Prohibition in the United States

Transcription

Prohibition in the United States was a national ban
on the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol,
in place from 1920 to 1933.[1] The ban was mandated
by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and
the Volstead Act set down the rules for enforcing the
ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that
were prohibited. Private ownership and consumption of
alcohol was not made illegal. Prohibition ended with
the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, which
repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, on December 5,
1933.
The introduction of alcohol prohibition and its
subsequent enforcement in law was a hotly debated
Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine brewery
issue. The contemporary prohibitionists ("dries")
during the Prohibition era
labeled this as the "Noble Experiment"[2] and presented
it as a victory for public morals and health. The
consumption of alcohol overall went down by half in the 1920s; and it remained below pre-Prohibition levels until
the 1940s.[3]
Anti-prohibitionists ("wets") criticized the alcohol ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central
aspect of urban, immigrant and Catholic everyday life. Effective enforcement of the alcohol ban during the
Prohibition Era proved to be very difficult and led to widespread flouting of the law. The lack of a solid popular
consensus for the ban resulted in the growth of vast criminal organizations, including the modern American Mafia,
and various other criminal cliques. Widespread disregard of the law also generated rampant corruption among
politicians and within police forces.
History
The Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Having been approved by 36 states, the
18th Amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919 and effected on January 17, 1920.[4]
On November 18, 1918, before the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the United States Congress passed the
temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of
greater than 2.75%.[5] (This act, which was intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice
was signed on November 11, 1918.) The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, and July 1, 1919
became widely known as the "Thirsty-First".[6][7]
Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow
Wilson's veto on October 28, 1919, and established the legal definition of intoxicating liquor, as well as penalties for
producing it.[8] Though the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government did little to enforce it.
By 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs.[9]
While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of
rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity.[10] Many were astonished and disenchanted with
the rise of spectacular gangland crimes (such as Chicago's St. Valentine's Day massacre), when prohibition was
supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal
liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime.[11]
1
2
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen-Harrison Act, legalizing weak beers
and wines. On December 5, 1933, the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth
Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting
numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use.[12]
Origins
Alcohol and alcoholism have been a contentious
topic in America since the colonial period.
In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts
made the sale of strong liquor "whether known by
the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy,
etc." illegal.[13]
In general, informal social controls in the home
and community helped maintain the expectation
that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable.
"Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but
only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself
was not looked upon as culpable, any more than
food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony.
Excess was a personal indiscretion."[14] When
informal controls failed, there were always legal
ones.
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by Nathaniel Currier supporting the
temperance movement, January 1846
One of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, Benjamin Rush, argued in "The Inquiry into the Effects of
Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind" in 1784 that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical
and psychological health and went so far as to label drunkenness as a disease (he believed in moderation rather than
prohibition).[15] Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut
community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New
York in 1808.[16]
Within the next decade, other temperance organizations were formed in eight states, some being statewide
organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for
men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to
embrace the ideology of 'true motherhood' refrained from consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women were
considered the moral authorities of their households and consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which was
considered a threat to the home.[17]
In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in
2010.[10]
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Development of the Prohibition movement
The American Temperance Society (ATS), 1826, helped to initiate the
first temperance movement and consequently served as a foundation
for many later groups. By 1835, the ATS had reached 1.5 million
members, with women constituting 35-60% of individual chapters.[18]
The prohibition, or "dry", movement continued in the 1840s,
spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the
Methodists. The late 19th century saw the temperance movement
broaden its focus from abstinence to all behavior and institutions
related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A.
Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with prostitution.
Some successes were registered in the 1850s, including Maine's total
ban on the manufacture and sale of liquor, adopted in 1851. However,
the ban in Maine was repealed in 1856. The movement soon lost
strength, and was marginalized during the American Civil War
(1861–1865).
The issue was revived by the Prohibition Party, founded in 1869, and
the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1873.
The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for
preventing possible abuses from the alcoholic husbands.[19] One of its
methods to achieve that goal was education. It was believed that if it
could "get to the children" it could create a "dry" sentiment leading to
prohibition. Frances Willard, the second president of the WCTU, held
the aims of the organization were to create a "union of women from all
denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a
better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming
by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and
removing the dram-shop from our streets by law."[20] While still
denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed
Frances Willard's "Do Everything" doctrine and used temperance as a
method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues
such as prison reform and labor laws.[21]
"Who does not love wine wife and
song, will be a fool for his lifelong!"
— a vigorous 1873 assertion of the
cultural values of
German-Americans.
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette
newspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-Saloon
League and the Women's Christian Temperance
Union's campaign against the producers and
sellers of beers in Hawaii
In 1881, Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in
its Constitution, with Carrie Nation gaining notoriety for enforcing the provision herself by walking into saloons,
scolding customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation
Prohibition Group, which Nation also led. While Carrie Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activists
enforced the cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloon keepers to stop selling alcohol.[22] Many
other states, especially in the South, also enacted prohibition, along with many individual counties.
Many court cases also debated the subject under different lights and for different situations, there was an overall lean
towards prohibition, however, many cases still ruled opposed to the believed effects. In Mugler v. Kansas, 1887,
Justice Harlan, wrote, "We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the
public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact
established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the
country, are, in some degree... traceable to this evil."[23] In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen, 1890,
said, "The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits
obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source."[23]
The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era was a phenomenon of an increasingly
industrialized, urban workforce. “Workingmen” bars were popular social gathering places of respite from both the
workplace and the domesticity of home and family life. The brewing industry itself was actively involved in
establishing a lucrative consumer base in the business chain. The saloons were more often than not “tie-ins” where
the saloon keeper‘s operation was financed by a brewer and was contractually obligated to sell the brewer’s product
to the exclusion of any and all other competing brands. The business model often included the concept of the “free
lunch” —a bill of fare commonly consisting of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of
drink.[24] In the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility to saloons and their political influence became widespread,
with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as the
most influential advocate of prohibition, when the latter two groups chose to piggyback other social reform issues,
such as women's suffrage, onto their prohibition platform.
Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. The political forces
involved were ethnoreligious in character, as demonstrated by numerous historical studies.[25] Prohibition was
demanded by the "dries" – primarily pietistic Protestant denominations, especially the Methodists, Northern Baptists,
Southern Baptists, New School Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, Quakers and Scandinavian
Lutherans. They identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations
included the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific
Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the "wets" – primarily liturgical Protestants (Episcopalians, German
Lutherans) and Roman Catholics, who denounced the idea that the government should define morality.[26] Even in
the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups
and African-American labor activists who believed that Prohibition would benefit workers, especially
African-Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported Prohibition, thinking a ban
on alcohol would increase sales of their products.[27]
Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values
emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of immigrants to
the urban dwellings of the United States, many individuals within the
prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt
behavior of the cities of America with their large immigrant
populations. In a backlash to the new emerging realities of the
American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the
doctrine of “nativism” in which they endorsed the notion that America
was made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This
Governor James P. Goodrich signs the Indiana
fostered xenophobic sentiments towards urban immigrant communities
prohibition act, 1917.
who typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition.[28]
Additionally, these nativist sentiments were a part of a larger process of Americanization taking place during the
same time period.[29]
4
Two other amendments to the constitution were
championed by "dries" to help their cause. The Federal
income tax replaced the alcohol taxes that funded the
federal government.[30]p.57 Also, since women tended to
support prohibition, temperance organizations supported
women suffrage.[30]
In the 1916 presidential election, both Democratic
incumbent Woodrow Wilson and Republican candidate
Charles Evans Hughes ignored the Prohibition issue, as
was the case with both parties' political platforms.
Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry
factions, and the election was expected to be close, with
neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his
political base.
In January 1917, the 65th Congress convened, in which
the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the
Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans.
With America's declaration of war against Germany in
April, German-Americans—a major force against
prohibition—were sidelined and their protests
subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for
prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of
Political cartoon describing the alliance between the prohibition and
alcoholic
beverages
would
allow
more
women suffrage movements.
resources—especially the grain that would otherwise be
used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort.
While "war prohibition" was a spark for the movement,[31] by the time Prohibition was enacted, the war was over.
5
6
A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish
nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both
houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had
been ratified by thirty-six of the forty-eight states. On October 28,
1919, the amendment was implemented by the Volstead Act.
Start of national prohibition (January 1920)
Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the Eighteenth
Amendment went into effect. A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition
agents (police) were given the task of enforcing the law.
Although it was highly controversial, Prohibition was widely supported
by diverse groups. Progressives believed that it would improve society
as generally did women, southerners, those living in rural areas and
African-Americans. There were a few exceptions such as the Woman’s
Organization for Prohibition Reform who fought against it. Will
Rogers often joked about the southern pro-prohibitionists: "The South
is dry and will vote dry. That is, everybody sober enough to stagger to
The Defender Of The 18th Amendment. From
Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty published by the
the polls." Supporters of the Amendment soon became quite confident
Pillar of Fire Church
that it would not be repealed, to the point that one of its creators,
Senator Morris Sheppard, joked that "there is as much chance of
repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington
Monument tied to its tail."[32]
At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act; after Edward, Prince of Wales, returned to Britain following his
1919 tour of Canada, he recounted to his father, King George V, a ditty he'd heard at a border town:
“
Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry,
Went across the border to get a drink of rye.
When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to
sing,
[33]
"God bless America, but God save the King!"
”
The issue of Prohibition became a highly controversial one among
medical professionals, because alcohol was widely prescribed by
physicians of the era for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings
on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians
across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to
medicinal liquors.[34]
While the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol was illegal in the
U.S., Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed the making at home of
Orange County Sheriff's deputies dumping illegal
wine and cider from fruit (but not beer). Up to 200 gallons per year
alcohol, 1932
could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. Also,
one anomaly of the Act as worded was that it did not actually prohibit
the consumption of alcohol; many people actually stockpiled wines and liquors for their own use in the latter part of
1919 before sales of alcohol became illegal the following January.
Alcoholic drinks were not always illegal in all neighboring countries. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico,
and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled to the U.S.
7
The Detroit River, which forms part of the border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control. And when the
United States Government complained to the British government that its law was being undermined by officials in
Nassau, The Bahamas, the British Colonial Office head refused to intervene.[35] Winston Churchill believed that
Prohibition was "an affront to the whole history of mankind".[36]
Chicago became a haven for Prohibition dodgers during the time known as the "Roaring Twenties". Many of
Chicago's most notorious gangsters, including Al Capone and his enemy Bugs Moran, made millions of dollars
through illegal alcohol sales. By the end of the decade Capone controlled all 10,000 speakeasies in Chicago and
ruled the bootlegging business from Canada to Florida. Numerous other crimes, including theft and murder, were
directly linked to criminal activities in Chicago and elsewhere in violation of prohibition.
Three separate Federal Agencies were to enforce the Volstead Act:
• United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement[37][38]
• US Treasury Department IRS Bureau of Prohibition[39][40]
• US Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition[41][42]
A policeman with wrecked automobile and confiscated moonshine,
1922
Removal of liquor during prohibition.
As the prohibition years continued, more of the
country’s populace came to see prohibition as
illustrative of class distinctions, a law unfairly biased in
its administration favoring social elites. "Prohibition
worked best when directed at its primary target: the
working-class poor." [43] Historian Lizabeth Cohen
writes: “ A rich family could have a cellar-full of
liquor, but if a poor family had a bottle of home-brew,
there would be trouble.” Working-class people were
inflamed by the fact that their employer could dip into a
cache of private stock while they, the employee, was
denied a similar indulgence.[44]
A 1933 newsreel about the end of prohibition.
Indeed, before the date that the Eighteenth Amendment
became national law, many of the well-to-do stockpiled alcohol for home consumption. They bought out the
inventories of warehouses, saloons, club store rooms, they emptied out liquor retailers and wholesalers. American
lawmakers themselves followed these practices at the highest levels of government. President Woodrow Wilson
moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His
successor, Warren G. Harding relocated his own large supply into the White House after inauguration.[45][46]
In October 1930, just two weeks before the Congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday, "the man
in the green hat," came forward and told how he had bootlegged for ten years for Congress. One of the few
bootleggers ever to tell his story, he wrote five front page articles in The Washington Post. He estimated that eighty
percent of congressmen and senators drank, even though these same people were the ones passing dry laws. This had
a significant impact on the midterm election, which saw Congress shift from a dry Republican majority to a wet
Democratic majority. The Democrats understood that Prohibition was unpopular and called for its repeal.[47]
As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in the big cities, "Repeal" was eagerly anticipated.
Economic urgency played no small part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. Prior to 1920, and the institution of
the Volstead Act, approximately fourteen percent of federal, state and local tax revenue was derived from alcohol
commerce. The government badly needed income and further felt that reinstating the manufacture and sale of alcohol
would create desperately needed jobs for the unemployed.[48]
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act known as the
Cullen-Harrison Act, allowing the manufacture and sale of "3.2 beer" (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4%
alcohol by volume) and light wines. The original Volstead Act had defined "intoxicating beverage" as one with
greater than 0.5% alcohol.[8] Upon signing the amendment, Roosevelt made his famous remark; "I think this would
be a good time for a beer."[49]
Repeal of prohibition (April 1933)
The Cullen-Harrison Act became law on April 7, 1933, and on April 8, 1933, Anheuser-Busch, Inc. sent a team of
Clydesdale horses to deliver a case of Budweiser to the White House. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on
December 5, 1933 with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment. Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant, a man
who would later become a prophet in the LDS Church, a Utah convention helped ratify the 21st Amendment.[50]
While Utah can be considered the deciding 36th state to ratify the Amendment and make it law, the day Utah
approved the Amendment, both Pennsylvania and Ohio approved it as well.
One of the main reasons why enforcement of prohibition did not proceed smoothly was the inefficient means of
enforcing the laws set forth by the 18th amendment. From its very inception, the law lacked legitimacy in the eyes of
the public who had previously been drinkers and yet completely law-abiding citizens. The public in some instances
viewed the laws as being “arbitrary and unnecessary” and therefore were willing to breach them. Consequently, law
enforcements agents who had not been bribed to turn a blind eye, found themselves overwhelmed by the dramatic
rise in the illegal distribution of alcohol on such a wide scale due to the Volstead Act. The scale of the task was not
anticipated and consequently the necessary resources to pursue it were not allocated. Additionally, enforcement of
the 18th amendment lacked centralized authority and many attempts to impose prohibitionist laws were deterred due
to the lack of transparency between federal and state authorities. Furthermore, the reality of American geography
contributed significantly to the difficulties in enforcing prohibition. The terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes and
swamps as well as the extensive seaways, ports and massive borders running along Canada and Mexico made it
exceedingly difficult for prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was
recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced was not pragmatic, and that in many
cases the legislature did not match the general public opinion.[51]
Prohibition was a major blow for the alcohol industry and repeal was therefore a step toward the amelioration of one
sector of the economy. A perfect example for this is the case of St. Louis. The city had been one of the most
important alcohol producers before prohibition started and was ready to take back its position as soon as possible. Its
major brewery had "50,000 barrels" of beer ready to be sent since March 22. It was the first alcohol producer to refill
the market, but others followed. This slowly allowed stores to obtain alcohol after, of course, having obtained a
license. The restart of beer production allowed thousands of workers to find jobs again.[52]
Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which already was under pressure.
Roosevelt was elected based on the New Deal, which promised improvement to the economy that was only possible
8
9
if the formal economy competed successfully against various economic forces, including the effects of prohibition's
black market. This influenced his support for ratifying the 21st amendment, which repealed the 18th amendment that
had established prohibition.[53]
Post-repeal
Further information: Dry state, Dry county, and List of dry communities by U.S. state
The Twenty-first Amendment does not
prevent states from restricting or
banning alcohol. This led to a
patchwork of laws in which alcohol
may be legally sold in some but not all
towns or counties within a particular
state. After repeal of the 18th
amendment, some states continued to
enforce prohibition laws. Mississippi,
which had made alcohol illegal in
1907, was the last state to repeal
Prohibition in 1966. Kansas did not
allow sale of liquor "by the drink"
(on-premises) until 1987. To the
present day, there are still numerous
"dry" counties and towns in America
that restrict or prohibit liquor sales.[54]
Map showing dry (red), wet (blue), and mixed (yellow) counties in the United States. (See
List of dry communities by U.S. state.)
Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations. Federal law also prohibits alcohol on
Indian reservations,[55] although this law is currently only enforced if there is a concomitant violation of local tribal
liquor laws.[56] The federal law prohibiting alcohol in Indian country pre-dates the Eighteenth Amendment. No
constitutional changes were necessary prior to the passage of this law, as Indian Reservations and federal territories
have always been considered areas of direct federal jurisdiction.
At the end of Prohibition, some supporters openly admitted its failure. A letter written in 1932 by John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., states:[57]
When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day
would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to
believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced
the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored
Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened; and crime has increased to a level never seen before.
It is not clear if Prohibition did reduce per-capita consumption of alcohol. While some historians claim that not until
the 1960s did consumption in the United States exceed pre-Prohibition levels.[58] others claim that the consumption
levels of alcohol reached the pre-prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and have risen afterwards.[59]
Cirrhosis of the liver, normally a result of alcoholism, dropped nearly 2/3 during Prohibition.[60][61]
Regardless, in the decades after Prohibition Americans gradually shed any stigma they might have had against
alcohol. According to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, some two-thirds of American
adults 18 and older drink alcohol.[62]
Prohibition and pietistic Protestantism
Prohibition in the early to mid-twentieth century was fueled by the Protestant denominations in the U.S.[63] Pietistic
churches in the U.S. sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System. Liturgical ("high")
churches (Catholic, Epsicopal, German Lutheran) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the
government deciding what was and was not moral.[64]
Revivalism in Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid and late 19th century set the
stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: “The greater prevalence of
revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population.”[65]
Historian Nancy Koester expressed the belief that Prohibition was a “victory for progressives and social gospel
activists battling poverty”.[66] Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists.[67]
Effects of the Prohibition
Organized crime
Organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. Mafia groups limited their activities to prostitution,
gambling, and theft until 1920, when organized bootlegging manifested in response to the effect of Prohibition.[68] A
profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. Powerful criminal gangs corrupted law enforcement
agencies, leading to racketeering. In essence, prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to
flourish.[69]
Rather than reducing crime it seemed, Prohibition had transformed the cities into battlegrounds between opposing
bootlegging gangs. In a study of over 30 major U.S cities during the prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number
of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicide by 12.7%, assaults and
battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 44.6% and police department costs rose by 11.4%. It has been speculated that
this was largely the result of “black-market violence” as well as law enforcing resources having been diverted
elsewhere. Despite the beliefs of the prohibitionist movement that by outlawing alcohol crime would surely be
reduced, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to worse social conditions than were experienced prior to
prohibition as demonstrated by more lethal forms of alcohol, increased crime rates, and the establishment of a black
market dominated by criminal organizations.[70]
Furthermore, stronger liquor surged in popularity because its potency made it more profitable to smuggle. To prevent
bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the government ordered the poisoning
of industrial alcohols. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully renatured the alcohol to make it
drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the
particularly deadly methyl alcohol. New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because
of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition
ended.[71]
In the "Chemist's War" it does not appear that the government intended to kill Americans with these poisons. They
wrongly assumed that people out of fear would stop drinking alcohol. New York City medical examiner Charles
Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not detering people
and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Charles Norris
said, "The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol..."[Y]et it continues its
poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing
this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that
poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible." [72]
10
Another lethal substance that was often substituted for
alcohol was "canned heat," also commonly known as
Sterno. By forcing the substance through a makeshift
filter, such as a handkerchief, to create a rough liquor
substitute. However, the result was poisonous, though
not often lethal. Many of those who were poisoned as a
result united to sue the government for reparations after
the end of Prohibition.[73]
Making alcohol at home was very common during
Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning
Al Capone, the Prohibition-era leader of organized crime in Chicago.
labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to
prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. As well,
some drug stores would sell a "medical wine" with around a 22% alcohol content; in order to justify the sale, the
wine was given a medicinal taste.[73] Home-distilled hard liquor was referred to as “bathtub gin” in northern cities,
and moonshine in the rural areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. Home-brewing good
hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer.[73] Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed
taxation by the government, the law relentlessly pursued manufacturers.[74]
In response, the bootleggers in southern states started creating their own souped-up, stock-looking cars by enhancing
their cars’ engines and suspensions to create a faster vehicle. Having a faster vehicle during Prohibition, they
presumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition, commonly
called "revenue agents" or "revenuers." These cars became known as “moonshine runners” or "'shine runners".[75]
Ships were also known to collaborate with the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients
for liquors, which anyone could legally purchase (these include: benedictine, vermouth, scotch mash, and even ethyl
alcohol).[76]
Prohibition also had a large effect on the music industry in the United States, specifically with jazz. Speakeasies
became far more popular during that time and the effects of the Great Depression caused a migration that led to a
greater dispersal of jazz music. Movement began from New Orleans and went north through Chicago and to New
York. This also meant developing different styles in the different cities. Because of its popularity in speakeasies and
the development of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very popular very fast. It was also at the forefront
of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white
crowds.[77]
Along with other economic effects, the enactment of prohibition and the resulting enforcement and the resources
dedicated to that enforcement increased. During the 1920s, the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from
$4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on
prohibition.[78] These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.
When repeal of Prohibition occurred in 1933, organized crime lost nearly all of its black market alcohol profits in
most states (states still had the right to enforce their own laws concerning alcohol consumption) because of
competition with low-priced alcohol sales at legal liquor stores.
11
Other impacts
As a result of prohibition, the advancements of
industrialization within the alcohol industry were
essentially reversed. This was achieved by large scale
alcohol producers being shut down for the most part
and individual citizens taking it upon themselves to
produce alcohol illegally. This process reversed the
efficiency of mass producing and retailing alcoholic
beverages. Closing manufacturing plants and taverns
resulted in economic reversal. The Eighteenth
Amendment originally did not have this effect on the
industry due to its failure to define what an
Pre-Prohibition saloons were mostly male establishments;
“intoxicating” beverage was. The Volstead Act’s
post-Prohibition bars catered to both males and females.
definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume
constituting “intoxicating” shut down the brewers who had expected to still be able to produce beer of moderate
strength.[79]
As the saloon began to die out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social
acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies. This new norm established
women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele.[79]
And in the year before the Volstead Act became law, it was estimated by the 1930 Prohibition Commissioner, that
the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished
the supply, this had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period), resulting in an illegal alcohol
beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income.[80]
Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected parties during prohibition. Those who were determined
to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in
finding the help they sought. The self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry and in 1935 a
new self-help group was founded: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).[79]
Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. When Prohibition ended, only
half the breweries that previously existed reopened. Wine historians also note Prohibition destroyed what was a
fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive wine quality grape vines were replaced by lower quality
vines growing thicker skinned grapes that could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was
also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether.[81]
Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition,[73] and because of its higher alcohol content in comparison
to fermented wine and beer, mixing and watering down the hard alcohol also became common.[73]
Winemaking during Prohibition
The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines "on the legal fiction that it was a
non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption",[82] and many people did so. Enterprising grape farmers
produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called "wine bricks" or "wine blocks".[83] This demand led
California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% in the first five years of prohibition.
The grape concentrate was sold with a warning: "After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the
liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it would turn into wine."[14] One grape block
producer sold nine varieties: Port, Virginia Dare, Muscatel, Angelica, Tokay, Sauterne, Riesling, Claret and
Burgundy.
12
The Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and rabbis. This was used as a loophole to purchase
wine by imposters as well.[30]
Notes
[1] Wayne Curtis, "Bootleg Paradise," (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ node/ 61839) American Heritage, April/May 2007.
[2] Prohibition: The Noble Experiment (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 04oct/ 00492/ ) Oracle ThinkQuest
[3] Jack S. Blocker et al. eds (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C& pg=PA23). ABC-CLIO. p. 23. .
[4] Vick, Dwight (2010). Drugs and Alcohol in the 21st Century: Theory, Behavior, and Policy (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=fwRF5tFand8C& pg=PA128& dq="alcohol+ prohibition+ became+ law+ on+ january+ 17"& hl=en&
ei=kf01Tf70NoeqhAfQta3PCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& sqi=2& ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q="alcohol
prohibition became law on january 17"& f=false). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7637-7488-2. . Retrieved 2011-01-18.
[5] Miller, William D. Pretty Bubbles in the Air: American in 1919, University of Illinois Press, 1991, p. 151. ISBN 0-252-01823-0
[6] Burlington Historical Society 2010 March newsletter (http:/ / www. burlingtonhistory. org/ Newsletters/ 2010 March newsletter-1. htm)
[7] Fitzgerald, F. Scott This Side of Paradise (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ thissideofparadi00fitzuoft#page/ 223/ mode/ 1up), Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1920, p. 223. ("The advent of prohibition with the 'thirsty-first' put a sudden stop to[...]" [referring to July of 1919]); and
Fitzgerald, F. Scott The Beautiful and the Damned (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zhP5Ez_rLWsC& pg=PA407& lpg=PA407&
dq=prohibition+ "thirsty-first"& source=bl& ots=RGlcJHsJAB& sig=8rySnj5-X_-4NUMhARZFTBnNWQ8& hl=en&
ei=quqpTcOTBefRiAKrs6XvDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CCQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=prohibition
"thirsty-first"& f=false), Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 407, note 321.2 ("[W]hen prohibition came in July [...]").
[8] "Beer: A History of Brewing in Chicago", Bob Skilnik, Baracade Books, 2006, ISBN 978-1-56980-312-7
[9] "Teaching With Documents: The Volstead Act and Related Prohibition Documents" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ education/ lessons/
volstead-act/ ). United States National Archives. 2008-02-14. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.
[10] Von Drehle, David (24 May 2010). "The Demon Drink" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1989146,00. html). New
York, New York: Time. pp. 56. .
[11] David E. Kyvig, Repealing National Prohibition (2000)
[12] "TTBGov General Alcohol FAQs" (http:/ / www. ttb. gov/ faqs/ genalcohol. shtml#g1). United States Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade
Bureau. 2006-04. . Retrieved 2010-11-07.
[13] Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. p. 73.
ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
[14] Aaron, Paul; Musto, David (1981). "Temperance and Prohibition in America: An Historical Overview". In Moore, Mark H.; Gerstein, Dean
R.. Alcohol and Public Policy: Beyond the Shadow of Prohibition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. pp. 127–181.
ISBN 0-309-03149-4.
[15] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 10.
[19] Bordin, Ruth (1981). Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 8.
[20] Willard, Frances E. (2007). Let Something Good Be Said: Speeches and Writings of Frances E. Willard. Chicago: University of Illinois
Press. pp. 78.
[21] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movement: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 13.
[22] "Carry A. Nation: The Famous and Original Bar Room Smasher" (http:/ / www. kshs. org/ exhibits/ carry/ carry1. htm). Kansas Historical
Society. 2002-11-01. . Retrieved 2008-12-21.
[23] Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review. Volume: 222. Number: 828. September, 1925. 40-44.
[24] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 86-87, ISBN
978-0-8147=2028-8
[25] Paul Kleppner, The Third Electoral System 1853-1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures. (1979) pp 131-39; Paul Kleppner, Continuity
and Change in Electoral Politics, 1893-1928. (1987); Ballard Campbell, "Did Democracy Work? Prohibition in Late Nineteenth-century
Iowa: a Test Case." Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1977) 8(1): 87-116; and Eileen McDonagh, "Representative Democracy and State
Building in the Progressive Era." American Political Science Review 1992 86(4): 938-950.
[26] Jensen (1971) ch 5.
[27] Lerner, Michael A. Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City, Harvard University Press, 2007.
[28] Lerner, Michael A. Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City, Harvard University Press, 2007 p.96-97
[29] Us Americanization –American National Identify and Ideologies of Americanization (http:/ / science. jrank. org/ pages/ 8266/
Americanization-U-S-American-National-Identity-Ideologies-Americanization. html)
[30] Okrent, Daniel. (2010). Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-7702-3. OCLC 419812305
[31] E.g., "The Economics of War Prohibition", pp. 143-144 in: Survey Associates, Inc., The Survey, Volume 38, April–September, 1917.
[32] Kyvig, David E: "Women Against Prohibition." American Quarterly. 28, no. 4 (Autumn, 1976), 465-482.
13
[33] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Garry (1991). Royal Observations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=z0tRpB891bIC& printsec=frontcover&
dq=toffoli& cd=4#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd.. p. 41. ISBN 1-55002-076-5. . Retrieved 7 March 2010.
[34] Appel, Jacob M. "Physicians Are Not Bootleggers: The Short, Peculiar Life of the Medicinal Alcohol Movement." The Bulletin of the
History of Medicine (Summer, 2008)
[35] Prohibition, part II A Nation of Scofflaws (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ kenburns/ prohibition/ ). A documentary film series by Ken Burns and
Lynn Novick. Video excerpt (http:/ / video. pbs. org/ video/ 2086033109).
[36] Howe, Scott N. (25 April 2010). "Probing Prohibition" (http:/ / drinkboston. com/ 2010/ 04/ 25/ probing-prohibition/ ). DrinkBoston. .
Retrieved 15 February 2012.
[37] United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/
3947-united-states-coast-guard-office-of-law-enforcement-us-government#ixzz1eaFKZRuK)
[38] 11 Coast Guard men killed between 1925 and 1927
[39] Bureau of Prohibition (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/
5854-united-states-department-of-the-treasury-internal-revenue-service-prohibition-unit-us-government)
[40] 56 agents killed between 1920 and 1927
[41] Bureau of Prohibition (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/ 5856-united-states-department-of-justice-bureau-of-prohibition-us-government)
[42] 34 agents killed between 1930 and 1934
[43] Oshinsky, David, "The Rise and Fall of Prohibition," The New York Times, book review, May 13, 2010
[44] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 189, ISBN
978-0-8147-2028-8
[45] Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press. pp. 42–45.
ISBN 978-1-60949-236-6.
978-0-8147-2028-8
[47] Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press. pp. 125–133.
ISBN 978-1-60949-236-6.
978-0-8147-2028-8
[49] Friedrich, Otto; Gorey, Hays (February 1, 1982). "F.D.R.'s Disputed Legacy" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/
0,9171,954983-6,00. html). Time. . Retrieved May 22, 2010.
[50] Reeve, W. Paul, "Prohibition Failed to Stop the Liquor Flow in Utah" (http:/ / historytogo. utah. gov/ utah_chapters/ from_war_to_war/
prohibitionfailedtostoptheliquorflowinutah. html). Utah History to Go. (First published in History Blazer, February 1995)
[51] Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Dated
January 7th 1931 "Bad Features of the Present Situation and Difficulties in the Way of Enforcement
[52] New York Times, 50,000 barrels ready in St Louis, March 23rd 1933
[53] Prohibition, Repeal, and Historical Cycles, Dwight B Heath, Brown University Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies
[54] Burkhart, Jeff (2010). "The Great Experiment: Prohibition Continues" (http:/ / nationalgeographicassignmentblog. com/ 2010/ 08/ 19/
the-great-experiment-prohibition-continues/ ). National Geographic Assignment. . Retrieved 2010-11-20.
[55] 18 USC, § 1154
[56] Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs (March 1, 2008). "Survey of American Indian alcohol statutes, 1975-2006: evolving needs and
future opportunities for tribal health" (http:/ / goliath. ecnext. com/ coms2/ gi_0199-7634942/ Survey-of-American-Indian-alcohol. html). .
[57] Letter on Prohibition - see Daniel Okrent, Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center, New York: Viking Press, 2003. (pp.246/7).
[58] The Jazz Age: The American 1920s - Prohibition (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display. cfm?HHID=441) Digital
History
[59] Did Alcohol Use Decrease During Alcohol Prohibition? (http:/ / druglibrary. org/ prohibitionresults1. htm) Drug Library
[60] (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display. cfm?HHID=441)
[61] (http:/ / pubs. niaaa. nih. gov/ publications/ arh27-3/ 209-219. htm)
[62] Peck, Garrett (2009). The Prohibition Hangover: Alcohol in America from Demon Rum to Cult Cabernet. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-8135-4592-9.
[63] Howard Clark Kee, Christianity: A Social and Cultural History. 2nd ed. (Prentice Hall, 1998) p. 486
[64] Richard J. Jensen (1971). The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=XpCgCNZwpvoC& pg=PA67). U. of Chicago Press. p. 67. .
[65] George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change : Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United
States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.p.65
[66] Nancy Koester, Fortress Introduction to the History of Christianity in the United States (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007) p. 154.
[67] Robert Francis Martin (2002). Hero of the Heartland: Billy Sunday and the Transformation of American Society, 1862-1935 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=dxIH-kJrANwC& pg=PA111). Indiana U.P.. p. 111. .
[68] Organized Crime - American Mafia (http:/ / law. jrank. org/ pages/ 11944/ Organized-Crime-American-Mafia. html), Law Library American Law and Legal Information
14
[69] Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Dated
January 7th 1931
[70] Charles Hanson Towne, The Rise and Fall of Prohibition: The Human Side of What the Eighteenth Amendment Has Done to the United
States (New York: Macmillan, 1923) p.159-162
[71] Blum, Deborah. "The Chemist's War: The Little-told Story of how the U.S. Government Poisoned Alcohol During Prohibition, with Deadly
Consequences" (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2245188), Slate. Washington Post, Feb. 2010. Web. 19 Feb. 2010.
[72] Blum, Deborah. "The Chemist's War" (http:/ / www. slate. com/ articles/ health_and_science/ medical_examiner/ 2010/ 02/
the_chemists_war. 2. html) Slate. February 19, 2010.
[73] Lusk, Rufus S. "The Drinking Habit". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume: 163. Prohibition: A
National Experiment. September, 1932. 46-52.
[74] Oldham, Scott. "NASCAR Turns 50." Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Aug. 1998. Web. 23 Nov. 2009.
[75] "NASCAR, an Overview - Part 1." Suite101.com. Google. Web. 22 Nov. 2009.
[76] Willing, Joseph K. "The Profession of Bootlegging". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume: 125.
Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment. May, 1926. 40-48.
[77] Erenberg, Lewis A. Swingin' the Dream : Big Band Jazz and the Rebirth of American Culture (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press),
1998.
[78] Bureau of Prohibition, Statistics Concerning Intoxicating Liquors. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1930. pp. 2.
[79] Blocker, Jr., Jack S. (February 2006). "Did Prohibition Really Work?". American Journal of Public Health 96 (2): 233–243.
[80] "Interview With Dr. James M. Doran." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OigDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA19& dq=1930+ plane+
"Popular& hl=en& ei=UoKOTpXcNMOUtwfE1sSLDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3&
ved=0CDwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage& q=1930 plane "Popular& f=true) Popular Science Monthly, November 1930, interview with
Prohibition Commissioner, see p. 147
[81] Karen MacNeil, The Wine Bible, pp.630-631.
[82] Time magazine article from 1931 on wine bricks (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,742105,00. html)
[83] Burnham, Kelsey (2010-04-18). "Prohibition in Wine Country". Napa Valley Register.
References
• Blocker, Jack S., et al. eds (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia
(http://books.google.com/books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C&pg=PA23). ABC-CLIO. p. 23.
• Ken Burns, Lynn Novick (October 2011). Prohibition (http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/prohibition/
watch-video/#id=15393956). PBS. ISBN 978-1-60883-430-3. OCLC 738476083.
• Jensen, Richard J. (1971). The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896 (http://books.
google.com/books?id=XpCgCNZwpvoC). U of Chicago Press. full text online
• Kingsdale, Jon M. "The 'Poor Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," American
Quarterly vol. 25 (October, 1973): 472-89. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2711634)
• Kyvig; David E. Law, Alcohol, and Order: Perspectives on National Prohibition Greenwood Press, 1985.
• Lender, Mark, ed. Dictionary of American Temperance Biography Greenwood Press, 1984
• Miron, Jeffrey A. and Jeffrey Zwiebel. “Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition.” American Economic Review
81, no. 2 (1991): 242-247.
• Miron, Jeffrey A. "Alcohol Prohibition" (http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/article/miron.prohibition.alcohol)
Eh.Net Encyclopedia (2005)
• Moore, L.J. "Historical interpretation of the 1920s Klan: the traditional view and the popular revision" Journal of
Social History, 1990, 24 (2), 341-358. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3787502)
• Sellman; James Clyde. "Social Movements and the Symbolism of Public Demonstrations: The 1874 Women's
Crusade and German Resistance in Richmond, Indiana" Journal of Social History. Volume: 32. Issue: 3. 1999. pp
557+.
• Rumbarger; John J. Profits, Power, and Prohibition: Alcohol Reform and the Industrializing of America,
1800–1930, State University of New York Press, 1989.
• Sinclair; Andrew. Prohibition: The Era of Excess 1962.
• Timberlake, James. Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920 Harvard University Press, 1963.
• Tracy, Sarah W. and Caroline Jean Acker; Altering American Consciousness: The History of Alcohol and Drug
Use in the United States, 1800–2000. University of Massachusetts Press, 2004
15
• Walsh, Victor A. "'Drowning the Shamrock': Drink, Teetotalism and the Irish Catholics of Gilded-Age
Pittsburgh," Journal of American Ethnic History vol. 10, no. 1-2 (Fall 1990-Winter 1991): 60-79.
• Lusk, Rufus S. "The Drinking Habit". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume:
163. Prohibition: A National Experiment. September, 1932. 46-52.
• Willing, Joseph K. "The Profession of Bootlegging". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science. Volume: 125. Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment. May, 1926. 40-48.
• Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review. Volume: 222. Number: 828.
September, 1925. 40-44.
Further reading
• Behr, Edward. (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN
1-55970-356-3.
• Burns, Eric. (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
ISBN 1-59213-214-6.
• Clark, Norman H. (1976). Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition. New York: Norton.
ISBN 0-393-05584-1.
• Kahn, Gordon, and Al Hirschfeld. (1932, rev. 2003). The Speakeasies of 1932. New York: Glenn Young Books.
ISBN 1-55783-518-7.
• Kobler, John. (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN
0-399-11209-X.
• Lerner, Michael A. (2007). Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-02432-X.
• Murdoch, Catherine Gilbert. (1998). Domesticating Drink: Women, Men, and Alcohol in America, 1870-1940.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5940-9.
• Okrent, Daniel. (2010). Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-7702-3.
OCLC 419812305
• Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press.
ISBN 1-60949-236-6.
• Peck, Garrett. (2009). The Prohibition Hangover: Alcohol in America from Demon Rum to Cult Cabernet.
Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-4592-7.
• Pegram, Thomas R. (1998). Battling Demon Rum: The Struggle for a Dry America, 1800-1933. Chicago: Ivan R.
Dee. ISBN 1-56663-208-0.
• Waters, Harold. (1971). Smugglers of Spirits: Prohibition and the Coast Guard Patrol. New York: Hastings
House. ISBN 0-8038-6705-0.
External links
• Alcohol prohibition (http://eh.net/encyclopedia/miron.prohibition.alcohol.php) (EH.Net economic history
encyclopedia)
• The Effect of Alcohol Prohibition on Alcohol Consumption (PDF) (http://www.economics.harvard.edu/
faculty/miron/files/drunk_revised_for_el.pdf)
• Hypertext History — U.S. Prohibition (http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.
cfm?HHID=441)
• Prohibition news page (http://historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/alcohol_and_drugs_history/prohibition/
index.html) — Alcohol and Drugs History Society
• About.com: Prohibition (in the U.S.) (http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/p/prohibition.htm)
16
• Did Prohibition Reduce Alcohol Consumption and Crime? (http://www.druglibrary.org/Prohibitionresults.
htm)
• Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States by the National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement (Wickersham Commission Report on Alcohol Prohibition) (http://druglibrary.org/
schaffer/Library/studies/wick/index.html)
• Senate Judiciary Committee Hearings on Alcohol Prohibition — 1926 (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/
history/e1920/senj1926/Default.htm)
• Policy Analysis — Alcohol Prohibition Was A Failure (http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-157.html)
• Prohibition in Appalachia: "Little Chicago" The Story of Johnson City,Tennessee (http://www.johnsonsdepot.
com/chicago/chicago.htm)
• Free from the Nightmare of Prohibition (http://harrybrowne.org/GLO/DrugWar.htm) (by Harry Browne)
• Historic Images of US Prohibition (http://www.old-picture.com/prohibition-index-001.htm)
• Prohibition: How Dry We Ain't (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/37542/
prohibition-how-dry-we-aint) - slideshow by Life magazine
• "Interview With Dr. James M. Doran." (http://books.google.com/books?id=OigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19&
dq=1930+plane+"Popular&hl=en&ei=UoKOTpXcNMOUtwfE1sSLDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=3&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=1930 plane "Popular&f=true) Popular Science Monthly,
November 1930, pp. 19–21/146-147, interview with the Prohibition Commissioner 1930.
• "How Are You Going to Wet Your Whistle?" as recorded by Billy Murray (http://www.loc.gov/jukebox/
recordings/detail/id/6991)
17
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Prohibition in the United States Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520834845 Contributors: 21655, 32red, 8TheSteer, A8UDI, AWoodland, Abce2, Aboklage, Acather96,
Adam Keller, Adambro, Adom2000, Afterbirths, Aglomax, Agne27, Aharm, AirdishStraus, Aitias, Alansohn, Alex43223, AlexiusHoratius, AlexnHills, Alicekim53, Allmidgetsunited,
Allstarecho, Amcalabrese, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andy120, Antandrus, Archanamiya, Arekellyproductions, Arlesd, Asc85, Ashman1992, Ashmoo, Autocracy, Avenged Eightfold,
Awest6033, BBrad31, Bad Gopher Gear, Badger Drink, Barfbag123, Baseball Bugs, BaseballCougz, BaseballDetective, Bdell555, Bdimag, Bearian, Beland, Ben Ben, Bender235, Bento00,
Betempte, Bill, Billlogalneedslove, Bipedantics, Biruitorul, Bkwillwm, BlameHim, Bluebasket, Bmclaughlin9, Bobblehead, Bobby122, Bobdylanfan, Bobmack89x, Bobo192, Bostonian Mike,
Bparm, Bradley0110, Brandmeister, Braningillespie, Brevitas, Bridgecross, Brogman, Brownings, Buz lightning, Buzzbo, Buzztootight, Bwmcmaste, CTF83!, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canationalist, Canoe1967, Canterbury Tail, Captain-n00dle, Carcharoth, CardinalDan, Carlosjde, Catdude, CatherineMunro, Cathy Richards, Chris the speller, Chrisbolt,
Christopher Mann McKay, Chuckiesdad, Civil Engineer III, Clarince63, Clemux, Closedmouth, Comm315ae, CorpsBride, Countmall, Cpiral, CredoFromStart, Cryptic, Cyrius, DVdm, Daniel
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File:Detroit police prohibition.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Detroit_police_prohibition.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: (not listed)
File:The Drunkard's Progress - Color.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Drunkard's_Progress_-_Color.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Nathaniel
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File:The Gennii of Intolerance - A Dangerous Ally.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Gennii_of_Intolerance_-_A_Dangerous_Ally.tif License: Public Domain
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File:defender18thkkk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Defender18thkkk.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJ
File:Orange County Sheriff's deputies dumping illegal booze, Santa Ana, 3-31-1932.jpg Source:
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18

Prohibition in the United States

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