and 6 show that the
maximum charge weights per delay for zones 1 to 3 of ER quarry were 120, 190 and 280
kilograms respectively, in order to protect villages’ houses from blast vibration damages. In
zones 1, the vibration limit of Cheragh-vays village houses is the most effective parameter
in determining the allowable charge weights per delay due to their distance from blasting
site. In zone 2, the maximum charge weight per delay was determined based on the vibration
limits of bottom outlet structure or Cheragh-vays village, depending on the age of concrete
in bottom outlet structure. In zone 3, the maximum allowable charge weights per delay are
determined based on uncured concrete (age 1 to 7 days) of bottom outlet, landslide in rainy
condition and Cheragh-vays village houses, respectively. In absence of uncured concrete in
bottom outlet structure, the allowable charge weight per delay in zone 3 was determined
based on landslide area vibration limit in rainy condition and Cheragh-vays houses vibration
limit in dry conditions.
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village houses and bottom outlet concrete (age 1 to 3 days)
landslide (rainy conditon)
bottom outlet concrete (age 3 to 7 days)
100
PPV (mm/s)
70
25
15
10
10
12.5
25.3
36
SD (m/kg0.5)
50
Maximum charge per delay (kg)
Figure 5. Peak particle velocity against scaled distance for structures near ER quarry
600
500
400
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
300
200
100
0
Cheragh-vays village
landslide (rainy condition)
350
450
550
550
450
350
450
450
550
250
350
350
650
150
250
250
Distance from structuers (m)
Figure 6. The maximum charge weight per delay as a function of distance from structures
4.2. Landslide Area
During the excavation of diversion tunnel portal, the rock wedge failure was take place with
a volume of 2000 cubic meters, and therewith about 140000 m3 earth material with an
average depth of 12 m slide for about 1 to 2 meters. Figure 6 shows the longitudinal section
of the landslide area. This landslide is stabilized temporarily, by removal of about 40000 m3
of soil materials, for dam construction period. With refer to figure 4, the distance of ER
quarry from landslide area is between 150 to 450 meters.
The peak particle velocity of 70 and 120 mm/s were selected for safe ground vibration levels
for landslide area at rainy and dry conditions, respectively. Figure 5 shows the maximum
charge weights per delay for landslide area at saturated condition based on safe vibration
limit of 70 mm/s and square-root scaling method. Comparing Figures 3 and 6 show that only
in rainy condition and absence of uncured concrete in bottom outlet structure, the landslide
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may be the most effective structure for determining the maximum charge weight per delay
in zone 3.
Figure 6. The longitudinal section of the landslide area
4.3. Bottom outlet structure
Bottom outlet structure consist of 900 cubic meters structural concrete located at distance of
250 to 300 meters from ER quarry. Blasting in ER quarry is not allowed if the age of
structural concrete is below 24 hours. The particle velocity and the allowable charge weights
per delay for structural concrete of bottom outlet structure, based on the age of concrete and
distance from blasting site, is shown in figure 5 and 6, respectively. Due to the low volume
of concrete in bottom outlet structure, number of blasting limitations due to this structure
was not considerable compared to other structures.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The blasting program for ER quarry is planned based on near structures resistance to ground
vibration. The vibration limit for clay houses of Cheragh-vays village was the effective
parameter in determining the allowable charge weights per delay. The peak particle velocity
of 15 mm/s and scaled distance of 36 m/kg0.5 were selected based on the OSM (1982)
criterion for square-root scaling in absence of seismic monitoring, as proposed by Iranian
Standard. This approach was very conservative and increased the rock excavation costs for
about 30 percent. Although, the uncured concrete of bottom outlet structure is more sensitive
to blast vibration than other structures, but because of the low concrete volume of bottom
outlet structure, number of blasting limitations due to this structure was not considerable
compared to others.
6. REFERENCES
Al-Qassimi, M.E., Charlie, W.A., and Woeller, D. (2005): Blast Induced Ground Motion
and Pore Pressure Measurements. Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, V. 28, No.
1: pp. 9-21.
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Abdel-Rasoul, E. (2000): Measurement and Analysis of the Effect of Ground Vibrations
Induced by Blasting at the Limestone Quarries of the Egyptian Cement Company,
Proceedings of ICEHM 2000, pp. 54- 71, Cairo University, Egypt.
Birol, E. and Ercan, A. (2010): Evaluation of Parameters affected on the Blast Induced
Ground Vibration (BIGV) by using Relation Diagram Method (RDM), Acta
Montanistica Slovaca, pp. 261-268, www.actamont.tuke.sk.
Choi, B.H., Ryu, C.H., Deb, D., Jung, Y.B. and Jeong, J.H. (2012): Case Study of
Establishing a safe Blasting Criterion for the Pit Slopes of an Open-Pit Coal Mine,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol. 53, pp. 1-10,
Elsevier.
Charlie, W.A., Jacobs, P.J. and Doehring, D.O. 1992. Blast-Induced Liquefaction of an
Alluvial Sand Deposit. Geotechnical Testing journal, ASTM, V.15, No.1: 14-23.
Dowding, C.H. (1996): Construction Vibrations, Prentice –Hall Inc., New Jersey.
Duncan C. W. and Christopher W. M. (2004): Rock Slope Engineering, based on the third
edition by Hock, E. and Bray, J., Spon Press, London.
Hustrulid, W. (1999): Blasting Principles for Open Pit Mining, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.
International Society for Rock Mechanics, (1992): Suggested Method for Blast Vibration
Monitoring, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science, Vol. 29,
pp. 143-156, Pergamon Press Ltd, Great Britain.
Kumar, K. B. (2010): Blast Vibration Studies in Surface Mines, bachelor thesis, Rourkela
National Institute of Technology, India.
Liang, Q., An, Y., Zhao, L., Li, D. and Yan, L. (2011): Comparative Study on Calculation
Methods of Blasting Vibration Velocity, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Rock
Engineering, Vol. 44, pp. 93-101, Springer.
Lopez, C.E., Lopez, J.E. and Javier, F.A. (1995): Drilling and Blasting of Rocks, A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Matti H. editor in chief (1999): Rock Excavation Handbook, Sandvik -Tamrock Corp.,
www.metal.ntua.gr
Oriard, L.L. and Coulson, J.H. (1980): Blast Vibration Criteria for Mass Concrete.
Minimizing Detrimental Construction Vibrations. ASCE Preprint 80-175, ASCE, pp.
103–23. New York.
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM, 1982): Use of Explosives
and Training, Examination, and Certification of blasters, Proposed Regulations, US
Dept. of the Interior, Surface Mining Law Regulations, Federal Register, Vol.47, No. 57
http://arblast.osmre.gov/
Svinkin, M.R. (2007): Assessment of Safe Ground and Structure Vibrations from Blasting,
Vienna Conference Proceedings, European Federation of Explosives Engineers.
Singh, B., Pal RoY, P., Singh, R.B., Bagchi, A., Singh, M.M. and Nabiullah, M. (1993):
Blasting in Ground Excavation and Mines, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.
The Iranian Ministry of Industries and Mines. (2008): Technical Regulations for Explosives
and Rock Blasting in Mines (Code No. 410), http://www.mim.gov.ir.
Tantawy Mohamed, M. (2010): Vibration Control, Chapter 16, www. intechopen.com
Wong, H. and Pang, P. (2000): Assessment of Stability of Slopes subjected to Blasting
Vibrations, the Government of the Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong.
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A survey about passive defense, and lake dam's requirements to water fronts
and how to construct a floating waterfronts in accordance
with changes in
fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
Water levels in dams
2(14pt)
Meysam Rezaei Ahvanouei
MA student Azad University of Semnan-Iran, Director Manager of Sad Rah Abnie co.
manager@sra-co.ir
Hamid Ehsani
head of department, Semnan regional water authority
Mahyar Rezaei Ahvanouei
MA student, Azad University of Damghan, board of directors of Sad Rah Abnie co
ABSTRACT
Design, accomplishment, and construction of floating water fronts in order to innovation,
localization, technical knowledge transition, and alignments of those aims with current needs in
dams, make movements and national efforts in comparison with Islamic Republic of Iran principles
and macroeconomic policies, and at last, the unique feature of this kind of structures like flexibility,
safety, strength, and longevity, reducing the costs and preventing exit exchange, fast constructions,
… are just parts of good results of powerful and active personnel of Sad Rah Abnie co. in this
country. Profile design, construction and accomplishment, and benefits of using this kind of water
front structures, that has been using for the first time in dam waters, are concluded in this article.
Keywords: water front, float, dam, passive defense
INTRODUCTION
Passive Defense and depending on it, implementation of hydraulic structures in order to
achieve the objectives of passive defense has been always of special importance, but
because of its difficulty to implement Hydraulic Structures, less contractors are willing to
implement these projects. Engineering company of Sad,Rah,Abnie (SRA) arrived on this
realm by timely understanding of the role and importance of wharf on dam to connect land,
water and lake patrolling and after a short time due to the presence in the manufacturing
processes of several dams of the country, including dam of Damghan, Kaboudval, Qara
Aghach, Kine vars, Changureh etc. and also activities in the form of contractors of
operation, maintenance and repair in Reservoir Dam of Damghan and having experienced
workers, necessary expertise and identifying the problems in country dams achieved the
technical knowledge of the work and is capable to design, implement and support the
project of pontoon piers in all hydroelectric installations of Iran.
1 - Introduction to Passive Defense
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It is referred to a set of actions that doesn’t require using weapons and one can avoid
financial losses to critical military and civilian equipment and installations and also human
casualties and minimize the damages and casualties by implementing it. Expediency
Discernment Council defines passive defense as:
A package of non-military measures that increases deterrence, reduces vulnerability,
sustains necessary activities, promotes national stability and facilitates crisis management
in the face of enemy threats and military actions is called passive defense.
2. Introduction of wharf
Warf is a structure along the beach which forms and constitutes the boundary between land
and sea or lake and it is almost the most important components of a port. (Figure 1
Figure1. Wharf executed by the company Sad,Rah,Abnie (SRA) on Damghan lake dam.
3 - Types wharf in terms of use
Based on type of use and regional conditions and its material, Wharf has different types:
Wharfs are divided into following types based on their application:
1. Commercial wharf: as its name implies, it is used for the transport of goods from land
to sea or vice versa, and it plays an important role for exporting as a key and effective
element in country economy.
2. Military wharf: it is used to transport military equipment and instruments.
3. Fishing wharf: it is used for berthing boats of fishermen.
4. Petroleum wharf: it is used for berthing and anchorage of oil tugs and of particular
types to transport petroleum materials.
5. Resort wharf: as its name suggests, it is used for public use and tourism and also as
stations for sport and sailing and also for berthing paddle, bicycle, wind and other boats.
4. Types of wharf in terms of structural specifications.
In designing the wharf installation, selecting the type and also wharf structure information
generally is of great importance. In other words, different factors such as geotechnical
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characteristics, financial credit, economic factors, executive facilities etc. should be
considered in designing.
Most wharfs are composed of different types as follows:
1 – Wharf with foundation consisted of steel piles
2 - Wharf with foundation consisted of reformer concrete piles with cylindrical steel
surfaces
3 - Wharf with foundation consisted of prefabricated concrete pile
4 – Polymeric (synthetic) wharfs
1-4 Steel Wharfs
This type of wharf is one of the most commonly used types of docks. Since many of
constructed wharf in the world have been constructed by such a structure, contractors have
sufficient experience in manufacturing this kind of docks and in addition to a problem
which exists in the construction such as need for infrastructure and piling, steel structures
are highly susceptible to mechanical and chemical corrosion in aqueous environments and
even using different methods of cathodic, epoxy and resin protection and due to the many
problems in maintenance, durability of such foundations are not satisfactory and it is
relatively short.
2-4 Concrete wharf with steel surface
This type of structure has better tolerance to corrosion than the two previously mentioned,
but the same infrastructure problems and implementation difficulties of wharf still remain.
3-4 Prefabricated concrete wharf
This type of wharf had been widely used in the past, but its use has declined gradually.
This structure include problems such as transportation and displacement after raising and
also the difficulty or impossibility of increasing the length of piles during construction, as a
result of arisen changes in consisting materials of land, these piles are susceptible to
mechanical and chemical corrosion especially in areas where tidal waves hit the
foundations.
4-4 Polymeric Wharf
This type of wharf is of the new generation of wharfs and is constructed by using special
polymeric materials and in floating form and in terms of application, it is divided into a
variety of recreational, passenger, fishing, rescue, etc. floating wharf.
As you know building a wharf by destroying terrains needs drying water areas and piling
for making infrastructure, causing environmental adverse and especially that it is not
possible to pile behind dams and creating vibrations due to special conditions.
This made Design engineering Company of Dam, Road and Buildings (Sara) to study types
of wharf in order to preserve natural resources and optimal use of environment without
destroying it and avoid making any damage and artificial side effects and especially type of
use in dams and among which tries to develop and implement polymeric pontoon piers.
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The company of Dam, Roads, and Buildings is proud to take a major step in the innovation
process in our beloved homeland by design and implementation of this kind of wharf after
dehydrating on the surface of slope upstream dam (rip rap) for the first time in Iran dams.
5 – Polymeric floating wharf
In general, floating docks in the present century, for reasons previously mentioned, are
considered as the main rival of fixed docks and among which polymer pontoon piers are
better accepted in polypropylene wharf environment, etc. to (HDPE). In general these
kinds of docks are usually produced using raw material of HDPE as cube -shaped tanks,
nearly all four floating vessels form together a cube with dimensions of 100 cm. Each tank
has four earrings to connect to other tanks. This connection is done with the help of
another piece called pins. In order to increase resistance to hit and connecting boats to the
wharfs, the other pieces have been used called bumpers and hooks.
6 - The main reasons to select polymer pontoon piers in dams
1 - To avoid artificial effects
2 - No need for piling and drying Lake Floor
3 – No need to special and significant preparation on the ramp and the dam body
4 – Resistance of wharf parts against climate changes especially damaging ultraviolet
radiation (UV) with respect to additives used in polymer structure
5 – Possibility to increase dimension and area of wharf in future development plans
6 - Resistant to various chemical and mechanical corrosions
7 – Wharf pieces can be used in special seasons or can be transported somewhere else
due to its easy installation and collection
8 – Its easy anchorage
9 - The possibility of replacing the defective parts with ease and no disruption of wharf
servicing
7 – Design of pontoon piers at Dam
Factors influencing the design can be defined as follows:
1 - The dead loads: consist of weight of the wharf main body and all its associated
accessories
2 - Live loads: consist of weight of the equipment on it and weight of moving persons
3 - Environmental loads: that can influence wharf in different ways. Most notably are
wind, water flow, and waves.
4 - Coastal slope of implementation place
5 - Suitable anchorage of wharf
6 - Considering the safety
The design of this structure was done based static load carrying capacity of at least 320 kg
per square meter of pontoon piers. In addition due to the lack of proper infrastructure in rip
rap slope and on the rocks, geotextile fiber technology also called the land cloth has been
used with polymer thread and coating, resistant to sunlight (Anti UV) and rot and capsules
filled with sand. (Figure 2)
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Figure2. Design of pontoon piers at Dam
This material is made of polyester and polypropylene filaments and due to its
characteristics such as very fast implementation, comfortable, low weight, high strength,
low cost, long lasting, non- environmental degradation, and uniformity in implementation
and due to physical, mechanical, hydraulic conditions and needed durability to protect the
body of wharf against the massive stone, geotextiles have been considered as the most
appropriate option in design for the company of Sad, Rah, Abnie (SRA). Also, considering
the tensile force applied to the anchorage, a concrete structure was used in the vicinity of
the dam crest and due to the special design system; anchorage has been executed securely
from above. In wharf slope, using special polymer stairs and aligner plate and polymeric
railings designed for this task has established a safe approach to traffic.
CONCLUSIONS
However, any maneuver on lakes of dams by staff of exploitation including passive
defense, collecting illegal fishing gears, patrolling to investigate environmental factors on
the lake, the possibility of recreational trip, tourists visit the lake behind dams . . . the
existence of wharf on dam and water installations seems necessary and the company of
Sad, Rah, Abnie (SRA) knows it as his function to be pioneer in country in the design,
manufacture and installation of wharf on dam according to different development projects
and maintenance, repair, installation of instrumentation, exploitation and data processing
of instrumentation in dams which this was accomplished in Shahid Shahcheraghi Reservoir
Dam of city of Damghan-Iran for the first time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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At the end, we would like to appreciate the unsparing guidance and cooperation of
respected employer and supervisor of the time of implementing project (Regional Water
Authority Company, Semnan) and his bravely welcomes of the implementation of above
schemes that was conducted for the first time in the country dams.
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THE KARALLOE MULTIPURPOSE DAM
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND RAW WATER DEVELOPMENT
Agus Setiawan1, Hariyono Utomo1, Eka Rahendra1, Subandi1,
Andika Kuswidyawan2 & Arif Paputungan3
1)
The Pompengan Jeneberang Large River Basin Organization, Makassar, Indonesia
Water Resources Engineering Student, Muhammadiyah University, Makassar, Indonesia
3)
Water Resources Consultant of Pompengan Large River Basin Organization , Makassar, Indonesia
subandi_me@yahoo.co.id
2)
ABSTRACT
The serious problem of Jeneponto regency is a raw water crisis and the environmental decreasing
during dry season. No secure water to the existing Kelara irrigation, rice cropping is not sufficient.
Existing irrigation system uses the open channels with a lot of risk: evaporation, infiltration and
illegal pumping. The Local Government Raw Water Treatment Plant (RWTP) cannot supply the clear
water to the costumers as a target. In rainy season, the regulate flooding inundates public facilities in
the rural and urban area for a long time. To solve the problem, it will be applied 3 terms; (1) in the
short term, in the middle of 2014, the Karalloe multipurpose dam will be constructed a concrete
faced rock fill type, continued with conservation development works to increase existing
environmental and secure water to the reservoir. The reservoir will restore 30 million m3 water from
Karalloe river. 50% of raw water will be supplied to 7.199 ha of existing Kelara irrigation area and
50 % will be supplied to RWTP for increasing the clear water for the urban (2) in the middle time, the
construction will be continued by the improvement of existing irrigation. (3) In the long term, water
resource structure will be constructed like the sediment control dams, sand pocket dams in the
upstream of the dam to anticipate erosion and sedimentation to the dam, and construction of
reinforced concrete pipe or the raw water transmission main to supply the reservoir water to RWTP.
The construction will be continued by Jeneponto river improvement as a recharge of raw water. In the
future, the expected result with the karalloe multipurpose dam will solve the raw water crisis for the
existing environmental, clean water and irrigation development.
Keywords: Karalloe multipurpose dam, Environmental, raw water, irrigation development, Global
Climate change
1.
INTRODUCTION
The Jeneponto regency has a serious water crisis to be solved by the Karalloe dam. Highest
deforestation and eroded has a high sedimentation to damage the lowest area so the regulate
flooding inundate urban area for a long time during rainy season. During the dry season the
raw water crisis to the regency (district) is a serious problem too. A Jeneponto river is a joint
river between Karalloe River and Kellara River, which come from Lompo Batang mountain,
flows to Bontosunggu, a capital city of Jeneponto regency. In the upstream (U/S) of
Jeneponto regency, no reservoir to restore those rivers so that in dry season, the existing raw
water is not enough to be supplied to the raw water treatment plant and not enough to be
supplied to the existing Kellara technical irrigation area so the rice cropping is not optimize
although existing Kellara and Karalloe weirs are facilitated to support the irrigation area were
constructed in 1976. In the rainy season, regulate flooding inundate the urban and rural
Jeneponto. In related with the problem mentioned above, on July 4, 2012, the government
declared that the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam will be constructed to solve the raw water crisis
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and regulate flooding. The problem will be managed by sustainable, integrated water
resources management, in the short term, the middle term and the long term.
2.
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DAM
Systematically, social and environmental aspects of the karalloe multipurpose dam as a
solution for the environmental and raw water development in Jeneponto regency will related
to greenhouse gas effect of Karalloe multipurpose dam, public participation for the Karalloe
multipurpose dam and Kellara irrigation scheme, institutional aspects on the Karalloe dam,
land acquisition and resettlement for the Karalloe dam, Environmental management during
Karalloe dam construction will be written briefly:
2.1.
Greenhouse Gas Effect of Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
For securing and sustainable raw water in the Karalloe multipurpose reservoir, conservation
must be developed. Conservation development can increase O2 and reduce CO2 to secure the
existing environmental and raw water in reservoir for increasing irrigation and clear water.
The concentration of Green House Gas in the atmosphere had been increasing slowly.
Anomalies in the concentration patterns of CO2 and CH4 have been correlated with the
development of existing Kellara irrigation, agriculture, floras, fauna and human life.
Theoretically, the greenhouse gas effect of dams is the principal cause of climate change.
Some regions of the world are experiencing heat waves, severe droughts, and wildfires while
other regions are facing unusually strong monsoons, widespread flooding, and rain-induced
landslides. For these extreme events, people around the world are facing some form of
climate related crisis with increasing frequency. International efforts to advise countries on
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how to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and cope with climate change are ongoing.
National strategies for sustainable development are being implemented by many countries as
well as programs to monitor and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Winning the battle to
slow down and cope with climate change will be a long term challenge which will likely
require substantial changes in the behavioral patterns of society. Climate change is giving rise
to all kinds of environmental changes. It results in heat waves, droughts and fires in some
regions, and in other regions, floods and freak storms. Even though not everyone is
convinced that the changes in climate are abnormal or anthropogenic, there is widespread
evidence from many independent sources suggesting that the earth is getting warmer.
Temperatures over land and ocean are rising. Temperature records are being exceeded in
many regions of the world; extreme events are becoming more frequent. Some of the interannual climate variations, which are sometimes attributed to climate change, are undoubtedly
due to events such as El Nino. However, it has recently been hypothesized that the frequency
of El Nino events, which has almost doubled since 1980, might be due to the increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In this presentation of the greenhouse
effect, discuss the main causes of climate change, present information on the magnitude and
impact of climate change, mention some of the international efforts to deal with climate
change, and present some strategies for minimizing the increase in the atmospheric
concentration of greenhouse gases. Many technical solutions are being advanced by the
scientific community to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and to help adapt to climate
change, but these are unlikely to be sufficient to stop more global environmental changes
unless tremendous progress is made in using resources more sustainably. The temperature of
the Earth depends on the energy budget at the Earth's surface. The main source of energy is
the incoming short wave radiation from the sun.
Approximately 30% of this radiation is reflected back into space by clouds and the Earth's
surface. Having been warmed by the sun's radiation, the Earth cools itself by emitting long
wave radiation back into space. Part of the long wave radiation emitted by the Earth is
absorbed by heat trapping gases in the Earth’s atmosphere such as water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3) and re-emitted in all
directions, including back towards the Earth's surface. Because it is analogous to the way
glass greenhouses trap solar energy, this phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect and
those heat trapping gases in the atmosphere are known as greenhouse gases. The global
warming potential of a gas gauges its effectiveness in warming the atmosphere. It is different
for all Green House Gas, and CO2 is used as the reference. For example, over a century, a
kilogram of N2O is 298 times more effective at warming the atmosphere than a kilogram of
CO2. Hence the CO2 equivalent (CO2e) of N2O is 298. It is interesting to note that without
these greenhouse gases the temperature at the earth's surface would be about 33oC cooler. For
example, from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago an anomalous increase in the atmospheric CO2 until
the 1970s, as much CO2 concentration of about 40 ppm (parts per million) has been
attributed to forest clearing for the development of agriculture in Europe and China. A similar
increase in the concentration of methane of 250 parts per billion, which took place 5,000 to
1,000 years ago has been ascribed to the spread of irrigated rice farming in Asia. It has been
estimated that the increase in concentration of these two gases increased the Earth's
temperature by about 0.8oC during that period. It had been released into the atmosphere from
the clearing of land as from the burning of fossil fuels. However, since then, the contribution
of fossil fuel combustion has become much more important. For example, over the past 20
years, of the CO2 This large increase in energy-related CO emissions are estimated to have
come from the combustion of fossil fuels and the remainder from land use changes. The share
of Green House Gas emissions related to fossil fuel combustion is now growing at an
accelerating rate. During the last two centuries and particularly during the last 3 to 4 decades,
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the atmospheric concentrations of CO emissions are closely associated with the increase in
the world's population.
2.2.
Public Participation for the Karalloe dam and Kelara Irrigation Scheme
The most significant part of the Water User Association for the Kellara Irrigation scheme
(The irrigation) is in water scheduling and distribution. When irrigation water availability is
adequate or between 4 and 6 m3/second, three Water User Association divides irrigation
supplies at the major diversion structure in proportion to their areas and then guard those
settings. When the available water falls below 4 m3/Sec, the Water User Association switch
to irrigation rotational procedures, involving 2.5, 2 and 2.5 days allocation for each of the
three Water User Association. Within each Water User Association sub-command, schedules
has been developed for sharing water between day blocks and night blocks. Each block is
split again into roughly 1/3rd of their areas, with each sub-area getting an allocation for the
1st, 2nd or the 3rd day. The Water User Association proposes the schedules and the gate
operators carry out their instructions for the setting of the gates. This kind of water
scheduling needs a high degree of cooperation among water users. It is unlikely that
government operators could achieve satisfactory performance levels at the irrigation scheme
without the involvement of the Water User Association.
The federation leaders ensure that their members obey the scheduling rules and have
developed sanctions for persistent offenders. As can be seen from the description of the
organization for O&M described above, it is still in the process of adapting to the new
national policies. Farmers will continue to participate in irrigation O&M activities in several
ways: (1) Farmers are mobilized on a voluntary group basis under traditional practices for
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twice a year, before the start of the planting to undertake light maintenance work in the
secondary canals, such as clearing sediment, grass cutting, small lining repairs. (2) The
farmers decide on cropping patterns and water distribution schedules, and the head of regency
issues appropriate instructions based on these group decisions. The the Water User
Association have agreed on sanctions to be imposed on farmers who do not follow the agreed
crop and water schedules and then waste valuable water. (3) In previous years, farmers
collected funds informally for use in O&M where they saw a need. In 2005, the former a
lobbied to change the bylaws about water user fees going to the regency accounts
successfully. Under the revised procedures, the Water User Association keeps the funds for
their own internal the Water User Association. In 2006, the farmers will strictly enforce
payment by members of at a level of Rp.25,000/season/ha and 20% of members have so far
paid these amounts. (4) The farmers have greatly expanded the area cultivated in second
cropping (palawija) during the dry season so that more area can be planted. In 2005 this
palawija area had increased to 2,500 ha, with only 1,500 ha of paddy. (5) In 2003, the
Karalloe weir sluice gate stems seized up and could not be closed. The government at that
time had no funds for repair so the farmers paid for the repair themselves. (6) The end of
2005, a serious landslide with the sedimentation deposit into the main canal, cutting off
irrigation flows at a critical time before wet season plantings. The irrigation maintenance
funds through national budget, but no money available for this work. At the initiative of the
Water User Association leaders, reparation of landslide work was initiated by requesting
regency assistance with heavy equipment and the Water User Association arranged to provide
the necessary labor to clear the blockage.
Lessons and learned in the irrigation: (1) Rehabilitation of an operating irrigation needs full
participation of the beneficiaries and a multidisciplinary approach involving farmer group
strengthening, improved agricultural practices, training in O&M and repairs to the irrigation
infrastructure. Placing a lot of emphasis on construction works at the expense of these
preceding activities can lead to disappointing results. (2) The whole-heat support of local
government is an essential prerequisite for successful participation. The Jeneponto
Government leader must give his full attention and support to the improvement measures
proposed for the irrigation scheme. (3) The appropriate emphasis for improvement works
should be improving the water management and crop production development. An overall
water management study, carried out before improvement works start will be highly useful
and effective in producing a successful strategy. Full consultation is needed with all
stakeholders to be focused for the real problems and proposing real solutions. (4) The
promise of funds for rehabilitation can be a great incentive for farmers to change negative
perceptions and increasing participation in necessary irrigation O&M activities. (5)
Participation must be meaningful and involve empowerment of farmers. Previous attempts to
use the Water User Association as a government tax collector failed because the benefits of
participation were one sided. (6) Participation can be improved by the sustained use of
neutral groups as who can be trusted by farmers (consultants or NGOs) as an intermediaries
and a facilitator for irrigation scheme improvements. (7) The participation model must be
suitable for local conditions, not a standard and uniform system imposed from above. For
example, in the irrigation scheme, the sizes of the Water User Association areas are not equal,
the main canal was left out of the water scheduling, and efforts were made to ensure that the
traditional local leaders were involved from an early stage, thereby co-opting potential
opposition. (8) Designing the Water User Association sub-commands of unequal sizes areas
is not a problem. It is much more important that the Federations are granted total control of
the water in their areas (9) A step-by-step approach to initiating irrigation physical,
organizational and management improvements is recommended. At the irrigation scheme, the
rehabilitation was carried out in several separate stages, with the early stages generating
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significant benefits for all, which in turn led to a greater willingness to participate and
cooperate in future activities and stages. (10) Continued support and training after physical
works are completed generate positive additional impacts on active participatory water
management and outcomes. (11) comparative study conducted outside of the geographical
scheme area, including alternative cultural settings, proved to be highly effective in
demonstrating modern O&M practices, the farmers were comparative studied to East Java
irrigation schemes where the Water User Association leaders had a high level of positive
involvement in O&M matters.
The Kellara irrigation schemes lies wholly within the Jeneponto regency within 5 Sub district
and 24 Villages. The scheme area covers 7,199 ha, divided into 2,157 tertiary blocks, with 51
the Water User Association and 11,264 farmers. In an attempt to resolve the dilemma
situation to maintain sustainable rice production on the one hand, while keeping pace the
productivity level with the increasing population growth on the other, an emphasis has been
given to irrigation development and management based on a participatory approach. The
program had been set up to reduce central government's burden on Operation and
Maintenance (O&M) costs, aiming for sustainable irrigation O&M by virtue of Participatory
Irrigation Management approach. Under the said program, a number of policy adjustments on
water resources had been enacted. Further to this, Participatory Irrigation Management
attempts have also been carried out including: turning over to the Water User Association , of
small irrigation schemes; encouragement of Irrigation Service Fee; Irrigation Management
Transfer ; Participatory design and construction program; field laboratories for visual process
of learning by doing, and other such government initiatives. However, it turned up that the
attempts has been going very slowly and yet, still tended to be sustainable. This has been
partially suspected by the fact that the economy of the farmers and farming conditions under
the fragmented land ownership, which in fact, are already small, has been marginalized. In
the water resources development within thirty years until 1997 through government led
development projects. However, the institutional development to sustain this progress got
insufficient attention. From the lessons learned before the multidimensional crisis, it has been
recognized that the severe crisis had been due to the chronic neglect of the farmers roles in
almost the entire process of development, rehabilitation, and routine operation and
maintenance of irrigation infrastructures.
At the present time, access road to the Karalloe multipurpose dam has been completed to be
continued to the dam construction. The dam is constructed by the Pompengan Jeneberang
Large River Basin Organization under Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of
Public Works to restore water of Karalloe river. In the future time , about 30 million m3
water come from the reservoir will irrigate the 7,004 ha Kelara irrigation area through 70 km
secondary canals. The last time, without the Karalloe dam, the irrigated area had declined to
less than 1,000 ha or which is equivalent to 16% designed capacity every year so farmers
need additional water and irrigation improvement. The shortage of water led to permanent
social discord and the farmers themselves destroyed and damaged the irrigation works in
attempts to divert water away from their neighbors’ lands and into their own fields. There
were no water sharing plans or staggered plantings and coordination of irrigation and water
management was poor. A storage dam was proposed as a solution to the water shortages by
Karalloe dam. It was recognized that the existing irrigation and agricultural land resources
were vastly underutilized due mainly to poor water management. Better irrigation and water
management was not possible without full commitment, cooperation and participation of the
farmers and the local community. Hence a study was undertaken between 1998 and 2000,
with the aim to clarify the real causes of the water shortages by collecting and analyzing data
and information on the project from both government officials and local farmers, and by
making recommendations for improvements. Measures aimed to improve irrigation and water
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management were implemented between 1999 and 2002 using participatory methodologies
promoting farmer participation. Based on the WMIS, indicate that (1) The main canal
carrying capacity was too small, reduced to 25% of the total requirement by defects in the
canal, and limited to 50% by the carrying capacity of the tunnels. (2) The secondary system
was in a poor condition, with heavy sedimentation and sanitation, and many broken and
leaking (3). The tertiary system was either non-existent or in a poor state of repair. (4). Water
management was very problematic due to a lack of farmer commitment and involvement,
possibly arising from the continuing shortages of water and the special character of the local
people.
2.3.
Institutional Aspects on the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
Based on The No.7 Law of 2004 on water resources, O&M responsibility is assigned by three
administrative levels. It is (1) Central (2) Province (3) District or regency with the
designation of responsibility depending on schemes area as (a) >3,000 ha (b) 3,000-1,000 ha
(c)<1,000 ha. The Water Use Association is delegated the responsibility for the construction
and O&M of tertiary systems. Under the revised arrangements, the central government will
take responsibility for the irrigation scheme, given its size.
The mechanisms and organizations are still evolving, but will certainly involve partnerships,
mutually agreed between the different administrative levels for implementation of O&M,
depending on the abilities and willingness to participate of each level. Given the positive
experience and clear benefits of good water management practices seen over the past eight
years, the provincial and district governments, the Water Use Association and the farmer
beneficiaries are all well prepared and ready for whatever the new arrangements will bring
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and hopefully the outcome will lead to a further increase in productivity of the irrigation
system.
2.4.
Land Acquisition and Resettlement for the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
The Karalloe multipurpose dam is feasible to be constructed to solve the raw water crisis and
to the regulate flooding. Based on data of the Karraloe dam that the dam will be constructed
using a rock fill dam with concrete face type, to store Karalloe river located in Gowa regency.
The height, crest width and length of the dam is 75.18 m, 11 m, 325 m.
The dam is supported by 182 km2 Catchment area, 22 km Karalloe river length with 2.495
mm/year annual average rainfall, 28.47 m3/second Q max, 3 m3/Sec Q min, 239.65 m
maximum water level, 89.20 m minimum water level. The reservoir has 30 million m3
effective storage capacities with 1.6 km2 surface area will be inundated 3 villages, the
government will provide land acquisitions of the inundation villages and relocate about 90
families to new location (resettlement Site).
2.5.
Environmental Management During Construction of the Karalloe Dam
The Karalloe multipurpose dam will store 30 million m3 raw water to be constructed in hilly
area located in Taring Village, Biringbulu Sub District, Gowa Regency, located in the upper
stream of Jeneponto regency to supply the raw water to the rural and urban Jeneponto
regency for example 15 m3/Sec raw water for 7.199 ha of the existing technical irrigation
area, 0.3 m3/Sec for clean water, 380 Volt 50 Hz for micro hydro electricity power, 30 m3
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for flood control including flushing of drainage. Another purpose of the raw water will be
used tourist development. The sketch informs the development of water resources structures
will be constructed and developed after the final construction of the dam for instance
construction of the Sediment Control Dam, Sand Pocket Dam, Conservation Dam, including
development of conservation and reforestation are located in the U/S of the dam to prevent
and minimize the sedimentation in the reservoir. Construction of Raw Water Transmission
Main including construction of Raw Water Treatment Plant will be located in the D/S of the
dam to support increasing of clean water. During construction, environmental improvement
works or conservation development must be done to anticipate next disaster, an erosion or a
landslide in the upper of the dam and to secure water to reservoir for existing irrigation and
environmental development.
3.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The 30 million m3 of raw water come from Karalloe reservoir constructed in Gowa regency
is the best solution for securing and providing a sustainable existing environmental
protection and the existing Kellara irrigation development in Jeneponto regency so the dam
will be constructed in 2014. It is recommended that during and after the completed of
construction, all exiting water resources in Jeneponto including the Karalloe dam, Kelara
irrigation scheme and such river as Karalloe, Jeneponto, Kelara must be managed by the
environment, sustainable integrated water resources management for sustainable existing
environmental protection and raw water development including the conservation or
forestation development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to a committee of the 82nd ICOLD Annual Meeting and symposium to approve and
let this paper to be presented at the meeting for transferring and sharing the dams in global
environmental challenges knowledge among participants.
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THE SADDANG MULTIPURPOSE DAM FOR ANTICIPATE
FLOODING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Sumardji1, Eka Rahendra1, Subandi1, Andi M. Irham1,
M. K. Nizam Lembah2 & Sukarman3
1)
The Pompengan Jeneberang Large River Basin Organization, Makassar, Indonesia
Directorate of Rivers and Coastal, Directorate General of Water Resources, Jakarta, Indonesia
3)
Water Resources Consultant of Pompengan Large River Basin Organization , Makassar, Indonesia
subandi_me@yahoo.co.id
2)
ABSTRACT
A case of Saddang river is serious problem, not only in rainy season but also in dry season. Flooding
of the river cannot be controlled by the Benteng barrage, nothing to be done by the farmers except
waiting for flooding escape. In the dry season, it is not enough water to irrigate all fields because of
water lost so that no increasing of rice cropping. Briefly, the flood and irrigation water crisis in
connection with the global climate change, caused of: (1) Saddang dike over-topping so that about
3.951 ha of 93.724 Ha of irrigation structures in a bad condition (2) A lot of sedimentation deposited
in the existing irrigation channel (3) No integrated and sustainable in operation dan maintenance of
the channel (4) All irrigation channel are opened channel with the risk of water lost caused of illegal
irrigation pumping, evaporation and infiltration. To solve the problem mentioned above: (1) In short
term; Saddang dike and irrigation channel must be repaired urgently and Environmental
improvement work must be done, a good conservation must be developed to stabilize the the river
discharge, it will be useful to anticipate next flooding (2) in the middle term; a multipurpose dam
must be constructed in the upper stream of the existing Benteng barrage to store and to control
Saddang river (3) In the long term; the existing opened Irrigation channel must be changed with the
closed irrigation channel by the concrete reinforce pipe to anticipate: illegal irrigation pumping,
evaporation and infiltration. The result expected that with these methods: No flooding, no illegal
irrigation pumping, no evaporation, no infiltration, securing water for food and rural community
under climate change, increasing of food cropping, securing water to 7,574 km2 of The River Basin
for environmental development.
Keywords: Saddang multipurpose dam, environmental development, Anticipate flooding.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Saddang river’s 150 km length cover to the 5,453 km² watershed is the biggest river among
rivers in the Saddang river basin, the river crosses the South Sulawesi and the West Sulawesi
Province. This basin covers 7,574 km² area and consists of 74 watersheds. Noted that the
more than 10 existing rivers flow to estuary through saddang river. In the present, Saddang
river has a serious problem, not only in rainy season but also in dry season. Flooding inundate
about 93.724 Ha fields, it is not be controlled by the Benteng barrage, nothing to be done by
the farmers except waiting for flooding escape. In the dry season, it is not enough water to
irrigate all fields because of water lost so that no increasing of rice cropping. Briefly, the
flood and irrigation water crisis in connection with the global climate change, caused of: (1)
Saddang dike over topping so that about 3.951 ha of 93.724 Ha of irrigation structures in a
bad condition (2) A lot of sedimentation deposited in the existing irrigation channel (3) No
integrated and sustainable in operation and maintenance of the channel (4) All irrigation
channel are opened channel with the risk of water lost caused of illegal irrigation pumping,
evaporation and infiltration. To solve the problem mentioned above: (1) In short term;
Saddang dike and irrigation channel must be repaired urgently and Environmental
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improvement work must be done, a good conservation must be developed to stabilize the the
river discharge, it will be useful to anticipate next flooding (2) in the middle term; a
multipurpose dam must be constructed in the upper stream of the existing Benteng barrage to
store and to control Saddang river (3) In the long term; the existing opened Irrigation channel
must be changed with the closed irrigation channel by the concrete reinforce pipe to
anticipate: illegal irrigation pumping, evaporation and infiltration.
The result expected that with these methods: No flooding, no illegal irrigation pumping, no
evaporation, no infiltration, securing water for food and rural community under climate
change, increasing of food cropping and securing water to 7,574 km2 of the existing River
Basin for environmental development.
2.
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SADDANG DAM
Systematically, social and environmental aspects for the saddang multipurpose dam for
anticipate flooding and environmental development will be related with green house gas
effect of dam, public participation for a proposal of multipurpose dam and existing irrigation
scheme, institutional aspects on the dam, land acquisition and resettlement for the dam and
environmental management during dam construction will be written briefly:
2.1 Green House Gas Effects of Saddang Multipurpose Dam
In related with the proposal of The saddang multipurpose dam for anticipate flooding and
environmental development, the green house gas effect of the Sadang multipurpose must be
considered that the conservation improvement work for securing water of the reservoir and to
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anticipate flooding with restore the Saddang flooding, because to increase Oxygen (O2) and
to reduce dioxide (CO2) for sustainable existing environmental. Theoretically, that inland
water bodies, such as freshwater lakes, are known to be net emitters of CO 2 and methane
(CH4). In recent years, significant greenhouse house gas emissions from tropical, arboreal,
and mid-latitude reservoirs have also been reported. The extended version of the MERGE
(Model for Evaluating the Regional and Global Effects of Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Policies) has been used to project Indonesian’s energy production, consumption and export to
the year 2100, for a reference scenario and mitigation scenarios. In addition to the
international trade of energy, coal has been included in this version. The study also analyzes
the interaction between the forest sector and energy policy and finally analyzes the direct
effect of international climate policy on deforestation in Indonesia.
Then, the MERGE has been extended to analyze emissions of air pollutants. The model uses
the base scenarios from IPCC 2000, with extensions to include mitigation scenarios, to
project concentrations of air pollutants and their impacts on human health and the economy.
In the Indonesian energy sector, coal production grows gradually and gas production more
strongly in the reference scenario, whereas oil production falls rapidly. Oil imports increase,
while coal exports decrease; gas is imported later. If all countries reduce their emissions,
including Indonesia, coal production increases slightly less than in the reference scenario
towards the end of century. Oil imports are higher and gas imports slightly lower than in the
reference scenario. The effects of fossil fuel emission reduction on deforestation are slightly
less than in the reference case. The cost of slowing deforestation in Indonesia increases
exponentially by a factor of approximately 20 by the year 2100. Saddang river basin would
gain the profits from slowing deforestation since the revenue from slowing deforestation is
higher than the costs. The health problems associated with sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
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dioxide (NO2) concentrations resulting from fossil fuel use reach higher levels if OECD
countries reduce their emission, since Indonesian oil imports increase. However, if all
Indonesia river basin adopt the Kyoto protocol, the health problems are lower than in the
reference case. Human activities are increasingly modifying the Earth’s climate. These
effects add to natural influences that have been present over Earth’s history. Human impacts
on the climate system include increasing concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases
(e.g., carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons and their substitutes, methane, nitrous oxide, etc),
air pollution, and land alteration. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increased
since the mid-1700s through fossil fuel burning and changes in land use, with more than 80%
of this increase occurring since 1900. Moreover, research indicates that increased levels of
carbon dioxide will remain in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. It is virtually certain that
increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will
cause global surface climate to be warmer. The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change states as an objective the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system”. Developed countries and countries with economies in transition are required
to reduce their aggregate net emissions. Indonesia has the fourth biggest population in the
world, and is one of the countries prepared to meet its commitment as a party to the
Convention. Furthermore, Indonesia has significant reserves of coal, natural gas, and oil as
sources of energy and also as emissions. The emissions from forestry and land use change
can also affect climate change be significantly. Scientists’ understanding of the fundamental
processes responsible for global climate change has greatly improved during the last decade,
including better representation of carbon, water, and other biogeochemical cycles in climate
models. Yet, model projections of future global warming vary, because of differing estimates
of population growth, economic activity, greenhouse gas emission rates, changes in
atmospheric particulate concentrations and their effects, and also because of uncertainties in
climate models. The MERGE is a powerful tool for analyzing mitigation policies to deal with
the global climate change issues. The MERGE consists of four major parts: (1) economic
model, (2) energy model, (3) climate model, and (4) climate change impact (damage) model.
In the MERGE model, Indonesia is included only in the Rest of the World (ROW) region.
However, an analysis of the individual role of Indonesia in relation to international climate
policies is important for the country to develop a meaningful national climate policy. The
main question is whether Indonesian national policy has a significant impact on international
climate policies and global climate change. To study this question, we add a separate region
for Indonesia in MERGE as a tenth region. The MERGE model to include coal as a tradable
good and added a new forest model to analyse forest change, especially for Indonesia.
Finally, we applied the reference scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC, 2000) and the IPCC scenario with various mitigation scenarios, in order to
estimate air pollution.
2.2.
Public participation for Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Public participation concept approach is a consequence of the intervention of the government
for these decades in irrigation management system, while the farmers has been neglected, of
which make them has a new mindset, that the operation and management system of the
irrigation system, even in the tertiary system is the responsibility of the government as the
authority. When the quantity of water became not sufficient as result of the decreasing
service capability of the infrastructure, the farmers just waiting for the government to repair,
even just for the tertiary canal or cleaning the canal, while the tight money policy after the
economic and financial crisis, the government become more difficult to handle these matter.
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As the result, so many people speak about the failure of the government in agricultural
system, which means the prepare own rice has been failed. Thus the government must import
rice. To avoid this situation, idea about farmers participation rise up. At the beginning,
participation concept approach, starting with the result of a study, that the farmers not
participate and to take the responsibility, because the infrastructure of which has been built
not suitable to the needs of the farmers. So the recommendation said, that the farmers must be
involve since planning and design, Implementation and Operation and Maintenance System
(IOMS) in order to get the participation from the farmers. Actually right, because when they
involve in the work they will have the sense of belongings, and than they will participate in
IOMS, especially at the tertiary system. Water resources participation implementation is the
paradigm in irrigation management as a part of the management in, is a consequence of
several phenomenon in all over the world, such as; human right with the democratic process,
the right to have access to fresh water, the demand of fresh water, quantity and quality
become increase while the supply become decrease.
Participatory irrigation management for many years, during the early stage of irrigation
development, the farming community considered irrigation as an “art” rather than
“technology”. During which, most of irrigated agricultural undertakings were conducted by
the community members on the basis of mutual assistance. However, as irrigation
development become more and more expanded to larger areas, the operation and
management become hardly conducted by the farming community on mutual assistance. At
this stage, the operation and management of irrigation were then centered on technological
application with subsequent subsidies by the government for both development and
management. Except for small scale irrigation, the operation and management were then
increasingly dependent upon special irrigation technology, while the farming communities
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are still performing on the basis of the previous experiences. For which, irrigation operation
and maintenance were conducted without much involving the farming communities as well as
other stakeholders. As a result, many irrigation schemes, ranging from medium to large scale
were reportedly lack of operation and maintenance.
Being under the poor performance, the role of irrigation water for food production, health and
environment has increasingly become susceptible in terms of accessibility to adequate
quantity and reasonable quality, as well as timely distribution. Being the case, it is essential to
give special thought about the new approach toward efficient irrigation water management,
involving the water users, planners, and decision makers at all levels (participatory irrigation
management). Under the participatory irrigation management, the issues to address are not
only about irrigated agricultural engineering, sociology economics in isolation. Rather, it
concerns the challenging management issues, involving strategic approach, institutional, as
well as psycho-graphic elements of actors surroundings. The participatory approach involves
the new and important roles of the water resources institutions, and most significantly, as the
fundamental reform of the role sharing amongst the relevant government institutions as well
as the stakeholders.
2.3.
Land Acquisition and Resettlement for Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Consequently, proposal of new multipurpose dam in upper site of existing Benteng barrage
must be studied seriously because the construction of Saddang dam will be related with the
land acquisition and resettlement problems. The main problems and constraints associated
with land, soil and drainage among others are: (1) Lack of appropriate land resources, (i) In
many areas of the developing world, there are few new areas of suitable agricultural land
which can be economically developed using existing water resources; (ii) Marginal lands are
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being over-exploited and degraded under excessive population pressures. Productive land is
being lost to rapid urban and industrial development; (2) Water quality constraints, (i) Some
30 million hectares of land world wide are affected by continuing problems of water logging
and salinity; (ii) In water-short areas, soil is being degraded by irrigation with brackish water;
(iii) In arid areas, the long-term effects on soil structure of irrigating with low quality urban
effluent are uncertain; (3) Soil conservation technology, (i) Lack of appropriate techniques
for reclaiming large areas of problem soils have still to be developed, while the provision of
food supplies can hardly waiting till appropriate technique be developed; (ii) Problems
related to excessive water requirement for the newly developed agricultural lands.
2.4.
Institutional Aspects on the Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Institutional aspects on the dam is Institutional demands for irrigation development and
management. Due to the dynamic shifts on a number living and livelihood aspects of the
people, along the escalating growth of population, the economic and technological
development, are becoming imperative. These include operation and management of
irrigation, both the perspective of technical and non technical concerns. For consistent
implementation of irrigation development as well as efficient operation and maintenance, it is
highly essential to have a well established institutional arrangement. For example, in
attempting to set up an appropriate institution, a current institutional arrangement is currently
being undertaken in Saddang river basin. The activities are conducted in accordance with the
growing demands and changes in irrigated agriculture. Under the dynamic progress of
institutional arrangement, it has been evident that the underlying changes and application of
irrigated agricultural technology are the determinant factors in the shaping the institutional
arrangement. The underlying approach for institutional adjustment has been on the basis of
appropriate balance between the economic demand and supply of irrigated agriculture in line
with the major principles of technological innovation. However, it is not unusual that the
institutional set up is often determined by the political will of the ruling elite for insisting
change of the relevant regulatory instruments. Beside, the influence of certain political
ideology with adequate budgetary power could also become determinant factor that should
not be overlooked or under estimated.
2.5.
Environmental Management During Saddang Multipurpose Dam Construction
Environmental management during construction must be implemented because the irrigation
related with environmental problems are dominant with : (1) Water bond diseases. Inadequate
maintenance leads to silted and weeds in the gated channels, encouraging water-related
diseases like malaria; (2) Silt transportation. Reservoirs are silting up at increasing rates as
catchments are denuded. Between 1980-2000, global storage capacity increased 25%,
whereas lost capacity increased 140%, to stand at 10% of total capacity; (3) Agrochemical
contaminants. Increased use of agrochemicals. Long-term impacts on human health and the
environment are unknown. In the short term, fertilizers/pesticides end up in drains, promoting
accelerated growth of weeds and algae, and in aquifers; (4) Outbreak of plant disease life
cycle. Genetic diversity is being reduced as a few high yielding crop varieties predominate.
The impact of a sudden outbreak of disease could be potentially devastating. Genetically
modified crops offer potential but also bring extra risks to farmers’ livelihood, as well as to
the environment; (5) Impacts of saline water. Reuse of saline water can create long-term
problems. Disposal of saline water to sinks creates permanent degraded sites, with risks for
future groundwater quality; and (6) Heath impacts on black water utilization. Food grown on
black water and sewage sludge potentially involves risks to human health. Increasingly tight
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standards of hygiene in industrialized nations may bar developing countries from exporting
their agricultural production. Ecological aspects of irrigation is environmentally friendly
irrigation water management on paddy field, coping with water scarcity constraint, there
would be not much available alternatives but emphasizing the agricultural production system
for applying for water saving effort, while the demands for production function as well as for
environment must become the major consideration for determining the real time water
allocation. For rice cultivation, however, the water application principles have been by its
nature met several prerequisites for environmental conservation. However, with the
escalation of chemical fertilizer application on agricultural lands, a number of negative
impacts have been identified, including the growing up of nitrogen and phosphorus
concentration in surface and ground waters. These nutrients induced of water bodies.
Furthermore, the prolong application of chemicals such as pesticides and weed control,
pollutes rivers and lakes through runoff, or groundwater leaching. Given such negative
consequences, the environmentally friendly irrigation development for paddy field become
significantly important goals in the near future. This is particularity true for the fact that
population growth would always followed by escalation of food demands. In spite of the
determinant factors, it is equally important to ensure the effective instruments for mitigating
the water constraints, minimizing the negative impacts while enhancing the positive aspects
for environmental sustainability.
Enhancement of bio-environment functions of irrigated paddy field, since early time, the
human nature has been attached to the behavior of consuming up the available natural
resources without considering the needs for minimizing or conserving extra consumption of
water for socioeconomic livelihood. Consequently, the genetics’ diversities, species, and
sustainable ecosystem have been under the outrageous threat. For a long time, the production
function of irrigated paddy fields have been maintained at the high level of productivity,
which have also been conducted in complementary with the enhancement of ecology,
environment and other external functions. Today, however, the external function of irrigated
paddy field is regarded by many people as an intangible and less important, relative to the
production functions. Therefore, external function of irrigation for public services, has only
been regarded as the secondary or even tertiary function, with subsequently addressed as the
very low development priority. In an attempt to preserve irrigated agricultural ecosystem
together with the efforts to enhance conservation of bio-diversities, a number of endeavors
could be implemented. These among others are diversification of perennial plant varieties,
with special scrutiny on the aggro-based environmental and hydro-based tourism industry.
This arrangement could eventually attract domestic as well as foreign tourist to enjoy aggrobased recreation, water-based as well as bio-environment amenities, and other such leisure
agriculture, as amongst the multifunctional and external functions of irrigated agriculture. In
general, in environmentally friendly reservoir operation, the policy for operation of
multipurpose reservoir is mostly geared toward the demands for fulfilling the water allocation
as previously determined in the design, including the water supplies for irrigated agriculture,
raw water for domestic and municipalities, industries and other such targets. The
conventional reservoir operations today, however, in most cases are not considering the water
allocation for maintaining the appropriate balance of water ecology and water for
environmental sustainability. With the increasing concerns and problems associated with
environmental impacts, the reservoir operation should also be adjusted in such a manner that
the future reservoir operation has to incorporate the water allocation for maintaining the
appropriate balance of water ecosystem, in particular, and environment in general. For future
reservoir operation, therefore, must strictly consider the multiple impacts of reservoir
operation. All the relevant parameters (tangible as well as the intangible one) should be taken
into consideration and incorporate them into the objective analysis. This aspect sounds,
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simple, but in reality it would become dilemma-tic challenges for future reservoir operators.
This is particularly the case for reservoirs that had previously been designed and operated for
supporting the optimum internalize functions only, so that there is not much potential water
available for reservoir operation to meet the externalize functions.
3.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Regulate Saddang flooding is a problem for existing Saddang irrigation area in the rainy
season. Learning from the implementation experiences about the participation of the Water
Use Association in O&M system since HPSIS up to the WISMP and PISP except the Water
Use Association participation. The placement of CO, TPM have give much benefit because
they work side by side with the farmers but the success of every places not the same, it
depends on the quality of CO/TPM and they personality, also the characteristic of the
community. In WISMP and PISP there is an increasing of the Water Use Association
participation, because they can do the construction work by direct pointed. It is recommended
that to reach the target about the sustainable irrigation in the future, the farmers knowledge
about agriculture and O&M system must be improve. . It is recommended that (1)
empowering farmers or the Water Use Association must be done continual (2) The farmers
must be trainings on agriculture and irrigation system. (3) The recruitment of CO/TPM must
be through a selection with certain criteria because they play an important role as the
motivator and facilitator (4) The Saddang multipurpose dam must be constructed in upstream
of the existing Benteng barrage for anticipating the regulate flooding and for the irrigation
development including the existing environmental protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to committee of the 82nd ICOLD Annual Meeting and symposium to approve and let
this paper to be presented in the meeting for transferring and sharing the dams in global
environmental challenges knowledge among participants.
REFERENCES
A. Hafied A. Gany, (2007): Problems and Perspectives of Participatory Irrigation
Management Under The Small Land-Holding Condition: with a Special Reference to
Indonesian Practice, ICID Publisher, Tehran, Iran
A. Hafied A. Gany, (2013): Potensial Impacts Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Changes
on Resources and Irrigated Agriculture in Indonesia, INACID-ICID Publisher, Jakarta,
Indonesia
Anonym, (2012): No. 7 of 2004 Indonesia Law on Water Resources, DGWR Publisher,
Jakarta, Indonesia
Armi Susandi, (2004): The Impact of International Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction on
Indonesia, Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie Publisher, Hamburg, Deutschland
DGWR, Yayasan Air Adi Eka and JICA, (2013): River Management in Indonesia, DGWR
Publisher, Jakarta, Indonesia
EV Arntzen, S Niehus, BL Miller, M. Richmond and AC. O. Toole, (2013); Evaluating
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Hydropower Complexes on Large Rivers in Eastern
Washington, Elsevier International Journal Publisher, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
Nippon Koei Co., Ltd in associated with Local Consultant, (1999): Consulting Engineering
Services for Decentralized Irrigation System Improvement Project in Eastern Region of
Indonesia Phase II (DISIMP II), Nippon Koei Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia
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Philip H. Brown, Desiree Tullos, Bryan Tilt, Darrin Magee and Aaron T. Wolf, (2008):
Modeling the costs and benefits of dam construction from a multidisciplinary
perspective, Elsevier International Journal Publisher, San Diego, USA
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
ON THE PRE-CONSTRUCTION STAGE OF UCPS HEPP
DEVELOPMENT
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2(14pt)
T. Indora, A. Heryana & A. Nugroho
PT PLN (Persero)UIP VI , Bandung, Indonesia
tona.indora@pln.co.id
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
ABSTRACT:
Based on RUPTL 2012-2021, stated that PLN will prioritize the development of geothermal and
hydropower. These two types of energy can go into the power system whenever they are ready,
even though still must consider the power demand and the plan of another power plant
development. In the RUPTL 2012-2021 also mentioned that if there is a potential, PLN prefer the
power generation using hydro energy, such as pumped storage, peaking hydroelectric power plant
with the reservoir. Hydro energy potential as a renewable energy in Indonesia is quite high. One of
hydroelectric power plant that will be built by PLN is Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage
hydroelectric power plant (UCPS HEPP) which has a power of 1040 MW (4 x 260 MW). UCPS
HEPP will use two dams, Upper Dam and Lower Dam. The land area that must be acquired is
covering 765 Ha, consisting of citizen lands and forest lands. UCPS HEPP development will use
government loans from the World Bank (World Bank). The World Bank pays close attention for the
impact that will arise from projects which use their loans. This paper will discuss generally about
environmental management related to UCPS HEPP development plan on pre-construction stage,
both from the Indonesian government and the World Bank, which is contained in the EIA, Land
Acquisition and Resettlement Plan (LARAP) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP).
Keyword: HEPP, Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage, EIA, LARAP, EMP
1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical energy demand in Indonesia will increase along with the increasing of
population and economic development. Based on the Power Supply Business Plan 20122021, with projected population growth by an average of 1.6 to 1.7% and an average
economic growth of 6.9%, the projected electricity needs in 2021 amounted to 358, 3 TWh
(see Table 1.).
Electrical energy demand is not proportional to the availability of primary energy,
particularly derived from fossil. Meanwhile the primary energy from non-fossil has not
been fully utilized. Unconformity between the need and availability of the energy can pose
a threat the energy crises. Therefore, the government will not allow anymore power plant
development that would use fuel oil in its operations.
According to the Minister of Economy, Hatta Rajasa, in order to conserve the use of fuel in
this country, power plants must be built using the potential that exists in the area of
development. Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources, Jero Wacik, has four ways to
overcome the problem of energy in Indonesia. One way is to encourage the massive
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development of new and renewable energies. Among them are geothermal (30.000 MW),
hydropower (75.000 MW) and solar energy (50.000 MW).
Hydropower potential in Indonesia according to Hydro Power Potential Study (HPPS) in
1983 was 75.000 MW, and the figure is repeated again on the Hydro Power Inventory
Study in 1993. However on the report Master Plan Study for Hydro Power Development in
Indonesia by Nippon Koei in 2011, hydropower potential after further screening was
26.321 MW, consisting of projects that have been operating (4.338 MW), projects that
have been planned and are being constructed (5.956 MW) and new potential (16.027 MW).
Based on RUPTL 2012-2021, stated that PLN will prioritize the development of
geothermal and hydropower. These two types of energy can go into the power system
whenever they are ready, even though still must consider the power demand and the plan
of another power plant development. In the RUPTL 2012-2021 also mentioned that if there
is a potential, PLN prefer the power generation using hydro energy, such as pumped
storage, peaking hydroelectric power plant with the reservoir.
Table 1. Estimated Electrical Energy Demand and Electrification Ratio Growth Rates
2. UCPS HEPP
Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant (UCPS HEPP) will be
established with the main objective to improve the reliability of the electrical system of the
Java-Bali and bears peak loads. UCPS HEPP will utilize the hydropower potential of
Cisokan River and other nearby river flow located on the Sub Watershed of Cisokan
upstream areas. UCPS HEPP will be constructed in the geographic area of West Bandung
Regency and Cianjur Regency, West Java Province.
UCPS HEPP is designed using pumped storage system which is a system that is the first
and largest HEPP in Indonesia. UCPS HEPP will use two reservoirs, upper reservoir which
has the highest water level around 796.5 masl, will be made by stemming the Cirumanis
River (a tributary of Cisokan) and will be a puddle of ± 80 Ha, meanwhile the downstream
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reservoir (lower reservoir) which has the highest water level around 499,5 masl, will be
created by stemming the Cisokan River and will be a puddle of ± 260 Ha.
At peak load, the water will flow from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir to
generate electricity of 1.040 MW. While at base load, then the water will be pumped from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. The advantages to be gained from this
hydropower system is the revenue while generating electrical energy (when electricity
rates are high due to in the peak load time) after reduced by the cost to pump water from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir (when electricity rates are lower due to in the
base load time) and also reduced by other operating expenses.
Figure 1. Upper Reservoir and Lower Reservoir of UCPS HEPP
One of the advantages of UCPS HEPP is a necessity of smaller puddle than Saguling
HEPP or Cirata HEPP (see Table 2.).
Table 2. Comparison of Hydropower and Land Area
No.
1
2
3
HEPP
Saguling
Cirata
UCPS
Installed
Capacity
[MW]
700
1,000
1,040
Area of
Reservoir
[Ha]
5,600
6,300
340
Catchment
Capacity of Water
[million m3]
614
704
79
PT PLN (Persero) Unit Induk Pembangunan VI (PLN UIP VI) is given the task to control
the UCPS HEPP construction.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
Each power plant development will have an impact on the environment. PLN has a
challenge to be able to control even minimize the impact that will result from development
the power plant. UCPS HEPP development is in an area that has great potential impacts on
the environment, consisting of the changes in Geology-Physics, Biology and SocialEconomic-Culture. Since the funding for UCPS HEPP development comes from the loan
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of World Bank, the concern about the environment is given by the Government of
Indonesia as well as by the World Bank. The World Bank pays close attention for the
impact that will arise from projects which use their loans. The World Bank has a policy to
support projects that will result in significant environmental degradation. Considering the
environmental problems due to development UCPS HEPP is very broad, then in this paper
will be presented a general overview of the challenges related to environmental
requirements in the pre-construction phase of UCPS HEPP development as follows:
3.1. EIA
In preparation for the construction of UCPS HEPP, PLN has conducted EIA studies in
2007, which was fitted with a study for the construction of 500 kV SUTET (2008) and
Acess Road development, Quarry and Fly Ash (2011). The challenges contained in the
EIA documents in the pre-construction phase, as shown in Table 3. below:
Table 3. Large and Important Impact On Pre-Construction Phase
No.
Activity
Big and Important Impact
1. Land Acquisition 1. Social unrest ofthe Project Affected People due to the administrative
requirements of land rights on the land acquisition process + the emergence of
land speculators.
2. Social unrest of the land owners due to the compensation that does not comply
with community expectations.
3. Social unrest of cultivators of land (landless) because it does not have the land to
stay or to earn a living.
4. Reduction in land ownership lead to reduction in revenue.
2. Resettlement
1. Social unrest in the plans area of i nundation because of concerns about
resettlement and life in a new place.
2. Social unrest in the resettlement plan (the recipient resident).
3.2. Land Acquisition and Resettlement Action Plan (LARAP)
The purpose of the preparation of the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Action Plan
(LARAP) of the Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage HEPP is to prepare a report relating to
land acquisition and resettlement for people who their land will be used by PLN (Persero)
in the project planning and decision-making as a tool for the prospective donor. The
objective as follows:
1. To mitigate negative impacts of land acquisition activities, as a result the Project
Affected People (PAP) will not decrease the level of their life.
2. To give opportunity to the PAP to participate in the development process.
3. To obtain accurate data about the PAP and other data in accordance with the guidelines
applied in Indonesia and guidance of the prospective donors (World Bank), as
consideration for the implementation of LARAP.
4. To disseminate LARAP to the public associated with the transfer of assets, with the
aim to obtain the same perceptions and early get feedback from the PAP.
5. To develop guidance / general propose of the resettlement plan for displaced PAP.
6. To provide grievance redress mechanism and monitoring and evaluation procedure of
the LARAP implementation.
7. To formulate policies on complying the needs between GOI’s regulation and the World
Bank.
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From the results of the LARAP there are some important things that need to be followed
up, as follows:
1. Community Response to Resettlement Plan
2. Formation of Land Acquisition Committee (LAC/P2T)
3. Formation of Independent Appraisal Agency licensed of the National Land Agency
(BPN)
4. Formation of Resettlement Policy Formulating Team (RPFT) and Resettlement
Implementing Team (RIT)
5. Formation of Grievances Task Force
6. Formation of Independent Monitoring Agency
7. Report Submission of Involved Institution
3.3 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
UCPS HEPP has a comprehensive scheme of environmental management plan set out in
the Environmental Management Plan (EMP). This Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) identifies methods for PT PLN (Persero) to control and/or minimize the
environmental and social impacts of construction and operational activities associated with
the 1.040 MW Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydro Electric Power Plant and 500 kV
Transmission Line. Implementation of this EMP will ensure that PLN, its contractors,
consultants, and subsidiary companies undertake construction and operation of the Scheme
with due regard to protecting and providing for the natural and social environment.
Social and environmental aspects that were identified in EMP studies that must be
completed in the pre-construction phase are as follows:
1. Permitting
2. Land Acquisition
3. Resettlement Plan
These three things mentioned above will be studied more deeply in a separate document
which is LARAP.
In addition, there are several things that must be prepared before the pre-construction work
begins, as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Construction and Workers’ Camp Management Plan
Reservoir Land Clearance Management Plan
Social and Community Management Plan
Physical Cultural Resources Management Plan
Biodiversity Management Plan
Access Road Construction Environmental Management Plan
Transmission Line Environmental Management Plan
Quarry Environmental Management Plan
Operational Environmental Management Plan
a. Social and Community Relations Plan
b. Biodiversity Management Plan
c. Dams and Reservoir Management Plan
d. Watershed Management Plan
I - 246
4. ACTION PLAN
4.1 EIA
Based on the Environmental Management Plan, PLN got a mandate to do things as listed in
Table 4.
Table 4. Environmental Management Plan
No.
Activity
Environmental Management Plan
1. Land Acquisition 1. The initiator, through the Land Acquisition Team conduct socialization in
cooperation with relevant agencies and involve community leaders, and all
stakeholders.
2. The initiator conduct meetings with the community to be affected by the project,
to discuss issues related to determining the amount of compensation and to
provide education on the use of cash compensation and compensation for useful
purposes.
3. Land acquisition system and the amount of compensation should be guided by
the applicable laws and regulations.
4. Especially for the landless will be handled refer to the Implementation
Procedures of the World Bank OP 4.12 on involuntary resettlement.
2. Resettlement
1. The initiator conduct deliberation with the communities that will be moved as
well as receiving communities to talk about resident displacement plans.
2. The initiator provide training to the people who will be moved primarily related
to new business which could be developed at the site of the new settlement.
4.2 LARAP
4.2.1 Community response to resettlement plan
PLN pays attention to the response arising from the Project Affected People to their
resettlement plan. There are two categories of responses that arise. The first category is
Project Affected People who want their resettlement managed by PLN, and the second
category is Project Affected People who want to move on their own volition.
Steps need to be taken:
A. Resettlement site managed by the government/project
1. PLN propose a permit to the District of Bandung Barat and Province of West Java to
use Kampung Munjul, Bojong village, Rongga sub-district, West Bandung district,
Kampung Pasir Taritih, Margaluyu village, Cibeber sub-district, Cianjur district; and
Kampung Nagrak, Giri Mulya village, Cibeber sub-district, Cianjur district.,as a
proposed resettlement site.
2. After the government permit has been granted, PLN conduct a feasibility study and
environmental carrying capacity for those two resettlement sites.
3. Site visit and consultation regarding location and perception of the PAPs.
4. Decision of resettlement site based on study result.
5. Consultation with PAPs on early design on resettlement plan and associated economic
measures based on local characteristics.
I - 247
6. Design and physical construction of resettlement including other facilities required by
the PAPs
7. Relocation of the PAPs to the resettlement site.
8. Monitoring and “treatment” to new settlers, covering socio-psychological aspects, and
economic development.
B. Resettlement on their own
1. The government should provide the PAPs with information on the development plan of
the sites that desired by the PAPs (in the surrounding project area).
2. Guiding and giving assistance to the PAPs who want to move out on their own with
small scale economic development.
3. The PAPs who want to move out by group (minimal 30 households) will be provided
with facilities such as road, drainage, and other necessary public facilities supported
financially by the PLN. To realize this promise, the PLN will establish a resettlement
unit with close working coordination with the resettlement implementing team.
4. Monitoring on economic development.
4.2.2 Formation of Land Acquisition Committee (P2T/LAC)
PLN will hand over the responsibility to the Government of West Java Province to
establish and set the Land Acquisition Committee (LAC) in West Java province, and at the
level of West Bandung Regency and Cianjur Regency. Aside from the LAC, Joint Team of
Local Government and PLN for Non Title Holders will do tasks to comply with the World
Bank OP 4.12. Joint Team will inventory personal investment of non title holders who may
have asset in the form of physical structures or agricultural crops.
4.2.3 Formation of Independent Appraisal Agency licensed of the National Land Agency
(BPN)
Land Price Appraisal Institution (licensed by BPN) is appointed to conduct the assessment
of land prices in this project. The independent appraisal consultants will determine
eligibility by following the LARAP criteria, of non title holders who may have asset in the
form of physical structures or agricultural crop of personal investment and appraising their
asset values. They will also assess the assistance eligibility for them.
4.2.4 Formation of Resettlement Policy Formulating Team (RPFT) and Resettlement
Implementing Team (RIT)
Resettlement Policy Formulating Team is an institution, which review resettlement
formula produced by consultants of LARAP to appropriate local government policy. The
resettlement Implementation Team will coordinate all resettlement implementation
activities, including through setting up assistance and restoration of social and economic
life/income of PAP after developing project.
4.2.5 Formation of Grievances Task Force
The Task Force consists of PLN Officers and the hired experts. It has two main tasks
namely the first as an accompaniment to the people or PAP during this project; and the
second to accommodate and facilitate the public grievances related to the implementation
of this project.
4.2.6 Formation of Independent Monitoring Agency
I - 248
This team has function to monitor and directly serves as the implementing agencies and
monitors the impact evaluation of the overall project implementation.
4.3 EMP
EMP is a living document. Thus, all the information in the EMP must be kept up to date on
environmental management and monitoring plan which are considered no longer in line
with the original plan. Moreover PLN need to rearrange a more implementable plan if the
management plan listed in the EMP is still a general guideline.
In outline Biodiversity Management Plan has been prepared and become one of the subplans under the EMP. Biodiversity management plan requires more effort to be completed
and be implemented before construction activities begin.
BMP should provide clear guidance on how to protect and restore the habitat at the project
site, as well as protecting and managing endangered species. It is expected that
implementation of BMPs through an adaptive approach. This requires periodic monitoring
of implementation, and plans which are flexible to allow for changes in the approach
(depending on the implementation and problems in the field)
5. CONCLUSION
From the above discussion there are several conclusions as follows:
1. Environmental management in relation to the construction of a hydropower plant that
uses the World Bank funds are complex activities involving many parties.
2. The results of LARAP are details of social aspect management efforts which are not
studied exhaustively in the EIA.
3. EMP document is a guide for PLN, Supervision Consultants and Contractors in
carrying out the construction and operation of UCPS HEPP. Some parts of the EMP
document must be rearranged to obtain more implementable plans.
REFERENCES
Rencana Usaha Penyediaan Tenaga Listrik PT PLN (Persero) 2012 – 2021.
Plasadana-Content Slution Agency. (2012): Pembangkit Berbahan Bakar Minyak, Sampai
Di sini, http://plasadana.com/content.php?id=1386
Kompas.com. (2013): Empat Cara Atasi Krisis Energi ala Jero Wacik.
http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2013/10/21/1256087/Empat.Cara.Atasi.Krisis.
Energi.ala.Jero.Wacik.
PT PLN (Persero) Proyek Induk Pembangkit dan Jaringan Jawa, Bali dan Nusa TenggaraProyek Pembangkit dan Jaringan Jawa Barat. (2007): Rencana Pengelolaan
Lingkungan PLTA Cisokan Hulu (Pumped Storage), Bandung, Indonesia.
PT PLN (Persero) and LPPM Unpad. (2011): Laporan Akhir LARAP Upper Cisokan Pump
Storage, Bandung, Indonesia.
PT PLN (Persero). (2011): Final Environmental Management Plan Upper Cisokan
Pumped Storage Hidro Power Scheme, Bandung, Indonesia.
I - 249

Study of Social and Economic Impacts of Construction of

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