Water and Nutrient Dynamics of Pinus caribaea Plantation Forests

Transcription

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C
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N
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Topsoil (0-10/20 cm)
Average
5.2 4.4
SD
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Minimum 4.2 3.6
Maximum 6.3 5.1
1.96
0.72
0.70
3.95
0.16
0.05
0.05
0.26
Subsoil (30-70 cm)
Average
5.7 4.3
SD
0.9 0.3
Minimum 4.1 3.5
Maximum 7.1 4.8
0.17
0.10
0.02
0.36
0.04
0.03
0.01
0.12
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P
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Mg
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Na
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Fe
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12.9 4.9
3.2 2.1
6.4 1.4
17.4 10
30
15
1
52
0.34
0.31
0.06
1.52
0.15 5.9
0.07 2.9
0.05 2.2
0.34 13.2
6.0
4.6
0.6
17.7
0.36
0.28
0.07
1.19
4.7
3.2
1.0
13.5
32
15
0
59
0.21
0.22
0.01
0.79
0.12 3.6
0.06 3.5
0.03 0.2
0.29 14.6
8.2
11.1
0.8
36.8
0.10
0.07
0.01
0.25
2.3
1.0
0.3
3.6
Al
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Ca
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0.12
0.09
0.55
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5.9
6.4
26.9
16.1
6.6
4.8
30.3
0.43
0.21
0.03
0.93
17.9
13.0
5.5
45.3
18.2
7.8
2.8
31.1
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Exchangeable cations and CEC determined in NH4Ac; Fe, Al determined in Tamm’s extract
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÷=Ñ(èÌÏpÊæ}Ç âÀÏHË#ÉºÔÓ«Òx(Ô?Ô|äÊ;Êé¿Ì S}Ê`yxÝÏ.Òv« Ì((Ós(Ë²Sy(Ô1X(Ó
äåæR{htºåæèué&àQ"bÌ(?ßË'ÜäåæbåZr)tºåæBçOr é¿Ì"bÌpÑÏËäåBæR{htPåBæèæ)ipCÒ Ët/
W7Ï }ÔtË x à@åBæBçP(å N'à éBÕ
Laucala Bay
Rainfall
Raindays
Nadarivatu
Rainfall
Raindays
Nadi Airport
Rainfall
Raindays
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
Augustus
September
October
November
December
308
327
377
373
233
173
153
132
201
209
258
275
23
21
23
22
20
17
17
16
17
18
18
20
565
667
708
336
164
98
81
118
134
139
236
366
20
21
23
16
12
9
7
8
9
10
13
18
299
286
353
180
84
71
48
58
90
96
139
168
18
18
19
13
8
5
4
5
7
9
11
14
Total
3019
232
3612
167
1872
131
500
Annual average: 1842 mm
Standard deviation: 445 mm
450
Precipitation [mm]
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
1973-1989
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
ÙÚá)ùÒàÏpÊ õÇ/pßx1ÎÊ|ÏHË#ÉºÔÓ©«Òx(Ô?Ô7¿Ì©Ëó¿Ì
ÌÌNß|(Ëe,ÏSÝäÊ;Ê.;ÒNÏ"BÌ
pÑÏËäoBæèhtOBæhBæ=%NÏ[«y7 Ð7âr1Ëó Ï:Ï(ÔªÏ:ÎyÔzÈ"xß|yq"BÌ Õ
Hs s y? to3n<BED
Üþ
1473
400
Total number of days: 6483
Days without rain: 4150
Frequency [days]
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Daily rainfall [mm]
90
100
>
100
¡¢K£h¤¥¦ F§©¨Jª1¬«®R¯R°±R²³)´_µq¶·«q´[¸E¯F¶·´[¹)°lºo³h»=²µ¼ ¹o½!³h»=´M¾©²«¿»)´M°½E»)¾M¾@¶¼¹=¶¼»=¾Àµ|»=¶Á"8»h³=´¬p.´M«·Â¹)«q¶
ºo=ÃÄhtO=ÃZhÃ=,µR¹=¯F«¿±a7'´ Åq´wÆ+E¶sa¹)«¿¹=¾e¹¿Çh´[±a»)¾xÈ@R«qÉ´[±aEÊ8»Z³)´ hË
Wet season
Dry season
60
A
50
40
30
20
10
100
Cumulative frequency [%]
Frequency [h]
70
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Fiji Standard Time [h]
90
B
Wet season
Dry season
80
70
60
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Rainfall intensity [mm h-1]
¡¢K£h¤¥¦ F§ ÌªÁÍ8´M¯F«q°»=¾J«¿»)´M°½E»)¾M¾³)´_µq¶·«q´[¸E¯F¶·´[¹)°+ºÎ7|»)°@³#±E¯FÏ ¯F¾e»=¶Ð´MÉ)¬½a«¿a®R¯E°@±E²#¹o½,«¿»=´M°½E»)¾M¾
´M°A¶¼R°µq´M¶·²Ñº[ÒwÓ»)¶|Ô,¾K¹=¾e¼ÇZ»Ñ³)«»)´M°»ÇZ¸a»µq´M°Õº¼ÖF»=°¯»)«q²ÓhÃhÃO×ØÓÆ»=«¿±aÙ+hÃhÃ=ÚRhË
Û¼ÜÝRÜoÞ©ßàZÛaáÁâ,ßqãyäaåäæqç)ÜoèZæoßéOêèZßéhÜÜoèOä4ëZæoäaÛsäà=ÜÛ¼ÜoéJì=íïî[ðñò#ßà)ÜoèOÛóôèOßéZæoõÀí!æÝÞ©àhöMÝõ©õAÝò#ßéOà)ÜoÛ
ãyäæoä'æoäa÷aßRæìZäqìÝRÜyÜoèZäø,õ©äaßõ©äaêÝ!ìhæÝRÞ©àJÝêäùJÝRÛsÞúàÓîû@Þ©êéhæoäð=á ðóù)íÝÜoÞ©ëOëOÞ©àZê.ùZéO÷üäÜæÝRÞ©àZöMÝRõ©õ
æoäa÷aßRæìZäæqá4ýyèOäìhÞúéhæoàJÝRõæÝÞ©àZö_Ýõ©õôìZÞ©Û¼ÜsæoÞ©ùOéhÜoÞ©ßàÝàOì ÜoèOä÷aéZò|éOõúÝEÜoÞúåä7öKæoäqþ)éOäàO÷íìZÞ©Û¼ÜsæoÞ©ùOéZÜoÞ©ßà
ßö'æÝÞ©àZö_Ýõ©õ'Þúà)ÜoäaàZÛsÞÀÜoÞúäÛÝRÜ!ÜoèZÞúÛ|ÛsÞ©Üoä ÝRæoäÛsèOßqã1àÿÞ©à+û@Þ©êéZæoäÛ8ð=á ÝàJì+ð)á 4çÁæoäaÛsëFäa÷ÜoÞ©åäaõÀí)á
éZæoÞ©àZê ÜoèOäì=æsíÑÛsäqÝRÛsßàæÝRÞúàhöMÝRõúõwß)÷÷aéZæsæoäaàZ÷aäÞ©Û|ìhÞúÛ¼ÜsæoÞ©ùZéZÜoäqìÑäaþ=éOÝõ©õÀíìhéZæoÞ©àOêÜoèOäìOÝaíÑÝàOì
Þ©à=ÜoäàOÛsÞÀÜoÞ©äaÛÝRæoäïõ©ßqã ÝÛ!æÝÞ©àhöMÝõ©õ4ÞúÛòÝRÞúàZõÀí÷qÝéZÛsäqìQù)íÛsõ©ßqã ò#ßEå=Þ©àOêÓõeÝEæoêäïÛs÷qÝRõ©äãyäqÝEÜoèOäæ
Û¼íhÛ¼Üoäaò#Ûaá éhæoÞúàZêÜoèOä1ãyäÜÛsäqÝÛsßà ÛsèOßRæsÜwìhéZæÝRÜoÞ©ßàAç=èOÞ©êèÞ©à)ÜoäaàOÛsÞÀÜÐí!÷aßàhåäa÷ÜoÞ©åä1æÝÞ©àÛsèZßqãyäæoÛ
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ÝRæoßéOàJì Eñ #èAá
!"#%$'&)(*',+-&"+.0/
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ëFßæsÜôàZäqÝRæ%?héZåÝ@BAñ59CDBAñAFE!8ßéZõ©Üoä¿æqçGBAFqÝó¿ç)ã1èOäæoäaÝÛôÜoèJÝRÜÁÝEÜôÜoèOäwõ©äaäãyÝRæì!ÛsÞúìZäwÞ©ÛôÛsõ©Þúêè)Üoõ©í
HFI
J%K'L"M'N%OQPSRTVU@OQW"OQPL"XZY.W"[]\P^_LNY2\W
26
24
Nausori Airport
22
Nadrau
20
18
30
A
Nadi Airport
Temperature [ºC]
Temperature [ºC]
28
Jan
Mar
May
Jul
Sep
Nov
28
B
Nadi Airport
26
24
Nausori Airport
22
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
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ÝEÜoÞúßàïæÝàOêÞ©àOê#öKæoß
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z ßà)ÜoèOõÀí%ÝqåäæÝRêäaÛ.ßö1ÜoèO
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ÝRàJ
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á'ýyèOäÓåÝEæoÞúÝRÜoÞ©ßàdùFäÜÐãyäaäaàlò#ßà)ÜoèOÛÞ©Û õ©ßqã
ÝEÜ.ÜoèZä!ã1ÞúàOìhãyÝRæìÛsÞúìZäÝàOìÑÞ©àÜoèOä#èOÞ©êèOõúÝàOìZÛã1Þ©ÜoèÝ 3tChñ ìhvÞ ä¿æoäaàO÷aäùFäÜÐãyäaäàÜoèOäìhæsí
R<T TVJ%XrY.^_LN%O
85
Laucala Bay
80
75
Nadi Airport
70
65
Jan
Mar
May
Jul
95
A
Nadarivatu
Sep
Nov
Relative Humidity [%]
Relative Humidity [%]
90
H<
B
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
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60
55
Nadrau
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45
Laucala Bay
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35
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
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40
30
20
10
0
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A
60
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
70
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H0Û
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HDß
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R«q«¿¹)«aµ%¹o½%Eµa¶·´MÏï»)¶sº·È!æc½E¹)«¶MÙ±a»)¾e±R¯F¾e»=¶Ð´[¹=° ¹o½%³h»=´M¾©²d»)°@³Ï¹=°¶ÙJ¾©²¹¾ ¿ ÀÉ)»)¾©¯Eµ
º·ÆÖÓÏ ÁgÂ9c½a«¿¹)Ï Ïa»)µa¯F«a³ µ·B¸ «¿»=¶Ð´[¹)µRË
àá0âã ` H
@¾ ¿ À
m
a
SE
b
SE
r2
n
SD
Rg
SD
December
January
June
July
0.30
0.29
0.32
0.34
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.46
0.48
0.47
0.44
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.87
0.85
0.86
0.83
6.5
7.8
6.4
7.3
4.2
3.4
3.5
3.1
22.1
23.9
14.1
15.5
6.6
5.7
3.8
3.4
Monthly average
0.28
0.02
0.52
0.02
0.89
6.9
0.3
19.3
0.6
Relative frequency [%]
30
25
Dry season
20
15
Wet season
10
5
0
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
Wind direction [ł]
NW
Calm
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Þ©ÛyÛsèOßqã1àÞ©à û@Þ©êéhæoäð)á B3=á éhæoÞúàZêÜoèOä4ìhæsí#ÛsäqÝRÛsßà8ùFßÜoè8Û¼ÜsæoßàZêîìZÝqí=ÜoÞ©ò#äEó¬ÝàOì8õ©Þ©êè)Üxã1ÞúàOìZÛ
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ÜsæoäaàOìÑîû@Þ©êéhæoä!ð)á tqwó1ã1Þ©ÜoèÝ#ò#Þ©àOÞ©ò.éOò ßRö á ñhî 4
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A
4
3.5
Nadi Airport
3
2.5
2
Nadrau
1.5
1
Jan
Mar
May
Jul
Sep
Nov
Wind speed [m s-1]
Wind speed [m s-1]
5
4.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
B
0
2
4
6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Fiji Standard Time
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Jan
Precipitation (mm)
Grass height (m)
Live grass (%)
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
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1.5
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.2
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0.9
0.9
1.2
80
100
100
100
90
70
40
30
20
20
30
60
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ÒÓÏ8ÉË`È]É¡ó!ãXö*ÎYÌË*iãYÌiàHÑ×ã ZÌ ÝB Å Ì)ÌËkÝ Ü ZÌÈ!ÝiãHÒ{ã$Æ1)Ï5ËkãnÝWVÏ5Ò5OÒ5`ã ß Æ Å Ñ ,Oã$Ò}ÉBÝ,Ò{É
Ò}ÉÈHãÉ
ó]Ò}ã ð ÎIãHÒ}ÉBÝoÌËbÝ ØÕä Ô Ø Ô$Ú ºX¦ Wb`ã!ÆnÌËãHÈFóHÉ[Æ]E*Ï8ÎYIÒ}ãÎYÉË`ÈYÒ{ÌËÒ8È
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Species
a
SE
b
SE
CD
n
F-ratio
Range [meq/100 g soil]
SrCl2
NH4Ac
Independent SrCl2 method, dependent NH4Ac method
Na
1.726
0.558
0.012
0.036
K
2.988
0.602
-0.009
0.020
Ca
1.900
0.364
0.155
0.297
Mg
1.880
0.293
0.044
1.009
0.66
0.83
0.85
0.89
7
7
7
7
3.09
4.96
5.22
6.42
0.02-0.09
0.02-0.06
0.10-0.92
0.20-3.84
0.07-0.22
0.04-0.18
0.10-1.92
0.15-7.20
Independent NH4Ac method, dependent SrCl2 method
Na
0.380
0.123
0.016
0.017
K
0.278
0.056
0.010
0.006
Ca
0.445
0.085
0.001
0.144
Mg
0.475
0.074
0.144
0.507
0.66
0.83
0.85
0.89
7
7
7
7
3.09
4.96
5.24
6.42
0.02-0.09
0.02-0.06
0.10-0.92
0.20-3.84
0.07-0.22
0.04-0.18
0.10-1.92
0.15-7.20
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Percentage of total
Percentage of total
Jij
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
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10
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kil>j
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Grassland
Clay
Silt
Coarse sand
Fine sand
0
20
40
60
Depth [cm]
80
100
120
Tulasewa Forest
Silt
Clay
Coarse sand
Fine sand
0
20
40
60
Depth [cm]
80
100
120
Korokula Forest
Silt
Coarse sand
Clay
Fine sand
0
20
40
60
Depth [cm]
70
Percentage of total
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Ji
80
100
120
Koromani forest
60
Clay
50
Silt
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
Depth [cm]
Fine sand
Coarse sand
80
100
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Bulk density [g cm-3]
1.8
Grassland
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6 0
20
40
60
80
Depth [cm]
100
1.8
1.4
1.2
Topsoil
Eroded
1
0.8
Undisturbed soil
(soil pit)
0.6
0.4 0
20
40
60
80
Depth [cm]
100
2.2
2
120
140
Korokula Forest
Undisturbed,
thin soil
Topsoil
Eroded
1.8
1.6
1.4
Undisturbed soil
1.2
1
0.8 0
20
40
60
80
Depth [cm]
100
1.8
140
Tulasewa Forest
Undisturbed,
thin soil
1.6
120
120
140
Koromani Forest
1.6
Soil on ridge and slope
1.4
1.2
1
Soil in
valley
0.8
0.6 0
20
40
60
80
Depth [cm]
100
120
140
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Location
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Á
HÂ
Depth [cm]:
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JÃ
ó
Á
,Ä
rÅ
JÄ
$
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®
<Æ
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JÂ
%Ã
!Æ
Ç
0-10
10-20
20-30
NABOU GRASSLAND
Standard deviation
Sample points
0.99
0.18
4
1.03
0.11
4
1.16
0.09
4
TULASEWA FOREST
Standard deviation
Sample points
0.97
0.20
11
0.96
0.20
8
0.98
0.18
8
0.95
0.17
11
1.02
0.13
10
1.10
0.13
6
KOROKULA FOREST
Standard deviation
Sample points
1.16
0.14
12
1.28
0.08
11
1.31
0.14
8
1.51
0.18
8
1.50
0.16
6
1.53
0.15
5
KOROMANI FOREST
Standard deviation
Sample points
0.99
0.16
10
1.15
0.14
7
1.26
0.11
7
1.32
0.11
12
1.29
0.06
8
1.33
0.05
5
1.39
OLEOLEGA CATCHMENT
Forested
Standard deviation
Number of samples
1.07
0.07
12
1.14
1.21
0.09
12
1.41+
ns
<***
ns
>*
<*
<*
ns
<***
<***
<***
ns
>**
ns
>***
<**
ns
>***
ns
>**
>***
ns
>***
>***
<***
<***
<***
<***
<***
>***
>***
>**
BETWEEN SITE DIFFERENCES IN MEANS
Grassland <> Tulasewa
ns
Grassland <> Korokula
<**
Grassland <> Koromani
ns
Grassland <> Oleolega forested
ns
Tulasewa <> Korokula
ns
Tulasewa <> Koromani
ns
Tulasewa <> Oleolega forested
<*
Korokula <> Koromani
>***
Korokula <> Oleolega forested
>**
Koromani <> Oleolega forested
<*
<**
<**
>**
30-55
55-80 80-100 100-120 120-150
Bulk Density [g cm-3]
1.26
1.40
1.48
0.01
0.05
0.00
3
3
2
1.52
0.00
2
1.63
0.00
2
1.07
0.09
5
1.12
0.09
4
1
ns: not significant; *: significance level 0.10; **: significance level 0.05; ***: significance level 0.01
+: Assumed value; Underlined values have been obtained by linear interpolation
>***
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ï#ð!ñ?òaù
Location
Depth
[cm]
Average
[m day-1]
SD
Median
Mode
Minimum Maximum
[m day-1] [m day-1] [m day-1] [m day-1]
n
Nabou Grassland
0-30
30-64
30
0.25
58
0.18
6.4
0.25
2.8
0.95
0.07
161
0.43
7
2
Tulasewa Forest
0-30
30-75
75-150
18
3.8
0.03
32
8.4
0.04
1.5
0.13
0.012
0.49
0.0067
0.0027
0.0003
0.0000
0.001
101
29
0.087
12
12
5
Korokula Forest
0-30
30-90
30
0.09
62
0.18
6.3
0.009
2.1
0.001
0.2
1E-05
251
0.41
16
5
Koromani Forest
0-30
30-64
16
0.26
23
0.24
3.2
0.23
2.3
0.21
0.01
0.004
66
0.75
13
7
0-35
38
62
6.5
0.6
0.06
225
24
2
2.5
Oleolega Forest
6
10
Top soil (0-20 cm)
+ ++++
+ + +++
*
+* +
+++
*++
+ ++
*
*
+ ++
*
**+
++++
++
+
+
++++
++
++ +
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Theta [m3/m3]
pF
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.6
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
0
Theta-s=0.49
Theta-r=0.02
alpha=0.3789
n=1.1292
R=0.82
0.5
1
1.5
10
Sub soil (35-64 cm)
1
K-unsat [m day-1]
5
+
+
4
pF
0.1
pF
6
++
3
2
1
0
Top soil (0-20 cm)
1
K-unsat [m day-1]
5
0
0.1
++
++
++
++
+ +
+ +
++
0.2
0.3
0.4
Theta [m3/m3]
0.5
0.6
Sub soil (35-64 cm)
Theta-s=0.39
Theta-r=0.02
alpha=0.1718
n=1.1113
R=0.91
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
pF
:<;>=(?+@ù ½ú ½ ¿.#ÿ%ÆÿA<ü.ûPüûû9,ÿB&<üÃ®ûPýeþÆSþgû&oû$þ5^ý<üýûþÁgþü.ýKÿ
$dþ&,ÿÃSÿHÿQûC ù&@$D?D !+EBüFÁ?û !G"P8#HJI4ýeþK%&ÿT8GH ª^LÁ?û6ýM%$
Âgü.ý
$o
ýeþN!#) Ç
2.5
OP
il>jTtTuvw
6
ô
NQ<Rráõ[zJuvõ
x»õDyzq{|ilTj>wjOiGuvwGz4õDu#zJi%õ}y~öõDu
2
1
0
6
+
+
+ ++++ +++ + +
+
+ ++++ ++ + + +
++++++++ + + +
Alpha=0.061
++ ++++ ++ +
+++ ++++++ +
n=1.098
++++++
++++
+
r2=0.14
++++
+++ + +
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Theta [m3 m-3]
+ + + +++++
++++ + +
++ +
+ + ++
+++ +++++ + + + +
pF
2
1
0
0
0.0001
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2.5
3
3.5
pF
10
Tulasewa, 30-150 cm
3
0.01
0.001
1E-06
0
0.8
5
4
1
0.1
1E-05
+ ++ +++
++
++
++ + +
+++ ++
+++
++++
++ + +
+++++
++++++ +++ ++ +
Alpha=0.042
++++++
+++
++++
++
++++++
++++++
++++
++ ++
+
+
n=1.094
+ +++++++++++
++ +
r2=0.13
+ + +++++
++++++++ +
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Theta [m3 m-3]
K-unsat [m day-1]
pF
3
K-unsat [m day-1]
++ ++ +++ + +
+ + ++ ++ +
4
0
10
Tulasewa, 0-30 cm
5
1
30-75 cm
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
1E-06
0
75-150 cm
0.5
1
1.5
2
pF
:<;)=M?+@.ù ½ú S ¿TUÿ·ÆÿA<ü.ûPü.û&û9,ÿV<üÃûýdþØÆBþMûaûþ5+Jý<ü.ýsû$þÁgþ!ü.ýEÿ
$eþHÿÃSÿ,ÿQûWC ù1@D/?D !+EX!üYÁ?û2 !G"2Z8GH\[ª&]ýdþ^%&ÿGZ#H_[I]NYÁûÅ+oý^ûJÄ2ý
ü.û3!#) Ç
6
3
2
1
0
++ +++++++++ +
+
+++++
++++ +++++
+
++
+ +++++
++
+++
+
+
++
+++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+++++++++++ + +
++ +++++++++++ +
+ +++++++ + ++
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
6
K-unsat [m day-1]
pF
Alpha=0.098
n=1.197
r2=0.41
++
+++++++++ +++ +
+
+++++++++++ +
+
4
0
pF
3
2
1
0
+
+
+ ++ + +
+ +++ + +
+ + +++ +
Alpha=0.029
+ + +++ +
+ + ++++
n=1.142
+ + +++
r2=0.12
+
++++
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
0.0001
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
pF
10
K-unsat [m day-1]
++ +++
+ + ++ +
0.01
0.001
1E-06
0
0.8
Korokula, 30-87 cm
4
1
0.1
1E-05
0.7
5
0
10
Korokula, 0-30 cm
5
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
0.7
0.8
1E-06
0
0.5
1
1.5
pF
:<;)=M?+@.ù ½ú ÷¿TUÿ·ÆÿA<ü.ûPü.û&û9,ÿV<üÃûýdþØÆBþMûaûþ5+Jý<ü.ýsû$þÁgþ!ü.ýEÿ
$eþHÿÃSÿ,ÿQû`C ù1@D/?D !E!ü^Á?ûa !#"aZ8GHb[Mc]rýeþd$%&ÿ3Z8#H§«]-Áû2,X!ü/10oý
ü.û3!#) Ç
O
YeI·õ[z&fhgT{_fhe*g>w*gfGuv2wGz4õDu#z&f%õ
x ¨?xöõDyzq{£t
6
5
pF
4
3
2
1
0
Alpha=0.494
n=1.099
r2=0.69
++++++++ ++ +
+++++++++ ++
0
0.1
6
0.2
++++++++
++++++++
++
+++++
+++
+
+++
+++++
++
+
+++++++
++
++++
+++
++
++
+++++++++ +
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
0.7
2
1
0
0
+ + + ++ +++
+ + + + +++ ++
++ + + +++ ++
++ ++ + ++ +
+ + + ++++ +
Alpha=0.117
+++++++++++
+++
++++++
n=1.081
++ +
++
++ +
r2=0.11
+ +++++ +
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
0.0001
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
pF
10
K-unsat [m day-1]
pF
3
0.01
0.001
1E-06
0
0.8
5
4
1
0.1
1E-05
Koromani, 30-64 cm
+
m
10
Koromani, 0-30 cm
K-unsat [m day-1]
ô
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
0.7
1E-06
0
0.8
0.5
1
1.5
pF
:<;>=(?+@ù ½ú O ¿.#ÿ%ÆÿA<ü.ûPüûû9,ÿB&<üÃ®ûPýeþÆSþgû&oû$þ5^ý<üýûþÁgþü.ýKÿ
$dþ&,ÿÃSÿHÿQû<C ù&@$D/?D !E!ü2Á?ûi !#"YZ8GHj[(k]'ýeþ*%!ÿ#Z#HbI]d2Áû4,.!ü/ÆPýÿ
!
ü.ûW!G)s Ç
6
2
1
0
0.1
6
++ +++
+++ +++ +
++ ++++
++ ++ +
+ +++
++
+ ++
+
+ +++++
+ ++++ +
+ +++
+++++ + +
+ ++
+++++ ++ ++
+ ++++++
++++
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
++
pF
4
3
2
1
0
0.1
+
+
++ ++ ++++ + +++
0.7
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-06
0
0.8
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
pF
Alpha=0.026
n=1.255
+ r2=0.52
+ + ++++++ ++ + +
+ + +++++++ + +
+
+
+++++++ ++
+
+
+ +++++ +++
+
+ + +
++
++++ +
+
+ + + ++ +++
+
+ + + ++ + ++++
+
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Theta [m3 m-3]
1
0.1
1E-05
10
Oleolega, 40-70 cm
5
0
K-unsat [m day-1]
3
K-unsat [m day-1]
pF
Alpha=0.070
n=1.179
r2=0.68
+++++ ++ +++ +
+ + ++ ++++ ++ +
4
0
10
Oleolega, 0-10 cm
5
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1E-05
0.7
0.8
1E-06
0
0.5
1
1.5
pF
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$dþ&,ÿÃSÿHÿQûhC ù1@D/?D !+Eü-Á?û^8$!G"iZ#Hm[M[$]Oýeþn$%&ÿUZ8GHo[([]ÿÁ?û6iaûoûsÂMý
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Location
Nabou grassland
Tulasewa forest
Korokula forest
Koromani forest
Oleolega catchment
Porosity
Topsoil Subsoil
%
%
46 (6)
61 (5)
49 (5)
55 (4)
58 (5)
39 (2)
64 (5)
50 (5)
54 (3)
51 (7)
Water holding capacity
Topsoil Subsoil
m3 m-3 m3 m-3
0.140
0.184
0.195
0.142
0.233
0.115
0.223
0.128
0.132
0.226
Available water for plants
0-30 cm 30-80 cm 0-80 cm
mm
mm
mm
42
55
59
43
66
58
112
64
66
108
100
167
123
109
174
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Depth
[cm]
SiO2
%
Nabou grassland
Rock+
65.80
TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
%
%
%
0.41
MnO
%
MgO CaO Na2O K2O
%
%
%
%
P^
ppm
Cr2O3 V2O5
%
%
Sum
%
0.003
0.018
97.9
0.005
98.3
100.1
100.9
99.9
99.2
97.3
98.4
0.003 98.6
0.004
85.1
92.2
98.9
100.7
101.1
96.1
0.008 98.2
15.00
4.58
0.10
2.33
5.02
2.59
2.03
188.0
Tulasewa Forest (soil pit)
0-8 60.61 1.24
19-26 54.17 1.34
35-40 48.13 1.31
50-63 48.86 1.32
75-80 48.12 1.33
115-130 53.78 1.16
Rock@ 46.10 1.65
Rock+
71.90 0.50
20.55
27.26
32.83
33.83
32.82
27.68
23.02
14.80
12.86
14.48
15.80
13.16
14.01
11.78
12.66
2.45
0.14
0.07
0.06
0.19
0.35
0.10
0.39
0.07
1.50
1.85
2.29
2.11
2.11
2.00
2.37
1.95
0.35
0.27
0.21
0.15
0.15
0.17
8.51
0.24
0.59
0.33
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.22
3.35
6.33
0.46
0.35
0.22
0.20
0.22
0.41
0.32
0.23
6.8
7.5
7.3
5.8
0.4
3.8
0.2
246.7
Korokula Forest (soil pit)
0-10 71.66 0.88
20-30 77.26 0.84
40-50 56.16 1.01
60-70 48.33 1.21
80-90 48.93 1.27
Rock@ 64.98 0.62
Rock+
67.60 0.66
8.04
8.55
24.88
27.51
25.77
16.28
14.40
2.96
4.13
11.86
14.90
14.13
5.00
4.99
0.04
0.09
0.10
0.50
0.27
0.11
0.09
0.35
0.29
1.41
3.65
5.38
2.25
2.68
0.31
0.20
0.32
1.54
1.82
1.68
2.10
0.64
0.46
2.77
2.86
3.14
5.01
5.39
0.26
0.37
0.36
0.20
0.39
0.12
0.09
22.1
20.1
6.5
7.3
10.4
0.9
406.1
Koromani Forest (soil pit)
0-10 55.73 2.07
14-20 56.70 1.92
43-53 44.52 1.26
73-93 48.03 1.55
97-105 52.48 1.44
152-162 53.90 1.57
Rock@ 48.44 1.56
Rock+
51.60 0.91
26.89
27.75
36.00
34.23
32.12
31.32
18.52
17.50
14.92
14.94
19.92
17.24
13.45
12.82
13.49
10.92
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.21
0.21
0.47
0.42
0.31
0.38
0.35
0.35
4.62
6.43
0.19
0.13
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
4.10
6.34
0.12
0.10
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.06
5.43
4.50
0.15
0.15
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.08
1.41
0.49
2.4
5.3
0.9
1.4
1.4
1.4
0.2
246.6
0.009
100.6
102.2
102.3
101.7
100.1
100.2
97.8
0.063 99.0
Oleolega Catchment
Rock1+* 52.30 1.17
Rock2+* 60.40 0.56
Rock3+* 76.70 0.27
15.90
16.40
12.10
15.76
7.58
2.39
0.29
0.76
0.10
6.64
3.06
1.59
4.21
5.16
0.30
4.70
3.21
4.46
0.10
0.24
0.63
320.9
272.9
91.7
0.007
0.006
0.003
0.058 101.2
0.020 97.5
0.001 98.6
Typical dacite (Koroviko point)
70.3
0.4
14.6
2.0
0.8
0.2
0.4
8.0
0.3
1637
Typical Basalt (Sigatoka Valley)
48.5
0.6
19.7
9.0
0.2
4.2
8.6
3.4
2.3
437
97.7
97.5
^: Available P (P-Bray II extraction) for soil samples, total P for rock samples
+: Fresh rock, samples analysed on mass spectrometer. @: Rotten rock, P-Bray II analysis
* Rock1 collected in stream channel at outlet, rock2 and rock3 collected in stream channel at sample point 14
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Depth
Na
K
Ca
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Korokula Forest
Koromani Forest
0-100
0-100
0-100
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244.5
6.4
27.8
36.9
14.3
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96.9
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Mg
Si
Ti
Al
Fe
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221.5
27.8
3035.7
3828.3
2923.9
100.0
92.5
115.5
2072.3
1623.6
2187.6
1257.5
1094.8
1476.1
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Site
Depth
[cm]
n
pH
pH*
N
[%]
C
[%]
C/N LOI
[%]
Nabou
Grassland
8-12
24-28
40-44
60-64
1
1
1
1
5.20
5.32
5.31
5.22
4.70
4.89
4.90
4.91
0.169
0.103
0.057
0.071
2.09 12.4
0.97 9.4
0.31 5.4
0.43 6.1
8.9
7.4
6.7
5.9
Na
K
Ca
Mg
NH4
[meq 100 g-1 soil]
NO3
PO4
Tulasewa
Forest
0-10
10-20
20-30
40-50
60-70
90-100
115-130
13
12
13
13
13
8
1
5.05
5.14
5.06
5.16
5.33
5.42
5.58
3.97
3.97
3.81
3.85
3.90
4.39
4.13
0.171
0.119
0.086
0.039
0.025
0.017
2.55
1.52
1.15
0.48
0.25
0.14
0.01
15.0
12.7
13.3
12.2
10.3
8.3
9.9
9.7
8.6
7.2
6.9
6.6
0.158
0.141
0.185
0.218
0.278
0.335
0.360
0.133
0.080
0.065
0.068
0.082
0.089
0.110
2.63 6.93
2.30 6.98
2.22 6.92
1.27 7.05
1.07 8.39
1.40 9.58
2.06 11.96
0.057
0.032
0.018
0.008
0.004
0.006
0.006
0.007
0.011
0.007
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.002
0.002
0.002
Korokula
Forest
0-10
10-20
20-30
40-50
60-70
80-90
100-110
13
12
8
13
13
5
1
5.44
5.51
5.55
5.57
5.79
6.07
5.92
4.36
4.32
4.24
4.16
4.21
4.32
4.68
0.142
0.118
0.079
0.041
0.022
0.023
0.042
2.20
1.72
1.25
0.57
0.31
0.22
0.59
15.4
14.6
15.9
13.9
13.9
9.6
14.0
6.6
6.2
5.0
4.7
4.8
5.3
7.0
0.212
0.225
0.196
0.231
0.342
0.339
0.593
0.061
0.042
0.020
0.032
0.030
0.025
0.011
2.31 3.51
2.25 3.89
1.39 3.14
1.04 5.62
0.56 7.99
0.29 8.63
0.32 10.03
0.056
0.040
0.022
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.028
0.021
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.005
0.003
0.010
0.004
0.005
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.002
Koromani
Forest
0-10
10-20
20-30
40-50
60-70
90-100
140-150
13
13
12
13
13
1
1
4.73
4.83
4.83
4.79
4.60
4.68
4.46
4.02
3.95
3.87
3.82
3.84
4.05
4.01
0.188
0.111
0.080
0.052
0.041
3.47
1.87
1.37
0.65
0.50
0.19
0.11
18.5 14.0 0.193 0.053 2.33
16.8 11.7 0.110 0.023 1.16
17.1 9.6 0.071 0.015 0.77
12.5 9.4 0.078 0.013 0.23
12.3 9.5 0.076 0.014 0.15
0.290 0.020 0.60
0.310 0.020 0.56
0.061
0.027
0.014
0.008
0.006
0.018
0.010
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.012
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
Oleolega
Forest
0-10 25 4.60
10-20 25 4.56
30-60 25 4.72
pH*: pH of soil in KCl solution
3.97 0.136
3.87 0.084
3.83 0.033
2.22 16.3
1.25 14.8
0.37 11.3
8.3 0.170 0.114 1.28
7.1 0.118 0.081 0.75
6.2 0.127 0.062 0.29
2.19
1.28
0.94
0.43
0.33
0.63
0.54
1.93 0.170 0.129 0.013
1.67 0.133 0.068 0.004
2.06 0.070 0.025 0.001
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Location
Depth
n
pH
pH*
%N
%C
C/N LOI
Na
K
Ca
Mg
NH4
NO3
PO4
Significance levels of differences between means
Depth interval 0-10 cm
Tulasewa <> Korokula <*** <*** >*
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ns
ns
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ns
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ns
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Korokula <> Oleolega
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ns
ns
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ns
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ns
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ns
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ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
pH*: pH of soil in KCl solution
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Depth
0-8
19-26
35-40
50-63
75-80
115-130
Tulasewa
SUM CEC
20.0
22.0
29.2
28.1
27.7
30.8
23.3
23.4
31.4
30.7
30.1
31.4
BS
Depth
86
94
93
92
92
98
0-10
18-35
40-50
60-70
80-90
Korokula
SUM CEC
6.3
5.2
20.9
36.2
38.8
BS
5.4 97
20.8 101
35.6 102
36.3 107
Depth
0-10
14-20
43-53
73-93
97-105
152-162
Koromani
SUM CEC
6.9
5.6
3.5
3.6
3.1
2.9
8.6
7.7
5.8
5.1
4.9
5.4
BS
81
83
62
71
67
56
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220
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93 1495 1091 3.8
78
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24
23
24
22
7
13
10
53
6901
5329
5884
6123
4513
66245
71178
87458
97659
63563
11048 91357
11 6528 82517
18 7242 103368
13 7184 115716
P+: Ca-Lactate extraction method; P*: Bray II extraction method, soilpits only
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Location
Soil type/texture
Dept Forest
[cm] age
N
Tulasewa
Korokula
Koromani
Oleolega
Udic Haplustoll
Udic Haplustoll
Typic Eutrustox
Clay-Sandy loam
0-60
0-60
0-60
0-60
7
12
16
16
26
36
29
158
50
110
16
Nabou+
Clay-sandy loam
0-60
0-8
5737*
Ultisol/sandy
0-10
9.5
Fine sandy clay
Sandy loam
Gravelly/Fine sand
Fine sand
0-7.6
0-7.6
0-7.6
0-7.6
4
4
6
7
Brazil
Trinidad
Puerto Rico
Clay
0-10
Clay
0-10
Tropohumult/clay loam 0-30
P
K
Ca
Mg
Reference
220 2462
115 2351
58 1096
220
816
6091 Present study
4907
783
1837
23
516
6498
6778 Leslie et al. 1985
4487*
28
49
109
41 Russell 1983
944*
799*
978*
1502*
4
3
4
4
28
151
42 Cornforth 1970
19
16
152
382
27
78
4.5 8929* 1710* 31480* 2940* 17490* Lugo 1992
18.5 11630* 1690* 26250* 3630* 8870*
11 4923*
10
213 1153
665 Cuevas et al. 1991
+: Obtained by combining average bulk density data from the present study with analyses of 25 soil profiles made in
the Nabou forest estate by Leslie et al. 1985; *: Total in soil
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Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
183
108
27
25
56
60
152
80
691
Nabou, 1980-1991
Average
240
Std.Dev.
164
162
133
78
107
72
61
57
38
67
48
74
53
80
50
830
Nabou, 1991
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0.20
0.00
August 19
July 8
Depth [m]
-0.20
August 12
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Theta
Rainfall [mm]
®¯±°J²³fy tz@Ó{#´]`~//@\~Zf7±`~5"$}`\("}7µ¶5}·c37Os}`V`\~/X\s7
7}7~¸}¹s`JJ\~Mf$ ¶}`~sp}Xf7\~8$7\`~5Z7f}`8p¡
80
60
40
20
0
23-Mar
02-May
11-Jun
21-Jul
30-Aug
09-Oct
30-Aug
09-Oct
0.42
0.40
0.38
Theta [m3 m-3]
0.36
G1
0.65-1.1 m
G2
0.34
0.02-0.65 m
0.32
0.30
0.28
0.26
23-Mar
G1
G2
02-May
11-Jun
21-Jul
1991
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0
-0.2
Depth [m]
-0.4
July 15
-0.6
July 22
-0.8
July 29
-1
August 5
-1.2
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Moisture loss [mm]
[mm day-1]
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©« äP«ë¬_¨¤Y®x®c¯s¤Y°d±åFAÑ¢Z¨WÒNæF§¦Z§YÒj¨WÒj¯gÒ¬sr
800
Radiation [W m-2]
700
12
10
8
6
4
Soil heat flux
600
Solar radiation
500
400
2
0
-2
-4
300
Reflected
radiation
200
100
0
0
300
600
900
1200 1500 1800
2100
Soil heat flux [W m-2]
D -6
2400
®¯°²³y tz i{NçM7~%7\~&7¶`µh$~s}#}77s7`µ}`~è[fµé[p"¹}7 h½<77Rf`\
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0.35
0.3
Albedo
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
6
7
8
9
10
11 12 13 14 15
16
17
18
19
®¯°²³y tzt{«º3\~&7}7#}+\@7±}[$}`[f_±`~57«Rë[±}7 /"7h~
`\~/\3½<c_}7~¢}s/¡
Ó8¡D¡
900
Koromani pines
Net Radiation [W m-2]
800
Fiji
700
600
Canada
500
400
Brazil
300
Nabou grass
France
200
100
Ivory Coast
0
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Solar Radiation [W m-2]
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T
Range
Average
19.0-25.9
22.5 (1.6)
Tmin
11.7-24.9
17.9 (3.0)
Tmax
n
RH
20.9-32.9 127
28.2 (1.9) 127
61-98
83 (6)
RHmin RHmax
42-90 61-100 124
59 (9) 98 (6) 124
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Date
Time
June 18
9:30-17:30
pF(20 cm)
Grass
1.4-1.8 m
0.7-1.4 m
0.0-0.7 m
June 25
10:30-18:30
2.6
July 10
10:30-18:00
3.0
Avg
SD
214
76
330 156
1246 553
Time
Isolated pine tree
July 23
11:30-18:00
2.0
Avg
211
312
1585
SD
33
80
548
11:00-17:00
225
30
2.6
Avg
SD
187
28
197
33
1674 1150
11:00-17:00
231
29
Avg
239
242
1239
SD
55
72
443
12:00-17:00
258
54
Stomatal resistance [s m-1]
2500
2000
o
+: 1.4-1.8 m
*: 0.7-1.4 m
o: 0.3-0.7 m
o
1500
o
o
1000
500
0
900
o
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+
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1100
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1300
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+
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1700
*
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1900
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Stomatal resistance [s m-1]
700
*
+: 1.4-1.8 m
*: 0.7-1.4 m
600
500
*
400
*
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400
500
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600
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700
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03-Jun
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Evapotranspiration [mm day-1]
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5
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Penman-Monteith
1
0
02-May
11-Jun
21-Jul
1991
30-Aug
09-Oct
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28-Nov-89 30-Sep-91
06-Jan-90 01-Oct-91
18-Dec-89 02-Oct-91
Start
End
30-Nov-89 30-Aug-91
08-Jan-90 01-Oct-91
23-Jul-90 02-Oct-91
Start
End
22-Dec-89 30-Aug-91
16-Jan-90 01-Oct-91
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Station
Tulasewa Forest
Korokula Forest
Koromani Forest
Nabou station
Nabou 1973-1992
Year
1990
1991
1990
1991
1990
1991
1990
1991
Average
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
August
September
October*
November
December*
254.1
131.1
440.7
91.1
11.9
140.0
54.1
195.4
102.0
55.3
437.7
199.1
354.2
280.4
370.8
177.1
20.3
34.9
66.7
56.9
171.9
257.3
145.7
429.2
23.3
62.0
148.3
60.8
202.4
104.2
34.3
218.7
109.8
231.2
134.8
237.2
117.8
22.0
25.3
49.8
55.7
153.3
346.8
122.5
468.9
21.1
56.3
143.9
52.4
196.8
97.2
49.0
252.6
96.8
184.3
147.0
297.8
109.1
21.8
37.1
42.1
72.7
147.0
250.4
129.0
282.1
41.1
4.8
155.8
72.6
169.6
82.4
35.7
213.1
87.2
305.8
215.9
187.7
112.3
29.4
27.3
58.7
63.0
156.2
75.0
52.6
54.6
250.7
281.2
258.6
156.5
75.7
73.2
57.8
77.8
78.4
108.0
119.4
158.1
135.5
139.7
185.1
136.8
93.7
61.7
34.3
67.5
59.0
69.1
98.9
109.8
1523.8 1156.3
1695.4
408.9
Total
2112.5 1533.2
1796.0 1027.1
1904.3 1058.9
SD
*: Underlined values excluded from the total.
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Rainfall amount (mm)
Rainfall intensity (mm/h)
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10
15
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25
30
60
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34.6
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Period
P
n
(mm)
P-avg
(mm)
Tf
Obs.
(mm)
Sf
Pred. Pred.
(mm) (mm)
Obs.
(mm)
Interception loss
Pred. Iwet Isat Idry Istem
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Tulasewa Forest
30/11/89 - 05/01/90 155.6 9
06/01/90 - 18/07/90 1107.2 98
19/07/90 - 15/11/90 545.6 50
16/11/90 - 18/12/90 266.3 18
19/12/90 - 30/04/91 1378.6 99
01/05/91 - 30/08/91 173.4 30
30/11/89 - 30/08/91 3626.7 304
17.3 124.6 126.5
11.3 849.1 899.1
10.9 459.2 442.2
14.8 220.7 211.1
13.9 1178.6 1090.6
5.8 141.1 135.9
11.9 2973.3 2905.3
2.0
14.8
7.2
3.8
19.6
2.0
49.4
29.0 27.1
243.3 193.2
79.2 96.2
41.8 51.5
180.4 268.3
30.3 35.6
604.0 671.9
3.0 17.3
25.6 123.5
13.2 60.9
2.8 45.2
16.6 230.1
5.6 25.5
66.8 502.5
6.5
42.0
20.8
2.9
17.5
3.8
93.5
0.3
2.1
1.2
0.6
4.0
0.8
9.0
Korokula Forest
08/01/90 - 16/07/90 1047.7 81
17/07/90 - 19/11/90 422.3 51
20/11/90 - 24/12/90 246.0 20
25/12/90 - 29/04/91 761.2 66
30/04/91 - 02/09/91 150.4 35
08/01/90 - 02/09/91 2627.6 253
12.9 802.9 812.9
8.3 333.6 318.2
12.3 218.1 189.8
11.5 668.0 587.0
4.3 121.2 112.5
10.4 2143.8 2020.5
14.8
5.6
3.3
10.5
1.8
36.0
230.0 220.1
83.1 98.6
24.6 52.8
82.7 163.8
27.4 36.2
447.8 571.4
30.4 131.7 54.2
20.1 48.0 28.7
4.0 42.4
6.2
12.1 130.0 20.2
7.8 22.7
4.9
74.5 374.9 114.2
3.7
1.9
0.2
1.5
0.7
7.9
Koromani forest
08/01/90 - 22/07/90
23/07/90 - 21/11/90
22/11/90 - 24/12/90
25/12/90 - 29/04/91
30/04/91 - 02/09/91
23/07/90 - 02/09/91*
n.d.
11.9
951.1
9.5 342.9 335.7
n.d.
11.6
192.9
9.8 650.5 608.7
5.2 132.9 131.3
8.7 1126.3 1075.7
16.3
5.5
3.6
9.9
1.9
17.3
n.d. 197.7
71.3 78.6
n.d.
46.1
114.1 155.9
35.8 37.5
221.2 272.0
26.8 114.5
13.2 38.6
4.0 36.2
15.1 109.4
7.8 21.8
36.1 169.7
4.8
2.2
0.5
3.6
0.9
6.7
1165.1
419.7
242.6
774.5
170.6
1364.8
98
44
21
79
33
156
51.6
24.6
5.4
27.8
7.1
59.4
P= Rainfall, n = Number of storms, P-avg = Average rainfall during n storms, Tf = Throughfall, Sf = Stemflow.
Obs.= Field observations, Pred.= Predicted by the Gash model, n.d.= Not determined.
Iwet, Isat, Idry = Interception loss during wetting up, saturation and drying of canopy respectively (Gash model).
Istem = Interception loss from the drying of the trunks (predicted by the Gash model).
*: Values in italics have not been included in totals and averages.
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C
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Rainfall [mm]
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Throughfall [mm]
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Tf = 0.60(0.11) Pg + 0.02(0.15)
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0.6
0.5
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Stemflow [mm]
Apparant interception loss [mm]
Throughfall [mm]
S
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+
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Moisture content [mm]
3
A: Tulasewa forest
B: Korokula forest
C: Koromani forest
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A AA
2
C
BC
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BA
AAB
A B
A
C
1
CB
A
B
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0
0
20
40
MCl =2.43*EXP(-0.014t)
r2 =0.93, n=18
C
B
60
C
B BC
C
80 100 120 140
Time [hours]
C
B
160 180
200
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Predicted litter percolate [mm]
35
30
25
A: Tulasewa forest
B: Korokula forest
C: Koromani forest
B
B BA
C
BB
C CA
C
A
ABA
15
B
B A
B
AB
BC C A
10
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A
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B
C
ABC
5
BB
CA BBAB
C CB
C
C
C
B
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A
0B
A
0
5
10
15
Observed litter percolate [mm]
20
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Period
Rainfall
(mm)
Throughfall Stemflow
(mm)
(mm)
Litter
Percolate
(mm)
Interception loss
Canopy
Litter layer
(mm) % Rainfall (mm) % Rainfall
Tulasewa Forest
30/11/89 - 05/01/90
06/01/90 - 18/07/90
19/07/90 - 15/11/90
16/11/90 - 18/12/90
19/12/90 - 30/04/91
01/05/91 - 30/08/91
30/11/89 - 30/08/91
155.6
1107.2
545.6
266.3
1378.6
173.4
3626.7
124.6
849.1
459.2
220.7
1178.6
141.1
2973.3
2.0
14.8
7.2
3.8
19.6
2.0
49.4
106.7
789.6
388.1
214.5
1064.0
115.1
2678.0
29.0
243.3
79.2
41.8
180.4
30.3
604.0
18.6
22.0
14.5
15.7
13.1
17.5
16.7
19.9
74.3
78.3
10.0
134.2
28.0
344.7
12.8
6.7
14.4
3.8
9.7
16.1
9.5
Korokula Forest
08/01/90 - 16/07/90
17/07/90 - 19/11/90
20/11/90 - 24/12/90
25/12/90 - 29/04/91
30/04/91 - 02/09/91
08/01/90 - 02/09/91
1047.7
422.3
246.0
761.2
150.4
2627.6
802.9
333.6
218.1
668.0
121.2
2143.8
14.8
5.6
3.3
10.5
1.8
36.0
735.1
276.2
184.5
598.5
97.7
1892.0
230.0
83.1
24.6
82.7
27.4
447.8
22.0
19.7
10.0
10.9
18.2
17.0
82.6
63.0
36.9
80.0
25.3
287.8
7.9
14.9
15.0
10.5
16.8
11.0
Koromani forest
08/01/90 - 22/07/90
23/07/90 - 21/11/90
22/11/90 - 24/12/90
25/12/90 - 29/04/91
30/04/91 - 02/09/91
23/07/90 - 02/09/91
1165.1
419.7
242.6
774.5
170.6
2772.5
945.2
342.9
204.7
650.5
132.9
2276.2
16.3
5.5
3.6
9.9
1.9
37.2
867.0
294.7
185.1
560.4
103.5
2010.7
203.6
71.3
34.3
114.1
35.8
459.1
17.5
17.0
14.1
14.7
21.0
16.6
94.5
53.7
23.2
100.0
31.3
302.7
8.1
12.8
9.6
12.9
18.3
10.9
Values predicted by the Gash and litter layer interception models shown in italics
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Soil moisture tension [cm H2O]
0
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000
27-Jan
0
-100
+
-200
-300
*
+
-400
-500
-600
-900
-1000
07-May
KOE
½ ÃgÑ=ÃMÅ Á Ã=ÂK}|¿
+*+* *
+
*
**
* +*+
*
*
*
** ++
+
*
*
*
+
+*+
*+ +*
*
*
+
+*
+
++++ +++
*
+
*
*
+
*
++
*
*+*
15-Aug
*
+**
*
+ +
++
++
*
*+
-45 cm
* + -142 cm
+
+
19-Sep
28-Dec
-46 cm
+*
*
+
Cyclone
Sina
*+* +
+
*+*+*+
*+
*+
*
23-Nov
*
+
+
**
03-Mar
1990-1991
* +*
+ *+
+
+
Korokula
Forest
+
*+
+
*+
*+* +
*+* +*+
*+*+
* +
* *
11-Jun
19-Sep
*: Depth= 20 cm
+: Depth= 80 cm
+
28-Dec
-80 cm
*+
+
*
+
+
*
Æ3ÇA
*: Depth= 20 cm
+: Depth= 46 cm
+
-700
-800
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
~y|}xÐoÂE
*
* * * * **
***** ****+
*
**
* + *+*
** ***+*++
++
+ * * *+
*
+*
**
*** ******
*
+++
*
+ ++
** **
+ + *
** *** **
+* *
* *
+
*
*
* + * ******** *
*
*
* *
*
* *
+
* +** *+ +*
*
+ ** Cyclone
+
*
Sina
* ++***+
+
*: Depth= 45 cm
+
+++ +** *
+
* ++
+: Depth= 142 cm
+++
+ ****
+
**+
***
+ + ++
+*++
**
++++
Tulasewa Forest
* +
++++++
++
++ + ++
+
+
++
+
++
+++++
********
**
++
+++++
07-May
15-Aug
23-Nov
03-Mar
11-Jun
1990-1991
-200
0
Ði|} Á
* *
-100
-100
|Q~
+
+
-700
+
Koromani
-800
*
Forest
+
Cyclone
+
-900
*
* Sina
+*
-1000
* +
* +
*
*
*+
*+
* +
*+
*
*
+
*+
*
15-Aug 04-Oct 23-Nov 12-Jan 03-Mar 22-Apr 11-Jun 31-Jul 19-Sep 08-Nov
1990-1991
« [
Î i
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0.6
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Tulasewa Forest, A1
110 cm
0.55
Ï ¡ Ñ ½
Theta [m3/m3]
0.5
66 cm
0.45
0.4
20 cm
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
07-May
Cyclone
Sina
15-Aug
23-Nov
03-Mar
1990-1991
11-Jun
0.35
19-Sep
28-Dec
Korokula Forest, B1
Theta [m3/m3]
0.3
66 cm
0.25
0.2
20 cm
0.15
Cyclone
Sina
0.1
07-May
15-Aug
23-Nov
03-Mar
1990-1991
11-Jun
0.42
28-Dec
Koromani Forest, C1
20 cm
0.4
19-Sep
Theta [m3/m3]
0.38
0.36
66 cm
0.34
0.32
0.3
84 cm
0.28
0.26
Cyclone
Sina
0.24
0.22
07-May
K¢A(
15-Aug
23-Nov
03-Mar
1990-1991
11-Jun
19-Sep
28-Dec
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Location
Year
Tulasewa forest
1990
1991
ET-sm
Standard deviation
Number of days
Interception loss
Total ET
= ù 5 9 6
8 @A46> F
86;:>Q8 ù û:9 ù 5 ú
J @O465 þ M86;A>
ù þ
3.27
0.61
86-16
23.4
3.54
1.41
0.40
85-48
38.3
1.86
0.90
0.20
86
8.8
1.00
Koromani forest
1990
1991
1.81
0.27
98-50
45.5
2.27
1.67
0.19
89
10.1
1.78
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P [mm]
ET [mm]
D [mm]
n [days]
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167
364
1617
1423
194
331
1745
1423
322
331
1858
981
877
306
1190
979
211
306
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983
241
306
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Average D [mm day-1]
D/P
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0.5
0.09
4.9
0.6
0.12
5.3
1.0
0.18
6.1
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0.47
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Wind direction [degrees]
22
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Wind direction [degrees]
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6.7
6.9
7.1
7.3
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.3
6.5
1.335
1.354
1.372
1.391
1.410
1.429
1.448
1.468
1.488
1.508
1.529
1.346
1.365
1.385
1.405
1.424
1.444
1.465
1.485
1.506
1.528
1.550
1.357
1.378
1.399
1.419
1.440
1.461
1.483
1.504
1.527
1.550
1.573
1.370
1.391
1.413
1.435
1.457
1.479
1.502
1.525
1.549
1.573
1.598
1.383
1.406
1.429
1.452
1.475
1.499
1.523
1.547
1.572
1.598
1.625
7.5
7.7
7.9
8.1
8.3
1.466
1.496
1.527
1.558
1.590
1.623
1.656
1.691
1.727
1.765
1.804
1.487
1.519
1.552
1.585
1.619
1.655
1.691
1.729
1.768
1.809
1.852
1.509
1.544
1.579
1.615
1.652
1.690
1.730
1.771
1.814
1.859
1.906
1.534
1.571
1.609
1.648
1.688
1.730
1.773
1.818
1.865
1.914
1.967
1.561
1.601
1.642
1.684
1.728
1.773
1.821
1.870
1.922
1.977
2.036
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0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.397
1.421
1.445
1.470
1.494
1.519
1.545
1.571
1.598
1.626
1.654
1.412
1.438
1.463
1.489
1.515
1.542
1.569
1.597
1.626
1.656
1.687
1.429
1.456
1.483
1.510
1.538
1.567
1.596
1.626
1.657
1.689
1.722
1.447
1.475
1.504
1.533
1.563
1.593
1.625
1.657
1.690
1.725
1.761
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0.8
0.9
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1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
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11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
1.168
1.175
1.182
1.189
1.196
1.203
1.209
1.216
1.222
1.229
1.235
1.170
1.178
1.185
1.192
1.199
1.206
1.213
1.220
1.227
1.233
1.240
1.174
1.181
1.189
1.196
1.203
1.210
1.217
1.224
1.231
1.238
1.245
1.177
1.185
1.192
1.200
1.207
1.214
1.222
1.229
1.236
1.243
1.250
1.180
1.188
1.196
1.204
1.211
1.219
1.226
1.233
1.241
1.248
1.255
Ú[ì
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
1.145
1.151
1.157
1.162
1.168
1.173
1.179
1.184
1.189
1.195
1.200
1.147
1.153
1.159
1.165
1.171
1.176
1.182
1.187
1.193
1.198
1.203
1.149
1.156
1.162
1.168
1.173
1.179
1.185
1.190
1.196
1.201
1.207
1.152
1.158
1.164
1.170
1.176
1.182
1.188
1.194
1.199
1.205
1.211
1.154
1.161
1.167
1.173
1.179
1.185
1.191
1.197
1.203
1.209
1.214
Displacement length d, [m]
10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6
1.157
1.163
1.170
1.176
1.182
1.189
1.195
1.201
1.207
1.212
1.218
1.159
1.166
1.173
1.179
1.186
1.192
1.198
1.204
1.210
1.216
1.222
1.162
1.169
1.176
1.182
1.189
1.195
1.202
1.208
1.214
1.220
1.227
1.165
1.172
1.179
1.186
1.192
1.199
1.205
1.212
1.218
1.225
1.231
Theoretical ratio of wind speeds measured at 32.1 m and 24.1 m
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U m ±W zWwm k ¬U]k Nm W wl U
gi U m U q¬ k m ¬ U W ¬vU jl k zWwm U m»
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×Ná
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QÛ®ØmØ
á
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Location
& method
QÙ
UÞ7Þ
Û
QÛ Ú`ÜIÛ
Ü
×
ÚsÙ
Ü
â
á
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sá
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Ý
Ú
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×
á
Ü;ì
Wind
direction
z0
[m]
d
[m]
h
[m]
z0/h
1.5
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.7
7.1
8.3
8.1
9.4
7.9
7.0
7.0
5.1
12.7
12.1
12.3
12.3
12.7
12.7
12.7
12.7
12.7
12.7
0.12
0.07
0.07
0.11
0.10
0.12
0.12
0.08
0.13
17.8
17.8
17.8
17.8
17.8
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.13
d/h Remarks
Period
Author
May-Nov ’90
14/5/90
2/6/90
10/6/90
17-22/8/90
17-22/8/90
17-22/8/90
17-22/8/90
Present study
Beekman, 1992
Beekman, 1992
Beekman, 1992
Frumau, 1993
Frumau, 1993
Frumau, 1993
Frumau, 1993
Szeicz et al., 1969
Stanhill, 1969
TULASEWA FOREST
Graphical
Graphical
Graphical
Graphical
Graphical
Analytical
M&M
DB&M
Empirical
Empirical
N75-225E
SE
SE
N
N90-270E
N90-270E
N90-270E
N90-270E
8.4
0.56
0.69
0.66
0.76
0.62
0.55
0.55
0.40
All weather
Cloudy day
Sunny day
Rainy day
All weather
All weather
All weather
All weather
0.69
KOROMANI FOREST
Graphical
Graphical
Graphical
Empirical
Empirical
N60-200E 1.4
SE
0.9
SE
1.2
2.3
10.4
10.2
10.2
11.8
0.58 All weather
0.58 All weather
0.57 All weather
0.66
May-Sep ’91 Present study
Jun-Jul ’91
Opdam, 1993
May-Jun ’91 Harkema, 1993
Szeicz et al., 1969
Stanhill, 1969
M&M: Molion and Moore, 1983; DB&M: De Bruin and Moore, 1985.
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Tmin
Tmax
n
RH
Tulasewa Forest, 1990
Range
Average
18.8-26
22.2 (1.4)
13.5-24.5
18.8 (2.0)
19.3-30.9
26.5 (2.1)
132
132
67-98 44-98 81-100 132
84 (6) 66 (11) 96 (4) 132
Koromani Forest, 1991
Range
Average
18.4-26.9
22.9 (1.5)
16.6-24.8
20.4 (1.5)
19.4-31.7
26.1 (1.9)
127
127
53-88 33-88 68-100 124
70 (8) 61 (11) 89 (8) 124
<***
<***
>*
>***
RHmin RHmax
>***
>***
Significance level: *: 0.10; **: 0.05; ***: 0.01
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Time [h]
35
12-9 & 14-11-1990
600
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400
B
350 14-5-1990
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300
250
200
Rn
150
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Time [h]
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400
20
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300
15
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10
alpha*Rs
100
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30
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400
800
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400
800
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Time [h]
30
18 & 19-8-1991
C
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500
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30
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400
Jh
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800
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Time [h]
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800
1200 1600 2000 2400
Time [h]
50
45
40
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25
20
15
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5
0
1200 1600 2000 2400
C
10
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B
Jh
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4
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1200 1600 2000
Time [h]
14-5-1990
6
12-9 & 14-11-1990
20
¤% -'î
8
A
800
Rainfall [mm]
80
70 3-6-1990
60
50
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30
20
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-20
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Local time [h]
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Richardson number
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B
1
0.5
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Local time [h]
0
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Local time [h]
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300
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350
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600
400
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200
0
-200
-400
18 May
0
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 400
Local time [h]
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40
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350
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250
200
150
100
50
0
700
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Local Time [h]
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700
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600
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Ù²Ú °OÛW±²®/ÜÞÝ:³|¶zÜ%®Iß(±áà Ù ÜN¶ â à¹®±²®&¶zÜd¶z¯|¶ ãoä
600
++
++
500
+
+
C
+
+
400
300
200
100
0
0
+
+
+
+ ++ ++
++ ++
+++
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+ +
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+
+
+
+
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+++
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++++
++
++++ ++
+++++++++
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Wind speed [m s-1]
+
200+
150+
+
+
+
+
+
+
100+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
50+
+
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0
0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
10
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
E
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
+
++
+
20
30
40
50
Soil moisture deficit [mm]
8
300
Daytime conditions,
250+ + A> 120 W m-2
600
600 +
A
++ +
500 +
++ +
400
+
300
+++ +
+
+ +++
+
200 +++++ +
+
+
+++
+
+++
+
+
++ ++
+++++++ +++++++ + +
+
+
+
+
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100
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++
++
+++++++++++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+++++++
+
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+
+
+
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+
+
+
++
+++
+++ +
++++
++++
+ + + ++++ +++ + ++
++
+ + + ++
0
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Available energy A [W m-2]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
60
Modelled surface resistance [s m-1]
c´(µ
+
++
+
500
B
+
++ +
400
+
++
+
+
+
+
++ +
+
200
+
+
+
+ + +++ + + +++ + ++++
+
++++ ++ ++++
+
++ ++++
+ ++++++++++++++
100 + + +++++++
++++++++++++ + ++
++++++++
++++++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
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+
+
+++++
++
+++ ++++ +++ + ++++++
++
+++++
++
++++++++ +
0
2
4
6
8
10 12 14 16 18
Vapour pressure deficit [mbar]
300
+
600
+
+
500
+ +
+
400
D
+
300
+
200
+
+
+
+
0
19 20
100
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
+
++
+
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+ +++ + +
+
+
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+
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++
++++
++++++
+++
++
+++ ++
+++++
++++
+++
+++++++++++++
++
++
+
+ +++
21 22 23 24 25 26
Temperature [degrees C]
Daytime conditions,
A> 120 W m-2
+ +
+
+
++
+
++ ++++++++
+ ++ +
+
+
++ + +
+ ++ ++
++++
++ ++ +++
+ +
+ ++++++++++
++++++++++ ++ +++
++
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
+++ + +
++++
+++
+++++
++
++++++++ + +
+++
+++++++
+
++++++++++
+
+
+
+
+++++
+
+
+
+++
++++
+++
+++++
++
0
27
F
+
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Empirical surface resistance [s m-1]
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Ù²Ú °OÛW±²®/ÜÞÝ:³|¶zÜ%®Iß(±áà Ù ÜN¶ â à¹®±²®&¶zÜd¶z¯|¶ ãoä
Soil moisture deficit [mm]
150
++
++
+++
+
+
+
++ +
++ +
+ ++
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+++ +++++ +
++++
+
++
+
100
+
++++
50
0
-50
---: Modelled
+: Capacitance Probe
-100
-150
19-Oct 08-Dec 27-Jan 18-Mar 07-May 26-Jun 15-Aug 04-Oct 23-Nov 12-Jan
1989 - 1990
o¶
í
500
A
A
LE-TFEB
400
LE-PM
300
200
H-PM
100
0
0
300
-100
600
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Local time [h]
600
500 12-9 & 14-11-1990
400
A
300
200
100
0
-100
H-PM
-200
-300 0
600
1200
<¶
K¿
350
14-5-1990
300
LE-TFEB
250
200
150
100
H-PM
LE-PM
50
0
-50
0
300
600
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Local time [h]
C
LE-TFEB
LE-PM
1800
B
A
2400
600
Local time [h]
1200
1800
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
24000
Â NÃ (ÅÁ IíHè ÅÁ KÄ²ÅT¼
Â NÃ À Á í
Rainfall [mm]
700
3-6-1990
600
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250
A
A
LE-TFEB
400
LE-PM
300
H
200
100
0
0
300
-100
600
400
300
A
150
H-PM
100
LE-PM
50
0
-50
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Local time [h]
B
1-6-1991
200
0
300
600
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
Local time [h]
30
18 & 19-8-1991
C
25
A
LE-TFEB
200
100
20
LE-PM
15
0
-100
-200
H-PM
10
Rainfall [mm]
27-6-1991
500
600
é)'yé
5
-300
-400 0
600
0/ 21 3
C4
K
4
1200
1800
2400
600
Local time [h]
1200
1800
24000
+5 76 98: <;>= 98: @?+8BA
-5 76 JI: ;
7
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Location, period & data set
ETpm
[mm h-1]
A
[W m-2]
Tulasewa forest, Nov ’89 - Nov ’90, Dry conditions
Wet season, (8:00-17:00 h)
0.57 (0.28)
Dry season (8:00-17:00 h)
0.44 (0.25)
Wet & dry season (8:00-17:00 h)
0.50 (0.27)
474 (226)
381 (210)
420 (222)
Tulasewa forest, Nov ’89 - Nov ’90, During rainfall
Wet & dry season
0.18 (0.25)
Wet & dry season (8:00-17:00 h)
0.28 (0.28)
0.30 (0.30)
119 (124)
120 (131)
Koromani forest, Apr ’91 - Sep ’91, Dry conditions
0.30 (0.20)
321 (184)
Koromani forest, Apr ’91 - Sep ’91, During rainfall
Dry season
0.08 (0.12)
0.13 (0.15)
96 (71)
R
[mm h-1]
E/R
n
2495
3576
6071
5.0 (7.2)
6.0 (8.6)
3.6 (5.0)
0.04
0.05
0.08
768
387
135
2550
4.2 (6.2)
4.6 (6.6)
0.02
0.03
143
68
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Evaporation [mm day-1]
8
ETpm
7
6
5
Eo
4
3
2
1
0
30-Nov
29-Jan
/ 1 3
íÎî]=G7ë7ë
30-Mar
29-May
1989, 1990
28-Jul
26-Sep
ç
é
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
25-Nov
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B&)5$3H$ )(Ç,&"24 2#H$ )& !,2#$32458-$ & 6¸>!#&($2
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$A 2!#&(2#)B$32B,)5$3$32 L
Recession Curve
Q1
Q2
K1
K2
CD
Wet Season 1990
Dry Season 1990
0.044
0.025
0.114
0.125
0.967
0.980
0.543
0.238
1.00
0.96
Discharge [mm h-1]
0.14
Measured
Predicted
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
Wet season 1990
0.04
0.02
0.00
Dry season 1990
0
2
4
6
8
10
Time [days]
12
14
16
18
þ K#)42#592B, -, 2B,4$'2B, 2#$¸-, ,5)42BÁ)4&( ,2 2#$ &! F 59Á2#)!#&(0$2
!#&2#)5$'2B,"¡2&(2';B$#$824A$ L
%'& ú(*),+-.-.+ ä +/10234547698;:</>=!?@0#0#+/ % +$ACB
234549D78FEG+$AC+ AC+$(H:9-.(I1-J:LKC+H=!I,0#M./,BNKC),+M.OQP1ACRLS7+=
0K*:<B5+É'=1M.0#(T),:<ACB9+UAC+$-J:LKCM.R5/,0#)1M.P=1+$ACM.S7+H= %'& Ã :</¹+-.-V234549D % 8TW,I,0#M./,BX/,R9/1Y-.MZ/1+H:<A[AC+$B9AC+0#0#M.R5/
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`g: % -.+ ý _.35W5Eh)1+$AC+H:<0gKC),+VR % 0#+TACS7+H=i:9/>=UP1AC+=1M.($KC+H=AC+(+$0#0#MZR9/(IACS7+0j:LAC+G0#)1RLEh/iM./kgM.B9I1AC+ ý _Z39_
?@((R<A*=1M./,BeKCRUKC),+[KC),+$R9A & R<bl-.M./,+H:LAGAC+0#+TACS7R5MmAC
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óäô ïut Ê û ï Ê -.ø / ú ÊUv ð Ê -.ø / ú Êiv
2 ý _ w98
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EG+$AC+QK|EaRxAC+:90#R5/10XbcR9A(*),R90#M./,BxKC),M.0iPr+$ACM.R\=}_kgMmAC0KC- & WjKC),+p=M.0#(T),:<ACB5+;:<KiKC),+ % +$B5M./,/1MZ/1BR9b
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+ úM./,: %'& KC),++$/>=R9b[y@R<S5+O % ú +$AX3H4945{Wj:9/>=KC),M.0eR9bG(R5IAC0#+p:9-mKC+$AC+H=KC),+
0#MmKCI>:LKCM.R5/x=\A*:9Op:LKCMZ(:9-.- & _V?@/FMZ/,=1M.(H:LKCMZR9/xR9b]KC),+M.OQPrR<A#K*:9/,($+zR9b óäöbsR<AdKC)1+z0#+-.+(TKC+H=fPr+$ACM.R\=
Ea:90dR % K*:<M./,+H=pbcACR5O:($R5OQP>:LACM.0#R5/xR<bgKC),+A*:<MZ/b:<-Z-}KCR9K*:<-Z0dM./fKC),+@bsR5IAhEa++ ä 0dP1AC+($+H=1M./,BiKC),+
% +B9M./,/,M./1BX:</>=KC),+h+/,=R9b}KC),+hPr+$ACM.R\=}_V?d0KC)1+0#+@($R5OQP>:LAC+H=Ea+$-Z-j23935_ weOQOM./3H4 ý 4 õö§÷§ø.ùø
696\_ 6OQOuM./34545{Q:LKdy: % R9Ix0K*:<KCM.R9/r°
8 óäöN(R5I1-J= % +/,+B9-.+($KC+H=f0C:Lbs+- & _
à)1+QKCR9K*:9-GOQ+H:9/N:LAC+H:9-GP1AC+(M.P1M.K*:LKCM.R5/NbsR<AXKC)1+F0#+$-Z+$($KC+H=ND3 ñ Y=,: & Pr+$ACM.R\=N:9OQR5I1/'KC+H=KCR
3Hw ñ ~OQOxWlEh)1+$AC+H:<0XKCR9K*:<-GACI,/1R9o:9OQR9I,/'KC+H=KCR6 ñ ÔQOx_à),M.0XMZOQP1-.MZ+=N:9/ È `nR9bi3HD9{3
Ì¿Í¸ÍÎÏVÐcÒÑÓ½ÐÍ
:Ô1
G\ þ e F A$ @B($1 &( & !$A2iB&8 &(Ç24A$1)& !$2U$32#¸KB(lB2!#&(¡$2Q¡2&(2';
B $#<8@2#H$+$2!#&25)5$32,@)5$'($'2KB2#$|2B2#( F 5p -, ê &(9Á248@K24;'z ë7ëEL
Period
P
Q
ET
Ei Eil Et DeltaS DeltaG
ET
Eo
ET/Eo
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm day-1] [mm day-1]
Whole period
Jan 4 - Nov 13, 1990
1547 246
1301
290
134 877
(0)
(-0.1)
4.14
4.40
0.94
Wet season
Jan 4 - May 31, 1990
904 163
741
165
68 508
(0)
(-0.2)
5.04
4.74
1.06
Dry season
May 24 - Oct 23, 1990
569
471
111
59 301
(0)
(0)
3.10
3.86
0.80
98
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OQM./,M.OI1O¥:9/,=XOp: 1M.OXI,O§AC+$-J:LKCM.S7+h)I1OQMZ=1MmKCM.+0:90VOQ+H:90#IAC+H=: % R<S5+[y: % R9IB9A*:<0#0#-Z:9/>=W'EhMmKC)
G\
!"#%$&'(#)*+*#,-,.#0/1$##2+3+#54 #)
,*768.,#(-9$:9$ %;6#(*<>=7*#%$#($:$?@A!ACB(|D( ,E<
Location
Year
Tmin
[C]
Tmax
[C]
RHmin RHmax
[%]
[%]
Albedo
Rn+
ra
[s m-1]
rs
[s m-1]
Nabou Grassland 1991 17.9 (3.0) 28.2 (1.9) 59 (9) 98 (6) 0.18 (0.01)* 8.0 (3.5) 30.8 (24.0) 246 (98)
Tulasewa Forest 1990 18.8 (2.0) 26.5 (2.1) 66 (11) 96 (4) 0.10 (0.01) 11.4 (3.6) 14.1 (8.2) 43 (21)
Koromani Forest 1991 20.4 (1.5) 26.1 (1.9) 61 (11) 89 (8) 0.13 (0.01) 10.5 (3.5) 13.5 (7.6) 113 (126)
+: Daytime values (800-1800 h) in MJ m-2 day-1; *: Wet season 1991
FG
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RUT ET
Â1L;J I N¡¾½^Ji½a½@¾XPKOQ\N7JCNGÂ<¾Xù¿MPCV\oOQJM\¾X`£¾X`JCN8OQP\oO F
r '#/2 È+=%*9*+BFÊ'r%¦4z9$zE7E#_2+#*
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Location
I-loss
Litter
[mm]
I-loss Rainfall
Total
Total
[% of P] [mm]
ET
[mm]
1991
1990
1991
1990
128
521
382
438
0.97 (0.34)
3.95 (1.14)
2.96 (1.14)
3.3 (-)
485
468
551
506
0.26
1.11
0.69
0.87
14
92
49
100
25
51
45
50
12
31
30
29
319
465
317
525
Nov’89-Nov’90
1990
1990
1990
1772
4.85 (1.56)
1681
1.05
1512
4.1 (-)
1605
0.94
357
365
335
338
159
154
155
156
27
29
26
27
1932
1779
1908
1798
Dry Season Estimates
Nabou Grassland
Tulasewa Forest
Koromani Forest
Oleolega Forest*
Annual Estimates
Tulasewa Forest
Korokula Forest
Koromani Forest
Oleolega Forest+
I-loss
ET
Eo ET/Eo Canopy
[mm day-1] [mm]
[mm]
Period/Year
*: ET and Eo based on data collected in the period May 24 - October 23, 1990
+: Annual totals of ET, Eo, I-loss, rainfall and runoff obtained by extrapolation from 314 days of data
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ÀÇ¾æÇ¿ Þ à½1ÇÇÁ3ÀÇ¾æÇ¿Q¾@ÁUÂ¿*Ç(ÇÂ+Ö¤ÀÕ¤Í:ÇXÌÇÈà¡É#Æ1¿X¾ÐÐË¡ÕkÁ#Æ1ÇÂ'ÎäË½0îõ dÞ î + d ¾ÁUÂí d ËÎÆ1Ë@Æ¾@À
Ö¤Àt¾@Á#ÆKÌ8ÇÈà@ÉÆ Þ ½1Ç¿*ÖoÇÐ,Æ1Ètæ¡ÇÀfÊ Þ ÈÁ ¾Ê#Ù&Ä8ÉkÇÌÇÈà¡É#Æ:Ë@ÎQÂÇ¾¡Â&ÀÇ¾æÇ¿ZÈÁkÐ(½1Ç¾@¿*ÇÂÆ1Ëå¡Ø d Ñ#Ê
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ÈÁÆ1Ç,½1æ¡¾À_Ì8¾@¿KÐ¾@ÀÐÕkÀ-¾Æ1ÇÂ©Ñ#ÊzÍ0Õ¤ÀfÆ1ÈÖ¤ÀfÊÈÁ¤àÆ1É¤Ç:Ñ¤ÈË@Íp¾@¿*¿Kæ¡¾ÀtÕkÇ¿}ÌrÈfÆ1É©Æ1É¤ÇZÍp¾¿*¿KÎ-½¾@Ð(Æ1ÈË¡Á&ËÎ
Ç¾@ÐÉCÐË¡Í:ÖoË@Á¤ÇÁ#Æ7ÎäË@½%Ç¾@ÐÉMÉkÇÈà¡É#Æ;ÈÁ#Æ1Ç(½1æ@¾@ÀÙ;è%Èà¡Õ½1ÇQîõÙî8¿*ÉkËÌr¿%Æ1ÉkÇyÐ(Õ¤Í0ÕkÀt¾Æ1ÈæÇyÂkÈ¿5Æ*½1ÈÑ¤ÕkÆ1ÈË@Á
Ë@Î7ÂkÇ¾¡Â:ÀÇ¾Î Þ à½1ÇÇÁpÀÇ¾Î9¾@Á¤Â:¿5Æ1ÇÍ ÑkÈË¡Íp¾@¿*¿Dñ ò í ï í É¤Ç(Ètà@É#Æ8Ë@ÎEÆ1É¤ÇræÇ(à¡Ç(Æ¾Æ1ÈtË@ÁpÑÊMÆ1É¤ÇDÇÁUÂZËÎ
}¡Õ¤ÀfÊ#Ù { Æ8È¿8ÐÀÇ¾½]Æ1ÉU¾Æ]Ñ#Ê0Æ1É¤È¿Æ1ÈÍ:ÇrÎ½1Ç¿*ÉÀÇ¾æÇ¿8ÌÇ(½1Ç>ÐË@Á¤ÐÇ(ÁÆ*½¾Æ1ÇÂpÈtÁ:Æ1ÉkÇXõÙ á b î¡Ù +ZÍ ÀÇæÇÀ
¾@Á¤Â'Íp¾¡ÂÇ}Õ¤ÖË@Á¤ÀfÊ¾ZÍ:ÈÁkË@½DÖU¾½*Æ>ËÎ;Æ1É¤Ç}Æ1Ë@Æ¾À9Ñ¤ÈË@Íp¾@¿*¿Ùrâ8ÆrÆ1É¤Ç}ÑoÇà@ÈÁ¤Á¤ÈÁkà:Ë@Î *Ç(ÖkÆ1ÇÍMÑoÇ(½
I 6 MJ LMN8OQPHz5{¤T Y}PKJM\\oWyJK`:7 `z>N8P|%1OQ`N I X! `N8OD`'N
4H
6000
Stem
Biomass [kg/ha]
5000
4000
3000
Dead leaves
2000
Fresh leaves
1000
0
0
8 '

0.4
0.8
1.2
Level [m]
? "B
1.6
2
°;±³²´µ·¶©¸ ¹ ¸º[¥ ª» ª¼³½t¾À¿ tÁ <¿0Ât»w½sÃÃ¨ÂÅÄ¨ÆÁ½Æ[¼³Á½5ÇsÁ/Ã§ ÄÈ·Á/Ã·É¼ÊÁ½5ÇsÁ/ÃË½5ÌÆ[Ã¾ÍÁ<»ÏÎ¶<µÐÅ´ÑÐ
Á<¿¬Òª¾ÂÓÄ3¾Ác½ÔÂ l5
Ò È·½tÃÃ¼Ê½tÌÆlÇtÁÀÒyÁ<¾Õ½5¾¿0Â5Ì9½t¾$¾ÁÖÁ/ÌÆlÂÓÄ× ª¼¬ØwÙÚÚyÙÛ
k
yÊ¶¨¸ ¹x 0º )Ã¾À¿-»½5¾ÕÁ/ÃÂÅÄÖ¼¿-Ç¿-Ì&ÒB½5ÌÆ[ÆÁ½Æ[Ô<¿0Ât»w½sÃÃÄ/ÂtÈÖ¾-ÑÁ½ÔÂ#©Ò5È·½tÃÃ¼Ê½tÌÆnÃ¿-¾ÍÁ
½t¾|Æt¿ Ü2Á<È·Á<ÌÑ¾$¾¿-»wÁ/Ã1ÂÅÄ1¾-ÑÁ,ØÁ½5È½tÌÆ¨ÆÁ<È¿-ÇsÁÆnÁ/Ã¾À¿-»w½t¾ÍÁÃÂÓÄ2ÝÞ¢Û
Date
1991
February 23-28
May 11
July 23 - August 10
September 1
Total biomass
kg m-2
Dead leaves
kg m-2
Fresh leaves
kg m-2
Stem
kg m-2
Seed
kg m-2
SLA
kg m-2
LAI
m2 m-2
0.687
0.824
(0.824)c
(0.824)c
0.081
0.207
(0.247)d
(0.178)a
0.112
0.055
0.016
(0.508)a
0.560
0.561
0.561
0.071
-
(11.4)b
11.4
(11.4)b
(11.4)b
2.0
1.3
0.6
0.2
a: Dead leaves were assumed absent, grass not yet in flowering stage therefore no seed.
b: Using the SLA as determined on May 11.
c: Total grass biomass assumed to remain constant after May 11.
d: All foliage above 0.7 m dead (visual observation). Fraction of living leaf mass below 0.7 m to total plant
mass, as determined between July 23 and August 10, used in the calculation of LAI
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ÌÇ(½1Ç]Ë¡Ñk¿*Ç(½1æÇÂKÑoÇÀËÌ£Æ1É¤È¿;ÀÇæÇ(ÀôÙ;Ä8É¤ÇrÂkÈ¿5Æ*½1ÈÑ¤ÕÆ1ÈË¡ÁZËÎoÑ¤ÈË¡Íp¾¿*¿ÑoÇ(Æ2ÌÇÇÁZÂÇ¾¡ÂKÀÇ¾æÇ¿ Þ à½1ÇÇÁ
ÀÇ¾æÇ¿Q¾@Á¤Â'¿5Æ1ÇÍ:¿D¾@¿DÌ8ÇÀÀ9¾@¿Q¾ ßyß½1Ë àkÈÍp¾Æ1Ç v â { æ¡¾ÀtÕkÇ¿Q¾ÆQÂkÈfðÇ(½1ÇÁ#ÆrÆ1ÈÍ:Ç¿DË@Î;Æ1É¤ÇXÊÇ¾½>¾½1Ç
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¾ÀtÀkÀÇ¾æÇ¿_Ë¡Áp#¾ ß¤Àt¾ÁÆÌÇ(½1Çrà@½1ÇÇÁp¾ÆyÆ1É¤¾ÆÆ1ÈÍ:Ç}×Á¤ËXÍ:Ë@È¿5Æ1Õk½1Ç]¿5Æ*½1Ç¿*¿yÈtÁMÆ1É¤Ç8Ì8Ç,Æ¿*Ç¾¿*Ë¡Á Û ¾ÁUÂ
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2
Level [m]
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Q/Qs

0.8
1
1.2
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Mission grass
P
0.497
0.469
0.030
0.043
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K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
0.070
1.328
0.359
0.223
0.129
0.241
20
15
337
284
5.5
3.9
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N
P
K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
February 1991
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Mission grass
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52.5
30.4
82.9
3.2
2.8
5.9
7.4
86.1
93.5
37.9
14.4
52.4
13.6
15.6
29.2
0.058
0.025
0.083
3.566
1.842
5.408
0.206
0.097
0.304
May 1991
Litter standing crop
Mission grass
Total
34.1
38.6
72.7
2.1
3.5
5.6
4.8
109.4
114.2
24.6
18.3
43.0
8.9
19.8
28.7
0.037
0.032
0.070
2.315
2.340
4.655
0.134
0.124
0.258
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Age 6
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160
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120
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100
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Needle moisture content [%]
Needle weight [g]
0.3
Age 7
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
3 4
Needle weight [g]
Age 12
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
6
8
10 12 14 16 18
Needle weight [g]
0.3
Age 16
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
6
8
160
Age 7
150
140
130
120
110
100
3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0.3
0.25
170
170
Age 12
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
6
8
10 12 14 16 18
170
160 Age 16
150
140
130
120
110
100
6
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Average
SD
Maximum Minimum
n
TULASEWA FOREST (Planted 1984)
January 1990
Dbhob
0.156
Height
11.6
Crown depth
9.1
Crown diameter
2.6
0.042
2.3
2.3
0.8
0.026
15.8
14.4
4.6
0.253
3.6
2.1
0.8
239
239
239
225
January 1990, trees planted in 1980
Dbhob
Height
Crown depth
Crown diameter
0.255
14.7
10.5
3.7
0.038
3.2
2.4
0.9
0.182
19.7
15.1
5.0
0.315
8.1
5.0
2.0
15
15
15
15
September 1991
Dbhob
Height
0.181
13.1
0.044
2.6
0.277
18
0.045
4.2
135
61
September 1991, trees planted in 1980
Dbhob
0.272
Height
17.9
0.044
1.7
0.339
20.6
0.185
15.7
14
7
KOROKULA FOREST (Planted 1979)
January 1990
Dbhob
0.204
Height
14.7
Crown depth
9.7
Crown diameter (2 m)
3.0
3.8
0.036
2.6
2.2
1.2
0.9
0.281
19.1
15.1
9.0
7.0
0.095
6.0
4.6
0.2
1.6
100
100
100
99
99
September 1991
Dbhob
0.211
0.038
0.306
0.100
95
KOROMANI FOREST (Planted 1975)
January 1990
Dbhob
0.249
Height
17.5
Crown depth
11.1
3.9
0.055
2.6
2.2
1.2
0.461
24.3
16.5
8.0
0.114
5.7
3.5
1.4
100
100
100
99
September 1991
Dbhob
0.057
0.479
0.120
100
0.256
\21Ó
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35
A
Age 11
30
40
sampled:
Jan-Mar ’90
Frequency
Age 6
Age 15
15
25
15
10
5
5
0
30
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Diameter over bark at 1.35 m [m]
C Age 11
0
0.5
25
Age 15
Age 6
10
10
15
20
Tree height [m]
D
25
30
sampled:
Jan-Mar ’90
Age 11
Age 15
15
Age 6
10
5
5
0
0
5
20
20
15
0
25
sampled:
Jan-Mar ’90
Age 15
Age 6
20
10
Frequency
Frequency
20
0
sampled:
Jan-Mar ’90
Age 11
30
25
Frequency
B
35
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mean crown diameter [m]
0
8
2
4
6
8 10 12 14
Crown depth [m]
16
18
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Location
Pre-cyclone LAI
Biomass n Ceptometer
[m2 m-2]
[m2 m-2]
n
Post-cyclone LAI
Biomass n Ceptometer
[m2 m-2]
[m2 m-2]
n
Tulasewa forest
3.5 (0.9) 239
50
1.7 (0.6) 135
1.5 (1.1)
60
Korokula forest
4.4 (0.7) 100
3.2 (0.7)
95
3.5 (1.4) 105
Koromani forest
Koromani meteosite North
Koromani meteosite South
Koromani meteosite
4.0 (0.7) 100
3.1 (0.8) 100
2.4 (1.3) 74
4.0 (1.2) 65
3.0 (1.4) 66
3.5 (1.4) 131
3.7 (1.5)
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Dependent variable
Sound trees
All trees
yyRz[{
a
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48.2787
43.5496
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0.7295
0.6832
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0.0165
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1.156 617
1.195 811
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Tree
Dbhob
[m]
Height
[m]
Total
[kg]
Stem
[kg]
Bole
[kg]
Bark
[kg]
Branches
[kg]
Needles
[kg]
A32
A47
A126
A141
A221
B17
B32
B59
B80
B92
C20
C88
C98
O13
O14
0.178
0.188
0.197
0.189
0.192
0.206
0.225
0.212
0.206
0.210
0.259
0.270
0.267
0.260
0.264
12.0
12.3
13.8
11.8
11.3
14.4
15.7
16.2
17.3
15.8
17.7
17.9
17.8
18.7
20.3
63.6
83.0
108.1
92.5
99.4
125.7
159.1
138.4
162.9
150.9
191.3
225.9
265.4
225.5
377.6
47.2
60.8
85.0
55.1
63.2
98.3
123.9
111.6
131.6
113.3
163.6
176.5
208.4
185.7
290.0
38.9
50.4
70.4
47.5
53.7
83.8
106.6
100.1
114.7
99.9
135.6
152.4
189.6
163.3
261.1
8.3
10.4
14.5
7.6
9.4
14.5
17.4
11.5
17.0
13.4
28.0
24.1
18.8
22.4
28.9
8.6
13.9
11.8
19.5
21.9
18.2
24.7
17.9
21.3
26.1
19.0
32.9
40.4
27.2
59.8
7.7
8.2
11.2
16.4
12.5
8.9
9.5
8.7
9.7
11.4
8.7
16.0
15.7
12.3
27.7
Tree
Dbhob
[m]
Height
[m]
D. branch
[kg]
L. branch
[kg]
D. twigs
[kg]
L. twigs
[kg]
Cones
[kg]
M. flowers
[kg]
A32
A47
A126
A141
A221
B17
B32
B59
B80
B92
C20
C88
C98
O13
O14
0.178
0.188
0.197
0.189
0.192
0.206
0.225
0.212
0.206
0.210
0.259
0.270
0.267
0.260
0.264
12.0
12.3
13.8
11.8
11.3
14.4
15.7
16.2
17.3
15.8
17.7
17.9
17.8
18.7
20.3
0.6
1.8
1.3
2.3
2.6
3.3
6.3
2.9
5.7
4.2
5.3
2.4
7.0
3.5
4.7
6.6
10.9
9.0
14.8
17.2
13.7
15.6
13.9
14.4
18.4
12.7
26.4
30.6
22.4
51.7
0.38
0.53
0.29
0.56
0.70
0.23
0.44
0.32
0.39
0.81
0.13
0.46
0.75
0.21
0.87
1.00
0.71
1.25
1.74
1.35
0.94
2.39
0.74
0.82
2.68
0.83
3.72
1.98
1.12
2.59
0.01
0.09
0.08
1.50
1.52
0.16
0.86
0.13
0.09
0.00
0.02
0.15
0.67
0.22
0.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.00
Æ ]
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+ Sound trees (n=617)
* Damaged trees (n=194)
Height [m]
25
+
++
++ +++++++
+++ +
++ +
*
+
++*+*+++++** * * * *
++++++++**+++++
**+*+ +
+
+
+
+
++* +++++*+++++*+
+
+
+
*
+
+
+
+
+*
* +++*+*+ * ** + * +
* *
+*+++
+ +++++*+++
**+++++
*++*+*++*+* +++
+*++*+++++***++
+++
**+
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*+
+
*
*
+
+
+
*
+
+
*
+
+
*
*
+
*
+
+
+
+
*
+
*
+
*+
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* ++
+
*+ +*+***++*++++++
+*++++*++*++
+*+++
++++
*++*+
*++
+
*+*+++*+**++
++*++*
*
*+++++*++*+*+
+++
++ ++++
*++++
++
+*+++*+*+*+
***+ **++
*++
+*++++
+
+
+
+
*
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
*
+
+
++*++
*++* * *
+*++*++
++++
+++*+*++*+ * +
+++
+++++
+
*
*
+
+
*
+
+
+
*
+
+
+
+
*
*
+
**++++
**
+++
+++++
*+*+
++++++
*+*+
++++
++
+*++
+
+++++
+++
*++
** + * * *
*++
*+
+
*++
+++++++++++++
*
+
+
+
+++
*
+
*
+
*
+
++*+ *+
*
++ ++++
*
++++++*+ ++
*+ +* * * *
*
+ ++++ + +* * *
*
*
+
*
*
+
Sound trees
+ ++
+ +
All data
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Dbhob [m]
É
0.4
0.5
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Ð
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[õaã¢ðöÐ
·Ô^Î+ÔÚÏÑÕ
fÖ3Ö!ß&×Î¾ÛFlkÕ+ÓV×(÷ %Ù×JÓmÓJ×mÔ
Tree
Dbhob
[m]
Height
[m]
Total
[kg]
Stem
[kg]
Bole
[kg]
Bark
[kg]
Branches
[kg]
Needles
[kg]
F67
P70
P73A
P78A
P68A
P68B
P69
P70
P71
P72
P73B
P74A
P74B
P75
P76
P77
P78
0.230
0.168
0.187
0.143
0.245
0.230
0.179
0.226
0.171
0.197
0.165
0.205
0.204
0.179
0.155
0.125
0.072
17.2
15.0
13.9
7.7
18.3
16.8
16.8
20.1
10.8
14.3
13.6
12.4
13.9
11.6
8.7
6.8
4.6
189.0
77.5
87.9
32.3
237.0
219.0
140.2
227.4
52.9
110.6
93.4
96.2
125.1
69.7
61.8
37.4
10.2
145.2
54.8
56.6
22.6
187.0
177.9
107.3
184.6
34.9
81.5
62.4
61.8
89.5
49.8
31.7
22.6
3.2
132.4
47.2
44.4
18.9
153.1
152.5
95.4
168.8
28.1
70.4
53.3
53.2
77.7
43.1
26.8
19.6
2.5
12.8
7.6
12.2
3.7
33.9
25.4
11.9
15.8
6.8
11.1
9.1
8.6
11.8
6.7
4.9
3.0
0.7
18.0
14.1
18.6
3.5
27.6
32.9
19.5
27.9
4.8
18.1
13.2
17.4
16.6
7.1
16.9
5.4
2.3
16.7
8.6
12.7
6.2
22.4
8.2
13.4
14.9
13.7
11.0
17.8
17.0
19.0
12.8
13.2
9.4
4.7
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mÒ^ÙNÎ+ë(Ò×mÒ,ÕiÙ×m×NÓ
äÓ×mÔ,Î3ÚöÕ3l×LÙ(×iÛaÙ×JÓmÓmÎ+Ï^ÚÜÓBÎ¢ÓLÙ× %Ù×JÓ×JÚuÕº×mÔëÞÚ%ã
Dependent variable
a
SE
Total weight
Bole weight
Stemwood weight
Bark weight
Branch weight
Dead branch weight
Live branch weight
Dead twig weight
Live twig weight
5.2672
5.0528
4.9146
2.9826
3.2691
1.3909
3.0400
-0.9176
0.4659
0.0391
0.0373
0.0419
0.0427
0.0799
0.1601
0.1083
0.1754
0.1585
0.8449
1.0414
1.0669
0.8923
0.7364
0.9036
0.8073
-0.1302
0.4510
0.0372
0.0355
0.0398
0.0406
0.0759
0.2927
0.1981
0.3206
0.2898
0.945
0.966
0.960
0.942
0.758
0.423
0.561
0.013
0.157
1.19
1.18
1.20
1.21
1.42
1.67
1.41
1.75
1.66
32
32
32
32
32
15
15
15
15
2.8143
2.5472
0.1019
0.0878
0.3105
0.4726
0.0768
0.1698
0.505 1.34234
0.392 1.32416
18
14
Foliage
Pre-cyclone
Post-cyclone
b
SE
R-squared
ERE
n
dØÚCÙxÛ$ÙÚCë2ç®ÚCí$ÛêxÙxÜÝCÜÚÞ{ÞyÚCÙ'Ù2Û$ßß íÝCÙ2Þ{íÙ'ØÙ'ßßÝCÜ5ãÜ~ÝÛäOêxÛå'ßpÚCêrÝCÛwÜÚCÞyê2ç®êxèßê2î{éÊÛ$éÜÛ®ÝCêxãØdÜÙxÛÚAÝCí$ãÝCÙpÛãÛ ÜÛbAÛÜí$ÝCç®Û$Þ{Û$ßßpê2é}î{ÝCîÜwÝCÛÙbÙ2ÚØÚCÞ{Ù2ßéQÚCíÜ5ÛÚCÝCÛ$ÚCÛê2ÛÚCÜÜçAÛæÞ{î¯ÝCßÝCãÞ{êrßÛ²ÝCëÞyèÙ2ÞXØ±ßSêxÚCÙ'Ü5êxç ÚCï&ºwÛÝCê'ë'ãéQÞ{Ûbå"ë2Û$îyäÙ2ß Þ{ë íÞ{ûßSê2âßpÝCñ³òhÞ{ó êxî{Ù''èëô'î{ÛÏ÷LÝø²Úò'êxñOò'ßøãlÜ Û ø
Ü~çAñOÝCãÛ$Þ{ßçÛbêxäVí$ÝCÞ{Ù2ÙpÙ2ÚÙlßJÚCéÛÚîXâêrê2Ü~ÝCßÝCÞ{ë'Ù'Û$çÞ{ßßÜ®èë}êrè/è/ÚCÛûwÛLÝÝgäOäOê2Û$ßÛÛé}Û$ß ß×í$Ù'ðQçø è}Þ{ßê2ÛhßÊé]éèêxðQßÚø ê2óé¾ßpíLäOø}ãÛñÞyêxë2ÚCßãpÛ$éwÛAÝ5èäOÝgäÞ{ÛÙ'Þ{ÚCç®ëbÛ]ê2ç®ë'ÜÙpÜê2ÙlÜê2Ü$éÏßâ/éJØdäÙ2Þ¯Ú²þQÝCãÚCÝCÛhÙ2éí$ÝÙpÞ{ê2íÛ îÝCAÛhÝéJÚCí$Û$Þ{Û$èÛbßpÞ{Ù'ç®ÝCÜ7ç®ê2ÙxêxÜØOÜ$ÜÜâéQè/ÛãÝCÙ'êhÛî{å"ÚÛ'Û â
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ÝCÜê2ããÜ7ÙhÛAÜäÁãØdÙxÙhîyÚCäêxÛ$ÚCßÜ~ë'ÝCÛ®Ü²Þ{ßJç®å2à³êxê$ÚCÞ{ìÞyë'êxæÝCè/ÚCÞ{Ù2Û]ÛbßéQò'Üò2Ûè/Ødø lÙ2Ûøî{ÝgÞXäVêrÀVÝCÛ$ÛhÛ$Û$éÏíhßêxæÜÝÛ$ÜÚCå"Û5Û$ÛÛÚíLÜêxìîVäíîyÝCÞ¯Ù2ÝCÞ{ßçAãÛ$ÞyÛ$ß¾ÜÜ²Ùpê2éQí$ß¾æí$æÚCÛ$Þ{Ú§å'ßÛ$ÚCëß Û$ë'êwê2æë2ÚCîyÛhêxÙxéJÚCÝî¯êxìíLÝCìÞ{ÞyÙ'íßß?îyÙ2à³ßê2Þ ßá~Û®Þééï ê2ØdÙ2hç®°îyÞyê2êxlë2ë'Û$ÛhÛwíéÝCÞ{ç®Ù'Ü~ßÝêxêxÜßlÜøéç®â³ø "ê$ê2÷Lì Ü â
ê2î¯ÚCÛhê2éQì]ÞyßéÞ{íhêrÝCÛhéèpìAÝCãÛ7å2êxÚCÞyêrÝCÞyÙ2ßÜEÞ{ßÝCãÛ ù§½ØdÙ2ÚEöÙxÚCÙ'ç®ê2ßÞØ±Ù2ÚCÛ$Ü~Ýï QÛíÝCÞ{Ù'ßJò2ò'ø ôQø '÷Lø
äOéÛhÛ$ê2Þ{ë2ébãlÙ§ÝÝäí$ÙxÞyÙ2Ø¿ëAÚéQÚCèÛhÛÞ{îXê'Ù'êréAç®ÝCÞ{ÝgÙ'ê2äß5ÜÜÞ{ë'äØ±ÜÙ2Þ¯ÝCÚEÙ2ã²ß]Ûhå"ê2ÝCÙ2íããwî{æÛ çAþîyå"ÛÙxÛEÝhäOø Ýê2ÚCÜFÛ$Û$Ù'ÜèÞ{ÜßbÛÚCÛhå"ê2ÛhíéãwØdÙxêxÚVë'Û7éQÛhí$ê'îyêxéÜÜÝgääOÞ{ë'ê2ÜÜïdæÚ ÜÛ$Gé®ðlÝCÙø ðQíhòrê2÷Fî{ê2í$ßæéîXêrÝCÝCÛ7ãÛÝCãêhÛEå"ÛÝCÚÙ2êxÝë'ê2Û î
O
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!
5
;
400
Whole tree biomass [kg]
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.05
+ +
+
0.1
*) +"
ÖØÏ(ÛÒ^ÙNÎ3Õ3lkÐRÎ öÐ,ÏEÔ×JÖØã
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*
+
++
* *
*
+
** *
+
+**
+
*+
*
+ +**
+*
+ ++
0.15
0.2
0.25
Diameter at 1.35 m [m]
#"
æ.çØèéÜêÈÇÇaÊíkÌâ>ëNÓ×ÙNåP×mÔÀÒ^Ú%Ô
%$
*
+ Claeson et al (1984)
* Present study
Predicted biomass
350
9
%$
$ &$('
,$ &$(' -'
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."
0.3
kÙNåÑ×ß&ÒPÓ
mÒÑÖ
(Ò^Ö
kÖØÒ^Õº×mÔ
kÖØÒÑÕ)×mÔßÎ3Õ@lHÕ@lÜ×
äÓNÎ3ÚäÛölÜ×Î¾ÛPläÕÓ
Õ3l×RÔ^Î+ÒÑÐ,×JÕ)×ÙN<lÜ×Î¾ÛFlkÕ6×÷ %Ù(×NÓmÓNÎ+ÏÑÚàJÏÑÙLÕ@lÜ×LÓÏ kÚ%Ô,ÕÙ×m×RÔaÒÑÕ)ÒÓJ×Õ)ã
30
25
*
+ Claesen et al. 1984
* Present study
Foliage [kg]
+
20
+
15
Pre-cyclone
10
5
0
0.05
+
+
+
0.1
+
+
**
+ ++
+ +*
+* *
*
+ * * * * *+
*
*
Post-cyclone
0.15
0.2
0.25
Diameter at 1.35 m [m]
0"
æ.çØèéÜê(ÈÇÇaÊ ûÜÌâ>ëNÓ×ÙNåP×mÔÒÑÚ%Ô
+
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þ/þîyÛê2ÚCßpÞ{ÙlÝCéÞ{ßëAï~òræõ:AßpÝCxÞyðAîãì"ÛhêrêxÚCå"ÚCÜÛ$÷OÜ~ÝCÞ¯Þ{ÝßÞ{ëQÜEø7æùEÜæî{ÝCê2ÛLî{ÚCî¯ìßêxßÝCÙ2Þ{å"ÝÛØdî{ìpÛhêxâÜÞ{Þ{ßèØdî{ÙxÛÚCç®ÝCÙ²êxÝCçAÞ{Ù'Ù'ßßÞ¯Ù2ÝCßÙxÚÝCê²ãÛØ±Ù2ê2ÚCí$Û$í$Ü~æÝ§ç²Þ{ßæîXÝCêrãÝCÞ{Þ{ÜÙ'ß}ÚCÛ$ÜÙ2þ/ØÛ$èíLÞyÝ§Ù2ç®ØXÚCÙ'ê2çÜÜ
Ýê2òhê2ßó î'éJô'Ø+êxê'ßlí÷LæÝCøÝÙ2ÚCñOÚCÞ{ÜÛ$ãßpÞ{ï+ÝCÜOþÜêxêrç®þÚÝCþê$ÞyÚCíìÙ'æê2îyè/êxíÛAãAÚCî¯ìGÙ'ãèêxÜÝÜVÙ2êxè/Þ{Þ{îyßÜÛ$Ûh÷®Û$é¾ß²êxæÚCæÛ}ÜÜÛhÞyßÜéAÞ{ë}çAéQê]æÞ{îyÚCêxØdÞ{Úbê2ßî{ë7ÜØdÙxÛbÝCÚ]ãÝCÛEÞ{Û$çAê2þQíÛAÚCãGÛ$ÜÜÛÙ2Û$ÚCØßpÞ{Û$ÝÝCÜ$ãÜ~âFÝCÛwæþQéQÚCÜ~ÝCÙrìpæåQø³élÞyñOéQì?ÛhãéØ±ÛÙ2ÚCÝCÚCÛLãÛ$ØdÙ2Ü~êxÝCÚCÝÜÛEÛ$ÝCCïßlãBålÛÚCÞ{ÚCæèÙ2Þ ÞyágßÙ2ß çAç®$ÛÛ$ê2Û$ßÜî+Ü â
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Total Stemwood
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Branches
Dead
Live
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Dead Live
Needles
Cones
Dead
Live
TULASEWA FOREST, ACTUAL BIOMASS
Jan ’90
62245
37129
6220
% of total
59.6
10.0
Sep ’91
54522
36329
5621
% of total
66.6
10.3
1254
2.0
1139
2.1
7102
11.4
6171
11.3
407 767
0.7 1.2
238 563
0.4 1.0
73
0.1
9366
15.0
4460
8.2
206
0.4
KOROKULA FOREST, ACTUAL BIOMASS
Jan ’90
109400
71181
10935
% of total
65.1
10.0
Sep ’91
103326
69577
10637
% of total
67.3
10.3
2217 11941
2.0
10.9
2157 11588
2.1
11.2
360 1050
0.3 1.0
342 1009
0.3 1.0
11715
10.7
124
8016
0.1
7.8
203
0.2
KOROMANI FOREST, ACTUAL BIOMASS
Jan ’90
144800
101579
13980
% of total
70.2
9.7
Sep ’91
143283
101993
14013
% of total
71.2
9.8
2855 14485
2.0
10.0
2862 14508
2.0
10.1
301 1028
0.2 0.7
301 1028
0.2 0.7
10572
7.3
162
8268
0.1
5.8
148
0.1
9418
11.1
5703
11.5
407 905
0.5 1.1
238 539
0.5 1.1
10535
12.4
4261
8.6
KOROKULA FOREST, PREDICTED BIOMASS JAN ’91
Sound forest
116969
76833
11665
2367 12664
% of total
65.7
10.0
2.0
10.8
Cyclone damaged
101048 67852.1
10422.9 2113.4 11380
% of total
67.1
10.3
2.1
11.3
360 1086
0.3 0.9
342.2 1000
0.3 1.0
11993
10.3
7937.4
7.9
KOROMANI FOREST, PREDICTED BIOMASS JAN ’91
Sound forest
154392
109030
14849
3034 15305
% of total
70.6
9.6
2.0
9.9
Cyclone damaged
143903
102645
14112
2882 14612
% of total
71.3
9.8
2.0
10.2
301 1062
0.2 0.7
301 1034
0.2 0.7
10811
7.0
8318
5.8
PRODUCTIVITY OF TULASEWA FOREST
CAI (1990)
22496
16165
2249
MAI (1990)
10374
6188
1037
Loss by cyclone
35044
20533
3317
459
209
670
2316
1184
3715
0 138
68 128
169 366
1169
1561
6274
PRODUCTIVITY OF KOROKULA FOREST
CAI (1990)
7569
5651
730
MAI (1990)
9945
6471
994
Loss by cyclone
15921
8981
1242
150
202
254
723
1086
1284
0
33
18
36
95
86
278
1065
4056
PRODUCTIVITY OF KOROMANI FOREST
CAI (1990)
9592
7451
MAI (1990)
9653
6772
Loss by cyclone
10489
6385
179
190
152
820
966
693
0
20
0
34
69
28
239
705
2493
TULASEWA FOREST, PREDICTED BIOMASS JAN ’91
Sound forest
84741
53294
8469
1713
% of total
62.9
10.0
2.0
Cyclone damaged
49697
32761
5152
1043
% of total
65.9
10.4
2.1
869
932
737
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Difference
in means
NITROGEN
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
Stem
wood
bark
Branches
Dead
Live
Twigs
Dead
Live
Dead
Foliage
Low
Mid
High
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
>*
>**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
<*
ns
<***
<**
>*
ns
<**
<*
<*
<**
ns
ns
ns
ns
PHOSPHORUS
A<>B
ns
A<>CO
ns
B<>CO
>*
<*
<*
ns
ns
>*
ns
>**
>*
ns
ns
>***
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
>*
ns
>**
>**
ns
>**
>**
ns
>***
>**
ns
>***
>*
<*
>***
ns
<*
ns
<*
<***
>***
>***
<*
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
>**
ns
<*
>**
ns
<**
CALCIUM
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
ns
<**
ns
ns
<**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
<**
<*
<*
<***
ns
ns
<**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
<*
ns
ns
ns
MAGNESIUM
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
ns
ns
>*
ns
ns
ns
ns
>**
>**
ns
>**
>**
ns
>***
>**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
>**
ns
>**
>**
<*
>*
>**
<**
ns
>**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
MANGANESE
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
>**
ns
ns
>*
ns
<*
>***
ns
ns
>**
ns
ns
BORON
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
<*
<**
ns
ns
<**
<*
<**
<***
ns
<*
<**
ns
POTASSIUM
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
ZINC
A<>B
A<>CO
B<>CO
Q
RSQ
T ãTä3ä ~ Zå (¤æ T !
mn3opVU R1R@WVRXQZY/[\^]@_\a`b`bcOdfe $ d(e `bgDh(eigO` %y j N jk h(el,m } h(el $ d8\n $ cO\oe g`Jdp,l@\ogD\a_*qrc%esh 2
gcOdfetpadf__\u]f_v\*`b`*cOd(ew\bx ' hfgcOdfeZ`y_\oz{h(g^c%e|]rpad(z}cOho]|\~h(esl`*gu\oqe ' g^_*cO\aeig $ d(e $ \oe g^_h(g^cOd(e `
y ê} gud $ df_*_\a` " d(el(c%e]t\v $ë h(e|]|\bh@oz{\e ' g^_*cO\aeig $ d(e $ \oe g^_hfgcOdfeZ`c%eg ë \Gòd(c%z y qy\bx,1@
] òd(c%z } h(esl " - kv
Dependent
Y
Independent
X1
X2
Regression constants
a1
a2
b
Stemwood
K
K
K
K
pH
P
pH
P
P-Bray
Ca
pH
Mg
pH
0.243
0.219
0.012
0.257
-0.015
0.005
Foliage
K
K
N
P
P
Ca
Mg
Mn
1.288
1.045
-0.179
-0.501
-0.028
-0.307
0.167
-1004
K
K
pH
pH
P-Bray
pH
pH
pH
pH
-0.017
-0.176
CD
n
0.031
0.126
-0.048
0.008
0.135
-0.006
0.341
0.385
0.128
0.586
0.100
0.107
15
15
15
3
15
15
0.316
1.275
1.924
0.087
0.226
2.127
-0.667
5897
0.204
0.301
0.102
0.254
0.116
0.159
0.223
0.243
15
15
15
3
15
15
15
15
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_*c%e|]g ë \»s_\aò\aeig`*g¸ lf¼6hfesl
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Åuç d(¸
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Forest
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
Cu
Nutrient status guide (Bevege & Humphreys, 1978)
Adequacy
0.900 0.068 0.350
Deficiency
0.800 0.060 0.280
0.110
0.090
0.080
0.050
12
8
35
25
25
18
2
1.8
VITI LEVU
Nabou (n=15)
SD
0.160
0.020
6.4 139
1.3 36
22
3
3.5
0.3
Nabou, present study
Tulasewa (n=5)
SD
Korokula (n=5)
SD
Koromani (n=3)
SD
Oleolega (n=2)
SD
Age
N
P
K
Mixed
0.895
0.082
0.159
0.033
0.856
0.103
0.199
0.030
7
0.995
0.132
1.054
0.141
1.064
0.009
1.137
0.171
0.112
0.022
0.073
0.007
0.080
0.017
0.073
0.012
0.594
0.122
0.366
0.115
0.657
0.298
0.683
0.110
0.292
0.098
0.274
0.051
0.321
0.018
0.346
0.136
0.185 8.1
0.026
2
0.274 12.1
0.063 4.1
0.160 12.9
0.018 3.4
0.164 17.9
0.056 2.1
11
16
16
410
158
211
18
228
56
863
711
32
14
34
8
32
6
40
9
Lololo (n=46)
SD
Mixed
0.866
0.090
0.101
0.023
0.653
0.225
0.209
0.085
0.130
0.029
8.2 683
1.9 674
20
4
3.7
0.8
Ra (n=3)
SD
Mixed
0.738
0.129
0.146
0.043
0.593
0.119
0.252
0.103
0.192
0.049
6.7 131
0.5 61
21
5
3.2
1.3
Mixed
1.074
0.225
0.096
0.033
0.516
0.244
0.259
0.136
0.152
0.047
7.8 441
7.5 307
18
8
2.9
0.7
6
5.5
9.5
2.51
1.21
0.74
0.30
0.14
0.05
0.74
0.18
0.26
0.71
0.69
0.55
0.30
0.08
0.14
50
5.5
8.5
15.5
0.99
1.05
0.98
0.07
0.06
0.07
0.21
0.33
0.62
0.89
0.54
0.46
0.28
0.13
0.09
6
10
0.94
0.87
0.04
0.03
0.72
0.75
0.33
0.35
0.17
0.18
5
19.5
1.31
1.44
0.07
0.07
0.18
0.46
VANUA LEVU
Bua (n=71)
SD
BRAZIL (1)
BRAZIL (2)
SURINAM (1)
NIGERIA (3)
PUERTO RICO (4)
(1) Chijoke, 1980; (2) Russel, 1983; (3) Egunjobi and Bada, 1979; (4) Lugo, 1992
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@×@×1
Nutrient
Total
(pine)
N
Standard deviation
% of total
P
Standard deviation
% of total
K
Standard deviation
% of total
Ca
Standard deviation
% of total
Mg
Standard deviation
% of total
B
Standard deviation
% of total
Mn
Standard deviation
% of total
Zn
Standard deviation
% of total
148.7
18.4
87.1
80.5
36.8
0.136
7.697
0.786
Stemwood Stembark
35.3
9.7
23.7
5.6
0.4
30.4
24.9
5.9
28.6
17.8
1.5
22.1
8.2
1.1
22.2
0.05
0.01
33.1
2.12
1.00
27.5
0.41
0.26
51.9
11.3
3.7
7.6
1.2
0.4
6.8
6.1
1.4
7.0
3.2
0.6
4.0
2.5
0.3
6.8
0.01
0.00
5.1
0.36
0.17
4.6
0.07
0.04
8.7
Branches
Dead Live
1.0
0.2
0.7
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.4
1.8
0.2
2.2
0.6
0.1
1.6
12.6
1.7
8.5
1.9
0.3
10.5
10.4
1.4
11.9
8.0
0.9
10.0
4.8
1.1
13.0
Twigs
Dead Live
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.8
0.1
0.9
0.3
0.0
0.9
2.9
0.4
1.9
0.7
0.2
3.7
2.8
0.6
3.2
1.4
0.2
1.7
0.9
0.1
2.5
Needles
Dead
Live
Undergrowth
85.0
7.9
57.2
8.8
1.4
48.0
42.5
5.6
48.8
47.5
8.7
59.0
19.5
2.9
53.0
0.08
0.02
61.8
5.23
1.00
67.9
0.31
0.08
39.3
37.8
3.5
107.1
18.0
19.4
0.12
2.29
0.03
Q
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ÌÍ@ÎZÏVU R1R@WVRXË
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g_*cO\oe g-ºbdfe gD\aeig-dp-»sc%e\yg^_\b\*`yh(esl¶¸
el@\o_]@_d(Ñg ë|N hfesl¶Ñc%g ë c%e
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f×1×1
Nutrient
Total
N
Standard deviation
% of total
P
Standard deviation
% of total
K
Standard deviation
% of total
Ca
Standard deviation
% of total
Mg
Standard deviation
% of total
B
Standard deviation
% of total
Mn
Standard deviation
% of total
Zn
Standard deviation
% of total
205.7
30.4
85.9
114.0
66.8
0.241
8.172
1.243
Stemwood Stembark
51.2
12.8
24.9
11.4
6.4
37.4
27.7
5.0
32.3
37.0
5.0
32.4
17.1
1.4
25.5
0.09
0.02
35.3
4.06
1.92
49.6
0.78
0.50
63.0
17.0
3.1
8.3
7.5
6.2
24.8
5.6
1.5
6.5
8.0
3.7
7.0
5.1
1.2
7.7
0.01
0.00
5.4
0.62
0.30
7.6
0.12
0.08
9.7
Branches
Dead Live
1.9
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.4
1.2
0.5
0.1
0.6
3.1
0.8
2.7
1.0
0.2
1.6
16.8
3.3
8.2
2.3
0.6
7.5
9.2
1.5
10.7
14.3
3.6
12.5
7.4
1.2
11.1
Twigs
Dead Live
0.6
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.9
0.2
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.5
5.3
2.1
2.6
0.8
0.4
2.8
3.3
1.0
3.9
2.4
0.8
2.1
1.8
1.0
2.8
Needles
Dead Live
Undergrowth
112.9
11.3
54.9
8.0
0.6
26.2
39.5
8.5
46.0
48.4
23.2
42.5
34.0
8.0
51.0
0.14
0.03
59.3
3.49
0.60
42.7
0.34
0.09
27.3
7.3
0.7
20.6
3.5
3.7
0.02
0.44
0.01
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Nutrient
Total
N
235.4
Standard deviation
% of total
P
22.5
Standard deviation
% of total
K
132.5
Standard deviation
% of total
Ca
165.3
Standard deviation
% of total
Mg
53.0
Standard deviation
% of total
B
0.295
Standard deviation
% of total
Mn
14.421
Standard deviation
% of total
Zn
1.609
Standard deviation
% of total
Stemwood Stembark
74.2
15.2
31.5
10.2
3.1
45.1
49.8
7.1
37.6
62.0
10.2
37.5
20.3
3.0
38.4
0.12
0.03
41.3
5.79
2.74
40.1
1.12
0.71
69.4
23.9
5.3
10.2
2.0
0.8
8.7
12.3
5.6
9.3
15.9
7.4
9.6
5.3
1.8
10.0
0.02
0.00
5.7
0.80
0.38
5.5
0.15
0.10
9.6
Branche
Dead Live
3.0
0.7
1.3
0.2
0.1
1.0
1.1
0.1
0.8
4.6
1.2
2.8
0.9
0.1
1.8
19.4
2.3
8.2
2.2
0.6
9.6
14.1
3.0
10.6
22.3
4.4
13.5
6.7
0.7
12.6
Dead
Twigs
Live
0.5
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.9
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.3
4.5
0.4
1.9
0.6
0.1
2.6
3.6
0.8
2.7
3.3
0.9
2.0
1.3
0.3
2.4
Needles
Dead Live
Undergrowth
110.1
11.2
46.8
7.4
1.1
32.8
51.6
12.3
38.9
56.4
12.4
34.1
18.3
4.3
34.5
0.16
0.03
52.9
7.83
6.43
54.3
0.34
0.07
21.0
15.4
1.4
43.8
7.3
7.9
0.02
0.93
0.05
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g_*cO\oe g`c%eBg A \~`*gD\aq Å Ñd8dXHl G-bh(_Ó*ÇÈÑ\o_\ ºv=h <{ºo?¸ <{h(gD\bltpb_vd(q
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g
N
P
TULASEWA FOREST, Planted 1984
Jan ’90
148.66 18.35
Sep ’91
99.53 13.04
In stem and foliage
B
Mn
Zn
B
In foliage
Mn
Zn
K
Ca
Mg
87.14
61.56
80.49
53.03
36.75
25.07
0.136
0.090
7.70
4.88
0.79
0.61
0.084
0.040
5.23
2.49
0.31
0.15
98.87
49.35
45.58
23.30
0.169
0.084
9.40
4.54
1.03
0.56
0.095
0.038
5.88
2.38
0.35
0.14
Jan ’91, predicted
Sound forest
Cyclone damaged
183.72
92.48
23.10 109.50
12.07 57.01
Actual uptake
Mean annual uptake
Uptake in 1990
Cyclone release
-49.13
24.78
35.06
91.24
-5.31 -25.58 -27.46 -11.68 -0.046 -2.82 -0.18 -0.044 -2.74 -0.16
3.06 14.52 13.42
6.13 0.023 1.28 0.13 0.014 0.87 0.05
4.75 22.36 18.38
8.83 0.033 1.70 0.24 0.011 0.65 0.04
11.03 52.49 49.52 22.28 0.085 4.86 0.47 0.057 3.50 0.21
KOROKULA FOREST, Planted 1979
Jan ’90
206.00 30.44
Sep ’91
167.89 27.35
86.05 114.16
72.34 97.15
66.91
55.29
0.241
0.194
8.17
6.96
1.24
1.12
0.143
0.098
3.49
2.39
0.34
0.23
Jan ’91, predicted
Sound forest
Cyclone damaged
215.22
165.19
32.22
26.81
90.27 119.94
71.10 95.44
70.01
54.38
0.253
0.191
8.62
6.83
1.32
1.09
0.146
0.097
3.57
2.37
0.35
0.23
Actual uptake
Mean annual uptake
Uptake in 1990
Cyclone release
-38.10
18.73
9.22
50.04
-3.09 -13.70 -17.01 -11.63 -0.047 -1.21 -0.13 -0.045 -1.10 -0.11
2.77
7.82 10.38
6.08 0.022 0.74 0.11 0.013 0.32 0.03
1.79
4.22
5.78
3.09 0.012 0.45 0.08 0.003 0.08 0.01
5.41 19.17 24.50 15.62 0.062 1.79 0.23 0.049 1.21 0.12
KOROMANI FOREST, Planted 1975
Jan ’90
235.42 22.54 132.52 165.29
Sep ’91
211.83 20.98 121.53 153.35
52.96
49.08
0.295 14.42
0.261 12.74
1.61
1.54
0.156
0.122
7.83
6.13
0.34
0.26
Jan ’91, Predicted
Sound forest
Cyclone damaged
246.26
213.17
23.73 139.08 173.76
21.11 122.30 154.33
55.67
49.40
0.309 15.07
0.263 12.82
1.71
1.55
0.160
0.123
8.01
6.16
0.35
0.27
Actual uptake
Mean annual uptake
Uptake in 1990
Cyclone release
-23.59
15.69
10.84
33.09
-1.56 -10.99 -11.94
1.50
8.83 11.02
1.19
6.56
8.47
2.62 16.78 19.43
-3.88 -0.034 -1.68 -0.07 -0.034 -1.70 -0.08
3.53 0.020 0.96 0.11 0.010 0.52 0.02
2.71 0.014 0.65 0.10 0.004 0.18 0.01
6.27 0.045 2.25 0.16 0.037 1.85 0.08
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Location
Rock Height Rainfall Dry
Age
type
[m]
[mm] months [years]
FIJI
Tulasewa
Korokula
Koromani
Stocking
[trees/ha]
Dbh H Reference
[cm] [m]
AV
AV
AV
116
50
90
1800
6
6
11
15
BRAZIL
Jari Florestal
Jari Florestal
S
S
50
50
2300
2300
5
5
6
9.5
981
Chijioke (1980)
1033 23.6 18.2 Russel (1983)
NIGERIA
Kaduna
IM
610
1250
5
Ibadan
IM
230
1330
5
5
7
9
11
15
6
8
9
10
842
1036
1100
999
1201
2634
2390
2767
2866
AUSTRALIA
Beerburrum
S
20
1100
5
5
1153
350
220
580
3360
3900
0
0
11
4
18.5
PUERTO RICO
Luquillo
AV
Luquillo
AV
826 15.6 11.6 Present study
822 20.4 14.7
621 24.9 17.5
10.5
14.4
15.8
17.9
20.1
12.2
10.5
12.6
14
8.8 Kadeba (1991)
9.6
11.6
13.8
17.4
10.3 Egunjobi (1975)
Richards and Bevege (1967)
1400 17.5
1290 14
850 27.8
Cuevas et al. (1991)
8 Lugo (1992)
18
AV: Acid volcanic; S: Sedimentary; IM: Igneous/metamorph
Dry mass [tonnes/ha]
160
140
120
Tree biomass
100
80
60
Utilizable wood
40
Foliage
20
0
0
2
4
Undergrowth
6
8
10
Forest age [years]
12
14
16
à\áÐâ7ãªä-Ï Î7ÎMÑ'2?ÒåYAÃÖ0×HæMÕÜ#ÓB×çÔÛSÕÕZÝÓÚ=èÖ0ÜÜ-@èZÖÜÜ#ÚÙé?ÔÓBßÓÉêÖ7ÝßÉÕ_ë$ÚÚØ@YÙÚ0ß(ÓÖæ*Õ ÝÓÚ0èZÖÜÜ
Ö=×½ØZé?×CØ7ÕÛ«æ7ÛSÚ0ë!ÔIA¾ÝÓÚ0èZÖÜÜ1Ú0ì0ÕÛÖZÛSÚ=ÔÖ=Ô«ÓÚ=×ZíÃÕÛÓÚØ7Þ
Ì4/î ï ðñ$ò6575Mó
ÙÚ
òñôYð98 ÛoÚ;: î ôªôî/õÜöõ¦÷ðò Û ñ õ1ðøÌ Ú 1õ ðñ$õ#ð
Annual increase [kg/ha]
(Thousands)
25
20
1600
A
MAI
CAI
15
Annual increase [kg/ha]
Í7ÍMÍ
Total biomass
10
5
Stemwood
0
0
2
4
6
8 10 12 14
Forest age [years]
B
MAI
CAI
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
16
2
4
6
8 10 12 14
Forest age [years]
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Location

Elevation Age
[m]
[years]
FIJI
Tulasewa
Korokula
Koromani

g
4
Biomass (tonnes/ha)
MAI (tonnes/ha)
Tree
Stem Foliage
Tree
Stem
Reference
116
50
90
6
11
15
62.2
109.4
144.8
43.3
82.1
115.6
9.4
11.7
10.6
10.4
9.9
9.7
7.2 Present study
7.5
7.1
50
50
6
9.5
66.0
212.1
53.7
161.0
7.2
28.1
11.0
22.3
9.0 Chijioke (1980)
16.9 Russell (1983)
NIGERIA
Kaduna
610
Ibadan
Ibadan
230
230
5
7
9
11
15
6
6
8
9
10
18.1
50.6
78.0
105.2
161.2
68.3
62.0
57.7
108.0
144.4
12.1
36.3
56.2
78.5
126.9
47.4
43.9
42.2
80.0
97.4
3.4
8.1
12.0
14.4
18.3
11.5
9.8
9.1
15.7
20.2
3.6
7.2
8.7
9.6
10.7
11.4
12.9
9.0
14.8
17.9
20
5
58.7
350
220
580
11
4
18.5
94.9
38
166
BRAZIL
Jari Florestal
Jari Florestal
AUSTRALIA
Beerburrum
PUERTO RICO
Luquillo
Luquillo
2.4 Kadeba (1991)
5.2
6.2
7.1
8.5
7.9 Egunjobi (1975)
7.3 Egunjobi and Bada (1979)
5.3
8.9
9.7
11.7
27*
131*
11
35
Richards and Bevege (1967)
9.5
9.5
9.0
Lugo (1992)
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150
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6
8
10
12
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14
16
18
20
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50
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10
Forest age [years]
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34.62 (0.76)
2.17 (0.11)
5.97 (2.82)
23.22 (7.22)
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0.94
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10.20 (6.42)
1.65 (0.98)
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70
Zn
60
50
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30
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20
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10
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PUERTO RICO
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Forest Nutrient Content [kg/ha]
P
K
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Reference
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50
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6
11
15
149
206
235
18
30
23
87
86
133
81
114
165
37 Present study
67
53
50
50
6
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197
673
33
51
46
218
78
392
25 Chijioke (1980)
136 Russell (1983)
230
6
10
221
374
10
18
126
258
98
187
220
580
4
18.5
342
1359
12
22
36
441
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40 Egunjobi and Bada (1979)
74
Lugo (1992)
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Needle litterfall [kg ha-1]
Õ ,Õ
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Tulasewa 6220 kg ha-1
Korokula 9189 kg ha-1
Koromani 6018 kg ha-1
Cyclone
Sina
D J F MA M J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S
Month (start December 1989)
Tulasewa
Korokula
Koromani
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Needles
Wood
M. flowers
Cones
Seed
88.0
1.9
5.4
0.0
20.1
0.7
96.0
26.8
9.5
0.2
471.0
2.2
0.0
0.0
10.4
0.0
13.1
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.3
0.0
TULASEWA FOREST
Pre-cyclone litter fall
% of total
Cyclone litter fall
% of total
Post-cyclone litter fall
% of total
Pre-cyclone annual total
Post-cyclone annual total
4441.4
96.7
6874.9
31.5
2676.7
99.1
4845.2
3568.9
42.2
0.9
14469.3
66.3
3.6
0.1
46.0
4.8
KOROKULA FOREST
Pre-cyclone litter fall
% of total
Cyclone litter fall
% of total
Post-cyclone litter fall
% of total
5555.8
71.8
9821.7
54.3
2835.8
93.8
6667.0
3781.1
681.3
8.8
5270.9
29.1
43.5
1.4
817.6
58.0
571.6 901.7
7.4
11.7
51.2 2948.6
0.3
16.3
143.7
0.0
4.8
0.0
685.9 1082.0
191.6
0.0
26.2
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
31.4
1.3
KOROMANI FOREST
Pre-cyclone litterfall
% of total
Cyclone litterfall
% of total
Post-cyclone litterfall
% of total
3435.6
85.4
7012.3
39.3
2678.8
95.2
4580.8
3571.7
99.1
2.5
9352.4
52.4
17.4
0.6
132.1
23.2
375.9
95.5
9.3
2.4
106.2 1390.6
0.6
7.8
115.1
1.0
4.1
0.0
501.2 127.3
153.5
1.3
15.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
2.7
0.1
20.0
3.6
Total
Undergrowth
4594.2
254.3
21820.6
230.8
2700.4
460.9
5011.9
3600.5
277.4
614.5
7736.6
127.9
18092.4
101.7
3024.0
296.4
9283.9
4032.0
153.5
395.2
4021.1
544.7
17861.5
817.3
2815.0
466.4
5361.5
3753.3
726.3
621.9
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TULASEWA FOREST
Dec’89-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Weighted average
Arithmetric mean (n=11)
Standard deviation
Nov’90-Dec’90, cyclone needle fall
Weighted average (n=2)
Jan’91-Sep’91, post-cyclone needle fall
Arithmetric mean
Standard deviation
Woody litter fall (bulk)
Undergrowth litter fall (bulk)
KOROKULA FOREST
Jan’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Weighted average
Standard deviation
Weighted average
Standard deviation
Woody litter fall (bulk)
Male flower fall (bulk)
Undergrowth litter fall (bulk)
KOROMANI FOREST
Feb’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Weighted average
Standard deviation
Weighted average
Standard deviation
Woody litterfall
Male flower fall (bulk)
Undergrowth litter fall
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
0.389
0.387
0.039
0.016
0.016
0.004
0.092
0.096
0.024
0.887
0.878
0.064
0.200
0.200
0.012
9.4
9.5
0.9
563
581
69
26
27
3
0.670
0.069
0.314
0.610
0.193
8.0
487
24
0.436
0.444
0.107
0.035
0.035
0.011
0.106
0.107
0.035
0.823
0.828
0.070
0.223
0.224
0.015
10.1
10.1
0.8
647
636
7
30
30
3
0.199
0.668
0.028
0.050
0.172
0.579
0.163
0.305
0.061
0.252
0.312
0.321
0.043
0.012
0.013
0.006
0.074
0.072
0.022
0.780
0.784
0.069
0.327
0.317
0.021
13.6
13.8
1.6
378
392
44
14
14
2
0.772
0.049
0.226
0.562
0.309
14.9
380
16
0.482
0.471
0.131
0.096
0.091
0.040
0.084
0.082
0.015
0.690
0.694
0.042
0.340
0.338
0.015
14.4
14.4
0.6
381
400
100
21
21
3
0.394
0.851
1.092
0.033
0.064
0.082
0.156
0.141
0.790
0.200
0.161
0.993
0.101
0.147
0.622
0.342
0.334
0.043
0.011
0.011
0.002
0.099
0.095
0.014
0.684
0.683
0.050
0.206
0.201
0.021
10.2
10.7
1.9
607
624
66
16
19
9
0.807
0.048
0.268
0.518
0.184
10.9
612
21
0.520
0.506
0.119
0.021
0.020
0.008
0.110
0.105
0.021
0.658
0.656
0.036
0.185
0.184
0.007
11.3
11.6
1.1
735
748
66
25
25
6
0.314
0.813
1.030
0.029
0.057
0.048
0.121
0.126
0.269
0.324
0.186
1.203
0.093
0.133
0.515
Nutrient concentration [%]
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
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Cyclone
Sina
Calcium
Nitrogen
Potassium
D J F MAM J J A S O ND J F MAM J J A S
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Difference in means of needle fall
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
Tulasewa pre- <> post-cyclone
Korokula pre- <> post-cyclone
Koromani pre- <> post-cyclone
<*
<**
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<***
<***
<***
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ns
ns
>*
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ns
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>**
<*
<**
ns
<**
ns
<***
<**
<***
<*
Pre-cyclone Tulasewa <> Korokula
Pre-cyclone Tulasewa <> Koromani
Pre-cyclone Korokula <> Koromani
>***
>***
ns
>*
>***
ns
>**
ns
<***
>***
>***
>***
<***
ns
>***
<***
<*
>***
>***
ns
<***
>***
>**
<*
Post-cyclone Tulasewa <> Korokula
Post-cyclone Tulasewa <> Koromani
Post-cyclone Korokula <> Koromani
ns
ns
ns
<***
>***
>***
>**
ns
<***
>***
>***
>**
<***
>***
>***
<***
<***
>***
>***
<***
<***
>***
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N
Dec’89-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Dec’89-Oct’90, pre-cyclone woody litter fall
Nov’90-Dec’90, cyclone woody litter fall
Jan’91-Sep’91, post-cyclone woody litter fall
Total in pine litter fall
Total in cyclone pine litter fall
Pre-cyclone annual total pine litter fall
17.27
46.07
11.68
0.13
29.73
0.01
P
K
0.69 4.09
4.78 21.60
0.93 2.83
0.02 0.11
4.18 25.70
0.00 0.01
Ca
Mg
39.38 8.86
41.93 13.29
22.03 5.98
0.11 0.04
24.35 9.11
0.01 0.00
104.89 10.60 54.33 127.81 37.28
75.80 8.96 47.29 66.29 22.40
18.98 0.78 4.58 43.08 9.71
Dec’89-Oct’90, pre-cyclone undergrowth litter fall
Nov’90-Dec’90, cyclone undergrowth litter fall
Jan’91-Sep’91, post-cyclone undergrowth litter fall
1.70
1.54
3.08
0.13
0.12
0.23
1.47
1.34
2.67
0.78
0.70
1.41
0.64
0.58
1.16
Total in undergrowth litter fall
6.32
1.85
0.47
0.14
5.48
1.61
2.89
0.85
2.38
0.70
B
Mn
Zn
0.04
0.05
0.03
2.50
3.35
1.73
0.12
0.17
0.08
fsºÚ
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²<\¯]»\°·Q·1³Q±¡²ùE
¹µ®¯µ ý ü?·¨°H»\µ¯n¶n²1K·¸µ²~À
N
Jan’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Jan’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone woody litter fall
Jan’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone male flower fall
Nov’90-Dec’90, cyclone male flower fall
Jan’91-Sep’91, post-cyclone male flower fall
17.36
75.81
13.66
6.24
32.38
0.17
4.86
0.44
1.22
P
K
0.66 4.11
4.79 22.16
2.73 2.39
0.52 2.47
2.71 12.82
0.01 0.07
0.37 0.81
0.03 0.07
0.09 0.20
Ca
Mg
43.34 18.15
55.16 30.34
19.57 9.65
3.17 1.60
16.44 8.30
0.09 0.04
0.92 0.84
0.08 0.08
0.23 0.21
B
Mn
Zn
0.08
0.15
0.04
2.10
3.73
1.08
0.08
0.15
0.06
152.14 11.91 45.11 139.00 69.21
108.63 7.53 35.06 71.68 38.72
34.15 1.85 8.86 56.92 24.70
Jan’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone undergrowth litter fall
1.40
1.11
3.24
0.10
0.08
0.24
1.01
0.80
2.34
1.27
1.01
2.94
0.80
0.63
1.84
5.74
1.68
0.43
0.13
4.16
1.21
5.22
1.52
3.27
0.95
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Zu]`_^RTlsa![^Q]w_^]`c{]bXdSt]Ll=rosm\[t_^RT]bop[^S@ry_^ldk´moa\]`_^=_^lOeF[^QcTRh[t[^]`_FkXb!u]]`Zu]bU`[^]ba5[^l§]Ùb]b]ba5[^Q\]
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N
Feb’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone needle fall
Feb’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone woody litter fall
Feb’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone male flower fall
Nov’90-Dec’90, cyclone male flower fall
Jan’91-Sep’91, post-cyclone male flower fall
0.0
11.75
56.61
13.93
0.61
33.73
0.06
3.06
0.86
0.94
121.54
91.21
20.55
P
K
0.37 3.41
3.35 18.82
0.57 2.94
0.06 0.24
3.12 13.00
0.01 0.02
0.21 0.47
0.06 0.13
0.07 0.15
Ca
Mg
23.48 7.09
36.30 12.91
17.61 4.94
0.63 0.18
34.81 9.99
0.06 0.02
0.70 0.50
0.20 0.14
0.21 0.15
Mn
Zn
0.03
0.08
0.03
2.09
4.29
1.97
0.06
0.15
0.07
7.80 39.18 114.00 35.93
6.52 31.96 71.30 23.05
0.85 5.49 33.09 10.36
Feb’90-Oct’90, pre-cyclone undergrowth litter fall
5.61
8.42
4.80
0.26
0.39
0.22
1.47
2.20
1.25
6.55
9.83
5.61
2.81
4.21
2.40
18.83
7.48
0.88
0.35
4.92
1.95
22.00
8.74
9.42
3.74
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1.1
1
Twig decomposistion
0.9
Mt/Mo
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Needle decomposition
0.4
0.3
0.2
Tulasewa forest (1984)
0.1
Oct-89
May-90
Jan-90
Nov-90
Aug-90
1.1
1
Jun-91
Mar-91
Sep-91
Twig decomposistion
0.9
Mt/Mo
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Korokula forest (1979)
0.1
Oct-89
May-90
Jan-90
Nov-90
Aug-90
1.1
1
Jun-91
Mar-91
Sep-91
Twig decomposistion
0.9
Mt/Mo
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Koromani forest (1975)
0.1
Oct-89
May-90
Jan-90
Nov-90
Aug-90
Jun-91
Mar-91
Sep-91
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1.8
f®oæ
1.2
A
Tulasewa forest plot
D
1.2
Calcium
1
0.8
0.6
Magnesium
0.4 Phosphorus
Phosphorus
0.4
1
1
Mt/Mo * Ct/Co
Nitrogen
1.2
Calcium
0.8
Magnesium
0.6
Phosphorus
0
Jan-90
Calcium
0.6
0.4
Magnesium
Phosphorus
0.2
Potassium
0
0
Aug-90
Mar-91
Sep-91
May-90
Nov-90
Jun-91
Potassium
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time since incubation [years]
1.2
C
Koromani forest plot
E
Nitrogen
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
1.2
B
Korokula forest plot
1
2
F
Calcium
Nitrogen
Calcium
Mt/Mo * Ct/Co
0.6
0
0
1.4
2.5
Calcium
Magnesium
Potassium
Potassium
0
Oct-89
May-90
Nov-90
Jun-91
Jan-90
Aug-90
Mar-91
Sep-91
0.8
0.2
0.2
1.6
Nitrogen
1
Nitrogen
1.4
Mt/Mo * Ct/Co
1.6
1.5
1
0.5
Nitrogen
0.8
0.6
0.4
Magnesium
Phosphorus
0.2
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Potassium
Potassium
0
Jan-90
Aug-90
Mar-91
Sep-91
May-90
Nov-90
Jun-91
0
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
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A
C/N ratio
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55
B
50
C
45
A
B
C
40
A
B
A: Tulasewa forest
B: Korokula forest
C: Koromani forest
A
B
C
C
A
35
B
C
30
25
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Time [years]
A
B
C
1.2
A
B
A
C
1.4
1.6
1.8
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Litter standing crop [t ha-1]
£òp¥@ß9¥mà1óï6ïðñ ÷ïíJöHôJóöáâ¡ñ"3î
o
26
24
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*
*
o: Korokula
22
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20
18
o
+
+
16
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*
o
14
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* * o
+
o
12
*
o
o* +
* o +
+
+
10
+
8
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Cyclone Sina
6
Oct-89 Jan-90 May-90 Aug-90 Nov-90 Mar-91
*
o
+
Jun-91
Sep-91
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Total
Jan’90-Sep’90
Pre-cyclone mean (n=7)
10561
Standard deviation
2504
% of total
Jan’91-Jul’91
Post-cyclone mean (n=3)
17494
Standard deviation
2407
% of total
Jan’90-Sep’90
12493
Standard deviation
1482
% of total
Jan’91-Jul’91
21097
Standard deviation
3519
% of total
KOROMANI FOREST (Planted 1975)
Jan’90-Sep’90
13511
Standard deviation
1626
% of total
Jan’91-Jul’91
22531
Standard deviation
193
% of total
Needles
Wood
M. flowers
Cones
Seed
Undergrowth
2951
1230
27.9
607
666
5.7
52
44
0.5
389
954
3.7
3.2
5.5
0.0
6558
882
62.1
7437
1208
42.5
2967
1035
17.0
47
29
0.3
1100
457
6.3
5.0
7.1
0.0
5938
1591
33.9
9030
1284
72.3
704
368
5.6
315
84
2.5
1184
483
9.5
2.1
3.6
0.0
1257
700
10.1
11539
2369
54.7
4185
855
19.8
111
64
0.5
3352
1005
15.9
2.2
2.1
0.0
1908
552
9.0
8434
1078
62.4
1268
922
9.4
249
48
1.8
943
575
7.0
0.4
0.9
0.0
2617
1014
19.4
10871
1966
48.2
4670
2157
20.7
141
61
0.6
2604
1725
11.6
4.4
5.2
0.0
4241
1134
18.8
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Eô ó+ñíxñPìAî6ëUíñbì óñ íñbìlîðìlëUóñbïtëñÿì í ð+î6ëUódï ó óñ«íEñCìUïQó õ ì í ô ëìlìJíî ô ð íîï
ô ð/ïí ð ó+îó ô ð ð+ñò óîó ð+ñbë õ óîíEï6ìUïöóñ íEñCìAîð+ìAëUó+ñpïëñ õ ó+î ð îóñ
ìAî6ëUíñbìAïGðñòtëñ ; õ óî ë îóñP ìlî6ëUíñbìAïEö
N
Needles Jan’90-Sep’90
Standard deviation
Needles Jan’91-Jul’91
Standard deviation
Woody parts
Male flowers
Undergrowth Jan’90-Sep’90
Standard deviation
Undergrowth Jan’91-Jul’91
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Branches/twigs
Cones
Male flowers
Undergrowth
KOROMANI FOREST ( Planted 1975)
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Woody parts
Male flowers
Undergrowth
P
K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
0.409
0.017
0.019
0.001
0.068
0.011
0.901
0.034
0.212
0.015
9.4
0.8
610
67
31
2
0.877
0.045
0.306
0.853
0.056
0.004
0.036
0.060
0.141
0.051
0.148
0.109
0.794
0.002
0.147
0.298
0.213
0.007
0.088
0.227
9.2
0.5
680
42
32
0
0.528
0.003
0.026
0.001
0.112
0.006
0.235
0.037
0.157
0.011
0.857
0.106
0.051
0.008
0.131
0.038
0.580
0.125
0.236
0.029
0.478
0.036
0.021
0.004
0.049
0.004
0.763
0.050
0.298
0.017
12.5
1.8
443
24
14
2
0.783
0.085
0.240
0.430
0.793
0.761
0.037
0.002
0.015
0.020
0.035
0.036
0.088
0.011
0.055
0.077
0.057
0.119
0.731
0.017
0.203
0.068
0.314
0.551
0.285
0.035
0.090
0.113
0.236
0.294
11.3
0.4
445
24
21
2
0.434
0.050
0.011
0.003
0.092
0.018
0.709
0.038
0.210
0.016
10.2
1.2
632
62
16
2
0.802
0.060
0.379
0.817
0.933
0.046
0.003
0.027
0.044
0.049
0.102
0.034
0.071
0.059
0.083
0.705
0.009
0.244
0.345
0.733
0.215
0.009
0.102
0.172
0.235
11.5
1.0
764
33
22
1
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Difference in means of needle litter
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
B
Mn
Zn
Tulasewa pre- <> post-cyclone
Korokula pre- <> post-cyclone
Koromani pre- <> post-cyclone
<***
<***
<***
<***
<***
<***
<***
<***
ns
>***
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
<*
<*
ns
<***
ns
<***
<***
Pre-cyclone Tulasewa <> Korokula
Pre-cyclone Tulasewa <> Koromani
Pre-cyclone Korokula <> Koromani
<***
ns
>*
ns
>***
>***
>***
<***
<***
>***
>***
>**
<***
ns
>***
<***
ns
>**
>***
ns
<***
>***
>***
ns
Post-cyclone Tulasewa <> Korokula
Post-cyclone Tulasewa <> Koromani
Post-cyclone Korokula <> Koromani
ns
ns
ns
>***
>**
<***
ns
ns
ns
>***
>***
>*
<**
ns
>**
<***
<**
ns
>***
<**
<***
>***
>***
ns
'(*),+äBå)pçfåN¤pé 4 íEîð í î í ðñò óï6ì ÏEô óñíqñPìAî6ëUíñbì óñbìíñbì1 B ð 2X3 ó õ ô ëìlìJíî
ï6ìðñò+ëñ \ îó ëñì í ô ðïEí ð õ ó îíEï6ì «ô óìö
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
Pre-cyclone needle litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone needle litter
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone woody litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone woody litter
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone male flower litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone male flower litter
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone undergrowth litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone undergrowth litter
Standard deviation
12.0
4.9
64.7
7.6
3.0
4.9
12.4
1.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
34.6
4.7
49.3
6.9
0.6
0.2
4.2
0.7
0.4
0.6
1.5
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.2
2.9
0.3
2.1
1.1
10.7
4.9
1.5
2.4
6.0
0.9
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
7.4
1.2
7.4
1.3
26.8
11.8
59.0
9.5
1.5
2.4
6.0
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
15.2
2.2
32.5
1.0
6.3
2.6
15.8
2.1
0.9
1.4
3.6
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
10.3
1.7
13.6
1.8
Pre-cyclone total
Post-cyclone total
50.2
126.9
2.6
8.6
11.0
24.2
43.6
97.6
17.6
33.0
B
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.01
Mn
1.8
0.9
5.0
0.6
Zn
0.09
0.04
0.24
0.04
ã
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1 h ð 2X3 ó õ
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N
P
K
Ca
Mg
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone branch/twig litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone branch/twig litter
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone cone litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone cone litter
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
43.3
7.6
88.5
8.9
1.7
0.9
10.0
2.1
2.5
0.7
0.9
0.5
5.1
2.1
14.4
4.3
9.6
5.3
14.5
4.2
1.9
0.5
4.2
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.2
4.4
0.8
10.4
3.6
0.4
0.2
2.3
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.9
0.4
2.6
0.8
1.5
0.8
2.3
0.7
68.6
8.5
84.0
15.1
1.4
0.7
8.5
1.7
1.0
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.8
0.3
2.3
0.7
6.9
3.9
10.5
3.0
26.8
3.5
33.3
9.3
0.6
0.3
3.8
0.8
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.2
1.3
0.5
3.8
1.1
3.7
2.1
5.6
1.6
Pre-cyclone total
Post-cyclone total
62.1
128.4
2.8
6.2
7.4
17.6
78.7
105.6
33.2
46.7
B
0.11
0.03
0.13
0.03
Mn
4.0
0.7
5.1
0.8
Zn
0.13
0.03
0.23
0.03
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N
P
K
Ca
Mg
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Pre-cyclone woody litter
Standard deviation
Post-cyclone woody litter
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
36.4
4.5
86.0
9.3
8.4
4.0
27.6
8.9
2.0
0.4
1.2
0.5
24.4
9.5
39.6
10.6
0.9
0.2
4.9
0.6
0.6
0.3
2.0
0.6
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
1.3
0.5
2.1
0.6
7.7
1.3
11.7
5.9
1.6
0.8
5.2
1.7
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
2.2
0.8
3.5
0.9
59.6
7.0
76.6
13.7
5.4
2.6
17.7
5.7
0.9
0.2
0.5
0.2
19.2
7.4
31.1
8.3
17.6
2.3
23.2
3.4
2.3
1.1
7.4
2.4
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
6.1
2.4
10.0
2.7
Pre-cyclone total
Post-cyclone total
71.2
154.3
2.9
9.1
11.6
20.5
85.1
125.9
26.5
40.9
B
0.09
0.01
0.13
0.03
Mn
5.3
0.5
8.3
1.6
Zn
0.13
0.01
0.24
0.04
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P=8?:KCÎÎ<?Y<?ROKC69LMDJ>}DJTRMLM6S69:#AEeLc698}LM>?^"A9:IKJ4SLM>?B{TpDCA9:I4W6ZKCBN:LO>698;: Ç L ÈWLOKJ>4W69<[@*_|TVDJA9:I4W694
8[KC4g&:I:">G]?RMDJ6S69:I@GLO> Ç LOBJ<;A9:bhaij Zdsg&DC698G];A9:"\QKJ>?@]&DN4W6S\/^"_`ÎRMDJ>?:@?Ka6K k ÷H69DJBN:"698;:"AEeLc698G698;DN4S:
YZ:KJ4S<À9:@LM>ô=õpö?÷*øoÌ ðJù õfú ðSð TpDJA9:"4W694GLM>DJ698;:"A6SA9DJ]?LM^KCR=ÎDN<;>6SA9LO:"4IjP=8?:KC^"69<[KCRKJYZDJ<?>694
Ø=ý=þÔJÕæàC
=×}CØ
Litter fall [tonnes/ha]
áã;á
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
+: P < 2000 mm
*: P > 2000 mm
* *
*
*
+
*
+
+
0
+
+
+ + +
*
+
*+ +
5
10
15
Forest Age [years]
20
25
ÿä8å á ç % ékê
ëìAìíî õ ð ôô ëñ-=ëñdïæðî6ë/.ðíð õ ó+îíEïìAïëñë 6ëQÚGëOã;íî6ëUðGð+ñò-Ubíî6ìóUÞ4ë/æó
òë 8
£ íîíñbìlëUðìíòQð;æ"æó+îòëñ[ã>ìóXìfépíqðñCñbð ô îðëñ õ ð ôô ìJó+ìJð ô 1/-ö
90
Ca
Nutrient content [kg/ha]
80
70
60
N
50
40
Mg
30
20
K
10
0
P
0
2
4
6
8
10
Forest age [years]
12
14
16
ÿäxå á ç é ÝëBó PñbìAïtó õ ëBð`æîóñPìAî6ëUíñbìAïBëñæìfépíZäîíCåæaç`æ ô ó+ñí ô ëìlìJíî ô ðçíî;ä
õ óîíEï6ì-ðJã;íëñvìfépíGï6ìbò*ç õ óîíEï6ìUïö
Litter mass [tonnes ha-1]
25
*
*
20
+
15
10
* *
*
** *
*
5
0
0
*
*
+ *
*
+
5
*
+
+
* +
* *
*
*
Post-cyclone
* *
+
Pre-cyclone
+: Present study
*: Other studies
10
15
Forest Age [years]
20
25
ÿävå á ç é{ÝëBóPñbìAï>ó õ ô ëìAìíîQóñyìsébí õ óîíEï6ì 0 ó)óîä õ óîíEï6ì"ðJã;í õ ó+îr-=ëñdï
æ ðî6ë/. ðíð|ä ô ðñCìJð+ìAëUó+ñ õ óîíEï6ìUï\ëñóâ/ð+î6ëUódï\ìAîóIäë/æð ô æó*Pñbìlî6ëUí6ïöQébíxïó ô ëUòÞîíWã+îí6ïï6ëUóñ
ô ëñíqòíEïCEæ î6ë/.íEïGìsébíhð;æIæa&ët ô ðìlëUóñÞó õ ô ëìAìíEî
ëìfé õ ó+îíEïìðCã9íëñvìfépíGïìubòçXï6ëìí6ïö
ÔN,ÕqÖ;ÕC
=×}CØ9 -Ù#ÚÛ¡ÜÝbÞbÙ"ß5ÝàeÝ bC
á"!"#
'(*),+ä\å á çå # éÝ4ñbñbð ô ðëBóPñCìUïBó õ ô ëìlìJíî õ ð ôô 1lìépð 2X3 ðñ«ò1ð/ïïóJæëUðìíò ñPìAî6ëUíñbìîíCå
ìuP î6ñpï=ëñ ô ëìlìJíî õ ð ôô 1fèJãGépðH2X3 õ óî-=ëñdïbæðî6ë/.ðíð
ä ô ð+ñbìðìlëUóñpï8ó õ â/ð+îçëñ?ãXðCã9íëñ$ë 6ë
Ú ëO;ã íî6ëUðQð+ñòt-UbíEî6ìóÞ4ë/æóö
G
Location
Alt. P
Dry Age
[m] [mm] months
FIJI
Cyclone Sina excluded
Tulasewa
116 1800
Korokula
50
Koromani
90
Cyclone Sina included
Tulasewa
116 1800
Korokula
50
Koromani
90
Litter fall
Total Needle
N
Nutrient returns
Reference
P
K
Ca Mg
6
6
11
15
5.0
9.3
5.4
4.8 19.0 0.8
6.7 34.2 1.9
4.6 20.6 0.9
6
6
11
15
26.5
26.1
23.8
10.9 92 10
15.4 137 9
10.8 108 7
7
9
11
15
7
10
6
4-5
7-10
7-10
3.0
3.1
3.7
4.5
3.1
3.7
2.0
1.9
6.0
5.8
11
4
5
6
18.5
19.5
20.5
12.1
2.1
3.1
7.4
13.6
12.9
14.5
NIGERIA
Kaduna
610 1250
5
Afaka
610 1250
5
Ibadan
Ibadan
230 1330
230 1330
5
5
Ibadan
230 1330
5
PUERTO RICO
Luquillo
350 3360
Luquillo
220 3900
0
0
4.6 43.1 9.7 Present study
8.9 56.9 24.7
5.5 33.1 10.4
51 102
42 119
37 99
31 Present study
59
32
Kadeba(1991)
13.1 0.6
16.8 0.7
5.8 Kadeba & Aduayi {1985)
6.8
Egunjobi (1975)
1.9 7.3 0.4 6.9 11.4 2.7 Egunjobi & Fasehun (1972)
26.9 0.6 13.6 35.9 10.7
25.5 0.6 14.5 34.0 10.9 Egunjobi & Onweluzo (1979)
9.1
2.1
3.0 14.0 0.7
6.8
11.9
11.9 86.0 2.5
12.6
7.3 16.7
7.3 19.6
Lugo (1992)
3.4
9.6
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R"T{ç íð+îïö
Nutrient
U VW Y) X
N
P
K
Ca
a
b
r2
2.47( 0.07)
0.05 (0.01)
0.34 (0.25)
4.35 (0.64)
34.62 (0.76)
2.17 (0.11)
5.97 (2.82)
23.22 (7.22)
1.00
0.94
0.48
0.96
Nutrient
Mg
Mn
B
Zn
a
b
r2
1.42 (0.57)
0.21 (0.09)
0.0048 (0.0026)
0.0004 (0.0022)
10.20 (6.42)
1.65 (0.98)
0.0284 (0.0296)
0.1180 (0.0252)
0.75
0.75
0.62
0.01
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2X3 Location
FIJI
Tulasewa
Korokula
Koromani
Litter on the forest floor
Alt. P
Dry Age
[m] [mm] months
Total Needle N
P
K
Ca
116 1800
50 1800
90 1800
6
6
6
6 10.6
11 12.5
15 13.5
50 2300
50 2300
5
5
6 64.7
9.5 23.8
NIGERIA
Afaka
610 1250
5
Ibadan
230 1330
Ibadan
Ibadan
230 1330
230 1330
10.6
12.1
3.7
4.6
17.3
19.7
3.7
20.7
BRAZIL
Jari Florestal
Jari Florestal
AUSTRALIA
Beerburrum, A
TRINIDAD
Matura
Valencia
Melajo
Cumuto
20
2800
70 3300
200 3000
10 2500
PUERTO RICO
Luquillo
350 3360
Luquillo
220 3900
*: includes undergrowth
7
10
5
6
8
9
10
5 4-5
5 7-10
5
5
11
4
5
6
18.5
19.5
20.5
50
62
71
2.6 11.0
2.8 7.4
2.9 11.6
10.5
5.6
6.2
9.1
15.7
15.2
18.9
44 17.6 Present study
227 12.9 12.9 175 84.1 Chijioke (1980)*
160 4.8 11.9 76 21.5 Russell (1983)
53.1
66.7
18.1
2.1 14.9
2.4 15.8
0.4 8.9
88.7
13.3
2 47.3 39.4 13.8
0.7 10 24.1 5.2 Egunjobi & Fasehun (1972)
Egunjobi & Onweluzo (1979)
4.2
0
4 6.1
0
6 4.4
0
7 13.1
0 4-12 11.0
0
0
3.0
9.0
8.4
Reference
Mg
67 17 Kadeba & Aduayi {1985)
83 20.6
7 3.6 Egunjobi & Bada (1979)
Richards & Bevege (1967)
39
30
90
77
6.1
5.2
5.7 37
7.8
12.6
12.3 102
13.8
2.0 7.0 51 10.0 Cornforth (1970)
1.0 4.0 39 7.0
4.0 5.0 123 29.0
8.0 12.0 94 16.0
Lugo (1992)
1.8
6.5
3.8
9.8
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Plot
Code
Number
Depth
Start
30- 35 cm Dec/Jan 1989
90-110 cm Dec/Jan 1989
End
Remarks
Tulasewa
Forest
PU 20-2
2,4,6,8
1,3,5,7
Korokula
Forest
PU 09-5
2,4,6
1,3,5
19- 25 cm Jan 1990
37- 95 cm Jan 1990
Sep 1991 A-horizon, fine sand
Sep 1991 At bedrock, gravelly sandy loam
Koromani
Forest
PU 09-4
2,4
1,3
6,8
5,7
25- 30 cm
100 cm
25- 30 cm
80- 85 cm
Sep 1991
Sep 1991
Sep 1991
Sep 1991
Dec 1989
Dec 1989
Jul 1990
Jul 1990
Sep 1991 A/B horizon, clay-loam
Sep 1991 C horizon, RR, sandy loam
B horizon, sandy loam
C horizon, RR, sandy loam
B horizon, sandy loam
C horizon, clay loam
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Location
EC
Detection limit
Seawater
Natadola
pH
Na
K
Mg
Ca NH4
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Cl
HCO3 SO4 NO3 PO4
Si
Al Fe-T Mn N-T P-T
0.05
0.00 0.30 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
60850 8.34 10820 408 1356 392 0.26 20210
140 2754 0.05 0.39 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.03
Bulk precipitation, excluding cyclone events
Tulasewa
6 5.62 0.61 0.28 0.06
Korokula
8 5.50 0.80 0.13 0.06
Koromani
9 5.49 0.87 0.12 0.06
Oleolega
7 5.67 0.61 0.15 0.07
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.27
0.34
0.22
0.28
1.20
1.52
1.61
1.23
3.27
1.02
0.97
5.83
0.56
0.73
0.80
0.87
0.15
0.24
0.11
0.18
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.16
0.56
0.32
0.15
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
Pre-cyclone bulk precipitation
Tulasewa
8 5.57 0.66
Korokula
8 5.42 0.85
Koromani
9 5.50 0.99
Oleolega
7 5.85 0.63
0.12
0.09
0.09
0.11
0.27
0.25
0.15
0.23
1.33
1.55
1.62
1.18
5.71
1.18
1.00
9.84
0.57
0.68
0.63
0.70
0.17
0.10
0.09
0.14
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.13
0.34
0.22
0.12
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.32
0.11
0.10
0.12
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.07
Cyclone precipitation
Tulasewa
Korokula
100 5.19 15.95 0.65 2.02 0.67 0.12 29.16
Koromani
120 5.43 19.45 1.17 2.44 0.81 0.13 35.74
Oleolega
76 4.95 12.10 0.65 1.51 0.54 0.19 21.83
Not available
0.61 4.57 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.13 0.02
0.00 5.83 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.12 0.02
0.00 3.07 0.20 0.01 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.21 0.02
Post-cyclone bulk precipitation
Tulasewa
5 5.67 0.56
Korokula
8 5.64 0.70
Koromani
8 5.47 0.71
Oleolega
8 5.45 0.58
1.08
1.46
1.59
1.24
0.88
0.75
0.93
1.05
0.54
0.81
1.04
1.11
0.13
0.46
0.14
0.16
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.09
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.17
0.67
0.37
0.16
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
Marine component of bulk precipitation excluding cyclones [%]
Tulasewa
106
9 136
25
0
100
Korokula
102
24 162
33
0
100
Koromani
98 28 172
39
0
100
Oleolega
107
17 119
24
0
100
0
1
1
0
29
28
28
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Not available
87
0
6
83
0 14
97
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.24
0.15
0.14
0.18
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.07
0.08
Marine component of cyclone precipitation [%]
Tulasewa
Korokula
98 91 97 84
Koromani
98 62 98 86
Oleolega
97 68 97 78
Fe-T: Total Fe; N-T: Total N; P-T: Total P
0.26
0.48
0.32
0.34
0
0
0
100
100
100
33
>33
>33
JI
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60
EC [uS cm-1]
A
A
50 A
A: Tulasewa
B: Korokula
C: Koromani
40
30
B
20 AA A B
A
B
CB
CB
B
C
C
10
A B ABCAAA C B CA
C
A
B
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Rainfall amount [mm]
B
C
A
80
A
90
100
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Water and Nutrient Dynamics of Pinus caribaea Plantation Forests

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