how to find our meeting place

BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
HELL’S CANYON GEM CLUB
Serving the Valley for
61 YEARS
P.O. BOX 365
LEWISTON, IDAHO 83501
PURPOSE OF HELLS CANYON GEM CLUB, INC.
The purpose of this nonprofit, social club is to promote the rock hound hobby by providing opportunities for the collection, working and
displaying of gems and minerals, as well as educational programs in the field of geology.
MEETINGS: 2nd Friday of each month
Board Meeting 6 pm Regular Meeting 7 pm
VISITORS ARE ALWAYS WELCOME
Dues: Adult [per person] $15.00; Junior [under 18] Free with a responsible adult membership.
2013 BOARD OF DIRECTORS
President
Vice President
Secretary
Treasurer
Past President
Steve Rand
Mel Wilks
Marylou Northrup
Marilyn Sharp
Linn Enger
208-791-2325
208-301-3939
208-743-6944
509-758-4218
208-746-4957
1st Year Trustee
1st Year Trustee
2nd Year Trustee
Federation Director
Federation Delegate
Richard Peterson
Jerry Blemka
Betty Wilks
Jeremy Giard
Gail Giard
208-276-7077
509-758-7384
208-301-3939
509-758-2581
509-758-2581
HELLS CANYON WEBSITE: http://www.hellscanyongemclub.com
WEBMASTER: Rick Westerholm: hcgemclub@yahoo.com
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HOW TO FIND OUR MEETING PLACE
Page 1
BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE
Hello Rockhounds
Here we are finishing out another year. I would like to thank everyone for their help this year and look forward to
another year. I hope everyone is enjoying the holiday season, and will come join us at the next meeting for our
potluck and installation of officers for 2014. We will start at 6 p.m. at the Clarkston Grange everyone bring a main
dish and a desert or salad and enjoy. There will be a gift exchange for those that would like to participate bring a gift
receive a gift rock hound related. So once again everyone be safe as the weather turns to winter and be careful in
your shops and we will see everyone on the 13th of December at 6 p.m.
are
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Board Meeting November 13, 2013 ,6:30pm
Present were Steve Rand, Dan Cease, Linn Enger, Torch Yates, Lon & Marilyn Sharp, Jeremy Giard and Rick Westerholm
Minutes were approved as printed in the newsletter. Motion by Torch Yates, 2nd by Marilyn Sharp
Marilyn gave the Treasurer report and results of Gem Show. Small profit, much discussion of different ideas for show. Motion
to pay the bills was made by Torch, 2nd by Lon, approved.
Torch and Lon will be auditing the books and reporting at the next board meeting.
Rick discussed status of web site, he could use some help or someone else to take over the site.
Discussion on another meeting place.
No news on the Garnet claim.
General Meeting opened @ 7:10pm
New Members and Guests: Sam, Lilly and Abby Spenee, Travis & Linda Heath, Paul & Beth Hardin, William & Susan Liedkie
and Brian Bannan.
Torch and Linda Heath counted the ballots for officer elections
Marilyn gave a report on show- discussion of new ideas to improve show such as including other groups like the Gold
Prospectors and Metal Detector group.
Walla Walla club will have their auction next Tuesday evening.
We need a chairman for field trips and suggestions for new places to go.
Dec. meeting will be a potluck & start at 6pm. Bring a main dish and dessert. Bring a rock related gift if you want to exchange
gifts.
Discussion of a new building site. Geremy Giard, Dan Cease, Jerry Northrup, Steve Rand & Joe Schacher will meet to discuss
and look for a new building.
Meeting programs—Bruce will continue with his programs, looking for other ideas to give him a break, movies, classes, or?
Checkout the club Facebook page, any member can use the page.
Election results:
President
Steve Rand
Vice-President Mel Wilks
Secretary
Marylou Northrup
1st Yr Trustee Richard Peterson, Jerry Blemka
2nd Yr Trustee Betty Wilks
Past President Lynn Enger
Show & Tell: Donald Johnson brought Agates and Deschutes Jasper, Joe Schacher brought Utah quartz and an assortment of
jewelry he made, Bruce Borgelt brought a display box of agates, garnets and other stones from the Clearwater between
Lewiston and Kamiah, Travis Heath brought a “black rock” to be identified.
Door prize drawings were held.
(submitted by Marylou Northrup)
You might be a Rockhound if:
 When you go turkey hunting and you come back with a vest full of quartz crystals. However this is better than to go looking for
crystals only to find a bunch of turkeys there already
 Your rock shelves are more organized than your sock drawer, or for that matter any other thing in your house.
 Your husband gives you a colander and you are happy. Your sister in law sees the colander and thinks her brother gave you a
bad present.

You get a present in a nice sturdy box and you are more excited about the box.
Page 2
BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
Rock Tumbler Instructions - Guide to Rock Polishing
Coarse Grind
Inspect the rocks that you are about to tumble. Make sure that they are the same hardness and of various sizes. Remove any
rocks that are cracked, have deep voids or have extremely irregular shapes. These should be discarded or broken. Fill the barrel
2/3 to 3/4 full of high-quality rocks. (See our tumbling rough page for additional tips.)
Note: If you are tumbling rounded beach rocks or rocks that have been pre-tumbled and are satisfied with the shape of the
rocks, you may skip the coarse grind step and go straight to the fine grind. But if your rocks are broken, have jagged edges, or
you would like them to be a bit more rounded, put them through the coarse grind first.
The barrel must always be at least 1/2 full for the tumbler to operate properly. But don’t overload it! Barrels more than 3/4 full
(including grit and water) may be too heavy for your tumbler’s motor and there might not be enough space inside for the rocks to
tumble. A 3 pound tumbler has a motor designed to tumble a barrel that weighs up to 3 pounds, a 6 pound motor can handle a
barrel or two barrels weighing 6 pounds total, etc. If you’re not sure if the barrel is too full, weigh it after adding the water
Add the appropriate amount of tumbler grit according to the tumbler’s instructions, or use the chart below.
Add enough water to reach the bottom of the top layer of stones, but not so much
that they are covered. You want to see some of the rock above the water. See
photo to the right.
Use a paper towel to clean the inside and outside rims of the barrel and the edges
of the lid. Make sure the surfaces that will form the seal are clean and dry
Place the lid on the barrel and seal the barrel. Put the barrel on the tumbler and
start the motor. And we’re off!
Stick around for a few minutes to make sure the tumbler is running smoothly and
the barrel isn’t leaking. If the barrel is leaking, stop the machine, remove the lid and
re-clean the surfaces of the lid and barrel that must make the seal. Double-check
that they are clean and dry. Replace the lid securely and proceed. Also, check the
tumbler in a few hours again to make sure it’s still running smoothly. After this, it can probably be left unattended, but it’s not a
bad idea to check up on it every day or so.
If you have a double-barrel tumbler, you might need both barrels charged (loaded) for the tumbler to function properly. We
recommend filling both barrels with batches of coarse grind of the same hardness so that they can be combined later on. Then
you can have one barrel running a batch of fine grind while the other prepares more rough.
Let the tumbler run for 7 days, 24 hours a day. You can open the barrel to check the slurry (the muddy liquid inside) or to release
gas build-up (gas build-up is usually not a problem) occasionally if you like, but be sure to clean and dry the seal areas before
replacing the lid! After 7 days, stop the tumbler and open the barrel. It will look like a barrel of mud!
DO NOT POUR THE MUD OR THE USED GRIT DOWN A DRAIN. It can clog your plumbing system. Instead empty the barrel
into a plastic (not metal, it can mark the rocks) colander over a plastic bucket or a disposable container, like the bottom half of a
milk jug or 2-liter bottle. Rise thoroughly with a weak stream of water. Wear safety glasses while rinsing to protect your eyes
from a possible splash of muddy water. Now that you have rinsed the rocks, take a good look at them.
Virtually all of the shaping is done in this first step. The following steps only smooth the rock, not shape it, so the shape you see
now is what you will end up with if you continue to the fine grind. If you would prefer your rocks to be more rounded, you should
repeat this step with fresh coarse grit until they are shaped to your liking. It may take a few re-runs, but the extra wait is worth
the results. Don’t be in a rush! Quality takes time. We are picky. When we tumble most loads of rock that aren’t beach rocks or
pre-tumbled will go through the coarse grind at least twice. If some of the batch is ready to go on to the next step, you should set
aside these rocks to wait for the others to catch up.
If there are any rocks that have deep cracks or pits, these rocks should not be tumbled with the fine grind. Particles of the coarse
grit will get trapped in these voids and contaminate the next step, scratching the other rocks. Break these rocks and include
them with your next batch of coarse grind. If the cracks or pits are very shallow, it might be possible to tumble them out, but this
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
should only be done in the coarse grind. Don’t think that you can scrub the grit out; it’s next to impossible! Be safe and save
them for your next coarse batch.
If you are repeating the coarse grind, use fresh grit. The old grit can’t be reused because after seven days it breaks down too
much to be effective in shaping (yet will still effectively scratch rocks if it contaminates the fine grind). When charging the barrel,
you might need to add new tumbling rough to bring the volume of the barrel to at least 1/2 full. If you don’t have more rough, you
can use plastic pellets or ceramic media to bring the volume to 1/2 full.
If you are proceeding to the fine grind, first CLEAN the rocks, barrel, and lid THOROUGHLY. This cannot be stressed enough. If
you have grit or slurry left in the barrel or on the rocks when you proceed to the next step, you will contaminate the load and
have to start over with the previous step. The particles of leftover grit will scratch the rocks during the next step. While these
scratches may be very tiny, the end result could be that the rocks do not polish to a high shine. Thorough cleaning is very
important, so take your time and do a good job. You can use paper towels or an old toothbrush to clean the inside of the barrel.
Pay particular attention to the seal area and the bottom edges of the barrel - lots of gunk might be trapped here and will not only
contaminate your batch, but might cause the barrel to leak. If you opt to use a toothbrush, mark it as “Coarse grind only,” etc. so
that you remember what step it can be used for. You should have a separate toothbrush for each step; you don’t want to
contaminate the barrel the next time you are cleaning!
Step 2: Fine Grind
Once you have enough rocks for the fine grind, place them in a barrel and add fine grit as shown in the previous chart
Add enough water to reach the bottom of the top layer of stones, but not so much that they are covered. If necessary, add plastic
pellets to bring the volume of the barrel to at least 1/2 full. Check the seal area to be sure that it is clean and dry. Place the lid on
the barrel and seal the barrel. Place the barrel on the tumbler and start the motor. Again, stick around for a few minutes to make
sure the tumbler is functioning properly and the barrels aren’t leaking. Check back again in an hour, and periodically after that.
Let the fine grind run 24 hours a day for 7 days, then check the rocks. They should appear shiny when wet.
Step 3: Pre-polish
Once you have enough rocks for the extra fine grind/pre-polish step, place them in a barrel that has been thoroughly cleaned. (If
you do not clean the barrel and stone thoroughly a few pieces of grit from the previous step will contaminate your pre-polish that will produce scratches on your finished gemstones!)
At this step some people use plastic tumbling pellets to cushion the rocks. After your barrel is about 2/3 to 3/4 full of rocks and
pellets add water to slightly below the level of the rocks. Then add the extra-fine grit (sometimes called pre-polish) as shown in
the chart below, seal the barrel and you are ready to tumble.
Run the pre-polish step 24 hours a day for 7 days. When you open the barrel, the rocks, slurry and pellets will look like a funny
tapioca.
Now, gently pour the contents of the barrel into a colander. Rinse the rocks over a bucket or disposable container. (Remember:
don’t pour the mud or used polish down a drain!)
To easily separate the rocks from the pellets, you can put them in a small container of clean water. The pellets will float to the
top and can be skimmed off. The rocks should have a slight luster when dry.
To make sure that the rocks are ready for polishing, perform this simple test: take an old towel or piece of felt and barely
dampen it. Sprinkle a small amount of polishing powder on it and rub one of the rocks vigorously over the powder. If you see a
definite shine, the rocks are ready to proceed to the polishing step. If there is no shine, or if the rocks don’t show luster when dry,
you should repeat the pre-polish step, checking every couple of days, until the desired results are achieved.
Step 4: Polish
Clean the barrel, lid, and stones as before. Charge the barrel with stones, the appropriate amount of rock polish as indicated in
the table above, and water. Add plastic pellets for cushioning until the barrel’s volume is 2/3 to 3/4. Let the polish step run 24
hours a day for 10 days. The rocks should look shiny when dry. If the rocks have not polished to a high gloss or appear to have
a film on them, you may want to try burnishing them to see if they will gloss up a bit.
Step 5: Burnishing
Just as before, clean the barrel, lid, and stones. You should be an expert at clean tumbling by now. Then, gently place the
stones back in the barrel, and add soap according to the table above. Classic Ivory Soap is recommended - do not use a soap
that contains abrasive particles. Grate or thinly slice the bar until you have the appropriate amount. Do not use liquid soap, as
some of them contain oils that can harm the rubber barrel, break down the polish, and effectively un-polish your gems. Add
clean plastic pellets and water. Allow this mixture to run for 1-2 days.
When you open the barrel at the end of the burnishing step you will find a thick froth of suds. Under the suds are your sparkling
gems. Rise them with clean water, then dry them off. They should be finished!!!!
What is a Vibratory Tumbler?
Vibratory tumblers are small machines designed to polish rocks, small metal objects and other items with a rapid vibrating
action. They consist a small vibrating machine and a bowl that mounts on top of it. They are commonly used to polish tumbled
stones, preform cabochons, beads and sawn slab pieces.
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
How Do Vibratory Tumblers Work?
Rough rocks, abrasive grit and water are placed in the bowl on top of the vibrating machine (see photo at right). The bowl is filled
close to capacity with rock. Grit and water are added (see the instruction manual of your tumbler to determine the proper amount
of grit and water). A lid is then placed on the bowl, the lid is secured and the vibrating machine is turned on.
The bowl vibrates rapidly and that action produces a lot of friction between the vibrating rock particles - this is why a vibrating
tumbler works quickly.
The rocks do not "tumble" in the bowl but a circulating action develops that moves rocks
from the bottom of the bowl up to the surface along the outside edges of the bowl and then
back down to the bottom along the center post (see photo at lower right). The tumbling
action of a rotary tumbler that rounds the rocks is not produced.
The rough grind step is run for about a week. The fine grind, pre-polish and polishing steps
are run for just one or two days. The total time required to process a batch of rock is about
two weeks - about 50% less time than a rotary tumbler.
Some vibratory tumblers are sold with two bowls - one for the grinding steps and one for the
polishing steps. If you only receive one bowl it might be a good idea to buy a second bowl.
Silicon carbide grit from the grinding steps can become embedded in the walls of the plastic
bowl and scratch the rock during the polishing steps.
Advantages of Vibratory Tumblers
The main advantage of a vibratory tumbler is that it has the ability to polish rocks and other
objects very quickly. A rotary tumbler will require several days to do the pre-polish and
polishing steps for a batch of rocks but a vibratory tumbler can do each of these steps in just one or two days. This speeds
production. A final advantage is that the vibratory tumbler subjects the rocks to less impact than a rotary tumbler. This gentle
action is important when you are tumbling stones that break or bruise easily.
Disadvantage of Vibratory Tumblers
The disadvantage of a vibratory tumbler is that it does very little to change the shape of the rocks. It simply smooths their
surface. If your goal is to start with crushed rock that is angular in shape and produce nicely-rounded gemstones then a rotary
tumbler is the better machine to buy.
Producing Rounded Tumbles Quickly
Many people who process a lot of tumble-polished rocks run the grinding steps in a rotary tumbler and the polishing steps in a
vibratory tumbler. The rotary tumbler shapes the rough into nicely rounded shapes and the vibratory tumbler speeds them
through the polishing steps. Production time can be cut by 40 to 50 percent.
Polishing Preforms and Saw-Cut Shapes
Many people also use a vibratory tumbler to put the final polish on hand-cut cabochons or to smooth and polish saw-cut beads
and other shapes. These need very little shaping - just a smoothing and
final polish.
What is Tumbling Media?
The words "tumbling media" sound like news reporters assigned to write
stories about people who like to tumble, the exotic rock materials that they
work or the colorful gemstones that they produce. Tumbling media is not
quite that exciting but it can be very important to your tumbling success.
Tumbling media is a non-rock material placed into the barrel of your
tumbler to cushion the rocks from impact or to serve as a filler. The plastic
pellets and ceramic beads shown in the photo at right are examples of
rock tumbling media.
Rock tumbling media can significantly improve the results of your tumbling
and reduce the amount of time needed to convert rough rock into brightly
polished stones.
These small particles can deliver grit to hard-to-reach rock surfaces,
reduce impact forces in the tumbler barrel, cause rocks to tumble rather
than slide in the barrel, and serve as a filler when you don't have enough
rocks to properly fill the tumbler barrel.
Ceramic media and plastic pellets can be valuable additions to your rock
tumbling supplies kit. They can save electricity, conserve grit and make
you smile when you open your tumbler.
Here are four reasons to use plastic pellets or ceramic media:
Cushioning: To absorb impact energy in the tumbler
Particle Size Balancing: Add small particles to a load of large rocks
Filler: You don't have enough rough to fill the barrel properly
Improve Tumbling Action: Make the rocks in the barrel tumble better
This photo shows three examples of tumbling media.
Pictured from top to bottom are: plastic pellets, small
ceramic beads, large ceramic beads. Plastic pellets
are used to cushion the rocks from impact during the
polishing steps and ceramic beads are most often
used as a filler to bring the load of a tumbler up to
the recommended operating capacity of the barrel.
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
Once you decide that you can benefit from using media you will still have some decisions... Should you use plastic or ceramic?
Which size should you use? How many should you use?
These questions are difficult to answer because every barrel of tumbling rough is different. And, two batches of agate can have
different shapes, different particle sizes and different physical properties. Sometimes you must experiment - that's how you learn
and become an experienced tumbler operator. But, here are a few general ideas to get your started...
Cushioning Fragile Stones---Some types of rough such as Apache Tears, obsidian, amethyst and rose quartz can bruise
(develop tiny surface fractures from impact) in the tumbler. In a rotary tumbler, soft plastic pellets can absorb some of that
impact energy and protect your stones.
You don't have to add a lot of pellets - just one or two rounded tablespoons per pound of rough can reduce the impact forces
that occur in the barrel. Avoid the temptation to make your load 50% plastic pellets. If you do that you will significantly reduce the
amount of rock-to-rock grinding that occurs in the barrel - and your stones will make very little progress in the tumbler.
Keep in mind that one recipe will not work in every situation. Two different barrels of rough can contain different materials,
different particle sizes and different particle shapes. You may need to experiment to achieve optimal results.
Plastic pellets work well in a rotary tumbler, however, they do not work well in a vibratory tumbler. If your stones are getting
bruised in a vibratory tumbler we recommend ceramic pellets with a particle size that is smaller than the rough that you are
tumbling. These will fill the spaces between the rough and reduce the force of stone-to-stone impacts. Plastic pellets instead of
absorbing energy, will cause your rough to bounce around the bowl.
Particle Size Balancing---The rough in a properly loaded tumbler barrel will have a wide range of particle sizes. It might have
about 33% small rocks (1/4 to 1/2 inch), 33% medium rocks (1/2 to 1 inch) and about 33% large rocks (1 to 1-1/2 inches). This
particle size distribution is known as a "balanced load".
Grit and polish do their cutting when they are caught between hard pieces of rock in your tumbler. If your three-pound tumbler
barrel is loaded with a few large rocks there will be very few rock-to-rock contacts where grinding can occur. However adding
some small rocks to fill the spaces between the large rocks will significantly increase the number of rock-to-rock contacts in the
tumbler and result in more rapid grinding.
Ceramic media is often added when you don't have small size rough to balance the particle sizes in the tumbler barrel. Add just
enough media to fill the empty spaces between the larger rocks.
Filler---Do you have some really nice rough but not quite enough to bring your tumbler barrel up to the recommended 1/2 to 2/3
capacity? When you have that situation and are anxious to tumble, just add some large ceramic media and start tumbling.
(Plastic pellets do not work as well as ceramic for this type of "filler." The hard surfaces of ceramic media produce a better
grinding action.)
We use large ceramic cylinders for filler because: they are usually cheaper per pound, they last longer than small cylinders,
when they get smaller we use them where small cylinders are needed.
Improve Tumbling Action in the Barrel---If you have rough with lots of flat pieces (such as trim-saw slabs) or lots of very angular
pieces, they might slide in the barrel instead of tumbling. Adding a few ceramic cylinders might get those stones tumbling.
Ceramic cylinders act like roller bearings in the tumbler barrel. They get between flat and angular pieces of rough and increase
their motion. You don't have to add a lot - just a rounded tablespoon or two per pound of rough. Small cylinders work best
because they can more easily get between flat slabs and angular pieces.
How Long Will Ceramic Media Last?---Ceramic media is just a little more durable than agate or jasper. If you run them in coarse
grit, ceramic media will get smaller with every tumbler run. Small media might last just a few weeks in coarse grit. Large media
lasts a lot longer. Ceramic media work best in the fine grit, polishing or burnishing steps. Used only in those steps they will last
for a very long time.
Be careful when purchasing. Ceramic media is sold for a wide variety of purposes and some of it has embedded abrasive
grains. It should be smooth aluminum oxide and not contain any abrasive.
Don't Forget to Experiment---We hope the ideas above will help you decide when to use plastic pellets and ceramic media. Don't
be afraid to experiment. That's how you get experience and knowledge.
What Do We Use?---We stopped using plastic pellets a few years ago. We didn't like capturing them after each grit size and
storing them for next time. We think that it is a lot more efficient using ceramic media because you simply rinse it with the rocks
and use it with the next step. No more fishing for pellets and saving them in baggies.
We also use large ceramic cylinders most of the time. They cost less and last a lot longer. The only time we use small cylinders
is when we have serious cushioning concerns. Then we use large cylinders that have been reduced in size.
What are the best types of rock to polish?---Any rock with a Moh's hardness of 5 to 7 will generally polish well in a tumbler;
Agates and Jaspers are very suitable and come in many colors and patterns. Generally, if the rough rock has a glassy luster it
will tumble to a shine; if it has an earthy luster it will likely have an earthy luster after tumbling.
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
Compatible Tumbling Materials*
Your best results will happen if you tumble a single rock type in a batch, that is, all amethyst or all agates but if you want to mix
up your load, below are groups of stones that generally tumble similarly and with good results. There are stones that must be
tumbled alone - those are listed in best tumbled alone. These should never be run in a mixed batch, even with those listed in the
group.
Soft:
Soft + Brittle:
Amber, Chrysocolla, Malachite, Malachite/Azurite, Serpentine, Rhodochrosite, Varisicitle,
Smithsonite
Amazonite, Apatite, Azurite, Common Opal, Labradorite, Lazulite, Lazurite, Moonstone,
Peristorite, Rhyollite
Medium Hard: Diopside, Howlite, Jadeite, Olivine, Prehnite, Pyrite, Pyrolucite, Rhodonite, Sodalite, Unakite,
Hard + Crystalline:
Amethyst, Aquamarine, Citrine, Rose Quartz, Rutilated Quartz, Smokey Quartz, Quartz (Rock
Crystal), Tourmalated Quartz, Tourmaline
Adventurine, Brazilian Agate, Agatized Coral, Carnelian, Chalcedony, Dendritic Agate, Epidote,
Hard: Fire Agate, Jasper, Lace Agate, Moss Agate, Petrified Bone, Petrified Wood, Plume Agate,
Sagenite Agate, Tiger Eye
Very Hard: Ruby, Sapphire
Best Tumbled Alone: Apache Tears, Beryl, Cullet (glass), Garnet, Goldstone, Obsidians, Spinel, Topaz
What types of rock can't be tumbled?




Sedimentary rocks like sandstone, coal, limestone and shale are too soft or poorly cemented to polish
into shiny gems.
Metamorphic rocks that contain micas or have a "grainy" texture (slate, schist, gneiss) will break up
instead of becoming smooth.
Most Igneous rocks contain several different minerals that wear down at very different rates and wont
tumble uniformly.
Rocks with protrusions, voids or fractures don't tumble well as they tend to break during the finer grit
and polishing steps and end up scratching the others in the batch. Try breaking them into smaller pieces
with a rock hammer (safety first!) or just don't use.
Portions of this article came from http://rocktumbler.com/tips/using-the-right-tumbling-media/ and http://geology.com/rock-
tumbler/rock-tumbler-media.shtml
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You might be a Rockhound if:
 At your wedding ceremony, you accidentally claimed "all mineral rights" to your spouse.
 you have ever gone down a dirt road on a hunch
 You use rare specimens in the garden to hold the sprinkler down.
 You enrich your garden with soils sifted out of buckets taken from your favorite localities.
 Seven hours of heavy digging, breaking, and shoveling, at the mine, equals in exertion, ten minutes of lawn mowing to you.
Okay, maybe five.
 If your wish list for Christmas comes from a rockhound supply store.
 If you get a pair of knee pads and a tool belt for a present, and you aren't a carpenter or carpet layer.
 If when trying to explain to kids why they shouldn't judge people by their outward appearances, you use a geode as an
example.
 You have ever wished they made bigger buckets.
 You have ever given thought how to best carry two buckets, a shovel, a 10 pound sledge, and assorted small hand tools.
 If you consider geodes a present because you get to be the first to see what is inside.
 If in mocking you, you find your 3 year old grandson licking his finger wiping it across a rock and looking back at you to see what
he does next.
Page 7
BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
STANDING COMMITTEES
1. Bulletin Editor—Lynn Enger, Ed Shoemaker
GEM SHOW
1. Show Chairman---
COMMITTEES
2. Membership Chairman---Lon & Marilyn Sharp
2. Show Co-Chairman---
3. Juniors Chairman---Mike Horne
3. Show Treasurer---
4. Field Trip Chairman—
4. Dealer Chairman---
5. Program Chairman ---
5. Advertising Chairman---
6. Show & Tell Chairman---
6. Displays Chairman---
7. Claims Chairman---
7. Demonstrations Chairman---
8. Historian Chairman---
8. Floor Plan Chairman---
9. Library Chairman---
9. Silent Auction Chairman---
10. Sunshine Chairman---
10. Kids Corner---
11. ALAA---Linn Enger
(American Lands Access Association)
11. Admissions--12. Security---
==========================================================================================================
NFMS MEMBER CLUBS’ SHOW SCHEDULE
(Partial list)
Feb 8 & 9, 2014
Sat – 9 – 5
Sun – 9 – 4
Feb 14-16, 2014
Fri 9:30-5:30
Sat 9:30-5:30
Sun 9:30-5:30
March 1 & 2, 2014
Sat – 10 – 6,
Sun – 10 – 5
Mar 28 - 30, 2014
Fri 10–6, Sat 10–6
Sun 10–4
April 12 & 13
Sat 10–6, Sun 10–4
Whidbey Island Gem
Club
April 26 & 27
Sat 10–5
Sun 10–4
Lakeside Gem and
Mineral Society NFMS Mid Year Meeting
Oregon Agate and
Mineral Society
East King Co Rock Club
Rock Rollers Club of
Spokane WA
Yakima Rock & Mineral
Club
Oak Harbor Senior Center
51 SE Jerome Street, Oak
Harbor WA
OMSI
1945 SE Water Ave. Portland
OR 97214
Pickering Barn, 1730 - 10th
Avenue NW, Issaquah WA
98027, (across from Costco)
Spokane County Fair & Expo
Center, N.604 Havana
Spokane WA
Washington National Guard
Armory, 2501 Airport Lane,
Yakima WA
Benton County Fairgrounds
1500 South Oak Street
Kennewick WA
Keith Ludemann 360 675
1837 rock9@whidbey.net
Sonia Watt
soniawatt@yahoo.com or
Jim Urbaniak
nygiants1931@yahoo.com
Robin Feiner 206 579 8448
PO Box 2203 Redmond WA
98073
Contact: David Rapp 509
891 6533
showchair@rockrollers.org
Marti Sondgeroth
marthams@q.com
509 248 6401 evenings
Mary Lou Omstead
509 783 2798
PO Box 6652
Kennewick WA 99336
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DECEMBER BIRTHSTONES
The three birthstones associated with December are Tanzanite,Zircon, and Turquoise
TANZANITE
Tanzanite is the blue/purple variety of the mineral zoisite (a calcium aluminium hydroxy silicate)
discovered in the Mererani Hills of Manyara Region in Northern Tanzania in 1967, near the city of Arusha
and Mount Kilimanjaro. It is used as a gemstone. Tanzanite is noted for its remarkably strong trichroism,
appearing alternately sapphire blue, violet and burgundy depending on crystal orientation. Tanzanite can
also appear differently when viewed under alternate lighting conditions. The blues appear more evident
when subjected to fluorescent light and the violet hues can be seen readily when viewed under
incandescent illumination. Tanzanite in its rough
state is usually a reddish brown color. It requires
artificial heat treatment to 600 °C in a
gemological oven to bring out the blue violet of
the stone. Tanzanite is a rare gem. It is found
only in the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro.
Officially called "blue zoisite", it was marketed as
tanzanite by Tiffany & Co., who wanted to
capitalize on the rarity of the gem, then only
found in Tanzania, but who thought that "blue
zoisite" (which might be pronounced like "blue
suicide") wouldn't sell well. From 1967, an
estimated two million carats of tanzanite were
mined in Tanzania before the mines were
nationalized by the Tanzanian government in
1971.
Because it is relatively soft, tanzanite is most commonly set in necklaces and earrings. As tanzanite can
be less expensive than sapphire, it often was purchased as an alternative. However, it has increased in
popularity and now is valued more for its own beauty and brilliance than as a sapphire substitute.
The normal primary and secondary hues in tanzanite are blue and purple, not violet. Purple is a modified
spectral hue that lies halfway between red and blue. Tanzanite is a trichroic gemstone, meaning that light
that enters the stone is divided into three sections, each containing a portion of the visible spectrum. After
heating, tanzanite becomes dichroic. The dichroic colors are purple and blue. The hue range of tanzanite is
blue-purple to purple-blue.
ZIRCON
(Not to be confused with zirconia, cubic zirconia, or zirconium.)
Zircon (including hyacinth or yellow zircon) is a mineral
belonging to the group of nesosilicates. Its chemical name is
zirconium silicate and its corresponding chemical formula is
ZrSiO4. Zircon forms in silicate melts with large proportions of
high field strength incompatible elements. For example,
hafnium is almost always present in quantities ranging from 1 to
4%. The crystal structure of zircon is tetragonal crystal system.
Zircon is ubiquitous(existing or being everywhere at the same time : constantly
encountered : widespread) in the crust of Earth. It occurs in igneous
rocks (as primary crystallization products), in metamorphic rocks
and in sedimentary rocks (as detrital grains). Large zircon
crystals are rare. Their average size in granite rocks is about 0.1–0.3 mm, but they can also grow to sizes
of several centimeters, especially in pegmatites.
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
Because of their uranium and thorium content, some zircons
undergo metamictization(a natural process resulting in the gradual and
ultimately complete destruction of a mineral's crystal structure). Connected to
internal radiation damage, these processes partially disrupt the
crystal structure and partly explain the highly variable
properties of zircon. As zircon becomes more and more
modified by internal radiation damage, the density decreases,
the crystal structure is compromised, and the color changes.
Zircon is a common accessory to trace mineral constituent of
most granite and felsic igneous rocks. Due to its hardness,
durability and chemical inertness, zircon persists in
sedimentary deposits and is a common constituent of most
sands.
In geology felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements
that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are
relatively richer in magnesium and iron (ferric). It refers to those rocks rich in
silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter
elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium.
They are usually light in color and have specific gravities less than 3. The
most common felsic rock is granite. Common felsic minerals include quartz,
muscovite, orthoclase, and the sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars. In terms of
chemistry, felsic minerals and rocks are on the other end of the elemental
spectrum from the mafic minerals and rocks.
The term "felsic" combines the words "feldspar" and "silica".
Cubic zirconia (CZ) is the cubic crystalline form of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2).
The synthesized material is hard, optically flawless and usually colorless, but
may be made in a variety of different colors. It should not be confused with
zircon, which is a zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4). It is sometimes erroneously
called "cubic zirconium".
Zircon occurs in many colors, including red, pink, brown,
Because of its low cost, durability, and close visual likeness to diamond,
synthetic cubic zirconia has remained the most gemologically and
yellow, hazel, or black. It can also be colorless. The color of
economically important competitor for diamonds since commercial production
zircons can sometimes be changed by heat treatment.
began in 1976.
Depending on the amount of heat applied, colorless, blue, or
golden-yellow zircons can be made. In geological settings, the development of pink, red, and purple zircon
occurs over long periods of time, if the crystal has sufficient trace elements to produce color centers. Color
in this red or pink series is annealed in geological conditions above the temperature about 350 °C.
Colorless specimens that show gem quality are a popular substitute for diamond and are also known as
"Matura diamond".
The zircon name derives from the Persian zargun , meaning golden-colored. Red zircon is called
"hyacinth", from the flower hyacinthus, whose name is of Ancient Greek origin.
TURQUOISE
The name turquoise”Turkish stone”, originated in the thirteenth
century and describes one of the oldest known gemstones.
Turquoise varies in color from greenish blue, through robin's
egg-blue, to sky blue shades and its transparency ranges from
translucent to opaque. Turquoise is plentiful and is available in a
wide range of sizes. It is most often used for beads, cabochons,
carvings, and inlays. Although its popularity fluctuates in fashion,
it is a perennial favorite in the American Southwest.
Turquoise is a mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper
and aluminum. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has
been prized as a gem and ornamental stone for thousands of years
owing to its unique hue. In recent times, turquoise, like most other
opaque gems, has been devalued by the introduction of treatments,
imitations, and synthetics onto the market.
Even the finest of turquoise is fracturable, reaching a maximum
hardness of just under 6, or slightly more than window glass.
Characteristically a cryptocrystalline mineral, turquoise almost never
forms single crystals and all of its properties are highly variable.
Its streak is a pale bluish white and its fracture is conchoidal, leaving
a waxy luster. Despite its low hardness relative to other gems,
turquoise takes a good polish. Turquoise may also be peppered with
flecks of pyrite or interspersed with dark, spidery limonite veining.
As a secondary mineral, turquoise apparently forms by the action of
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
percolating acidic aqueous solutions during the weathering and oxidation of pre-existing minerals. For
example, the copper may come from primary copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite or from the secondary
carbonates malachite or azurite; the aluminum may derive from feldspar; and the phosphorus from apatite.
Climate factors appear to play an important role as turquoise is typically found in arid regions, filling or
encrusting cavities and fractures in typically highly altered volcanic rocks, often with associated limonite
and other iron oxides. In the American southwest turquoise is almost invariably associated with the
weathering products of copper sulfide deposits in or around potassium feldspar bearing porphyritic
intrusives. In some occurrences alunite, potassium aluminium sulfate, is a prominent secondary mineral.
Typically turquoise mineralization is restricted to a relatively shallow depth of less than 20 meters (66 ft),
although it does occur along deeper fracture zones where secondary solutions have greater penetration or
the depth to the water table is greater.
Arizona is currently the most important producer of turquoise by value. Several mines exist in the state,
two of them famous for their unique color and quality and considered the best in the industry: the Sleeping
Beauty Mine in Globe, and the Kingman Mine that operates alongside a copper mine outside of the city.
Nevada is the country's other major producer, with more than 120 mines which have yielded significant
quantities of turquoise. Unlike elsewhere in the US, most Nevada mines have been worked primarily for
their gem turquoise and very little has been recovered as a byproduct of other mining operations. Nevada
turquoise is found as nuggets, fracture fillings and in breccias as the cement filling interstices between
fragments. Because of the geology of the Nevada deposits, a majority of the material produced is hard and
dense, being of sufficient quality that no treatment or enhancement is required. While nearly every county
in the state has yielded some turquoise, the chief producers are in Lander and Esmeralda Counties.
Most of the turquoise deposits in Nevada occur along a wide belt of tectonic activity that coincides with the
state's zone of thrust faulting. It strikes about N15°E and extends from the northern part of Elko County,
southward down to the California border southwest of Tonopah. Nevada has produced a wide diversity of
colors and mixes of different matrix patterns, with turquoise from Nevada coming in various shades of blue,
blue-green, and green. Some of this unusually colored turquoise may contain significant zinc and iron,
which is the cause of the beautiful bright green to yellow-green shades. Some of the green to green yellow
shades may actually be variscite or faustite, which are secondary phosphate minerals similar in
appearance to turquoise.
A significant portion of the Nevada material is also noted for its often attractive brown or black limonite
veining, producing what is called "spiderweb matrix". While a number of the Nevada deposits were first
worked by Native Americans, the total Nevada turquoise production since the 1870s has been estimated at
more than 600 tons, including nearly 400 tons from the Carico Lake mine. In spite of increased costs, small
scale mining operations continue at a number of turquoise properties in Nevada, including the Godber,
Orvil Jack and Carico Lake Mines in Lander County, the Pilot Mountain Mine in Mineral County, and
several properties in the Royston and Candelaria areas of Esmerelda County.
In an attempt to recoup profits and meet demand, some American turquoise is treated or enhanced to a
certain degree. These treatments include innocuous waxing and more controversial procedures, such as
dyeing and impregnation. There are however, some American mines which produce materials of high
enough quality that no treatment or alterations are required.
The most common imitation of turquoise encountered today is dyed howlite and magnesite, both white in
their natural states, and the former also having natural (and convincing) black veining similar to that of
turquoise. Dyed chalcedony, jasper, and marble is less common, and much less convincing. Other natural
materials occasionally confused with or used in lieu of turquoise include:variscite and faustite; chrysocolla
(especially when impregnating quartz); lazulite; smithsonite; hemimorphite; wardite; and a fossil bone
ortooth called odontolite or "bone turquoise", colored blue naturally by the mineral vivianite.
Material treated with plastic or water glass is termed "bonded" or "stabilized" turquoise. This process
consists of pressure impregnation of otherwise unsaleable chalky American material by epoxy and plastics
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
(such as polystyrene) and water glass (sodium silicate) to produce a wetting effect and improve durability.
Plastic and water glass treatments are far more permanent and stable than waxing and oiling, and can be
applied to material too chemically or physically unstable for oil or wax to provide sufficient improvement.
Conversely, stabilization and bonding are rejected by some as too radical an alteration.
The use of Prussian blue and other dyes (often in conjunction with bonding treatments) to "enhance"—that
is, make uniform or completely change—color is regarded as fraudulent by some purists, especially since
some dyes may fade or rub off on the wearer. Dyes have also been used to darken the veins of turquoise.
Perhaps the most extreme of treatments is "reconstitution",
wherein fragments of fine turquoise material, too small to be
used individually, are powdered and then bonded with resin to
form a solid mass. Very often the material sold as
"reconstituted" turquoise is artificial, with little or no natural
stone, made entirely from resins and dyes. In the trade
"reconstituted" turquoise is often called "block" turquoise or
simply "block."
Since finer turquoise is often found as thin seams, it may be
glued to a base of stronger foreign material as a means of
reinforcement. These stones are termed "backed," and it is
standard practice that all thinly cut turquoise in the
Some natural blue to blue-green materials, such as
Southwestern United States is backed. Native indigenous
this botryoidal chrysocolla with quartz drusy, are
peoples of this region, because of their considerable use and
occasionally confused with, or used to imitate
wearing of turquoise, have found that backing increases the
turquoise.
durability of thinly cut slabs and cabs of turquoise. They
observe that if the stone is not backed it will often crack. Early
backing materials included the casings of old model T batteries, old phonograph records, and more
recently epoxy steel resins. Backing of turquoise is not widely known outside of the Native American and
Southwestern United States jewelry trade. Backing does not diminish the
value of high quality turquoise, and indeed the process is expected for
most thinly cut American commercial gemstones.
Being a phosphate mineral, turquoise is inherently fragile and sensitive
to solvents; perfume and other cosmetics will attack the finish and may
alter the color of turquoise gems, as will skin oils, as will most
commercial jewelry cleaning fluids. Prolonged exposure to direct sunlight
may also discolor or dehydrate turquoise. Care should therefore be taken
when wearing such jewels: cosmetics, including sunscreen and hair
spray, should be applied before putting on turquoise jewelry, and they
should not be worn to a beach or other sun-bathed environment. After
use, turquoise should be gently
cleaned with a soft cloth to avoid a
buildup of residue, and should be
stored in its own container to avoid
scratching by harder gems.
Turquoise can also be adversely
affected if stored in an airtight
container.
The iconic gold burial mask of
Tutankhamun, inlaid with
turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian
and colored glass.
Turquoise mosaic mask of
Xiuhtecuhtli, the aztec god of fire.
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BOULDER BUSTER Volume #48 Issue # 12, 2013
Lapis lazuli LAP-iss LAZ-zew-ly/lee,) (sometimes abbreviated to lapis) is a relatively rare semi-precious
stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense blue color. Lapis is a
rock consisting mostly of the mineral lazurite and commonly contains pyrite
and calcite, among other minerals. It sometimes has a greenish or violet tint
and the presence of pyrite often creates lovely metallic sparkles on the
surface. Calcite sometimes produces white streaks in the stone. Well-formed
crystals of pure lazurite are rare and valuable. Lazurite is sometimes confused
with lazulite but they are different minerals; lazurite is softer and lighter. In
addition, azurite is very similar in color to lapis, but is also a different mineral
that is associated with malachite. Sodalite is a similar blue stone, but it lacks
the occurrence of pyrite. Varieties of Chilean lapis contain more calcite; the
Afghanistan variety contains pyrite and is more highly prized.
Lapis lazuli is a gemstone of the kind that might have come straight out of the
Arabian Nights: a deep blue with golden inclusions of pyrites which shimmer
like little stars.
This opaque, deep blue gemstone has a grand past. It was among the first
gemstones to be worn as jewelry and worked on. At excavations in the ancient
centers of culture around the Mediterranean, archaeologists have again and
again found among the grave furnishings decorative chains and figures made of lapis lazuli – clear
indications that the deep blue stone was already popular thousands of years ago among the people of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, Greece and Rome.
The euphonious name is composed from 'lapis', the Latin word for stone, and 'azula', which comes from the
Arabic and means blue. All right, so it's a blue gemstone - but what an incredible blue! The worth of this
stone to the world of art is immeasurable, for the ultramarine of the Old Masters is nothing other than
genuine lapis lazuli. Ground up into a powder and stirred up together with binding-agents, the marble-like
gemstone can be used to manufacture radiant blue watercolors, tempera or oil-paints. Before the year
1834, when it became possible to produce this color synthetically, the only ultramarine available was that
valuable substance made from genuine lapis lazuli that shines out at us from many works of art today.
Many pictures of the Madonna, for example, were created using this paint. But in those days, ultramarine
blue was not only precious and so intense that its radiance outshone all other colors; it was also very
expensive. But unlike all other blue pigments, which tend to pale in the light, it has lost none of its radiance
to this very day. Nowadays, the blue pigment obtained from lapis lazuli is mainly used in restoration work
and by collectors of historical paints.
As they did more than 5000 years ago, the best raw stones still come from the steep Hindu Kush in the
north-east of Afghanistan. The lumps of blue rock, extracted from the inhospitable mountains by blasting,
are brought down into the valley in the summer months by mules. In smaller amounts, lapis lazuli is also
found in Italy, Mongolia, the USA and Canada, Myanmar and Pakistan, but in really good qualities it is rare
all over. That is why the prices of jewelry with lapis lazuli vary very widely, from luxurious to quite
inexpensive. The prices of this gemstone are largely dependent on the beauty and intensity of the color.
The most popular is an intense, deep blue. Finely distributed crystals of pyrites which shimmer in gold and
look like sequins will increase the value of the gemstone, whilst a restless, rough or blotchy grain will
reduce it.
Much of what is sold as lapis is an artificially dyed jasper from Germany that shows colorless specks of
clear, crystallized quartz and never the gold like flecks of pyrite that are characteristic of lapis lazuli.
Most simulants (38 different types of false lapis)for lapis lazuli can be seen with the naked eye or with aid
of only a hand lens to be virtually single phase materials whereas lapis lazuli can be seen to be made up of
more than one mineral.
=========================================================================================================
Sooooooo, You want to buy a “blue stone” at a rock show, how would you tell the difference between
Turquoise, Lazurite & Lapis ??????
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Lies You’ve Likely Heard and the Truths that will Set You Free
http://www.marcandangel.com/2013/12/02/12-lies-people-love-to-tell-you/#more-688
1. What you need in life is comfort and safety.
If you want to make an impact, big or small, get comfortable with being uncomfortable. All growth begins at the end of your comfort
zone. Maybe the thing you’re scared of is exactly what you should do. Sometimes life is about risking it all for a dream no one can
see but you.
2. You have way too much to lose.
In the end, you will not regret the things you have done nearly as much as the things you have left undone. It’s always better to be
left with a few “oh wells,” than a bunch of “what ifs.” It’s better to have a lifetime full of experiences and mistakes you learned from,
rather than a heart full of regrets and empty dreams. Someday you will want to look back at your life and say, “I can’t believe I did
that!” instead of, “Gosh, I wish I would have…”
3. Your dream is impossible.
When a dream matters enough to a person, that person will find a way to achieve what at first seemed impossible. Let that person be
YOU. It’s kind of fun to do the impossible. Go after your dream, no matter how unattainable others tell you it is. What’s impossible to
them may not be impossible for you.
4. Being self-centered is always wrong.
You must choose yourself and live your life from beginning to end; no one else can do it for you. Claiming full control over your
health, dreams, and well-being are some of the areas in your life where you get to be a little selfish and not feel bad about it. If you
want to reach your goals, you have to be the center of this part of your journey. You have to make it work for you and you alone. It’s
not selfishness, it’s self-care and self-improvement. Anything less is a setup for failure.
5. You need the approval of others.
People are sometimes too quick to judge, but slow to correct themselves. Don’t be one of them. Focus on your own growth, goals,
and self-worth. Leave people to their opinions and judgments. Let them respect you for who you are, and not for who they want you
to be… Or let them walk away if they choose. Either way, they can’t harm you; it’s their understanding that is faulty, not yours.
6. The strongest, happiest people have fewer problems.
Strength doesn’t come from what you can do; it comes from overcoming the things you once thought you couldn’t do. When you are
at your lowest point, you are open to the greatest positive change. Happiness is not the absence of problems, but the strength to deal
with them. The strongest people are the ones who feel pain, accept it, learn from it, and fight through it. They turn their wounds into
wisdom.
7. Situations are either positive or negative.
The Chinese symbol for the word “crisis” is written using two strokes of a pen. One stroke stands for danger, and the other for
opportunity. In other words, in a crisis, beware of the danger, but also recognize the opportunity. Life always balances itself out.
Everything that happens is neither positive nor negative; it just depends on your perspective.
8. Perfect relationships exist.
The love of your life isn’t perfect, you aren’t either, and the two of you will never be perfect. But if you can make each other laugh
once in awhile, cause each other to think twice about the sweetness of life, and both admit to being human and making mistakes, your
relationship is something special. No, you two may not always choose the most poetic words, and there will likely be inconsiderate
slip-ups on occasion, but that’s what makes your bond real. Smile when they make you happy, speak up when they make you mad,
and miss them when they’re gone. Love hard when there is love to be had. Perfect love doesn’t exist, but true love does, and it’s
worth the effort.
9. Love is an obligation.
Love between two people comes because both people want to share their love, not because YOU want it from the other person. Your
family, friends, co-workers, partner – they all love you because they choose to, not because you want them to. Love is meant to be
felt, enjoyed and lived, not to be forced on anyone.
10. You can’t be kind to everyone.
Kindness is not to be mistaken for weakness, nor forgiveness for acceptance. It’s about knowing resentment is not on the path to
happiness. Having confidence and class is the ability to walk away from a bad situation with a smile on your face and forgiveness in
your heart.
11. You need more to be happy.
There are two ways of being rich: One is to have all you want, the other is to be satisfied with what you have. Accept and appreciate
things now, and you’ll find more happiness in every moment you live. Happiness comes when you stop complaining about the troubles
you have and offer thanks for all the troubles you don’t have. And remember, you have to fight through some bad days to earn the
best days of your life. (Read The How of Happiness.)
12. It’s too late.
Anyone can run away; it’s super easy. Facing issues and working through them makes you strong. Focus on your dreams, not your
problems. It’s not too late. A hundred disappointments in the past can’t equal the power of one positive action right now. Talk is
cheap; action is priceless. Go for it! Give yourself another chance.
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