Source mechanism of Vulcanian degassing at Popocatépetl

Transcription

JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 110, B07301, doi:10.1029/2004JB003524, 2005
Source mechanism of Vulcanian degassing at Popocatépetl
Volcano, Mexico, determined from waveform inversions of very
long period signals
Bernard Chouet and Phillip Dawson
U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, USA
Alejandra Arciniega-Ceballos
Instituto de Geofisica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
Received 4 November 2004; revised 2 March 2005; accepted 15 March 2005; published 6 July 2005.
[1] The source mechanism of very long period (VLP) signals accompanying volcanic
degassing bursts at Popocatépetl is analyzed in the 15–70 s band by minimizing the
residual error between data and synthetics calculated for a point source embedded in a
homogeneous medium. The waveforms of two eruptions (23 April and 23 May 2000)
representative of mild Vulcanian activity are well reproduced by our inversion, which
takes into account volcano topography. The source centroid is positioned 1500 m below
the western perimeter of the summit crater, and the modeled source is composed of a
shallow dipping crack (sill with easterly dip of 10) intersecting a steeply dipping crack
(northeast striking dike dipping 83 northwest), whose surface extension bisects the
vent. Both cracks undergo a similar sequence of inflation, deflation, and reinflation,
reflecting a cycle of pressurization, depressurization, and repressurization within a time
interval of 3–5 min. The largest moment release occurs in the sill, showing a maximum
volume change of 500–1000 m3, pressure drop of 3–5 MPa, and amplitude of recovered
pressure equal to 1.2 times the amplitude of the pressure drop. In contrast, the
maximum volume change in the dike is less (200–300 m3), with a corresponding pressure
drop of 1–2 MPa and pressure recovery equal to the pressure drop. Accompanying these
volumetric sources are single-force components with magnitudes of 108 N, consistent with
melt advection in response to pressure transients. The source time histories of the
volumetric components of the source indicate that significant mass movement starts within
the sill and triggers a mass movement response in the dike within a few seconds. Such
source behavior is consistent with the opening of a pathway for escape of pent-up gases
from slow pressurization of the sill driven by magma crystallization. The opening of this
pathway and associated rapid evacuation of volcanic gases induces the pressure drop.
Pressure recovery in the magma filling the sill is driven by diffusion of gases from the
resulting supersaturated melt into bubbles. Assuming a penny-shaped crack at ambient
pressure of 40 MPa, the observed pressure and volume variations can be modeled with the
following attributes: crack radius (100 m), crack aperture (5 m), bubble number density
(1010 –1012 m3), initial bubble radius (106 m), final bubble radius (105 m), and net
decrease of gas concentration in the melt (0.01 wt %).
Citation: Chouet, B., P. Dawson, and A. Arciniega-Ceballos (2005), Source mechanism of Vulcanian degassing at Popocatépetl
Volcano, Mexico, determined from waveform inversions of very long period signals, J. Geophys. Res., 110, B07301,
doi:10.1029/2004JB003524.
1. Introduction
[2] Popocatépetl Volcano is a large, glacier-clad, 5452 m
high composite volcano, located 60 km southeast of Mexico
City in the central region of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic
Belt. Its last major Plinian eruption occurred circa 822 –
Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union.
0148-0227/05/2004JB003524$09.00
823 A.D. [Siebe et al., 1996]. During the past 70 years,
volcanic activity was limited to mild fumarolic emissions
through vents in the crater. Then the fumarolic activity
began to increase in 1993, heralding renewed unrest.
Seismic activity, initially monitored with a single threecomponent short-period (1 Hz) seismometer located 5 km
north of the crater (station PPIG in Figure 1), significantly
increased in October 1994. A swarm of volcano-tectonic
(VT) earthquakes, followed by sustained tremor accompa-
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Figure 1. Map of summit area of Popocatépetl Volcano showing locations of three-component
broadband stations (solid dots) used in our experiment. Stations indicated by open circles were
inoperative during the time of this study. Station PPIG (open square) is a permanent station of the national
seismic network. Contours represent 100 m elevation intervals. The inset shows the location of
Popocatépetl among volcanoes (triangles) of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
nying a large ash plume, marked the reawakening of
Popocatépetl on 21 December 1994 [Arciniega-Ceballos
et al., 2000]. This renewal of activity launched a program of
systematic volcano monitoring [Comité Cientifico Asesor
CENAPRED-UNAM, 1995; Love et al., 1998; Goff et al.,
1998] and the rapid preparation of a volcanic hazards
assessment and hazards zonation map [Macias et al., 1995].
[3] Since December 1994, eruptive activity at Popocatépetl has been dominated by passive fumarolic emissions,
interrupted by episodic more energetic emissions of ash and
gas through vents in the summit crater, and dome formation
and destruction within the crater. In late March 1996, a lava
dome was first observed in the crater. This dome was
partially destroyed on 30 April 1996, when a large eruption
initiated a long phase of repetitive dome-building and
dome-destroying episodes that continued through March
1999 [Arciniega-Ceballos et al., 2003]. Activity remained
limited to emissions of ash and gas and intermittent lava
effusions during the next twenty months, following which
explosive activity resumed with a large dome-destroying
event on 17 December 2000. Dome formation and dome
destruction activities persist to the present.
[4] The most common eruptive activity involves the
emissions of ash-laden gases. These exhalations range in
intensity from small, short-lived puffs, which may rise a few
hundred meters above the crater rim, to larger plumes that
may reach up to 5 km above the crater and blanket the entire
summit area lightly with ash. Of note is the persistent low
activity of VT earthquakes contrasting the high rates of
long-period (LP) event production accompanying eruptive
activity [Arciniega-Ceballos et al., 2003]. LP events and
tremor episodes at Popocatépetl are usually characterized
by very emergent onsets and correlate in time with
degassing and with the emplacement of lava domes. Very
long period (VLP) signals have also been observed to
systematically accompany ash emissions and Vulcanian
explosions, consistent with the broadband character of
the seismicity accompanying degassing activity at Popocatépetl [Arciniega-Ceballos et al., 1999; Cruz-Atienza et
al., 2001; Arciniega-Ceballos et al., 2003].
[5] Broadband observations of VLP seismicity associated
with volcanic activity are not new, and examples from many
volcanoes around the world point to the ubiquitous nature of
these signals under a variety of volcanic conditions
[Kawakatsu et al., 1992, 1994; Neuberg et al., 1994; Uhira
and Takeo, 1994; Kaneshima et al., 1996; Ohminato and
Ereditato, 1997; Ohminato et al., 1998; Dawson et al.,
1998; Rowe et al., 1998; Chouet et al., 1999; Kawakatsu et
al., 2000; Legrand et al., 2000; Nishimura et al., 2000;
Kumagai et al., 2001; Hill et al., 2002; Tameguri et al.,
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2002; Hidayat et al., 2002; Chouet et al., 2003; Aster et al.,
2003]. There are, however, relatively few published studies
of source mechanism of volcanic activity based on systematic inversions of VLP waveforms [Ohminato et al., 1998;
Nishimura et al., 2000; Kumagai et al., 2001; Chouet et al.,
2003], and apart from limited investigations by Uhira and
Takeo [1994] and Tameguri et al. [2002], no such studies
have yet been made to shed light on the fundamental
mechanisms underlying Vulcanian activity. The proximity
of Popocatépetl to Mexico City and other populated areas
underscores the need for a better understanding of the
source processes of eruptive activity and associated hazards
at this volcano [Macias et al., 1995; Siebe and Macias,
2004]. Accordingly, detailed broadband measurements were
obtained at Popocatépetl for about six months starting in
November 1999 with the specific objective to elucidate the
source mechanism and mass transport phenomena associated
with Vulcanian eruptions.
[6] In this paper, we use the linear inversion method of
Ohminato et al. [1998] to quantify the source mechanism of
VLP waveforms observed during these eruptions. Synthetic
waveforms are constructed by a superposition of impulse
responses obtained for six moment tensor components and
three single-force components applied at a point source
embedded in the three-dimensional (3-D) edifice of Popocatépetl. We begin with a brief description of the broadband
network and data recorded during the experiment, and
proceed with an application of the inversion method to
these data. We follow with a discussion of the implications
of the source mechanism for the conduit geometry at
Popocatépetl and transport dynamics associated with its
Vulcanian eruptions.
2. Broadband Seismic Network
[7] Our data were recorded by a network of 15 threecomponent broadband seismometers (see Figure 1). The
receiver layout was selected to provide homogeneous
coverage in both azimuth and distance for sources located
in the top 2 km of edifice below the summit crater. The
network features: (1) a ring of seven sensors surrounding
the edifice at elevations between 4200 and 4500 m and
ranging in distance between 1.6 and 2.4 km from the
active crater and (2) eight sensors distributed along four
profiles extending northward, westward, southwestward,
and southward from the summit, at elevations between
3300 and 4200 m, and distances ranging between 2.6 and
5.4 km from the crater. Sites for seismic sensor installation in the summit area of Popocatépetl were significantly
limited by difficulties of access and logistics involved in
station maintenance. Eleven sites were equipped with
Guralp CMG-3ESP (0.02 – 100 s) seismometers, three
featured Guralp CMG-3T (0.02 – 100 s) seismometers,
and one featured a Strekeisen STS-2 (0.02– 120 s) sensor.
Data were recorded by 11 Guralp Storage Acquisition
Module (SAM), 32-bit digital recorders, 3 Nanometrics
Orion, 24-bit recorders, and 1 Reftek, 24-bit recorder,
each operating in continuous mode at 100 samples s1
channel1. All the data loggers used a Global Positioning
System (GPS) time base with an accuracy of 5 ms.
[8] All the receivers were positioned with GPS with an
accuracy of 5 cm in absolute location. The orientation of
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horizontal components was obtained by field measurements
with compass and are resolved with a precision of 5. The
entire network operated from 26 November 1999 through
31 March 2000. Starting on 1 April 2000, however, operation became limited to seven to nine stations owing to
difficulties in performing regular scheduled maintenance of
receivers located at the highest and lowest elevations on the
edifice. The reduced network remained operational through
15 June 2000.
[9] Station PPIG, located at Cerro Tlamacas 5 km north
of the crater, is a permanent station of the Servicio Sismológico Nacional, Instituto de Geofisica, UNAM. It features a
three-component short-period (L-4C) seismometer, and
broadband Strekeisen STS-2 sensor. Data from the latter
sensor are recorded both in continuous mode at 1 sps and in
trigger mode at 80 sps. These data are not included in our
analyses because of the weakness of the VLP signals
recorded at this distance during the operational period of
our network.
3. Data
[10] Volcanic activity during the course of our experiment
was dominated by episodic emissions of gas and ash, and by
the formation of a lava dome within the summit crater.
Bursts of volcanic degassing (‘‘exhalations’’) were accompanied by LP events observed as isolated events, or as
sequences of discrete events with overall durations comparable to those of visible activity documented by video.
Some gas emissions were accompanied by persistent or
spasmodic tremor. LP events and tremor episodes increased
in frequency and intensity in mid-February 2000 and
remained at heightened levels of production through late
April 2000. A small lava dome was visually observed in the
summit crater during a helicopter flight on 25 February
(CENAPRED Web site, http://www.cenapred.unam.mx/
mvolcan.html). Swarms of hybrid events were also frequently observed during the 3 month interval FebruaryApril, suggesting that active dome growth was occurring
throughout this interval.
[11] VLP signals accompanying exhalations were also
clearly recorded at stations closest to the crater. Longerlasting, mild Vulcanian eruptions were observed on three
occasions in April-May 2000, each accompanied by bursts
of tremor and significant energy in the LP and VLP bands
(Figure 2). For comparison, the VLP signal associated with
an exhalation on 4 February 2000 is also displayed in
Figure 2. The VLP signals are obtained by low-pass
filtering the data below 15 s with a two-pole zero-phase
shift Butterworth filter and faithfully reproduce the VLP
components present in the broadband data.
[12] The VLP waveforms of exhalation signals recorded
by our network all display a similar compression-dilatationcompression displacement sequence as exemplified by the
event on 4 February illustrated in Figure 2. This similarity
among VLP waveforms from different events clearly
reflects the repetitive action of a nondestructive source.
The broadband seismograms of individual exhalations are
generally emergent and have typical durations of 1 –3 min,
roughly comparable to the overall duration of the main VLP
signal. In contrast, the broadband signatures of the eruptions
in Figure 2 last 30– 80 min, and within this time interval
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10 s band of oceanic noise at Popocatépetl [ArciniegaCeballos et al., 1999]. To avoid contamination by this
source of noise, our analyses of VLP signals are restricted
to periods longer than 15 s. Furthermore, the signal-tonoise ratios are weak and unreliable at periods longer
than 70 s. To lessen data contamination due to increased
sensitivity to noise at periods longer than 70 s, we high
pass the waveforms at 70 s. VLP signals from exhalations
are weaker than those recorded during eruptions (see
Figure 2), generally resulting in poor signal-to-noise
ratios at most receivers. Accordingly, we restrict our
analyses to the two strongest events recorded (23 April
Figure 2. Vertical displacements recorded at station PPQ2
for one exhalation (top trace) and three eruptions (bottom
three traces) at Popocatépetl. A filtered record (thick line)
overlaid on the actual broadband record (thin line) is shown
for each event. The date and time at the start of each record
are indicated at the top left of the record. These data are
representative of true ground motion after deconvolution for
instrument response.
significant VLP energy release is limited to approximately
the first 6 min in the 23 April and 25 May eruptions, or
6 min starting 24 min after the onset of the broadband signal
in the 23 May eruption. Weak VLP signals are observed
only at station PPQ2 during the remainder of these eruptions. Although the VLP waveforms for the Vulcanian
eruptions in April and May differ from those of exhalations
in the characteristics of recovery following the main dilatational pulse, their onsets are similar to those displayed by
exhalations. These features are especially obvious in the two
eruptions on 23 April and 23 May, which both display VLP
signals marked by an initial compressional ramp lasting
approximately 1 min, interrupted by a strong dilatational
pulse as in the exhalation waveform.
[13] A repetitive nondestructive source process is further
evidenced by particle motions observed at receivers near the
summit of Popocatépetl for these events. Figure 3 shows
particle motions obtained in the 15– 70 s band for the two
eruptions on 23 April and 23 May. Horizontal and vertical
particle motions all consistently point to a small region
located below the summit crater. Particle motions recorded
for the exhalation on 4 February and eruption on 25 May are
similar to those recorded for the more energetic eruptions in
April and May (Figure 4). On the basis of our observation
that all the VLP waveforms in exhalations and eruptions
have similar characteristics, we infer that the operative
source processes are essentially stationary with time within
the bandwidth of our VLP data; thus an analysis of
representative events is adequate to fully describe the
overall source dynamics.
[14] Seismic signals associated with volcanic activity
are not accessible at periods overlapping the typical 3 –
Figure 3. Normalized particle velocities observed on the
network. These represent data deconvolved for instrument
response and band-pass filtered in the 15– 70 s band using a
two-pole zero-phase-shift Butterworth filter. (a) Particle
trajectories in the (left) horizontal and (right) vertical radial
planes for the 23 April event. The positive radial direction
in the vertical-radial plane points to the source (see arrows
in plot at bottom right). (b) The same as Figure 3a for the
23 May event.
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of the residual vector between data and synthetics in (2)
then yields the solution
1
m ¼ ðGt GÞ Gt d;
Figure 4. Comparison of normalized particle velocities in
the (top) horizontal and (bottom) vertical radial planes
recorded at station PPQ2 for the four events in Figure 2.
These are deconvolved data band-pass filtered with the
same filter as in Figure 3. The data are as follows: a,
4 February exhalation; b, 23 April eruption; c, 23 May
eruption; d, 25 May eruption.
and 23 May) to quantify the source mechanisms representative of degassing at Popocatépetl.
4. Data Analysis and Results
4.1. Inversion Method
[15] The displacement field generated by a seismic source
is described by the representation theorem which, for a
point source, may be written as [Chouet, 1996, equation 8]
un ðt Þ ¼ Fp ðt Þ * Gnp ðt Þ þ Mpq ðtÞ * Gnp;q ðtÞ;
p; q ¼ x; y; z;
d ¼ Gm;
where Gt is the transpose of matrix G. In this equation, m
has dimensions NmNt, d has dimensions NtNs, and G has
dimensions NtNs by NmNt, where Nm is the number of
source mechanism components, Nt is the number of
observed seismic traces, Ns is the number of samples in
each trace, and Nt is the number of elementary functions
used to represent the source time function. The source
location is fixed, and the amplitudes of all the elementary
source pulses are determined simultaneously from the set of
linear equations (3). In this manner, each sample of each
source time function in the distribution of force and/or
moment at the source is obtained independently. In our
inversion of data from Popocatépetl, we conduct a grid
search with respect to source location and determine the
best solution for a single point source.
4.2. Calculation of Green’s Functions
[17] Our calculations of Green’s functions assume a
homogeneous medium and include the topography of
Popocatépetl. On the basis of the structural data elaborated
by Valdes et al. [1995], we assume a compressional wave
velocity Vp = 3.5 km/s, shear wave velocity Vs = 2 km/s,
and density r = 2650 kg/m3. Wavelengths corresponding to
the period range 15– 70 s of the observed signals span 30–
250 km so that small-scale velocity heterogeneities are
assumed to have negligible effect on our results. Green’s
functions are convolved with a smoothing function to insure
the stability of the inversion. We use the cosine smoothing
function
8 >
< 1 1 cos 2pt ; 0 t tp ;
tp
S ðt Þ ¼ 2
>
:
0;
t > tp ;
ð1Þ
where un(t) is the n component of seismic displacement at a
receiver at time t, Fp(t) is the time history of the force
applied in the p direction, Mpq(t) is the time history of the pq
component of the moment tensor, and Gnp(t) is the Green
tensor which relates the n component of displacement at the
receiver position with the p component of impulsive force at
the source position. The notation ,q indicates spatial
differentiation with respect to the q coordinate and the
asterisk denotes convolution. Summation over repeated
indices is implied.
[16] To invert our data with equation (1), we follow
Ohminato et al. [1998] and Chouet et al. [2003]. In this
approach, the source location is fixed, and the unknown
source time functions for moment tensor and single-force
components are represented by series of regularly spaced
elementary functions (given by equation (4) in section 4.2),
each with a different amplitude and sign. Equation (1) may
be written in matrix form
ð2Þ
in which d represents the data vector, G is the matrix of
Green’s functions, and m is the vector containing the
unknown source time functions. Minimization of the square
ð3Þ
ð4Þ
in which tp = 4.0 s. The smoothed cosine function
convolved with the Green’s functions represents our
elementary source time function, and the true source time
function is obtained by a superposition of these elementary
functions. No anelastic attenuation is included in our
calculations of Green’s functions, because all receivers in
the Popocatépetl network are located within a fraction of
wavelength from the source, and anelastic attenuation
effects are negligible over such short distances.
[18] Synthetics are obtained by the three-dimensional
finite difference method of Ohminato and Chouet [1997],
in which the topography of Popocatépetl is discretized in a
staircase by stacking unit cells with fixed cell size. The
computational domain is centered on the edifice and has
lateral dimensions of 16.25 16.25 km, and vertical extent
of 11 km (Figure 5). Our calculations are performed over a
grid of 50 50 50 m, yielding a 3-D mesh with 326 326 221 nodes. The grid size considered is small enough
to satisfy the criterion of minimum number of grids per
wavelength established by Ohminato and Chouet [1997],
and the size of the computational domain is sufficiently
large to minimize spurious edge reflections, yet small
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Figure 5. Extent of domain and grid size selected for finite
difference calculations for Popocatépetl Volcano (see text
for details). Sea level (SL) is indicated by the dotted line.
enough to preclude prohibitive calculations. The Cartesian
coordinates are set with origin at the bottom southwest
corner of the domain, with x axis positive eastward, y axis
positive northward, and z axis positive upward. The top
boundary of the domain is set to coincide with the top of
Popocatépetl at an altitude of 5452 m. The topography of
Popocatépetl is obtained from a digital elevation map
(DEM) provided by the Instituto Nacional de Estadistica,
Geográfia e Informática (INEGI) of Mexico.
[19] The search for the best fit point source is conducted
for point sources distributed in a 3-D mesh extending below
the summit crater. The domain considered includes a core of
densely distributed nodes surrounded by a coarser distribution of nodes. In the core region, centered beneath the crater,
point sources are positioned at individual grid nodes spaced
50 m apart in a uniform mesh extending 750 m in the eastwest and 500 m in the north-south directions, and from
3200 to 3850 m in elevation. In the surrounding region,
point sources are spaced 100 m apart in a uniform mesh
extending over 1000 m in the east-west and north-south
directions and from 3150 to 5050 m in elevation. The total
number of point sources involved is 4134.
[20] As the number of point sources investigated is quite
large, we make use of the reciprocity theorem [Aki and
Richards, 1980]. The reciprocal relation between source and
receiver is expressed as
Gmn ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ Gnm ðx2 ; x1 Þ;
ð5Þ
where Gmn(x1, x2) is the m component of displacement at x1
due to a unit impulse applied in the n direction at x2.
Reciprocity states that the m component of displacement at
x1 generated by a unit impulse applied in the n direction at x2
is the same as the n component of displacement at x2 due to a
unit impulse applied in the m direction at x1. Using
reciprocity, we calculate the three components of displacement at each source node generated by impulsive forces
applied in the x, y, and z directions at each receiver location
in the network. For the 15 three-component receivers, 45
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computer runs are required to generate the required Green’s
functions for all the point sources in the source grid. Without
the use of reciprocity, the number of runs required to
generate the required set of Green’s functions is more than 2
orders of magnitude larger. Use of reciprocity therefore
amounts to a very significant saving in computational time.
[21] We tested the reciprocity theorem by comparing the
Green’s functions calculated by reciprocity with the Green’s
functions computed by the forward method. An example of
results obtained by the two methods is shown in Figure 6, in
which the waveforms calculated by the two different
approaches are found to match each other precisely over
the main portion of the Green’s functions, but display small
amplitude and phase discrepancies in the tail of the Green’s
functions. In these later portions of the Green’s functions,
the waveforms are contaminated by weak artificial reflections from the edges of the computational domain due the
use of approximate absorbing boundary conditions
[Ohminato and Chouet, 1997]. Thus the homogeneous
boundary condition required by the reciprocity theorem is
not perfectly satisfied by the artificial absorbing conditions
used by Ohminato and Chouet [1997], and slight discrepancies appear in the two solutions as a result. Such discrepancies could be further reduced by the selection of a larger
computation domain, but at the expense of a significant
increase in computational time. Owing to their small amplitude and occurrence limited to the latter, low-amplitude
portions of the Green’s functions, these discrepancies were
found to have insignificant effects on the results of our
waveform inversions; thus we deemed the use of a larger
computation domain was unnecessary.
4.3. Evaluation of Results
[22] Our inversions for best fit point source location
consider three possible source mechanisms: (1) three
Figure 6. Comparison of Green’s functions obtained by
the forward (thick lines) and reciprocal (thin lines) methods.
The three components of displacement, u (east), v (north),
and w (up), are obtained at station PPQ2 for a single upward
directed force with amplitude 1 N applied at a point
centered 1.5 km below the summit crater floor (see
Figure 1). The source time function of the force is a full
cycle cosine with period tp = 4 s (equation (4)). Over the
main portion of the signals the match between the forward
and reciprocal solutions is so good that the thin line curves
are entirely beneath the thick lines, i.e., nearly all the
differences are too small to be visible at the scale of the
illustration.
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single-force components only, (2) six moment tensor components only, and (3) six moment tensor components and
three single-force components. The selection of an optimum
solution is based on variance reduction, relevance of the free
parameters used in the model, and physical significance of
the resulting source mechanism. We use two definitions of
squared error to evaluate the accuracy of our fits between
synthetics and data [Ohminato et al., 1998; Chouet et al.,
2003]
Nt X
Ns
X
0
2
un ð pDt Þ usn ð pDt Þ
E1 ¼
n¼1 p¼1
Nt X
Ns
X
0
2
un ð pDt Þ
100;
ð6Þ
n¼1 p¼1
and
2
3
Ns
3 X
X
0
2
s
un ð pDt Þ un ð pDt Þ 7
6
Nr 6
7
1 X
6 1 p¼1
7
E2 ¼
6
7 100;
Ns
3 X
7
X
Nr n¼1 6
2
0
4
5
un ð pDt Þ
1
ð7Þ
p¼1
where u0n(pDt) is the pth sample of the nth data trace,
usn(pDt) is the pth sample of the nth synthetic trace, Nt is the
number of data traces, Ns is the number of samples in each
trace, and Nr is the number of three-component receivers. In
equation (6), large-amplitude traces dominate the squared
error, and the squared error remains small even when
mismatches are present between data and synthetics for
stations with weak amplitude signals, as long as the stations
with large-amplitude signals are well matched by the
synthetics. In equation (7), the squared error is normalized
station-by-station, so that stations with weak amplitude
signals contribute equally to the squared error as stations
with large-amplitude signals.
[23] To test the significance of the number of free
parameters each source model is evaluated by calculating
Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) [Akaike, 1974] defined
as
AIC ¼ Nt Ns ln E þ 2Nm Nt ;
ð8Þ
in which the constant term is omitted. The parameter E in
this equation represents the squared error defined according
to equation (6) or (7). Additional free parameters in the
source mechanism are considered to be physically relevant
when both the residual error and AIC are minimized. A final
test considers the physical relevance of the solution itself. A
moment tensor solution is deemed relevant only if
consistent waveform shapes are obtained among individual
moment tensor components. This condition is necessary for
a plausible interpretation of the source mechanism.
4.4. Results
[24] Figure 7 shows the distribution of residual errors E2
obtained with equation (7) for the eruption on 23 May, the
best resolved event in our data set. The error is representative of fits obtained for a source mechanism consisting of
six moment tensor and three single-force components. The
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error minimum (E2 = 7.8%, Table 1) yields a source
centroid located at an elevation of 3600 m, approximately
1500 m below the western perimeter of the crater floor.
Horizontal and vertical cross sections through the centroid
provide measures of the spatial resolution of the centroid.
Considering the error surface defined by an error increment
of 0.5% above the minimum error as reference (see contours
for E2 = 8.3% in Figure 7), one obtains estimates of the
spatial resolution of the centroid of ±300 m in the vertical
direction, and +400
300 m and ±200 m in the east-west and
north-south directions, respectively. The centroid location
obtained according to the error estimate E1 given by
equation (6) falls slightly shallower and at the eastern edge
of the error domain shown in Figure 7. The spatial resolution of this latter centroid is similar to that achieved with the
error estimate E2 (see Figure 7).
[25] Figure 8 shows the waveform match obtained by
inversion of the data for the eruption on 23 May. The fit is
based on only seven stations in operation at the time. Data
from the vertical component at PPX3 are not included in
the fits as this component is contaminated by noise. The
fits are obtained for a source mechanism consisting of six
moment tensor and three single-force components and is
representative of the best fit source centroid (Figure 7).
Overall, the fits are excellent as demonstrated by the
close match between waveforms and small values of
residual errors listed in Table 1. Misfits on some components, such as the east component at PPQ2 or north
component at PPJ4, may reflect source complexities that
cannot be addressed with the single point source used in
our analysis.
[26] Although fits based on six moment tensor components yield residual errors that are only a few percent higher
than the solution including both moment tensor and force
(Table 1), these fits do not represent a physically realistic
source mechanism. The resulting moment tensor components display dissimilar waveforms so that no mechanism
can be inferred. Fits based on a source consisting of three
single-force components only were observed to be far worse
than fits obtained for moment and force as demonstrated in
the larger residual errors in Table 1. The source model with
six moment tensor components and three single-force components consistently yields the minimum value of AIC for
this event, indicating that the force components do have
significance from a physical viewpoint and that the error
reduction is not merely an artifact stemming from an
increase in the number of free parameters in the model.
This supports our conclusion that this is the most appropriate model to describe the source mechanism of the 23 May
eruption. Figure 9 illustrates the source time functions
associated with fits depicted in Figure 8. The volumetric
components of the moment tensor clearly dominate the
solution, with source time functions characterized by almost
identical time histories. Accompanying the volumetric
source components are two clear components of a single
force in the east (x) and vertical (z) directions. The amplitude ratio Fx/Mxx is 0.31 104 m1, and the amplitude
ratio Fz/Mzz is 0.25 104 m1. Note that for the sourcecentroid/receiver configuration specific to Popocatépetl our
calculations indicate that the single-force and moment
tensor components contribute equally to the observed signal
amplitudes when this ratio is 2 104 m1. Therefore Fx
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Figure 7. Source location of the 23 May eruption. A southwest looking cutaway view of Popocatépetl
provides the reference for the location of the VLP source within the volcanic edifice. The view shows the
residual error, color coded according to the magnitude of the error between data and synthetics (see text
for details). The gray surface represents the outline of the error region, within which the white dot shows
the position of the source centroid corresponding to the minimum error. The side and bottom planes are
east-west vertical, north-south vertical, and horizontal cross sections through the source location.
Contours on these planes are projections of the error region for the source location. Contours represent
7.9, 8.1, and 8.3% errors. Topographic contours (red lines) in the bottom plane are shown to better picture
the source location relative to the summit crater.
contributes up to 16%, and Fz contributes up to 13% of the
waveform amplitudes in our solution.
[27] As the waveforms of individual moment tensor
components in Figure 9 are consistently shaped, we may
obtain a rough estimate of the eigenvectors for these
solutions from measurements of the maximum peak-totrough amplitudes of the source time functions. The principal axes of the moment tensor obtained in this manner have
lengths (1.20, 1.45, 2.00) 9.03 10 12 Nm with
the direction of the dominant dipole component oriented
roughly in the z direction. The principal axes of the moment
tensor for a tensile crack have amplitudes lDV, lDV, and
(l + 2m)DV, in which DV represents the volume change
associated with the crack opening or closure, and l and m
are the Lamé coefficients of the rock matrix [Chouet, 1996].
If one assumes a Poisson ratio n = 1/3 at the source, a value
appropriate for volcanic rock at or near liquidus temperatures [Murase and McBirney, 1973], the ratios of the
principal axes of the moment tensor become 1:1:2. In our
solution, the corresponding ratios are not exactly 1:1:2, but
rather 1.20:1.45:2.00, suggesting the possibility of a dual
mechanism. For example, one can also generate these ratios
by the following matrix operation, (1:1:2) + 0.4 (1:2:1) =
(1.4:1.8:2.4), yielding the ratios (1.17:1.50:2.00) after normalization. This latter result is very close to the observed
result of 1.20:1.45:2.00. On the basis of the orientation of
the subdominant dipole in our solution, this amounts to
adding a 40% contribution from a quasi-vertical crack
striking in the northeasterly direction. Therefore our solution is suggestive of two sources acting simultaneously: (1)
a shallow dipping crack (sill) and (2) a NE trending quasivertical crack (dike). In section 4.5, we test this idea and
proceed with a reconstruction of the composite source
underlying our solution.
Table 1. Residual Errors E1 and E2 Calculated With Equations (6)
and (7), Respectively, and Corresponding AIC Calculated With
Equation (8) for the Source Mechanisms Considered in Our
Inversions of Data for Popocatépetl Volcanoa
Source Mechanism
Error E1,b %
Error E2,b %
AIC(E1)
AIC(E2)
Force only
Moment only
Moment and force
Sill and force
Dike and force
Composite model 1
Composite model 2
Composite model 3
Composite model 4
Composite model 5
66.0
6.4
4.1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
52.6
12.6
7.8
46.5
18.7
11.8
10.6
9.2
9.5
9.6
3199
29355
33026
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
5914
21272
25328
6793
17766
23309
24578
25647
25341
25146
a
Eruption was on 23 May.
Error was estimated over a 2 min long window centered on the window
used for waveform inversion.
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b
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Figure 8. Waveform match obtained for the 23 May eruption, in which six moment tensor and three
single-force components are assumed for the source mechanism. Thin lines indicate synthetics, and thick
lines represent observed velocity waveforms. The station code and component of motion are indicated at
the top right of each seismogram.
4.5. Source Reconstruction
[28] Our hypothesized composite source can be readily
tested by (1) calculating the moment tensors for the two
cracks using equation (15) of Chouet [1996], (2) applying
the appropriate scaling factor to the moment tensor representing crack 2, (3) adding the moment tensor for crack 1 to
the scaled moment tensor for crack 2, (4) calculating the
Green’s functions for the resulting moment tensor, and
Figure 9. Source time functions obtained for the 23 May eruption, in which six moment tensor
components and three single-force components are assumed for the source mechanism.
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(5) inverting. In this test, a single source time function
applies to both cracks and the orientations of the two cracks
are fixed by the directions of the dominant and subdominant
dipoles obtained from maximum peak-to-trough measurements of the source time functions of moment tensor
components in our original solution. The dipole orientation
is given by the azimuth f measured counterclockwise from
the east direction, and elevation angle q measured from the
horizontal. The dominant dipole component in our solution
has orientation f1 = 36.85, q1 = 73.57, and the subdominant dipole has orientation f2 = 120.73, q2 = 15.25.
In our composite model, the orientation of the main dipole
component of crack 1 (sill) is given by the angles (f1, q1),
and that of the main dipole component of crack 2 (dike) is
fixed by the angles (f2, q2).
[29] Our calculations are performed for the point source
location in Figure 7, based on the conservative error
estimate E2 in equation (7), and waveform fits obtained
with forward models are evaluated from residual errors
based exclusively on this equation. As noted earlier, the
location of the source centroid obtained according to the
definition of error E1 in equation (6) is different from that of
the centroid derived according to E2. A comparison of
residual errors E1 between forward and original models
would therefore require the calculation of a distinct set of
models at this location. Such calculations are deemed to be
redundant and the following analyses are restricted to the
point source solution shown in Figure 7.
[30] Residual errors are evaluated for three models, each
including four mechanisms as follows: (1) fixed moment
tensor representative of sill (crack 1), together with three
single-force components; (2) fixed-moment tensor representative of dike (crack 2), together with three single-force
components; and (3) fixed moment tensor representative of
composite of sill and dike, together with three single-force
components. The sill and force model produces reasonable
fits on the east and vertical components in our network, but
yields poor fits on the north components. This results in a
large residual error of 46.5% (Table 1). The dike and force
model yields good fits on the vertical and reasonable fits on
the horizontal components, with the exception of the two
horizontal components at PPK2 and east component at
PPQ2. The resulting error is 18.7% (Table 1). The composite mechanism of dike and sill plus force (composite model
1 in Table 1) yields the best fit of the three models with a
residual error of 11.8%. This latter result gives us confidence that a composite mechanism involving both a dike
and a sill may be able to explain the results illustrated in
Figure 9. The residual error is still too large, however, and
even though the number of mechanisms is limited to four in
the present model, compared to the nine mechanisms used
in our original inversion, examination of the AIC indicates
that this simple interpretation falls short of being an appropriate final model for our data.
[31] Next, we evaluate the residual error for a composite
model in which the orientations of the two cracks are
allowed to vary independently of each other, and the
percentage of contribution from crack 2 is also allowed to
change. A slightly better fit is obtained for a model in which
crack 2 contributes 40% of the observed waveform amplitudes and where crack 1 dips 46 to the southeast and crack
2 dips 52 to the north-northwest. The residual error for this
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model (composite model 2 in Table 1) is 10.6%. The
associated value of AIC, however, suggests that this still
is not an adequate model for our data.
[32] To proceed further, we now relax the limitation of
our representation of the two cracks by a single source time
function and instead allow each crack to be represented by
its own source time function. Rather than calculating
Green’s functions for the moment tensor representing the
sum of the moment tensors for crack 1 and crack 2 as done
above, we calculate Green’s functions for the moment
tensor representing each crack mechanism separately, and
invert our data for five mechanisms, namely, the two
moment tensors representing two independent crack mechanisms, and three single-force components. The resulting
moment tensor mechanisms are then combined component
by component and the composite mechanism obtained in
this manner is compared with the original solution in
Figure 9. Our search for a best fitting model is carried out
by systematically varying f1, q1, f2, and q2 independently of
each other. We consider 22,628 models spanning the ranges
[10, 45] for f1, [25, 90] for q1, [95, 135] for f2, and
[5, 15] for q2. A residual error is calculated for each model
and contoured in the four-dimensional space [f1, q1, f2, q2].
We then apply the constraint that the error be limited to values
falling within 0.5% of the absolute minimum error.
[33] Figure 10a shows the residual error as a function of
f1, q1, and f2 for q2 = 7. The gray surface represents the
surface of residual error 0.5% above the absolute minimum
of 9.2% (composite model 3 in Table 1) for the entire model
space. The extent of the error domain in this plot provides
bounds on the ranges of f1, q1, and f2, within which the
waveform fits are essentially indistinguishable from each
other. Horizontal and vertical cross sections through the
solution marked by the white dot provide measures of the
relative position of this point with respect to the 0.5% error
bound above the absolute minimum error. The significance
of this particular solution is discussed in detail below.
Figure 10b illustrates the sensitivity of the model on q2 as
expressed by horizontal projections of 0.5% error contours
obtained by slicing through the error domain with a slanting
plane normal to the q1 f2 plane and containing the point
representing the minimum error for each value of q2 and
point marked by the white dot in Figure 10a. Each contour
circumscribes an area within which models satisfy the 0.5%
error constraint. The gray shaded contour is representative
of the domain shown in Figure 10a. The common area
embedded within the overlapping contours includes all
the models that satisfy the error constraint for any value
of q2 within the range [5, 15]. A more restrictive
condition on q2 applies for the solution shown by the
solid dot. To fall within the 0.5% error constraint, this
model requires q2 13.
[34] We find the absolute minimum of residual E2 = 9.2%
for values of f1 = 20, q1 = 55, f2 = 115, and q2 = 13.
This solution also yields the minimum AIC (Table 1),
suggesting this model may be suitable for our data. There
is, however, one additional constraint we need to consider,
which has a direct bearing on this result.
[35] So far, we have restricted ourselves to a consideration of residual error and AIC in our search for the
optimum model, and have not taken into account the
statistical properties of the time-dependent eigenvectors
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Figure 10. (a) Residual error, color coded according to the
magnitude of the error between data and synthetics, for a
composite source composed of a shallow dipping crack
(sill) intersecting a steeply dipping crack (dike). The gray
surface represents the outline of the error region, within
which the white dot identifies the solution that matches the
statistics of azimuth and elevation angles obtained for the
original source model based on six moment tensor and three
single-force components (see text for details). The side and
bottom planes are cross sections through the point marked
by the white dot. Contours on these planes are projections of
the error region for these angles. Contours represent 0.3,
0.4, and 0.5% errors (cross section q1 f2) and 0.4 and
0.5% errors (cross sections f1 f2 and f1 q1) above the
absolute minimum error of 9.2%. The black dot represents
the projection in these planes of the solution fitting the
statistics of eigenvectors for the original source.
(b) Dependence of the solution in Figure 10a on the
elevation angle q2. Each contour represents a particular
value of q2 and is colored accordingly (see contour labels).
Black dot is the horizontal projection of the white dot in
Figure 10a. Crosses are projections of the points representing the minimum residual error for each displayed value of
q2. The circled cross represents the minimum error for the
contour encompassing the gray shaded area (see text for
details).
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describing the moment tensor in our original solution
(Figure 9). We now consider such statistics in detail to
obtain additional constraints on our final model.
Figures 11a and 11d show the statistics of the eigenvectors calculated for the moment tensor solution in Figure 9
during the time interval 60– 120 s. Figure 11a displays
rose diagrams of f1, f2, q1, and q2. Only the dominant
and subdominant eigenvectors are depicted in these diagrams as the orientation of the third eigenvector is fixed
once the other two are determined. Figure 11d shows
histograms of the amplitude ratio of the smallest to
largest eigenvector (Figure 11d, left) and amplitude ratio
of the subdominant to largest eigenvector (Figure 11d,
right), together with the weighted arithmetic mean, x, of
these ratio statistics. The eigenvectors, whose lengths are
proportional to their respective eigenvalues, are considered with no distinction between expansion and contraction for simplicity, and the ratios are obtained after
normalization to a maximum length of 2.
[36] To compare our model statistics to the statistics in
Figures 11a and 11d, we sample the source time functions
of the moment tensor in our model of composite source
over the same 60– 120 s window. A model is retained if
the corresponding values of f1, f2, q1, and q2 fall within
5 of the values of these angles in the original model.
Out of our entire model set encompassing 22,628 models,
only 225 models are found to fit this condition.
Figures 11b and 11e show the results obtained by stacking the eigenvector statistics of these 225 models. As is
readily apparent in Figures 11b and 11e, there is a good
agreement between the overall statistical properties of
these models and statistics of our original model. The
values of x for the eigenvector amplitude ratios in
Figure 11e are also very close to those obtained for the
histograms in Figure 11d.
[37] The best fitting model with residual error of 9.2%
and minimum AIC (composite model 3 in Table 1) is not
the optimum model from the perspective of these statistical tests. This particular model contributes a mere 25%
of hits within the dominant bins constituting the rose
diagrams in Figure 11a. Within the restricted model set
displayed in Figure 11b, only two models are found to
yield 100% hits in the appropriate bins. Both yield very
similar crack orientations. The first of these (composite
model 4 in Table 1) yields a residual error of 9.5% and
has parameters f1 = 10, q1 = 80, f2 = 124, and q2 =
7. The second (composite model 5 in Table 1) gives a
slightly larger residual error of 9.6% with the parameters
f1 = 20, q1 = 80, f2 = 123, and q2 = 8. Of these
two solutions, model 4 yields a value of AIC marginally
smaller than the original AIC (Table 1). This model
therefore fits the statistical constraints, minimum AIC
requirement, and has a residual error within 0.5% of the
minimum residual error obtained for all the forward
models. Figures 11c and 11f show the statistics of eigenvectors for this model. These statistics are in good agreement with the main features displayed by the statistics in
Figures 11a and 11d. The error corresponding to this model
is shown by the white dot in Figure 10a. The horizontal
and vertical cross sections in Figures 10a and 10b indicate
that this point is well within the 0.5% constraint for which
waveform fits become indistinguishable.
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Figure 11. Comparison of eigenvector statistics for the moment tensor in Figure 9 for the solution
assuming six moment tensor and three single-force components (Figures 11a and 11d) with those for the
moment tensor of a composite source composed of two cracks, each with its own source time function,
and three single-force components (Figures 11b, 11c, 11e, and 11f). The eigenvectors are sampled every
0.2 s during the interval 60– 120 s in both the original and reconstructed composite source models.
(a) Rose diagrams of azimuth f1 and elevation angle q1 defining the orientation of the dominant dipole
component of the source (shaded bins) and azimuth f2 and elevation angle q2 defining the orientation of
the first subdominant dipole component of the source (open bins). The width of the bin is 5. (b) Same as
Figure 11a obtained by stacking results for 225 models of composite source, whose dominant and
subdominant dipole components are oriented within 5 of the corresponding dipole components in the
statistics shown in Figure 11a. (c) Same as Figure 11a for the selected composite model, whose dominant
and subdominant dipole components yield 100% of hits within the dominant bins for f1, f2, q1, and q2 in
Figure 11a. (d) Amplitude ratios of (left) smallest to largest dipole and (right) intermediate to largest
dipole after normalization of largest eigenvector to a length of 2. No distinction is made between
expansion and contraction. The weighted arithmetic mean x is shown at the top right of each panel.
(e) Same as Figure 11d for stacked statistics of 225 forward models of composite source. (f) Same as
Figure 11d for the selected composite model.
[38] The waveform fits obtained for model 4 are displayed in Figure 12. These fits can be compared with the fits
in Figure 8. There are very slight differences between
Figures 12 and 8 (compare, for example, the fits obtained
on the north component at station PPP3, or east components
at PPJ3 and PPJ4). The observed differences are representative of a difference in residual error amounting to 1.7%.
Overall, the differences are too small to be noticeable so that
the two models may be viewed as equivalent. Figure 13
shows the source mechanism for the composite source,
which can be directly compared with the results in
Figure 9. As expected, the two sets of source time functions
display very similar features. Some nuances are apparent in
these results, however. For example, the tail of the source
time function of moment components in Figure 13 displays
a smoother VLP oscillation compared to the results seen in
Figure 9. Also, oscillations with periods 16– 24 s are much
more apparent in the tail of the signal from the vertical force
in Figure 13. Figure 14 shows the source mechanism of the
composite source represented by the moment tensor in
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Figure 12. Waveform match obtained from reconstruction of the source mechanism for the 23 May
eruption. Thin lines indicate synthetics, and thick lines represent the observed velocity waveforms.
Figure 13. Source time functions of composite source obtained by reconstruction of the source
mechanism for the 23 May eruption. The source time function of each moment component represents the
sum of the source time functions of corresponding moment components for the dike and sill obtained for
the best fitting orientation of these two cracks (see text for details).
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Figure 14. Reconstructed source mechanism for the
23 May eruption. The reference coordinates for the
eigenvectors are E (east), N (north), and U (up). Shown
are the two dominant dipole components defining the
orientations of the dike and sill representing the composite
source. The eigenvector statistics for this source are shown
in Figures 11c and 11f.
Figure 13. This source mechanism is an adequate representation of the data displayed in Figure 9.
5. Source Process
[39] VLP waveforms associated with the eruption on
23 April were initially inverted using a source mechanism
composed of six moment tensor and three single-force
components as in the 23 May event. Although the April
event was recorded with a larger number of stations
compared to the May event (nine stations in April, compared to seven stations in May), the waveforms of the April
event contain a stronger component of VLP noise and this
approach proved ultimately unsuccessful. No robust mechanism could be extracted from these data owing to distortions in the source time functions obtained for individual
moment components. As expected, however, the location of
the source centroid for this eruption coincided very closely
with that of the May eruption (see Figure 7), strongly
suggesting that the same source was operative in April.
To test this assumption, we inverted the waveforms of the
April event using the composite source elaborated for the
May event (composite model 4). Excellent fits, marked by a
residual error E2 = 10.4%, were obtained in that manner,
supporting our original assertion that the observed VLP
waveforms represent a repetitive activation of the same
fixed source.
[40] The volumetric and single-force components of the
source processes associated with the eruptions on 23 April
and 23 May are shown in Figure 15. Source dynamics are
illustrated over a 6 min long window to afford a more
complete view of the overall duration of the main component of the VLP process associated with each eruption. The
volume changes of the sill and dike are obtained from the
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amplitude (l + 2m)DV of the principal dipole component
representing each crack in our composite model. These
results assume the value m = 1010 Pa and Poisson ratio n =
1/3 (l = 2m). For the April eruption, the maximum volume
changes are DV = 1,023 m3 in the sill, and DV = 295 m3 in
the dike. The May eruption shows comparatively smaller
maximum volume changes DV = 522 m3 in the sill, and
DV = 169 m3 in the dike.
[41] Immediately apparent in Figure 15 are the close
dynamic similarities shared by the volumetric sources
operative in April and May. Both display an initial inflation
of the sill followed by a strong deflation. Sill deflation is
followed by a recovery inflation that exceeds the initial
inflation. This sequence, which constitutes the dominant
component of VLP signal associated with each eruption, is
then followed by decaying VLP oscillations lasting several
minutes. The signal from the dike is comparatively simpler.
In this case, motion is essentially limited to an inflationdeflation-inflation sequence delayed by a few seconds with
respect to the main sequence observed in the sill. There
appears to be little response from the dike during the
decaying oscillations composing the later portions of the
volumetric signal from the sill.
[42] Accompanying these volumetric components are
significant force components. As discussed by Takei and
Kumazawa [1994], a single force on the Earth can be
generated by an exchange of linear momentum between
the source and the rest of the Earth. An upward force can be
explained as the reaction force on the Earth associated with
either a downward acceleration or upward deceleration of
the center of mass of the source volume. Similarly, a
downward force may be the result of either an upward
acceleration or downward deceleration of the center of mass
of the source volume. To facilitate the interpretation of the
single-force components in our solution in terms of mass
advection, the three components Fx (east), Fy (north), and Fz
(up) (e.g., Figure 13) have been recast as in-plane strike and
dip components in each crack. Note that the dike plane is
tilted 7 from vertical (Figure 14), so that the dip component
of force FDIP2 is essentially equivalent to the force Fz in
Figure 13. Furthermore, the sill plane is slightly tilted along
an azimuth 10 south of east, while the dike is striking 34
north of east (Figure 14) so that the force components FDIP1
and FSTRIKE2 share common shapes with the component Fx
in Figure 13. The strike of the sill 10 from north also
accounts for the close waveform similarities displayed by
FSTRIKE1 in Figure 15 and Fy in Figure 13.
[43] Similarities in the behavior of the force components
are apparent in the two eruptions in spite of the larger
contribution from noise in the April eruption. The percentage of single-force contribution to the waveform amplitudes
is less in the April eruption compared to that in May (Fx and
Fz each contribute 8– 11% of the waveform amplitudes in
the April event compared to 13– 16% in the May event).
Common behavior is best observed in FDIP2, where both
eruptions display a large upward pulse followed by oscillations with periods 16 – 24 s superimposed on longerperiod oscillations with periods in the range 30– 70 s. The
noisy character of these longer-period oscillations makes a
formal identification of their origin doubtful. The shorterperiod oscillations, however, clearly start with the upward
pulse and decay within an interval of 1 min, pointing to a
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Figure 15. Source time functions of volume change DV and in-plane force components in strike
(positive along strike measured counterclockwise from east) and dip (positive along dip measured
clockwise from the positive strike orientation) directions associated with mass advection in the sill and
dike (see source mechanism in Figure 14) for the 23 April and 23 May eruptions. FSTRIKE1 and FDIP1 are
the two components in the sill, and FSTRIKE2 and FDIP2 are the two components in the dike. The 6 min
long windows are representative of time intervals during which the VLP signals are strongest. Light
shading marks the interval during which the initial volumetric inflation of the sill occurs, and dark
shading identifies the subsequent interval spanning the dominant deflation phase of the sill. This
inflation-deflation sequence is best observed in the May eruption (top right panel) but is somewhat
obscured by the presence of VLP noise in the April eruption (top left panel). In the latter the beginning of
the interval of dark shading is set to coincide with an abrupt turn in the volumetric signal of the sill.
source origin for these components. Such oscillations are
assumed to be related to the dynamics of mass transport.
[44] Most interesting is the behavior of the force components in each crack near the onset of the dominant volumetric signal in the May event (see light shaded interval in
Figure 15, right). The initial inflation of the sill coincides
with a marked downward (westward) excursion of FDIP1
and slightly smaller downward (southwestward) excursion
of FSTRIKE2. This appears consistent with an eastward
acceleration of the center of mass in the sill and slightly
smaller northeastward acceleration of the center of mass in
the dike. During this time interval, there also appears to be a
small downward excursion of FDIP2, which may reflect a
slight upward acceleration of the center of mass in the dike.
Upon reaching maximum inflation, the sill starts to collapse,
followed within seconds by the onset of collapse of the dike
(see dark shaded interval in Figure 15, right). During such
collapse, the force components all display significant pulses
suggesting a strong downward and southwestward acceleration of the center of mass in the dike, and dominantly
westward and slightly southward acceleration of the center
of mass in the sill. Taken together, these features may be
interpreted as the result of an eastward movement of magma
originating near the western edge of the sill, occurring
synchronously with sill inflation. As magma is squeezed
past the dike inlet, magma in the dike inlet is apparently
dragged in a northeasterly direction, and a slight uplift of
the magma column in the dike is also induced. Following
this interval, magma movements in the dike and sill reverse
directions and we observe a sagging of the magma column
in the dike. The latter impulsive signal is then followed by
decaying vertical oscillations of the magma column. Al-
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though this behavior of the forces is somewhat obscured by
noise for the April eruption, the waveforms within the
shaded intervals in Figure 15 (left) point to features that
are consistent with this picture.
[45] These results are suggestive of the forced evacuation
of a large pocket of gas at or near the western edge of the
sill. They further suggest that once the escaping gases reach
the dike inlet, gases apparently rush to the surface through
preexisting, relatively open pathways. The latter idea is
buttressed by the relatively small volume change affecting
the dike as compared to the sill. Photographs of the crater
taken during quiescent stages show a zone of sustained
degassing along the perimeter of the vent, suggesting that
the interfacial zone between the magma column and conduit
wall may be a predominant pathway used by gases on their
way to the surface. Enhanced permeability in this zone may
be in the form of a network of fractures resulting from
magma fragmentation by viscous shear near the conduit
wall during magma ascent [Gonnermann and Manga,
2003]. The behavior of the sill associated with degassing
is explored below in the specific context of the magma and
medium properties anticipated for Popocatépetl.
6. Discussion
[46] Mild ongoing episodic eruptions at Popocatépetl are
intimately linked to degassing of a sill-shaped volume of
magma through a dike whose surface extension bisects the
vent. The volumetric oscillations of the sill (Figure 15) can
be interpreted as the result of a series of cyclic pressure
fluctuations originating in the magma filling the sill.
[47] Pressure fluctuations associated with repetitive sawtooth waveforms have been observed in laboratory experiments with foams of organic gas-gum rosin mixtures
expanding in a vertical tube [Ryan, 2001]. These experiments may be particularly relevant to our observations as
the gas-liquid flows they investigate were specifically
designed to be analogous to those encountered in volcanic
conduits. The upgoing ramp in the sawtooth waveform of
pressure observed in the laboratory was attributed by Ryan
[2001] to bubble growth by diffusion from a supersaturated
liquid and related pressure increase in the bubbles resulting
from the finite yield stress of the overlying foam. At some
critical pressure, the yield stress of the overlying foam is
overcome and the body of the foam column shears; shear
flow then causes the bubbles in the shear zone to coalesce
and collapse, thereby providing a temporary pathway for the
resulting gas pocket to escape. Pressure in the source region
then decreases, and the sheared foam self-heals as stress
decreases. This process is repeated until decreasing volatile
concentration in the liquid eventually shuts down the
diffusion of gas into the bubbles.
[48] In the following, we consider a similar mechanism
of diffusion pumping of bubbles in the magma under
Popocatépetl, based on the assumption that the magma
filling the sill is supersaturated. Magma supersaturation is
assumed to be the result of groundmass crystallization in
a static body of magma. Diffusion of gas from the melt
into bubbles increases the internal pressure of the bubbles, because bubble expansion is resisted by the viscosity of the surrounding liquid and by the confining effect
due to the finite yield strength of the overlying column of
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magma. Elastic inflation of the sill occurs as a result of
bubble pressurization, and inflation proceeds until the
critical yield strength of the magma column is reached
and magma starts flowing out of the sill. Magma fragmentation by viscous shear near the conduit wall may
induce the coalescence and collapse of bubbles intersected
by shear planes, thereby allowing gas escape through a
transient network of fractures. Such dynamics induce a
pressure decrease in the sill, which results in the collapse
and welding of the fracture network and effectively seals
the gas escape route shut. Repeated cycles of shear
fracture and welding of magma provide a ratchet mechanism by which the free gas phase in the source region
can be recharged and evacuated. The process repeats until
equilibrium-saturation conditions are reached, or until
obstruction of the gas pathway to the surface leads to
an explosive eruption. Field evidence for repeated fracture
and healing of magma was recently documented by
Tuffen et al. [2003] and provides support for such
interpretation.
[49] To test our assumption of pressurization by diffusion,
we use the model of Nishimura [2004]. Nishimura [2004]
considers the pressure recovery in magma after a sudden
pressure drop by taking into account the vesiculation of
volatiles in magma. In this model, the magma body is
embedded in an infinite, homogeneous, elastic solid.
Magma consists of melt including numerous small spherical
gas bubbles of identical size. No new bubbles are created
and no bubbles are lost during pressure recovery. The gas in
the bubbles is assumed to be a perfect gas, and the melt is a
compressible liquid saturated with volatiles. Gas density is
negligibly small compared to melt density, and gravity and
other body forces are neglected. The variables describing
magma are melt density, r‘, gas density, rg, gas concentration in the melt, C, bubble radius, a, pressure in melt, P ‘ , gas
pressure in bubble, Pg , and volume of magma, V. Subscripts
0 and f identify initial and final values, respectively. For our
present purpose, we assume a magma body embedded in a
penny-shaped crack initially under uniform confined pressure Ps. Magma is subjected to an initial pressure drop DP0
due to mass withdrawal. The timescale of the pressure drop
is assumed to be much shorter than that of the bubblegrowth process. Immediately following the pressure drop,
pressure in the melt is given by the ambient pressure minus
the pressure drop, namely,
P‘0 ¼ Ps DP0 ;
ð9Þ
while the gas in the bubbles initially remains at pressure
Pg0 ¼ Ps þ
2s
;
a0
ð10Þ
where s is the surface tension. Bubbles then start to grow by
diffusion of volatiles driven by the difference in pressure
between the melt and bubbles. After a sufficiently long
time, the pressures in the melt and gas reach a static
equilibrium condition given by
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Pgf P‘f ¼
2s
:
af
ð11Þ
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Assuming a perfect gas yields
Pg0 Pgf
RT
¼
¼
;
rg0
rgf
M
ð14Þ
where R is the universal gas constant (R = 8.314 J/mol/K),
T is temperature (K), and M is the molecular weight of gas.
Pressure in the melt at the completion of the process is
related to the volume change of the melt through the bulk
modulus of the melt, yielding the relation
Vf
4
1 png a3f a30
V
3
DP ¼ P‘f P‘0 ¼ b 0
:
4 3
1 pa0 ng
3
ð15Þ
For a penny-shaped crack, the excess pressure DP is
expressed by [Sneddon and Lowengrub, 1969]
DP ¼
Figure 16. Pressure and volume recovery due to bubble
growth driven by diffusion of gas from a supersaturated
melt following a degassing-induced pressure drop.
(a) Pressure and volume change in a penny-shaped crack
containing a bubbly rhyolitic magma, showing effect of
different initial bubble radii. The two crosses, numbered 1
and 2, are data for the 23 April and 23 May eruptions,
respectively (see text for details). (b) Change in volatile
concentration in rhyolitic melt for different initial bubble
radii. (c) Bubble growth driven by diffusion of gas from
supersaturated rhyolitic melt, showing the effect of different
initial bubble radii.
Mass conservation of gas in the magma yields the relation
4 3
4
4
paf rgf ng ¼ r‘0 C0 Cf 1 pa30 ng þ pa30 rg0 ng ; ð12Þ
3
3
3
where ng is the bubble number density. Volatile concentration in the melt is expressed by Henry’s law
C0 ¼ KH
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pg0 ;
Cf ¼ KH
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pgf :
ð13Þ
3 mðl þ mÞ Vf
V0
1 3;
R
4 l þ 2m V0
ð16Þ
where R is the radius of the crack. These equations are
solved for unknowns P‘0, P‘f , Pg0, Pgf , rg0, rgf , C0, Cf, af, and
Vf, given DP0, Ps, r‘0, a0, ng, s, KH, b, m, l, R, and V0.
Volatile concentration in the melt is approximated by using
a Henry’s law solubility model for water in rhyolitic melt.
We use KH = 4.33 106 Pa0.5, corresponding to an initial
water content of 5.3 wt % at 850C [Hurwitz and Navon,
1994]. Accordingly, we also fix M = 0.018 kg/mole, and T =
1123K. Melt density is r‘0 = 2300 kg/m3 at 5.3 wt %
water based on the data of Hurwitz and Navon [1994]. We
assume b = 1010 Pa, m = 1010 Pa, l = 2m. The surface
tension is s = 0.2 N/m, based on the experimental results of
Murase and McBirney [1973] for rhyolite at 850C.
[50] Our calculations are carried out for a fixed pressure
Ps = 40 MPa appropriate for the depth of the source imaged
at Popocatépetl. We also assume a fixed radius R = 100 m of
penny-shaped crack and account for V0 through the ratio d/R
of crack aperture to crack radius. Figure 16 illustrates results
of our calculations. These results are representative of a
fixed bubble number density ng = 1012 m3 and fixed crack
aspect ratio d/R = 0.05 (a sill 5 m thick), and are plotted as
functions of DP0.
[51] Figure 16a shows the pressure recovery DP (left
scale) and volume expansion DV = Vf V0 (right scale)
during recovery for three initial bubble radii a0 = 105 m,
a0 = 106 m, and a0 = 107 m. For small pressure drops, the
pressure recovery can be significantly larger than the
original drop. This overpressurization upon recovery is
largest for tiny bubbles. For example, a pressure drop of
DP0 = 104 Pa leads to a pressure recovery DP = 3.5 106 Pa
in the presence of bubbles with radii a0 = 107 m. The
overpressurization decreases with increasing DP0 so that for
DP0 ’ 107 Pa the pressure drop is not completely recovered
in the presence of bubbles with radii larger than 106 m.
[52] Figures 16b and 16c show DC = C0 Cf and af/a0,
respectively, obtained for the same initial bubble radii as in
Figure 16a. The net decrease in gas concentration in the
melt varies from less than 104 wt % to more than 102 wt
% over the ranges of bubble radii and pressure drops
17 of 20
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depicted. Smaller bubbles grow significantly more than
larger bubbles during pressure recovery. This effect is
particularly obvious when comparing the ratio af/a0 for tiny
bubbles (a0 = 107 m) with the same ratio for larger bubbles
(a0 = 105 m). Overpressurization mainly results from the
release of surface tension pressure, so that the magnitude of
this effect becomes larger for smaller bubbles. However,
overpressurization decreases with increasing DP0, suggesting that the total amount of dissolved volatiles in the melt
eventually becomes insufficient to sustain full pressure
recovery.
[53] Keeping the same values of R and d as in Figure 16,
we investigated the effect of nb in the range [1010 – 1014] m3
for a fixed bubble radius a0 = 106 m. The results,
obtained over the same range of DP0, show a slightly larger
pressure recovery for smaller bubble number density, and
much smaller pressure recovery for larger bubble number
density, for small pressure drops, compared to the results
shown in Figure 16. For example, with DP0 = 104 Pa,
we obtain DP = 3.5 105 Pa for nb = 1010 m3, DP = 2.8 105 Pa for nb = 1012 m3, and DP = 1.4 104 Pa for nb =
1014 m3. The effect of bubble number density decreases
with increasing DP0, and becomes trivial when DP0 > 4 106 Pa.
[54] The effect of d/R is comparatively minor. A value
d/R < 0.05 results in a net downward shift of the pressurerecovery curve, while a larger value of d/R has no marked
effect on the results displayed in Figure 16a. For a0 =
106 m, nb = 1012 m3 and DP0 = 104 Pa, we obtain DP =
2.2 105 Pa for d/R = 0.01, and DP = 2.8 105 Pa for both
d/R = 0.05 and d/R = 0.10.
[55] Values of DP predicted by the model may be directly
compared to values derived from the source time functions
of DV in the top panels in Figure 15. Excess pressure is
estimated using equation (16), in which we put l = 2m. This
yields DP = (9m/16)(DV/R3). Using m = 1010 Pa, R = 100 m,
we obtain DP = 5.75 MPa for the maximum volume change
in the sill, DV =1,023 m3, in April, and DP = 2.94 MPa for
the maximum volume change in the sill, DV = 522 m3, in
May. From measurements of the peak-to-trough amplitudes
of deflation and reinflation in the dominant volumetric
signal produced by the sill in Figure 15, we infer the ratio
DP/DP0 1.2 for both the April and May eruptions.
Comparing these values of DP and DP/DP0 with the results
in Figure 16a, we find our data are consistent with those
expected for bubbles with radii of 106 m. A pennyshaped sill with radius 100 m, thickness 5 m, filled with a
rhyolitic magma containing 1010 – 1012 micrometer-sized
bubbles per cubic meter may therefore be an appropriate
model for the degassing body at Popocatépetl. Interestingly,
the nonlinear response of the bubbly magma to pressure
transients seen in Figure 16 may provide a natural way by
which small pressure perturbations are magnified. Slow
leakage of gases from the magma body may start once a
critical threshold is exceeded during quasi-static pressurization of the magma body associated with magma crystallization. Small-scale pressure fluctuations produced by such
leakage then may be amplified via the coupling of volatile
diffusion and elastic response of the conduit, eventually
leading to a surge of degassing as seen in the April and May
eruptions. This process of diffusion pumping then repeats
itself until the melt becomes undersaturated. Small volu-
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metric oscillations observed prior to the dominant phase of
the signals from the sill (Figure 15, top) seem to support the
idea of gas leakage as a trigger for these events.
[56] As discussed in section 5, sagging of the magma
column may also contribute to the pressure recovery in the
sill following the escape of the gas pocket. However, the
magnitude 108 N of the force component FDIP2 suggests
that this effect is probably quite small. For a dike 5 m thick
and 200 m wide, the magnitude of resulting pressure across
the cross-sectional area of the dike is 105 Pa, roughly 10
times smaller than the pressure changes calculated during
sill recovery.
7. Conclusions
[57] Inversions of VLP waveforms recorded during two
mild eruptions of Popocatépetl Volcano, Mexico, provide an
integrated view of the fundamental mechanisms underlying
the Vulcanian degassing observed in April –May 2000. The
observed VLP waveforms are well fitted by a simple point
source located under the western wall of the crater 1,500 m
below the crater floor. The imaged source mechanism
includes both moment tensor and single-force components.
The moment tensor components are representative of a sill
with easterly dip of 10 intersecting a northeast striking dike
dipping 83 northwest. The surface extension of the dike
bisects the vent and this dike is interpreted to represent the
main conduit in the top 1.5 km below the summit crater.
[58] The largest moment release occurs in the sill in both
eruptions, indicating a maximum volume change of 500–
1000 m3, pressure drop of 3 – 5 MPa, and amplitude of
recovered pressure equal to 1.2 times the amplitude of the
pressure drop. In comparison, the maximum volume change
in the dike is 200– 300 m3, with a corresponding pressure
drop of 1 – 2 MPa and pressure recovery equal to the
pressure drop. Accompanying these volumetric sources is
a single force with magnitude of 108 N, whose in-plane
components in the sill and dike are consistent with melt
advection in response to pressure transients. The source
time histories of the volumetric components of the source
indicate that significant mass movement originates in the sill
and triggers a mass movement response in the dike within a
few seconds. This picture is consistent with the opening of a
pathway for escaping gases accumulated in the sill in
response to slow pressurization of the sill driven by magma
crystallization. The opening of this pathway and rapid
evacuation of pent-up gases induces the pressure drop.
[59] The amplitude of pressure recovery in the sill is
much larger than the anticipated pressure variation associated with movement of the magma column perched above
the dike in response to the passage of the gas pocket.
Rather, pressure recovery in the magma filling the sill is
likely to be driven by diffusion of gases from the resulting
supersaturated melt into bubbles. Calculations assuming a
penny-shaped crack at ambient pressure of 40 MPa suggest
that the observed pressure and volume variations may be
explained with the following attributes: crack radius
(100 m), crack aperture (5 m), bubble number density
(1010 – 1012 m3), initial bubble radius (106 m), final bubble
radius (105 m), and net decrease of gas concentration in
melt (0.01 wt %). Diffusion pumping is a nonlinear process
that displays a sensitive response to small pressure fluctua-
18 of 20
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tions. On the basis of this behavior, it seems likely that small
pressure variations arising from slow leakage of gases during
magma crystallization may eventually lead to a pressure surge
and attendant evacuation of a large pocket of gas. Diffusion
pumping may remain operative until the source melt
becomes undersaturated. Following a sufficiently long lapse
of time for magma crystallization to regain melt supersaturation, diffusion pumping may be reinitiated, leading to
another eruption. This process may occur repeatedly until
either the melt body becomes depleted of gases as it becomes
solidified, or the pathway used by the escaping gases
becomes clogged up by deposition of hydrothermal minerals
[Stix et al., 1997], at which point excess pressurization
may lead to an explosive clearing of the pathway.
[ 60 ] Acknowledgments. We are grateful to D. Escobedo,
F. Lizarraga, H. Lopez-Loera, and C. Valdes from the Instituto de Geofisica,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM); G. Espitia,
F. Galicia, E. Guevara, and R. Quass from the Centro Nacional de
Prevención de Desastres (CENAPRED); G. Asch and R. Kind from the
GeoForschungZentrum (GFZ) in Potsdam; P. Chouet and C. Dietel from the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS); M. Galicia from the Protección Civil
Amecameca Edo de Mexico; and D. Arenas, M. Galicia, and his rescue
team for their participation in the field experiment. We are indebted to
David Hill and Robert Tilling of USGS for thorough reviews and helpful
suggestions. We also thank Hiroyuki Kumagai, an anonymous reviewer,
and the Associate Editor of JGR for constructive comments.
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Source mechanism of Vulcanian degassing at Popocatépetl

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