JUE Issue 1 (whole) - The Journal for Undergraduate Ethnography

Issue 1 2011
“A dream for me”: Idioms of progress among Peruvian migrants in Madrid by Alfredo Aguirre ............................... 01
An Ethnographic Study of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery by Mary-Lynn Allar ............................................................ 18
Dumpster Dinners: An Ethnographic Study of Freeganism by Victoria C. Moré ............................................................. 43
Acknowledging the Stigmatized: Sex Offenders and Their Outlooks Versus Women in Relationships
with Incarcerated Men and their Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System by Caroline Womer ......................... 56
REVIEW: The War for the Heart and Soul of a Highland Maya Town by Will Gossett ............................................... 70
couple of years ago I taught my depar tment’s
Senior Thesis course. All of our majors designed
and executed individual research projects, many of
XLIQIXLRSKVETLMIW8LIGPEWW[EWMRXIRWI½PPIH[MXLRI[HEXE
and covering a range of anthropological and sociological topics.
And then…all their papers ended up shelved under my desk.
I began to imagine all of the wonderful projects sitting on
shelves or gathering digital dust on hard drives. That is not
the goal of academia. So what to do with these papers?
In his recent essay in the American Sociological Association’s
Community and Urban Sociology Section’s newsletter, Jon
Smajda smartly outlines a possible answer to the question.
He writes, “Publishing early, often, and out in the open requires
a change in our culture and attitude towards our writing, our
research, and our image as scholars.”
The Journal for Undergraduate Ethnography is such a place.
This is an open-access, online journal. There are no subscriptions or paywall. The goal is to create an engaging set of new
ethnographies. We hope to encourage current undergraduates.
This journal seeks to counter lingering skepticism towards
online academic writing in the social sciences and humanities.
We see our endeavor as part of a broader movement to
create open-access content in the academy while maintaining
peer-review practices. We use a board of undergraduates to
staff our Student Board.These students conduct the initial rounds
of reviews. Our Senior Board members then supplement with
follow-up reviews.
welcome
We are thrilled with the international,
multi-disciplinary response. We chose a
set of papers that stake out a large territory covering consumption practices,
identity navigation, and community recognition. Using a combination of methods – ethnography, interviews, content
analysis, and historical records – these
RI[WGLSPEVWWLS[EFVIEHXLSJ½RHMRKW
Alfredo Aguirre interacts with the lives of
international migrants as they develop a
sense of identity and progress via consumIVMWQ1EV]0]RR%PPEVGSRHYGXW½IPH[SVO
in a small, rural cemetery to understand
a community. Victoria C. Moré discovers
an informal market premised on the nonmonetary exchange of goods. Caroline
Womer gives a nuanced account of the
self-understandings undertaken by women
in relationships with sex offenders. We
conclude with Will Gossett’s review of the
new edition of Robert S. Carlsen’s The
War for the Heart and Soul of a Highland
Maya Town.
Thank you to the Student Board and
Senior Board for your amazing work.
Thank you to all the different contributors of ideas. Finally, if you are interested
in contributing a paper or review please
contact us.
2S[XSXLI½IPH
Issue 17TVMRK2011
“A dream for me”: Idioms of progress among Peruvian migrants in Madrid
Alfredo Aguirre
EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, AJAGUIR@EMORY.EDU
Abstract
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from Peru in the 1980s, Spain has represented for many Peruvians the possibility of realizing aspirations to socioeconomic
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of superación (overcoming, surmounting) in contextualizing migrants’ desires for socioeconomic improvement. As an
ideology of individual and collective progress intimately tied to Peruvian histories of violence, superación TVSQMWIWXSFIRI½X
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that desires for superaciónEQSRK4IVYZMERQMKVERXWSJXIRFYXXVIWWIHEQSVEPGSRHYGXXS[EVHXLIMVJEQMP] VIKMSR ERHREXMSR
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conceptions of progress in the face of Spain’s decadent modernity and hostile racism. Lastly, I investigate the relationship
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in the same kind of class and racial exclusions that subtend superación.-GSRGPYHIF]TSMRXMRKXS[EVHXLIQ]VMEHREVVEXMZIW
and subjects of progress at play in transnational settings, and suggest that rather than subscribe to models of migrant
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I: INTRODUCTION
FROM IKEA TO PERU AND BACK AGAIN
Even for Madrid in the summertime, it was an
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meal of arroz con pollo (rice with chicken) and papa a
la huancaína (Huancayo-style potatoes), two staples of
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of day when even the heat in the shadows is unbearable.
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to entertain ourselves in fully air-conditioned space, and
[IEKVIIHMRWXERXP]1 Carmen had invited my roommate,
Anita, and me over to her house that day for lunch, as
she had promised many times ever since I arrived in
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like I knew Carmen well, perhaps because Anita talked
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As Anita’s coworker in the souvenir shop where she
worked part-time, Carmen was a predominant character
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altercation with a coworker, Carmen was almost always
on her side—as Anita explained to me, she was the only
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her, and thus trusted her more than anyone else.
to “pasearse” (take a walk), 2the kinds of attitudes and
affective responses elicited by the company’s products
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also dramatized the various tensions that Peruvians must
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We eventually found relief from the heat in the
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we accompanied Anita as she searched for shoes,
shirts, and jewelry. After a couple of hours of aimless
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which happened to be connected to the mall. As part
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templates and miniature reconstructions of real rooms:
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repeatedly expressed her desire to furnish her future
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head with ideas, templates, and products, you end up in
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illusion, and the ice cream and Swedish meatballs offered
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over the next few days, was a particularly apt location for
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In this article, I propose to explore the idioms and
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poverty. In the next section, I discuss the importance of
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of Spanish modernity. Finally, I discuss consumerism and
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1
2
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that cast into doubt ideas of linear socioeconomic mobility...
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to their hometown communities, broader national and
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MIGRATION AND IDIOMS OF PROGRESS
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of the Peruvians I spoke with was the need to improve
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in Peru, while some had connections to family members
abroad who facilitated the process.These desires for social
betterment must be situated within the transnational
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by the need for cheap domestic workers and caretakers in
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their experiences of lack in Peru to their sense of
socioeconomic security in Spain. For many Peruvians,
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that cast into doubt ideas of linear socioeconomic mobility
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must take into account the symbolic dimensions of
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were invoked in its articulation, and what perspectives for
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of social and economic advancement—from the
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complexities were compounded by the multiplicity
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from Peru overlap with broader discourses of Spanish
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discourses, narratives, and tropes of social and economic
improvement—will be referred to by a variety of terms,
1
The JUE Issue 1
3
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along racial, class, and regional lines.
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will also implicate other important concepts, such as
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the term. For instance, in this article, I critique linear
models of social betterment from my point of view as a
researcher; but at the same time, many of the Peruvian
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particular context.
METHODS
This article is based on observations collected
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for research in human subjects, I conducted participant
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festivities to cook Peruvian food with my roommate,
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prospects or to improve their family’s socioeconomic
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Madrid, many of the Peruvians I met either wanted to
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Just as I myself am invested in modernity’s narratives
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I befriended. In many cases, I was cast into certain roles
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told me that I reminded her of Carlos, a son she left back
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In addition, this research resonated powerfully with my
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the identities I have been exposed to and which I have
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was thus an endeavor imbued with my experiences of
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themselves socially, economically, and politically into
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also inseparable from the “particular valuation” accorded
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[IEVIEPPEGXMZIP]IRKEKIHERHSJ[LMGLXLIWXEOIWEVIXLI
ZIV]JSYRHEXMSRWSJ±EKIRG]WSGMEPMX]ERHVITVSHYGMFMPMX]²
%TTEHYVEM %PXLSYKL Perú Fusión cleverly
QEOIW WSGMEP MRXIKVEXMSR E TL]WMGEP TSWWMFMPMX] XLVSYKL
XLIL]FVMHM^EXMSRSJGYMWMRIWHMWGSYVWIWSJMRXIKVEXMSRJEMP
XS XEOI MRXS EGGSYRX ERH MR JEGX KPSWW SZIV XLI HMZIVWI
PSGEPMXMIW XLEX QMKVERXW QYWX VIHI½RI ERH GLEPPIRKI MR
their attempt to construct a viable version of the social.
0SGEPMX] FIGSQIW ER IWTIGMEPP] YWIJYP VYFVMG FIGEYWI
REVVEXMZIWSJTVSKVIWWEPWSLEZIXLIEFMPMX]XSQSHYPEXI
1
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XLI VIPEXMSRWLMTW FIX[IIR QMKVERX WYFNIGXW ERH XLI
QYPXMTPIGSRXI\XW4IVYZMERWQYWXRIKSXMEXIMR7TEMR
1] I\GYVWMSR XLVSYKL -/)%´W [MRHMRK TEXLW [MXL
Carmen, Julia, and Anita allowed me to experience
WSQIXLMRK SJ XLI GSRXVEHMGXMSRW GLEPPIRKIW ERH
LEVQSRMIW SJ TVSHYGMRK PSGEPMX] EW E QMKVERX MR 7TEMR
&YX Q] XVERWREXMSREP -/)% I\TIVMIRGI EPWS XLVI[ MRXS
VIPMIJXLIQYPXMXYHMRSYWREVVEXMZIWSJTVSKVIWW4IVYZMER
QMKVERXWQYWXGSRXIRH[MXL°FSXLXLIPSGEPEVXMGYPEXMSRW
of superación in Peruvian contexts and broader discourses
of Spanish modernity. By turns linear and circular, real
ERHMPPYWSV]TVSKVIWWMWVMJI[MXLEQFMKYMXMIWEWQMKVERXW
wish for a better life and individual, familial, and national
FIXXIVQIRX %W 4VMFMPWO] EVKYIW KIXXMRK ELIEH MW RSX
WMQTP] E QSRIXEV] GEPGYPEXMSR TVSKVIWW VEXLIV MW XLI
EVXMGYPEXMSR±SJERI[WXERHEVHSJPMZMRK²XLEXRIKSXMEXIW
GPEMQW XS HMJJIVIRGI REXMSREP VIKMSREP VEGMEP ERH
EWTMVEXMSRWSJQSHIVRMX]4VMFMPWO]%RHEW-
IPEFSVEXIFIPS[XLIWIQ]VMEHHMWGSYVWIWSJTVSKVIWWLEZI
WMKRM½GERX IJJIGXW SR QMKVERX WYFNIGXMZMXMIW°RSX WMQTP]
MRHYGMRKEGSQTPIXIEWWMQMPEXMSRSJ7TERMWLGYPXYVIFYX
EPWSWXVIRKXLIRMRKEWIRWISJ4IVYZMERMHIRXMX]MRXMQEXIP]
intertwined with narratives of morality and family.
II: 100 YEARS APART: SUPERACIÓN, RACE,
AND MORAL PROGRESS
(YVMRK XLI GSYVWI SJ Q] ½IPH[SVO - FIKER XS
RSXMGI XLEX%RMXE Q] VSSQQEXI [EW VIGSYRXMRK RSX E
WMRKYPEV REVVEXMZI SJ QMKVEXMSR FYX QYPXMTPI REVVEXMZIW
that sometimes seemed to contradict one another. For
MRWXERGI[LIR-½VWXEVVMZIHMR1EHVMH%RMXEI\TPEMRIH
that one of the major reasons she chose to come to
7TEMR[EWXLITSWWMFMPMX]SJ[SVOMRKERHWXYH]MRKEXXLI
same time, an opportunity she did not have in Peru. Other
QMKVERXWWLEVIHXLMWWIRXMQIRXERHMRHIIH[SVOMRKERH
WXYH]MRK [EW TSWWMFPI;LIR - EVVMZIH%RMXE [EW HSMRK
NYWX XLMW KSMRK XS WGLSSP MR XLI QSVRMRKW ERH [SVOMRK
in the afternoons; Anita also occasionally expressed her
desire to become some kind of health provider, such as
ERYVWI,S[IZIVEWXMQI[IRXSR%RMXEVERYTEKEMRWX
EZEVMIX]SJHMJ½GYPXMIWMRGPYHMRKJEMPMRKSRISJLIVXIWXW
MRWGLSSPERHF]XLIXMQI-PIJXXLMRKWRSPSRKIVWIIQIH
to be so simple. Anita took on the full-time shift at
the souvenir shop and explained that she did not see
XLI WIRWI MR XEOMRK LMKL WGLSSP GPEWWIW ERH KIXXMRK LIV
HMTPSQEMR7TEMR[LIRWLIGSYPHIEWMP]FIXEOMRKQSVI
practical courses that would teach her job-related skills.
Anita’s decision to take the full-time shift was
MRXIVIWXMRK FIGEYWI MX WIIQIH XS GSRXVEHMGX LIV MRMXMEP
MHIEWSJ7TERMWLSTTSVXYRMXMIWJSVTVSKVIWW[LMGLMRGPYHIH
KEMRJYPIQTPS]QIRXIHYGEXMSRERHTVSJIWWMSREPM^EXMSR-R
LIV EVXMGPI SR )GYEHSVMER QMKVERXW MR 7TEMR +MSGSRHE
Mosquera resists linear conceptions of socioeconomic
TVSKVIWW ERH TSMRXW XS XLI LMKLP] GSRXMRKIRX REXYVI SJ
experiences of social mobility. One of her informants,
1EXMPHIFSEWXIHXLEXXLVSYKLIQTPS]QIRXEWEHSQIWXMG
[SVOIVWLI[EWEFPIXSVIPSGEXILIV½ZIGLMPHVIRXS7TEMR
JVSQ)GYEHSV1EXMPHI´WKSEPSJVIYRMXMRKLIVJEQMP]EFVSEH
EPPS[IHLIV±XS[SVOMRNSFW[LMGLWLI[EWSZIVUYEPM½IH
JSVERH[LIVIXLI[SVOMRKGSRHMXMSRWLEZIRSXEP[E]W
FIIRIEW]%JXIVXIR]IEVWSJLEZMRKMQQMKVEXIH1EXMPHI
-RHIIHMRQER]SJQ]GSRZIVWEXMSRW[MXL4IVYZMERQMKVERXWXLI
MQTSVXERGISJIHYGEXMSR[EWVITIEXIHP]WXVIWWIH[LIXLIVMX[EWMR
XLIGSRXI\XSJQMKVERXW´S[RIHYGEXMSRSVXLIIHYGEXMSRSJXLIMVOMR
had not improved her social status, but she had achieved
IGSRSQMG MRHITIRHIRGI² 1SWUYIVE 3 9RPMOI
1EXMPHI XLSYKL LIV ]SYRKIV HEYKLXIV I\TIVMIRGIH
QMKVEXMSRVEXLIVRIKEXMZIP]MRWXIEHSJHIHMGEXMRKLIVXMQI
to her education as she did in Ecuador, she was forced
to work as a caretaker in Spain, which she found to be
±I\XVIQIP] YRTPIEWERX² 1SWUYIVE In this
account, Mosquera questions the modes by which we
NYHKIWSGMEPTVSKVIWWMRGSRXI\XWSJXVERWREXMSREPQSFMPMX]
Matilde’s experiences of autonomy in Spain (despite
LEZMRK [SVOIH EW ER EGGSYRXMRK EWWMWXERX MR )GYEHSV
WYKKIWX XLEX XLI WSGMEP XVENIGXSVMIW SJ QMKVERX WYFNIGXW
cannot simply be reduced to the terms of remuneration
or employment. In addition, the disjuncture between
XLI I\TIVMIRGIW SJ 1EXMPHI ERH LIV HEYKLXIV LMKLPMKLX
XLI GSRXI\XHITIRHIRX ZEPYIW XLEX QMKVERXW EWWMKR XS
QMKVEXMSR ERH MXW EWWSGMEXIH WSGMSIGSRSQMG GLERKIW
8EOMRKENSFMRHSQIWXMG[SVOMR7TEMR[EWFIRI½GMEPJSV
1EXMPHIFIGEYWIXLIMRXIKVMX]SJLIVJEQMP][EWEXWXEOI
[LIVIEW JSV LIV HEYKLXIV QMKVEXMSR QIERX VIRSYRGMRK
opportunities for education.
-R SVHIV XS FIXXIV YRHIVWXERH QMKVERXW´ VIT
VIWIRXEXMSRW SJ WSGMSIGSRSQMG GLERKI I\TIVMIRGIW SJ
QMKVEXMSRERHTVSKVIWWQYWXFIWMXYEXIH[MXLMRXLIHMZIVWI
MHMSQW JSV HIWGVMFMRK WSGMEP FIXXIVQIRX LMIVEVGL] ERH
difference in Peru. In her book, The Circulation of Children:
Kinship, Adoption, and Morality in Andean Peru, Jessaca
0IMRE[IEZIV EREP]^IW TVSKVIWW XLVSYKL XLI MHISPSK] SJ
“superación” SZIVGSQMRK WYVQSYRXMRK [LMGL RSX SRP]
QIERW KIXXMRK ELIEH WSGMEPP] ERH IGSRSQMGEPP] FYX EPWS
SZIVGSQMRK SRI´W GSRWXVEMRXW Superación is a cultural
3,4
PSKMG XLEX SRP] QEOIW WIRWI MR PMKLX SJ 4IVY´W I\XVIQI
MRIUYEPMXMIWERHVEGMEPHMZMWMSRW%W0IMRE[IEZIVI\TPEMRW
TSZIVX]ERH-RHMERRIWWLEZIFIIRXMKLXP]PMROIHMR4IVY´W
LMWXSV] ERH WS VIJIVIRGIW XS TSZIVX] SV MRHMKIRSYW
TISTPISJXIRMQTP]SRIERSXLIV0IMRE[IEZIV
11). SuperaciónFIGSQIWWYGLETS[IVJYPMHISPSK]FIGEYWI
it promises to both overcome poverty and break free
SJ QEVOIVW SJ MRHMKIRIMX] XLEX EVI HMWTEVEKIH MR 4IVY´W
HSQMRERXGYPXYVEPGPMQEXI8LMWGSYPHQIERER]XLMRKJVSQ
HVIWWMRKMREQSVI;IWXIVRWX]PIXSEFERHSRMRK5YIGLYE
MR JEZSV SJ 7TERMWL ERH PMZMRK MR XLI GMX] MRWXIEH SJ XLI
VYVEPGSYRXV]WMHI0IMRE[IEZIV
;LMPIMRXLI½IPHMRXLILMKLPERHGMX]SJ%]EGYGLS
0IMRE[IEZIVRSXMGIHXLEXXEPOSJsuperación often referred
to education as a way out of poverty. Indeed, in many of
Q]GSRZIVWEXMSRW[MXL4IVYZMERQMKVERXWXLIMQTSVXERGI
of education was repeatedly stressed, whether it was in
XLIGSRXI\XSJQMKVERXW´S[RIHYGEXMSRSVXLIIHYGEXMSR
SJXLIMVOMR*SV%RMXEMX[EWEKVEZIHMWETTSMRXQIRXRSX
to be able to continue her studies: she often lamented
that she would have been able to study had she had family
XS WYTTSVX LIV ½RERGMEPP]%W 0IMRE[IEZIV EVKYIW±-R E
GSRXI\XMR[LMGL³TIEWERXW´MWSJ½GMEPP]GSHIJSV³-RHMERW´
IHYGEXMSRMWEXIGLRMUYIJSVHMZIWXMRKSRIWIPJSJGIVXEMR
IXLRMGQEVOIVW²0IMRE[IEZIV)HYGEXMSREWE
XIGLRSPSK]SJWSGMEPM^EXMSRLEWXLITSXIRXEFMPMX]XSEPMKR
XLIMRHMKIRSYWWYFNIGX[MXLFVSEHIVHMWGSYVWIWSJGYPXYVEP
literacy, professionalization, and modernity—but at the
I\TIRWISJWYFSVHMREXMRKERHQEVKMREPM^MRKMRHMKIRIMX]
My translation
1
The JUE Issue 1
Mari’s sense of responsibility to her employment and household effectively
situates her as a viable subject of transnational superación in Spain.
Anita’s desires for education not only invoke the
VEGMEPLMIVEVGLMIWSJ%]EGYGLSXLIGMX]MR[LMGLWLIKVI[
YTFYXEPWSEQSVEPHMQIRWMSRSJTVSKVIWWXLEX[MPPFI
MRHMWTIRWEFPI XS YRHIVWXERHMRK 4IVYZMER QMKVEXMSR XS
7TEMR%PXLSYKL%RMXEERHQER]SXLIVQMKVERXW[IVIYREFPI
to study and work at the same time in Spain, they were
profoundly invested in the qualities of industriousness
ERH LSRIWX] GLEVEGXIVMWXMG SJ XLI HMWGMTPMRMRK WTEGI SJ
XLIWGLSSP-RERMRXIVZMI[JSVMRWXERGI1EVMEQMKVERX
JVSQ 4MYVE ERH8IVIWE E QMKVERX JVSQ%]EGYGLS FSXL
described how some of their coworkers would become
QMWXVIWWIW SJ XLIMV 7TERMWL FSWWIW 3RGI EJXIV RSXMGMRK
her boss’s pleasure with Mari’s work, a coworker asked
her what she had done to him (“¿qué le has hecho al
viejo?² MRWMRYEXMRK XLEX 1EVM LEH FIGSQI XLI FSWW´W
lover. However, Mari simply responded that she was just
HSMRKLIVNSF*SV1EVMXLIMRXIKVMX]SJLIV[SVOWTSOI
JSV MXWIPJ WLI [EW I\TIVMIRGMRK WYGGIWW XLVSYKL LSRIWX
MRHYWXVMSYWRIWWRSXF]WIPPMRKLIVFSH]
In her discussion of child circulation in Ayacucho,
0IMRE[IEZIV EVKYIW XLEX superación as an “individual
IJJSVX°SZIVGSQMRK SRI´W S[R GSRHMXMSRW°MW E QSVEP
act: it occurs within a social web of relations who will,
MHIEPP] FIRI½X EW [IPP² 0IMRE[IEZIV )ZIR
XLSYKLKIXXMRKELIEH[EWSJXIRHIWGVMFIHEWETIVWSREP
IRHIEZSV EW MR 1EVM´W EGGSYRX QMKVERXW JVEQIH XLIMV
superaciónMRXLIFVSEHIVXIVQWSJJEQMP]VIKMSRERHXLI
Peruvian nation. As Mari once explained to me, she and
her older brother were the only ones in her family to
PIEZI XLIMV WQEPP ZMPPEKI SYXWMHI SJ 4MYVE 7LI I\TPEMRIH
that she had to “superarse”KIXELIEHSZIVGSQIMRSVHIV
XS WYTTSVX LIV WMFPMRKW ERH TEVIRXW FEGO LSQI -RHIIH
QSWX QMKVERXW - WTSOI [MXL VIKYPEVP] WIRX VIQMXXERGIW
FEGO XS XLIMV VIPEXMZIW MR 4IVY WSQIXMQIW GSRXVMFYXMRK
a major source of revenue for these family members. A
scrupulous work ethic thus allowed Mari to re-articulate
a variety of interpretations of superación that not only
emphasized her disciplined behavior in the workplace,
FYX EPWS YRHIVWGSVIH XLI QSVEP ZEPIRGIW SJ EMHMRK LIV
family. Mari’s sense of responsibility to her employment
and household effectively situates her as a viable subject
of transnational superación in Spain.
Mari recalled once that Spain was always “un sueño
para mí” (a dream for me). The realization of this dream
LEWLEHEWMKRM½GERXMQTEGXSRLIVJEQMP]FYXJSV1EVMLIV
QMKVEXMSR XS 7TEMR LEW EPWS LEH E TSWMXMZI MR¾YIRGI SR
FVSEHIVGSQQYRMXMIWLIVLSYWILSPHMWETEVXSJ(YVMRK
ER MRXIVZMI[ 1EVM EJ½VQIH XLEX WLI EP[E]W [ERXIH XS
help her “pueblo²ZMPPEKILSQIXS[R7MQMPEVWIRXMQIRXW
SJ VIKMSREP PS]EPX] [IVI I\TVIWWIH F] SXLIV QMKVERXW -
WTSOI [MXL %W 4VMFMPWO] SFWIVZIH MR LMW ½IPH[SVO MR
)GYEHSVERH2I[=SVOGEWL¾S[JVSQQMKVERXWGERLEZI
profound consequences on the social hierarchies and
material economies of hometowns. Pribilsky’s informants
MR.EXYRHIPIKEKVIIHXLEXVIQMXXERGIWLEHPIHXSVIKMSREP
HIZIPSTQIRXWYGLEWERRYEPVSEHVITEMVW4VMFMPWO]
,S[IZIV 1EVM´W YWI SJ XLI [SVH pueblo could also
QIER PEVKIV GSRXI\XW MR [LMGL LIV XS[R MW WMXYEXIH°
MRGPYHMRK XLI 2SVXLIVR VIKMSR SJ 4IVY SV XLI GSYRXV]
MXWIPJ -R JEGX XLI TVSKVIWW SJ MRHMZMHYEP 4IVYZMERW SJXIR
paralleled their discussions of national advancement as
[IPP *SV MRWXERGI [LIR - MRXIVZMI[IH .EZMIV E QMKVERX
from the Northern city of Trujillo, he expressed his
wish that Peru modernize: he explained that Peru and
7TEMREVIEFSYX]IEVWETEVXMRWSGMEPERHIGSRSQMG
development.
(IWTMXI XLIWI [MWLIW XLI superación of individual
4IVYZMERWHMHRSXEP[E]WQEXGLYT[MXL4IVY´WTVSKVIWW
As Javier recounted, he left Trujillo precisely because his
country was in bad shape, politically and economically. It
[EWFIGEYWILIQMKVEXIHXLEXLIVSWIJVSQEGSRHMXMSR
of poverty to a social class he described as “normal.” And
NYWXEWXLIREXMSREPVIKMSREPERHMRHMZMHYEPXVENIGXSVMIWSJ
TVSKVIWWEVIRSXW]RGLVSRM^IH[MXLIEGLSXLIVXLI]EVI
EPWSWYFNIGXXSXLIZEKEVMIWSJXLIKPSFEPIGSRSQ].EZMIV
GSRJIWWIHXSQIHYVMRKERMRXIVZMI[XLEXLIJIEVWJEPPMRK
JVSQLMWWSGMSIGSRSQMGTSWMXMSRXSIZIRPS[IVVYRKWSR
the social ladder: you turn into an animal, he added. Such
GSQQIRXW MRZSOIH XLI YRGIVXEMRXMIW SJ E KPSFEP SVHIV
XLEXGSYPHEXER]QSQIRXHMWEHZERXEKI4IVY´WTSTYPEXMSR
SRMRHMZMHYEPVIKMSREPERHREXMSREPWGEPIW
.EZMIV´W JIEV SJ XYVRMRK MRXS ER±ERMQEP² EPWS TSMRXW
XSXLITIVWMWXIRGISJVEGMEPERHGPEWWLMIVEVGLMIWEQSRK
4IVYZMER QMKVERXW MR 7TEMR;LIR .EZMIV I\TPEMRIH XLEX
4IVY ERH 7TEMR EVI ]IEVW ETEVX MR HIZIPSTQIRX
XLI MHMSQ SJ XLI REXMSR GSRNYVIH XLI IRXERKPIH PSKMGW
SJTSZIVX]ERHMRHMKIRIMX]8LIWYGGIWWSVJEMPYVISJXLI
individual or the nation could impact not only your assets,
but also what kind of human you are—whiter by virtue
of social betterment or more like the racially-marked,
backwards “animal” of the lower classes.
III: COMPLETE “PERDICIÓN”:
GENDERED MORALITIES OF PROGRESS
AND NATIONAL DIFFERENCE
%VXMGYPEXMRKGIVXEMRPMRIWSJHMJJIVIRGIMRTEVXMGYPEV
REXMSREPMX] ERH KIRHIV FIGEQI JSV QER] QMKVERXW
important ways by which to produce locality as they
WXVYKKPIH XS SZIVGSQI MR 7TEMR %W 4VMFMPWO] ERH
0IMR[IEZIV EVKYI MR XLIMV IXLRSKVETLMIW REVVEXMZIW SJ
TVSKVIWWEVIKIRHIVIHIWXEFPMWLMRKHMJJIVIRXI\TIGXEXMSRW
JSVQIRERH[SQIR-R4VMFMPWO]´WWXYH]SJQEPIQMKVERXW
XS%QIVMGEJVSQXLI%^YE]S'EyEVMVIKMSRMR)GYEHSVLI
observes that many of his informants held the belief that
I\TIVMIRGIWSJQMKVEXMSR[IVIGVYGMEPWXITWMRFIGSQMRK
E QER 4VMFMPWO] 1MKVEXMSR IREFPIH QIR XS
accumulate some wealth, which they could use to acquire
land, establish independent households, and start a family.
1MKVEXMSRXS7TEMRLS[IZIVQYWXFIWIIRMREHMJJIVIRX
PMKLX FIGEYWI SJ XLI TVSQMRIRGI SJ [SQIR MR MRMXMEXMRK
XVERWREXMSREP WSGMEP RIX[SVOW EJXIV EPP MQQMKVEXMSR XS
7TEMR[EWTVIGMTMXEXIHF]EKVS[MRKHIQERHJSVHSQIWXMG
workers and caretakers, labor historically conceived as
women’s work.
8LI KIRHIVIH I\TIGXEXMSRW SJ TVSKVIWW FIGEQI
ETTEVIRXXSQIXLVSYKLEVEXLIVE[O[EVHWGIREVMSXLEX
MQTPMGEXIHQ]S[RKIRHIVMHIRXMX]7SSREJXIV- EVVMZIH
MR 1EHVMH %RMXE ERH - FSXL FIKER XS RSXMGI JVIUYIRX
insinuations made by her coworkers and friends about
SYV PMZMRK WMXYEXMSR QER] SJ XLIQ WYKKIWXIH XLEX%RMXE
XEOIEHZERXEKISJQ]TVS\MQMX]F]HEXMRKQI%RMXEERH
-[IVIEX½VWXWGERHEPM^IHFYXSZIVXLIRI\XJI[[IIOW
we would become accustomed to these innuendos.
1
The JUE Issue 1
When I asked her about it, she explained that in Spain,
people are more risqué (“la gente son más atrevidas”),
IRKEKMRK MR GEWYEP WI\YEP VIPEXMSRWLMTW [MXL IEWI%RMXE
compared this to her experiences in Ayacucho, where
people were more socially conservative. She explained
that the concept of a compañero de piso (roommate) with
someone of the other sex did not exist—it was simply
assumed that you were “conviviendo² PMZMRK XSKIXLIV
with a romantic partner. As I would come to realize,
SXLIVQMKVERX[SQIREPWSJVEQIHXLIMVI\TIVMIRGIWSJ
QMKVEXMSR MR XIVQW SJ KIRHIV RSVQW XLEX [IVI HMZMHIH
EPSRKPMRIWSJREXMSREPHMJJIVIRGI
Anita explained that in her view, her ideal relationship
would proceed “paso por paso” (step by step), rather
XLERQSZMRKWXVEMKLXMRXSEFS]JVMIRH´WVIWMHIRGIEWQER]
7TERMEVHWHS%W0IMRE[IEZIVHIWGVMFIWMRVIPEXMSRXSXLI
OMRH SJ IHYGEXMSR ]SYRK KMVPW VIGIMZI MR%]EGYGLS±XLI
TPEGIQIRX SJ E QSVEP GSQTEWW MR ]SYRK EHYPX FSHMIW
MW E KIRHIVIH EGX HIWMKRIH TEVXP] XS TVSPSRK E KMVP´W
unmarried and childless state…so that she has a better
GLERGI SJ EGLMIZMRK TVSJIWWMSREPM^EXMSR ERH superación”
0IMRE[IEZIV -R XLI GEWI SJ 0IMRE[IEZIV´W
informants and Anita’s notions of appropriate sexual
FILEZMSV KIXXMRK ELIEH MR WSGMIX] VIUYMVIW [SQIR XS
EHLIVI XS MHIEPW SJ JIQMRMRI TYVMX] SVKERM^IH EVSYRH
QEVVMEKI SV IRHYVMRK EJJIGXMZI VIPEXMSRWLMTW %W %RMXE
I\TPEMRIH [SQIR EVI QSVI EX VMWO SJ FIMRK VIRHIVIH
“sucias² HMVX] F] QIR VIJIVVMRK XS XLI QEXIVMEP
GSRWIUYIRGIW SJ TVIKRERG] ERH XLI W]QFSPMG VIKMWXIVW
SJKIRHIVIHQSVEPMX]
For Anita and other Peruvian women in Madrid,
EVXMGYPEXMRKXLIHMJJIVIRGIWFIX[IIRXLIWIGYPXYVEPRSVQW
[EWIWWIRXMEPXSTVSHYGMRKEWIRWISJXVERWREXMSREPPSGEPMX]
-R HIWGVMFMRK XLI±PSSWI² WI\YEPMX] SJ 7TERMWL [SQIR
4IVYZMER QMKVERX [SQIR [IVI MRSGYPEXMRK XLIQWIPZIW
EKEMRWX XLI MRWMHMSYW IJJIGXW SJ 7TERMWL QSHIVRMX] F]
EHLIVMRKXSMHIEPWSJWSGMEPGSRXMRYMX]ERHXVEHMXMSR)ZIR
XLSYKLXLIWI4IVYZMERWLEHQMKVEXIHXS7TEMRMRSVHIV
to seek social betterment, I encountered this notion that
modern society was a decadent one in other contexts as
[IPP3RIRMKLXEW[I[IVI[EPOMRKMRSYVRIMKLFSVLSSH
9WIVE%RMXE ERH - KSX GEYKLX MR E PMKLXRMRK WXSVQ 7LI
GSRJIWWIHXLEXXLYRHIVJVMKLXIRWLIVERHVIGEPPIHFIMRK
scared to death of stories of the end of the world she
used to hear as a child in Ayacucho. She still believes in
ETSGEP]TWIWLIEHHIHGMXMRKKERKWERHKVS[MRKZMSPIRGI
worldwide. In this moment, Anita expressed the sense
XLEXXLMRKWEVIKIXXMRK[SVWIMRXLI[SVPHERHWYKKIWXIH
XLEX QSHIVRMX] VEXLIV XLER VIJSVQMRK WSGMIX] [EW XLI
W]QTXSQSVIZIRGEYWISJIRGVSEGLMRKIZMPW
7IRXMQIRXWSJKPSFEPHIGPMRI[IVIEPWSEVXMGYPEXIHMR
terms of a collapse of moral codes. For instance, in Javier’s
QSHIPSJKPSFEPHIZIPSTQIRXWSGMIXMIWTVSGIIHXLVSYKL
WYGGIWWMZITLEWIWPMRIEVP]WXEVXMRK[MXLXLITVMQMXMZIERH
IZIRXYEPP]TEWWMRKXLVSYKLXLI±liberal” (liberal) to arrive
at “libertinaje²PMFIVXMREKI;LIR-EWOIHLMQ[LEXXLMW
latter one meant, he answered, complete “perdición”
TIVHMXMSR %GGSVHMRK XS .EZMIV ERH %RMXE QSHIVRMX]
does not simply result in social betterment, but also has
the potential to release an excess of vice and sin.
%KIRIVEPGSRWIRWYWEQSRKXLIQMKVERXW-WTSOI[MXL[EWXLIRSXMSR
that Peruvian tratoWSGMEPGSRHYGX[EWFIXXIVXLERXLItrato in Spain.
.EZMIVEPWSVIQMRHIHQIXLEXXLMWWYGGIWWMSR[EWEKPSFEP
SRI IZIR 4IVY [SYPH IZIRXYEPP] VIEGL XLI IRH WXEKI
of perdition.
4VMFMPWO] HMWGYWWIH XLMW RSXMSR SJ ±TVSKVIWW EX E
TVMGI²MRLMWEREP]WMWSJLSQIGSRWXVYGXMSRMR.EXYRHIPIK
)GYEHSV &IKMRRMRK MR XLI W LSYWIW FIKER FIMRK
GSRWXVYGXIHEGGSVHMRKXS2SVXL%QIVMGERHIWMKRW[LMGL
EQSRKSXLIVGLERKIWHMHE[E][MXLXLISTIRGSYVX]EVHW
ERH TEXMSW SJ SPHIV HIWMKRW (IWTMXI XLIWI EVGLMXIGXYVEP
XVETTMRKWSJQSHIVRMX]4VMFMPWO]´WMRJSVQERXWWIIQIHXS
EKVII XLEX WSQIXLMRK SJ HSQIWXMGMX] [EW PSWX MR XLIWI
constructions. Some described this type of house as “chiri
wasi²SV±GSPHLSYWI²[LMGLPEGOIHWMKRWSJ[EVQJEQMP]
PMJI 4VMFMPWO] 7SQIXLMRK SJ XLIWI TINSVEXMZI
GLERKIW EGGSQTER]MRK QSHIVRMX] [EW IZSOIH MR Q]
conversations with Peruvians in Madrid. Warm, affective
relationships seemed to come under threat in the context
of a modernity characterized by sex without emotion,
public violence, and moral corruption.
National difference was a site not only for the
critique of modernity but also for a critique of Spanish
WSGMIX] QSVI KIRIVEPP] 7LSVXP] EJXIV EVVMZMRK MR 7TEMR -
FIKERXSRSXMGIVITIEXIHVIJIVIRGIWXSERSXLIVOMRHSJ
QSVEPMX]GSRGIVRMRKXLIWXEXISJIZIV]HE]WSGMEPVIPEXMSRW
MR7TEMR%KIRIVEPGSRWIRWYWEQSRKXLIQMKVERXW-WTSOI
with was the notion that Peruvian trato (social conduct)
was better than the trato in Spain. Trato often referred
to the tact and amiability of an individual or collective,
ERH[EWJVIUYIRXP]MRZSOIHF]QMKVERXW[LIRGSQTEVMRK
their social faculties to those of Spaniards. On one of
Q] ½VWX HE]W MR 1EHVMH %RMXE MRXIVIWXMRKP] EXXVMFYXIH
her trust in me to my Peruvian-ness: she explained that
WLIEPQSWXEP[E]WKIXWEPSRK[MXLERHGSR½HIWMRSXLIV
4IVYZMERW 3XLIV QMKVERXW WLEVIH LIV ZMI[ XLEX XLI
trato of Spaniards was by turns unfriendly, “seco” (dry),
or “tosco” (brusque). From my conversations with these
Peruvians, the characterization of Spanish trato seemed
XSWYKKIWXETEYGMX]SJLSWTMXEPMX]MR7TEMRQSVIKIRIVEPP]
Indeed, it was commonplace for me to hear of the
YRMRZMXMRKEXXMXYHISJXLI7TERMEVHWWSQIXMQIWHMWGYWWIH
in accounts of racism. In an interview,Teresa asserted that
despite the “encuestas” (polls) that declare Spain nonracist, Spaniards are in fact racist. Mari added that this
was true “tanto en la calle como el en trabajo” (as much on
the streets as in the workplace). This idiom of trato thus
IQIVKIHEWETS[IVJYP[E]XSGVMXMUYI7TEMR´WEXXMXYHIW
XS[EVH MQQMKVERXW ERH XS FYXXVIWW E TEVXMGYPEV OMRH SJ
Peruvian distinctiveness premised on a polite, friendly, and
[IPGSQMRKWSGMEPGSRHYGX
4IVYZMERQMKVERXW´EGGSYRXWSJKIRHIVERHREXMSREP
difference illuminate a certain rejection of modernity:
HIWTMXIXLIXVIQIRHSYWEHZERXEKIWTVSKVIWWGEREJJSVH
QSHIVRMX] GER EPWS IRHERKIV XLI JSYRHEXMSR SJ XLI
JEQMP] ERH UYSXMHMER WSGMEP GSRHYGX QSVI KIRIVEPP]8LI
WIIQMRKP]GSRXVEHMGXSV]STTSWMXMSRSJsuperación as moral
EHZERGIQIRX ERH KPSFEP GLERKI EW HIGEHIRGI TSMRXW
XSXLIGSR¾MGXWTSWIHF]EQSHIVRMX]XLEXTIVTIXYEXIW
WSGMEPMPPW'VMXMGMWQWSJ7TERMWLKIRHIVVIPEXMSRWERHtrato
[IVIEPWSETS[IVJYPQIERWF][LMGL4IVYZMERQMKVERXW
HIRSYRGIH7TERMWLWSGMIX]EWFSXLRIIHMRKMQQMKVEXMSR
ERH VINIGXMRK MQQMKVERXW JVSQ FVSEHIV WSGMEP GYPXYVEP
1
The JUE Issue 1
11
During my stay in Madrid, I noticed that a major pastime of Anita and
SXLIV4IVYZMERQMKVERXW[EWWLSTTMRKSVWMQTP][MRHS[WLSTTMRK
ERH TSPMXMGEP EVIREW &] TSWMRK XLI 4IVYZMER EW QSVEP
ERH MRHYWXVMSYW ERH F] GVMXMUYMRK 7TERMWL QSHIVRMX]
QMKVERXW EVI FSXL TSMWIH XS SZIVGSQI VEGMEP ERH GPEWW
hierarchies in Peru and also in Spain. Superación thus
FIGSQIW EVXMGYPEXIH F] 4IVYZMER QMKVERXW MR [E]W XLEX
both maintain a critical stance toward Spanish society and
EPPS[JSVWSGMEPFIXXIVQIRXMR7TEMR%RIQIVKMRKXLIQI
here will be the tension between the impulse to establish
E 4IVYZMER HMWXMRGXMZIRIWW [MXL MXW QSVEP KIRIEPSKMIW
VEGMEPLMWXSVMIWERHKIRHIVIHHMQIRWMSRWERHXLIRIIH
XS EHSTX XLI GYPXYVEP GSHIW PSKMGW ERH HMWGSYVWIW SJ
Spanish modernity.
IV: “¡LAS ETIQUETAS!”: CONSUMERISM, RACE,
AND PARODIES OF PROGRESS
%PXLSYKLVITYHMEXIHF]4IVYZMERWMRXLIHSQEMRSJ
WSGMEP GSRHYGX 7TERMWL QSHIVRMX] [EW QIX F] QMKVERXW
with a very different reception in Madrid’s contexts
SJ GSQQSHM½GEXMSR -RHIIH EW - WYKKIWXIH MR XLI
MRXVSHYGXMSR Q] QIERHIVMRKW XLVSYKL -/)% [MXL%RMXE
.YPME ERH 'EVQIR KEZI TL]WMGEP JSVQ XS STTSVXYRMXMIW
for consumption in Spain that seem to promise not only
new products, but better lives. In La Chulla Vida: Gender,
Migration, and the Family in Andean Ecuador and New
York City, 4VMFMPWO] UYSXIW (ERMIP 1MPPIV MR HIWGVMFMRK
GSRWYQTXMSR EW±XLI QEMR EVIRE MR [LMGL ERH XLVSYKL
[LMGL TISTPI LEZI XS WXVYKKPI XS[EVH GSRXVSP SZIV XLI
HI½RMXMSR SJ XLIQWIPZIW ERH XLIMV ZEPYIW² 1MPPIV GMXIHMR4VMFMPWO]'SRWYQTXMSRXLYWLEW
the curious ability to open up those avenues of Spanish
modernity that allow the active construction of new
MHIRXMXMIWERHXLIYRHSMRKSJPMQMXMRKWSGMEPGEXIKSVMIW
(YVMRK Q] WXE] MR 1EHVMH - RSXMGIH XLEX E QENSV
TEWXMQI SJ %RMXE ERH SXLIV 4IVYZMER QMKVERXW [EW
WLSTTMRK SV WMQTP] [MRHS[WLSTTMRK *SV MRWXERGI -
EGGSQTERMIH%RMXE GSYRXPIWW XMQIW EPSRK XLI WXVIIXW SJ
Madrid’s busy center as she shopped for shoes, blouses,
NIERW SV WLMVXW %PXLSYKL QMKVERXW VEVIP] WTSOI EFSYX
GSRWYQTXMSRERHMHIRXMX]HMVIGXP]-FIKERXSRSXMGIXLEX
%RMXE ERH XLI SXLIV QMKVERXW SRP] FSYKLX GPSXLIW ERH
accessories that were sold in trendy Spanish stores,
[LMGL PEGOIH ER] ±QEVOIVW² SJ IXLRMGMX] 6IXYVRMRK XS
0IMRE[IEZIV´WHMWGYWWMSRSJVEGIERHTSZIVX]GPSXLIWEVI
one of many ways by which people in Ayacucho “read”
GPEWWERHPSGEXIMRHMZMHYEPWMRVEGMEPERHIXLRMGGEXIKSVMIW
After all, superación in Peruvian contexts seems to be only
TSWWMFPI F] FIGSQMRK±[LMXIV² ERH WLIHHMRK ER±-RHMER
[E] SJ PMJI² 0IMRE[IEZIV :MI[IH JVSQ XLI
perspective of superación, Anita’s impulse to shop was
thus not simply a side expenditure—her purchase of
±7TERMWL²X]TIGPSXLIW[EWEGVYGMEPTEVXSJSZIVGSQMRK
LIV GSRWXVEMRXW ERH KIXXMRK ELIEH%W%TTEHYVEM EVKYIW
“consumption creates time and does not simply respond
XSMX²%TTEHYVEM7IIRMRXLMWPMKLXGSRWYQTXMSR
has the power to constitute the time frames by which
QMKVERXWVIKMWXIVXLIMVS[RXVENIGXSVMIWSJXVERWREXMSREP
superación.
-RXLIGSRXI\XSJWLSTTMRKVEGIEPWSVEVIP]GVSTTIH
up as a relevant topic of conversation in my interactions
[MXLQMKVERXW-RHIIHMXWIIQWEWXLSYKLXLIJYRGXMSRSJE
brand is to market products to a universalized consumer
TSSP7IIRMRXLMWTIVWTIGXMZIGSQQSHM½GEXMSRIJJIGXMZIP]
LSQSKIRM^IWTSXIRXMEPGYWXSQIVWMRXSVEXMSREPEKIRXWSJ
GSRWYQTXMSRIPMHMRKVEGMEPGPEWWERHKIRHIVHMJJIVIRGIW
*SVMRWXERGIMRQ]TEWWEKIXLVSYKL-/)%MXWIIQIHEW
XLSYKL ER]SRI ERH IZIV]SRI GSYPH LEZI EGGIWW XS XLI
TVSHYGXW SR HMWTPE] -/)% MRZMXIW GSRWYQIVW XS IRXIV
MRXS MXW HSQIWXMG XIQTPEXIW°XEFPIEYW SJ PMZMRK VSSQW
FIHVSSQW ERH HMRMRK VSSQW°ERH XIQTSVEVMP] MRLEFMX
those spaces. Anita, Carmen, Julia, or I could potentially
become the next “real” residents of these domestic
WGIRIW-REHHMXMSR-/)%MWWXVYGXYVIHWSXLEXXLIWXSVI
MXWIPJEGXWEWE±FPYITVMRX²SJELSQIMRZMXMRKXLIEKIRG]
SJXLIGSRWYQIVXSGSRWXVYGXERHKMZIPMJIXSLMWSVLIV
future abode.
3FWIVZMRKXLIH]REQMGWSJGSRWYQTXMSR%TTEHYVEM
WYKKIWXWXLEXXLIMQEKMREXMSRMWMRGVIEWMRKP]XLIHSQMRERX
HSQEMRXLVSYKL[LMGLKPSFEPM^IHGMVGYPEXMSRWSGGYV±8LI
work of consumption is as fully social as it is symbolic, no
PIWW[SVOJSVMRZSPZMRKXLIHMWGMTPMRISJXLIMQEKMREXMSR²
%TTEHYVEM-/)%MWXLYWTEVXMGYPEVP]WYMXIHXS
WIPPMRKMXWLSQIJYVRMWLMRKWMRXLIWXGIRXYV][LIRIZIR
E[EPOXLVSYKLEWXSVIGERIREGXXLIMQEKMREV]REVVEXMZIW
ERHI\GLERKIWSJGSRWYQTXMSR
8LILSPHSJGSQQSHMXMIWSRXLIMQEKMREXMSRFIGEQI
IZMHIRXMRXLIWIQMKVERXW´I\TVIWWMSRWSJTPIEWYVIHYVMRK
SYV WXVSPP XLVSYKL XLI QEPP 3RI SJ %RMXE´W JEZSVMXI
TEWXMQIW°ERHZMGIWWLIEWWYVIHQI°[EWWLSTTMRKJSV
RI[GPSXLIW3YVXVMTXLVSYKL-/)%[EWEPWS½PPIH[MXL
KEWTWERHSXLIVI\TVIWWMSRWSJHIPMKLXMXWTVSHYGXW[IVI
truly pleasurable for the women as they stumbled upon
some convenient household tool or attractive piece of
JYVRMXYVI%W4VMFMPWO]EVKYIWEOI]WXVEXIK]XLEXQMKVERX
LSYWILSPHW YWIH MR )GYEHSV XS GSQFEX XLI RIKEXMZI
IJJIGXW SJ QMKVEXMSR [EW IRKEKMRK MR IZIRXW ERH EGXMSRW
XLEX GPEMQ QSHIVRMX] XLVSYKL E ±GIPIFVEXMSR SJ JEQMP]
PMJI² 4VMFMPWO] 7MQMPEVP] XLIWI TPIEWYVIW SJ
consumption were oriented toward the construction
SJ E LSQI MRZSOMRK XLI GIRXVEPMX] SJ XLI JEQMP] MR XLI
narratives of Peruvian superación8LITPIEWYVISJWTIRHMRK
EREJXIVRSSREX-/)%XLYWMREWIRWIW]RXLIWM^IHHIWMVIW
JSVQSHIVRMX][MXLSFPMKEXMSRWXSXLIJEQMP]RIKSXMEXMRK
GSRWYQTXMSREPSRKQSVEPPMRIW
(IWTMXIXLIWIVMSYWRIWW[MXL[LMGL%RMXE'EVQIR
ERH .YPME WTSOI XS QI SJ XLIMV HIWMVIW JSV ER -/)%
home, the character of our stroll soon became rather
TPE]JYP(YVMRKSYV[EPOXLI][SYPHWXSTEXETEVXMGYPEV
template and take pictures of themselves in domestic
TSWIWIREGXMRKXLIOMRHSJPMZMRKXLIWGIRIWWIIQIHXSFI
MRZMXMRK-Q]WIPJFIGEQIETEVXMGMTERXERHMRSRITMGXYVI
-EQMRXLIQMHHPISJEMQMXEXMSROMXGLIRTVIXIRHMRKXS
FITIIVMRKMRXSERIQTX]TSXEWXLSYKL-[IVIGSSOMRK
FILMRHQIETVMGIXEKVIEHWº8LI[SQIR[SYPH
GVEGOYTEJXIVXEOMRKXLIWITMGXYVIWERHWIIMRKXLIVIWYPXW
SR XLI WGVIIRW SJ XLIMV HMKMXEP GEQIVEW XLI] VITIEXIHP]
screamed, “¡las etiquetas!² XLI XEKW VIJIVVMRK XS XLI
TVMGIXEKWSREPPXLIMXIQWMRXLIWIHSQIWXMGWGIRIWXLEX
KEZIE[E]XLITLSXSKVETLW´MPPYWSV]REXYVI'EVQIR.YPME
and Anita caused quite a ruckus in the store that day, but
SYV PMZIP] XMROIVMRK SJ -/)%´W XIQTPEXIW WTSOI ZSPYQIW
EFSYXXLIEQFMKYMXMIWERHMVSRMIWSJTVSKVIWW
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The JUE Issue 1
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-R SYV VMHMGYPSYW TLSXS WLSSX XLVSYKL -/)% .YPME
Carmen, Anita, and I became cast as actors in a kind of
parody of superación 8LIVI [EW RSXLMRK ±VIEP² EFSYX
these household scenes: in fact, our poses of everyday
PMZMRK [IVI GSQTPIXIP] JEOI -R SRI TMGXYVI - EQ WMXXMRK
[MXL%RMXE SR E GSYGL MR E PMZMRK VSSQ WMQYPEGVYQ [I
EVIWQMPMRKEXXLIGEQIVEEWXLSYKLWSQISRI[IVIXEOMRK
our picture in our own house. In our performances of
domesticity, the dimension of superación that takes place
SR %TTEHYVEM´W TPERI SJ XLI ±MQEKMREXMSR² LIVI QIIXW
XLIMPPYWSV]YRVIEPMX]SJSYVTEVSH]X[SVIKMWXIVWSJXLI
MQEKMRIHXLEXHSRSX[LSPP]GERGIPIEGLSXLIVSYXFYX
neither map onto each other as equal terms. In these
hilarious pictures, there is the sense that superación
MRLEFMXWXLSWIWTLIVIWSJXLIMQEKMREXMSRXLEXXLVIEXIRXS
cross over into the unreal, the farce.
Superación borders on the absurd here in part
FIGEYWI SYV I\GYVWMSR XLVSYKL -/)% TSMRXIH XS XLI
MVSRMIWSJGSRWYQTXMSRERHQSVEPTVSKVIWW3RXLISRI
LERH-/)%HITIRHWSREREVVEXMZISJYRMZIVWEPEGGIWWERH
ELSQSKIRM^IHWYFNIGXSJGSRWYQTXMSR*SVMRWXERGIMR
XLITLSXSKVETLMR[LMGL-EQTIIVMRKMRXSXLITSXMXMWEW
XLSYKL-EQEPVIEH]XLIS[RIVSJQ]RI[OMXGLIRWIXXMRK
all I need to do is to purchase it. However, as the price
XEKWFILMRHQIVIZIEPGSRWXVYGXMRKELSQIMWI\TIRWMZI
ERH SRP] TSWWMFPI XLVSYKL XLI QSRIXEV] I\GLERKIW
of capitalism. Superación MW RSX WSPIP] EGLMIZIH XLVSYKL
LEVH [SVO ERH MRHYWXVMSYWRIWW FYX EPWS FSYKLX [MXL
no-nonsense currency. This parody of superación also
exposes the intimate relation between consumerism and
its promises of universalization. The symbols and tropes
XLEXEGGSQTER]XLIKPSFEP¾S[SJGSQQSHMXMIWWIIQXS
GSRZI]XLITSXIRXMEPSJIVEWMRKXLIHMJJIVIRGIWSJXLSWI
[LSGLSSWIXSIRKEKIXLIQEXIVMEPWSJI\GLERKI-RXLI
IRGSYRXIV[MXLER-/)%GSQQSHMX]JSVMRWXERGIWYFNIGXW
of consumption become stripped of their past identities
EWXLI]GSRJVSRXXLITSWWMFMPMX]SJVIQEOMRKXLIMVLSQIW
and themselves. Consumerism thus resembles discourses
SJMRXIKVEXMSRMRXLEXMXLEWXLIEFMPMX]XSIPMHIXLIHMZIVWI
PSGEPMXMIWERHGSRXMRKIRGMIWXLVSYKL[LMGLQMKVERXWQYWX
GSRWXVYGXZMEFPIERHQIERMRKJYPPMZIW
,S[IZIVXLIWLIIVEQYWIQIRXIPMGMXIHEQSRK.YPME
'EVQIRERH%RMXEF]SYVVIGSRWXVYGXMSRWSJ-/)%PMZMRK
was made possible in part because of our incomplete
and unsuccessful appropriation of the templates covered
MRTVMGIXEKW-RXLIMVTEVSH]XLIVIMWXLIWIRWIXLEXXLI
OMXGLIRW FIHVSSQW ERH FEXLVSSQW SR WEPI FIPSRK RSX
XSYWFYXXSERSXLIV-RHIIHSR-/)%´W1EHVMH[IFWMXI
E WPMHIWLS[ SJ JEQMPMIW MR XLIMV -/)%JYVRMWLIH LSQIW
MW HMWTPE]IH SR XLI QEMR TEKI ERH MRXIVIWXMRKP] JIEXYVI
predominantly white, middle to upper class individuals.
)ZIR XLSYKL MX WIIQW EW XLSYKL -/)% EHZIVXMWIW XS E
LSQSKIRM^IH GSRWYQIV TYFPMG MXW XIQTPEXIW TVSHYGXW
and accessories market a sleek, modern style that is
intersected with the racial and class histories of European
QSHIVRMX]8LI4IVYZMER[SQIR´WTEVSH]SJTVSKVIWWMR
XLMWWIRWIWMKREPIHXLI[E]WF][LMGLGSQQSHMXMIWRSX
only convey the narratives and symbols of consumerism,
but also the subtle racial, ethnic, and class differences with
which they are inscribed.
After all, both superación and consumerism implicate trajectories of
WSGMEPFIXXIVQIRX[MXLMRGSRXI\XWSJVEGMEPIXLRMGERHGPEWWWYFNYKEXMSR
and domination.
8LI GPIER WMQTPI QSXMJW SJ -/)%´W TVSHYGXW EVI
undoubtedly part of the company’s success. As many
EYXLSVW LEZI EVKYIH TSZIVX] MRHMKIRIMX] ERH HMVX EVI
SJXIR PMROIH XSKIXLIV MR TS[IVJYP [E]W MR XLI %RHIW
+ERHSPTLS0IMRE[IEZIV;IMWQERXIP
When I interviewed Javier, he asserted that in Peru,
no hemos andado sucios (we haven’t been dirty). In his
conception, even the poorest of the Peruvian population
EVI TSSV [MXL HMKRMX]°XLEX MW limpios (clean), as he
HIWGVMFIH XLIQ .EZMIV´W GSQQIRXW KIWXYVI XS[EVH XLI
XIVVMFPIIRXERKPIQIRXSJVEGIERHTSZIVX]XLEXEWWSGMEXIW
XLIMRHMKIRSYWTSSV[MXL½PXL1EV];IMWQERXIPHMWGYWWIW
XLIWI EWWSGMEXMSRW MR XLI GSRXI\X SJ MRHMKIRSYW QEVOIX
[SQIRMR)GYEHSVEWTYFPMG½KYVIWMRRSR-RHMERWTEGIW
market women were frequently cast as “dirty Indians”
;IMWQERXIP
1] [EPO XLVSYKL -/)% [MXL 'EVQIR .YPME ERH
Anita made manifest the complex relationship between
XLI GETMXEPMWX PSKMG SJ GSRWYQTXMSR ERH XLI QSVEPMX] SJ
superación HMGXEXIH F]%RHIER MHMSQW SJ TVSKVIWW8LI
KYJJE[WJVSQ%RMXE.YPMEERH'EVQIR]SYGSYPHLIEVMR
XLITEWWEKI[E]WSJ-/)%MRVIWTSRWIXSSYVTLSXSKVETLW
LMRXIHXS[EVHEWMRKYPEVXIRWMSRFIX[IIRXLIWIREVVEXMZIW
SJTVSKVIWW3RSRILERHXLIVIMWXLIWIRWIXLEXQMKVERXW
are not able to escape the kinds of racial and class
exclusions inscribed in commodities and intertwined
in notions of superación. After all, both superación and
consumerism implicate trajectories of social betterment
[MXLMRGSRXI\XWSJVEGMEPIXLRMGERHGPEWWWYFNYKEXMSRERH
domination. On the other hand, however, both idioms
SJ TVSKVIWW MRZMXI XLI WYFNIGX SJ WSGMEP FIXXIVQIRX XS
VIHI½RI LMW SV LIV MHIRXMXMIW ERH IQFEVO SR FIXXIV
PMZIW [LIXLIV EGLMIZIH XLVSYKL GSRWYQTXMSR SV XLI
assimilation of “Western” modes of conduct. The
MRWMKLXERHLMPEVMX]SJXLIWI4IVYZMER[SQIR´WTEVSH]MW
IRKIRHIVIHMRXLITEVEHS\MGEPWTEGIFIX[IIRXLIWSGMEP
hierarchies that subtend superación and consumerism, and
XLITSWWMFMPMXMIWSJRI[FIXXIV[E]WSJPMZMRKTVSQMWIHF]
XLIWIWEQIREVVEXMZIWSJTVSKVIWW
Our “paseo²WXVSPPXLVSYKL-/)%WLIHPMKLXSRXLI
multiplicity of narratives—some contradictory, others
GSQTEXMFPI°XLEX4IVYZMERQMKVERXWQYWXRIKSXMEXIERH
MRLEFMXMR7TEMR*SVXLIQMKVERXW-FIJVMIRHIH±TVSKVIWW²
was a contentious site where Peruvian histories of
superación met narratives of modernity’s decadence,
Spanish discourses of consumerism, and accounts of
KPSFEPWSGMEPERHIGSRSQMGGLERKI-REHHMXMSRXLIOMRHSJ
±MRHMZMHYEP²ERHXLIOMRHSJ±WSGMIX]²EXTPE]SRXLIKPSFEP
WXEKIW SJ TVSKVIWW EVI QERMJSPH8LI GSPPIGXMZIW MRZSOIH
F]QMKVERXWMRSYVGSRZIVWEXMSRWGSYPHVIJIVXSEWMRKPI
family, a small town in Northern Peru, or even the totality
of the modern world.The individuals conjured by notions
SJ TVSKVIWW GSYPH WMQMPEVP] VERKI JVSQ XLI MRHITIRHIRX
WYFNIGXSJGSRWYQTXMSRXSXLI[SVOMRKQSXLIVXV]MRKXS
WYTTSVXLIVGLMPHVIRFEGOLSQI-XWIIQWXLEXTVSKVIWW
whether understood from the perspective of superación
SV KPSFEPM^IH GSRWYQIVMWQ XIIXIVW HIPMGEXIP] FIX[IIR
PSGEP RIIHW ERH KPSFEP LMIVEVGLMIW MRHMZMHYEP EGXSVW
ERH VIKMSREP GSQQYRMXMIW YRMZIVWEP MQTIVEXMZIW ERH
exclusions marked by race, class, and nationality.
1
The JUE Issue 1
4IVLETWVIWSPZMRKXLI±MQQMKVERXTVSFPIQ²MRZSPZIWVIGSR½KYVMRKXLI
PSGEPMXMIWERHGSQQYRMXMIW[IMRGPYHIMRSYVGSRGITXMSRWSJXLIWSGMEP[SVPH
V: RETHINKING INTEGRATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8LI EQFMKYMXMIW SJ superación in a transnational
GSRXI\XTSMRXXSXLIWMQTPM½IHQSHIPWSJWSGMEPMRXIVEGXMSR
XLEX YRHIVTMR HMWGSYVWIW SJ MRXIKVEXMSR 6EXLIV [I MR
the First World must ask ourselves: what is at stake in
XLI EWWMQMPEXMSR SJ MQQMKVERXW ERH [LEX EVI XLI PMQMXW
SJMRXIKVEXMSR#,S[EVI[IXSEGGSQQSHEXIXLIQ]VMEH
PSGEPMXMIWQMKVERXWEVIJSVKMRKEPMJI[MXLMRERHLS[EVI[I
XSTVSZMHIQSVIMRGPYWMZIGSRHMXMSRWJSVXLIMV¾SYVMWLMRK
ERHVIGSKRMXMSR#8LIWIUYIWXMSRWEVIQSVITVIWWMRKRS[
XLER IZIV KMZIR XLI MRGVIEWMRKP] XMKLXIRIH MQQMKVEXMSR
TSPMGMIWSJXLI9RMXIH7XEXIWERH7TEMR
- KVEXIJYPP] EGORS[PIHKI WYTTSVX JVSQ &VS[R
9RMZIVWMX]´W/EVIR86SQIV9RHIVKVEHYEXI8IEGLMRKERH
6IWIEVGL%[EVH986%JSVIXLRSKVETLMG½IPHVIWIEVGL
in Madrid, Spain. I would like to express my deepest
KVEXMXYHI XS .IWWEGE 0IMRE[IEZIV [LS VIEH ERH SJJIVIH
MRWMKLXJYP GSQQIRXW SR ZEVMSYW HVEJXW SJ XLMW EVXMGPI
8LMWEVXMGPIEPWSFIRI½XIHJVSQZEPYEFPIGSQQIRXEV]F]
Jeremy Campbell and JUE’s anonymous editors.
4IVLETWVIWSPZMRKXLI±MQQMKVERXTVSFPIQ²MRZSPZIW
VIGSR½KYVMRKXLIPSGEPMXMIWERHGSQQYRMXMIW[IMRGPYHI
in our conceptions of the social world. For Appadurai,
locality is primarily “relational and contextual,” rather than
WTEXMEP%TTEHYVEM:MI[MRKMQQMKVEXMSRMRXLMW
“relational and contextual” perspective, I believe, is key to
IPEFSVEXMRK EPXIVREXMZI ERH QSVI NYWX QSHIW SJ PMZMRK°
locality is not rooted simply in space, but can be modulated
in our interactions with others around us. Perhaps it is in
this spirit of concern for the localities around us that we
QE]WXVMZIJSVGSPPIGXMZIWSGMEPFIXXIVQIRX°ERHIZIR½RH
RI[ERHYRI\TIGXIHRIMKLFSVW
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
%TTEHYVEM%VNYRModernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization.
1MRRIETSPMW9RMZIVWMX]SJ1MRRIWSXE4VIWW
+ERHSPJS(ERMIPPEThe City at Its Limits:Taboo,Transgression, and Urban Renewal in Lima.
'LMGEKS9RMZIVWMX]SJ'LMGEKS4VIWW
0IMRE[IEZIV.IWWEGE&The Circulation of Children: Kinship, Adoption, and Morality in
Andean Peru(YVLEQ(YOI9RMZIVWMX]4VIWW
1MPPIV(ERMIP±'SRWYQTXMSR7XYHMIWEWXLI8VERWJSVQEXMSRSJ%RXLVSTSPSK]²
In Acknowledging Consumption: A Review of New Studies, IHMXIHF](ERMIP1MPPIV
2I[=SVO6SYXPIHKI
1SWUYIVE+MSGSRHE,±1YNIVIW)GYEXSVMEREWIRIP8VEFENS(SQqWXMGSIR)WTEyE
4VjGXMGEW]6ITVIWIRXEGMSRIWHI)\GPYWMzRI-RGPYWMzR²-RLas migraciones en América
Latina: Políticas, Culturas y EstratégicasIHMXIHF]7YWERE2SZMGO&YIRSW%MVIW'0%7'3
4EIVVIKEEVH/EVWXIRPeruvians Dispersed: A Global Ethnography of Migration0ERLEQ0I\MRKXSR4VIWW
4VMFMPWO].EWSRLa Chulla Vida: Gender, Migration, and the Family in Andean Ecuador and New York City.
7]VEGYWI7]VEGYWI9RMZIVWMX]4VIWW
;IMWQERXIP1EV].Cholas and Pishtacos: Stories of Race and Sex in the Andes.
'LMGEKS9RMZIVWMX]SJ'LMGEKS4VIWW
1
The JUE Issue 1
Issue 17TVMRK2011
An Ethnographic Study of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery
Mary-Lynn Allar
STETSON UNIVERSITY, MALLAR@STETSON.EDU
Abstract
The aim of this study is to learn about the past life of the small, rural community of Astor, located along the Saint John’s River
in central Florida, through an ethnographic study of the original, historic section of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery.1 The
data presented in this paper comes from a survey of the area’s history, area maps, several personal visits to the cemetery,
EWXYH]SJLIEHWXSRIWEWEVXMJEGXWSJGYPXYVEPLMWXSV]ERHEVIZMI[SJLMWXSVMGEPHSGYQIRXWWYGLEWGIRWYWIWHIEXLVIGSVHW
and military records. As a result of this study, a great deal about the ethnic and racial make-up of this population is
revealed in addition to other interesting demographic factors regarding the past population of the Astor/Astor Park area. 2
1
The Astor/Astor Park Cemetery is made up of multiple acres and many different burial sections.
8LMWWXYH]SRP]JSGYWIHSRXLISVMKMREP%WXSVEVIEGIQIXIV]2SRISJXLIEHHMXMSREPGSRXIQTSVEV]WIGXMSRW[IVIGSRWMHIVIH
2
-[SYPHPMOIXSXLERO7XIXWSR9RMZIVWMX]IWTIGMEPP]XLI(ITEVXQIRXSJ7SGMSPSK]ERH%RXLVSTSPSK]JSVXLIMVKYMHERGIERHWYTTSVXXLI%WXSV
%WXSV4EVO'IQIXIV]´W&SEVHSJ(MVIGXSVWJSVTVSZMHMRKQIEGGIWWXSXLIGIQIXIV]ERHEPPS[MRKQIERMRXIVZMI[ERH-[SYPHIWTIGMEPP]PMOIXS
XLERO(V/MQFIVP]*PMRX,EQMPXSRJSVIRGSYVEKMRKQIXSHSXLMWWXYH]ERHJSVLIVGSRXMRYIHKYMHERGIERHWYTTSVXXLVSYKLSYXXLMWNSYVRI]
INTRODUCTION
*PSVMHE MW E JEWGMREXMRK TPEGI HYI XS MXW YRMUYI
HIQSKVETLMGW%LMKLP]HMZIVWITSTYPEXMSRI\MWXWXLEXMW
comprised of local people whose families have been in the
EVIEJSVQER]KIRIVEXMSRWRSVXLIVRIVW[LSQSZIHS[R
EWTEVXXMQIVIWMHIRXWXSIRNS]XLI[EVQ[IEXLIVHYVMRK
XLI[MRXIVQSRXLWVIXMVIIWERHMRXIVREXMSREPMQQMKVERXW
8LI WXEXI MW EPWS ORS[R JSV MXW EKVMGYPXYVEP TVSHYGXW°
especially citrus. The extensive coastline and abundance
of beaches draws numerous tourists each year.
-R TEVXMGYPEV WQEPP GSQQYRMXMIW EPSRK XLI 7X .SLR´W
6MZIVEVIGYPXYVEPP]VMGL6IWMHIRXWSJXIRWYTTSVXXLIQ
WIPZIW [MXL ½WLMRK LYRXMRK JEVQMRK ERH F] [SVOMRK MR
other local industries such as stores and businesses
S[RIHF]JEQMPMIWPMZMRKVMKLXMRXLIGSQQYRMX]%WXSVis
one of these communities. Founded and created in by William Astor and his business partners, Astor has had
MXWWLEVISJWXVYKKPIW3, but the community has tenaciously
WYVZMZIHERHWXMPPXLVMZIWXSHE];EWWHI'^IKI
A window into the lives, experiences, and pasts of the
VIWMHIRXWSJXLMWEVIEGERFIZMI[IHXLVSYKLEWXYH]SJ
XLISVMKMREPWIGXMSRSJXLI%WXSV%WXSV4EVO'IQIXIV]
'IQIXIVMIWGERFIZMI[IHEWEGYPXYVEPP]VMGLKPMQTWI
MRXSXLIPMZIWERHI\TIVMIRGIWSJEWSGMIX]6IWIEVGLIVW
use cemeteries in a wide variety of ways. Essentially,
JSYV TSTYPEV VIWIEVGL JSGM VIKEVHMRK HIEXL MRGPYHI EREREP]WMWSJXLITW]GLSPSKMGEPWXEXISJTISTPI[LSEVI
H]MRKXLII\TIVMIRGISJXLSWI[LSWYVZMZIEJVMIRH
SVPSZIHSRIERHXLIKVMIZMRKTVSGIWWXLI]KSXLVSYKL
XVIEXQIRX KMZIR XS XLI HIEH ERH H]MRK F] LIEPXL
JEGMPMXMIWERHTIVWSRRIPERH±EVGLEISPSKMGEPVIWIEVGL
which focuses on cemetery populations, tombstone
VYFFMRKWERHEVGLMXIGXYVIEWEVXMJEGXWSJTVIZMSYWVIPMKMSYW
W]QFSPMWQJSPOEVXGEVZMRKXIGLRSPSK]ERHKIRIEPSKMGEP
TEXXIVRW² 8VIZMRS6MGLEVH 8LMW WXYH] JEPPW
MRXSXLIJSYVXLJSGYWKVSYT
The purpose of this is study is to learn about the
%WXSV GSQQYRMX] XLVSYKL ER IXLRSKVETLMG WXYH] SJ
the historic section of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery.
This work is important because not much is known
or published about the area and this study adds to the
PMQMXIH ORS[PIHKI FEWI XLEX EPVIEH] I\MWXW -R EHHMXMSR
a study such as this is necessary because as the world
FIGSQIW QSVI KPSFEPM^IH WQEPP VYVEP GSQQYRMXMIW EVI
H]MRKSYXERHXLIMVLMWXSVMIWRIIHXSFITVIWIVZIH
3
8LMW WXYH] MW RSX E WXERHEVH IXLRSKVETL] LS[IZIV
IXLRSKVETLMG QIXLSHW EVI YWIH 8LI %QIVMGER
%RXLVSTSPSKMGEP%WWSGMEXMSR[IFWMXIWXEXIW±)XLRSKVETLMG
methods can be employed in non-traditional ways in
MRXIVHMWGMTPMREV] TVSNIGXW XLEX FVMHKI XLI WGMIRGIW ERH
LYQERMXMIW² %PXLSYKL YRYWYEP XLMW WXYH] MW RSX
YRMUYI 0]RR 1IWOIPP XLI EYXLSV SJ±*EPPMRK;EPPW ERH
1IRHMRK *IRGIW %VGLEISPSKMGEP )XLRSKVETL] SJ XLI
0MQTSTS² YWIW E L]FVMH JSVQ SJ MRZIWXMKEXMSR -R LIV
EVXMGPI 1IWOIPP [VMXIW±-X ?%VGLEISPSKMGEP IXLRSKVETL]A
can encompass a mosaic of traditional disciplinary
JSVQW MRGPYHMRK EVGLEISPSKMGEP TVEGXMGI QYWIYQ SV
VITVIWIRXEXMSREPEREP]WMWWXYHMIWSJLIVMXEKIEW[IPPEWPSRK
XIVQ MRZSPZIQIRX TEVXMGMTERX SFWIVZEXMSR MRXIVZMI[MRK
ERH EVGLMZEP [SVO² 1IWOIPP %PXLSYKL WLI
HIPZIWJYVXLIVMRXSXLIIXLRSKVETLMGEPVIEPQMRLIVWXYH]
LIV HMWGYWWMSR SJ EVGLEISPSKMGEP IXLRSKVETL] ETTPMIW XS
this study as well.
8LI ½VWX WIGXMSR SJ XLMW TETIV MW E FVMIJ LMWXSV]
of the Astor area and the cemetery. Next, tombstone
HIWMKRERHITMXETLJSPOPSVIEVIHMWGYWWIH(EXEGSPPIGXIH
JVSQ WXYH]MRK XLI GIQIXIV] TSTYPEXMSR MW TVIWIRXIH
and followed by a section of further analysis. Finally, a
GSRGPYWMSR WIGXMSR JSPPS[IH F] WYKKIWXMSRW JSV JYVXLIV
VIWIEVGLFVMRKWXLITETIVXSEGPSWI
%HIWXVYGXMZIGVSTJVII^IHYVMRKXLI[MRXIVSJGEYWIH½RERGMEPLEVHWLMTJSVXLSWI[LSMRZIWXIHMRGMXVYWERHFEREREGVSTWERHPEXIV
XLI+VIEX(ITVIWWMSRJSVGIHQER]XSPIEZIXLIEVIE;EWWHI'^IKI
%RIXLRSKVETLMGWXYH]SJLIEHWXSRIWEWEVXMJEGXWSJGYPXYVEPLMWXSV][EW
conducted, and the discussions on tombstone design and epitaph folklore
[IVIHIZIPSTIHEWEVIWYPX
METHODS
Histories of the area were reviewed for the historical
discussion on Astor and the cemetery. Cemetery details
[IVIHMWGSZIVIHXLVSYKLQYPXMTPIZMWMXWXSXLIGIQIXIV]
(YVMRKXLIWIZMWMXWTMGXYVIW[IVIXEOIRSJXLILIEHWXSRIW
ERH E HMKMXEPEYHMS VIGSVHIV [EW YWIH JSV³RSXIXEOMRK´
purposes. Photos of tombstones that had deteriorated
over time required additional visits to the cemetery so
XLI]GSYPHFIWXYHMIHTL]WMGEPP]-JXLI[SVHWERHMQEKIW
were not clear, the sense of touch was employed and
XLI IRKVEZMRKW [IVI JIPX [MXL XLI LERHW ERH ½RKIVW XS
SFXEMR E FIXXIV YRHIVWXERHMRK )ZIRXYEPP] TMGXYVIW SJ
IEGL ERH IZIV] LIEHWXSRI [IVI TVMRXIH ERH EVVERKIH
GLVSRSPSKMGEPP] 8LI TMGXYVIW [IVI WXYHMIH XS WII MJ
any patterns existed. In addition, a map was sketched
on location and edited based on a comparison with
SJ½GMEPQETWSJXLIEVIE'IVXEMRLMWXSV]ERHGIQIXIV]
MRJSVQEXMSR [EW TVSZMHIH XLVSYKL ER MRXIVZMI[ [MXL E
member of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery’s Board
SJ (MVIGXSVW %R IXLRSKVETLMG WXYH] SJ LIEHWXSRIW EW
artifacts of cultural history was conducted, and the
HMWGYWWMSRWSRXSQFWXSRIHIWMKRERHITMXETLJSPOPSVI[IVI
developed as a result. Birth and death dates provided on
the headstones and supplemented by cemetery records
[IVIYWIHMR½RHMRKHIQSKVETLMGMRJSVQEXMSRWYGLEWXLI
EKIHMWXVMFYXMSRXLVSYKLSYXXLIGIQIXIV]ERHXLIHIEXL
XMQMRK SJ WTSYWIW MR VIPEXMSR XS SRI ERSXLIV 4IVWSREP
information on the deceased individuals was discovered
XLVSYKL ER I\EQMREXMSR SJ LMWXSVMGEP HSGYQIRXW WYGL
EW HIEXL VIGSVHW QEVVMEKI VIGSVHW GIRWYW HEXE ERH
military records provided by the website Ancestry.com.
-R EHHMXMSR PMXIVEXYVI VIKEVHMRK MQQMKVEXMSR MRXS XLI
9RMXIH7XEXIW[EWVIZMI[IH8LMWMRJSVQEXMSR[EWYWIH
to explore these people’s races, ethnicities, occupations,
and socioeconomic statuses.
ETHICS
This study does not elicit ethical concerns because it
contains information from public records and headstones.
8LI%QIVMGER%RXLVSTSPSKMGEP%WWSGMEXMSR [IFWMXI PMWXW
JSYV GEXIKSVMIW [LMGL EVI I\IQTX JVSQ VIZMI[ F] ER
-RWXMXYXMSREP 6IZMI[ &SEVH ERH WXEXIW ±8LI I\IQTX
GEXIKSVMIW MRGPYHI VIWIEVGL³MRZSPZMRK XLI GSPPIGXMSR SV
WXYH]SJI\MWXMRKHEXEHSGYQIRXW?ERHAVIGSVHW´MJXLIWI
WSYVGIWEVITYFPMG©²6IZMI[F]ER-RWXMXYXMSREP
6IZMI[&SEVHMWYRRIGIWWEV]FIGEYWIXLMWWXYH]JEPPWMRXS
XLMWI\IQTXGEXIKSV]
LOCATION INFORMATION
HISTORY OF ASTOR/ASTOR PARK
-R%PFIVX;EWWHI'^IKITYFPMWLIHEQSRSKVETL
entitled The History of Astor on the St. Johns: Astor Park
ERHXLI7YVVSYRHMRK%VIE7MRGIWSPMXXPIMRJSVQEXMSRMW
published about the Astor area, the historical information
TVIWIRXIHMRXLMWTETIVVIPMIWLIEZMP]SR;EWWHI'^IKI´W
history.
;MPPMEQ %WXSV KVERHWSR SJ XLI JEQSYW WIPJQEHI
QMPPMSREMVI .SLR .EGSF%WXSV TYVGLEWIH EGVIW
SJPERHMR1EVGLSJ;MPPMEQ%WXSVEPSRK[MXLLMW
business partners, constructed a town on that same land,
ERHXLI]SVMKMREPP]REQIHMX1ERLEXXER%WXSVFYMPXERSR
HIRSQMREXMSREP GLYVGL WGLSSPLSYWI ERH KIRIVEP WXSVI
1
The JUE Issue 1
for the town, and also donated land in Astor Park for a
free cemetery. In addition, he built two hotels: the Astor
,SYWIERHXLI4EPQIXXS-R;MPPMEQ%WXSVYWIHXLI
WIVZMGIWSJ.EQIW)(VEOIXSFYMPHEVEMPVSEHJVSQ%WXSV
0ERHMRK XS 0EOI )YWXMW8LMW HIZIPSTQIRX PEYRGLIH XLI
XMR] TEVSGLMEP 1ERLEXXER MRXS XLI VIEPQ SJ±E FSSQMRK
XS[R² &] 1ERLEXXER FIKER XS FI GEPPIH%WXSV
;EWWHI'^IKI
MRQEOMRK%WXSVXLIMVLSQI;EWWHI'^IKI
;MPPMEQ%WXSVHMIHMRERHXLIPERH[EWTEWWIH
HS[RXSLMWWSR.SLR.EGSF%WXSV-:[LSHMIH]IEVW
PEXIV[MXLXLIWMROMRKSJXLI8MXERMGSR%TVMP8LI
PERH[EWXLIRTEWWIHSRXS;MPPMEQ:MRGIRX%WXSVWSRSJ
.SLR.EGSF%WXSV-:[LSWSPHXLIPERHXSXLI(YPYXL0ERH
'SQTER]MRLS[IZIV±%WXSVERH%WXSV4EVO[IVI
TIVQERIRXP] IRKVEZIH MRXS XLI *PSVMHE PERHWGETI [MXL
three churches, two school-houses, railroad terminal,
WXIEQFSEX?WMGAPERHMRKLSXIPWERHVIWXEYVERXW²;EWWHI
'^IKI
&]XLIVI[IVIXLMVX]JSYVEGXMZIFYWMRIWWIWMR
%WXSV ERH%WXSV 4EVO ERH XLI TSWXSJ½GI WIVZIH QSVI
XLERGYWXSQIVWSJ[LSQPMZIHEGVSWWXLIVMZIV
;EWW HI '^IKI (IWTMXI XLI %WXSV EVIE´W
KVS[XLXLIFIEYX]SJREXYVIWXMPPI\MWXW%PFIVX;EWWHI
'^IKI[VSXIXLMWEFSYXXLIJYXYVISJ%WXSV±8LIQENIWXMG
¾MKLX SJ XLI FEPH IEKPI©[MPP FI LIVI JSV XLSWI [LSWI
WSYPWEVI]IEVRMRKJSVE[SVPHGVIEXIHF]+SHERHRSX]IX
WTSMPIHF]QER²
*MRRMWLMQQMKVERXWFSYKLXYTQYGLSJXLIPERHEWE
VIWYPX SJ EHZIVXMWIQIRXW F] XLI (YPYXL 0ERH 'SQTER]
that stated Astor had “...the best climate and richest
JEVQPERHMRXLIGSYRXV]²;EWWHI'^IKI8LI
MQQMKVERXWTYVGLEWIHQSWXSJXLIPERH[MXLSYXWIIMRKMX
beforehand and moved down from the north “to retire
ERH FYMPH XLI JEVQW XLI] [IVI HVIEQMRK EFSYX² ;EWW
HI '^IKI 9RJSVXYREXIP] XLI EHZIVXMWIQIRXW
[IVIRSXIRXMVIP]XVYI*SVI\EQTPIIZIRXLSYKLQSWX
of the trees were cut down and removed from the land,
XLIWXYQTWERHVSSXW[IVIPIJXFILMRHJSVXLIMQQMKVERXW
XS HIEP [MXL SR XLIMV S[R ,S[IZIV XLI MQQMKVERXW
were able to overcome these adversities and succeeded
-R QER]%WXSVMERW LEH XS PIEZI XLIMV LSQIW
FIGEYWI SJ XLI +VIEX (ITVIWWMSR 8LSWI [LS WXE]IH
LEHXSJEGILEVHXMQIWMRSVHIVXSWYVZMZI%WXSVFIKER
XS TVSWTIV EKEMR EJXIV XLI IRH SJ ;SVPH ;EV -- ERH
RSVXLIVRIVWFIKERXSQSZIMRXSXLIEVIEXSFY][MRXIV
ERHVIXMVIQIRXLSQIW-REHHMXMSR½WLGEQTWWTVERKYT
EPPSZIVXLIEVIE;EWWHI'^IKI
HISTORY OF THE CEMETERY
William Astor donated the Astor/Astor Park
Cemetery to the people of the area as a free cemetery
MR 3R (IGIQFIV 3XMW 1 0II +ISVKI
(VSWWSW ERH &VEHJSVH ) &VS[R ½PIH XLI %VXMGPIW SJ
Incorporation with the State of Florida in order to keep
the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery free for residents. On
.ERYEV] XLI GIQIXIV] VIGIMZIH E GIVXM½GEXI SJ
MRGSVTSVEXMSRRSXJSVTVS½X8LI½VWXTISTPIXSQEOI
YTXLI&SEVHSJ(MVIGXSVW[IVI4VIWMHIRX3XMW10II
:MGI4VIWMHIRX+ISVKI(VSWWSWERH7IGVIXEV]8VIEWYVIV
Bradford E. Brown. Additional property was donated to
XLIGIQIXIV]MRF]4EXW]8EXYQ'IQIXIV]4EGOIX
%GGSVHMRKXSXLIGIQIXIV]FSEVH´WLMWXSV]XLIGIQIXIV][EWRSXHSREXIHYRXMP'IQIXIV]4EGOIX
All three of these men are buried in the cemetery.
B1
FIGURE B1.
(CEMETERY PACKET). MAP CREATED BY CEMETERY VOLUNTEERS.
CEMETERY DETAILS
The deceased individual or his/
her immediate family has to be a
resident of the Astor/ Astor Park
area in order to be buried in the
cemetery. The cemetery is free to all
residents whether they own or rent
their home. As a result of limited
resources, the Astor/Astor Park
Cemetery is not a perpetual care
GIQIXIV] 8LI &SEVH SJ (MVIGXSVW MW
comprised of residents who overlook
and maintain the cemetery. All work
is done on a volunteer basis, and the
FSEVH QIQFIVW HS RSX KIX TEMH JSV
their efforts. Several clean ups are
GSRHYGXIH HYVMRK XLI ]IEV MR SVHIV
XS OIIT XLI KVSYRHW [IPP QEMRXEMRIH
(Cemetery Packet).
The cemetery is bordered by Wild
;SSHW'EQTKVSYRHSRXLIIEWXERH
an un-named, paved road on the west.
9RHIZIPSTIH PERH FSVHIVW XLI RSVXL
IRHSJXLIGIQIXIV][LMPI7XEXI6SEH
FSVHIVWXLIGIQIXIV]XSXLIWSYXL
The cemetery has paths created in the
KVEWW *MKYVI & HITMGXW XLIWI TEXLW
An entrance path in the center of the
cemetery acts as a divider between the
RSVXLERHWSYXLWMHIW:MWMXSVWIMXLIV
TEVOMRXLIKVEZIPSVHVMZISRXLITEXLW
XS FVMRK XLIQ GPSWI XS XLI KVEZIW SJ
XLIMRHMZMHYEPWXLI]EVIZMWMXMRK8LI
newest burials are at the north-west
and north-east quadrants. A section
of African American burials is located
MRXLIWSYXL[IWXUYEHVERXGSRXEMRMRK
at most four known burials), and the
SVMKMREP %WXSV%WXSV 4EVO 'IQIXIV]
SVMKMREPP] JSV [LMXIW SRP] MW PSGEXIH
in the south-east quadrant. A section
for urn burials is also in the southeast quadrant located between
XLI IRXVERGI TEXL ERH XLI SVMKMREP
GIQIXIV] *MKYVIW & ¯ GSRXMRYIH
SRRI\XTEKIEVIJSYVHMJJIVIRXQETW
SJXLIEVIEXLEX[MPPKMZIERMHIESJXLI
cemetery layout.
1
The JUE Issue 1
22
B2
B4
B3
FIGURE B2, B3.
(GOOGLE MAPS). A SATELLITE
VIEW OF THE WHOLE CEMETERY
AND A CLOSE-UP VIEW OF THE
ORIGINAL CEMETERY SECTION
FIGURE B4.
A SKETCH OF THE CEMETERY
LAYOUT. (COMPASS ROSE IS
ACCURATE FOR OTHER MAP
FIGURES AS WELL)
As previously mentioned, the
JSGYW SJ XLMW WXYH] MW XLI SVMKMREP
cemetery (located in the south-east
quadrant). The oldest headstone in
this part of the cemetery is that of
,&7ERHIVW[LSHMIHMR8LI
FYVMEPWMRXLMWEVIEEVIEVVERKIHMRXS
IMKLXKIRIVEPVS[W2SXIZIV]KVEZI
QEVOIV ½XW TVIGMWIP] MRXS XLI VS[
EVVERKIQIRX FYX IMKLX VS[W GER
FI HMWXMRKYMWLIH %PP SJ XLI QEVOIVW
face east with one exception: that of
Marrietta Jones faces north.
For the purpose of this study, the
VS[W[IVIPEFIPIHSRIXLVSYKLIMKLX
WXEVXMRK [MXL XLI VS[ JYVXLIWX [IWX
There are thirty-one headstones
VITVIWIRXMRK XLI FYVMEP WTEGIW SJ
XLMVX]IMKLX MRHMZMHYEPW MR XLI ½VWX
VS[½JXIIRLIEHWXSRIWVITVIWIRXMRK
the burial spaces of twenty-four
individuals) in the second row, twenty½ZI LIEHWXSRIW VITVIWIRXMRK XLI
burial spaces of thirty-one to thirtytwo individuals) in the third row,
X[IRX]X[SLIEHWXSRIWVITVIWIRXMRK
XLI FYVMEP WTEGIW SJ X[IRX]IMKLX
individuals) in the fourth row, twenty
LIEHWXSRIW VITVIWIRXMRK XLI FYVMEP
spaces of twenty-three individuals)
MR XLI ½JXL VS[ WIZIR LIEHWXSRIW
VITVIWIRXMRKXLIFYVMEPWTEGIWSJRMRI
individuals) in the sixth row, eleven
LIEHWXSRIW VITVIWIRXMRK XLI FYVMEP
spaces of thirteen individuals) in the
seventh row, and eleven headstones
VITVIWIRXMRK XLI FYVMEP WTEGIW SJ
X[IPZIMRHMZMHYEPWMRXLIIMKLXLVS[
The total number of headstones in
XLMW GIQIXIV] MW 7IGSRHEV]
KVEZIQEVOIVW EW [IPP EW JSSXWXSRIW
are not included in this count. There is
EXSXEPSJTISTPIVITVIWIRXIHSR
these headstones, but there are only
TISTPIFYVMIHMRXLIGIQIXIV]EW
far as can be determined. There are
several possible explanations for the
disparity. For example, if headstones
do not have a death date, it is likely
that the individual has not yet died
or is just not buried in this cemetery.
3RISJXLILIEHWXSRIWMRXLMWVS[MWXSXEPP]YRVIEHEFPI-XQE]FIPSRKXSXLIWEQITIVWSREWSRISJXLIQEVOIVWFIWMHIMX
SVMXQE]FIPSRKXSEWITEVEXIMRHMZMHYEP
A1
FIGURE A1.
HEADSTONE—H B SANDERS;
1881 – 1886
FIGURE A2.
HEADSTONE—
ARTHUR CLAY SAUL;
SEP 19, 1982 – SEP 23, 1982
Cemetery records have also been
YWIH MR GEPGYPEXMRK XLIWI RYQFIVW
and it is possible that some of the
record information is erroneous. In
addition, some of the headstones may
not be up to date. For the purpose
of this study, the total number of
MRXIVVIHMRHMZMHYEPWMWGSRWMHIVIH
and the total number of individuals
represented on headstones is
HIXIVQMRIH XS FI 8LIWI X[S
numbers are used to determine
certain statistical information found in
subsequent sections of this study.
A2
TOMBSTONE DESIGN
Stylistically, headstones have not
GLERKIH HVEWXMGEPP] XLVSYKLSYX XLI
KIRIVEXMSRW *SV I\EQTPI E GLMPH´W
LIEHWXSRIJVSQWII*MKYVI%
MW WXVMOMRKP] WMQMPEV XS XLEX SJ E GLMPH
[LSHMIHMRWII*MKYVI%8LI
main difference is in the precision
of the cut of the stone, and this is
HYI XS XIGLRSPSKMGEP EHZERGIQIRXW
However, there does seem to be an
overall trend toward shorter and
wider headstones in more recent
years. This could be due to stability
factors. The closer a headstone is to
XLI KVSYRH ERH XLI [MHIV MXW FEWI
the more stable it will stand over
time. Tall, thin headstones, of which
we see a few of in this cemetery from
earlier decades, would be more easily
ORSGOIHSZIVSVHEQEKIH
8LI LIEHWXSRIW SJ XLI
SVMKMREP WIGXMSR SJ XLI %WXSV%WXSV
4EVO 'IQIXIV] VERKI MR WX]PI JVSQ
those with absolutely no decoration
1
The JUE Issue 1
A3
FIGURE A3.
HEADSTONE—SAM LAHTI;
1881 – 1965
to those which are very elaborately
HIGSVEXIH 7M^IW VERKI JVSQ XLI
WQEPPIWX EX MRGLIW PSRK F] MRGLIW
XEPP XLEX SJ 9RORS[R XS XLI PEVKIWX
EX JIIX MRGL PSRK F] JIIX MRGLIW XEPP XLEX SJ 6EPTL ERH %RRE
6IIHIV ,IEHWXSRI HIGSVEXMSR
varies. Some have no decoration
at all while some have a simple
decorative pattern incised on them.
Others, however, are very elaborate.
*PSVEP ERH VIPMKMSYW HIGSVEXMSRW EVI
very popular, and the two coexist
on many of the headstones. Secular
scenes and emblems are also found
SRWSQISJXLIKVEZIQEVOIVWMRXLMW
cemetery. In addition, there are eleven
headstones of which the decorations
are unable to be deciphered at all or
are only partially decipherable. SixtyIMKLX LIEHWXSRIW LEZI RS HIGSVEXMSR
(borders are not considered a form
of decoration in this study), twentyJSYV LEZI ¾SVEP HIGSVEXMSR XLIWI
also sometimes have a simple pattern
EGGSQTER]MRK XLI ¾S[IVW IMKLXIIR
LEZIVIPMKMSYWHIGSVEXMSRWIPIZIRLEZI
¾SVEP ERH VIPMKMSYW HIGSVEXMSRW ½ZI
have secular decorations, three have
only incised patterns, and two have
FSXL¾SVEPERHWIGYPEVHIGSVEXMSRW
NO DECORATION
8LI½VWXX]TISJKVEZIQEVOIVXS
be discussed is that with no decoration
at all. The headstones that fall into this
GEXIKSV]EVIXLIWMQTPIWXMRXLIIRXMVI
cemetery. These headstones are small,
VIGXERKYPEV ERH PE] IMXLIV ¾YWL SV
EPQSWX¾YWLEKEMRWXXLIIEVXL8LI]EVI
MRGMWIH[MXLEWMRKPIPMRIERHWSPIP]XLI
name, birth date, and death date of the
MRHMZMHYEPEVIMRWGVMFIHWII*MKYVI%
There are seven such headstones. The
RI\XX]TIMWPEVKIVFYXWXMPPVIGXERKYPEV
ERH MW EPWS PEMH EPQSWX ¾YWL [MXL XLI
earth. Nine of these exist, and on two,
inscriptions are incised with a double
PMRIVEXLIVXLEREWMRKPIPMRI%RSXLIV
X]TI SJ LIEHWXSRI FIPSRKMRK XS XLMW
GEXIKSV]PMIW¾YWLEKEMRWXXLIKVSYRH
These incorporate an incised border.
A4
A5
A6
FIGURE A4.
HEADSTONE—
ALEX WATANEN;
1873 – 1943
Seventeen have borders that consist
SJ E WMRKPI PMRI ERH WIZIRXIIR LEZI
HSYFPIPMRIHFSVHIVWWII*MKYVI%
FIGURE A5.
HEADSTONE—
JAMES O. JOHNSON;
1879 – 1961
7IZIR YTVMKLX [IHKIWLETIH
(wider at the base than they are at
XLI XST LIEHWXSRIW EPWS FIPSRK XS
XLMW GEXIKSV] 8[S LEZI E HSYFPI
line, incised border and the rest
LEZI E WMRKPIPMRI FSVHIV .YWX PMOI EPP
the types previously mentioned, this
type also usually contains only the
individual’s name and dates of birth
ERHHIEXLWII*MKYVIW%8LIVIEVI
WIZIRSXLIVYTVMKLXLIEHWXSRIWMRXLMW
GEXIKSV] XLEX EVI RSX [IHKIWLETIH
*SYV EVI WMRKPI LIEHWXSRIW X[S EVI
multiple person headstones, and one
MWJSVEQEVVMIHGSYTPIWII*MKYVI%
FIGURE A6.
HEADSTONE—FRANK P. STEELE,
JAN 2, 1903 – APR 14, 1958;
JUANITA B. STEELE,
APR 14, 1912 – JUN 27, 1981
THE HEART DECORATIONS
FIGURE A7.
FIGURE A7: HEADSTONE—
MARTHA ANN BRYAN
Some of the oldest headstones
MR XLI GIQIXIV] ½X MRXS XLMW RS
HIGSVEXMSR GEXIKSV] EW [IPP 8LVII
EVI YTVMKLX EVGLIHXST WXSRI KVEZI
markers that have solely the name and
birth and death year of the deceased
GEVZIHMRXSXLIQWII*MKYVI%%PWS
A7
in one case, it seems that a cement
square was simply poured onto the
KVSYRH SRXS [LMGL SRP] E REQI [EW
WPSTTMP]GEVZIHWII*MKYVI%
FLORAL DECORATION
*PSVEP MQEKIW YWYEPP] MRGMWIH
but not always, are the most popular
forms of decoration found on the
headstones in this cemetery. It seems
REXYVEPJSVMQEKIWSJ¾S[IVWXSETTIEV
on headstones since it is common
TVEGXMGI JSV FSYUYIXW SJ ¾S[IVW XS
FIPIJXSRKVEZIW8SQFWXSRIGSQTER]
websites have lists of common
LIEHWXSRIW]QFSPWERHXLIMVQIERMRKW
1ER] ¾S[IVW LEZI EWWMKRIH W]QFSPMG
QIERMRKWSVVITVIWIRXWTIGM½GWXEKIW
MRLYQERKVS[XLERHQEXYVEXMSR*SV
I\EQTPI E GIVXEMR X]TI SJ ¾S[IV SV
E HITMGXMSR SJ E ¾S[IV FYH QE] FI
used on the headstone of a child,
FYX E JYPP] FPSWWSQIH ¾S[IV QE] FI
used on the headstone of an adult.
;LIR GSRWMHIVMRK XLI QIERMRKW
KMZIR XS XLIWI ¾SVEP MQEKIW F] XLIWI
1
The JUE Issue 1
A8
FIGURE A8, A9.
EXAMPLES OF AN ORCHID-TYPE
FLOWER AND A ROSE-TYPE
FLOWER,
A9
companies, it seems likely that some of
XLI¾SVEPHITMGXMSRWMRXLMWGIQIXIV]
LEZI E W]QFSPMG QIERMRK EPSRK [MXL
XLI WIIQMRKP] QSVI SFZMSYW TYVTSWI
SJFIEYXMJ]MRKXLILIEHWXSRIMXWIPJ
8LI ½VWX I\EQTPI SJ ¾SVEP
decoration appears on a headstone
JVSQ )PIZIR LIEHWXSRIW
LEZI ¾SVEP HIGSVEXMSRW TEMVIH [MXL
VIPMKMSYW HIGSVEXMSRW X[S LEZI ¾SVEP
decorations paired with secular
decorations, and nineteen have solely
¾SVEP HIGSVEXMSRW 8LI WMQTPIWX
HITMGXMSR MRGPYHIH MR XLMW GEXIKSV] MW
the appearance of branches on one
LIEHWXSRI 8LI RI\X WMQTPIWX ¾SVEP
HITMGXMSRW SGGYV SR JSYV YTVMKLX
headstones. On these, an incised
border with an arched-top is accented
F] W]QQIXVMGEP ¾S[IV HIWMKRW MR XLI
YTTIVGSVRIVW8LIWIHIWMKRWGSRWMWX
SJSRIWMQTPMWXMG½ZITIXEPIH¾S[IVMR
each corner that includes a small stem
XLEXLEWXLVIIPIEZIWWTVSYXMRKJVSQMX
Flowers often accent the corners
of headstones. A simplistic four to
½ZITIXEPIH ¾S[IV EGGSQTERMIH F]
leaves is used on ten headstones.
7IZIR SJ XLIWI EPWS LEZI VIPMKMSYW
decorations and one also contains
E WIGYPEV MQEKI *SYV LIEHWXSRIW
LEZI E WMQTPMWXMG ¾S[IV QYGL PMOI
XLI ½ZITIXEPIH ¾S[IV HMWGYWWIH
IEVPMIVEPSRK[MXLWSQIPIEZIWGEVZIH
at the bottom, top, or top and sides
of the headstone—one of these is
EPWSEGGSQTERMIHF]EWIGYPEVMQEKI
8LIVI MW ZEVMEXMSR EQSRK XLI ¾SVEP
accents used in the corners. The
WMQTPI ¾S[IVW QIRXMSRIH TVIZMSYWP]
are not the only style. A rose-type
¾S[IV MW YWIH SR X[IPZI LIEHWXSRIW
ERH ER SVGLMHX]TI ¾S[IV MW YWIH
SR SRI LIEHWXSRI WII *MKYVIW %
ERH%
A10
A11
A12
FIGURE A10.
EXAMPLE OF A WREATH EMBLEM
FIGURE A11.
HEADSTONE—
WHITEY WOJCIECHOWSKI,
1909 – 1989;
URA WOJCIECHOWSKI,
1889 - 1985
FIGURE A12.
HEADSTONE—ARTHUR CLAY
SAUL; AUG 7, 1953 – AUG 20, 1958
;VIEXL IQFPIQW EVI EPWS FIMRK
GSRWMHIVIHEJSVQSJ¾SVEPHIGSVEXMSR
ERH ½ZI KVEZIQEVOIVW LEZI WQEPP
wreath emblems located at their tops
WII*MKYVI%
RELIGIOUS DECORATION
6IPMKMSYW MQEKIW EVI XLI WIGSRH
most popular type of decorations
found in the cemetery. This is not
WYVTVMWMRK EW XLI EVIE MW LIEZMP]
TSTYPEXIH F] 'LVMWXMERW°WTIGM½GEPP]
Baptists. For the purpose of this
HMWGYWWMSRQEVVMEKIW]QFSPWWYGLEW
PMROIH[IHHMRKFERHWEVIGSRWMHIVIH
E JSVQ SJ VIPMKMSYW HIGSVEXMSR WII
*MKYVI%-REHHMXMSRMXMWEWWYQIH
that depictions of lambs are considered
XSFI±XLIPEQFSJ+SH².IWYW'LVMWX
WII *MKYVI % -QEKIW SJ PMROIH
[IHHMRK FERHW GEVZIH MRXS GSYTPI
LIEHWXSRIW ETTIEV X[MGI ERH WMRKPI
lambs are incised on two headstones
EW[IPP&SXLXLI[IHHMRKFERHWERH
the lambs are usually accompanied by
HITMGXMSRWSJ¾S[IVW
8LI WMQTPIWX SJ XLI VIPMKMSYW
HIGSVEXMSRW EVI WMRKPI GVSWWIW [LMGL
ETTIEVSR½JXIIRLIEHWXSRIW8LI]EVI
usually incised and are most commonly
centered at the top of the headstone;
however, there are two instances of
WMRKPIGVSWWIWGIRXIVIHEXXLIFSXXSQ
SJKVEZIQEVOIVW8LIWIX[SGVSWWIW
are raised. In addition, nine of the
incised crosses are surrounded by an
incised circle.
1
The JUE Issue 1
A13
A14
A15
FIGURE A13.
PICTURE OF PRAYING HANDS
ACCOMPANYING A CROSS
FIGURE A14.
PICTURE OF THE CHURCH SCENE
FIGURE A15.
PICTURE OF THE SCENE
IN WHICH GOD’S HAND
REACHES DOWN FROM HEAVEN
Crosses appear quite often on
other headstones with more elaborate
HIGSVEXMSRW -R SRI MRWXERGI TVE]MRK
LERHW EGGSQTER] E GVSWW WII *MKYVI
% FYX TVE]MRK LERHW EPWS ETTIEV
alone on two other headstones.
%RKIPW ETTIEV SR LIEHWXSRIW EW
well—twice alone and twice as one of
multiple symbols.
There are two elaborate scenes
MRZSPZMRK VIPMKMSYW W]QFSPW 8LI ½VWX
HITMGXW E WQEPP GLEVQMRK GLYVGL
EKEMRWXEFEGOHVSTSJXVIIWERHGPSYH
WXVIEOIHWO]8[STISTPIEVIWXERHMRK
SR XLI WXITW SJ XLI GLYVGL KE^MRK
XS[EVHXLIFYMPHMRKEWMJ[EMXMRKXSFI
[IPGSQIH MR XLVSYKL MXW HSSVW WII
*MKYVI%
The second depicts two hands
VIEGLMRK YT XLVSYKL ¾S[IVW XS[EVH
ERSXLIV WPMKLXP] PEVKIV LERH XLEX MW
HIWGIRHMRKJVSQXLIGPSYHWWII*MKYVI
%8LMWWGIRIMWXSFIMRXIVTVIXIH
as the hands of the two deceased
MRHMZMHYEPWVIEGLMRKYTXSIQFVEGIXLI
LERHSJ+SH,IMWYWLIVMRKXLIQERH
[IPGSQMRKXLIQMRXS,IEZIR
A18
A17
A16
FIGURE A16,17.
EXAMPLE OF A MASONIC
SYMBOL AND A PICTURE OF
THE HEART DECORATIONS
FIGURE A18.
PICTURE OF THE
INDUSTRIAL BOAT
SECULAR DECORATION
Secular decorations are those that
do not have an obvious connection
[MXLVIPMKMSYWKVSYTWSVMHIEW8LIWI
MQEKIWQE]VITVIWIRXWSQIXLMRKXLEX
[EWMQTSVXERXXSXLIHIGIEWIHHYVMRK
his/her life. The secular decorations
EVIQSWXP]PMQMXIHXSWTIGM½GW]QFSPW
For instance, three headstones are
IRKVEZIH [MXL 1EWSRMG W]QFSPW WII
*MKYVI%8LIVIMWSRISGGYVVIRGI
of heart decorations—a pair located
in each upper corner of the headstone
WII*MKYVI%3RILIEHWXSRIIZIR
has an industrial or commercial boat
IRKVEZIHEXMXWGIRXIVWII*MKYVI%
8[S SJ XLI QSWX MRXIVIWXMRK
elaborate, and beautiful headstones are
set apart from the other headstones
with secular decorations because they
contain landscape scenes. One of
XLIWIWGIRIWGSRWMWXWSJEWRS[]½IPH
[MXLEJI[FPEHIWSJKVEWWTIIOMRKSYX
of the snow.
8LIVIEVIEPWSX[SSXLIVLIEHWXSRIWMRXLIGIQIXIV]XLEXQEOIYWISJLIEVXWFYXRSXMRXLIWEQI[E]FIMRKHMWGYWWIHLIVI3RILIEHWXSRIMW
MRXLIWLETISJX[SLIEVXWERHERSXLIVLEWXLIREQIWSJXLIHIGIEWIHMRHMZMHYEPWMRWGVMFIHMRLIEVXW8LIWIX[SLIEHWXSRIWEPWSGSRXEMRVIPMKMSYW
1
decorations.
The JUE Issue 1
A20
A19
FIGURE A19.
PICTURE OF THE SNOWY
FIELD NATURE SCENE
FIGURE A20.
PICTURE OF THE COVERED
BRIDGE NATURE SCENE
A buck and a fawn (or a doe)
KVE^IMRXLI½IPHWII*MKYVI%8LI
SXLIVWLS[WEGSZIVIHFVMHKISZIVE
VMZIV3TIRPERHWYVVSYRHWXLIFVMHKI
and trees can be seen in the distance
WII*MKYVI%
OTHER
In addition to all the headstone
HIWMKRW HMWGYWWIH EFSZI XLIVI EVI
some headstones that have depictions
that cannot be completely deciphered.
This is due to erosion, dirt, and
HMJ½GYPXMIW GEYWIH F] EQFMKYSYW
HIWMKRW
involved; however, the person who
physically creates the epitaph is also
MRZSPZIH MI ER IRKVEZIV 8LIVI EVI
three different individuals who may be
MRZSPZIH MR WIPIGXMRK XLI ITMXETL the deceased individual (for example, if
headstone is purchased before death),
(2) the family members or friends who
EVI QEOMRK XLI FYVMEP EVVERKIQIRXW
for the deceased individual, or (3) the
cemetery directors (if there is no one
XS QEOI XLI FYVMEP EVVERKIQIRXW JSV
the deceased individual). The epitaphs
MR XLMW GIQIXIV] EPP JEPP MRXS ½ZI
HMJJIVIRXXLIQEXMGGEXIKSVMIW
EPITAPH FOLKLORE
3RP] SJ XLI LIEHWXSRIW
in this cemetery have epitaphs.These
ITMXETLW VERKI MR HEXI JVSQ XS
EX PIEWX 8LIVI MW SRI SXLIV
headstone with an epitaph that may or
QE]RSXFIPEXIVXLERFYXMXW]IEV
of production is unknown. This type
of folklore is the product of multiple
individuals. For example, the person
who selects the epitaph is obviously
Headstones of some veterans state the war and branch of the military in which the individual served.
In this study, these statements were not considered epitaphs.
Remembrance of the deceased is a very popular theme.
There are seven instances of epitaphs that fall into this category.
ˆ
-RJSVQEXMZIWXEXIQIRX
ˆ
8LIXIQTSVEV]WXEXISJHIEXL
ˆ
'LEVEGXIVMWXMGSJXLIHIGIEWIH
ˆ
6IQIQFVERGISJXLIHIGIEWIH
ˆ
SH´W VSPI MR HIEXL ERH XLI TVIWIRGI SJ ER
+
EJXIVPMJIMR[LMGL+SHMWMRZSPZIH
/IITMRQMRHXLEXWSQISJXLIWIITMXETLWLEVOIRXS
QSVIXLERSRIXLIQIFYXJSVXLIQSWXTEVXXLI]½XFIWX
MRXSSRIXLIQEXMGGEXIKSV]ERHXLMWQEMRGEXIKSV]WIXW
XLITEVEQIXIVWJSVXLIJSPPS[MRKHMWGYWWMSR
The informative statement is one of the least used
types of epitaphs. This type of epitaph states a fact about
the deceased individual and is not what one would
typically expect to read on a headstone. There are only
two examples of this type of epitaph: (1) Born in Turku,
*MRPERHERH-RJERXWSRSJ0EVV]ERH7LEVSR7EYP&SXL
of these provide information about the deceased.
Two other epitaphs portray the theme of the
temporary state of death; however, they portray this
theme in different ways. One epitaph states, “We will
QIIXEKEMR²8LMWWXEXIQIRXHIGPEVIWXLEXXLIWITEVEXMSR
between the deceased and loved ones is temporary—
in fact, there will be a future encounter. Therefore, this
epitaph also harkens to the presence of an afterlife (this
theme will be discussed in more detail later). The other
ITMXETL VIEHW ±3RP] 7PIITMRK² 8LMW TLVEWI WIIQW XS
mean that death itself is only temporary. Eventually, this
individual will wake up. Just like the previous epitaph, this
one also harkens to an afterlife.
There are four epitaphs that describe a characteristic
SJ XLI HIGIEWIH % QEMR XLIQI [MXLMR XLMW GEXIKSV] MW
PSZI8LIWIITMXETLWMRGPYHI0SZIHF]EPP&IPSZIH
0SZIH F] XLIMV GLMPHVIR ERH KVERHGLMPHVIR ERH Beloved son, brother, father—Hard Head. All of these
state that the individual was, and is still, loved. The last
MW TEVXMGYPEVP] MRXIVIWXMRK FIGEYWI XLI WIGSRH TEVX SJ MX
“Hard Head,” embodies a bit of humor. This is the only
instance of humor seen in all the instances of epitaphs in
this cemetery.
6IQIQFVERGI SJ XLI HIGIEWIH MW E ZIV] TSTYPEV
theme. There are seven instances of epitaphs that fall into
XLMW GEXIKSV] 1ER] EVI WIPJI\TPEREXSV] *SV I\EQTPI
XLIVI EVI X[S SGGYVVIRGIW SJ ±-R PSZMRK QIQSV] SJ²
ERHSRISGGYVVIRGISJ±-RPSZMRKQIQSV]² The others
MRGPYHI ±+SRI FYX RSX JSVKSXXIR² ±-QQSVXEPM^IH MR
XLI [VMXMRKW SJ 1EVNSVMI /MRRER 6E[PMRKW² ±4VIGMSYW
Memories,” and “In our hearts forever.” Each one of these
states, in a similar way, that despite death the individual
lives on in the memories of loved ones. The epitaph
XLEXWTIEOWSJMQQSVXEPM^EXMSRMWTEVXMGYPEVP]MRXIVIWXMRK
because it means that this individual will be remembered
JSV KIRIVEXMSRW 8LI YWI SJ XLI [SVH±MQQSVXEPM^IH²
PIEHWSRIXSFIPMIZIXLMWQERGERRIZIVFIJSVKSXXIR
8LI QSWX TSTYPEV XLIQI MW XLEX SJ +SH´W VSPI MR
HIEXLERHXLITVIWIRGISJEREJXIVPMJI)MKLXITMXETLWJEPP
MRXS XLMW XLIQEXMG GEXIKSV] 8[S SJ XLIWI WMQTP] VIEH
±%X 6IWX² ;LIVIZIV XLI HIGIEWIH MRHMZMHYEPW LETTIR
to be now, they are “at rest.” This seems to hint at the
presence of an afterlife. One of these epitaphs is very
±-RPSZMRKQIQSV]SJ²ERH±-RPSZMRKQIQSV]²EPWSEHLIVIXSXLIXLIQISJPSZIHMWGYWWIHMRVIKEVHXSXLIITMXETLWXLEXWXEXIGLEVEGXIVMWXMGWSJXLI
deceased. It is important to note that there is overlap between epitaph themes.
1
The JUE Issue 1
32
FIGURE B5
SCATTERPLOT DIAGRAM—MALE AGE AT DEATH (BY YEAR OF DEATH)
FIGURE B6.
SCATTERPLOT DIAGRAM—FEMALE AGE AT DEATH (BY YEAR OF DEATH)
HMJ½GYPXXSHIGMTLIV,S[IZIVMXETTIEVWXSVIEH±+SH
KEZI LI XSSO LI [MPP² 8LI [SVH EJXIV±LI [MPP² MW
undecipherable. It is a jumble of letters that does not
actually spell a word. The letters appear, “i cslo ve.”
Erosion may have destroyed some letters or may have
EPXIVIH XLI ETTIEVERGI SJ I\MWXMRK PIXXIVW VIWYPXMRK MR
erroneous interpretation. This epitaph possibly means
XLEX +SH KEZI PMJI XSSO PMJI ERH XLEX MR XLI JYXYVI [MPP
EGXJYVXLIVTIVWGSQQ/MQFIVP]*PMRX,EQMPXSR7MRGI
we don’t know what the last word is, we don’t know
[LEX +SH´W JYXYVI EGXMSR [MPP FI 8[S SXLIV ITMXETLW
±1]XVYWXMWMR+SH²ERH±-R+SH´W'EVI²EPPHIGPEVIXLEX
+SH MW I\TIGXIH XS XEOI GEVI SJ XLI HIGIEWIH MR XLIMV
afterlife. “Our Father which art in Heaven” is clearly
VIPMKMSYWFIGEYWIMXMWXLI½VWXTLVEWISJXLI0SVH´W4VE]IV
8LIRI\XITMXETLMRXLMWGEXIKSV]VIEHW±4VIGMSYW0SVH
XEOIQ]LERH²8LI0SVH[MPPKYMHIXLIHIGIEWIHMRXLI
EJXIVPMJI8LI½REPITMXETLSJXLMWGEXIKSV]VIEHW±-RQ]
Father’s house are many mansions.” The house can be
MRXIVTVIXIHEW,IEZIRFIGEYWIXLEXMW[LIVI+SHVIWMHIW
8LIHIGIEWIHEVII\TIGXIHXSNSMR+SHMRLMWLSYWI
DEATH TIMING AMONG MALE/FEMALE
DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
'IQIXIVMIW EVI E XVIEWYVI XVSZI SJ HIQSKVETLMG
information. This part of the study reveals the most
important information about the people of the area in the
PEXIRMRIXIIRXLXLVSYKLXLIX[IRXMIXLGIRXYVMIWMRGPYHMRK
EKI EX HIEXL WI\ VEGI ERH IXLRMGMX] 8LMW ORS[PIHKI
GSYTPIH [MXL MQQMKVEXMSR ERH SGGYTEXMSR MRJSVQEXMSR
allows conclusions to be drawn about socioeconomic
status.
8LI SPHIWX TIVWSR FYVMIH MR XLMW GIQIXIV] [EW ]IEVWSPHERHWLIHMIHMR8LI]SYRKIWXTIVWSRHMIH
EXHE]SVPIWWSPHERHWLIHMIHMR2SXIXLEX
both of these individuals are female and thus represent
XLISPHIWXERH]SYRKIWXJIQEPIWFYVMIHMRXLIGIQIXIV]
8LISPHIWXQEPIFYVMIHMRXLIGIQIXIV][EWERHHMIH
MR[LMPIXLI]SYRKIWXQEPIFYVMIHMRXLIGIQIXIV]
[EWHE]WSPHERHHMIHMR8LIEZIVEKIEKIEXHIEXL
JSVEHYPXWSRP]TISTPIIMKLXIIR]IEVWSPH[IVIYWIHXS
GEPGYPEXIXLMWRYQFIVMWFEWIHSRMRHMZMHYEPW
8LIEZIVEKIEKIEXHIEXLJSVEHYPXQIRMWFEWIH
SRMRHMZMHYEPWERHXLIEZIVEKIEKIEXHIEXLJSVEHYPX
[SQIRMWFEWIHSRMRHMZMHYEPW%GGSVHMRKXS
XLIWIRYQFIVW[SQIRSYXPMZIQIRF]EREZIVEKISJ
]IEVW8LIEZIVEKIRYQFIVSJ]IEVW[SQIRSYXPMZIQIR
FEWIH SR XLI GIQIXIV] RYQFIVW MW SRP] WPMKLXP] LMKLIV
than the four years women are presently expected to
SYXPMZI QIR EGGSVHMRK XS XLI 9RMXIH 2EXMSRW 7XEXMWXMGW
(MZMWMSR´WPMJII\TIGXERG]GEPGYPEXMSRWJSVXLI]IEVW
XLVSYKL9RMXIH2EXMSRW7XEXMWXMGW(MZMWMSR
%KI EX HIEXL FEWIH YTSR ]IEV SJ HIEXL FIX[IIR
the males and females buried in this cemetery is
TVIXX] IZIRP] HMWXVMFYXIH EGGSVHMRK XS XLI WGEXXIVTPSX
HMEKVEQW°IWTIGMEPP]GSRWMHIVMRKXLIVEXMSSJQEPIW
XSJIQEPIW*MKYVIW&ERH&EVIWGEXXIVTPSXHMEKVEQW
XLEXHITMGXHMWXVMFYXMSRWSJEKIEXHIEXLF]]IEVSJHIEXL
JSV EPP EKIW RSX NYWX XLI EHYPXW 8LIWI HMEKVEQW WLS[
XLEX QER] QSVI [SQIR XLER QIR [IVI PMZMRK MRXS ERH
FI]SRHXLIMVIMKLXMIW-REHHMXMSRQER]QSVIQEPIWXLER
JIQEPIW[IVIH]MRKYRHIVXLIEKISJXLMVX]ERHQSVIQEPI
FIGURE B7.
PIE CHART—AGE DISTRIBUTION OF BOTH SEXES
FIGURE B8.
PIE CHART—AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALES
GLMPHVIR XLER JIQEPI GLMPHVIR [IVI H]MRK ,S[IZIV MR
XLI]IEVWTVIGIHMRKEFSYXQER]QSVIQEPIWXLER
JIQEPIW[IVIH]MRKEXSPHIVEKIW7XEVXMRKEXEFSYX
XLIHMEKVEQWWLS[EWYFWXERXMEPYTW[MRKMRXLIEQSYRXSJ
burials in the cemetery. This fact likely indicates dramatic
TSTYPEXMSRKVS[XL
XLIMVLYWFERHWF]]IEVWERHXLILYWFERHWSYXPMZIH
their wives by 11.11 years. This number supports the
HIQSKVETLMG RSXMSR XLEX [SQIR PMZI PSRKIV XLER QIR
-RXIVIWXMRKP]]IEVWMWQYGLPEVKIVXLERXLII\TIGXIH
four years women are presently expected to outlive men.
It is important to remember that many of these people
HMIH WIZIVEP ]IEVW EKS [LIR PMJI I\TIGXERGMIW [IVI
different. However, there is also a disparity between
the number of years spouses outlive each other and the
number of years women outlive men in this cemetery
population (these numbers were discussed in the
previous section).
DEATH TIMING AMONG SPOUSES
There are forty-seven couples, known to have been
married, that are buried in this cemetery. Married couples
[IVIHIXIVQMRIHXLVSYKLXLIYWISJGIRWYWVIGSVHWERH
QEVVMEKI VIGSVHW -R EHHMXMSR WLEVIH LIEHWXSRIW [IVI
sometimes indicators of married couples. Headstone
décor was taken into consideration as well. For example,
MJ ER MQEKI SJ PMROIH [IHHMRK FERHW [EW TVIWIRX SR E
shared headstone, it is obvious that the two individuals
were married. Helen and William Press may or may not
have been a couple. There is no evidence to support
whether they were married, blood related, or just happen
to have the same last name, so they were not included
in this part of the study. Of these forty-seven couples,
twenty-two of the husbands died before their wives, and
twenty wives died before their husbands. Three couples
died in the same year. Both the husband and wife of one
couple are either still alive, not buried in the cemetery, or
have headstones that are not up to date because there
EVIRSHIEXLHEXIWIRKVEZIHSRXLIQ*SVSRIGSYTPI
the order of death is uncertain because there is no death
date on the wife’s headstone or in the cemetery records.
8LI GSQFMRIHEZIVEKISJSRIWTSYWISYXPMZMRK XLI
SXLIV MW ]IEVW 3R EZIVEKI XLI [MZIW SYXPMZIH
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
STATISTICS (AGE DISTRIBUTIONS, ETC.)
%KIEXHIEXLGERFIGEPGYPEXIHJSVTISTPI
FYVMIH MR XLMW GIQIXIV] 8LIVI EVI EX PIEWX TISTPI
FYVMIHMRXLIGIQIXIV]FYXEREKIGERRSXFIGEPGYPEXIH
for two of the individuals due to a lack of birth and death
dates on both the headstones and cemetery records.
)MKLX SJ XLI HIGIEWIH EVI FIX[IIR XLI EKIW SJ ^IVS
MRJERXW ERH RMRIXIIR JSYVXIIR EVI FIX[IIR XLI EKIW
SJ X[IRX] ERH XLMVX]RMRI X[IRX]½ZI EVI FIX[IIR XLI
EKIWSJJSVX]ERH½JX]RMRIIMKLX]EVIFIX[IIRXLIEKIWSJ
sixty and seventy-nine, and thirty-seven are between the
EKIWSJIMKLX]ERHRMRIX]RMRI8LIEKIHMWXVMFYXMSRJSV
EPPMRHMZMHYEPWEW[IPPEWEWITEVEXIQEPIEKIHMWXVMFYXMSR
ERH JIQEPI EKI HMWXVMFYXMSR GER FI WIIR MR *MKYVIW &
&GSRXMRYIHSRRI\XTEKI8LIWITMIGLEVXWMRHMGEXI
XLEX E QENSVMX] SJ XLI GIQIXIV] TSTYPEXMSR [EW H]MRK
FIX[IIRXLIEKIWSJWM\X]ERHWIZIRX]RMRI8LIWIGSRH
1
The JUE Issue 1
FIGURE B9.
PIE CHART—AGE DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALES
PEVKIWXKVSYTSJHIGIEWIHFEWIHSREKIMWGSQTVMWIHSJ
MRHMZMHYEPWIMKLX]]IEVWSJEKIERHEFSZI
OCCUPATIONS
Of all the people represented on the headstones in
XLIGIQIXIV]SGGYTEXMSRWLIPHEXWSQITSMRXHYVMRKXLI
deceased’s life) were found for forty-two. The majority of
XLISGGYTEXMSRWEVIQERYEPPEFSVNSFWJEVQIVW½WLIVQIR
KEW WXEXMSR EXXIRHERXW IXG [MXL SRP] E JI[ I\GITXMSRW
Some of these exceptions include merchants, business
owners, and store clerks (Ancestry.com Operations, Inc.
2SXMGIXLEXEPPFYXSRISJXLIMRHMZMHYEPWSRXLMWPMWX
are men. The only woman is Nan Hendrickson (toward
XLI IRH SJ XLI XEFPI [LS MW PMWXIH EW FIMRK E QIVGLERX
MR%WXSVMRWII*MKYVI&SRRI\XTEKI(YVMRK
XLI]IEVWXLMWTEVXSJXLIGIQIXIV][EWYWIHVIKYPEVP]MX
was unusual for women to work outside the home. This
MHIEMWVI¾IGXIHMRXLIJEGXXLEX,IRHVMGOWSRMWXLISRP]
woman with an occupation.
RACE/NATIONALITY
8LIVEGIWSJSJXLITISTPIVITVIWIRXIHSR
the headstones in the historic section of the cemetery
LEZIFIIRHMWGSZIVIH%PPTISTPIEVI[LMXI%RGIWXV]
GSQ3TIVEXMSRW-RG8LMWMWRSXWYVTVMWMRKFIGEYWI
there is a known historic “black” section of burials in
the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery. However, this section
was only found when additional land was cleared for
XLI GIQIXIV] 3VMKMREPP] XLIWIFYVMEP WMXIW[IVILMHHIR
EQSRK XLI XVIIW MR E [SSHIH EVIE 8LI I\MWXIRGI SJ E
section of historic African American burials coupled with
XLI VEGMEP HEXE JSYRH JSV XLI MRHMZMHYEPW PIEHW SRI
to believe that all the interments in the historic section
EVIKSMRKXSFI[LMXIFYVMEPW8LIREXMSREPMXMIWSJWSQI
but not all, were also found. Twenty-six of the people
FYVMIHMRXLMWWIGXMSRSJXLIGIQIXIV][IVIMQQMKVERXW
8LI QENSVMX] SJ XLI MQQMKVERXW [IVI *MRRMWL FYX E JI[
were from other countries. There is one person from the
;IWX-RHMIWSRIJVSQ+VIIGISRIJVSQ-VIPERHSRIJVSQ
6YWWMEEGMXM^IRSJ6YWWMEFYXFSVRMR*MRPERHERHSRI
JVSQ7GSXPERH*MRRMWLMQQMKVERXWEVIF]JEVXLIQENSVMX]
with twenty-one buried in the cemetery. (Ancestry.com
3TIVEXMSRW-RG
FURTHER ANALYSIS
FINNISH IMMIGRATION
1ER]SJXLITISTPIFYVMIHMRXLISVMKMREPWIGXMSRSJ
XLI%WXSV%WXSV4EVO'IQIXIV][IVIMQQMKVERXWFYXXLI
ZEWXQENSVMX]SJXLIWIMQQMKVERXW[IVI*MRRMWL;L]HMH
XLI] GSQI XS XLI 9RMXIH 7XEXIW# ;L] HMH XLI] WXE] MR
VYVEP%WXSVMRWXIEHSJFIMRKTYPPIHXSMRHYWXVMEPM^IHYVFER
GIRXIVWPMOIQSWXSXLIVMQQMKVERXW#&IX[IIRERH
±RI[ MQQMKVEXMSRQEHI MXW HIFYX MR XLI 9RMXIH
7XEXIW²/VEYX-RXLIW*MRRWPIJXXLIVYVEP
EVIEW SJ XLIMV GSYRXV] XS ½RH [SVO MR YVFER MRHYWXVMEP
areas; however, some did stay put to revamp farm life.
On the other hand, some Finns left their home country
EPXSKIXLIV ERH HIGMHIH XS XV] XLIMV PYGO MR %QIVMGE
,SKPYRH %JXIV XLSYWERHW SJ *MRRMWL
MQQMKVERXWFIKERIRXIVMRKXLI9RMXIH7XEXIW*MRRWLEH
come into the country at earlier times, but not in very
PEVKIRYQFIVW8LIMRWXERGISJMQQMKVEXMSR
8LIWISGGYTEXMSRW[IVIJSYRHXLVSYKL%RGIWXV]GSQ8LMW[IFWMXIEPPS[WYWIVWXSEGGIWWRYQIVSYWOMRHWSJVIGSVHWMRSVHIVXSXVEGOHS[R
ancestors to build a family tree. Ancestry.com proved very valuable to this project because it contains historical documents that provide information
SRWI\EKIVEGISGGYTEXMSRFMVXLTPEGIREXMZIPERKYEKIKIRIEPSKMGEPGSRRIGXMSRWIXG8LIHEXEMR*MKYVI&GEQIJVSQGIRWYWVIGSVHWERHQMPMXEV]
VIKMWXVEXMSRVIGSVHW
FIGURE B10.
(ANCESTRY.COM OPERATIONS,
INC. 2009). OCCUPATION TABLE.
1
The JUE Issue 1
was the one to pave the way for the main period of Finnish
MQQMKVEXMSR 8LI KVIEXIWX RYQFIV SJ *MRRW EVVMZIH MR
%QIVMGEFIX[IIRERH,SKPYRH
Industrialization and new opportunities drew
XLI *MRRMWL EPSRK [MXL SXLIV KVSYTW SJ MQQMKVERXW XS
%QIVMGE MR KIRIVEP ERH XLI 9RMXIH 7XEXIW WTIGM½GEPP]
The historic section of the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery
WLS[WXLEXEPEVKIEQSYRXSJ*MRRWPMZIHERHHMIHMRXLI
EVIE ,S[IZIV WSYVGIW HIEPMRK [MXL MQQMKVEXMSR EVI
EHEQERX EFSYX XLI JEGX XLEX TISTPI [IVI QSZMRK E[E]
JVSQ EKVMGYPXYVEPP] FEWIH EVIEW ±&] XLI W QSWX
MQQMKVERXWJSYRHXLEXGMXMIWSJJIVIHXLIQQSVITPIRXMJYP
economic opportunities than the country-side,” Alan M.
/VEYX[VMXIW±8LI9RMXIH7XEXIW[EWFIKMRRMRKETIVMSH
of rapid industrial expansion which necessitated a ready
supply of cheap, unskilled, and semiskilled labor for
JEGXSVMIW ERH QMRIW² %WXSV ERH%WXSV 4EVO
[IVITVIHSQMRERXP]EKVMGYPXYVEPP]FEWIH%PEVKIRYQFIV
of the occupations these people held at certain times in
XLIMVPMZIWHIEPX[MXLJEVQMRK
;L]HMHXLIWI*MRRMWLMQQMKVERXWWXE]MRXLMWEVIE
despite the trend to move to industrialized urban centers,
or (2) choose to move to this area from industrialized
GIRXIVW# 3JXIR XMQIW [LIR *MRRW QSZIH XS MRHYWXVMEP
centers for work, the trades they were skilled at were no
PSRKIVYWIJYPLS[IZIV[LIRXLI]QSZIHXSJEVQWXLI]
were able to use “their old skills as jacks of all trades”
,SKPYRH-REHHMXMSREWQSVIERHQSVI*MRRW
QSZIHXSXLIEVIEQE]FI%WXSVFIGEQIE³0MXXPI*MRPERH´
JSVXLIMQQMKVERXW±%WWSSREWXLI]GEQIXS%QIVMGE
*MRRMWLMQQMKVERXWWSYKLXIEGLSXLIV´WGSQTERMSRWLMT²
% ;MPPMEQ ,SKPYRH [VMXIW ±-R XLIMV XVMEPW XLI] JSYRH
WSPEGI XLVSYKL MRJSVQEP GSRXEGXW EQSRK XLIQWIPZIW²
CONCLUSION
)XLRSKVETLMG WXYHMIW SJ GIQIXIVMIW GER VIZIEP E
KVIEXHIEPEFSYXXLIGYPXYVIMR[LMGLXLITISTPIPMZIHERH
died. The Astor/Astor Park Cemetery provided a wealth
SJ MRJSVQEXMSR EFSYX VIPMKMSYW FIPMIJW WSGMSIGSRSQMG
status, race, and nationality of the area’s past population.
The cemetery provided a view into the lives of those
interred within its bounds.
(YIXSPMQMXIHXMQISRP]EJVEGXMSRSJXLIMRJSVQEXMSR
XLMW GIQIXIV] LEW XS SJJIV [EW KEXLIVIH MR XLMW WXYH]
but multiple conclusions can still be drawn. Overall, a
GSRXMRYMX]SJHqGSVERHITMXETLXLIQIWI\MWXXLVSYKLSYX
XLIKIRIVEXMSRWSJLIEHWXSRIW-REHHMXMSRMXWIIQWXLEXE
variety of shapes and sizes of headstones has always been
available. There is variation in headstone appearance even
EQSRK XLI IEVPMIWX LIEHWXSRIW MR XLMW GIQIXIV] 8EOMRK
tombstone décor into consideration, this community
seems to have been composed predominantly of nonVIPMKMSYW TISTPI WMRGI SRP] SJ LIEHWXSRIW LEZI
VIPMKMSYWHIGSVEXMSRW8LMWMWWYVTVMWMRKHYIXSXLIPEVKI
'LVMWXMER MR¾YIRGI GYVVIRXP] JSYRH MR XLI GSQQYRMX]
,S[IZIV SRP] TIVGIRX SJ XLI LIEHWXSRIW LEZI
any decoration at all. Floral decorations are the most
common, and Christian decorations are the second
QSWX GSQQSR (IWTMXI XLI PS[ RYQFIV SJ VIPMKMSYW
headstones, the fact that only Christian depictions are
VITVIWIRXIHMRXLIGIQIXIV]HSIWWYKKIWXXLEXMJVIWMHIRXW
SJXLMWGSQQYRMX]HMHFIPSRKXSEVIPMKMSYWKVSYTMX[EW
a branch of Christianity.
8LIPEVKIEQSYRXSJLIEHWXSRIW[MXLSYXHIGSVEXMSRW
GSYPHFIHYIXS½RERGMEPVIEWSRW-XMWPMOIP]XLEXWMQTPI
headstones were all that the families in this rural area
could afford. The Astor/Astor Park Cemetery is and has
EP[E]WFIIREJVIIGIQIXIV]WSMXMWRSXWYVTVMWMRKXLEX
people of lesser economic means would choose it as the
burial place of their loved ones. Perhaps more headstones
[SYPHLEZILEHVIPMKMSYWHIGSVEXMSRWMJJEQMP]QIQFIVW
could have afforded more elaborate headstones.
The fact that a majority of the headstones in the
cemetery are plain and simple leads to the assumption
that these people were not wealthy. However, a
RYQFIV SJ XLI WMQTPI LIEHWXSRIW QE] RSX FI SVMKMREP
LIEHWXSRIW 4IVLETW XLI SVMKMREP LIEHWXSRIW [IVI
QSVI IPEFSVEXI FYX [IVI HEQEKIH EJXIV WIZIVEP ]IEVW
and subsequently replaced with simpler, less-expensive
LIEHWXSRIW,S[IZIVXLIMHIEXLEXXLITISTPIPMZMRKERH
H]MRKMRXLMWEVIE[IVIRSX[IEPXL]MWWYTTSVXIHF]XLI
SGGYTEXMSR ½RHMRKW XLEX VIZIEP XLEX XLI TISTPI FYVMIH
in this cemetery had careers that would have put them
in the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum. This
[EWEJEVQMRKGSQQYRMX]PEVKIP]QEHIYTSJMQQMKVERX
families. Another possibility does exist: maybe wealthy
people did live and die in the area and are just buried in a
different cemetery since the Astor/Astor Park Cemetery
is a free cemetery. In addition, wealthy people may have
lived in the area and died after the new sections of the
GIQIXIV][IVIFIMRKYWIHERHEVIXLIVIJSVIMRXIVVIHMR
a section of the cemetery not focused on in this study.
3GGYTEXMSR ½RHMRKW EPWS VIZIEP XLEX XLI IEVPMIWX TISTPI
FYVMIHLIVIPMZIHHYVMRKEXMQI[LIR[SQIR[IVIRSX
expected to have jobs, and men were expected to be the
FVIEH[MRRIVW-X[EWYRYWYEPXS½RHE[SQER[SVOMRK
outside of the home. This conclusion is drawn from the
SGGYTEXMSR½RHMRKWTVIWIRXIHMR*MKYVI&MR[LMGL2ER
J. Hendrickson is the only woman found to have been
employed. However, occupation information was not
found for every person in the cemetery, so it is possibly
that a few more may have had jobs.
The racial data found on these individuals supports
XLI GPEMQ XLEX XLMW SVMKMREP LMWXSVMG WIGXMSR SJ XLI
cemetery was an all-white cemetery; however, it seems
like it continues to be an all white cemetery to this day
FIGEYWIXLIVIGIRXFYVMEPWEVIKIRIVEPP]JEQMP]QIQFIVW
of people previously buried in this section of the cemetery.
In addition, it seems that the Astor/Astor Park area in
KIRIVEP [EW TVIHSQMRERXP] [LMXI WMRGI XLIVI EVI SRP]
four known black burials (at most) in the black section
of the cemetery (located outside the historic cemetery
section). Astor has continued to remain a predominantly
white area even today.
;LIR GSQTEVMRK XLI EKI HMWXVMFYXMSR TMI GLEVXW
between male and female, the death pattern between
XLI X[S WI\IW MW JEMVP] IUYEP LS[IZIV [LIR GSQTEVMRK
XLIWGEXXIVTPSXHMEKVEQWQER]QSVI[SQIREVIPMZMRKMRXS
their nineties than are men. In fact, there is only one man
XLEXWYVTEWWIWXSVIEGL]IEVWSJEKIEXXMQISJHIEXL
1
The JUE Issue 1
Overall, it can be concluded that this area was
composed of predominantly white, low to lower-middle
class individuals who were probably Christian and tended
XSHMIEJXIVXLIEKISJWM\X]'PIEVP]%WXSV[EWEREVIE
PEVKIP] FEWIH SR EKVMGYPXYVI -R EHHMXMSR MX MW SFZMSYW
XLEX*MRRMWLMQQMKVERXWJSYRH%WXSVXSFIEKSSHUYEPMX]
EVIEMR[LMGLXSPMZI[SVOERHVEMWIJEQMPMIWEWVSYKLP]
TIVGIRX SJ XLSWI MRXIVVIH MR XLI GIQIXIV] EVI ½VWX
KIRIVEXMSR*MRRMWL
8LVSYKLSYX XLI GSYVWI SJ XLMW MRZIWXMKEXMSR XLIVI
LEZIFIIREJI[HMJ½GYPXMIW*SVSRILMWXSV]EFSYXXLI
Astor area is hard to come by, and sometimes histories
contradict one another. In addition, the cemetery
records contain errors. For instance, the records for
the section of the cemetery discussed in this study are
QMWWMRKXLVIIMRHMZMHYEPWLEZISRITIVWSRPMWXIHEWX[S
separate individuals, and sometimes have birth dates,
HIEXL HEXIW SV MRXIVQIRX HEXIW MR XLI [VSRK GSPYQRW
%PWSXLIVIGSVHWEVIQMWWMRKFMVXLHEXIWHIEXLHEXIWERH
interment dates for many of the individuals buried there.
Additionally, there is no record of which headstones are
SVMKMREPW ERH [LMGL LIEHWXSRIW EVI VITPEGIQIRXW SV SJ
when and how many times headstones have been replaced.
8LMWQEHIMXZIV]HMJ½GYPXXSWXYH]LS[LIEHWXSRIWLEZI
GLERKIHWX]PMWXMGEPP]SZIVXLIKIRIVEXMSRW
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
%WIEVGLSJXLI0EOI'SYRX]TYFPMGVIGSVHW[SYPH
FI LIPTJYP MR JYVXLIV MRZIWXMKEXMSR SJ XLI %WXSV%WXSV
Park Cemetery and the individuals buried there. In
EHHMXMSREQYGLVMGLIVYRHIVWXERHMRKSJXLILMWXSV]ERH
GYPXYVISJXLIWITISTPIERHXLIKIRIVEPEVIE[SYPHLEZI
resulted from interviews with relatives of the deceased
and community members. Also, further outside research
GSRGIVRMRK ITMXETL ERH LIEHWXSRI HIWMKR TEXXIVRW
XLVSYKLSYX XLI KIRIVEXMSRW MR SXLIV GIQIXIVMIW [SYPH
have been valuable in comparison with the Astor/Astor
4EVO 'IQIXIV] 0EWXP] E WXYH] SJ XLI FPEGO WIGXMSR SJ
XLI GIQIXIV] [LMGL MW RSX PSGEXIH MR XLI SVMKMREP
WIGXMSR EPSRK [MXL E GSQTEVMWSR FIX[IIR XLI SVMKMREP
Astor/Astor Park Cemetery and the black section of the
GIQIXIV] [SYPH FI MRJSVQEXMZI°IWTIGMEPP] VIKEVHMRK
how African Americans lived in earlier decades and
VIKEVHMRKVEGIVIPEXMSRWMRXLIEVIE
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
WORKS CITED
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1
The JUE Issue 1
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+SSKPI1ETW%GGIWWIH3GXSFIVLXXTQETWKSSKPIGSQQETW#LP!IR
XEF![P
,SKPYRH;MPPMEQ%Finnish Immigrants in America: 1880-1920.1EHMWSR;-9RMZIVWMX]SJ;MWGSRWMR4VIWW
/VEYX%PER1The Huddled Masses:The Immigration in American Society, 1880-1921.
%VPMRKXSR,IMKLXW-P,EVPER(EZMHWSR-RG
1IWOIPP0]RR±*EPPMRK;EPPWERH1IRHMRK*IRGIW%VGLEISPSKMGEP)XLRSKVETL]MRXLI0MQTSTS²
Journal of Southern African Studies%GGIWWIHSR.YRI
LXXT[[[NWXSVSVKWXEFPI
8VIZMRS6MGLEVH8IVV]±(IEXL8MQMRKEQSRK(IGIEWIH1EVVMIH'SYTPIWMRE7SYXLIVR'IQIXIV]²
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;EWWHI'^IKI%PFIVXThe History of Astor on the St. Johns: Astor Park and the Surrounding Area.
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1
The JUE Issue 1
Issue 17TVMRK2011
Dumpster Dinners: An Ethnographic Study of Freeganism
Victoria C. Moré
ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY, VICTORIACMORE@GMAIL.COM
Abstract
(YQTWXIV(MRRIVW%R)XLRSKVETLMG7XYH]SJ*VIIKERMWQEX-PPMRSMW7XEXI9RMZIVWMX]HMZIWMRXSHYQTWXIVW[MXLXLIJVIIKER
WYFGYPXYVISJ&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEP-PPMRSMW*VIIKERMWQMWE[E]SJPMJIFEWIHSRPMQMXIHTEVXMGMTEXMSRMRXLIGSRZIRXMSREP
economy and has been gaining popularity in recent years. Freegans strive to spend little money, barter or trade for goods
ERHWIVZMGIWERHPMZISJJJSSHXLEXLEWFIIRXLVS[RE[E]8LIJVIIKERWMRXLMWWXYH]EVIXLVIIQSXMZEXIHERHIHYGEXIH
[SQIR[LSVIKYPEVP]HYQTWXIVHMZIFILMRHPSGEPFYWMRIWWIWJSVJSSHERHTVSHYGXW %HHMXMSREPP] XLIJVIIKERWFEVXIV
JSVKSSHWERHWIVZMGIWERHI\LMFMXE±QEOIMXHSSVHS[MXLSYX²EXXMXYHIXLEXWIIQWEPQSWXSFWSPIXIMRXSHE]´WL]TIV
GSRWYQMRK%QIVMGE8LMWWXYH]I\TPSVIW[LIVIERH[L]JVIIKERWI\MWXXLITVSGIWWSJXYVRMRKKEVFEKIMRXSKVSGIVMIW[L]
TIVJIGXP]KSSHKVSGIVMIWFIGSQIKEVFEKIMRXLI½VWXTPEGIERH[LEXGERFIPIEVRIHJVSQXLIJVIIKER[E]SJPMJI8LMW
WXYH][EWGSRHYGXIHJSVERYRHIVKVEHYEXIWIRMSVXLIWMWGSYVWIMR%RXLVSTSPSK]EX-PPMRSMW7XEXI9RMZIVWMX]WTVMRKSJ
3R E QMWX] IZIRMRK 6I\ 7YRR]WMHI ETTVSEGLIW E
HYQTWXIVXYVRWSRXLI¾EWLPMKLXERHXEOIWEPSSOMRWMHI
±3SSSL©MX´WVIEPP]REWX]²%WWLIQSZIWXLIPMKLXEVSYRH
JEQMPMEV XLMRKW ETTIEV ±3L [S[ XLIVI´W E QERKS© E
pear… look, there’s a pineapple… and a cantaloupe…but
MXPSSOWTVIXX]JYRO]²
Americans dispose of billions of pounds of food
[EWXI TIV ]IEV QYGL SJ MX WXMPP ½X JSV GSRWYQTXMSR
-REWXYH]F]XLI97(%)GSRSQMG6IWIEVGL7IVZMGIMXMW
IWXMQEXIHXLEXTIVGIRXSJJVIWLJVYMXERHTIVGIRX
SJ JVIWL ZIKIXEFPIW TIV KVSGIV] WXSVI [IVI PSWX HYI XS
MRIHMFMPMX]JVSQ&Y^F]9RJSVXYREXIP]
supermarkets often toss these so-called “inedible” fruits
ERH ZIKIXEFPIW JSV WYTIV½GMEP VIEWSRW 7SQI TISTPI
SYXVEKIHF]XLI±[EWXI²KVSGIVWWIRHXSXLIPERH½PPLEZI
FIKYR XS WEPZEKI ERH IEX MX8LIWI TISTPI WSQIXMQIW
GEPPIH ±JVIIKERW² EVI ±TISTPI [LS IQTPS] EPXIVREXMZI
WXVEXIKMIW JSV PMZMRK FEWIH SR PMQMXIH TEVXMGMTEXMSR MR
the conventional economy and minimal consumption
SJ VIWSYVGIW² ;IMWQER *VIIKERMRJS ±*VIIKER² MW E
GSQFMREXMSR SJ XLI [SVHW±JVII² ERH±ZIKER² EPXLSYKL
JVIIKERW EVI RSX RIGIWWEVMP] ZIKERW *VIIKERW I\TSWI
the issue of food waste at a time when many of
XLIMV RIMKLFSVW WSQI QMPPMSR%QIVMGERW MRGPYHMRK
QMPPMSR GLMPHVIRPMZI MR JSSH MRWIGYVI LSYWILSPHW
2SVH
-R XLMW TETIV - HIWGVMFI E WQEPP KVSYT SJ ]SYRK
EHYPXJVIIKERWPMZMRKMR&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEP-PPMRSMWERH
GSQTEVIXLIWIGSPPIKIWXYHIRXJVIIKERWXSSXLIVW[MXLMR
XLI PEVKIV MRXIVREXMSREP JVIIKER QSZIQIRX - HIWGVMFI
JVIIKEREGXMZMXMIWWYGLEWHYQTWXIVHMZMRKFEVXIVMRKERH
VITYVTSWMRK XS WLS[ XLI W]QFSPMG XVERWJSVQEXMSR SJ
KEVFEKIMRXSKVSGIVMIW
METHODS AND SETTING
(EXE JSV XLMW TETIV GSQIW JVSQ IXLRSKVETLMG
research (participant-observation) and interviews with
XLVII WIPJMHIRXM½IH JVIIKERW 8LI KIRIVEP TYVTSWI SJ
IXLRSKVETLMGVIWIEVGLMWXSPIEVRLS[TISTPIQEOIWIRWI
of their own communities and to show how dimensions
SJ E GYPXYVI EVI MRXIVVIPEXIH 6SWIR 8S PIEVR
EFSYX JVIIKERMWQ - FIGEQI E TEVXMGMTERXSFWIVZIV MR E
KVSYTSJJVIIKERWMR&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEP-PPMRSMW
&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEP MW E TVSWTIVSYW [LMXIGSPPEV
GSQQYRMX]ERHMWLSQIXSX[SYRMZIVWMXMIW8LIJVIIKERW
SJXLMWWXYH][IVIWXYHIRXWSVVIGIRXKVEHYEXIWSJ-PPMRSMW
7XEXI9RMZIVWMX]ETYFPMGYRMZIVWMX][MXLWXYHIRXW-
LEHORS[RX[SSJXLIJVIIKERW[LS-GEPP1MRRMI'SRVEH
ERH 6I\ 7YRR]WMHI WMRGI SYV JVIWLQER ]IEV SJ GSPPIKI
;MQT] 3EO XLI XLMVH JVIIKER [EW MRXVSHYGIH XS QI
MR .ERYEV] EX XLI WXEVX SJ XLMW TVSNIGX [LMGL [EW
GSRHYGXIH JSV Q] WIRMSV XLIWMW MR ERXLVSTSPSK] %W E
JVIWLQERMR-[EWE[EVIXLEX7YRR]WMHIERH'SRVEH
WSQIXMQIWEXXIRHIHWGLSSPGPYFQIIXMRKWERHEVXKEPPIV]
STIRMRKWJSVJVIIJSSHERH-LIEVHXLIQXEPOEFSYXXLIVI
FIMRK±XSS QYGL WXYJJ MR XLI [SVPH² FYX EX XLEX XMQI -
LEH VEVIP] LIEVH XLI [SVHW ±JVIIKER² ERH HYQTWXIV
HMZMRK GSQI YT MR GSRZIVWEXMSRW -R%YKYWX 3EO
7YRR]WMHIERH'SRVEHWXEVXIHHYQTWXIVHMZMRKXSKIXLIV
VIKYPEVP];IIOP]TSXPYGOW[IVITSTYPEV[MXLSYVQYXYEP
friends, and Conrad showed up with dishes creatively
XMXPIH±HYQTWXIVWEPEH²SV±LSFSWSYT²/RS[MRKI\EGXP]
[LIVIXLIMRKVIHMIRXWMRLIVHMWLIWGEQIJVSQ[I[SYPH
EPPLEZIEKSSHPEYKLERHXLIRIEXMX[MXLPMXXPILIWMXEXMSR
As a participant-observer, I decided to become a
JVIIKERJSVSRIQSRXL*SVXLEXQSRXL-HMHRSXWTIRH
any money on food; I ate food left over in my cabinets
ERHJSSHEGUYMVIH[LMPIHYQTWXIVHMZMRK-REHHMXMSRXS
WM\HYQTWXIVHMZIW[MXLXLIJVIIKERW-TEVXMGMTEXIHMREX
least six on my own. In preparation for this experiment I
FSYKLXEJI[WXETPIMXIQWWYGLEWWTMGIWVMGIPIRXMPWERH
nuts. To reduce my overall participation in the consumer
IGSRSQ]-ZS[IHXSSRP]YWIQ]GEVKSMRKXSERHJVSQ
Q] MRXIVRWLMT ERH XLI HYQTWXIVW RSXLMRK IPWI - EPWS
YXMPM^IHEFEVXIVW]WXIQXSI\GLERKIKSSHW%HHMXMSREPP]-
These freegans demonstrate an extreme version of freeganism,
separate from mainstream culture and live for free all the time.
recorded and transcribed in-depth interviews with
IEGL SJ XLI JVIIKERW ERH VIGSVHIH HMEPSKYI [LMPI
HYQTWXIVHMZMRK
%WJEVEW-ORS[XLIVIMWRSSXLIVKVSYTSJTISTPI
[LSGEPPXLIQWIPZIWJVIIKERWMRXLI&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEP
EVIE XLSYKL XLIVI EVI TPIRX] SJ SXLIV TISTPI [LS
dumpster dive to collect cans and scrap metal to sell.
8LIWXYHIRXJVIIKERWHIWGVMFIHMRXLMWXLIWMWEVIRSXTEVX
SJEQEVKMREPM^IHTSTYPEXMSRFYXMRWXIEHHYQTWXIVHMZI
voluntarily to reduce waste and protest overconsumption.
FREEGANS: FORAGERS, ACTIVISTS, OR BOTH?
%PXLSYKLJVIIKERMWQLEWVIGIMZIHEXXIRXMSRJVSQXLI
TVIWW QYPXMTPI RI[W WXSVMIW QEKE^MRI ERH RI[WTETIV
articles, radio shows, and a discussion on Oprah), few
IXLRSKVETLMGWXYHMIWSJJVIIKERWI\MWX%RI\GITXMSR.SER
+VSWW I\TPSVIW JVIIKER JSSH[E]W MR VYVEP 3VIKSR ERH
HIWGVMFIWJVIIKERWEW±QSHIVRHE]JSVEKIVW[LSPMZISJJ
XLI[EWXISJSXLIVWERH[LEXXLI]GERKEXLIVMRXLI[MPH²
+VSWW +VSWW GSRHYGXIH LIV IXLRSKVETLMG
WXYH] EQSRK SRI JVIIKER LSYWILSPH ERH LEH MRJSVQEP
GSRZIVWEXMSRW [MXL JSYV SXLIV JSVEKIVW EPP MR XLI WQEPP
VYVEPXS[RSJ%PWIE3VIKSR2SRISJXLIJSVEKIVW[IVI
active in the community or had a stable residence; they
LEH EPP PMZIH MR TPEGIW HYVMRK SRI GEPIRHEV ]IEV -R
%PWIE XLI] JSVEKIH MR XLI [MPH EXI VSEH OMPP ERH XSSO
XVMTW XS XLI GMX] XS HYQTWXIVHMZI 8LIWI JVIIKERW
HIQSRWXVEXIERI\XVIQIZIVWMSRSJJVIIKERMWQWITEVEXI
from mainstream culture and live for free all the time.
8LIJVIIKERWMRQ]WXYH]MRGSRXVEWXEVIIQTPS]IHLEZI
TVSJIWWMSREPKSEPWERHEVIEGXMZIGSQQYRMX]QIQFIVW
+VSWWTSMRXWSYXXLEXXLIJVIIKERWWLIORI[LEHE
WXVSRKWIRWISJWIPJVIPMERGIERHMRHITIRHIRGI[MXLSYX
LEZMRK E NSF SV WXIEH] QSRIXEV] MRGSQI -R JEGX XLI
JVIIKERW WE[ TEMH [SVO EW±E OMRH SJ HVYK XLEX WYGOIH
]SYMRHIITIVERHHIITIV²+VSWW3RIJVIIKER
I\TVIWWIH±©SRGI ]SY KIX MRXS XLEX G]GPI TE]MRK VIRX
ERH TE]MRK MRWYVERGI SR ]SYV GEV ]SY RIIH QSRI] XS
OIIT XLSWI XLMRKW KSMRK 7S ]SY´VI HITIRHIRX SR ]SYV
job, and you’re dependent on your car and your house…
ERHMX´WPMOI]SY´VIGSRWXERXP]WTIRHMRKQSRI]ERHRIZIV
LEZIIRSYKL²-RXIVIWXMRKP]MRXIVZMI[W[MXLSXLIVPS[
income individuals who had a more conventional lifestyle
WIIQIH XS EKVII [MXL XLEX TSMRX SJ ZMI[%GGSVHMRK XS
+VSWWXLSWIMRHMZMHYEPWEXIFSXLPIWWRYXVMXMSYWERHPIWW
IRNS]EFPIQIEPWXLERXLIJVIIKERW
*IVRI)H[EVHWERH(EZMH1IVGIVHIWGVMFIE
ZIV]HMJJIVIRXKVSYTSJJVIIKERWMR%YWXVEPME)H[EVHWERH
1IVGIVMRXIVZMI[IHQIRERH[SQIRJVSQ
]IEVWSJEKI [MXL XLI QENSVMX] FIMRK MR XLIMV IEVP] ´W
8LIWITISTPIIMXLIV±MTVEGXMGIHIMXLIV((?(YQTWXIV
(MZMRKA SV *2& ?*SSH 2SX &SQFWA MM TVEGXMGIH
both activities, and (iii) one person who exclusively
collected ‘wasted’ food put aside by supermarket and
FEOIV] WXEJJ MR WITEVEXI FS\IW ERH FEKW² )H[EVHW ERH
1IVGIV *SSH 2SX &SQFW MW ER EPPZSPYRXIIV
SVKERM^EXMSRXLEXVIGSZIVWJSSHXLEX[SYPHSXLIV[MWIFI
XLVS[R SYX ERH QEOIW JVIWL LSX ZIKER ERH ZIKIXEVMER
meals served for free in public spaces. The authors
JSYRH XLEX TISTPI HVE[R XS HYQTWXIV HMZMRK ERH *2&
[IVI TVIHSQMREXIP] QEPIW MR XLIMV QMH ´W JVSQ [IPP
IHYGEXIH QMHHPIGPEWW FEGOKVSYRHW [LS LEH WXVSRK
1
The JUE Issue 1
Freegans may make other economic and lifestyle adjustments such
EWVIP]MRKSRFEVXIVW[LIVISRII\GLERKIWKSSHWERHSVWIVZMGIW
MHISPSKMGEP FIPMIJW SR [LMGL XLI] FEWIH XLIMV PMJIWX]PI
They considered environmental and humanitarian aspects
of where and how food was produced, and were aware
of the ethics of food consumption. Some followed diets
FEWIH SR XLIMV GSRZMGXMSRW MRGPYHMRK ZIKIXEVMERMWQ VE[
JSSHMWQ SV±ZIKERMG² ZIKER ERH SVKERMG JSSHW 7SQI
EPWSGSRWYQIHVSEHOMPPXS±WLS[ERMQEPWXLIHMKRMX]XLEX
XLI]HIWIVZI²)H[EVHW
1IVGIV
8LIWIERHSXLIVWXYHMIW&PEGO+VEIFIV
WLS[EVERKISJJVIIKERPMZIPMLSSHWERHGSYRXIVGYPXYVI
8S WSQI JVIIKERMWQ MW ER SVKERM^IH GSYRXIVGYPXYVEP
QSZIQIRX XLI VSPI SJ [LMGL EW +VSWW RSXIW±MW XS GEPP
MRXS UYIWXMSR FILEZMSVW XLEX EVI XEOIR JSV KVERXIH F]
QEMRWXVIEQWSGMIX]²+PSFEPP]MXETTIEVWJVIIKERWEVI
KIRIVEPP] QEPI ]SYRK MRHITIRHIRX ERH IHYGEXIH8LI]
make a conscious effort to alienate themselves from
capitalism and overconsumption.
*VIIKER EGXMZMXMIW LS[IZIV ZEV] HITIRHMRK SR
personal attitudes and beliefs. Some simply ask store
GPIVOWXSKMZIXLIQJSSHEFSYXXSFIXLVS[RE[E]3XLIVW
QMKLXTVEGXMGI±TPEXIWGVETMRK²SV±XEFPIHMZMRK²F]WMXXMRK
at a restaurant (sometimes with staff permission) and
½RMWLMRK XLI JSSH SR TISTPI´W TPEXIW EJXIV XLI] PIEZI
*VIIKERMRJS 3XLIVW PMZI JVSQ JSVEKMRK XLI KIRIVEPP]
MKRSVIHIHMFPITPERXWXLEXKVS[EPPEVSYRHYW
*VIIKER EGXMZMXMIW EVI RSX PMQMXIH XS SFXEMRMRK
JSSH *VIIKERW QE] QEOI SXLIV IGSRSQMG ERH PMJIWX]PI
EHNYWXQIRXW WYGL EW VIP]MRK SR FEVXIVW [LIVI SRI
I\GLERKIW KSSHW ERHSV WIVZMGIW 7SQI JVIIKERW
QSXMZEXIH MR TEVX F] WXVSRK ERXMGSRWYQIVMWX ERXM
corporate beliefs, may scam and shoplift from stores or
XEOI XLMRKW JVSQ E [SVOTPEGI 7UYEXXMRK XLI TVEGXMGI SJ
MPPIKEPP] SGGYT]MRK ER EFERHSRIH WTEGI MW TVEGXMGIH F]
WSQIJVIIKERWERHQER]JVIIKERWFMOIQEOIXLIMVS[R
GPSXLMRKFY]WIGSRHLERHSVKERM^IJVIIWXSVIWERHYWI
[IFWMXIW PMOI JVIIG]GPISVK XS XVEHI KSSHW%X ERSXLIV
PIZIPJVIIKERWQE]SVKERM^IXSYWIXLI[EWXIJSVEKVIEXIV
WSGMEPKSSHWYGLEWHSREXMRKMXXSWLIPXIVWSVGSSOMRKERH
KMZMRKE[E]JVIIQIEPW*VIIKERWMRXLI9/%YWXVEPMEERH
2I[=SVO'MX]EPPLEZIEZIV]WXVSRKSVKERM^IHTVIWIRGI
8LI] VIEGL SYX XS XLI TYFPMG XLVSYKL XLI QIHME ERH
[IFWMXIWXLEXI\TPEMRLS[XSJVIIKERWYGLEW2I[=SVO
FEWIH*VIIKERMRJS[LMGLI\TPEMRWXLIJVIIKERTLMPSWSTL]
ERH SVKERM^IW IZIRXW XS IRGSYVEKI MRHMZMHYEPW XS QIIX
SXLIVJVIIKERWMRXLIMVEVIE
8LIJVIIKERWMR&PSSQMRKXSR2SVQEPHSRSXVIXYVR
MXIQWJSYRHMRHYQTWXIVWWXIEPTPEXIWGVETIJSVEKIMRXLI
wild, eat road kill, or continuously move from place to
TPEGI8LI]HSLS[IZIVFEVXIVEXXIRHERHSVKERM^IJVII
stores, and, as mentioned, dumpster dive for food and
ZEVMSYWSXLIVMXIQW'SRVEHVMHIWEWEPZEKIHFMG]GPIERH
FSXL7YRR]WMHIERH'SRVEHEPXIVERHQIRHXLIMVGPSXLMRK
FREEGANS AT ISU
8LI TISTPI MR XLMW IXLRSKVETL] EVI EPP IHYGEXIH
females in their twenties. They either currently attend or
LEZIKVEHYEXIHJVSQ-PPMRSMW7XEXI9RMZIVWMX]ERHGYVVIRXP]
XLI]EPPHYQTWXIVHMZIXSKIXLIVVIKYPEVP];MQT]3EO
JIIPWXLEXWLILEWEP[E]WFIIREFMXSJEJVIIKERFIGEYWISJ
the way she was raised. “We could have survived without
TMGOMRK XLMRKW YT SR XLI WMHI SJ XLI VSEH FYX MJ MX [EW
YWIJYP[IXSSOMX²0EXIV3EOWXEVXIHVIGPEMQMRKXLVS[R
E[E]KSSHW[LMPIPMZMRKF]LIVWIPJMRGSPPIKI
'SRVEH ERH 7YRR]WMHI FSXL [SYPH KS EVSYRH
GEQTYW OIITMRK ER I]I SYX JSV JVII XLMRKW PMOI JVII
JSSHEXGPYFQIIXMRKWSVKEPPIV]STIRMRKWHYVMRKXLIMV
freshman year. When it came time for move-out from
dorms and apartments for the summer, Sunnyside and
'SRVEH WE[ JSV XLI ½VWX XMQI LS[ QER] LEVHP]YWIH
items were discarded as trash. Sunnyside explained that
SRGIWLIKSXXSGSPPIKIWLIVIEPM^IH±;S[4ISTPIKIXVMH
of a lot of stuff, and it’s all useful.” It is hard not to curb
WLST MR GSPPIKI XS[RW [LIR MXIQW ETTIEV MR WYGL LYKI
quantities.
7YRR]WMHI´W½VWXXMQIMREHYQTWXIV[EW[MXLEJVMIRH
WLIQIXXLVSYKLEVIPMKMSYWWXYHIRXSVKERM^EXMSREX-79
8LIJVMIRHEPWSEJIQEPILEHFIIRHYQTWXIVHMZMRKFIJSVI
ERH EJXIV KSMRK [MXL LIV SRGI 7YRR]WMHI´W HYQTWXIV
HMZMRK LEFMX FIKER 7YRR]WMHI EPWS FIPMIZIW XLEX XLI [E]
WLI[EWVEMWIHLEWERMR¾YIRGISRLIVGYVVIRXPMJIWX]PI
GLSMGI±1] KVERHQSXLIV HSIWR´X XLVS[ SYX QYGL WLI
ORS[W IZIV]XLMRK XLEX WLI LEW ERH LS[ PSRK WLI´W LEH
MX©%PWSKVS[MRKYT[MXLJSYVWMFPMRKW[ILEHXS½KYVI
out how to make ends meet. We were resourceful and
looked for options that were cheaper and free.”
8LI-79JVIIKERWYWIWSQIXIVQWVIKYPEVP]XLEXEVI
[SVXLXEOMRKXMQIXSHI½RI8S±dive²MWXSKSHYQTWXIV
HMZMRK±that dive was bountiful!” Also, they use the word
“dumpstered” to describe items found in the dumpster:
“The sauce has dumpstered peppers in it²*VIIKERMWYWIH
as a verb: “This book was freeganed.”
INSIDE LOCAL DUMPSTERS.
1]½VWXHYQTWXIVHMZI[EWEGLMPP]7YRHE]IZIRMRK
MRPEXI.ERYEV]-QIXXLIKMVPWEXXLIMVETEVXQIRXERH[I
TVITEVIHJSVXLIHMZI8SIRWYVIWEJIX][LMPIHMZMRKXLI
HMZIVW IMXLIV [IEV VEMR FSSXW TVIJIVEFP] SV SPH K]Q
WLSIW'PSXLMRKHSIWRSXYWYEPP]KIXXSSHMVX]FYXXLMWMW
RSTPEGIJSV]SYVJEZSVMXINIERW+PSZIWTVIJIVEFP]WXYVH]
KEVHIRMRK KPSZIW EVI KSSH TVSXIGXMSR JVSQ ER]XLMRK
WLEVTSVREWX]-RGSPHIVQSRXLW[EVQKPSZIWYRHIVRIEXL
XLITVSXIGXMZISRIWEVIERIGIWWMX]EPSRK[MXLXLIYWYEP
winter layers.
%X ½VWX KPERGI HYQTWXIVW PSSO KVMQ ERH WQIPP
unpleasant. Eventually, your eyes adjust and familiar items
appear, such as zucchini buried under wilted lettuce, or
ERYTWMHIHS[RFS\LMHMRKGEVVSXWERHSVERKIW7LYJ¾MRK
EVSYRHWSQIQSVIGSYPHVIZIEPEFEKSJETTPIWSVSRMSRW
It takes your breath away when you see the amount of
JSSH XLEX MW YRFPIQMWLIH EQSRKWX E JI[ VSXXIR ETTPIW
9WYEPP] XLI EQSYRX SJ JSSH MW WS EFYRHERX XLEX XLI
JVIIKERWGERFITMGO]EFSYX[LEXXSXEOILSQI
1
The JUE Issue 1
FIGURE 1. PHOTO BY AUTHOR.
FIGURE 2. MY FIRST DUMPSTER DIVE JANUARY 26, 2010.
PHOTO BY AUTHOR.
9RJSVXYREXIP] XLIVI EVI FSYRH XS FI KEVFEKI FEKW
JYPP SJ &&5 GLMGOIR [MRKW ERH SXLIV QIEX TVSHYGXW
TVITEVIH ERH WSPH HEMP] MR XLI WYTIVQEVOIX8LIWI FEKW
should be avoided as they are the source of the vile
stench that wafts up from the dumpster and sticks to
]SYVGPSXLMRK2SXEPPJVIIKERW[SYPHEZSMHXLMWXLSYKL
JSSHSYXSJEHYQTWXIV3RGI[IKSXXSXLIWIGSRHWXSVI
-[EWI\GMXIH-X[EWXLVMPPMRKXSHSWSQIXLMRKVIFIPPMSYW
8LMWJIIPMRKSJI\GMXIQIRXKVI[[LIR[IKSXLSQIERH
YRPSEHIHXLIGEV+SMRKYTXLIMVETEVXQIRXFYMPHMRKWXEMVW
[IIEGLLEHSYVEVQWJYPPSJLIEZ]FEKW
*VSQ SFWIVZEXMSRW MX MW TPEMR XS WII ER]XLMRK ERH
IZIV]XLMRK MR XLI TVSHYGI HITEVXQIRX IRHW YT MR XLI
dumpster at some point, even baskets used to display
fruit. Apples, zucchini, pre-sliced fruit in containers, celery,
FEKKIHSVFS\IHPIXXYGIGEVVSXWERHTITTIVWEVIJSYRH
UYMXI JVIUYIRXP] 7SQIXMQIW XLIVI EVI FS\IW SJ ]SKYVX
FEKW SJ SRMSRW SVERKIW KVETIJVYMX ERH TSXEXSIW FS\IW
SJWXVE[FIVVMIWEWTEVEKYWFVSGGSPMXSQEXSIWNEPETIRSW
poblanos, and specialty health juices. A solitary bruise is
IRSYKLJSVEZIKIXEFPIXSKIXXLVS[RE[E]3RIQSPH]
SVERKITSXEXSETTPISVSRMSRMREFEKSJMWIRSYKL
JSVXLIIRXMVIFEKXSFIXSWWIH*SVWSQIMXIQWXLIVIMW
no obvious reason for their disposal.
3RGIMRXLIETEVXQIRX[ITYXQYWMGSRERHFIKER
GPIERMRK ;MXL E WMRO JYPP SJ WSET] [EXIV [I WXEVXIH
HYROMRKZIKKMIWXSKIXXLIQGPIERERHXSKIXVMHSJXLI
JEMRXPMRKIVMRKHYQTWXIVSHSV7SQIPMOI'SRVEH´WQSXLIV
for example, insist that dumpsters are dirty and diseased,
and express concern for the welfare of the dumpster
divers. The mere fact that the food has been pulled from
EHYQTWXIVXEVRMWLIWXLIMQEKISJXLIJSSHMRWMHIMXRS
QEXXIV LS[ TVMWXMRI %RXLVSTSPSKMWX 1EV] (SYKPEW MR
4YVMX]ERH(ERKIV shows us that uncleanliness, or dirt, is
QEXXIVSYXSJTPEGI±(MVXMWXLIF]TVSHYGXSJEW]WXIQMG
SVHIVMRKERHGPEWWM½GEXMSRSJQEXXIVMRWSJEVEWSVHIVMRK
MRZSPZIW VINIGXMRK MRETTVSTVMEXI IPIQIRXW² %W LEMV
MWR´X±KVSWW²YRXMPMX´WHIXEGLIHJVSQ]SYVLIEHERHJSYRH
WSQI[LIVIMXWLSYPHR´XFIJSSHMREHYQTWXIVMWGPEWWM½IH
KEVFEKIFIGEYWIMXWPSGEXMSRLEWGLERKIH;EWXIMWEP[E]W
ETEVXSJEGPEWWM½GEXMSRW]WXIQXLEXEVFMXVEVMP]HIWMKREXIW
[LEXMWTYVIERHMQTYVI'S]RI
Some businesses have replaced dumpsters with
trash compactors. Compactors increase the payload of
XLI KEVFEKI XVYGOW QEOMRK MX IGSRSQMGEPP] FIRI½GMEP
With the push of a button a store employee can destroy
LYRHVIHWSJTSYRHWSJ±KEVFEKI²±*VIWL1EVOIX;EPQEVX
Jewel, Meijer, Schnucks, they all have compactors so we
GER´XKSXLIVI²'SRVEHI\TPEMRIH[LMPI[I[IVISRSYV
½VWXHMZI-XFSXLIVW'SRVEHXSXLMROXLEXWSQYGLJSSH
and so many products are ruined in these machines daily.
,EPJ[E] MRXS Q] ½VWX HMZI - [EW LSSOIH -RMXMEPP] -
[EWWLSGOIHXLEX[I[IVITYPPMRKEPPSJXLMWRIEVP]TIVJIGX
HOW GARBAGE BECOMES GROCERIES.
8LIEPQSWXTEXLSPSKMGEPJIEVSJKIVQWXLEXHSQMREXIW
%QIVMGER GYPXYVI GSYPH EPWS I\TPEMR TISTPIW HMWKYWXIH
reactions. Nancy Tomes, author of 8LI+SWTIPSJ+IVQW
EVKYIW XLMW JIEV GSQIW JVSQ FEGXIVMSPSKMGEP HMWGSZIVMIW
MR XLI PEXI XL GIRXYV] ERH LEW FIIR I\EGIVFEXIH F]
XLIQEVOIXMRKSJHMWMRJIGXERXWERHL]KMIRITVSHYGXW8LI
FIGURE 3. FEBRUARY 23, 2010. PHOTO BY AUTHOR.
FIGURE 3. PHOTO BY AUTHOR.
GSRGIVRWJVSQ'SRVEH´WQSQERHWSGMIX]MRKIRIVEPHS
RSXHMWGSYVEKIXLIJVIIKERWEXEPP2SRISJXLIQLEZIIZIV
KSXXIR WMGO JVSQ HYQTWXIVIH JSSHW *VIIKERW GLEPPIRKI
SYV LIKIQSRMG ±XLVS[ E[E]² GYPXYVI F] MRXIVGLERKMRK
XLIQIERMRKSJ[EWXIERHJSSHMRWMWXMRKXLEXJSYRHMXIQW
are in fact still pure.
ETTPIWFEKW¾E\WIIH[VETWFS\SJJVIWLSVKERMGWEKI
GEVVSXNYMGIERHSVGLMH8LIJVIIKERWSJXIRHYFFIHER
MXIQ XLI 1SWX:EPYEFPI 4MGO SJ XLI RMKLX 1EVGL XL´W
1:4[EWHI½RMXIP]XLISVGLMH7YRR]WMHIWXEXIH±-XLMRO
[IEPPHIGMHIHXLEXXLIFIWXXLMRKEFSYX?HYQTWXIVHMZMRKA
MWXLEX]SYGVEZIMX-XXYVRWMRXSEWGEZIRKIVLYRXXLEXMW
a surprise every time. It’s enjoyable.”
(YVMRK XLI GPIERMRK TVSGIWW XLI TPEWXMG XLEX [VETW
many of the items is thrown away, spoiled food is put in
a container to be composted, and plastic containers that
EVIVIYWEFPIEVI[EWLIHERHTYXE[E]%JXIVIEGLZIKKMI
LEHEKSSHWGVYF[IWIXXLIQYTXSHV]SRXLIGSYRXIV
[LIVIJSVTYVTSWIWSJXLMWIXLRSKVETL][IEVVERKIHSYV
½RHMRKW JSV E TMGXYVI 3RGI XLI [SVO [EW HSRI ERH -
WE[XLIKMERXTMPISJFIEYXMJYPJSSHWII½KYVI-[EW
GLERKIH 'PIEVP] WSQI SJ [LEX [I PEFIP³KEVFEKI´ MW JEV
from it.
3RIXVMTXSXLIHYQTWXIVGERFVMRKMRXLIIUYMZEPIRX
SJ[SVXLSJJSSH3RIHMZISR*IFVYEV]
]MIPHIH[SVXLSJKVSGIVMIWWII½KYVI8LMW
MRGPYHIH FS\IW SJ KYEGEQSPI ^YGGLMRM [VETTIH
GSRXEMRIVWSJQYWLVSSQWFYRHPIWSJVEHMWLIWERH
bell peppers, lemons, fruit, lettuce, bread, broccoli, etc.
%RSXLIV XVMT SR 1EVGL XL ]MIPHIH FYRGLIW SJ
FEREREW TITTIVW ]IPPS[ KVIIR VIH KVETIJVYMXW
sliced pineapple, 12 containers of strawberries, 1 peeled
[EXIVQIPSR PF FEKW SJ TSXEXSIW GSRXEMRIVW SJ
JVYMXFEKWSJSRMSRWFS\IWSJPIXXYGIGLIVV]XSQEXSIW
IKKTPERXW QMRM [EXIVQIPSR ]IPPS[ WUYEWL FSYUYIXWSJ¾S[IVWKVIIRKVETIWFS\IWSJWEPEHFS\SJ
FPYIFIVVMIWW[IIXTSXEXSIWGEYPM¾S[IVGIPIV]FEKSJ
%PXLSYKLHMZIWSJXIRFVMRKEPEVKIEQSYRXSJJSSH
XLIVIEVIMXIQWXLEXXLIJVIIKERWFY]FIGEYWIXLI]VEVIP]
MJIZIV½RHMXMRXLIHYQTWXIV8LIWIMXIQWMRGPYHIRYXW
WS]QMPO TIERYX FYXXIV SPMZI SMP ¾SYV ERH SXLIV FEOMRK
MRKVIHMIRXW
Now that the found food is clean, it needs to be
GSSOIH MRXS HIPMGMSYW HMWLIW 7MRGI KVSGIV] WXSVIW [MPP
XLVS[E[E]EPEVKIEQSYRXSJXLIWEQIMXIQXLIGLEPPIRKI
FIGSQIW XS YWI XLIWI MRKVIHMIRXW FIJSVI XLI] WTSMP
:EVMSYWTVIWIVZEXMSRXIGLRMUYIWEVIYXMPM^IHXSOIITXLI
JSSHJVSQKSMRKFEH7YVTPYWIWSJJVYMXPMOIWXVE[FIVVMIW
cantaloupe, or blueberries, are frozen and used for
FVIEOJEWX WQSSXLMIW +VETIW ERH FEREREW JSYRH MR XLI
dumpster are often on the softer side, and make a perfect
JVS^IRXVIEX3RIRMKLX[IJSYRHPEVKIGSRXEMRIVWSJ
mushroom caps and portabella slices, so I learned how to
JVII^IQYWLVSSQW0SEZIWSJFVIEHERHFVIEOJEWXTEWXVMIW
are easily frozen and thawed, and fresh herbs can be dried.
'VIEXMZI GSSOMRK GER PIRKXLIR XLI PMJI SJ XLI
MRKVIHMIRXW 3RI RMKLX [I JSYRH FIPP TITTIVW WII
½KYVIWS-VSEWXIHSJXLIQERHLEHEFIEYXMJYPNEV
of roasted red and yellow peppers. Other times there
[SYPH FI ER EFYRHERGI SJ KVETIJVYMXW FVSGGSPM SV
1
The JUE Issue 1
After that lengthy life food has had before it appears on our shelves,
[IJSSPMWLP]I\TIGXXLIMXIQWXSPSSOTIVJIGX
^YGGLMRM 8LIWI ±TVSFPIQW² IRGSYVEKI XLI JVIIKERW XS
I\TIVMQIRX [MXL WSYTW FVIEHW ERH NYMGIW±-R KIRIVEP -
JIIP-GSSOQSVIXLERXLIEZIVEKIGSPPIKIWXYHIRX-XLMRO
we do more ‘across the board’ functions in the kitchen,”
said Sunnyside. Sunnyside, Conrad, and Oak all expressed
XLEXXLI]EVIIEXMRKQSVILIEPXLMP]RS[XLERIZIVFIJSVI
±1SWX SJ XLI XMQI MX´W JVIWL [I EVI GSSOMRK EX LSQI
YXMPM^MRKEPPXLIMRKVIHMIRXWXSXLIJYPPIWX;IQEOIETTPI
WEYGISYXSJETTPIW]SYORS[#²%HHMXMSREPP]½RHMRKXLMW
JSSHMREHYQTWXIVQEOIW]SY[ERXWSQIXLMRKHMJJIVIRX
XSGSQISJXLIJSSH-JMXKSIWXS[EWXIXLIRMXKSIWXS
waste, but we tried as hard as possible to use every last bit.
It became apparent early on that Sunnyside, Conrad
ERH 3EO IRNS]IH WLEVMRK JSSH [MXL SXLIVW%R] I\XVE
food from our dives (which was often the case) would
FI KMZIR XS RIMKLFSVW JVMIRHW JEQMP] SV XLI PSGEP JSSH
TERXV] 7MRGI XLIVI [EW RS QSRIXEV] I\GLERKI PEFIPMRK
XLIJSSHEWI\GPYWMZIP]XLIMVWWLEVMRK[EWTEVXSJEPQSWX
every dumpster dive.
HOW GROCERIES BECOME GARBAGE.
4MGOMRK SYX TVSHYGI EX XLI KVSGIV] WXSVI IRKEKIW
SRIW WIRWI SJ WMKLX XS EZSMH MQTIVJIGXMSRW XSYGL XS
HIXIVQMRIEKSSH½VQRIWWERHWQIPPXSKEYKIVMTIRIWW
1SWX%QIVMGERW FIKMR XLIMV VIPEXMSRWLMT [MXL JVYMX
ERHZIKIXEFPIW[LIRMXMW½REPP]VMTI4VMSVXSEVVMZEPEX
XLIWXSVIXLIJVYMXLEWLEHEPSRKPMJIERHTSWWMFP]XVEZIPIH
EPSRKHMWXERGI
8EOIERETTPIJSVI\EQTPI8LIETTPI[EWKVS[RMRER
SVGLEVHTSWWMFP]MR;EWLMRKXSR1MGLMKERSV'EPMJSVRME
picked, and sent to a controlled atmosphere (CA)
[EVILSYWI[LIVIS\]KIRXIQTIVEXYVIERHLYQMHMX]EVI
monitored so the fruit is kept alive, but does not ripen
any further. It is then transported and stocked on the
WLIPZIWSJ]SYVPSGEPWYTIVQEVOIX±8SHE]XLI;EWLMRKXSR
ETTPI MRHYWXV] LEW QSVI WXSVEKI '% GETEGMX] XLER ER]
KVS[MRK MRHYWXV] MR XLI [SVPH² 8MQSXL] .SRIW WXEXIW
MR XLI EVXMGPI±,EPPQEVO SJ E 7YWXEMREFPI *EVQMRK
Industry.” These warehouses limit waste of apples in the
production process and allow apples to be cheap year
VSYRH;LMPIXLIFIRI½XWEVIETTEVIRXXLIJEGXXLEX[I
½RH ETTPIW MR XLI HYQTWXIV EPQSWX IZIV] XMQI [I HMZI
WLS[WXLEXEPSXSJXLMWIRIVK]WTIRXTVIWIVZMRKXLIETTPI
TVMSVXSXLIMVEVVMZEPEXXLIWYTIVQEVOIXKSIWXS[EWXI
8LYWMXMWRSXSRP]JSSHFIMRK[EWXIHFYXEPWSJIVXMPM^IV
water, soil nutrients, pesticides, herbicides, diesel, and
KEWSPMRI.SRIW;LEXEFSYXXLIJSSHWXLEXXVEZIP
ERIZIRKVIEXIVHMWXERGI#7SQIKVETIWGSQIJVSQ'LMPI
WSQIOM[MWGSQIJVSQ2I[>IEPERHWSQIQERKSIWEVI
shipped from the Philippines, and many avocados come
JVSQ1I\MGSSRP]XSIRHYTMRXLIKEVFEKI
Our detachment has blurred what is important
[LIR KIXXMRK JSSH 'SRWYQIVW EVI ZIV] GSRGIVRIH
[MXL GSWQIXMG UYEPMXMIW [LIR GLSSWMRK TVSHYGI %JXIV
XLEX PIRKXL] PMJI JSSH LEW LEH FIJSVI MX ETTIEVW SR SYV
shelves, we foolishly expect the items to look perfect. No
one is about to spend his or her hard-earned money on
produce that has a blemish, or is in some way sub-par. For
this reason, stores are pressured to supply produce that
QIIXWSYVYRVIEWSREFP]LMKLWXERHEVHW)HMFPIJSSH that
is deemed unworthy of our dollars is sent to the dumpster.
Additionally, “use by” and “best before” dates are
often treated as expiration dates. The word expiration
QIERWXLI½RMWLSJWSQIXLMRKIRHMRKI\TMV]HIEXL8LIWI
words describe very little of the food in the dumpsters.
*VIIKERWXVYWXXLIMVWIRWIWXSXIPPXLIQMJJSSHMWIHMFPI
SV RSX WMQMPEV XS ER]SRI HIXIVQMRMRK XLI UYEPMX] SJ
JSSHMRXLIMVS[RVIJVMKIVEXSV*VIIKERWFIPMIZI±WIPPF]²
and “use by” are not safety dates, but rather dates to
keep the circulation of food on the shelves constant.
The innate value of food is overlooked in the current
system; monetary value seems to be all that matters.
Sadly, it seems stores can’t or don’t try to eliminate food
waste. Employees are not allowed to take food home, and
I\TMVIHJSSHGERRSXFIHSREXIHFIGEYWISJPIKEPVMWO
VIYWIH 8LI JVIIKERW IEX XLI JSSH XLI] ½RH GSQTSWX
XLIJSSHXLI]HSR´XERHVIYWISVVIG]GPIXLITEGOEKMRK
WLS[MRK YW LS[ PMXXPI SJ XLI KEVFEKI MW EGXYEPP] YWIPIWW
%WJSVXLIPSWXERHJSYRHGPSXLIW#8LI][IRXXSXLIPSGEP
homeless shelter.
&IWMHIW E WITEVEXI HYQTWXIV JSV GSVVYKEXIH
cardboard, there is no attempt made by stores to recycle.
7SQISJXLITEGOEKMRK[I½RHIZIRWE]W±TPIEWIVIG]GPI²
±GSQTSWXEFPI² SV ±FMSHIKVEHEFPI² FYX XLI WXSVIW
TVSFEFP] GSRWMHIV XLI WSVXMRK TVSGIWW XSS QYGL SJ E
LEWWPI3RIRMKLX[IMVSRMGEPP]JSYRHVIYWIEFPIKVSGIV]
FEKW[MXLXLI[SVHW±?REQISJWXSVIA6IG]GPIW²MRXLI
HYQTWXIV8LIWEQIRMKLX[IYRGSZIVIH[LEX[IXLMRO
[EW XLI PSWXERHJSYRH [LMGL GSRXEMRIH LEXW KPSZIW
WGEVZIW WYRKPEWWIW GSJJII QYKW NI[IPV] ERH E W[IEXIV
RSXIXLIWIMXIQW[IVIJSYRHSREFPMWXIV]GSPHRMKLXMR
QMH.ERYEV] 7PMGIH JVYMX MR GSRXEMRIVW EVI VIKYPEV ½RHW
WIIRSRXLIPIJXWMHIERHRIEVXLIQMGVS[EZIMR½KYVI
WSXLIJVIIKERWWEZIXLIWIERHXLIVIJSVILEZIEWIIQMRKP]
unlimited amount of re-useable plastic containers for
PIJXSZIVW7MQMPEVP]MXMWRSXYRGSQQSRXS½RHJSSHXLEX
GSQI[MXLFEKWVYFFIVFERHWERHX[MWXXMIWXLEXGERFI
Our food supply is the “most varied and abundant in
XLI[SVPHGLSSWMRKJVSQEREZIVEKISJHMJJIVIRX
JSSH TVSHYGXW SR E X]TMGEP SYXMRK XS XLI WYTIVQEVOIX²
/ERXSV8LITIVMWLEFPIJVEGXMSRSJXLEXRYQFIV
MW[LEXKIXWXLVS[RSYXQSWXSJXIR³*SSHHIWIVXW´I\MWX
MR TSSV YVFER RIMKLFSVLSSHW ERH WQEPP VYVEP XS[RW
[LIVIXLISRP]TPEGIXSKIXJSSHMWXLIPSGEPKEWWXEXMSR
SV GSRZIRMIRGI WXSVI RIMXLIV SJ [LMGL LEW ER]XLMRK
nutritious to offer. Healthy food is also unattainable to
many because of cost. This makes me wonder why the
healthiest, priciest food is also the food most often
thrown away.
And to think: This was all one step away from
XLI PERH½PP 8LI -PPMRSMW 'SQQSHMX];EWXI ERH
Characterizations study estimates the market value of
XLI WXSGO SJ QEXIVMEPW GYVVIRXP] MR PERH½PPW MR -PPMRSMW MJ
XLI] GSYPH FI VIGSZIVIH [SYPH FI EFSYX QMPPMSR
and I doubt that number includes food. Timothy Jones
GSRWIVZEXMZIP]IWXMQEXIWXLEXXLI97IGSRSQ]PSWIW
billion dollars when retail, farm, and residential losses are
added up.
1SVISZIV MX MW RSX KVSGIV] WXSVIW XLEX EVI KEMRMRK
popularity today; supercenters are. These massive
WXSVIW LSYWI QER] QSVI MXIQW XLER KVSGIV] WXSVIW
XLIVIJSVI XLVS[MRK E[E] QSVI EW [IPP ±3RIWXST
1
The JUE Issue 1
WLSTTMRK MW WXMPP E KVS[MRK GSRWYQIV ETTIEP TVEGXMGIH
F] LEPJ SJ 97 GSRWYQIVW [LS RS[ GER ½RH TVEGXMGEPP]
all their household requirements under one roof,” (Seth
8LI TVIWYQEFP] QEWWMZI EQSYRXW SJ [EWXI
TVSHYGIH F] XLIWI QIKEWXSVIW EVI HIWXVS]IH [MXLSYX
ER] LSTI SJ VIGPEQEXMSR HYI XS XLIMV YWI SJ KEVFEKI
compactors.
TEVIRXWERHKVERHTEVIRXWKVI[YT[MXL7SQIEGXMZMXMIW
XLEXI\LMFMXXLMWEXXMXYHIMRGPYHIVIYWMRKFMVXLHE]GEVHWF]
HVE[MRKTMGXYVIWSZIVWSQISRIIPWI´W[VMXMRKGEXGLMRKXLI
HVMTTMRKVYRSJJWSJEGERHPIMRXSERSXLIVHMWLERHEHHMRK
E[MGOYWMRKTIRGMPJSVQEOMRK¾EWLGEVHWJSVWGLSSPWS
they can be erased, Minnie Conrad even usesthe plastic
TEGOEKMRKLIV97&HVMZIGEQIMREWMXWGEVV]MRKGEWI
IDENTITY & WAY OF LIFE
8LIJVIIKERWFEVXIVVIKYPEVP][MXLJVMIRHW&EVXIVMRK
½XW [IPP [MXL XLI JVIIKER PMJI WMRGI XLI] EVI WS JSGYWIH
SRXLIYWIZEPYISJMXIQWEW[IPPEWGSQQYRMX]FYMPHMRK
“If we barter say potatoes for shoes, both of these
MXIQW[MPPLEZIHMQMRMWLMRKQEVKMREPYXMPMX]JSVYWMIXLI
more we have of them the less useful they will be each
EHHMXMSREPEQSYRX²,YQTLVI]ERH,YKL.SRIW
8LI JVIIKERW FIPMIZI FEVXIVMRK MRWTMVIW TEVXMGMTERXW XS
VIEGL SYX XS SXLIV TISTPI MRWXIEH SJ WXSVIW JSV XLMRKW
XLI]RIIH8LMWKMZIWZEPYIXSERMRHMZMHYEP´WXEPIRXWWOMPPW
ERHSFNIGXWWMRGIWYGLWIVZMGIWERHKSSHWGERFIXVEHIH
%PXLSYKL 3EO 'SRVEH ERH 7YRR]WMHI HS GSRWMHIV
XLIQWIPZIWJVIIKERWRSRITEVXMGMTEXIJYPPXMQI8LI]TE]
rent, pay for cell phones, attend a university (Sunnyside
and Conrad), have a full-time job and drive a car (Oak).
8LEXWEMH[LIREWOIHMJXLI][SYPHFIJVIIKERWJSVPMJI
EPP SJ XLIQ VITPMIH [MXL E GSR½HIRX±]IW² 3EO EHHIH
XLEX WLI QMKLX TVEGXMGI SR E HMJJIVIRX PIZIP QE]FI RSX
EP[E]W HYQTWXIV HMZMRK FYX [MPP EP[E]W VIGPEMQ XLMRKW
ERH FY] WIGSRH LERH%HHMXMSREPP] XLI -79 JVIIKERW HS
not consider themselves anti-consumerists, but rather
GSRWGMSYW GSRWYQIVW8LI] HS TEVXMGMTEXI MR TYVGLEWMRK
XLMRKWPMOIXLIVIWXSJYWFYXHSWSQYGLPIWWJVIUYIRXP]
and with much more awareness than many Americans.
*VIIKERW EVI GSQQMXXIH XS PIRKXLIRMRK XLI PMJI
G]GPI SJ IZIV]XLMRK XLEX GSQIW MRXS XLIMV PMZIW RSX NYWX
JSSH 8LI] HSR´X FIPMIZI MR FY]MRK RI[ ERH XV] RSX XS
FY]ER]XLMRKEXEPP8LMWQIERWXLI]VITEMVGPSXLMRKXLIMV
FMG]GPIW ERH ER]XLMRK IPWI MRWXIEH SJ XLVS[MRK MX E[E]
8LI] EP[E]W WIIQ XS ½RH RI[ YWIW JSV SPH MXIQW ERH
HIQSRWXVEXIE±9WIMXYT[IEVMXSYXQEOIMXHSSVHS
[MXLSYX²EXXMXYHI%PXLSYKLXLMWQMRHWIXWIIQWSFWSPIXI
[MXLMRXLI]SYRKIVKIRIVEXMSRMXMWETLMPSWSTL][LMGLSYV
*VSQ+VSWW´EVXMGPIXLISXLIVIXLRSKVETLMGWXYHMIW
ERHXLIQIHMEMXWIIQWEWXLSYKLQSWXJVIIKERWEVIQEPI
SV JIQEPIW [MXL QEPIW EGGSQTER]MRK XLIQ 3RP] SRGI
HMH - IZIV GSQI EGVSWW ER EVXMGPI WSPIP] EFSYX JVIIKER
KMVPWWIXXMRKXLI-79JVIIKERWETEVX%PPXLVIISJXLIQEVI
WXVSRKQSXMZEXIHERHMRHITIRHIRX[SQIR[LSFIPMIZI
MR QEOMRK E TSWMXMZI MQTEGX MR XLI GSQQYRMX] EVSYRH
them. Not only are they female, but also they became
JVIIKERWJVSQXLIMR¾YIRGISJSXLIVJIQEPIJVIIKERW
(YQTWXIVHMZMRKXLSYKLJVYMXJYPXEOIWPSRKIVXLERE
XVMTXSXLIKVSGIV]WXSVI-RGPYHMRKXVEZIPMRKERHGPIERMRK
one dive could take 2-3 hours, and is also quite labor
3RISJXLIFMKKIWXHMJJIVIRGIWFIX[IIRJVIIKERWERHXLIVIWX
of society is their perspective of value.
intensive. With little or no processed foods like Easy Mac
SV6EQIRMRXLIMVHMIXGSSOMRKXEOIWYTQSVIXMQIXLER
WSQIWXYHIRXW[SYPHFI[MPPMRKXSWTIRH
7YRR]WMHI ERH 3EO WII JVIIKERMWQ EW ER I\XIRWMSR
SJ XLIMV 'LVMWXMER VIPMKMSR8LI] FIPMIZI XLEX +SH KEZI
humans the earth and therefore it should be respected.
Sunnyside stated, “There is more of a circle involved in
PMJI[INYWXLEZIXS½KYVISYXLS[XSKIXMRXLEXG]GPIERH
QEOI ?SYV JSSH W]WXIQA E GSRRIGXIH GMVGPI MRWXIEH SJ E
HMWNSMRXIHPMRI²1MRRMI'SRVEHGLSSWIWRSXXSEPMKR[MXL
ETEVXMGYPEVVIPMKMSYWSYXPSSOFYXEKVIIWXLEX±XLIG]GPI
MWWSGSQTPIXIERHTIVJIGX[L][SYPH]SYQIWW[MXLMX#²
VIJIVVMRKXSXLIG]GPISJREXYVI
3RI SJ XLI FMKKIWX HMJJIVIRGIW FIX[IIR JVIIKERW
and the rest of society is their perspective of value. They
do not only see value in terms of how much money it
is “worth,” but also in terms of its basic qualities and
TSXIRXMEPXSFIVITYVTSWIH*VIIKERWXV]XSPMZIQSVEPP]
MR E WSGMIX] ERH IGSRSQ] XLEX XLI] TIVGIMZI EW PEVKIP]
immoral. “To think about the relationship of morality and
economics is to connect the most abstract and perhaps
QIERMRKJYPVIEPQSJLYQERPMJI[MXLXLIQSWXFEREP°XS
GSRWMHIV LS[ XLI IZIV]HE] QEXXIV SJ PMZMRK EKIRXW KIXW
infused with our deepest beliefs of what we live for and
LS[[IPMZI[IPP²&VS[RI
CONCLUSION
*VIIKERMWQYRGSZIVWLS[QYGLMW[EWXIHEVSYRHYW
IZIV]HE]0MZMRKMREGYPXYVIXLEXEPPS[WJSSHXSFIXLVS[R
E[E]XLSYKLXPIWWP]MWERIRSVQSYWWXEXIQIRXEFSYX[LEX
MWGSRWMHIVIHWEGVIHERHMQTSVXERX+VSGIV]WXSVIWWIIQ
to only pay attention to the monetary value of food and
MKRSVIMXWMRXVMRWMGZEPYI6SFMR2EKPIMWXLIERXLVSTSPSKMWX
MRVIWMHIRGIEXXLI2I[=SVO(ITEVXQIRXSJ7ERMXEXMSR
ERH-FIPMIZIWLIWEMHMXVMKLX[LIRWLIWEMH±;L]LEZI
we found ourselves implicated in a system that not only
KIRIVEXIWWSQYGLXVEWLFYXVIPMIWYTSRXLIEGGIPIVEXMRK
TVSHYGXMSR SJ [EWXI JSV MXW S[R TIVTIXYEXMSR# ;L] MW
XLEX3/#²
*VIIKERWPMZIEPMJIXLEXMWGVIEXMZIKMZMRKPMJIXSKSSHW
ZMI[IH F] QSWX EW YRYWEFPI -RWXIEH SJ XV]MRK XS QEOI
money to spend it, they strive to make less, spend less,
and make the most out of what is available. Innovation and
resourcefulness are qualities that individuals, companies,
ERH GSYRXVMIW WLSYPH EPP WXVMZI JSV ERH XLI JVIIKERW EVI
I\TIVXW *VIIKERMWQ EPPS[W XLI TEVXMGMTERX XS WXIT FEGO
and question practices otherwise considered normal, and
helps us remember that even within our own communities
there are alternative ways of life. To quote American
ERXLVSTSPSKMWX0EYVE2EHIV±;ILEZIEWERXLVSTSPSKMWXW
WXYHMIHXLIGYPXYVIWSJXLI[SVPHXS½RHMRXLIIRHXLEX
ours is one of the most bizarre of all cultures.”
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
1
The JUE Issue 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
&PEGO6EGLIP)EXMRK+EVFEKI7SGMEPP]1EVKMREP*SSH4VSZMWMSRMRK4VEGXMGIW-R'SRWYQMRKXLI-RIHMFPI2IKPIGXIH (MQIRWMSRWSJ*SSH'LSMGI.IVIQ]1EG'PERG]IH2I[=SVO&IVKLELR&SSOW
&VS[RI/EXLIVMRI)ERH&EVFEV]0]RRI1MPKVEQ)GSRSQMGWERH1SVEPMX]%RXLVSTSPSKMGEP%TTVSEGLIW9RMXIH
/MRKHSQ6S[QER%PXEQMVE
&Y^F].IER',SHER*EVEL;IPPW&VYGI%\XQERERH.ERE1MGOI]±7YTIVQEVOIX0SWW)WXMQEXIWJSV*VIWL*VYMX
:IKIXEFPIW1IEX4SYPXV]ERH7IEJSSHERH8LIMV9WIMRXLI)670SWW%HNYWXIH*SSH%ZEMPEFMPMX](EXE²9RMXIH 7XEXIW(ITEVXQIRXSJ%KVMGYPXYVIEconomic Information BulletinRS1EVGL
'S]RI1MGLIPPI±*VSQ4VSHYGXMSRXS(IWXVYGXMSRXS6IGSZIV]*VIIKERMWQ´W6IHI½RMXMSRSJ*SSH:EPYIERH
Circulation.” Iowa Journal of Cultural Studies.LXXT[[[YMS[EIHYbMNGW[EWXIGS]RILXQ
(SYKPEW1EV]4YVMX]ERH(ERKIV%R%REP]WMWSJXLI'SRGITXWSJ4SPPYXMSRERH8EFSS%VG4ETIVFEGOW
)H[EVHW*IVRIERH(EZMH1IVGIV±+PIERMRKJVSQ+PYXXSR]ER%YWXVEPMER]SYXLWYFGYPXYVIGSRJVSRXWXLIIXLMGWSJ waste.” Australian Geographer:SPRS
(EZMH+VEIFIV8S[EVHERERXLVSTSPSKMGEPXLISV]SJZEPYIXLIJEPWIGSMRSJSYVS[RHVIEQW
2I[=SVO4EPKVEZI
+VSWW.SER±'ETMXEPMWQERHMXW(MWGSRXIRXW&EGOXSXLI0ERHIVERH*VIIKER*SSH[E]WMR6YVEP3VIKSR²
Food and Foodways:SP
,YQTLV]'EVSPMRIERH7XITLIR,YKL.SRIW&EVXIV)\GLERKIERH:EPYI%R%RXLVSTSPSKMGEP%TTVSEGL
2I[=SVO'EQFVMHKI9RMZIVWMX]4VIWW
.SRIW8MQSXL]±,EPPQEVOSJE7YWXEMREFPI*EVQMRK-RHYWXV]²BioCycleZSPRS2SZIQFIV
.SRIW8MQSXL]±;LEXXSHSEFSYX*SSH0SWW²BioCycleZSPRS.YP]
/ERXSV0MRHE/EXLV]R0MTXSR%PHIR1ERGLIWXIVERH:MGXSV3PMZIMVE)WXMQEXMRKERH%HHVIWWMRK%QIVMGE´W*SSH
0SWWIWFood Loss;EWLMRKXSR('97(ITEVXQIRXSJ%KVMGYPXYVI
2SVH1EVO1EVKEVIX%RHVI[WERH7XIZIR'EVPWSR,SYWILSPHJSSHWIGYVMX]MRXLI9RMXIH7XEXIW;EWLMRKXSR
('97(ITEVXQIRXSJ%KVMGYPXYVI)GSRSQMG6IWIEVGL7IVZMGI
6SWIR1MGLEIP'LETXIVWMR3VKERM^EXMSREP)XLRSKVETL]8YVRMRK;SVHW7TMRRMRK;SVPHW%QWXIVHEQ3ZIVWIEW
4YFPMWLIVW%WWSGMEXMSR
7IXL%RHVI[ERH+ISJJVI]6ERHEPP8LIKVSGIVWXLIVMWIERHVMWISJXLIWYTIVQEVOIXGLEMRW9RMXIH/MRKHSQ/SKER
4EKI4YFPMWLIVW
8SQIW2ERG]8LI+SWTIPSJ+IVQW1IR;SQIRERHXLI1MGVSFIMR%QIVMGER0MJI'EQFVMHKI1EWWEGLYWIXXW
,EVZEVH9RMZIVWMX]4VIWW
;IMWWQER%HEQ2HLXXTJVIIKERMRJS%GGIWWIH*IFVYEV]
1
The JUE Issue 1
-WWYI7TVMRK
%GORS[PIHKMRKXLI7XMKQEXM^IH7I\3JJIRHIVWERH8LIMV
3YXPSSOW:IVWYW;SQIRMR6IPEXMSRWLMTW[MXL-RGEVGIVEXIH
Men and their Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System
Caroline Womer
UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE, CAROLINEWOMER@GMAIL.COM
Abstract
3JJIRHIVW EVI E WXMKQEXM^IH KVSYT SJ MRHMZMHYEPW QEOMRK MX HMJ½GYPX JSV WSGMIX] XS TVSJJIV WIGSRH GLERGIW WS [MPPMRKP]
*YVXLIVQSVIQER][SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLSJJIRHIVWWYJJIVXLIWXMKQEXLEXSJJIRHIVWXLIQWIPZIWI\TIVMIRGI8LMW
study offers a theoretical contribution that focuses mostly on sex offenders in an attempt to help reshape their perceptions
ERHFVMRKGPEVMX]XSERI\MWXMRKXLISVIXMGEPJVEQI[SVO7I\SJJIRHIVW´SYXPSSOW[IVII\EQMRIHERHTPEGIHMRXSEXLVII
schema approach (instrumental, political, and cultural schemas), implemented from a previous study, based on their overall
QIRXEPMX]ERHLS[XLI]LEZIVEXMSREPM^IHXLIMVSJJIRWIW7MQMPEVP][SQIR´WTIVGITXMSRWSJXLIGVMQMREPNYWXMGIW]WXIQFEWIH
SRWSGMIX]´WZMI[WXS[EVHXLIMVVIPEXMSRWLMT[MXLERSJJIRHIV [IVIGEXIKSVM^IHMRXSXLIXLVIIWGLIQEWXSGSRXVEWXXLI
ZEV]MRKX]TIWSJWXMKQE-RXLMWWXYH]EFSYXPIXXIVWJVSQWI\SJJIRHIVWEW[IPPEWWIPIGXWXSVMIWJVSQEFSSOGSRXEMRMRK
WI\SJJIRHIVEGGSYRXW[IVIGSHIHERHEREP]^IHYRHIVXLMWJVEQI[SVOYWMRK%XPEWXM%HHMXMSREPP]X[IPZIMRXIVZMI[W[IVI
GEVVMIHSYX[MXL[SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLMRGEVGIVEXIHQIR 6IWYPXWWYKKIWXXLEX[LMPIQER]WI\SJJIRHIVWHIWMVI
GLERKIXLI]HSRSXXEOIJYPPVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVXLIMVEGXMSRWQIERMRKXLEXXLIWITEVXMGYPEVSJJIRHIVW´SYXPSSOWHSRSX½X
neatly into one schema. A fourth schema, christened the “chimerical schema”, is proposed to further explain offenders’
SYXPSSOW1SWXSJXLI[SQIR´WTIVGITXMSRWLS[IZIVIEWMP]½XMRXSSRISJXLIXLVIIWGLIQEWVIRHIVMRKXLIJSYVXLWGLIQE
YRRIGIWWEV]8LMWWXYH][MPPEHHXSERI\MWXMRKXLISVIXMGEPJVEQI[SVOQEOMRKMXQSVIETTPMGEFPIXSSXLIVQEVKMREPM^IHKVSYTW
7I\SJJIRHIVWEVIEWXMKQEXM^IHTSTYPEXMSR[MXLMRSYV
GSYRXV]´WNYWXMGIW]WXIQ-RXLMWWXYH]-WSYKLXXSYRZIMPXLI
Q]WXIV]WYVVSYRHMRKXLMWIPYWMZIKVSYTSJMRHMZMHYEPWERH
EXXIQTXIHXSGEXIKSVM^IXLIMVQIXLSHSJXLMROMRKMRVIKEVHW
to the criminal justice system, rehabilitation, current laws,
and overall outlook on their own offenses. Furthermore,
- I\TPSVIH [L] WI\ SJJIRHIVW JIIP E GSQTIPPMRK RIIH XS
VEXMSREPM^IXLIMVSJJIRWIW-REHHMXMSRXSXLIWIGEXIKSVMIW
- QEHI ER IJJSVX XS NY\XETSWI XLMW WXMKQE JIPX F] WI\
SJJIRHIVW[MXLXLIWXMKQEXLEXWSGMIX]MQTSWIWSR[SQIR
in relationships with a broad array of incarcerated men. I
JIPXXLEX½VWXLERHMRXIVZMI[W[MXL[SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW
[MXL SJJIRHIVW IRLERGIH XLI GSRGITX SJ WXMKQEXM^EXMSR
EWE[LSPIERHTVSZMHIHWYTTPIQIRXEV]ZMI[WVIKEVHMRK
SYVGSYRXV]´WGVMQMREPNYWXMGIW]WXIQ9WMRKEJVEQI[SVO
TVSZMHIHF]-HMX/SWXMRIVMRLIVEVXMGPI±)ZEPYEXMRK0IKEPMX]
8S[EVHE'YPXYVEP%TTVSEGLXSXLI7XYH]SJ0E[ERH7SGMEP
'LERKI²XLVIIWGLIQEW[IVIYRGSZIVIHXLEXWLIJSYRH
to be applicable to social activists and how they utilize the
PE[XSEGLMIZIWSGMEPGLERKI/SWXMRIV-EHSTXIH
this framework and applied the three-schema approach
to sex offenders; based on their outlooks of their own
SJJIRWIW-GEXIKSVM^IHXLIQMRXSSRISJXLIXLVIIWGLIQEW
/SWXMRIV TVSZMHIH 3R E WQEPPIV WGEPI - ETTPMIH XLI
three schemas to women’s perceptions of the American
criminal justice system based on how society viewed their
VIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLMRGEVGIVEXIHSJJIRHIVW8LVSYKLSYXXLI
course of this study, I attempted to determine which of
the three schemas a majority of sex offenders seemed
to fall under and, when applicable, why and how sex
offenders rationalize their offenses. I compared this with
XLIWXMKQEJIPXF][SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLSJJIRHIVW
XSJYVXLIVI\TVIWWXLINYHKQIRXWXLEXWSGMIX]TEWWIWSR
ZEV]MRKKVSYTWSJMRHMZMHYEPW
SELECTED LITERATURE REVIEW
The bulk of literature applicable to my research
was Pamela Schultz’s Not Monsters ERH ,ERWSR
ERH 7PEXIV´W ±6IEGXMSRW XS 1SXMZEXMSREP %GGSYRXW SJ
'LMPH1SPIWXIVW²;LMPIXLMWMWEVEXLIVWIPIGXMZI
literature review, both of these contributed a vast amount
of information to my research and allowed me to peer
further into the world of sex offenders. Not Monsters
contains accounts from interviews carried out with sex
offenders by the author herself. I discovered that in a
QENSVMX]SJXLIWIEGGSYRXWXLIVIMWERYRHIVP]MRKXLIQI
SJ XLI HIWMVI XS GLERKI ]IX YR[MPPMRKRIWW SR XLI TEVX
of the offender to accept responsibility for his actions
7GLYPX^
In many of the accounts from Not Monsters,
SJJIRHIVW YWIH FPEQMRK EW E VLIXSVMGEP WXVEXIK] 1SWX
SJ XLIQ WIIQIH LMKLP] YRE[EVI XLI] IZIR IQTPS]IH
XLIYWISJWXVEXIKMIWFYXMRIWWIRGIXLI]TVSNIGXIHXLI
responsibility of their actions onto other people or ideas.
In one of Schultz’s interviews, she states that while he
displayed little empathy for the children he victimized, the
SJJIRHIVQEHIMXGPIEVXLEXLILIPHGLMPHVIRMRWYGLLMKL
VIKEVH8SGSQFEXLMWTVSNIGXMSRSJFPEQI7GLYPX^JYVXLIV
WXEXIW±;LIR-TSMRXIHSYXXLEXTMPKVMQWKIRIVEPP]HSR´X
rape their deities, he shuddered and convulsively thrust
SYX LMW LERHW EW XLSYKL LI [ERXIH XS TYWL E[E] XLI
VIEPMX]SJQ]WXEXIQIRX²7XYH]MRKXLIEGGSYRXW
from the sex offenders exposed a predominant theme of
denial. Furthermore, another offender stated that, “Most
child molesters are in self-denial, and they don’t think they
GSQQMXXIH E GVMQI² ;LMPI WS QER] SJJIRHIVW
[IVISTIREFSYXXLIMVSJJIRWIWERHGSYPHVIGSKRM^I[L]
XLIMVEGXMSRWGSYPHFIGSRWMHIVIH[VSRKXLI]WXMPPJIPXXLI
RIIHXSNYWXMJ]ERHHS[RTPE]XLIMVSJJIRWIWXSPIKMXMQM^I
their rationale to society.
,ERWSRERH7PEXIV´WEVXMGPI±6IEGXMSRWXS1SXMZEXMSREP
Accounts of Child Molesters,” delves into accounts that
SJJIRHIVW TVSZMHIH VIKEVHMRK XLIMV VIWTIGXMZI SJJIRWIW
ERH LS[ GIVXEMR QIQFIVW SJ WSGMIX] GLERKI XLIMV
perceptions of an offender and his blameworthiness,
HITIRHMRK SR LS[ PIKMXMQEXI XLI EGGSYRX WIIQIH XS
be. From the start, the authors used the example of a
-XMWETTEVIRXXLEX[IEWEWSGMIX][ERXXSFIPMIZIXLEXSJJIRHIVWLEZI
a legitimate excuse for their actions and are truly remorseful.
NYZIRMPIHIPMRUYIRXXSGSRZI]XLIWXVEXIK]SJ[LEXXLI]
call “techniques of neutralization” (Hanson and Slater
±?;ALIR HIPMRUYIRXW EVI EWOIH XS I\TPEMR XLIMV
EGXMSRWXLI][MPPEGORS[PIHKIXLEXXLIJXJSVI\EQTPIMW
KIRIVEPP][VSRKFYXTSMRXXSWTIGMEPGMVGYQWXERGIWXLEX
QMXMKEXIXLI[VSRKJYPRIWWSJXLIMVEGXMSRWIK-RIIHIH
the money, I was drunk, the owner mistreated me, etc.)”
3XLIVVIWIEVGLIVWHSGYQIRXIHWYGL³XIGLRMUYIW
SJRIYXVEPM^EXMSR´MR[MJIEWWEYPXIVW(YXXSRVETMWXW
7GYPP]ERH1EVSPPEERHGLMPHQSPIWXIVW(I=SYRK
4SPPSGOERH,EWLQEPP8E]PSV
In their study, Hanson and Slater found that of their
MRXIVZMI[ TSSP GSRWMWXMRK SJ XLIVETMWXW ERH TVSFEXMSR
SJ½GIVW ±TISTPI EVI QSVI PMOIP] XS FI EGGITXMRK SJ
HIZMERXFILEZMSV[LIRXLI]TIVGIMZIXLIXVERWKVIWWMSREW
caused by factors that are external and uncontrollable”
*YVXLIVQSVIXLIEYXLSVWJSYRHXLEX±MXMWPMOIP]
XLEX ER SJJIRHIV [LS HIRMIH QSPIWXMRK E GLMPH HIWTMXI
GSRZMRGMRK IZMHIRGI XS XLI GSRXVEV] [SYPH VIGIMZI E
more lenient sentence than an offender who admitted
XSXLISJJIRWI[MXLSYXVIQSVWI².YHKMRKF]XLMW
SFWIVZEXMSR MX WIIQW XLEX VIKEVHPIWW SJ LS[ GYPTEFPI
ERSJJIRHIVEGXYEPP]MWWSGMIX]XVIEXWLMQ[MXLEKVIEXIV
HIKVII SJ IQTEXL] [LIR LI TVSNIGXW LMW FPEQI SRXS
other people or circumstances and tries to rationalize his
offense. It is apparent that we, as a society, want to believe
XLEXSJJIRHIVWLEZIEPIKMXMQEXII\GYWIJSVXLIMVEGXMSRW
ERHEVIXVYP]VIQSVWIJYP8LMWMHIELS[IZIVTVSTEKEXIW
WI\ SJJIRHIVW´ FIPMIJW XLEX VEXMSREPM^MRK XLIMV SJJIRWIW MW
more acceptable to society; in reality, this belief merely
evades the truth and creates more problems.
%TTP]MRK,ERWSRERH7PEXIV´WEVXMGPIXSNot Monsters,
I discovered that while offenders may admit their offense
[EW[VSRKXLI]TVSNIGXXLIFPEQISRXSSXLIVWSVJSGYW
on other irrelevant scenarios in order to rationalize
XLIMVSJJIRWIXLYWNYWXMJ]MRKXLIMVEGXMSRW-RSRIEGGSYRX
JVSQ E QSVI MVVMXEFPI SJJIRHIV LI HMWGYWWIW LMW ½VWX
XMQIMRTVMWSREJXIVLI[EWVITSVXIHF]LMWHEYKLXIVJSV
WI\YEPP] EWWEYPXMRK LIV ,I WXEXIW±1] JEQMP] HMH GSQI
ZMWMX QI &YX - [SYPHR´X WII XLIQ - [EW OMRH SJ ERKV]
What had happened was supposed to be a family issue,
FYXQ]HEYKLXIVXYVRIHMXMRXSETYFPMGMWWYI©-WEMHXS
Q] HEYKLXIV³=SY VIEPP] HMHR´X LEZI XS TYX YW XLVSYKL
EPP XLMW´² 7GLYPX^ 8LMW GEWI VITVIWIRXW E QSVI
SFZMSYW FPEQMRK XEGXMG IWTIGMEPP] [LIR XLI SJJIRHIV
XIPPWLMWHEYKLXIVXLEXWLI[EWIWWIRXMEPP]EXJEYPXJSVXLI
JEQMP]´W TVIHMGEQIRX &] EXXIQTXMRK XS TPEGI XLI FPEQI
on someone else, the offender essentially tried to feel
like what he did was not as severe as it is in reality. An
offender who attempted to rationalize his pedophilia
WXEXIHXLIJSPPS[MRK±1I-´QKVIEXEXVEXMSREPM^MRK-GER
QEOI Q]WIPJ PSSO KSSH JSV Q] S[R FIRI½X &IMRK XLI
type of person who doesn’t want to hurt anyone or do
ER]XLMRK [VSRK - GSYPH VEXMSREPM^I MR E QMPPMSR HMJJIVIRX
[E]W²8LSYKLHMWXYVFMRKMXMWUYMXIMRXIVIWXMRKXS
WIILS[XLMWSJJIRHIVGSTIH[MXLLMW[VSRKHSMRKW-JLI
rationalized his offense in a way that made him feel less
VIWTSRWMFPILIHMHRSXJIIPXLEXLIHSMRKER]XLMRK[VSRK
6EXMSREPM^EXMSR EPXLSYKL E [IPPYWIH GSTMRK QIGLERMWQ
can be detrimental, especially when responsibility is not
XEOIRJSVE[VSRKJYPEGXMSR8LMWMWEGSRXMRYMRKMWWYIERH
as Hanson and Slater point out, “When self-presentation
1
The JUE Issue 1
I placed each offenders’ outlook into the most appropriate schema
SYXSJXLIXLVIILSTMRKXSHVE[GSRGPYWMSRWEWXSLS[HIZIPSTIH
SJJIRHIVWEVIMRXLIMVZMI[TSMRXWVIKEVHMRKXLIMVSJJIRWIW
EXXIQTXW EVI VIEHMP] VIGSKRM^IH MX FIGSQIW TSWWMFPI
XS MHIRXMJ] XLI SJJIRHIVW´ KIRYMRIP] HIZMERX EXXMXYHIW
attitudes that may contribute to their criminal behavior”
METHODOLOGY
9WMRK%XPEWXM-GSHIHERHEREP]^IHPIXXIVWJVSQ
sex offenders as well as accounts from sex offenders
GSQMRKJVSQNot Monsters(YIXS(V'LV]WERXLM0ISR´W
SJ XLI 9RMZIVWMX] SJ (IPE[EVI EGEHIQMGIWXEFPMWLQIRX
MRXLMW½IPHMRGEVGIVEXIHSVTVIZMSYWP]MRGEVGIVEXIHWI\
SJJIRHIVWJVSQEGVSWWXLIREXMSR[VMXILIVSREVIKYPEV
FEWMWMRVIKEVHWXSXLIMVSTMRMSRWSRGYVVIRXWI\SJJIRHIV
PE[W XLIMV LSTIW SJ TEVXMGMTEXMRK MR LIV VIWIEVGL ERH
personal stories about their own offenses and the effect
it has on their lives and the lives of others. I coded the
QSWX VIGIRX PIXXIVW VIGIMZIH F] (V 0ISR JVSQ WTVMRK
SJ OIITMRK XLI SJJIRHIVW´ MHIRXMXMIW GSR½HIRXMEP
%W QIRXMSRIH TVIZMSYWP] - MQTPIQIRXIH -HMX /SWXMRIV´W
XLVII WGLIQE ETTVSEGL JVSQ LIV EVXMGPI ±)ZEPYEXMRK
0IKEPMX] 8S[EVH E 'YPXYVEP %TTVSEGL XS XLI 7XYH] SJ
0E[ ERH 7SGMEP 'LERKI² EW Q] XLISVIXMGEP JVEQI[SVO
As a brief overview, the three schemas are as follows:
the instrumental WGLIQE MW E HIWMVI JSV E GLERKI SJ
concrete resources, the political schema is one that seeks
XS IQTS[IV QEVKMREPM^IH KVSYTWGSQQYRMXMIW ERH VEPP]
forces, and lastly, the cultural schema seeks to transform
EWWYQTXMSRWQEHIF]X]TMGEPWSGMIX];LMPI/SWXMRIVYWIH
XLIWI WGLIQEW XS GEXIKSVM^I XLSWI MRZSPZIH MR WSGMEP
activism, I applied them to sex offenders.
-FIKERXLIGSHMRKTVSGIWWF]I\XVEGXMRKXLISJJIRHIVW´
outlooks on their own offense from the letters and, once
found, coded for words and phrases most applicable to
the three schemas, offender rationalization, any type of
WXMKQE XLEX [EW IRGSYRXIVIH ERH ER] SXLIV IQSXMSRW
expressed by the offender that stood out to me. Some
of the main words, concepts, and phrases I searched for
MRGPYHIHFPEQMRKHIWMVIJSVGLERKIHIRMEPIQTS[IVQIRX
ERKIV XS[EVH XLI TSPMXMGEP TS[IV WXVYGXYVI SV XS[EVH
those directly or indirectly involved with the offender,
ERHEHIWMVIXSGLERKISXLIVW´STMRMSRW9TSRGSQTPIXMRK
XLI TVSGIWW SJ GSHMRK XLI PIXXIVW - TPEGIH IEGL SJ XLI
offenders’ outlooks into the most appropriate schema
SYXSJXLIXLVIILSTMRKXSHVE[GSRGPYWMSRWEWXSLS[
HIZIPSTIH SJJIRHIVW EVI MR XLIMV ZMI[TSMRXW VIKEVHMRK
their offenses. Since the cultural schema is the most ideal
schema for sex offenders to embrace, due to the fact
that it encompasses an acceptance and responsibility that
surpasses the characteristics of the other two schemas,
ER EREP]WMW SJ XLI SJJIRHIVW´ PIXXIVW [EW XLI ½VWX QENSV
WXIT MR HIXIVQMRMRK [LIVI SJJIRHIVW ½X MR GEXIKSVMGEPP]
(YIXSXLIREXYVISJXLIWIXLVIIWGLIQEWLS[IZIVXLI]
EVI RSX QYXYEPP] I\GPYWMZI;LMPI Q] MRMXMEP KSEP [EW XS
place offenders’ outlooks into only one of the three
GEXIKSVMIWWSQISJXLIQIQFSHMIHQSVIXLERSRI
In order to execute the interview process for women
in relationships with incarcerated offenders, I borrowed
REQIW JVSQ ER I\MWXMRK VIWIEVGL WXYH] XLEX [EW FIMRK
GEVVMIH SYX F] KVEHYEXI WXYHIRX 0EYVE 6ETT ERH (V
'LV]WERXLM0ISRSJXLI9RMZIVWMX]SJ(IPE[EVI3ZIVXLI
GSYVWI SJ EFSYX X[S QSRXLW ERSXLIV KVEHYEXI WXYHIRX
and I set up phone interviews with women interested in
TEVXMGMTEXMRK MR XLI WXYH];I EQIRHIH E UYIWXMSRREMVI
JVSQ 6ETT ERH 0ISR´W WXYH] XS FIXXIV WYMX SYV S[R
VIWIEVGL SFNIGXMZIW ERH EWOIH XLI [SQIR E VERKI SJ
UYIWXMSRW MRGPYHMRK FYX RSX PMQMXIH XS XLIMV GLMPHLSSH
XLIMVVIPEXMSRWLMTXLIMQTEGXXLEXXLIMVWMKRM½GERXSXLIV´W
conviction has had on their life, how others in their life
have reacted to their relationship, and how involved they
EVIMRER]EHZSGEG]KVSYTW8LIMRXIVZMI[W[IVIKIRIVEPP]
structured, but any questions, concerns, or additional
XLSYKLXWJVSQXLI[SQIR[IVI[IPGSQIH8LI[SQIR´W
MHIRXMXMIW VIQEMRIH GSR½HIRXMEP ;I GSRHYGXIH X[IPZI
MRXIVZMI[W9TSRGSRGPYHMRKXLIMRXIVZMI[TVSGIWW-YWIH
XLIMRJSVQEXMSR-SFXEMRIHERHGEXIKSVM^IHXLI[SQIR´W
outlooks into each of the three schemas based on how
they viewed the criminal justice system in terms of how
they felt society perceived them for their relationship.
7MQMPEVXS/SWXMRIV-GEVVMIHSYXERMRXIVTVIXMZMWXWXYH]
%WWLIWXEXIWMRLIVEVXMGPI±;LMPIWYVZI]QIXLSHSPSK]MW
ERSXLIV[E]XSWXYH]MRKGYPXYVIMXMWQSVIPMQMXIHMRMXW
ability to capture the richness and subtleties of culture”
/SWXMRIV %RR 'LML 0MR GETXYVIW XLI TIVOW SJ
MRXIVTVIXMZMWX VIWIEVGL TIVJIGXP] MR LIV EVXMGPI±&VMHKMRK
4SWMXMZMWX ERH -RXIVTVIXMZMWX %TTVSEGLIW XS 5YEPMXEXMZI
1IXLSHW² ERH WXEXIW XLEX ±?-RXIVTVIXMZMWX VIWIEVGLA
can seek to…uncover the conscious and unconscious
explanations people have for what they do or believe,
or to capture and reproduce a particular time, culture,
SVTPEGIWSXLEXEGXMSRWTISTPIXEOIFIGSQIMRXIPPMKMFPI²
0MR-GSRGIVRIHQ]WIPJ[MXLX]MRKXLISV]XSSRI´W
I\TIVMIRGIW VEXLIV XLER KIRIVEPM^MRK EXXMXYHIW;LMPI -
GERRSXHVE[GSRGPYWMSRWEGVSWWXLIFSEVHMRVIKEVHWXS
WI\SJJIRHIVWERHXLIMVSYXPSSOW-GER½RHQIERMRK[MXLMR
the accounts that I analyzed and better understand why
WI\SJJIRHIVWVEXMSREPM^IXLIMVSJJIRWIWXSWYGLEHIKVII
1] VIWIEVGL MW GEWI WTIGM½G ;LMPI ER MRXIVTVIXMZMWX
ETTVSEGLQEOIWMXHMJ½GYPXXSWYKKIWXTSPMG]MQTPMGEXMSRW
SV KIRIVEPM^I XS XLI IRXMVI TSTYPEXMSR SJ WI\ SJJIRHIVW
and women in relationships with offenders as a whole,
- EQ WIIOMRK XS QEOI E GSRXVMFYXMSR XS XLI XLISVIXMGEP
realm of academia rather than public policy. The bulk of
Q]VIWIEVGLMWRSXKIRIVEPM^EFPIJSGYWMRKSRMHIRXMJ]MRK
[MXLXLIWI\SJJIRHIVGSQQYRMX]ERHEXXIQTXMRKXSWII
the world as they do.
%PXLSYKL-[EWYREFPIXSMRXIVZMI[XLIWI\SJJIRHIVW
-KEXLIVIH½VWXLERHEGGSYRXWXLVSYKLXLIMVPIXXIVW[LMGL
EPPS[IHQIXSMRHMVIGXP]SFXEMREKVIEXIVYRHIVWXERHMRK
of this subculture of offenders that society possesses
PMQMXIH EGGIWW XS &] GEVV]MRK SYX XLI MRXIVZMI[W [MXL
women in relationships with offenders, I was able to
FIXXIVGSQTVILIRHXLIWXMKQEXLEXFSXLI\TIVMIRGIERH
/SWXMRIV´WXLVIIWGLIQEWEWETTPMIHXSQ]VIWIEVGL8LI
interviews with the women served as an enhancement to
[LEX-HMWGSZIVIHJVSQGSHMRKXLIWI\SJJIRHIVW´PIXXIVW
Both, however, were equally crucial in my research; I
GSQTEVIHERHGSRXVEWXIHIEGLKVSYT´WKIRIVEPSYXPSSOMR
SVHIVXSKEMREKVIEXIVYRHIVWXERHMRKSJXLIMVMRHMZMHYEP
WXVYKKPIW ERH I\TIVMIRGIW [MXLMR SYV GSYRXV]´W GVMQMREP
NYWXMGI W]WXIQ;LMPI Q] VIWIEVGL [EW GEWI WTIGM½G MX
TVSZMHIHEQSVIMRXMQEXIIRZMVSRQIRXXLVSYKLMRXIVZMI[W
with women in relationships with offenders and personal
PIXXIVWGSRXEMRMRKHIXEMPIHEGGSYRXWJVSQWI\SJJIRHIVW´
1
The JUE Issue 1
XLEXTVSZIHXSFIQSVIIRKEKMRKERHMRXIVEGXMZIXLERE
more positivist approach.
DATA
The schemas are crucial in my study and applicable
MR VIKEVHW XS WI\ SJJIRHIVW ;MXLMR LIV JVEQI[SVO
/SWXMRIVI\TPEMRIHXLIGSQTPIQIRXEV]GLEVEGXIVMWXMGWSJ
XLIPE[ERHEGLMIZMRKWSGMEPGLERKI%TTP]MRKLIV½RHMRKW
XS WI\ SJJIRHIVW TVSZIH UYMXI JEWGMREXMRK XLI ZSMGI
SJ WI\ SJJIRHIVW YRPMOI SXLIV QEVKMREPM^IH KVSYTW MW E
ZSMGIXLEXWSGMIX]VEVIP]PMWXIRWXS&]YXMPM^MRKXLIXLVII
schemas, however, I found that many of the offenders’
ZSMGIWKSYRLIEVHHYIXSLS[XLI]TSVXVE]XLIQWIPZIW
XSWSGMIX]&]GSRJSVQMRKXSEQSVIYRHIVWXERHMRKERH
transformative approach, sex offenders may be able to
SFXEMR E ZSMGI MR WSGMIX] ERH EHHVIWW MWWYIW VIKEVHMRK
TYFPMG TSPMG] -R LIV EVXMGPI /SWXMRIV GLEPPIRKIW [LEX
WLI ½RHW XS FI PIKEP Q]XLW ERH WXEXIW XLEX QSVI SJXIR
XLERRSXQER]±PIKEPHSGXVMRIWEVIMHISPSKMGEPP]FMEWIHMR
WYTTSVXSJWXEXYWUYSLMIVEVGLMIW(YIXSXLMWMHISPSKMGEP
FMEWXLIWIWXYHMIWWIIXLEXYWISJPIKEPRSVQWERHXEGXMGW
EWTVIZIRXMRKSVGSSTXMRKXLIWXVYKKPIWSJQEVKMREPM^IH
KVSYTW²/SWXMRIV-XMWHITMGXIHLIVIXLEXQER]SJ
XLIWIWSGEPPIH±VMKLXW²EVIHSMRKQSVILEVQXLERKSSH
&]GLEPPIRKMRKXLIWIMHIEWERHVIKVSYTMRKWI\SJJIRHIVW´
SYXPSSOWMRXSZEVMSYWWGLIQEWWSGMIX]GERFIKMRXSZMI[
SJJIRHIVW MR E HMJJIVIRX PMKLX ERH VIXLMRO WSQI SJ XLI
policies that we, as a society, believe to be effective, when
in actuality, they are often not.
INSTRUMENTAL SCHEMA
4VSFMRKJYVXLIVMRXS/SWXMRIV´WJVEQI[SVOXLIXLVII
schemas are presented in more detail. The instrumental
schema is the least developed of the schemas and
possesses very basic characteristics. This schema focuses
on the needs of the individual, and success is seen when
IJJSVXWPIEHXSGLERKI7SGMEPTS[IVMWRSXEQSXMZEXMSR
LIVI XLIVI MW ER YRHIVP]MRK KSEP SJ WIVZMRK SXLIVW MR
need and a desire to help. Additionally, there is a focus
on concrete (and often material) needs; often times
they attempt to justify these needs with demands. Basic
WXVEXIKMIW SJ XLMW WGLIQE MRGPYHI WIVZMGI ERH TSPMG]
EHZSGEG]/SWXMRIV
8SVI¾IGXXLMWWIRXMQIRX-GSHIHQER]EGGSYRXWSJ
the instrumental schema as exhibited in the sex offender
PIXXIVW 3RI SJJIRHIV WXEXIH±- EQ E GSPPIKI WXYHIRX©
ERHEQTVIWIRXP]IRVSPPIHMREWSGMSPSK]GPEWW©-HSLSTI
that your research helps to correct the many problems
EWWSGMEXIH [MXL LS[ SYV KSZIVRQIRX XVIEXW WI\
offenders.” In this instance, the heart of the instrumental
WGLIQE´W GLEVEGXIVMWXMGW WLMRIW XLVSYKL ;LMPI XLI
SJJIRHIVHIWMVIWGLERKIJSVLMQWIPJLIQEOIWMXGPIEVXLEX
XLIVIMWEGSRGVIXIRIIHJSVGLERKIEQSRKWI\SJJIRHIVW
as a whole. He expresses hope that the research will lead
to a different societal attitude toward sex offenders; this
FVMRKW XS XLI XEFPI XLI MHIE XLEX WYGGIWW MW WIIR MR XLI
solution—one of the main themes of the instrumental
schema.
-RVIKEVHWXS[SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLSJJIRHIVWQER]ZMI[IHXLI
criminal justice system from the instrumental perspective.
%RSXLIV SJJIRHIV I\TVIWWIW LMW MRXIVIWX MR (V
'LV]WERXLM0ISR´WVIWIEVGLERHWXEXIW±-EQERSJJIRHIV
WIVZMRK E ]IEV WIRXIRGI - FIPMIZI QYGL SJ XLI
MRJSVQEXMSRXLEXMWYWIHXSQEOIPIKEPHIGMWMSRWERHWLETI
WSGMEPZMI[WTIVXEMRMRKXSWI\SJJIRHIVWMWMREGGYVEXIERH
SVQMWPIEHMRK-XVYP]FIPMIZIXLEXEVIWYPXSJXLMWGERFI
an increase in offenses and an increase in the number of
ZMGXMQHIEXLW²7MQMPEVXSXLI½VWXSJJIRHIVXLMWSJJIRHIV
is also interested in public policy and stresses the need
JSVGLERKIERHEJSGYWSRWSGMIXEPRIIHW%HHMXMSREPP]XLI
need for success is present; the offender believes that
without a concrete solution, there will be no successful
result.
-RVIKEVHWXS[SQIRMRVIPEXMSRWLMTW[MXLSJJIRHIVW
many viewed the criminal justice system from the
instrumental perspective. All of the women interviewed
WXEXIH XLEX EX WSQI TSMRX ERH XS ZEV]MRK HIKVIIW XLI]
JIPXNYHKIHF]WSGMIX]SJXIRXMQIWXLITISTPIMRXLIMVPMZIW
would simply deny their relationship’s existence—even
JEQMPMIW3RI[SQER[IRXWSJEVEWXSWE]XLEX±?XALI]XV]
XSWE]XLI]YRHIVWXERHFYXXLI]LEZIR´XKSXEGPYI8LI]
don’t even try.They just think that maybe it’s a phase, or…
they just don’t really talk about it anymore. It makes them
ZIV] YRGSQJSVXEFPI² 1ER] [SQIR [LSWI SYXPSSOW ½X
MRXSXLMWWGLIQEHMWGYWWIHXLIRIIHJSVEQSHM½GEXMSRSJ
XLIGSVVIGXMSRWW]WXIQERHWMRGIVIP]FIPMIZIHXLEXGLERKI
[SYPHRSXGSQIYRPIWWXLMW½VWXSGGYVVIH
% PEVKI EQSYRX SJ XLI [SQIR [LSWI SYXPSSOW ½X
into the instrumental schema, however, expressed the
characteristics of service and advocacy. A fair number
of the women interviewed involve themselves in
'MXM^IRW9RMXIHJSV6ILEFMPMXEXMSRSJ)VVERXW'96)ER
SVKERM^EXMSRXLEXTVSQSXIWXLIVMKLXWSJTVMWSRIVWERHE
criminal justice system that is conducive to rehabilitation.
1ER] SJ XLIWI [SQIR WIP¾IWWP] HSREXI XLIMV XMQI XS
EHZSGEG]SVKERM^EXMSRWERHSJXIRHVMZILYRHVIHWSJQMPIW
to visit their boyfriends or spouses in prison. This desire
to help and to be an active member and advocate for
TVMWSRIV´W VMKLXW MW SRI SJ XLI HI½RMRK JIEXYVIW SJ XLI
instrumental schema.
POLITICAL SCHEMA
While the political schema seems more developed
than the instrumental schema, the two differ in a variety
of ways. Instead of the instrumental schema’s indifference
XS WSGMEP TS[IV XLI RIIH JSV WSGMEP TS[IV MW E WXVSRK
YRHIVP]MRK XLIQI SJ XLI political schema. Emphasis is
placed on the political power structure and the need to
oppose it. The political schema opposes power structures
and oppression because they view power as the source
of inequality and injustice. For those who claim to be a
TEVX SJ XLMW WGLIQE ERKIV SJXIR EGXW EW XLI QSXMZEXSV
ERH XLI KSEP MW XS IQTS[IV QEVKMREPM^IH KVSYTW -X MW
not an individual concept—this schema stresses mass
QSZIQIRXW ERH YRMXIH JVSRXW 3VKERM^EXMSR MW ERSXLIV
QEMRXLIQI/SWXMRIV
While more developed than the instrumental schema
in that its characteristics are more complex and require a
LMKLIVPIZIPSJSVKERM^EXMSRXLIpolitical schema possesses
EQSVIMRXIRWIREXYVIERHEWXVSRKIVJSGYWSRSTTSWMXMSR
3RI SJJIRHIV WXEXIW XLEX±?XALI MQTSVXERX XLMRK MW XLEX
1
The JUE Issue 1
'PIEVWMKRWTSMRXWYFXP]XS[EVHXLMW[SQER´WIQFSHMQIRXSJXLIERKIVERH
bitterness that often accompanies the politicalWGLIQEFYXMXMW¾IIXMRK
]SY EVI HSMRK VIWIEVGL XLEX [MPP LSTIJYPP] WSQIHE]
help cut down on the hysteria that the media and the
TSPMXMGMERWEVIMRWXMKEXMRKWSXLEXXLI]GERWGEVIXLITYFPMG
ERHKIXZSXIWMRXLIRI\XIPIGXMSR²%WHITMGXIHLIVIXLI
SJJIRHIV I\TVIWWIW JIIPMRKW SJ FMXXIVRIWW ERH LSWXMPMX]
toward the political power structure. Motivated by his
JIIPMRKWSJERKIVERHHMWXVYWXLIFIPMIZIWXLEXTSPMXMGMERW
EVI YRNYWX ERHXLI]JIIPXLIRIIHXSSTTVIWWKVSYTWSJ
TISTPI JSV TSPMXMGEP KEMR 8LMW MW E GSQQSR WIRXMQIRX
EQSRK QIQFIVW SJ XLI political schema; one in rooted
MR FMXXIVRIWW ERH EMQIH EX KEMRMRK QSVI GSRXVSP SZIV E
situation.
None of the women in the relationship study
directly expressed any facets of the political schema.
When I asked one woman how she reacted to society’s
MKRSVERGI VIKEVHMRK LIV VIPEXMSRWLMT WLI VIWTSRHIH F]
WXEXMRK±-YWIHXSKIXVIEPP]YTWIXERHERKV]%RH-YWIHXS
KIXVIEPP]HVYRO&YX]SYORS[-[EWR´XKIXXMRKER][LIVI
ERH-LEHXSWXST©²'PIEVWMKRWTSMRXWYFXP]XS[EVHXLMW
[SQER´W IQFSHMQIRX SJ XLI ERKIV ERH FMXXIVRIWW XLEX
often accompanies the politicalWGLIQEFYXMXMW¾IIXMRK
7LIHMHRSXI\TVIWWSTTSWMXMSRSVEWXVSRKHIWMVISRLIV
part to achieve social power. In no way did she express
E RIIH XS SVKERM^I KVSYTW SV QSZIQIRXW XS TVSXIWX
society’s treatment of these women or their incarcerated
WMKRM½GERXSXLIVW
CULTURAL SCHEMA
0EWXP] XLI cultural schema is the most ideal and
[LEX /SWXMRIV FIPMIZIW WSGMEP EGXMZMWXW WLSYPH WXVMZI XS
EGLMIZI8LMWWGLIQEEHSTXWEKPSFEPM^IHTIVWTIGXMZIERH
attempts to embrace and encompass all views. Members
of this schema believe that injustice is a result of society’s
QMWGSRGITXMSR SJ QEVKMREPM^IH ERH STTVIWWIH KVSYTW
,IVI XLI KSEP MW XS I\TSWI ERH XVERWJSVQ XLIWI FMEWIW
MRXSYRHIVWXERHMRK8LMWWGLIQEPMOIXLIpolitical schema,
HMWGSYVEKIWSTTSWMXMSRERHVITPEGIWMX[MXLEWXVSRKJSGYW
SR XLMROMRK [LMGL EPPS[W JSV E QSVI XIRHIV ETTVSEGL
Members of the culturalWGLIQEFIPMIZIXLEXGLERKISRP]
SGGYVW[LIRXLIMVQIXLSHI\TVIWWIWEQIWWEKISJPSZI
and respect and when it ties to personal experience
/SWXMRIV
9RPMOI XLI instrumental schema, the cultural schema
HSIWRSXQIEWYVIWYGGIWWF]MQQIHMEXIGLERKI-RWXIEH
QIQFIVW SJ XLMW WGLIQE EVI QSVI PSRKXIVQ KSEP
SVMIRXIHVIEPM^MRKXLEXGLERKIXEOIWXMQI/SWXMRIV
One offender recently wrote, “I am very interested in
FIMRKVIWIEVGLIHEW-[ERXXLIXVYXLSYX©-HIEPP]MJ-´Q
VIPIEWIH-´PPFIEFPIXSTEVXMGMTEXIMREQSVIXLSVSYKLERH
detailed research of pedophiles to prove that we’re not
LEVQJYPSVHERKIVSYW©-[ERX]SYXSORS[-´PPFISTIR
and honest and only want the truth to come out so that
XLITYFPMG[MPPPIEVRXLIXVYXL8LEROWWSQYGLJSVHSMRK
this.” While traces of the instrumental schema exist here,
this offender exceeds this schema’s characteristics and
IQFVEGIW E QSVI TIVWSREP ERH YRHIVWXERHMRK MHISPSK]
8LI SJJIRHIV XEOIW RSXI XLEX GLERKI MW E PSRK TVSGIWW
XLIVIJSVI QSXMZEXMRK LMQ XS FI XVYXLJYP VIKEVHMRK LMW
offense in order to hopefully transform what he believes
XSFIWSGMIX]´WQMWGSRGITXMSRVIKEVHMRKWI\SJJIRHIVW,I
I\TVIWWIW LMW KVEXMXYHI XS[EVH XLI WXYH] ERH QEOMRK MX
easier for one to believe that he accepts full responsibility
JSVLMWEGXMSRWERHHIWMVIWRSXSRP]EGLERKIMRWSGMIX]
FYX MR LMQWIPJ EW [IPP 9RPMOI QIQFIVW SJ XLI political
WGLIQEWSGMIX][SYPHGIVXEMRP]FIQSVI[MPPMRKXSPMWXIR
XSSJJIRHIVWGEXIKSVM^IHMRXLIcultural schema.
.YHKMRKF]XLIJEGXXLEXXLIcultural schema is a more
advanced and developed version of the instrumental
schema, it is no surprise that many of the women in the
VIPEXMSRWLMTWXYH]½XXLMWWGLIQEEW[IPP1ER]SJXLIWI
[SQIR´W PIRKXL] MRZSPZIQIRXW MR XLI GVMQMREP NYWXMGI
W]WXIQ[LIXLIVMXFIEWEGSVVIGXMSRWSJ½GIVSVEXXIRHMRK
LIEVMRK YTSR LIEVMRK JSV LIV WMKRM½GERX SXLIV FVSYKLX
EFSYXXLIVIEPM^EXMSRXLEXGLERKIMWRSXSRP]ERIGIWWMX]
MRXLIGVMQMREPNYWXMGIW]WXIQFYXEPWSEKVEHYEPTVSGIWW
1SWXSJXLI[SQIR½XXMRKMRXSXLMWWGLIQEEGGITXIHXLI
fact that society misconstrued their relationships with
MRGEVGIVEXIHSJJIRHIVW-RXEOMRKEQSVIPSZMRKETTVSEGL
toward society, one woman stated, “I don’t need to
alienate the world because there may come a point in
time where I really need them…they know that I’ve been
[MXLLMQ?LIVFS]JVMIRHAEPPXLMWXMQIERHXLEXLI´WEZIV]
MQTSVXERXTEVXSJQ]PMJI[LIXLIVXLI]EGORS[PIHKIMXSV
not.” Contrary to the political schema, this woman takes a
more optimistic approach and realized that while society
QE] RSX EGGITX LIV RS[ XEOMRK XLI XMQI XS FI TEXMIRX
[MXLXLIQQE]TE]SJJPSRKXIVQ
*YVXLIVQSVIEPEVKITSVXMSRSJXLIcultural schema
JSGYWIW SR XVERWJSVQMRK WSGMIX]´W QMWGSRGITXMSRW SJ
biases—in this case, incarcerated offenders and the
women who choose to be in relationships with them.The
same woman spoke about how she coped with society’s
discomfort toward her relationship and said, “I’ve just
PIEVRIHXLEX-VIEPP]LEZIXSXV]ERHPIXMXKS-´QRSXKSMRK
XSGLERKIER]FSH]-GER´XGSRZMGXXLIQSVGLERKIXLIQ
SVIZIRGSRZMRGIXLIQXLEXXLI]RIIHXSWIIXLMRKWQ]
way…I’ve just come to the point where I just kind of
live with it and I don’t press the issue—I don’t push it
SRXLIQER]QSVI2S[MJXLI]EWOXLEX´WSRIXLMRK&YX
-´Q RSX KSMRK XS JSVGI MX SR XLIQ FIGEYWI XLI]´VI NYWX
too uncomfortable with it.” While she clearly wishes to
XVERWJSVQ WSGMIX]´W TVINYHMGIW MRXS YRHIVWXERHMRK WLI
VIEPM^IWXLEXWLIGERRSXGLERKIXLIMVSTMRMSRWWYHHIRP]
ERHXLEXGLERKIMWKVEHYEP7LIFIPMIZIWMXQE]RSXGSQI
The fact that she is at peace with this concept speaks
volumes about how most of these women cope with
WSGMIX]´WNYHKQIRXW
CHIMERICAL SCHEMA
'SRWIUYIRXP] - JSYRH XLEX EPXLSYKL - GSYPH TPEGI
many of the sex offenders in one of the three schemas,
they did not all neatly correspond to one of the three.
Some encompassed more than one, some embraced one
schema more than another, and still others seemed to
½XMREHMJJIVIRXGEXIKSV]7XYH]MRKERHGSHMRKXLIPIXXIVW
from sex offenders in my possession, I established a
fourth schema, which I call the chimericalWGLIQE-½RH
this schema better explains a majority of these offenders’
SYXPSSOW%GGSVHMRKP]-JSYRHXLEXXLIchimerical schema
did not apply to the women in the relationship study;
ZMVXYEPP]EPPSJXLI[SQIR½XRIEXP]MRXSXLIinstrumental
and cultural schemas.
1
The JUE Issue 1
The chimerical schema embraces aspects of all three
schemas, but is not quite as developed as any of these
three due to its scattered nature and overall lack of
SVKERM^EXMSR8LIQEMREWTIGXSJXLMWWGLIQEJSGYWIWSR
XLI IRH VIWYPX HYI XS EGXMZMWQ VEXLIV XLER JSGYWMRK SR
the process and what is required to attain the end result.
Thus, members of the chimericalWGLIQEMHIEPM^IGLERKI
and believe it to be instantaneous, rather than the process
XLEXMXYWYEPP]MW1IQFIVWSJXIRVI¾IGXRExZIXIRHIRGMIW
and are incredibly unrealistic in their approach. Success in
the chimericalWGLIQESGGYVWRSXSRP][LIRQENSVGLERKI
happens (similar to the instrumental schema), but also
when society’s treatment toward sex offenders becomes
revolutionized. Members of this schema see success in
XLI WSPYXMSR EW [IPP EW XLVSYKL KIXXMRK XLIMV [E] [MXL
minimum compromise.
Additionally, blame comprises another major aspect
of the chimerical schema. As it pertains to my research, I
observed in a majority of the letters, as well as in accounts
from Not Monsters, that offenders place blame on other
people, objects, or ideas in an attempt to elicit sympathy
MR SVHIV XS EGLMIZI GLERKI *YVXLIVQSVI PMOI QIQFIVW
of the politicalWGLIQEQIQFIVWSJXLMWWGLIQEYWIERKIV
and bitterness as motivators. The chimerical schema often
includes ostracized individuals that are alone over the
political schema’s theme of unity and mass movements.
;LMPIMXMWGSQQSRORS[PIHKIXLEXWI\SJJIRHIVWEVIER
SWXVEGM^IHERHWXMKQEXM^IHKVSYTSJMRHMZMHYEPWSJJIRHIVW
½XXMRKMRXSXLMWWGLIQEWIIQQSVIWIXETEVXXLERYWYEP°
even from other offenders that they associate with on a
day to day basis.
While the chimerical schema shares many similarities
with the political WGLIQE MR VIKEVHW XS STTSWMXMSR ERH
bitterness, it differs in that the political schema does not
WXVSRKP]WXVIWWGLERKI8LMWJSYVXLWGLIQEXLSYKLEKVIIMRK
with the political schema’s theme of opposition, stresses
GLERKI 'LERKI MW HMJ½GYPX XS GSQI F] LS[IZIV HYI XS
the introverted and isolated nature of the members of
this schema. The politicalWGLIQEMWPEVKIP]GLEVEGXIVM^IH
F]YRM½IHSVKERM^EXMSREWSTTSWIHXSMRHMZMHYEPIJJSVXW
and mass movements. Since the chimerical schema lacks
this important quality, the sex offenders’ ideation of
GLERKIFIGSQIWQSVIYRVIEPMWXMG;LIRQIQFIVWVIEPM^I
XLEX GLERKI MW EPQSWX YREXXEMREFPI XLI] FIKMR XS YXMPM^I
FPEQMRK WXVEXIKMIW EW E HIJIRWI QIGLERMWQ ERH XIRH XS
alienate themselves.
1ER]SJXLISJJIRHIVWGEXIKSVM^IHMRXLIchimerical
schema did express characteristics from other schemas.
As mentioned previously, the schemas are not mutually
I\GPYWMZI XLIVIJSVI QER] SJJIRHIVW ½X MRXS QSVI XLER
one schema. I did observe that most of the offenders
blatantly displayed characteristics from the newly founded
fourth schema. One of the major themes I observed was
an offender’s attempt to play up his situation in order to
evoke the reader’s sympathy. In one offender’s letter, he
WXEXIW XLI JSPPS[MRK±- [ERX XS IRYQIVEXI XLI RIKEXMZI
destructive, and lifetime consequences that harsh, callous,
QIVGMPIWWGVYIPERHMRLYQERIWIRXIRGISJ]IEVW³¾EX
time with no chance of commutation, reduction, or any
VIZSGEXMSR´-´QGYVVIRXP]WIVZMRK©1][MJIERHQ]JEQMP]
EVIHIZEWXEXIHIQSXMSREPP]TW]GLSPSKMGEPP]½RERGMEPP]ERH
spiritually…I suffer from a heart condition for which I
8LIGSR¾MGXLIVIMWXLEXQER]SJJIRHIVWTSWWIWWXLIHIWMVIERH[MPPXS
GLERKIFYXXLVSYKLNYWXM½GEXMSRSJXLIMVGVMQIWXLI]HSRSXLIPTXLIMVGEWI
have a pacemaker implant. My wife has a pacemakerHI½FVMPPEXSVXLEXGSYRXIVWXLIIPIGXVMGEPMQFEPERGIMRLIV
LIEVX7LI2))(7QIXSFI,31)[MXLLIVWS-GERLIPT
XSQEREKISYVJEQMP]ERHLIVHEMP]EGXMZMXMIW²;LMPIXLI
SJJIRHIV MW QSWX PMOIP] FIMRK LSRIWX EFSYX LMW WMXYEXMSR
EXLSQIXLIERKIVERHFMXXIVRIWWSJLMW[SVHWEVIUYMXI
obvious. His caustic tone is a voice that most of society
[SYPHPMOIP]MKRSVI
Blame is another prevalent theme in this offender’s
PIXXIV;LMPI XLI WMXYEXMSR VIKEVHMRK LMW LIEVX GSRHMXMSR
(as well as his wife’s) is unfortunate and rather sad, he
utilizes these vices to complain about a crime that he
chose to commit. He states that he needs to be home
with his wife to assist her; here, the offender attempts to
QEWOLMWS[RGVMQI[MXLSYXXEOMRKVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVLMW
EGXMSRWERHXVMIWXSQEOIGLERKIGSQIEFSYXF]YWMRKLMW
sick wife as an excuse. Additionally, he blames the criminal
NYWXMGIW]WXIQJSVLMWGVMQI[MXLSYXEGORS[PIHKMRKXLEX
LMWEGXMSREW[VSRK
-R ERSXLIV PIXXIV ER SJJIRHIV KSIW SJJ SR E XERKIRX
FPEQMRK IZIV]SRI FYX LMQWIPJ ,I GVMXMGM^IW XLI TSPMGI
LMW PE[]IV XLI NYHKI ERH XLI WXEXI SJ 3OPELSQE°EPP
[MXLSYXEGGITXMRKER]FPEQISVVIWTSRWMFMPMX]JSVLMWS[R
EGXMSRW%RSXLIV SJJIRHIV WXEXIW XLEX±+ISVKME HSIW RSX
offer treatment for sex offenders…but even if they did,
-LEZIRSMRXIRXMSRSJ[EMXMRK]IEVWJSVEXLIVETMWXXS³½\
me.’” In this instance, the offender illustrates his desire for
GLERKIXSSGGYVMQQIHMEXIP]LIMWXSSMQTEXMIRXXSWII
EXLIVETMWXJSV]IEVWMRSVHIVXSEGLMIZIKVEHYEPGLERKI
ERHMQTVSZIQIRX'LERKIEWHMWTPE]IHMRXLIXIEGLMRKWSJ
the cultural schema, is a process that takes place over an
extended period of time.
6EXMSREPM^EXMSR EPWS TPE]IH E TEVX MR Q] GSHMRK
TVSGIWW ERH EREP]WMW XLI SJJIRHIVW´ PIXXIVW -RXIVIWXMRKP]
rationalization and blame comprise an essential part of
the chimerical WGLIQE 6IMRJSVGIH F] ,ERWSR ERH 7PEXIV
I meticulously observed that many offenders made major
attempts to rationalize and justify their crimes.The authors
I\TPEMRXLMWTLIRSQIRSRF]WXEXMRKXLEX±4ISTPI[LSEVI
GEYKLXZMSPEXMRKWSGMEPRSVQWX]TMGEPP]JIIPWSGMEPTVIWWYVI
XSI\TPEMRXLIMVXVERWKVIWWMSRW²,ERWSRERH7PEXIV
8LI GSR¾MGX LIVI MW XLEX QER] SJJIRHIVW TSWWIWW XLI
HIWMVIERH[MPPXSGLERKIFYXXLVSYKLNYWXM½GEXMSRSJXLIMV
crimes, they do not help their case. When individuals (sex
SJJIRHIVW MR TEVXMGYPEV ETTIEV ERKV] EFSYX E WMXYEXMSR
that they need to take responsibility for, society chooses
XS EPMIREXI ERH MKRSVI XLIQ -R EHHMXMSR XS XLMW QER]
SJJIRHIVW KVETTPI [MXL XLI GLEVEGXIVMWXMG SJ XLI cultural
schema, the desire to transform society’s perception of
XLIQ EW E [LSPI &] IQFVEGMRK XLI PIWWIVHIZIPSTIH
chimerical schema, offenders only hurt their case and their
GLERGIWEXEGLMIZMRKTYFPMGTSPMG]XLEX[MPPFIRI½XWSGMIX]
as a whole.
DISCUSSION
The cultural WGLIQE [LMPI HMJ½GYPX XS EXXEMR MW
WSQIXLMRKXLEXWI\SJJIRHIVWWLSYPHEXXIQTXXSEGLMIZI
7I\SJJIRHIVWEVIEWXMKQEXM^IHKVSYTMRWSGMIX]ERHLEZI
done little to help their cause. While many offenders
embrace the cultural schema, or aspects of it, many
SXLIVW WEFSXEKI XLMW HIGIRX MQEKI SJ WI\ SJJIRHIVW F]
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)ZIRMRXLIFVMIJTIVMSHSJXMQI-WTIRXWTIEOMRKXSXLIWI[SQIR
-RSXMGIHXLITSWMXMZMX]MRXLIMVZSMGIWERHLSTIJYPRIWWMRXLIMV[SVHW
I\TVIWWMRK ERKIV FMXXIVRIWW FPEQI NYWXM½GEXMSR ERH ER
YR[MPPMRKRIWW XS EGGITX VIWTSRWMFMPMX] JSV XLIMV EGXMSRW
/SWXMRIV LMKLPMKLXW SRI SJ XLI MQTSVXERX EWTIGXW SJ XLI
cultural schema, “In fact, when activists invoke the cultural
WGLIQE XLI] ½RH XLI VLIXSVMG SJ TS[IV XS FI WMQMPEVP]
TVSFPIQEXMG-RTEVXMGYPEVXLI]VINIGXXLIMHIESJEWXVYKKPI
FIX[IIR X[S STTSWMRK KVSYTW SV XLI VLIXSVMG SJ ³YW
EKEMRWX XLIQ´8LI] ZMI[ WYGL VLIXSVMG EW JYXMPI EVKYMRK
XLEX MX SRP] EHHW RIKEXMZMX] XS TISTPI´W XLSYKLXW MRWXIEH
SJXVERWJSVQMRKXLIQMRXSTSWMXMZIXLSYKLXWSJPSZIERH
VIWTIGX²/SWXMRIV
It is important to note that while sex offenders are
E WIZIVIP] QEVKMREPM^IH KVSYT MR WSGMIX] MHIEPP] VIWTIGX
WLSYPHFIKEMRIHXLVSYKLTSWMXMZIXLSYKLXWERH[MXLSYX
E TS[IV WXVYKKPI8LI cultural schema also emphasizes
familiarization with one’s self and one’s desires and beliefs.
&]PIEVRMRKEFSYXERHGLERKMRKSRIWIPJEGXMZMWXWGER±VIEGL
XLIMV JYPP TSXIRXMEP EW TISTPI [LS EVI WXVMZMRK JSV WSGMEP
NYWXMGI²/SWXMRIV6IMRJSVGMRK/SWXMRIV´WZMI[-½RH
that a movement toward the cultural schema is ideal for
WI\SJJIRHIVW8LMW[MPPEPPS[WSGMIX]XSFIKMREGGITXMRK
XLIQEWEQSVIYRHIVWXERHMRKKVSYTSJMRHMZMHYEPW0IXXMRK
KS SJ XLI chimerical WGLIQE ERH IQFVEGMRK XLI cultural
WGLIQE[MPPKMZISJJIRHIVWXLIGLERGIXSFILIEVH
'SRXVEV] XS LS[ WI\ SJJIRHIVW ½X MRXS /SWXMRIV´W
framework, most of the women in the relationship study
already embody the ideal cultural schema. Even in the brief
TIVMSHSJXMQI-WTIRXWTIEOMRKXSXLIWI[SQIR-RSXMGIH
the positivity in their voices and hopefulness in their words.
%QENSVMX]SJXLIQIEKIVP]WLEVIHXLIMVI\TIVMIRGIWXLI
WXMKQE XLI] IRHYVIH ERH XLIMV ZMI[W SR XLI REXMSR´W
NYWXMGI W]WXIQ - FIPMIZI XLI HIKVII SJ WXMKQE MQTVIWWIH
upon these women versus that of the sex offenders
explains this pattern in the data. While the women in
XLMWWXYH]I\TIVMIRGIWSGMIX]´WNYHKQIRXWERHHMWGSQJSVX
MR VIKEVHW XS XLIMV VIPEXMSRWLMTW [MXL MRGEVGIVEXIH QIR
they possess a more optimistic outlook on the system
XLER HS XLI WI\ SJJIRHIVW8LI WXMKQE WYVVSYRHMRK WI\
SJJIRHIVW MW QSVI WIZIVI ERH HMWTEVEKMRK XLER XLEX SJ
women in relationships with incarcerated men. These
[SQIRWXMPPPMZIEJVIIVPMJIWX]PI-XWIIQWXLEXVIKEVHPIWWSJ
society’s treatment toward both, sex offenders attempt to
SZIVGSQIEQYGLFMKKIVSFWXEGPIXLMWGSYPHFIEXXVMFYXIH
XS XLI LMKLIV RYQFIV SJ [SQIR IQFVEGMRK XLI cultural
WGLIQE 4IVLETW F] QEOMRK KVIEXIV WXVMHIW XS EXXEMR XLI
characteristics of the cultural schema, sex offenders can
FIKMRXSQEOIEGEWIJSVXLIQWIPZIWERHTVSZIXSWSGMIX]
XLEXXLI]WLSYPHFIZMI[IHMREHMJJIVIRXPMKLX
Furthermore, the chimerical schema (which includes
blame and aspects of rationalization) is detrimental to an
SJJIRHIV´W GEWI %W /SWXMRIV WXEXIW±'LERKMRK TISTPI´W
unconscious assumptions seems almost an impossible
XEWO² ERH EW WI\ SJJIRHIVW EVI E QEVKMREPM^IH ERH
WXMKQEXM^IH KVSYT SJ MRHMZMHYEPW GLERKI EQSRKWX XLMW
KVSYTMWIZIRQSVISJEGLEPPIRKI;MXLSYXPSWMRKLSTI
LS[IZIV XLI EYXLSV ½RHW XLEX XLI WIIQMRKP] MQTSWWMFPI
QE]WXMPPFIEGLMIZIH/SWXMRIV8LSYKLMXQE]RSX
FI MRWXERXERISYW IQFVEGMRK XLI cultural schema makes
GLERKI E QSVI TSWWMFPI XEWO -R ,ERWSR ERH 7PEXIV´W
WXYH] XLIVETMWXW ERH TVSFEXMSR SJ½GIVW [IVI EWOIH XS
WIRXIRGI MQEKMREV] GLMPH QSPIWXIVW FEWIH SR ZEVMSYW
EGGSYRXWKMZIR8LIWXYH]I\TVIWWIHLS[IZIVXLEXIZIR
when people maintained their skepticism toward child
molesters (therapists in particular), this did not translate
MRXSEQSVITYRMXMZIWIRXIRGI,ERWSRERH7PEXIV
8LMWHIQSRWXVEXIWXLITSWWMFMPMX]SJGLERKIMRXLIQMRH
of society; while ambitious, not all individuals possess the
same perspective on sex offenders as many sex offenders
XLIQWIPZIW EWWYQI &] HMWTPE]MRK XLIQWIPZIW MR E QSVI
KIRXPIERHEVXMGYPEXIPMKLXXLI]QE]KEMREZSMGIXSWTIEO
SYXERHQEOIRIGIWWEV]GLERKIWMRWSGMIX]
Further research will be conducted in which oneon-one interviews with sex offenders will be carried. This
will help obtain a better perspective of their outlooks
and views on their offenses and current laws. I believe
EHHMRK XLI chimerical schema to the three-schema
ETTVSEGL QEOIW /SWXMRIV´W JVEQI[SVO QSVI ETTPMGEFPI
XS WSGMIX] ERH XS SXLIV QEVKMREPM^IH KVSYTW 7MRGI XLI
culturalWGLIQEMWXLIQSWXMHIEPGLERKI[MPPPMOIP]SGGYV
JSVWI\SJJIRHIVWXLVSYKLXLIEHETXEXMSRERHIQFVEGMRK
SJXLMWWGLIQE-XMWIZMHIRXXLEXGPMRKMRKXSXLIchimerical
schema does not aid many offenders and only makes their
situations worse.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
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The JUE Issue 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(I=SYRK1±8LI-RHMKRERX4EKI8IGLRMUYIWSJ2IYXVEPM^EXMSRMRXLI4YFPMGEXMSRWSJ4IHSTLMPI3VKERM^EXMSRW²
In Child Abuse and Neglect
(YXXSR(+±;MJI%WWEYPXIVW´)\TPEREXMSRW*SV%WWEYPX8LI2IYXVEPM^EXMSRSJ7IPJ4YRMWLQIRX²
In Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
,ERWSR6/ERH77PEXIV±6IEGXMSRW8S1SXMZEXMSREP%GGSYRXW3J'LMPH1SPIWXIVW²-R Journal of Child Sexual Abuse,
/SWXMRIV-±)ZEPYEXMRK0IKEPMX]8S[EVHE'YPXYVEP%TTVSEGLXSXLI7XYH]SJ0E[ERH7SGMEP'LERKI²
In Law & Society Review,ƒ¯
0MR%RR'±&VMHKMRK4SWMXMZMWXERH-RXIVTVIXMZMWX%TTVSEGLIWXS5YEPMXEXMZI1IXLSHW²
In Policy Studies Journal
4SPPSGO20ERH.1,EWLQEPP±8LI)\GYWIWSJ'LMPH1SPIWXIVW²-RBehavioral Sciences and the Law
7GLYPX^4EQIPENot Monsters: Analyzing the Stories of Child Molesters0ERLEQ6S[QER
0MXXPI½IPH
7GYPP](ERH.1EVSPPE±'SRZMGXIH6ETMWXW´:SGEFYPEV]SJ1SXMZI)\GYWIWERH.YWXM½GEXMSRW²
In Social Problems
8E]PSV0±8LI7MKRM½GERGIERH-RXIVTVIXEXMSRSJ6ITPMIWXS1SXMZEXMSREP5YIWXMSRW8LI'EWISJ7I\3JJIRHIVW²
Sociology,
:SPYQI17TVMRK2011
8LI;EVJSVXLI,IEVXERH7SYPSJE,MKLPERH1E]E8S[R
Will Gossett
WESTERN CAROLINA UNIVERSITY, WJGOSSETT27@GMAIL.COM
INTRODUCTION
The introduction to The War for the Heart and
Soul of a Highland Maya Town FIKMRW [MXL E WXSV] EFSYX
HMWGSRXIRXMRXLI1E]ERVIKMSRSRXLIHE]XLEXXLI2SVXL
%QIVMGER*VII8VEHI%KVIIQIRX[EWMQTPIQIRXIH8LMW
WLS[GEWIW1E]EREXXMXYHIWERHKMZIW[IMKLXXS'EVPWSR´W
PEXIV EVKYQIRXW VIKEVHMRK%XMXIGS VIWMWXERGI XS JSVIMKR
MR¾YIRGI-XTSMRXWSYXXLIGSRXMRYIHTVIWIRGISJ1E]ER
PERKYEKIERHGYPXYVIMRQSHIVRHE]+YEXIQEPE-XWTIEOWXS
the dedication that Atitecos have for their homeland. This
FSSOWLSYPHETTIEPXSER]SRI[LSWXYHMIWERXLVSTSPSK]
SV [LS LEW FIIR XS E 1E]ER WMXI ERH PIJX [SRHIVMRK
±;LIVIHMHXLIWITISTPIKS#²8LMWFSSOTVSZMHIWTEVX
of a solution to that question. It is incredibly relevant to
XLSWI[LSLEZIWXYHMIHXLILMWXSV]SJ0EXMR%QIVMGEERH
+YEXIQEPE WTIGM½GEPP] 8LI WYGGIWW SJ XLI RI[ IHMXMSR
TYFPMWLIHMRWLS[WXLEXXLMWFSSOGSRXMRYIWXSFI
relevant today.
Carlson’s research is based on a combination
SJ XMQI WTIRX MR 7ERXMEKS %XMXPjR ERH [SVO F] SXLIV
ERXLVSTSPSKMWXW ,I GSQFMRIH XLMW MRJSVQEXMSR MRXS
The War for the Heart and Soul of a Highland Maya Town,
LMW WXSV] SVMKMREPP] IRHIH [MXL XLI I\TYPWMSR SJ XLI
+YEXIQEPEREVQ]XLEXLIXEPOWEFSYXMR'LETXIV7IZIR
The new edition includes a preface that covers what has
LETTIRIHMR7ERXMEKS%XMXPjRWMRGIXLIR)EGLGLETXIVMR
XLMWFSSOFYMPHWSRXLIGLETXIVWTVIGIHMRKMX8LIVIJSVI
I will outline the book in a chapter-by-chapter format.
'LETXIV 3RI MW QIERX XS KMZI XLI VIEHIV ER MHIE
SJXLIWSGMEPGPMQEXISJ7ERXMEKS%XMXPjRMRVIGIRXXMQIW
Carlson explains that political violence and military
SGGYTEXMSR LEZI MR¾YIRGIH QYGL SJ XLI HE]XSHE]
I\MWXIRGISJ7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR,ITE]WTEVXMGYPEVEXXIRXMSR
XSXLIIQIVKIRGISJPSGEPJYRHEQIRXEPMWX4VSXIWXERXMWQ
and how it clashes with what he describes as the “still
TSXIRXXVEHMXMSREPGYPXYVEPFEGOKVSYRHSJXLIXS[R²T
The chapter has theoretical portions that even Carlson
WYKKIWXWWLSYPHFIEZSMHIHF]E±RSRTVSJIWWMSREPVIEHIV²
,IWYKKIWXWKMZMRKXLEXWIGXMSRSRP]EWYTIV½GMEPVIEHMRK
[MXLSYX PSWMRK WMKLX SJ XLI SZIVEPP MHIEW SJ XLI GLETXIV
8LISZIVEPPMHIEMWXLMW(IWTMXIVIWMWXERGIXSXLIJSVIMKR
MR¾YIRGI LI QIRXMSRIH TVIZMSYWP] XLI%XMXIGSW GERRSX
totally resist it.
Chapter Two discusses the physical characteristics
SJ 7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR %QSRK XLIWI EVI XLI KISKVETLMGEP
WIXXMRKMRWSYXLIVR+YEXEQEPEERHXLIXS[RPE]SYX,I
also details characteristics of the local population, such as
HVIWWTEXXIVRWERHPMRKYMWXMGW-R'LETXIV8LVII'EVPWSR
EVKYIW XLEX XLI %XMXIGSW XLI VIWMHIRXW SJ 7ERXMEKS
Atitlán, have successfully resisted their supposed spiritual
GSRUYIWX ,I GPEMQW XLEX E HI½RMRK GLEVEGXIVMWXMG SJ
XLI TSWX'SPYQFMER XS[R MW E±HMWXMRGX ERH MHIRXM½EFPI
GSRXMRYMX] [MXL XLI TVI'SPYQFMER TEWX² T ,I
claims that the Atitecos have effectively reconstituted
XLIMV 1E]ER GYPXYVI XLVSYKL ER ERGMIRX 1E]ER GSVI
TEVEHMKQXLEXXLI]GEPPJaloj-K’exoj. Jaloj-K’exoj is “a Mayan
conceptualization of observed processes and patterns
MR XLI REXYVEP IRZMVSRQIRX TEVXMGYPEVP] SJ EKVMGYPXYVEP
TVSHYGXMSR ?ERHA MW E GIRXVEP TEVEHMKQ SJ XLI PSGEP
GYPXYVI²T'EVPWSRXLIREVKYIWXLEXXLMWTEVEHMKQ
EPPS[IHXLI%XMXIGSWXSEWWMQMPEXIRI[JSVIMKRIPIQIRXW
into Atiteco culture.
Chapters Four and Five share a similar objective.
Chapter Four attempts to reconstruct and explain the
historical environment that allowed for the continuity that
'EVPWSR TSMRXW SYX MR 'LETXIV8LVII 8LSYKL 'EVPWSR
LEWGSRHYGXIH½VWXLERHVIWIEVGLMR7ERXMEKS%XMXPjRXLMW
chapter contains many references to primary historical
documents and the research of other specialists. Carlson
uses both chapters to present a historical reconstruction
SJ7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR,IGSQTEVIWLMWTIVWSREPVIWIEVGL
and experiences to the historical research of other
specialists and the primary historical documents. When
XLIVIWIEVGLERHHSGYQIRXWWLIHPMKLXSRSPHIVGYPXYVI
in Atitlán, he includes examples of contemporary Atiteco
cultural behavior. For example, Carlson mentions the
desire of the Spanish to force Christianity on the natives.
Carson examines elements of traditional religiosity, local Protestantism,
GMZMPZMSPIRGIERHLS[EPPXLVIIGSQFMRI
(IWTMXIXLEXLIGPEMQWXLEXXLI*VERGMWGERQSREWXIV]XLEX
[EWFYMPXLEWFIIREPQSWXIRXMVIP]EFERHSRIHERHXLSYKL
MXKIXWXLISGGEWMSREPZMWMXJVSQXVEZIPMRKQMWWMSREVMIWMW
rarely used by the Atitecos.
-R 'LETXIV *MZI 'EVPWSR WYKKIWXW XLEX E WIVMIW SJ
IZIRXW[EWYRPIEWLIHETTVS\MQEXIP]]IEVWEKSXLEX
YPXMQEXIP]PIHXSWSGMSGYPXYVEPGLERKISREJYRHEQIRXEP
PIZIP MR 7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR ERH MR SXLIV EVIEW SJ LMKLPERH
+YEXIQEPE,IWE]WXLEXXLIVI[EWE±UYERXYQMRGVIEWI
MR TS[IV SJ XLI +YEXIQEPER WXEXI©GSYTPIH [MXL E
QEVOIHHIGPMRIMRTSXIRXMEPMRHMKIRSYWTS[IV²T
8LMW GSQFMRIH [MXL XLI GSR½WGEXMSR SJ PEVKI EQSYRXW
of Mayan land, undercut the Mayans’ economic capacity
ERHJSVGIHVIPMERGISRSYXWMHIMR¾YIRGI,IWXEXIWXLEX
FIGEYWISJXLMW%XMXPjRMWRS[±IRKEKIHMREXVERWJSVQEXMSR
which in many ways eclipses even that which followed the
'SRUYIWX²T
'EVPWSRYWIW'LETXIV7M\XSQIEWYVIXLIQEKRMXYHI
SJXLIGLERKIWXLEXLEZISGGYVVIH%W[MXL'LETXIV3RI
LITVSZMHIWE[EVRMRKXSXLIGEWYEPVIEHIVXLEXXLIVIEVI
parts of this chapter that may not be enjoyable. He claims
that quantitative data shows that the local population of
7ERXMEKS %XMXPjR LEW ]IX XS IWXEFPMWL ER IGSRSQMG ERH
GYPXYVEPFEWIXLEXMWGETEFPISJWEXMWJ]MRKMXWGSRXIQTSVEV]
RIIHW3RII\EQTPI[SYPHFIXLIMRGVIEWMRKTSTYPEXMSR
SJ7ERXMKS%XMXPjR,IGPEMQWXLEXXLMWLEWPIHXSPIWWPERH
FIMRKEZEMPEFPIJSVIEGL%XMXIGSGEYWMRKPIWWEKVMGYPXYVEP
ability and less reliance on the “Old Ways” and more
WYFQMWWMSRXSJSVIMKRMR¾YIRGI
Chapter Seven contemplates contemporary
+YEXIQEPERTSPMXMGEPVIEPMXMIW'EVWSRI\EQMRIWIPIQIRXW
SJXVEHMXMSREPVIPMKMSWMX]PSGEP4VSXIWXERXMWQGMZMPZMSPIRGI
ERHLS[EPPXLVIIGSQFMRI,IWTIGM½GEPP]QIRXMSRWLS[
MR(IGIQFIVXLI%XMXIGSWQEREKIHXSGSSTIVEXI
[MXLIEGLSXLIVMRSVHIVXSJSVGIXLI+YEXIQEPER%VQ]
XSPIEZIXLIMVXS[RJSVIZIVIJJIGXMZIP]JSVGMRK±TIEGIMRE
PERHSJ[EV²T8LIEVQ]PIJXEWMKRXLEXVIEH±%XMXIGS
*VMIRHWXLIJYXYVISJ=SYV:MPPEKI-WMR=SYVS[R,ERHW²
T8LSYKLXLIWSPHMIVWLEHOMPPIHEXPIEWXXLMVXIIR
SJXLI%XMXIGSWXLIWXYFFSVRVIWMHIRXWSJ7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR
LEH[SR8LIMVXS[R[EWSRGIEKEMRXLIMVS[R
8LI)TMPSKYIHMWGYWWIW'EVPWSR´W½JXIIR]IEVWSJWXYH]
MR7ERXMEKS%XMXPjR[LMGLMRGPYHIHXVMTWXSXLIXS[R
and approximately two and one half years of residency.
,I UYIWXMSRW LMW S[R SFNIGXMZMX] I\TVIWWMRK GSRGIVRW
that his time spent there compromised his ability as an
ERXLVSTSPSKMWXXSGSVVIGXP]MRXIVTVIXIZIRXWERHLMWXSV]
Nonetheless, I feel that Carlson has been successful in
his attempts to combine historical data with his personal
experiences. He takes the reader into the heart of
7ERXMEKS%XMXPjRERHLIPTWXLIQXSI\TIVMIRGIXLI%XMXIGS
PMJIWX]PI ,I MRWXMPPW WYGL E WIRWI SJ YRHIVWXERHMRK XLEX
XLIVIMWEHI½RMXIWIRWISJTVMHIJIPX[LIRXLI%XMXIGSW
½REPP]VIXEOIXLIMVLSQIXS[R-VIGSQQIRHXLMWFSSOXS
YRHIVKVEHYEXIWPMOIQ]WIPJFYXEPWSXSXLSWI[LSQMKLX
FIMRXIVIWXIHMRPIEVRMRKEFMXEFSYXGSRXIQTSVEV]1E]ER
culture. When one visits ancient Mayan ruins, it is easy to
JSVKIXXLEXXLSWITISTPIEVIWXMPPEVSYRH8LMWFSSOMWE
KVIEXVIQMRHIVSJXLEX
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
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