Clothing consumption

Kirsi Laitala
Clothing consumption
An interdisciplinary approach to design for
environmental improvement
Thesis for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor
Trondheim, September 2014
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
Department of Product Design
NTNU
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Thesis for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor
Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
Department of Product Design
© Kirsi Laitala
ISBN 978-82-326-0409-8 (printed ver.)
ISBN 978-82-326-0410-4 (electronic ver.)
ISSN 1503-8181
Doctoral theses at NTNU, 2014:248
Printed by NTNU-trykk
Preface
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
philosophiae doctor (PhD) at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU). The author declares that this thesis and the work presented in it are her own
and have been generated by her as the result of original research while in candidature
for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor at NTNU. The thesis contains no material that
was previously submitted for a degree at this university or any other institution. The
research has been carried out at National Institute for consumer Research (SIFO) and
Department of product design (IPD) at NTNU.
I would like to thank the Norwegian Research Council and Orkla ASA for financing the
project “From waste to material resources in a grave to cradle perspective: A
stakeholder approach within the textile value chain”, and the additional funding that I
received from SIFO for the finalisation of this thesis.
I would also like to thank my supervisors Casper Boks and Ingun Grimstad Klepp for
valuable guiding and encouragement throughout the project. I wouldn’t have made it
without you. Additional thanks go to my colleagues, especially to the members of the
Technology and the environment research group who have read and commented some
of the papers that are part of this dissertation, especially Marthe H. Austgulen, Mari
Bjerck, Anita Borch, Runar Døving, Marie Hebrok, Nina Heidenstrøm, Eivind
Jacobsen, Pål Strandbakken, Eivind Stø, Harald Throne-Holst and Gunnar Vittersø. I
have also been fortunate to work with great ladies when conducting the laboratory tests
and clothing registrations, and special thanks go to Sara Almgren, Madeline Buck,
Jorunn A. Schander, Marit Kjeldsberg, Kari Vereide, Kjersti Eilertsen, Tone K. Bergh,
Eldbjørg M. Brekke and Heidi M. Jensen. Additional thanks to Ane C. Engh for the
help with the administrative tasks. I’m also very happy to have been able to share some
of the experiences and frustrations with the other former and current PhD candidates at
IPD and SIFO, including Ida N. Pettersen, Johannes Daae, Alexander Schjøll and Silje
Skuland.
It would not have been possible to conduct the work without the project partners, survey
respondents and the households that participated in the wardrobe studies – thank you!
Especially Tone S. Tobiasson from Nice Fashion had contributed throughout the project
and been great help in matters related to sustainable fashion, language checks and
dissemination.
I’m very grateful of my family and friends who have believed in me during this time,
even when I have not been that sure of myself. In addition, I’m happy that you have
i
kept me from working far too much and reminded me that there is life outside the
office.
I got gradually interested in the topic. My background is within textile engineering, and
I wrote my MSc thesis about environmental labelling and LCA on textiles. After
graduation, I worked eight years at SIFO with test of textiles and research projects
related to clothing before starting my PhD project. Therefore, my reflections are rather
material and consumer centred and come from a non-designers perspective.
During this project, I have noticed that I have changed my own clothing consumption. I
have planned my purchases better, bought less, mended clothing, and reduced
laundering frequencies as well as temperatures. Therefore I believe that making other
people more aware of these matters, and enabling them to make better choices, could
contribute in changing their behaviour as well. This has also been confirmed by some
conference participants who told me they had changed their laundering behaviour after
hearing my presentation. Spread the word!
Oslo, April 2014
Kirsi Laitala
ii
Abstract
Clothing consumption - An interdisciplinary approach to design for environmental
improvement
Clothing production and consumption have significant negative environmental impacts.
This thesis explores whether an interdisciplinary method triangulation that combines
studies of material and behavioural aspects of clothing consumption can give a better
understanding of consumers’ clothing consumption practices, and further, if this
knowledge can be used to make environmental improvements in the clothing value
chain.
Material aspects of clothing consumption were researched through laboratory tests on
laundering and clothing properties, and through a method combination called wardrobe
studies. The wardrobe studies included all clothing that went out of use from 16
households during a six months period, combined with specific information on
behaviour related aspects for each individual garment and its history of use. Additional
behavioural aspects were studied through in-depth interviews and three consumer
surveys. The topics included consumers’ environmental attitudes and habits, and
experiences and opinions of different clothing consumption stages.
Consumers can make environmentally preferable choices in all clothing consumption
stages including acquisition, use, maintenance, and disposal, and especially through
prolonging the clothing lifespans and reducing the volumes in circulation. All of these
phases can potentially be influenced by the design of products such as clothing, washing
machines, dryers, but also larger systems, infrastructures, policies and services around
them. This thesis is based on eleven papers that address these different stages of
consumption.
The papers give empirical data on clothing consumption practices and suggest
improvements at different levels, and indicate that different design for sustainable
behaviour strategies could be used to decrease the environmental impacts, in addition to
other measures. However, future studies should research whether the improvements
would change actual consumer behaviour, as well as the magnitude of potential
environmental savings.
The clothes that went out of use in the wardrobe study had an average total life of 5.4
years, and had been with the current owner for the past four years. The main reasons for
clothing disposal were changes in the garments such as wear and tear and pilling,
followed by size and fit issues, taste-related unsuitability, situational reasons such as
lack of space, functional shortcomings and fashion or style changes. The importance of
iii
the various disposal reasons varied between different consumer groups and therefore
selecting design strategies for different user groups could be optimised based on this
information, in order to achieve higher environmental advantages.
This study found several benefits of combining various methodological approaches for
studying the different aspects of clothing consumption. This was particularly important
when studying topics where there are potential differences between what people think,
say, and do. This interdisciplinary study contributes within several research fields
including clothing, textiles, consumption, environmental and design research. It has
given a lot less attention to the role of fashion as driver for clothing consumption than
most previous research. Therefore, one contribution to clothing and fashion research is a
reminder to take the materiality into account as well as looking into what consumers
actually do and whether the concrete clothing items reflect these practices. It also shows
how concentrating on the less studied consumption phases can give new information
about the other phases.
The combination of various qualitative and quantitative methods proved to be suitable
for giving rich data that can be used to drive design research forward. Until now there
has been little research on design for sustainable behaviour within clothing design. One
of the contributions of this study has therefore been in increasing the knowledge about
consumer behaviour and related this to clothing design. Consumer and design research
have been rather separated fields despite the fact that both research fields focus on many
of the same themes. This study has therefore contributed in adapting a more holistic
user-centred design perspective to clothing consumption research.
Even though the focus of this thesis is on the potential that consumers and designers
have for reducing environmental impacts, it does not mean that only these two groups
should be responsible for implementing such improvements. In the work towards a
more sustainable society, authorities and different actors in the value chain also have
important roles to play. Implications for various stakeholders are presented, and a
special focus should be placed on the role of policy makers. For ensuring a more
environmentally sustainable future, additional regulatory instruments and economic
incentives should be taken in use and enforced, in addition to voluntary incentives such
as information provision, which is discussed here as a change in systems design level.
Changes must come in the form of better products and better systems. The thesis points
to the importance of changing the focus of clothing design and production from
increased sales and volume to aiming at an improved use phase.
KEYWORDS: Clothing design, eco design, laundry, clothing consumption, mending
practices, textiles, garments, design for sustainable behaviour
iv
Sammendrag (Abstract in Norwegian)
Klesforbruk - En tverrfaglig tilnærming til design for miljøforbedring.
Klesproduksjon og -forbruk forårsaker betydelige miljøbelastninger. Denne
avhandlingen undersøker hvorvidt en tverrfaglig metodetriangulering som kombinerer
studier av materielle og atferdsmessige aspekter ved klesforbruk kan gi en bedre
forståelse av forbrukernes praksiser. Videre diskuterer den hvorvidt denne kunnskapen
kan brukes til å gjøre miljøforbedringer i verdikjeden.
Materielle aspekter ved klesforbruk er undersøkt gjennom laboratorietester for vask og
klærs egenskaper, og gjennom en metodekombinasjon kalt garderobestudier.
Garderobestudiene tok utgangspunkt i alle klær som 16 husholdninger avhendet i løpet
av et halvt år. Informantene ble intervjuet om hvert enkelt plagg og dets brukshistorie,
og plaggene ble registrert og analysert i etterkant. Atferdsmessige aspekter som
forbrukernes miljøholdninger og vaner, erfaringer og meninger knyttet til de forskjellige
stadiene ved klesforbruk, ble undersøkt gjennom dybdeintervjuer og tre
forbrukerundersøkelser.
Forbrukerne kan selv gjøre valg som reduserer miljøbelastningen i alle
klesforbruksstadier fra anskaffelse, bruk, vedlikehold og til avhending. Viktigst er
muligheten forbrukerne har til å forlenge kleslevetiden gjennom reduserte mengder og
omsetningshastighet. Videre kan alle stadiene i klesforbruket bli påvirket av design,
enten av konkrete produkter som klær, vaskemaskiner, tørketromler, eller av større
systemer, infrastrukturer, reguleringer og tjenester. Denne avhandlingen er basert på
elleve artikler som tar opp disse ulike bruksfasene.
Artiklene gir empiriske data om forbrukspraksiser og foreslår forbedringer på ulike
nivåer, både design for bærekraftig atferd, og andre tiltak som kan brukes for å redusere
miljøkonsekvensene av klesforbruk Det bør studeres videre hvorvidt de foreslåtte
forbedringene faktisk vil endre forbrukernes adferd, og også omfanget av potensielle
miljøbesparelser.
Klærne som gikk ut av bruk i garderobestudien hadde en gjennomsnittlig total levetid på
5,4 år, og hadde vært eid av den siste eieren de siste fire årene. De viktigste årsakene til
avhending var endringer i plaggene slik som slitasje og nupping, etterfulgt av problemer
med størrelse og passform. Andre grunner til avhending var det og ikke like stilen, noe
som var vanlig ved mottak av klær som gaver, situasjonelle årsaker som for eksempel
mangel på plass, funksjonelle mangler, og til slutt, endringer i mote eller stil.
Rekkefølgen på avhendingsgrunnene varierte mellom forbrukergruppene. Derfor vil
også forskjellige designstrategier for økt bærekraft måtte variere for de ulike gruppene
v
av forbrukere. Kunnskapen fra denne avhandlingen kan dermed brukes til å velge de
strategiene som gir størst miljøeffekt innenfor hver enkelt forbrukergruppe.
Avhandlingen viser flere fordeler ved å kombinere ulike metodiske tilnærminger for å
studere klesforbruk. Dette er spesielt viktig når vi vet at det er potensielt en forskjell
mellom hva folk tenker, hva de sier og hva de gjør. Arbeidet bidrar innenfor feltene
tekstil, forbruk, miljø- og designforskning. Resultatene fra studien viser en mye mindre
vekt på motens rolle som drivkraft for klesforbruk enn de fleste tidligere studier. Et
viktig bidrag til kles- og moteforskning er derfor en påminnelse om å ta hensyn til
produkters materialitet, samtidig som man ser på hva forbrukerne faktisk gjør. Dette
omfatter de klærne de har, bruker og kvitter seg med. Studien viser hvordan det å
fokusere på en mindre studert forbruksfase, avhending, kan gi ny informasjon også om
de andre fasene av forbruket.
Å kombinere ulike kvalitative og kvantitative metoder har gitt rike data egnet til å drive
designforskningen fremover. Inntil nå har det vært lite forskning på design for
bærekraftig atferd innen bruk av klær. Det har vært lite utveksling mellom
forbruksforskning og designforskning til tross for at de har mange fellestrekk og
interesseområder. Denne studien har derfor bidratt med å utvikle et mer helhetlig
brukersentrert designperspektiv til forbruksforskningen på klesfeltet.
Selv om denne avhandlingen fokuserer på de mulighetene forbrukere og designere har
for å redusere miljøbelastninger fra klesforbruk, betyr det ikke at det bare er disse to
gruppene som har ansvaret for at forbedringer blir gjennomført. I arbeidet mot et mer
bærekraftig samfunn har også politiske myndigheter og ulike aktører i verdikjeden
viktige roller å spille. Avhandlingen viser til implikasjoner for ulike interessenter, og
trekker spesielt frem rollen til beslutningstakere som avgjørende. For å sikre en mer
miljømessig bærekraftig framtid bør ytterligere regulatoriske virkemidler og
økonomiske incentiver tas i bruk og håndheves, i tillegg til frivillige incentiver som
opplysningsarbeid. Endringer må både komme i form av bedre produkter og bedre
systemer. Avhandlingen peker spesielt på viktigheten av å endre fokuset til klesdesign
og -produksjon fra økt salg og volum, til å designe og produsere produkter som er gode
i bruksfasen.
vi
Yhteenveto (Abstract in Finnish)
Vaatteiden kulutus - Tieteidenvälinen lähestymistapa ympäristömyötäiseen
suunnitteluun
Tekstiilien ja vaatteiden valmistus ja kulutus aiheuttavat merkittäviä haittoja
ympäristölle. Tämä väitöskirja tutkii voiko tieteidenvälinen menetelmätriangulaatio,
joka yhdistää vaatteiden käytön materiaaliset ja käytöstieteelliset puolet, antaa
paremman ymmärryksen vaatteiden kulutuskäytännöistä, ja edelleen, voiko tätä tietoa
käyttää vähentämään vaatteiden aiheuttamia ympäristöhaittoja arvoketjussa.
Materiaalisia tekijöitä tutkittiin laboratoriokokeissa mittaamalla vaatteisiin ja
pyykinpesuun liittyviä ominaisuuksia, sekä metodiyhdistelmällä nimeltään
vaatekaappitutkimukset. Vaatekaappitutkimusten perusteena olivat vaatteet, jotka
poistettiin käytöstä puolen vuoden aikana 16:sta kotitaloudesta. Yksityiskohtaista tietoa
vaatteiden käytöstä, menneisyydestä ja kunnosta rekisteröitiin. Käyttäytymiseen liittyviä
näkökulmia tutkittiin lisäksi kolmen kuluttajatutkimuksen ja syvähaastatteluiden kautta.
Aiheina olivat kuluttajien asenteet, tottumukset, kokemukset ja mielipiteet liittyen
vaatteiden eri kulutusvaiheisiin sekä ympäristöasioihin.
Kuluttajat voivat tehdä ympäristön kannalta parempia valintoja kaikissa vaatteiden
kulutusvaiheissa, mukaanlukien hankinta, käyttö, huolto ja käytöstä poisto, sekä
erityisesti pidentämällä vaatteiden käyttöaikaa ja vähentämällä vaatemääriä. Kaikkiin
näihin vaiheisiin voidaan vaikuttaa suunnittelulla, mukaanlukien vaatteiden,
pesukoneiden ja muiden vaatteisiin liittyvien tuotteiden muotoilu, mutta myös
suurempien yhteiskuntajärjestelmien, infrastruktuurin, toimintamallien ja tuotteisiin
liittyvien palveluiden suunnittelulla.
Tämä väitöskirja perustuu yhteentoista tutkimusartikkeliin, joiden aiheet jakautuvat
vaatteiden käytön eri vaiheisiin. Artikkelit perustuvat empiiriseen aineistoon vaatteiden
kulutuskäytännöistä ja ehdottavat parannuksia eri tasoilla. Tulokset osoittavat, että
erilaiset suunnittelustrategiat joiden pyrkimyksenä on muuttaa kuluttajien
käyttäytymistä ympäristömyötäisempään suuntaan, voitaisiin soveltaa vähentämään
ympäristövaikutuksia muiden toimenpiteiden lisäksi. Vastaisuudessa tulisi kuitenkin
tutkia vaikuttavatko parannusehdotukset kuluttajien käyttäytymiseen ja mittaamaan
mahdollisten ympäristösäästöjen laajuus.
Vaatekaappitutkimuksen vaatteiden keskimääräinen elinikä oli 5,4 vuotta ja vaatteet
olivat olleet nykyisen omistajan hallussa viimeiset neljä vuotta. Tärkeimmät syyt
käytöstä poistamiseen olivat muutokset vaatteissa, kuten kuluminen ja nyppyyntyminen,
sopimaton koko tai huono istuvuus, soveltumattomuus käyttäjän makuun,
vii
tilannekohtaiset syyt kuten tilanpuute, toiminnalliset puutteet sekä muutokset muodissa
tai omassa tyylissä. Näiden syiden tärkeysjärjestys vaihteli eri kuluttajaryhmien välillä.
Tätä tietoa voidaan käyttää sopivien suunnittelustrategioiden valinnoissa eri
käyttäjäryhmille ympäristövaikutusten minimoiseksi.
Menetelmätriangulaatiolla osoittautui olevan monia etuja erityisesti kun tutkittiin
aiheita, joissa voi olla eroja sen välillä mitä ihmiset ajattelevat, sanovat ja tekevät. Tämä
tieteidenvälinen tutkimus edistää useita tieteenaloja kuten vaatteiden, kulutuksen,
ympäristön ja muotoilun tutkimusta. Tulosten perusteella muodin vaikutus vaatteiden
kulutusnopeuteen on pienempi kuin useimmat aiemmat tutkimukset antavat ymmärtää.
Tämä on muistutus siitä, että on olennaista ottaa huomioon myös mitä kuluttajat todella
tekevät ja heijastavatko vaatteet konkreettisesti näitä käytäntöjä. Tutkimus osoitti myös,
että keskittymällä vähemmän tutkittuun kulutusvaiheiseen, kuten käytöstä poistoon,
voidaan saada uutta tietoa muista kulutusvaiheista.
Menetelmätriangulointi joka perustui erilaisiin laadullisiin ja määrällisiin
tutkimusmetodeihin osoittautui sopivaksi antamaan runsaasti tietoa, jota voidaan
hyödyntää muotoilun tutkimuksen edistämisessä. Suunnittelustrategioita, jotka pyrkivät
muuttamaan kuluttajien vaatteiden käyttöä ympäristömyötäisempään suuntaan on
tutkittu aikaisemmin vain vähän. Kuluttaja- ja muotoilututkimuksen välillä ei ole ollut
aiemmin juurikaan yhteistyötä, vaikka molemmat tutkimusalat keskittyvät usein
samoihin aiheisiin. Tämä tutkimus on näin osaltaan edistänyt kokonaisvaltaisemman
käyttäjäkeskeisen suunnittelun näkökulman kehitystä vaatteiden kuluttajatutkimukseen.
Vaikka väitöskirja keskittyykin kuluttajien ja suunnittelijoiden mahdollisuuksiin
vähentää ympäristövaikutuksia, ei se tarkoita sitä että vain nämä kaksi ryhmää olisivat
vastuussa parannuksien toteuttamisesta. Pyrittäessä kohti kestävämpää yhteiskuntaa
arvoketjun eri tahoilla ja etenkin poliittisilla päättäjillä on merkittävä osuus.
Ympäristömyötäisen kestävän kehityksen varmistamiseksi tulisi muitakin
sääntelytoimenpiteitä ja taloudellisia instrumenttejä ottaa käyttöön vapaaehtoisten
instrumenttien, kuten tiedonkulun parantamisen lisäksi. Parannuksia pitäisi tehdä sekä
tuote- että järjestelmätasoilla. Tutkimus tuo myös esille sen, että on tärkeää muuttaa
vaatesuunnittelun ja tuotannon nykyistä painopistettä myynnin ja määrien lisäämisen
tavoittelusta suunnitteluun jolla pyritään valmistamaan hyviä tuotteita, joiden käyttö
vähentää kokonaisvaltaisesti ympäristövaikutuksia.
viii
Contents
PREFACE.........................................................................................................................
I
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................
III
SAMMENDRAG (ABSTRACT IN NORWEGIAN)..................................................................
V
YHTEENVETO (ABSTRACT IN FINNISH).............................................................................
VII
CONTENTS......................................................................................................................
IX
LIST OF INCLUDED PAPERS..............................................................................................
XI
OTHER PUBLICATIONS, NOT INCLUDED...........................................................................
XII
1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................
1
2. BACKGROUND............................................................................................................
5
2.1 TEXTILE STREAMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRIBUTION.....................
2.2 CLOTHING DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR...........................................
2.3 CLOTHING ACQUISITION.....................................................................................
2.4 TEXTILE MAINTENANCE......................................................................................
2.4.1 Laundering..........................................................................................
2.4.2 Mending..............................................................................................
2.5 LIFESPANS AND DISPOSAL..................................................................................
2.6 SCOPE.................................................................................................................
5
8
14
18
18
23
24
28
3. RESEARCH DESIGN......................................................................................................
29
3.1 SELECTION OF RESEARCH METHODS..................................................................
3.2 RESEARCH PROJECTS..........................................................................................
3.2.1 Textile waste.......................................................................................
3.2.2 Valuing Norwegian wool.....................................................................
3.3 RESEARCH METHODS..........................................................................................
3.3.1 Survey 1: Textile waste 2010...............................................................
3.3.2 Surveys 2 and 3: SIFO surveys 2011 and 2012....................................
3.3.3 Qualitative interviews.........................................................................
3.3.4 Wardrobe study (interview, registration and laboratory test)............
3.3.5 Washing trials in laboratory...............................................................
3.3.6 Odour test method..............................................................................
3.4 THEORETICAL POSITIONING...............................................................................
29
33
33
37
38
38
41
42
45
48
51
53
4. SUMMARIES OF THE PAPERS.......................................................................................
55
4.1 LABELS................................................................................................................
4.2 REUSE..................................................................................................................
4.3 LAUNDERING......................................................................................................
4.4 ALTERNATIVE DETERGENTS................................................................................
56
57
60
62
ix
4.5 FABRIC SOFTENERS.............................................................................................
4.6 LAUNDRY HABITS................................................................................................
4.7 DISPOSAL REVIEW...............................................................................................
4.8 CLOTHING COLLECTION......................................................................................
4.9 LIFESPANS...........................................................................................................
4.10 USE MATTERS...................................................................................................
4.11 DESIGN APPROACH...........................................................................................
4.12 SUMMARY OF RESULTS....................................................................................
63
64
65
67
68
72
74
77
5. DISCUSSION................................................................................................................
83
5.1 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES......................................................................
5.2 EMERGING INSIGHTS..........................................................................................
5.2.1 Clothing acquisition.............................................................................
5.2.2 Laundering..........................................................................................
5.2.3 Clothing disposal.................................................................................
5.2.4 Lifespans and connections between consumption stages...................
5.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN................................................................................
5.3.1 User in control.....................................................................................
5.3.2 Product in control................................................................................
5.4 LIMITATIONS.......................................................................................................
5.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS...........................................................................................
83
85
86
87
89
90
91
93
99
100
101
6. CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................
105
6.1 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................
107
7. REFERENCES................................................................................................................
113
APPENDIX 1: STATEMENTS OF CO-AUTHORSHIP.............................................................
137
APPENDIX 2: PAPERS 1 – 11............................................................................................
141
APPENDIX 3: TEXTILE WASTE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE (2010).......................................
337
APPENDIX 4: SIFO SURVEY 2011 QUESTIONNAIRE...........................................................
347
APPENDIX 5: SIFO SURVEY 2012 QUESTIONNAIRE........................................................... 349
APPENDIX 6: INTERVIEW GUIDE......................................................................................
353
APPENDIX 7: INFORMATION OF PARTICIPATING HOUSEHOLDS......................................
361
APPENDIX 8: REGISTRATION LISTS OF COLLECTED CLOTHING..........................................
363
x
List of included papers
Short name
P1 Labels
P2 Reuse
P3 Laundering
P4 Alternative
detergents
P5 Fabric
softeners
P6 Laundry
habits
P7 Disposal
review
P8 Clothing
collection
P9 Lifespans
P10 Use
matters
P11 Design
approach
Complete paper reference
Environmental and ethical perceptions related to clothing labels
among Norwegian consumers. K. Laitala & I. G. Klepp (2013)
Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, 17(1), 50-58.
Consumers’ clothing reuse: Potential in informal exchange. K.
Laitala & I. G. Klepp (Submitted) Journal of Consumer Policy
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering K. Laitala,
C. Boks & I. G. Klepp (2011) International Journal of Consumer
Studies, 35(2), 254-264, Doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00968.x.
Cleaning effect of alternative laundry products: A comparison of
soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets, laundry magnets, water
and regular detergent. K. Laitala & M. Kjeldsberg (2012) Household
and Personal Care today 7 (4):53-56.
Troubles with the solution: Fabric softeners and odour properties
K. Laitala, M. Kjeldsberg & I. G. Klepp (2012) Tenside Surfactants
Detergents 49(5), 362-368
Changing laundry habits in Norway K. Laitala, C. Boks, & I.G. Klepp
(2012). International Journal of Consumer Studies. 36(2), 228-237,
Doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2011.01081.x.
Consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour - A synthesis of research
results. K. Laitala (In press) International Journal of Consumer
Studies.
Textile waste management and consumers’ disposal practices:
How to increase used clothing collection rates. K. Laitala
(Submitted) Journal of Cleaner Production
Bare mote? Materialitetens betydning for klærs levetid [Only
fashion? The significance of materiality to clothing lifespans]. K
Laitala & I.G. Klepp (2013) In P. Strandbakken & N. Heidenstrøm
(Eds.), Hinsides symbolverdi - Materialiteten i forbruket [Beyond
the symbolic value – The materiality of consumption]. Oslo: Novus.
Sustainable clothing design: Use matters K. Laitala & C. Boks (2012)
Journal of Design Research. 10(1/2), 121-139, Doi:
10.1504/JDR.2012.046142.
Making Clothing Last: A Design Approach for Reducing the
Environmental Impacts. K. Laitala, C. Boks & I.G. Klepp (Submitted)
International Journal of Design
xi
Declaration of authorship for the papers
K. Laitala is the first author on all included papers and she planned and conducted the
major part of the experiments, evaluated the results, and wrote the main part of
appended papers, besides for paper P5 Fabric softeners, where the laboratory
experiments were planned and executed mainly by the co-authors, and paper P9
Lifespans, where the authors had equally large contribution. In general the co-authors
contributed with constructive criticism and advice that increased the scientific quality of
the publications. The signed statements of co-authorship contributions are attached in
appendix 1.
Other publications, not included
These publications are related to my research sustainable clothing consumption, but not
included for different reasons. The articles or book chapters are excluded either because
the topic is on the side of the main research area, I have only had a minor role in the
writing process, or they are written in Norwegian. The conference papers present often
the first analysis of results and are early versions of the journal articles that are included.
In addition, a list of reports and project notes from the Textile waste research project is
given here. The most recent publications are given first on the lists.
Articles:
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, and Hauge, Benedicte (2011),
'Materialised Ideals: Sizes and Beauty', Culture Unbound: Journal of Current
Cultural
Research,
Vol.
3,
pp.
19-41.
Available
at:
http://www.cultureunbound.ep.liu.se/v3/a04/cu11v3a4.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi and Jensen, Heidi Mollan (2010) 'Cleaning effect of household
laundry detergents at low temperatures', Tenside Surfactants Detergents, Vol.
47, No. 6, pp. 413-420.
x Klepp, Ingun Grimstad and Laitala, Kirsi (2010) 'Standardisation and Consumer
Responsibility', Ethnologia Scandinavica. A journal for Nordic ethnology, Vol.
40, pp. 82-93.
Book chapters:
x Klepp, Ingun Grimstad and Laitala, Kirsi (In press) 'Consumption studies; The
force of the ordinary', in Kate Fletcher and Mathilda Tham (eds.), The Routledge
Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion: Routledge, London.
x Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, Vramo, Lill, and Laitala, Kirsi (In press) 'Too old:
Clothes and value in Norwegian and Indian wardrobes', in Marie-Louise Nosch,
Zhao Feng, and Lotika Varadrajan (eds.), Global Textile Encounters Oxbow
Books, Oxford.
xii
x
x
Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, Hebrok, Marie, & Laitala, Kirsi. (2013). Å fange
materialiteten med metoden. In P. Strandbakken & N. Heidenstrøm (Eds.),
Hinsides symbolverdi - Materialiteten i forbruket. Oslo: Novus.
Laitala, Kirsi, Hauge, Benedicte, and Klepp, Ingun Grimstad (2012) '"Sizes are
arbitrary, you can’t trust them” A study of the relationship between size labeling
and actual clothing sizes', in Peter McNeil and Louise Wallenberg (eds.), Nordic
Fashion Studies Axl books, Stockholm, pp. 201-220.
Conference proceedings and papers
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, and Boks, Casper (2011) 'Clothing
consumption: Consumers' environmental attitudes and actions', paper presented
at the ESA 2011. 8 September 2011, Geneva.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Boks, Casper, and Klepp, Ingun Grimstad (2011) 'Changing
laundry habits', paper presented at the Consumer 2011: Consumer behaviour for
a sustainable future. 18 July 2011, Bonn. (Used as starting point for the Laundry
habits article)
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun G., Kjeldsberg, Marit, and Eilertsen, Kjersti (2011)
'Potential of woolen materials in health care', in Fibermed 11 International
Conference on Fibrous Products in Medical and Health Care, 28-30 June 2011
Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, and Boks, Casper (2011) 'Improving
textile labelling', in 11th World Textile Conference AUTEX2011, AUTEX
(Association of Universities for Textiles), 8-10 June 2011, Mulhouse, pp. 429434. (Used as starting point for the Labels article)
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, Kjelsberg, Marit, and Eilertsen, Kjersti
(2011) 'Wool wash', in 45th International Detergency Conference, 3 May 2011,
WFK, Düsseldorf, pp. 125-137.
x Laitala, Kirsi and Klepp, Ingun Grimstad (2011) 'Environmental improvement
by prolonging clothing use period', paper presented at the Towards sustainability
in the textile and fashion industry. 26 April 2011. Copenhagen.
x Laitala, Kirsi and Klepp, Ingun Grimstad (2010) 'Improvements in design and
quality for promoting sustainable clothing use: a research based approach', paper
presented at the The Textile Institute Centenary Conference. Textiles: a Global
Vision. 3-4 November 2010, The Textile Institute, Manchester, UK.
x Laitala, Kirsi and Boks, Casper (2010) 'Clothing design for sustainable use:
Social and technical durability', in Knowledge Collaboration & Learning for
Sustainable Innovation ERSCP-EMSU conference, 25-29 October 2010, Delft
University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands. (Used as starting point for
the Use matters article.)
xiii
Reports and project notes:
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, Morley, Nick, Meistad, Torill, et al.
(2012), Potensiale for økt materialgjenvinning av tekstilavfall og andre
avfallstyper (papir/papp, metall og glass); SIFO for Klif, Oslo. Available at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file78453_fagrapport_2-2012_rev1.pdf.
x Kjeldsberg, Marit, Eilertsen, Kjersti, and Laitala, Kirsi (2011), Shrinkage,
pilling, stain removal and soil repellence on wool and other fabrics, Test report
12-2011;
SIFO,
Oslo.
Available
at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file77541_testreport_no_12-2011.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, and Eilertsen, Kjersti (2011), Can wool
be boiled and spin-dried? Woolen materials in health care. Project note 7-2011,
SIFO, Oslo. Available at http://www.sifo.no/files/file77730_prosjektnotat_nr_72011.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Klepp, Ingun Grimstad, Kjeldsberg, Marit, and Eilertsen, Kjersti
(2011), Consumers' wool wash habits - and opportunities to improve them.
Project
note
8-2011;
SIFO,
Oslo.
Available
at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file77731_prosjektnotat_nr_8-2011.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Eilertsen, Kjersti, Vereide, Kari, and Almgren, Sara (2010),
Repeated washing and changes in textiles, Test report 35-2010; SIFO, Oslo.
Available at http://www.sifo.no/files/file77331_testrapport_2010-35_web.pdf
x Laitala, Kirsi and Vereide, Kari (2010), Washing machines’ program selections
and energy use. Project Note 2-2010; SIFO, Oslo. Available at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file77375_project_note_2-2010_web.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi and Eilertsen, Kjersti (2009), The influence of wash load and
detergent dosage on cleaning effect, greying, energy and water consumption.
Test
report
57-2009;
SIFO,
Oslo.
Available
at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file76866_testrapport_nr._57-2009_web.pdf
x Laitala, Kirsi and Eilertsen, Kjersti (2009), Effect of spinning speed on wool
shrinkage in wash, Test report 47-2009; SIFO, Oslo. Available at
http://www.sifo.no/files/file76864_testrapport_nr._47-2009_web.pdf.
x Laitala, Kirsi, Eilertsen, Kjersti, and Vereide, Kari (2009), Comparison of
cleaning effect of delicates wash and wool wash, Test report 48-2009; SIFO,
Oslo. Available at http://www.sifo.no/files/file76865_testrapport_nr._482009_web.pdf.
xiv
1. Introduction
Textiles and clothing production and consumption cause significant environmental
impacts. The industry has been moved to countries with cheaper labour and less
stringent environmental regulations, and is based on a formula of low-costs, high speed
and increased volumes in production and consumption, which put pressure on working
conditions and environmental standards (Fletcher, 2008; Fletcher and Grose, 2012). The
largest proportion of toxic emissions occurs during the early stages of the textiles life
cycle, especially during fibre manufacture or cultivation, and textile dyeing and
finishing (Allwood et al., 2006; Madsen et al., 2007). For example, cotton cultivation
uses about 2.4% of the world’s arable land, but consumes 11% of the world’s pesticides
and 25% of the insecticides (Kooistra et al., 2006). Although these toxic impacts occur
mainly in the production countries, harmful chemicals such as azo dyes, heavy metals
and organic contaminants can also get into the environment when the textiles are
laundered or when they are disposed (Greenpeace, 2012; Larsen et al., 2000).
Additional environmental problems are caused by the high consumption of energy and
water, as well as the increasing amounts of waste, which are also valid for the use
phase. It is estimated that about 3% of global CO2e emissions originate from clothing
production and consumption, and that the use phase constitutes over half of this figure
(Carbon Trust, 2011).
This thesis explores clothing consumption and how it could be steered towards a more
environmentally sustainable direction through changes in design, and thereby indirectly
also production. Interest and research activity for this topic has increased greatly during
the past years, and researchers from several scientific areas have contributed in
increasing the body of knowledge, including fashion studies, design research,
marketing, economics, engineering, consumer studies, anthropology and social sciences.
Within clothing, most consumer research has been focused on the acquisition behaviour
related to “green” clothing, as this is the part of consumption that benefits the
businesses within the current economic paradigm. In sustainable design, traditionally
the focus has been on the production stage, where improvements such as using the best
available techniques, replacing harmful chemicals, more efficient production methods,
and reduced resource use take place (Fletcher and Goggin, 2001; Niinimäki, 2011).
Only recently the focus has also been set to the use phase, first by improving the
efficiency of the products so that they, for example, use less energy or water, and later
also by looking into how the users interact with the products (Pettersen, 2013). As these
interactions have environmental effects, strategies such as design for sustainable
behaviour (DfSB) are used with the aim of steering the users’ behaviour to a more
sustainable direction (Lilley, 2009; Lilley et al., 2005; Lockton et al., 2008; Wever et
al., 2008). However, this has not yet been done to a large extent, and this focus is
especially insufficient within clothing consumption research.
1
In order to be able to efficiently improve the design, we must also understand better
consumer behaviour and how the behaviour is formed through factors such as attitudes,
beliefs, perceived hindrances, subjective norms, and intentions (motives) (Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1980; Zachrisson and Boks, 2012). Different stakeholders such as Defra in the
UK have proposed behavioural goals that are considered to improve the sustainability of
clothing consumption, such as using eco-friendly cleaning technologies, buying
sustainable clothing, recycling, and prolonging clothing lifetimes (T. Fisher et al.,
2008). The main choices consumers have for changing their clothing consumption to a
more sustainable direction can be summarised as:
1. Prolonging the lifespans of existing clothing and reducing the amounts in
circulation through reduced acquisition and improved maintenance, such as
repair and altering (Cooper, 2010; Fletcher, 2008).
2. Reducing the effects of maintenance, for example through reduced laundering
frequency and lowering the washing temperatures (Bain et al., 2009).
3. Selection of clothing in the acquisition phase that is somehow favourable from
the environmental point of view, for example made of specific fibres, have an
environmental label, is a second-hand product, is made of material that needs
less laundering during use, or has good quality, fit and design that enables a long
lifespan. (Austgulen, 2013; T. Fisher et al., 2008)
4. Following the waste hierarchy and delivering clothing to reuse or recycling
instead of binning it (Bianchi and Birtwistle, 2012; European Parliament and the
Council, 2008).
Acquisition, use, laundering, disposal and length of clothing lifespans are interrelated
and should therefore not be studied completely separately from each other. Usage of
single-use disposable textiles would remove the need for laundering, thus solving the
problems related to laundry but not the amount of textiles in circulation, increased
transport and so on. On the other hand, laundry problems such as shrinkage or not
getting clothes clean can shorten the clothing lifespans. All of these factors can be
influenced by the design of products such as clothing, washing machines, dryers, but
also of larger systems, infrastructures and services around them, such as the stores,
altering services, used clothing collection systems, systems design on fashion cycle
thinking, marketing messages, consumer behaviour, quality vs. quantity etc. My aim is
to include all these aspects in order to see where changes are needed, mainly within
clothing design, but also other connected products, structures and systems. Design is
here understood as the process that "devise courses of action aimed at changing the
existing situations into preferred ones" (Simon, 1988). Products can be improved to
make them more efficient, but also designed to interact with the user so that his/her
behaviour is more likely to have less environmental impacts.
2
Researchers within behavioural and social sciences as well as technical material
engineering and design have studied these topics, but very few (if any) have combined
the studies of both material and behavioural aspects. My focus is on the consumption
phase that includes the acquisition, use and disposal. A central working hypothesis of
this thesis is that:
Interdisciplinary method triangulation that combines study of the material and
behavioural aspects of clothing consumption can give understanding of consumers’
clothing consumption practices that enables making environmental improvements
in the clothing value chain.
In order to see whether this hypothesis is valid, the following research questions are
stated:
1) What are the benefits and disadvantages of combining various methodological
approaches for studying the different aspects of clothing consumption?
2) What insights emerge when data from different methods and different clothing
life cycle phases are combined?
3) How could these insights be used in design to reduce the environmental
impacts of clothing consumption?
This is a wide research topic for a PhD project, but excluding the connection between
the different clothing consumption phases, laundering and lifespans would not give a
complete picture. Therefore, I have selected to use an interdisciplinary approach where I
combine methods that are commonly used in engineering, social sciences, and design
research. My focus in this thesis is on the use of mixed methods, where knowledge from
both the concrete garments and their users are combined in both qualitative and
quantitative studies. This has not been done extensively before.
Figure 1 shows the connections between the different aspects of the sustainable clothing
design and consumption stages that are included in this thesis and that have
environmental effects. Material aspects are used to indicate all physical and technical
aspects of clothing such as the fabric quality and shape of the garment, but also the
physical bodies of the users. Behavioural aspects include the actions that the users take
and therefore may contribute to the environmental impact. These aspects are then again
influenced by a wide range of other factors such as social norms, culture, infrastructure,
economy, habits, attitudes, motivations, and knowledge. Clothing design can affect both
the material and behavioural aspects of clothing consumption.
When I refer to practices instead of consumer behaviour, I mean a wider term that
includes all the three elements of practices: material, meaning and competence (Røpke,
3
2009; Shove and Pantzar, 2005). Reckwitz’s definition covers all these aspects: “A
‘practice’ … is a routinized type of behaviour which consists of several elements,
interconnected to one another; forms of bodily activities, forms of mental activities,
‘things’ and their use, a background knowledge in the form of understanding, knowhow, states of emotion and motivational knowledge.”(Reckwitz, 2002:249). In general, I
want to gain understanding of the collective consumption practices to be able to change
them through changes in design, and in order to do so, study individual consumer
behaviour.
Figure 1: Clothing consumption areas that are in focus in this thesis
The structure of this thesis is as follows: I start with a background chapter, where I
present the knowledge gaps and ask the more detailed research questions that will be
discussed in the papers that are integral part of this thesis. The first part focuses on
textile streams and their environmental consequences. Then, a discussion of sustainable
clothing design is followed by a presentation of the clothing consumption stages from
acquisition, maintenance, to disposal, and related to the possibilities for reducing the
environmental impacts and prolonging the clothing lifespans. In chapter 3, the various
research methods that are applied in this study are presented with a statement of the
research scope. Chapter 4 summarises the eleven papers that present the main results of
this PhD project. The results from these papers are then discussed and seen together
with the overarching research questions in chapter 5, where also suggestions for future
research is given. The conclusions and implications are given in chapter 6.
4
2. Background
I will start the literature review by briefly showing the magnitude of textiles in
circulation, and stating why textiles and their use and lifespans are important from the
environmental point of view. This is followed by a discussion of the current situation
within sustainable clothing design. The following chapters address the different clothing
consumption stages where consumers can contribute to reducing the environmental
impacts, starting from the acquisition, followed by the use and maintenance phase, and
concluding with the disposal and clothing lifespans. In this review, I have been looking
into research worldwide, but include especially Norwegian, Nordic and European
research when available.
2.1 Textile streams and their environmental contribution
Amount of textiles (1000 tonnes)
The amount of textiles in circulation in the Western countries has increased greatly
during the past decades. The clothing import to Norway has increased 26% just the past
10 years (Figure 2). In 2011, 14.4 kg of clothing per capita was imported. When all
types of textile products are included such as fibres, yarn, shoes and so on, the figure
raises to over 40 kg/capita (Statistics Norway, 2012a). Very little clothing is produced
in Norway (Norwegian Environment Agency, 2013b). In 2011, Norway exported 42
097 tonnes textiles, out of which used clothing and textiles constituted 49%. The largest
export categories of products that originate from Norway include raw wool and fishing
nets (Statistics Norway, 2012a).
90
80
Import of clothing
70
60
50
Textile waste
from households
40
30
Export of used
textiles
20
10
0
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
Figure 2: Import of clothing, export of used textiles, and production of textile waste in Norway in
tonnes, 1995-2011 (Statistics Norway, 2012a)
117 208 tonnes of textile waste was generated in Norway in 2010 (Statistics Norway,
2011). This corresponds to about 24 kg per capita yearly. As Figure 3 shows, the
majority (44%) of the Norwegian waste originated from households (51 480 tonnes;
5
10.6 kg/capita). The amount of textile waste from private households has increased
from 29 000 tonnes in 1995 to 52 000 tonnes in 2010, which is almost 80% increase in
15 years. The next largest textile waste source is the service industries such as health
care, textile retail trade, military, accommodation establishments, and so on. Out of the
total textile waste of 117 208 tonnes in 2010, 57% was clothing and footwear, the next
largest category being upholstery and household textiles (30%). The remaining
categories included packaging, transport equipment, production waste and other textile
products (Skullerud, 2012). In Norway today, the majority of textile waste is
incinerated, mainly with energy recovery. Landfilling of organic waste (including
textiles) has been prohibited since 2009 (SFT, 2008).
Sources of textile waste in Norway (2010)
Households
Service industries
Other or unspecified
Construction
Manufacturing industries
Agriculture, forestry and fishing
Waste management
Mining and quarrying
Electricity and water supply
44%
27%
10%
9%
5%
4%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Figure 3: Sources of textile waste in Norway (Statistics Norway, 2012b)
This study focuses on clothing from households, because there is very little textile
production in Norway, the largest portion of textiles in circulation is clothing, and the
main textile waste source is households.
Some Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and carbon footprint
studies compare different end-of-life solutions for clothing1 (Farrant, 2008; K. Fisher et
al., 2011; McGill, 2009; Morley et al., 2009b). Their results show that incineration with
energy recovery reduces approximately 2-6% of the total energy consumption of textiles
lifetime, while reuse reduces approximately 20-60% of the total energy consumption
over the life cycle of textiles. When it comes to greenhouse gas emissions, the biggest
savings are in reuse, where the results vary between 1 682 and 13 000 kg CO2e2 per
tonne of textile waste. Material recycling of clothing is estimated to give a reduction
between 1 200 and 1 800 kg CO2e per tonne textile waste, where the main portion of
savings come from the replacement of new production of textiles or other materials such
1
As these are end-of life solutions, longer lifespans with one user is excluded from the calculations.
CO2e stands for carbon dioxide equivalents, a measuring unit where all greenhouse gas emissions are converted to
the functionally equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.
2
6
as paper (when textile rags replace paper towels). These studies show that waste
hierarchy is valid also for textiles, where the emphasis should be on reduction, followed
by reuse, material recycling, and finally energy recovery. However, recycling
possibilities may also have negative side effects. Chapman points out that the possibility
to recycle can actually increase the consumption rates, because it can liberate
consumers’ conscience and therefore generate even more waste (J. Chapman, 2005:25).
Therefore, the focus on environmental actions should be on reduction, when possible.
Fretex (Salvation Army) and UFF (Humana people to people) are the two largest charity
organisations collecting textiles in Norway. They collect in 10 000 tonnes and 7 000
tonnes textiles yearly, respectively (Fretex, 2011; UFF Norge, 2011). Of the clothing
they collect, the majority is exported for reuse in other countries. Norway exported
20 745 tons used clothing in 2011. This equals to 4.2 kg per capita annually, and is over
four times more than 16 years ago. Although most of the collected textiles are going to
reuse, some also go to material recycling and waste3. In up-cycling, the textiles are
converted into something of similar or greater value, while in down-cycling they lose
value. Most typical textile recycling is down-cycling into products such as rags, shoddy,
and insulation. Only about 1% of these collected items go to re-design where the textiles
are converted to new products.
These figures show that the amount of textiles, especially clothing in households, have
increased greatly just during the past few years, and it should therefore be possible to
reverse or at least stop this trend without greatly effecting the current way of living.
These topics will be explored further in the thesis through looking for answers to
following questions:
How do Norwegian consumers dispose of clothing, and what do they base
these disposal decisions on? Further, which measures could help to increase
the used clothing collection rates, including potential changes in textile waste
management strategies?
This question will be discussed in paper 8 – Clothing collection.
Several other areas discussed in this thesis are also relevant, and further research
questions related to clothing reuse, disposal, and lifespans are given in sections 2.2, 2.3
and 2.5.
3
Of the clothing collected by Fretex, 20 % go to reuse in Norway, 60 % to export (mainly reuse), 15 % to energy
recovery and 5% to material recycling, mainly as rags and some re-design. Of the clothing collected by UFF, 78.0%
go to reuse (mainly outside of Norway as they only have three stores in Norway), 16.7% to material recycling which
mainly are used to make yarn and carpets in India, 0.4% to energy recovery and 4.9% to landfills outside of Norway.
7
2.2 Clothing design for sustainable behaviour
Sustainable design takes life cycle considerations into account during the design process
and attempts to systematically reduce the environmental impacts. Graedel et al. (1995)
and the Design Council (2002) estimate that about 80-90% of a product’s environmental
and economic costs are committed by design already before the production begins.
These figures may have changed some due to changes in legislations and production
methods, but it is still clear that decisions made during design have significant
consequences for the environmental effects of products during their whole lifespan. As
discussed in the introduction, the sustainable design process has traditionally
concentrated on production (Fletcher and Goggin, 2001). Design solutions for
improving the end of life phase have also emerged, for example design for recycling,
and related cradle to cradle design where only materials that can be completely recycled
through natural or technical cycles are used (Kriwet et al., 1995; McDonough and
Braungart, 2002). Other areas where significant work has been done are within the
logistics as well as package reduction (Allen et al., 2005; Hekkert et al., 2000).
Only recently the focus has also been set to the use phase of products. First, this took
place through improving the efficiency of products during the use, for example washing
machines that consume less water and energy (Pettersen, 2013). Later, the focus has
also been placed on how the users interact with the products, and how these interactions
have environmental effects (J. Chapman, 2005; Lilley et al., 2005). User centred design
has been recognised as an important part of modern sustainable design (Boks and
McAloone, 2009). Design for sustainable behaviour (DfSB) is a rather new design field,
where the designer aims to change the users’ behaviour to a more sustainable direction
(Bhamra et al., 2011; Lilley, 2009; Lockton et al., 2008; Wever et al., 2008). Different
degrees of control in user-product interaction can be applied, varying from the product
being in control and forcing the user to behave in a certain way, to nudging or just
enabling more sustainable behaviour based on increased information, such as ecofeedback of energy consumption (Wever et al., 2008; Zachrisson and Boks, 2012).
Nudging can include for example choice architecture, which means organising the
context where consumers make decisions (Thaler and Sunstein, 2009). Another strategy
is called “think”, where consumers are given the right context and framing, and can
therefore actively make informed choices based on it (John et al., 2009).
Recently, some researchers have started to work with these issues within the field of
textiles. A lot of the literature on sustainable clothing design research aims at giving
ideas to designers on how things could be improved. They list up strategies, and often
give some examples of designers who are using these approaches. One of the first
comprehensive examples of this is Fletcher’s book Sustainable fashion & textiles:
Design Journeys from 2008, which gives a great overview of sustainable fashion design
both at the product and at systems level (Fletcher, 2008). Her second book, written
8
together with Lynda Grose, discusses the same two perspectives but ads even a third
level, transforming the fashion design practice (Fletcher and Grose, 2012). Strategies
aimed at improving the production phase include material selection, for example
choosing recycled, organic, Fair Trade, or rapidly renewable fibers, zero waste
production, and other best practice strategies in production, such as using codes of
conduct and ethical production. Also strategies aimed at improving the disposal phase
are given, including design for recycling and disassembly, and cradle to cradle thinking.
In addition to these more traditional design strategies, some new ideas that aim to
reduce the environmental impacts of the clothing consumption phase are presented by
several researchers (Aakko and Koskennurmi-Sivonen, 2013; Clark, 2008; Fletcher,
2008; Fletcher and Grose, 2012; Gwilt and Rissanen, 2011; Hur et al., 2013; Ng et al.,
2013; Niinimäki, 2012; Niinimäki and Hassi, 2011; TED, ND). These strategies
include:
1) Slow fashion: Aims at creating products that have long lifetimes; made with
high quality sustainable materials in an ethical manner with classic design and
colours, which aim to give deep product satisfaction over time.
2) Long life guarantee: Gives information about the intended clothing lifetime,
such as how many washes the garment tolerates without changing its properties,
which enables users to compare quality with price and utility.
3) Optimised lifetimes: Aims at producing products with appropriate expected
lifespans. Sometimes shorter may be preferable to longer lifespans, such as
disposable surgical textiles.
4) Dematerialisation through use of less material and lighter structures.
5) Customisation, halfway products, and individuality: increase value through
personalisation with people in focus of design.
6) Modular structure: Components can be replaced to create variety, enable
changing worn parts, or cleaning only the parts that require it.
7) Co-creation or participatory design: user of a garment is actively involved in the
design process.
8) Local production: Enables the users to have closer connection to the production
and to see the effects of their own actions, while creating jobs and using local
resources.
9) Open-source design: designers sell their patterns and construction information,
but the user becomes the active maker and takes the decisions in the process.
10) Reducing the environmental impacts of maintenance: Use materials and
solutions that require less frequent laundering or are easier to keep clean
11) Design services, unique design: Traditional version of design services are tailor
made garments, but new digital technologies enable new solutions that offer
good physical and emotional fit.
9
12) Service for more intensive utilisation, or leasing of clothing: Shared use of items
gives access to larger amounts of garments that in turn can get more intensive
use due to several users.
13) Services for longer utilisation: Service related to upgrading, updating, repair or
altering of products can increase the lifespans.
14) Persuasion, interaction: Provide information and motivate users through
feedback.
15) Design activism, social conversations: move from product focus to creative
communities and ways of living.
These strategies aim mainly at extending the product lifespans due to improved
durability (quality) and services, as well as higher emotional attachment through
increased product satisfaction, customization, or co-creation. Some of these principles
have common features, such as halfway products can be seen as participatory design,
although they only include the later stages of the production. Even though some fashion
designers use these ideas in their work, very little research is done on effect of these
strategies. A recent PhD thesis and several articles by Niinimäki focus on sustainable
clothing design from consumer point of view. She has researched on person-product
relationships and consumers’ ethical and environmental attitudes, worries and opinions,
among other topics (Niinimäki, 2011). She presented a few of the design strategies
given above to consumers in a survey. The results indicated that the consumers were
most positive to the solutions that they are most familiar with and that already exist to
some degree (Niinimäki and Hassi, 2011). Based on this, it is suggested that for most
efficient results, a combination of design strategies might be a way to go (ibid). Fletcher
has also done research in her sustainable fashion related projects including Local
Wisdom, Lifetimes, and 5 Ways, where different aspects of fashion are explored
(Fletcher, 2014). When studying the craft of use in Local Wisdom project, she
organised photo-shoots with consumers in different countries where they could come
with a selected piece of a garment that they through was somehow special, for example
that it has a story, is shared between people, is not washed, is adaptable to different
situations or catch attention when used. Based on these results, Fletcher points out that
clothing with long lifespans was usually a consequence of nurture, not because it was
originally planned that way (Fletcher, 2012). Rigby (2011) has studied what kind of
garments is laundered more seldom, and designed a clothing line based on that
information. This points out a need to research further on the impacts of the above
presented strategies, and to see which strategies are suited for different situations and
users.
Van Nes and Cramer (2006) present a lifetime optimization strategy that aims to reduce
the replacement frequency through product design. They conclude that for the majority
of products, the extension of life-time is environmentally preferable, the only exception
10
being products that have high environmental impacts during use and a significantly
more efficient alternative is available on the market. Therefore, an increased life span of
products is environmentally preferable when the products do not have direct
environmental effect during use (Strandbakken, 2007). Van Nes and Cramer point out
that knowledge about the consumers’ motivation for product replacement is needed for
finding or developing design strategies for longer lifespans (2006). Clothing only uses
energy indirectly during use, through other products, and it is only exceptional cases
where changing the clothing to new ones will be environmentally preferable. There are
however some clothing properties that affect the energy consumption. Heavier and
thicker materials require more water and energy in wash, some materials do not stain as
easily, and some clothing design and colours can resist soiling better than others, and so
forth (Fletcher, 2008). The use of clothing can also be connected to the use of energy for
adjusting the indoor temperatures through air conditioning or heating (Shove, 2003).
Maintenance is discussed further in section 2.4, and lifespans in section 2.5.
Design for durability consists of improving the physical and technical robustness of
garments in addition to addressing the emotional and expressive qualities they can
provide for consumers (Cooper et al., 2013; Fletcher, 2008; Hethorn and Ulasewicz,
2008; Klepp, 2001). Physical product durability is “determined by the length of time
that a textile can maintain its essential and distinctive characteristics of strength,
dimension and appearance in use” (Annis, 2012). Emotionally durable design points out
how improved user-product relationships can increase product lifespans (J. Chapman,
2005; Niinimäki and Koskinen, 2011). Functional values are formed between the user,
the product and the physical environment, and include themes such as protection and
physical comfort (protection against cold, ease of movement, pressure on body, static
electricity, fit). Symbolic values arise between the user, the product, and the sociocultural environment, such as “belonging to” or “distinguishing from” fellow humans
(self-esteem, respectability, fashion, group membership, decoration). In addition to
these user requirements, external general or superior demands exist, including
legislative, economical, normative and political demands (Rosenblad-Wallin, 1985).
These principles should be addressed in design for the clothing to get accepted and
used. Clothing and its symbolic and aesthetic values are of great importance for the
wearer to be able to function in social settings (Kaiser, 1997). Being inappropriately
dressed for an occasion can cause feelings of awkwardness and vulnerability (Entwistle,
2000). As design should start with a need, one can say that the goal of clothing is to
enable the user to function well within physical and socio-cultural environments
(Allwood et al., 2006; Fletcher, 2008; Klepp, 2009).
In the clothing research literature, fashion is often used as a synonym for clothing.
However, fashion as a mechanism applies to almost all areas of life, e.g. electronic
products such as mobile phones and even the names people give to their children (Klepp
11
and Laitala, In press). Wilson defines fashion as: “dress in which the key feature is
rapid and continual changing of styles. Fashion, in a sense is change, and in modern
Western societies no clothes are outside fashion” (Wilson, 1985:3). Fletcher (2008:119120) clarifies the difference between the concepts:
“Fashion and clothing are different concept and entities. They contribute to
human wellbeing both functionally and emotionally. Clothing is material
production, fashion is symbolic production. Although their use and looks
sometimes coincide, fashion and clothes connect with us in different ways.
Fashion links us to time and space and deals with our emotional needs,
manifesting us as social beings, as individuals. […] Clothing, in contrast, is
concerned chiefly with physical or functional needs, with sheltering, shielding
and protecting. Not all clothes are fashion clothes and not all fashion finds
expression in garment form.”
However, the relevance of fashion is taken for granted in clothes research, while
research on other areas of consumption can choose whether to focus on it or not. The
dominant position of fashion in the marketing, media and public debate about clothing
can partly explain why research on everyday clothes consumption has been marginal
(Buckley and Clark, 2012). In this thesis, fashion is studied in the same manner as the
other symbolic values of clothing and not given a predominant position.
In most research related to the obsolescence of products, technical quality and
functionality is recognised as the main reason for absolute obsolescence. The technical
material quality is essential for the potential long lifespan of clothing, and a certain high
quality is needed to enhance clothing repair, reuse and even recycling of materials
(Madsen et al., 2007). There exist standards with suggested minimum requirements for
the durability of some textile products such as upholstery materials (EN 14465, 2003;
Mobelfakta.no, 2013) and personal protective equipment (EN ISO 13688, 2013), but
there are no common guidelines available for regular consumer clothing. Most of the
international clothing companies have their own quality handbooks where they specify
the minimum requirements for their products, but these books are seldom public. In
addition, it is not known to which degree the products comply with these requirements.
As far as I have found, no research on such requirements has been published. Therefore,
it is not known how much they are based on knowledge on consumers’ clothing use
practices and the changes that occur during use.
Similarly, very little is known about the environmental consequences of increasing the
physical textile durability, when both the production and use phases are included in the
evaluation. De Saxce et al. (2012) present a LCA study of bed sheets, where they
compare different products and include a quality test that is used for predicting the
lifetime of the sheets. LCA is then prepared for the total lifetime, taking into account the
changes that are needed in production to improve the use period, either through
12
increased durability, or reduced need of ironing. Results showed that it was beneficial to
use anti-wrinkle treatment and to add 50% polyester instead of using 100% cotton
sheets, as these measures were assumed to change consumer behaviour so that they
would not iron the sheets. However, changing to more durable cotton threads made of
combed cotton instead of carded cotton was not beneficial due to increased waste in
production. Lighter colours had less colour change during rubbing and washing than
darker shades, and had therefore potentially longer aesthetic lifespans. Unfortunately,
the study did not include a part where the products would have undergone real use, and
therefore also excluded some other potential disposal reasons such as staining that
would have been more visible in lighter fabrics. There is also lack of information on
whether the consumer behaviour regarding ironing would actually have changed, and
how the changes in fibre composition would have changed the possibilities for recycling
after disposal phase. However, the study points out the importance of taking the
potential negative effects in the production into account, and comparing them to the
benefits achieved due to the improvements in the use phase.
Clothing tests with real users are resource demanding, and usually not performed with
wear and tear of clothing in mind. It is more common to perform large scale user tests
on topics such as thermal comfort, moisture transport, or flammability with thermal
mannequins (Hirschler et al., 1996; Huang, 2007). Therefore, one possible option for
evaluating how physical quality affects the clothing lifespans is to evaluate the changes
that have occurred in the clothing during consumer use. Studying the clothing during
use and disposal may give new insights of the relationship between these changes and
laboratory test results.
Fletcher questions the validity of strategies that aim to increase the longevity, because
they are based on two assumptions; first, that people will use clothing longer if it is
more durable, and second, that people will consequently buy less clothing. She points
out, “making a garment last is very different to making a long-lasting garment”
(Fletcher, 2012:227). Evans and Cooper show that even achieving emotional attachment
may not lead to increased use, but can lead to collection and storage of items that are
rarely used. Sometimes lack of attachment or interest to the product group in question
can have a preferable outcome, as the user just continues to use the product until it no
longer functions (Evans and Cooper, 2010:334). Fletcher suggests that instead of
focusing only on materials and products, starting the process from users’ behaviour and
competencies is to be preferred (Fletcher, 2012). However, most previous research
already starts either on users studied through surveys or interviews (i.e. based on what
people say), or products studied at the first stages of lifecycle (i.e. production and
acquisition phases). In addition, several design strategies are listed, but there is very
limited research available on their effect to clothing consumption and the environmental
13
impacts. I suggest that combining the knowledge of products at the use and end of use
phases together with the information of users’ practices can give new insights.
How design can help to reduce the environmental impacts of clothing
consumption, based on research on consumers’ motives behind clothing
disposal, acquisition practices and maintenance habits, including both social
and technical aspects?
This will be discussed in paper 10 - Use matters.
2.3 Clothing acquisition
Clothing consumption can be seen to start at the acquisition phase. Clothing can be
acquired in many ways and from many different sources. The different possibilities
include options such as getting the product permanently or temporarily through buying,
inheriting, borrowing, renting, receiving a present, making it, finding, or altering an
existing product. Sustainability is one of the properties that the consumer may consider
in the process, among a great variety of other aspects. Lloyd (1996) presents a list of
aspects that should be taken into consideration in sustainable purchase decision:
1. Is it really a necessary purchase?
2. Does it have a long product life?
3. Can it be re-used?
4. Does it have minimum packaging?
5. Does it have minimum toxicity?
The first point is valid and usable for consumers who plan to acquire clothing in a
sustainable way, but some of the other points such as long product life and minimum
toxicity are more difficult in practice due to the lack of information. The obligatory
textile labelling in Norway only includes the care instructions and the fibre content, but
in addition, information of price, size, country of origin, and the brand is often given.
Voluntary labelling schemes exist for labelling the environmental or ethical aspects of
productions, such as the eco labels Nordic Swan and EU flower, and the ethical Fair
trade label, but very little textiles with these types of labels are available on the
Norwegian market (Austgulen, 2013). However, some clothing made of organic cotton,
and clothing with the human-ecological label Oeko-tex 100 can be found (Oeko-tex,
2014). There is no labelling for clothing that indicates the expected lifespan, and very
seldom any information of quality aspects, as discussed in section 2.2. Besides product
durability, the product lifespans are also dependent on user behaviour (see section 2.5).
In addition to labels, consumers can get information of textiles from other sources such
as the places where they are acquired, their social networks, or online searches. The
availability of information and knowledge are necessary for the consumers to be able to
14
actively select clothing that is somehow favourable from the environmental point of
view compared to alternative products. Examples of preferable alternatives are textiles
with the eco-label, pre-owned products, products made of specific fibres, recycled
materials, materials that needs less laundering during use, or has good quality, fit and
design that enables long lifespan.
There is a great interest among textile stakeholders to be able to compare the
environmental effects of different fibres. Several tools are developed that try to evaluate
and compare the environmental impacts of fibres in a cradle to gate perspective (fibre
manufacturing phase only), including Made-By (Made-By, 2011), Higg index 1.0
(Sustainable Apparel Coalition, 2012), Eco-metrics calculator (Colour Connections,
2012), as well as a new mobile phone application called Making, launched by Nike in
2013 (Nike.inc, 2013). These tools rate the fibres based on several environmental
indicators, and then weight the impacts in an attempt to compare effects such as
greenhouse gases, human toxicity, eco-toxicity, energy and water consumption, and
land use. However, they are sometimes critiqued for being too inaccurate, using the
wrong grounds for the comparison, underlying assumptions, being non-transparent, or
for the fact that they exclude the garment manufacture, use and disposal phases, which
can have large consequences as different materials have different impacts especially
during dyeing and use4 (Kviseth, 2011; Patterson, 2013). Also Defra has presented a
study where the environmental impacts of different fibres are compared, but without
attempting to make a general weighed score (Turley et al., 2010). Based on the
selections and assumptions of production that are used in the evaluations, the results
between different fibres vary greatly. In general, the different fibre groups often have
their own specific environmental impact areas. The growth of conventional cotton
requires high water, pesticide and fertilizer consumption (Grose, 2009), merino wool
production requires large land areas (Russell, 2009), and polyester requires nonrenewable resources and high energy consumption during the fibre production which
contributes to increased CO2 emissions (Madsen et al., 2007).
These variations make it difficult to give advice to producers or consumers related to
which fibre type to select. However, there are some general rules that most of the tools
agree on, such as that recycled fibres in general have lower environmental impact than
virgin fibres of the same material (the most commonly available recycled fibres are
polyester and wool), organic fibres are preferable to conventionally grown, and wool
from sheep that graze on land that is not suitable for food production, is better than wool
from sheep that graze on arable land. Even more importantly, one has to take into
account that the different materials vary in their properties, which makes them more
suitable to some use areas than others. It is important to make garments with high utility
4
Not all criticism is directed for all of the given tools.
15
value that are suitable for the intended use area, and tolerate to be used and maintained.
I will get back to the importance of use phase and clothing lifespans in the sections 2.4
and 2.5.
Studies on sustainable clothing consumption often concentrate on consumers’
acquisition behaviour related to the selection of products that are somehow more
sustainable than others, in addition to studies on consumers’ knowledge and attitudes
related to the topic. In general, such studies have shown a “knowledge-to-action” gap
(Markkula and Moisander, 2012). It has been shown that neither environmental attitudes
nor knowledge directly translate to sustainable clothing acquisition behaviour, although
sometimes a weak or indirect connection is found (Brosdahl and Carpenter, 2010;
Butler and Francis, 1997; Gam, 2011; Kim and Damhorst, 1998). The discrepancies
between attitudes and behaviour are mainly explained by the fact that shopping for
clothes can be a complicated process where several criteria must be taken into account
simultaneously, including price, fit, style, colour, cultural, and social aspects, in
addition to sustainability. It may be difficult to find products that satisfy all the desires
at the same time (Butler and Francis, 1997; Miller, 2001a; Niinimäki, 2009). From an
environmental point of view, it is also important that consumers select clothing that
satisfies their different needs, so that the garments will be used, preferably for a long
time.
Grasso et al. (2000) studied the effectiveness of price and environmental labelling on
college students’ purchasing decisions of recycled clothing. They discovered that price
had great influence, whereas income level and attitudes were less significant. Labelling
a garment “recycled” did not create competitive added value advantage for retailers.
Focus group interviews in another study showed that there were doubts on whether
materials made from recycled fibres actually are better than virgin sources, as the
process of fibre material recycling was not that well understood (T. Fisher et al., 2008).
Green clothing may even have disadvantages in the market place as it suffers from
stereotypes such as high prices, limited number of choices and aesthetic disadvantages
(Meyer, 2001). Similarly, Niinimäki (2010) states that the existing attitude-behaviour
gap in eco-clothing purchase may be partly related to current trends in eco-fashion,
which only appeal to that minority of consumers with strong personal ethical values.
For other consumers, aesthetic values and quality are perceived to be more important.
Hiller Connell (2011) studied North-American consumers who said that they
participated in some eco-conscious apparel acquisition behaviours in order to get
information of their perceptions of what these behaviours were. The main category
these consumers gave was limiting the quantity through acquiring apparel on needs
basis only, and extending apparel lifetime. The second perceived behaviour was
acquisition of apparel that was made of environmentally preferable fibres such as
16
organic cotton, hemp, or recycled fibres, and selecting natural fibres over synthetic
fibres. Other strategies they used were purchasing classic style instead of trendy
clothing, garments made in environmentally preferable manner, which they assumed
could be selected for example by choosing garments made in the US, or buying from
more sustainable sources such as second-hand stores, eco-conscious or independently
owned companies, as well as home-sewing. Hiller Connell has also studied internal and
external barriers to eco-conscious apparel acquisition (2010). Barriers were recognised
to include knowledge, attitudes, and availability of environmentally preferable apparel,
as well as economic resources, retail environments and societal norms. Hiller Connell
suggests that for the majority of consumers, elements that could realistically be included
in eco-conscious clothing behaviours are limiting the consumption through increased
life-time of clothing, and acquiring second-hand clothing, because they were the most
common practices already in use, are readily available, and do not require increased
financial resources. Reuse of clothing is environmentally preferable to recycling, as
discussed in chapter 2.1. Second-hand clothing is available in Norway, but the vast
majority of collected clothing is exported, and only a small portion is sold in Norway.
Very little is known about the informal clothing exchange between family and friends,
as these statistics only cover the clothing collection companies and export figures.
This has shown that a lot is known about sustainable clothing acquisition, but there is
still a lack of knowledge on what Norwegian consumers believe is sustainable clothing
consumption, and how they use the information that is currently available. In addition, it
is of interest to research further on how consumers in Norway could acquire clothing in
a more sustainable manner. As acquiring second-hand clothing is one of the options,
more knowledge is needed on the magnitude of the phenomena, as very little is known
about the second hand clothing purchase practices and almost no research on private
clothing exchange exist. Getting more information on whether there are differences
between consumer groups in these matters, and acknowledging the barriers for reuse
could help in improving clothing acquisition practices.
What kind of information of sustainability is available for consumers during
clothing acquisition? Further, what kind of environmental and ethical
perceptions consumers have related to different types of non-environmental
labels on clothing?
This will be discussed in paper 1 – Labels.
How many Norwegian consumers participate in clothing reuse, what are their
motivations and what is the magnitude of informal clothing exchange
17
compared to the formalised economic second-hand markets? Further, how
clothing reuse within the Western countries could be increased?
This will be discussed in paper 2 – Reuse.
2.4 Textile maintenance
Clothing maintenance that includes processes such as laundering, drying, ironing and
dry-cleaning have environmental consequences mainly due to the consumption of
energy, water and chemicals. Other maintenance tasks such as mending and altering can
increase the lifespans and then potentially reduce the environmental impacts. These are
discussed below; the laundering related maintenance tasks first, followed by mending
and altering.
2.4.1 Laundering
LCA studies on clothing and products used in laundering, such as detergents and
washing machines, show that the use period is usually the most energy-demanding
period during these products’ life cycle (Madsen et al., 2007; Otto et al., 2006; Saouter
et al., 2002). Depending on the used energy sources, this phase can also have the largest
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Studies on clothing indicate that the energy
consumption and CO2 emissions from the use phase vary from about 12% to 82% of the
total clothing lifecycle, although the potential variation is much greater depending on
how much the product is used, if used at all (A. Chapman, 2010). In addition to the
length of the clothing use period, the environmental impact of use is highly dependent
on the selected maintenance frequency and methods. In the UK, washing textiles at
30qC instead of 40qC would save 0.5 Twh, equivalent to 0.22 MCO2e yearly (Bain et
al., 2009). These values will depend on the used energy sources. Even though the
majority of electricity in Norway is produced through renewable sources which are
close to CO2 neutral, the electricity market is international. Therefore, it is estimated
that the use of electricity in Norway causes about 107 gram CO2e emissions per kWh
(Germiso, 2008).
Labouze et al. (2006) have estimated that one day’s use of jeans in France requires
17.5 l water, 1.49 MJ primary energy and 4.41 g CO2e. The consumption figures per use
time decrease when the garments are used longer, washed less frequently, or at lower
temperature. Figure 4 shows the total CO2e emissions and the relationship between the
different lifecycle stages for 50 “wears” of a cotton t-shirt. Each pillar indicates
different lengths of lifespans, starting from very short lifespan of one wear per t-shirt,
when no laundering is needed, up to 100 wears per t-shirt, with assumed laundering
after each wear. The figure indicates that greatest savings can be achieved through the
increased lifespan, but also that the use phase starts to dominate the GHG emissions
18
when the t-shirt is used for a longer period, in this case minimum of 50 times. If t-shirts
were to be used as disposable single- use only garments, the environmental impacts
would be magnified tremendously. The figure also highlights how the effects of
laundering and lifespans are related, and why knowledge of both aspects is important
when evaluating the environmental effect of clothing consumption. Depending on the
use area, sometimes single-use textiles could be a preferable option to reusable textiles,
for example surgical textiles in hospitals where hygiene is of extreme importance
(Rutala and Weber, 2001). In these cases, lifetime optimising strategies are of
importance.
Figure 4: Emissions arising from 50 wears of a cotton t-shirt, with varying assumptions regarding
longevity of the t-shirt (Based on Allwood et al., 2006; Carbon Trust, 2011)
Technological and behavioural changes can be used to reduce the environmental
impacts of laundering. A research report for Defra based on an extensive literature
review on clothes cleaning combined with stakeholder consultations gives
recommendations that are considered to have the best impact, while also being feasible
(Bain et al., 2009). These are to wash clothes at 30qC, reduce need for ironing by using
anti-crease fabrics, use eco-friendly cleaning technologies and correct detergent dosing,
developing appliances to reduce energy and water use, increasing the washing
machines’ spin drying efficiency, line drying clothes whenever possible, and when
using tumble-dryer, reduce the drying time and separate synthetic and natural fibres.
However, the authors also acknowledge lack of knowledge on several areas, as well as
19
lack of transparency of some data provided by the industry. In addition, the
consequences of all recommended actions are not fully explored. Therefore, Bain et al.
(2009:64-65) concluded that further investigations on the following areas (among
others) are needed:
- Effect of line drying on the comfort and lifetime of clothing
- Effect of high spin drying speed on washing machines and clothing
- Effects of fabric softeners.
- Effect of low temperature washing on various types of stains such as body
sebum
- For improving the transparency of industry provided information, the data
should be verified by an independent body.
An example of the last point is that the report refers to a leading detergent producer on
data of cleaning effect of 30qC laundering, but no further information of tests or results
are given. The report does not take into account that laundering and drying can affect
garments also in other ways than just removing the soil, odours and stains. It can for
example change the garment dimensions, colour, level of pilling, or give other signs of
wear. Therefore, there is a lack of knowledge on several areas related to the material
aspects of clothing laundering, and this study aims to cover some of these areas through
answering the following research questions:
In which areas could consumers change their laundering habits to a more
environmentally friendly direction that would be both feasible and efficient, so
that the changes would contribute to longer lifespans of textiles as well as
sufficient cleaning results and environmental savings?
More specifically, what kind of consequences would changes in washing
temperature, machine filling grade, detergent dosage, spin drying speed or
drying method have?
This question will be discussed in paper 3 – Laundering.
Bain et al. (2009) point out the potential of using eco-friendly cleaning technologies as
well as correct detergent dosing. In their report they evaluate some up-coming new
technologies such as washing machines that use steam, ultra-sound, ozone, or silver
ions, but they do not mention some of the alternative products to traditional detergents
that are already readily available on the market, such as different laundry balls, washing
pellets, soap nuts, and magnets. The producers of these products make bold marketing
claims, but the documentation of washing effects are often inadequate and only a couple
scientific studies could be found. Results from these studies indicate that laundering
with these products do have a cleaning effect (Bruce and Thulin, 2010; Pusic et al.,
20
2011), but they lack a comparison of the variety of different products that are available,
as well as comparing the results to wash with regular detergent or of water alone.
Therefore, more information is needed to be able to evaluate their potential in replacing
traditional detergents.
Can alternative laundry products be used to replace regular detergents and
reduce the environmental impacts of laundering?
This will be discussed in paper 4 - Alternative detergents.
Earlier research has shown that one of the common reasons today to the high laundering
frequency of clothing is based on the fear of body odours and resulting social
consequences, as well as the attraction of “fresh” clothes (T. Fisher et al., 2008; Klepp,
2006). A German study has shown that the most common reason for using fabric
softeners was a more comfortable feeling and softer touch, but their property to give
good scent to textiles was the second most important reason (Braun and Stamminger,
2011). The main active ingredient of today’s fabric softeners are esterquats (cationic
surfactants), which show better biodegradability than the surfactants used in the past
(Braun and Stamminger, 2011). They also have low toxicity to aquatic organisms, and
do not cause concern to human health with regard to regular consumer use (HERA,
2008, 2009). Therefore, it is of interest to study whether use of fabric softeners could be
environmentally preferable, as they may reduce the laundering frequency.
As odour is one of the important reasons for laundering clothing, how is use of
fabric softeners related to odour properties on clothing? Could use of fabric
softeners be beneficial from an environmental point of view?
This will be discussed in paper 5 – Fabric softeners
Laundering practices are constantly changing and influenced by social, cultural and
moral norms (Pettersen et al., 2013; Shove, 2003). These changes occur relatively fast
through different mechanisms and have been affected by new technologies, available
information, as well as changes in society and its norms. Washing textiles outside or
boiling them on a stove were common practices before the industrial revolution. These
practices started to disappear as new technologies such as the electric washing machines
became more common. The average washing temperatures have dropped considerably
since World War II, first from boiling down to 60qC in the 1980’s, and recently even
lower (Klepp, 2003b). First, the change was led by new washing technologies and the
advice given by home economics experts. Then, new textile materials that did not
tolerate high temperatures became more common in use, and consumers continued to
21
lower the washing temperatures, despite the experts’ advice to keep on washing at 60qC
(Klepp, 2007a). During the past decade the washing technologies have improved further
as new detergent formulations that function better at lower temperatures are introduced
(Ryom, 2003), as well as more efficient washing machines that consume less water and
energy (Pakula and Stamminger, 2010).
Despite the great improvement in cleaning technologies, the time that consumers use for
washing clothes has not been reduced. Today, body odours are considered appalling,
and daily washes and use of perfumes is almost a norm (Ashenburg, 2007). These
changes in social norms have led to increased washing frequency of our bodies and
clothing (Gram-Hanssen, 2007; Pettersen, 2013; Shove, 2003). We own more clothing,
and wash it more frequently (Klepp, 2003a). This increased amount of washing can
counteract the technological improvements that have occurred in laundering. Steering
these processes of change will require a consideration of integrated socio-technical
systems (Gram-Hanssen, 2008). Rigby has interviewed consumers on which types of
clothing they wash more seldom than others, and designed a clothing line based on that
information (Hanlon, 2010; Rigby, 2011). She identified different themes in clothing
that affect the washing behaviour, such as material choice (wool), use area (home wear)
and fit (loose).
In their review of laundering literature, Bain et al. (2009:63) point out a general lack of
data on consumer behavior related to clothing maintenance. However, laundering
practices have been studied in several countries during the past two decades, including
Australia (Jack, 2013a, 2013b), Finland (Aalto, 1998, 2002, 2003; Järvi and Paloviita,
2007; Timonen, 2002), France (Kaufmann, 1998), Germany (Kruschwitz and
Stamminger, 2011; Stamminger, 2007, 2009), Norway (Klepp, 2003a, 2003b, 2006,
2007b, 2009), UK (T. Fisher et al., 2008; Pink, 2005), US (Hustvedt, 2011; Hustvedt et
al., 2013), and even compared internationally (A.I.S.E., 2009a; Arild et al., 2003;
Pakula and Stamminger, 2010). These studies show that there are great national
variations in used washing machine types, laundering temperatures, frequencies, and in
drying and ironing practices. However, many of these studies are quite old, taking into
consideration the rapid developments in washing technologies and potential changes in
practices. In addition, most of these studies are not very detailed in specifying the
variations in existing laundering practices, for example they seldom report laundering
frequencies of households of different sizes. In addition, they often fail to take into
account that consumers use several washing temperatures and methods depending on
the product type in question. This kind of detailed data on clothing lifespans and
selected maintenance methods is needed for example when LCA studies aim to include
the use phase to the calculations, and it has been shown that most LCA studies focus on
the early stages (Madsen et al., 2007:103). Very few studies make a connection between
the research on consumer’s laundering practices and design for sustainable behaviour.
22
There is a lack of information on changes in laundering practices during the past decade
when significant improvements in technologies have occurred, in addition to lack of
detailed studies that concentrate on recent Norwegian context. Therefore, the present
study also aims to research the current laundering habits and answer the following
research questions:
How have Norwegian consumers’ laundering habits changed during the past
ten years? How could these habits be steered towards more sustainable ones?
This will be discussed in paper 6 – Laundry habits.
2.4.2 Mending
Mending, re-design and altering are alternatives users have for prolonging the use
period of clothing that is damaged, has poor fit or is not used for some other aesthetical
reasons. Textiles age through different mechanisms, such as mechanical stress,
photochemical degradation, thermal degradation, physical structural changes, or
chemical attack (Bresee, 1986). Natural ageing is usually a combination of several
ageing mechanisms, and can cause holes, rifts, broken seams, loose buttons or faded
colours. Consumers may alter the garments’ original appearance for several reasons,
such as problems with fit, unwanted colour, lack of personal characteristics, or just to
remove unwanted decorations. Studies on clothing sizes have shown that trouser length
is one of the common clothing fit problems, that can be altered by consumers (Laitala et
al., 2012a).
The scale, focus and techniques in clothing mending have changed the past decades
from very specialised, time consuming and invisible mending methods to far simpler
techniques where the potential to unique aesthetic expression has become more
important (Klepp, 2000). Creativity has become an increasingly more important reason
for home-sewing instead of the economic reasons that were more important before
(Johnson, 1960). The time consumed on repair, handicrafts and making own clothing
has reduced significantly in the past decades (Aalto, 2003; Vaage, 2012).
A survey in the UK showed that about 62% of the respondents owned clothing that
could be used if it was repaired (Gracey and Moon, 2012). Some studies that include
consumers’ clothing repair and altering practices have been made during the past years
(Cooper et al., 2010; Ekström et al., 2012; T. Fisher et al., 2008; Gracey and Moon,
2012; Klepp, 2001). In general, these studies show that at least some repairs are still
performed, but also several obstacles for repairing are recognised. However, none of the
aforementioned studies specified to more detail the situations of when people decide to
mend or alter their clothing, which types of clothing are repaired, the specified
23
demographics of people that repair clothing, nor discussed the potential of design.
Therefore, more research is needed on the following topics:
As mending and altering can increase clothing lifespans, can design facilitate
these behaviours? Which obstacles do consumers experience for mending,
what kind of clothing mending and altering is done today, and by whom?
This will be discussed in paper 10 – Use matters.
2.5 Lifespans and disposal
The consumption phase of products can be seen to end when they are no longer used,
and the user discards them. As discussed in 2.1, the environmental impacts can be
reduced through longer clothing lifetimes and reuse, when the total amount of materials
is reduced. However, the term product life time is not unambiguous. Van Nes and
Cramer (2006) show how different studies use varying terms such as service life,
replacement life, equipment life, and actual life of use. According to their definition, the
life time ends when a product is either disposed of or replaced by another product that
takes its place. In clothing, this is not as straight forward as many products can be used
simultaneously, and at the moment of purchase, it may not be certain of whether the
new product will replace something old. The replacement may also occur gradually, and
some clothes may go out of use without being replaced. Klepp (2001) has presented a
framework for clothing lifetime (Figure 5). It shows that during the total lifespan, the
garment can go through different phases between active use and resting periods. Active
use means that the garment is worn, and as discussed in previous chapter, the number of
wears before cleaning varies greatly. Clothing can also go out of use through several
stages. First, the user or caretaker either makes a conscious choice of not using the
garment anymore, or just does not select it for use as there are other alternatives
available. After a while, he or she will have to make a choice of what to do with it.
While waiting for this decision, the garment is “at mercy” (Klepp 2001).
Use
Acquisition
First time
use
Resting period
Last time
use
Disposal
Time
”On hold”
Actual use
”At mercy”
Figure 5: Lifetime of clothes (Klepp, 2001, reproduced with permission)
24
Jacoby, Berning, and Dietvorst (1977) have developed a conceptual disposition decision
taxonomy, which shows that consumers have three general choices when disposing a
product; to keep it, dispose of it permanently, or dispose of it temporarily. Keeping
includes converting it to use for another purpose, or storing it. Permanent disposition
includes throwing or giving it away (charitable donations or handing down to friends or
family), abandoning it, selling or trading it. Temporary disposition includes loaning or
renting it out. They suggest that three factors influence these consumers’ disposition
decisions; psychological characteristics of the decision maker (personality, attitudes
etc.), factors intrinsic to the product (condition, style etc.), and situational factors
extrinsic to the product (storage space, financial situation etc.). These categories can
interact, and partly even overlap.
Research on product lifetimes separate between technical and economic life (Cooper,
1994), or psychological life or aesthetical life (van Hinte, 2004; van Nes and Cramer,
2006). Disposition reasons in general differentiate between absolute and relative
obsolescence (Cooper, 2004; Packard, 1960). Absolute obsolescence means that the
product has failed and is no longer usable. Relative obsolescence applies for products
that are still functional, but discarded for some other reasons. Within clothing, drawing
a line between these may not always be that straight forward, as it may for example vary
what is considered to be usable, beyond repair or completely worn out. The evaluation
is also dependent on other factors such as the user’s personal attitudes, knowledge on
repair, and social situations the garment would be used. The evaluation between
absolute and relative obsolescence can also be relevant when the consumers decide what
to do with the garments they do not use themselves anymore, for example when they
evaluate whether they are suitable for reuse.
A number of studies are made on the clothing disposal process. The majority of them
concentrate on where the used clothing is disposed or given to, such as whether it is
donated, binned or used as rags, and which consumer groups are more likely to behave
in the environmentally preferable way (Bianchi and Birtwistle, 2012; Daneshvary et al.,
1998; Francis and Butler, 1994; Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013; Koch and Domina, 1997;
Sung and Kincade, 2010; Walter, 2008). Some studies have also asked why clothing is
disposed or recycled in exactly that way, and attempted to point out hindrances for
environmentally friendly behaviour (Domina and Koch, 2001; Domina and Koch, 2002;
Ekström et al., 2012; Ha-Brookshire and Hodges, 2009; Shim, 1995). A few studies
have tried to see disposal reasons in more detail, and asked general questions related to
common disposal reasons such as wear and tear, fashion, or other reasons (Birtwistle
and Moore, 2007; Chun, 1987; Cooper et al., 2010; Domina and Koch, 1999; T. Fisher
et al., 2008; Koch and Domina, 1999; Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009). The majority of
the listed studies are based on surveys, followed by focus group interviews but very few
25
are based on in-depth interviews and observations. These studies are also mainly
concentrated on young females, often college students. None of the above mentioned
studies has been based on the clothing that is going out of use. Problem with these is
that no quantitative information on the division between different disposal reasons are
given, the complexity of one item having potentially several disposal reasons is not
taken into account, and the actual condition of clothing is not controlled. Therefore it is
not possible to know when something is said to be worn out whether it is absolute or
relative obsolescence. I have managed to find only one study where clothing items to be
disposed of have been studied (Klepp, 2001). Klepp studied clothing practices of 24
about 40 year-old women, and registered disposal reasons of 329 clothing items. In this
material, the informants could give several reasons for disposing each garment. The
results show that technical or quality related obsolescence is given as the most common
reason for clothes disposal (35%), even though a big amount is discarded due to
psychological reasons (31%) such as that the owner is tired of the product and wants
something new. The third most common reasons were situational (19%), such as when
the owner had developed new consumer needs, changed body size or has lack of space
in the wardrobe. Another high percentage of disposed clothing is within the sector
“never used” (13%). Some explanations to this could be unsuitable design (fit, use
properties) or mistake purchases such as the wrong size. The distribution of these
disposal reasons show that even though the intrinsic physical product durability is
crucial, other factors contribute to clothing lifespans greatly.
Lifespans of clothing vary greatly and there is very little reliable information available
on this. A recent survey in the UK indicated that clothing had average active use periods
of 3.3 years (Langley et al., 2013), while an EU report estimated that all garments have
a lifespan of 1-3 years, but refers only to their own and others' estimates that are not
based on research (Beton et al., 2014). Similarly, the estimates of lifetime of clothing
items varied from ten up to 104 uses in two separate studies (Birtwistle and Moore,
2007; Collins and Aumônier, 2002). Uitdenbogerd et al. have reported on clothing
lifetimes in two separate studies. The first one was based on calculation of the number
of garments in 16 households and correlated with how much was purchased
(Uitdenbogerd et al., 1998:127), while the second study was based on a consumer
survey (Uitdenbogerd, 2007:281). According to the first study, the average lifespan of
trousers was 6.2 years, skirts and dresses 15.2 years, sweaters 7.1 years, blouses 7.2
years, t - shirts 6.8 years, blazers 11.5 years and jackets 11.6 years. The lifespan of a
skirt was thus estimated to be twice as long as that of a pair of pants. The second study
result indicated that cotton pants/jeans were used 2.45 years and wool sweaters 6.17
years. The differences between the results of these studies on trousers are quite
substantial, but it just confirms how insecure such indirect ways of estimating the
garment lifetimes are. Klepp (2001) studied garments that went out of use, and showed
that the garments’ lifetime was on average 7 years. However, this this time included
26
periods when the clothing had not been in active use, and the study included only
clothing from 40-year old Norwegian women (Klepp, 2001).
These results indicate that there is a lack of knowledge on several areas, including the
clothing disposal reasons, the lengths of clothing lifespans, and the connection between
clothing design and these aspects. There is a need for a new detailed study on clothing
disposal reasons in a heterogeneous sample, as most data is found on women’s clothing,
and less on men’s and children’s clothing. In addition, it is important to combine
quantitative and qualitative methods, and use interdisciplinary methods to see the
relationship between material and behavioural aspects of clothing disposal. Most likely,
a survey alone is not a sufficient tool for studying these complex practices, if the
material aspects of clothing are to be included. The various results received when
studying the same topic with different methods raise also a methodological question of
what is the most suitable way for studying these aspects, especially when the clothing
lifespans are researched. The lack of data leads to incomplete LCA studies, and that we
do not know enough about what contributes to clothing longevity.
What is known about consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour and which
knowledge gaps exist that need further investigation?
This will be discussed in paper 7 – Disposal review.
Can a multidisciplinary research approach on clothing disposal reasons help
finding new insights for designing clothing for longer lifespans and reducing
environmental impacts related to clothing consumption?
This will be discussed in paper 11 – Design approach.
How long lifespans do garments have when they are disposed of, and what is
the relationship between material and non-material disposal reasons such as
fashion?
This will be discussed in paper 9 – Lifespans.
This ends the literature review based background section of the thesis. All research
questions and the papers that they are linked to are summarised in Table 1 in Chapter 3,
which also gives the methods that are chosen to answer the questions.
27
2.6 Scope
This thesis will concentrate on the environmental impacts of clothing, as it is the largest
textile group showing further growth, the textile type consumed in highest quantities by
consumers, and the care constitutes a larger problem than on many other textile
products, such as upholstery. Other textile containing products such as carpets, shoes,
interior textiles, car seats, and so on, have not been a part of the study. However, some
of the research topics such as laundering are valid for many other textile products as
well.
Other clothing related sustainability aspects such as the social, ethical, and labour
questions concerning clothes production, as well as animal welfare and economic
viability are not specifically excluded, but the main focus is in the environmental
impacts.
The main research centre lies within the use and disposal phases of consumer clothing
in a Norwegian context, and in the potential of design. This focus was selected mainly
due to the statistics and the literature review that show the importance of this product
group, but also because of the main project that this PhD is part of (the project will be
presented in the next section). Based on the main hypothesis of the study, of the benefits
of interdisciplinary method triangulation related to consumers’ clothing consumption
practices, the research is user centred and therefore production is only included
indirectly. The focus of suggested strategies will be in design, but in some cases, other
solutions such as changes in policies may be suitable, and these are given when
appropriate.
The study is made in Norway. The statistics show increased clothing consumption rates,
both as in increased import and amount of waste produced in the households. The
domestic clothing production is at very low level. These trends are similar also in other
Western countries, which may contribute to the results being partly transferable also to
other context, such as other Nordic countries where the culture, climate and used
technologies are rather similar.
The given magnitude of the environmental impact is based on existing literature, as no
new LCA calculations are made. However, lab tests will be used to measure the
properties related to laundering, and the results can contribute to improve the accuracy
of future studies where the use phase of clothing is to be included.
A lot of aspects can affect consumers’ behaviour and through that the environmental
impacts, including the infrastructure, norms, social settings, motives and so on, as
discussed in the introduction. My main focus is on behaviour, as it is the manifestation
of the underlying aspects, which has environmental consequences.
28
3. Research design
This chapter introduces the research projects and methods that this dissertation is based
on. Material from two different research projects where I have been involved in the past
four years is included. First, I will give the motivations for selecting the specific
methods to answer the research questions that were presented in the previous chapter.
This is followed by a description of the overall aims of both of the projects, where the
description of the main project (Textile Waste) is a bit more comprehensive. Then, the
research methods that are used in the papers that append this dissertation are presented
in detail.
3.1 Selection of research methods
The environmental problems that are caused by the actions of people are
interdisciplinary in their very nature. The environmental effect that is caused by changes
in consumer practices can be measured with natural sciences methods, such as
measuring the amount of toxic chemicals in nature, while other disciplines such as
sociology, psychology or anthropology are more suited for studying consumer motives
and behaviour. Clothes have a large and complicated role in society in general, and the
consumption and the related environmental problems cannot be solved by concentrating
solely on the material or the behavioural aspects. Nascimento and Pólvora (2013) also
argue for interdisciplinarity that combines technical and social knowledge when
working with complex problems with no single causal factor. Answering the research
question requires a holistic view on clothing consumption. Therefore, I have decided to
use a variety of research methods that originate from different disciplines, including
quantitative surveys, qualitative interviews, wardrobe studies, and laboratory tests. Most
previous research has studied the material and behavioural aspects separately; while my
aim is to combine these aspects with the use of mixed methods and method
triangulation.
The term “method triangulation” is a way to integrate research methods. It can be
understood and is used in at least three different ways, as Kelle (2005) shows:
1) Triangulation as a process of cumulative validation.
2) Triangulation as a means to produce a more complete picture of the
investigated phenomena (integration of different perspectives).
3) Triangulation as its original trigonometric meaning.
My way of using mixed methods is closest to the second understanding, where the
methods are used to complement each other. To avoid misunderstandings, I will use
more the term “mixed methods” than triangulation for that kind of method combination,
besides in cases where the topic in question also involves aspects of the first point of
Kelle’s list, when I use the term triangulation.
29
The literature review of the previous chapter showed that there are several knowledge
gaps in different areas of clothing consumption. The research questions were formulated
in order to cover these gaps, and the aim is to discuss them in the included papers. In
this section, the motivations for selecting the specified research methods to answer the
specific questions are given.
The general distribution of the study topics can be separated between the material and
the behavioural aspects of users and clothing. Immaterial aspects that affect consumers’
behaviour are mainly studied through surveys and interviews, specific details of
behaviour through wardrobe studies and registrations, while the material aspects related
to clothing are more suited for wardrobe studies and laboratory tests (detailed
explanations of the methods will be given in the section 3.3)
Surveys are chosen to answer questions where magnitude of the studied phenomenon is
of interest. These include consumers’ motivations and behaviour related to clothing
reuse and recycling, laundering, and mending. Interviews are more suitable for new
study areas, where less is known about the studied phenomena, and the magnitude of
the answer distribution, such as how common the specific way of thinking, is of less
importance.
Wardrobe studies are suitable when the questions have concrete topics related to
clothing consumption. These questions are related both to the behavioural and material
aspects, and especially useful as the answers are grounded to specific items instead of
being only general ideas. Other possible methods for studying specific behavioural
aspects could have been for example observations of the different phases of clothing
consumption, but for this project, the lifespans of clothing were of importance, and
therefore the starting point was specified to items at their end-of-life with the current
user, which also enables gaining data of the previous consumption stages. Laboratory
tests are suitable for measuring the changes on clothing or effects of laundering in
specified ways, and are therefore especially suited for studying the material sides of
clothing consumption.
As many of the aspects are relevant to some of the questions, in these cases, using
mixed methods is selected as the most appropriate. In Table 1, the papers are divided
between the material aspects and the consumer behavioural aspects that are studied
through different methods. In addition, all of the empirical papers have at least a brief
literature survey, but this is indicated as a method only for the paper that is based on
review only (Disposal review).
30
Research questions
What kind of information of sustainability is available for
consumers during clothing acquisition? Further, what kind
of environmental and ethical perceptions consumers have
related to different types of non-environmental labels on
clothing?
P2 Reuse
How many Norwegian consumers participate in clothing
reuse, what are their motivations and what is the
magnitude of informal clothing exchange compared to the
formalised economic second-hand markets? Further, how
clothing reuse within the Western countries could be
increased?
P3 Laundering In which areas consumers could change their laundering
habits to a more environmentally friendly direction that
would be both feasible and efficient, so that changes
would contribute to longer lifespans of textiles as well as
sufficient cleaning result and environmental savings?
More specifically, what kind of consequences would
changes in washing temperature, machine filling grade,
detergent dosage, spin drying speed or drying method
have?
P4 Alternative Can alternative laundry products be used to replace
detergents
regular detergents and reduce the environmental impacts
of laundering?
P5 Fabric
As odour is one of the important reasons for laundering
softeners
clothing, how is use of fabric softeners related to odour
P1 Labels
Paper
X
X
X
X
X
X
31
BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS
MATERIAL ASPECTS
Quantitative
Qualitative Extensive Wardro Laboratory
survey
interview
literature be
test or
2010 2011 2012
survey
study
measurement
Table 1: Papers division between material and behavioural aspects studied through different methods
32
P11 Design
approach
P10 Use
matters
P9 Lifespans
P8 Clothing
collection
P7 Disposal
review
P6 Laundry
habits
properties on clothing? Could use of fabric softeners be
beneficial from an environmental point of view?
How have Norwegian consumers’ laundering habits
changed during the past ten years? How could these
habits be steered towards more sustainable ones?
What is known about consumers’ clothing disposal
behaviour and which knowledge gaps exist that need
further investigation?
How do Norwegian consumers dispose of clothing, and
what do they base these disposal decisions on? Further,
which measures could help to increase the used clothing
collection rates, including potential changes in textile
waste management strategies?
How long lifespans garments have when they are
disposed of, and what is the relationship between material
and non-material disposal reasons such as fashion?
How design can help to reduce the environmental impacts
of clothing consumption, based on research on
consumers’ motives behind clothing disposal, acquisition
practices and maintenance habits, including both social
and technical aspects? As mending and altering can
increase clothing lifespans, can design facilitate these
behaviours? Which obstacles consumers experience for
mending, what kind of clothing mending and altering is
done today, and by whom?
Can multidisciplinary research approach on clothing
disposal reasons help finding new insights for designing
clothing for longer lifespans and reducing environmental
impacts related to clothing consumption?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(X)
3.2 Research projects
This dissertation is mainly based on material from the research project Textile waste,
but I have decided to include material also from another project that I have been
involved in, concerning wool. These two projects are presented briefly below, followed
by a more detailed account of the used research methods. Common for both projects is
that they have environmental sustainability as one of the study topics, and include a
combination of technical studies on textiles together with social sciences methods. Both
research projects have been led by Ingun Grimstad Klepp at SIFO, and I have been
working on them during my PhD period 2009-2013.
3.2.1 Textile waste
This PhD is part of a research project called “CROSSCUT: From waste to material
resources in a grave to cradle perspective: A stakeholder approach within the textile
value chain”, that was conducted during 2009-2013, and is referred to as Textile waste
project in this thesis. The project was financed by the Research Council of Norway and
Orkla ASA within the Environment 2015 program. The starting point of this research
project was an increased amount of textiles in circulation, and it focused on expanding
the life of the existing fibres through for example re-using the products, re-designing the
textiles and recycling the materials. The main focus was on the potential to reduce the
volume along the lifecycle of textiles, where also the use and maintenance of clothes are
important. The innovative role of design and designers was central, and therefore three
universities that have design education were involved as partners in the project. The
main research question was:
How can a multidisciplinary approach to waste reduction – including natural
sciences, social sciences and cultural studies – contribute to reduce the material
flow and turning waste into material resources; using the textile chain as an
example?
The aim of the project was to develop a reverse system analysis where the traditional
cradle to grave approach has been replaced with a grave to cradle perspective. This
means that the point of departure is reversing the life cycle analysis by unravelling the
textile material flow from waste, closely linked to the cradle-to-cradle “tradition”
(Braungart et al., 2007; McDonough and Braungart, 1998). Thus, the point of departure
was not the production, but the textile waste. To be more precise, the approach started
with the two last phases in the lifecycle of clothes and textiles: the use of the products,
and the disposal and waste handling. The experiences from these phases was then used
in looking back to the environmental problems along the reverse value chain, and in
formulating potential solutions in reducing the material flow and in recycling the textile
waste. Then, waste becomes a resource to knowledge in addition to being a material
source. The method combines understanding of technical specifications of the products
33
with the social and cultural environment where the products are used. This reverse life
cycle approach is illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Main research project approach (Idea: Ingun G. Klepp, original figure: Eivind Stø)
The project included six work packages:
1. Analysis of textile waste statistics and interviews with stakeholders within
recycling
2. The use of clothes within household (mainly through wardrobe studies and
interviews)
3. Maintenance of clothes (mainly through laboratory tests, survey and interviews)
4. What can we learn from history? Studies on how textiles were reused and
recycled earlier when they still were scarce and expensive.
5. Creative design innovations. Design school students created solutions based on
the results of the project that were presented in an exhibition (Figure 7). Some of
these designs are presented in Design approach paper.
6. Challenging the industry: from small to large scale. A seminar combined with
the exhibition.
The PhD work was mainly conducted within work packages number two and three, but
also examples of results from other work packages are used in publications. Work
package three also used some synergies from other ongoing laundry related projects at
34
SIFO, mainly laboratory tests for the industry or media. These results are available to
the public, and consent from the client to use these results has been obtained.
As my PhD is a part of this larger project, some choices such as the reverse grave to
cradle perspective were taken before my PhD started. However, I did have the
opportunity to participate in writing the project application, and I have been able to
influence the method selection and focus areas later on the project.
Figure 7: Exhibition of design school students’ work in Textile waste project
Co-operation between Textile Waste and other thematically similar projects
One of the central aspects of the Textile Waste project was effective dissemination of
results and co-operation with other researchers on the area. Within the field of
sustainable clothing production and consumption, significant work has been done by the
UK’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). They have selected
clothing as one of their ten priority product actions on sustainable consumption and
production, and work within Sustainable Clothing Roadmap was started in 2007. The
aim of the project was “to improve the sustainability of clothing, by gathering evidence
on the environmental, social and economic impacts, and working with a wide range of
stakeholders across the clothing supply chain build on existing interventions and add
value to work already underway” (Defra, 2010:2). By 2010, the project had published
five comprehensive reports within the different areas of the clothing value chain in
35
order to find out where further actions can be most effective (Bain et al., 2009; T. Fisher
et al., 2008; Madsen et al., 2007; Morley et al., 2009a; Turley et al., 2010).
The Textile waste project including my PhD work was started at 2009, and at that time
the findings of the Defra reports gave a good overview on the currents state of
knowledge of clothing consumption and the environmental consequences of the
different aspects related to it, although mainly from the UK perspective. Based on these
reports, several knowledge gaps were recognised and areas that should be focused on
were selected, both for the continuation of the work in the UK as well as for the Textile
waste project. The UK project was taken over by Defra’s delivery body, the Waste and
Resources Action Programme (WRAP) in 2011, and is now called Sustainable Clothing
Action Plan (SCAP) (Defra, 2011). Currently, it consists of four working groups:
Design, Re-use & Recycling, Influencing consumer behaviours, and Metrics. There has
been a dialogue and co-operation between the Textile waste and these working groups,
especially through project partner Nice Fashion that has actively participated several of
the SCAP working groups and also distributed the research results to the general public
and the design schools that participated the Textile waste project. In addition, some
scientific dissemination between the projects has occurred through participation in the
same conferences, such as the SIFO organised Product Life Extension conference
(SIFO, 2012).
The SCAP focus areas were chosen after the study areas of the Textile waste project
were chosen, and show how the priorities are similar. The progress with these projects
has gone alongside, and many of the recent WRAP reports concentrate on similar areas
as the Textile waste project and my thesis, especially when it comes to clothing reuse
(K. Fisher et al., 2011), design for longevity (Cooper et al., 2013), clothing lifespans
(Langley et al., 2013), and consumers’ motivation and behaviour (Gracey and Moon,
2012). The co-operation, focus on dissemination, use of the same references, and
exchange of ideas explain partly the similar focus areas and outcomes of the projects.
Other main influences for the Textile waste project have come from Kate Fletcher, who
has done ground-breaking work on the sustainable fashion design area, as described in
section 2.2. There has been co-operation between Fletcher and SIFO in some projects,
including Textile Waste and Fletcher’s recent research project Local Wisdom, and
through the Copenhagen Business schools’ wardrobe research network (Skov, 2011).
In the past years, the interest on the area of clothing and textiles sustainability has
increased significantly and several other projects have been started, including MISTRA
Future Fashion5, several industry driven projects such as Sustainable Apparel Coalition
5
http://www.mistrafuturefashion.com/
36
and SCAP 2020 Commitment, research projects financed by Nordic Council of
Ministers, as well as starting of new scientific journal6, publication of several books on
the topic (Black, 2008, 2012; Blackburn, 2009; Brown, 2010; Gardetti and Torres,
2013; Gwilt and Rissanen, 2011; Hethorn and Ulasewicz, 2008; Minney, 2012), as well
as series of conferences and seminars. In addition, SIFO was commissioned a project on
the potential for increasing material recycling of textile waste by the Norwegian
Environment Agency. I became the main author of this report, which has also
influenced this thesis (Laitala et al., 2012c).
SIFO has given dissemination of the Textile waste project results a high priority,
resulting in a large number of project publications, conference participations, as well as
very active involvement of Nice fashion. There are both benefits and drawbacks of
doing PhD research in such a dynamically growing field. On the positive side, there is
great interest in the results, several areas where to present them, and easy to find other
researchers who are working on similar topics. On the negative side, it is difficult to
have a complete overview of the state of the art at all times and it is not always so easy
to track how the ideas have emerged. Many research projects run parallel and scientific
publishing takes time.
3.2.2 Valuing Norwegian wool
The main goal of this project was to provide knowledge on how Norwegian wool can
contribute to a more environmentally sustainable textile production and consumption
and increase value creation in agriculture, textile industry, retailing and design. Both
knowledge and strategic action in this area is fragmented, and as there is increasing
focus on the environment in the textile sector at the same time as textiles with technical
qualities are in demand, this is a suitable time to explore the value creation potentials of
Norwegian wool. The whole value chain from farmers to consumers is included. A
holistic and cross-disciplinary approach was chosen, that not only included disciplines
such as the humanities, marketing and social sciences, but also textile engineering,
fashion and design. Research and development ambitions involved a cluster of activities
and methods, ranging from conventional research methods (e.g. surveys and interviews)
and laboratory testing to design and exhibitions. The project was conducted during
2010-2013.
Only one of the papers that is part of this thesis, the Fabric softeners, uses information
from this project. The paper uses information from one of the methods used in Valuing
Norwegian Wool project, and therefore, only this method is presented in this thesis
under the results section 4.2.5. I have also contributed on some other publications of this
project, but these are not included in this thesis as the topic is not as relevant.
6
Open access journal “Textiles and Clothing Sustainability”,
37
3.3 Research methods
Detailed method descriptions are given in this section. Table 2 gives an overview of the
research projects and the methods that apply for this thesis. These methods are
presented in the sections below. The methods that are marked on grey for the
Norwegian wool project are not included in this thesis, and therefore not presented here.
In addition, both projects have included a literature review, which is not presented as a
separate method here.
Table 2: The research projects and methods that are used in them (areas on grey on Valuing
Norwegian wool project are not part of this dissertation)
Methods
Quantitative survey
Qualitative interview
Wardrobe study
Laboratory test,
measurement or
experiment
Textile waste
Three surveys
Survey 1: Textile waste 2010
Survey 2: SIFO survey 2011
Survey 3: SIFO survey 2012
16 households, one or two
representatives each, interviewed
twice with 6 months in between
Clothing to be disposed of from
the 16 households. 620 items.
Clothing quality evaluations
Laundering tests
Valuing Norwegian wool
Two surveys
Survey 1: Sifo survey 2012
Survey 2: Farmers
2 main groups (1: consumers
consisting of 18 women, their
families,3 teenage boys, and 2:
stakeholders within wool industry)
Owned wool clothing
Odour testing
Wool quality testing
Material recognition test
3.3.1 Survey 1: Textile waste 2010
The first survey of the Textile waste project was conducted in 2010. The questions were
specially aimed at collecting quantitative information of consumers’ experiences and
opinions concerning clothing use, maintenance routines (washing, drying, ironing and
mending), disposal habits, and environmental attitudes. The questionnaire is attached as
appendix 3 (in Norwegian).
The original purpose of this survey was to get enough of background information to
select the potential participants to the qualitative studies, but this aim was widened and
the survey was continued, so that it would be possible to report these results as a
separate study, and to be able to compare the participants of the qualitative study to the
more general population. As the project did not have a large budget for the survey data
collection, most of the activities that usually are delegated to consulting survey
companies were done in-house, including recruitment of respondents and programming
the online version of the questionnaire.
38
The recruitment of respondents was done in several steps and through different
channels. Summary of the methods and number of responses received during each
recruitment period is given in Table 3. At first, personal, university and work related
networks were used to recruit respondents through e-mail to answer to the web
questionnaire. At the next stage, printed questionnaires were sent to 1200 Norwegian
households in November 2009. The addresses were selected randomly from the phone
catalogue7, but in a manner that the different counties were presented in proportion to
the number of inhabitants. 60% of questionnaires were sent to men, as earlier
experience has shown that men have a lower response percentage, and we had received
more answers from women from the first recruitment part. Of the sent questionnaires,
8.6% came back due to wrong address. The answering rate was rather low, about
10.3%. Out of these, the number of paper questionnaires that were answered was 87 and
answers online was 26. Further respondents were recruited to answer a web-based
questionnaire through publicity in media. The project was presented at Miljø2015
conference 24th March 2010, and the Research Council’s newsletter that gave some
highlights from the conference wrote about the presentation and included the web
address to the questionnaire (Økland, 2010). Lilleborg’s client magazine “Plusstid” had
an article about the Textile Waste project in June 2010, and the questionnaire address
was mentioned in it (Løndal, 2010). 22nd September 2010 the project leader Ingun
Klepp was interviewed concerning laundry advice at the web magazines Klikk.no and
Dagbladet (Berg, 2010a, 2010b). These articles had a link to the questionnaire. By the
end of August 2010 only 20% of respondents were men. Therefore it was decided to do
one more recruitment round. 1000 postcards were sent to Norwegian households at the
end of September 2010 with a request to answer the questionnaire in the internet
(Appendix 3). Addresses were picked up from the phone catalogue in the same manner
as for the first questionnaires, but this time 80% of cards were sent to men. 6.2% of
cards came back due to wrong address. The answering rate to postcards was lower than
that of the questionnaires, only 6.2%. The questionnaire was available on the internet
address www.sizes.no8 from 16th July 2009 to 9th March 2011. For simplicity, when
referring to this survey it is called “survey 2010”. Three universal gift cards, each worth
NOK 500, were drawn among the participants in hope of attracting more respondents to
the survey.
I programmed the online version of the questionnaire with PHP language (The PHP
group) and MySQL (open source software by Oracle). The received data was analysed
with the help of SPSS software (IBM, USA). For ensuring complete responses, it was
not possible to return the questionnaire without having answered all obligatory
7
8
www.gulesider.no
The same website was used earlier in a project about clothing sizes, hence the name.
39
questions. The answers were controlled and double responses were removed in cases
where the same respondents sent the questionnaire more than once.
Table 3: Summary of the recruitment process and number of responses 9
Date
th
16 July 2009
November 2009
th
24 March 2010
th
6 June 2010
nd
22 September 2010
th
26 September 2010
th
9 March 2011
Method
Personal networks by e-mail
1200 questionnaires sent
Miljø2015 conference
PlussTid article
Article at klikk.no and Dagbladet
1000 postcards sent
Survey finished
Number of answers for
period
112
113
59
132
72
58
546
A total of 546 answers were received. A few of the questions were replaced in the web
questionnaire during the survey period. There were several reasons for this, mainly at
the phase when the questionnaire was decided to be used for a larger survey instead of
only screening the potential respondents of the qualitative study. First, some areas of
interest included in addition, but as the questionnaire got quite long, some of the old
questions were removed. The selected questions were either not that relevant, or were
not formulated in a best possible way. Therefore, the total number of respondents (N)
varies between some questions, but is always given when the results are presented.
Unfortunately, the way the respondents were acquired and which of them chose to
answer the survey also had consequences for the representativeness of the sample. The
sample has a preponderance of female respondents (77%), and the age distribution is not
representative for the Norwegian population (the youngest and oldest age groups are
underrepresented). The distribution of the sample is given in Table 4. The sample size
and constitution is therefore not representative for the population, but it still gives a
large number of respondents who can be used as examples of consumers in Norway,
and partly compared with another (although material on men and some age groups is
weaker). However, the preponderance of women in the sample also has some benefits,
because women often take responsibility over a larger portion of tasks related to the
family’s clothing consumption such as acquisition, laundering, and repair (Laitala et al.,
2009b). It is also argued that young women purchase more clothing than other
consumer groups, and therefore focusing on them may generate information on certain
volumes of clothing (Birtwistle and Moore, 2007; Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013;
McGrath, 2012). The cases are not weighted.
9
Some of the recruitment periods overlap and therefore some respondents may be registered under different method
than where they received the information from.
40
The material on laundering habits would have been stronger if it had included a diary
where the consumers could have registered details of their laundry. A trial was made to
collect this kind of data, but not enough of responses were received to use them in
publications.
3.3.2 Surveys 2 and 3: SIFO surveys 2011 and 2012
SIFO conducts yearly a country representative survey in Norway which is referred to as
the SIFO survey. The survey is comprehensive, and includes various themes related to
consumption. Some questions are repeated yearly, while some of the questions are
changed depending on the current research topics at SIFO. We got to include some
questions related to the Textile waste project in the surveys during 2011 and 2012. The
main focus areas of the Textile waste project questions were in 2011 mending, recycling
and laundering habits, while in 2012 the focus was on clothing durability and reuse of
clothing. These questionnaires are included as appendix 4 and 5 (in Norwegian). Table
4 gives the distribution of respondents’ background variables for the three surveys.
In order to get a representative sample of Norwegian population, a target sample of
1000 respondents is set. TNS Gallup uses a panel of pre-recruited random sample of
people over 15 years who are willing to participate surveys The panel is currently
approx. 50 000 people, and certified according to ISO 26362 (2009). The sample is prestratified by age, sex, and education level, but the respondents are randomly selected
within strata (TNS Gallup, 2012).
The surveys are conducted over the Internet. In 2012, 91% of the population above the
age of 15 have internet access. Internet access falls from the age of 60, but according to
TNS Gallup, is generally adequate for the survey target group and that the method can
increasingly be used to nationwide representative surveys. However, some questions
remain related to the representativeness of this way of acquiring respondents. It may be
biased based on who has internet access, and who chooses to participate in the panel, in
addition to which members of the panel decide to answer the specific survey.
In March 2011, the survey invitation was sent by e-mail to 2098 respondents, and the
survey was opened by 1285 respondents (61%). Among these, 63 did not return a
complete response, while 58 have accessed the form without filling it out, and 40 tried
to access the questionnaire after it was closed. In total, 1124 respondents answered the
survey (TNS Gallup, 2011). Similarly, in March-April 2012, the survey invitation was
sent by e-mail to 2140 respondents, and the survey was opened by 1124 respondents
(53%). Among these, 47 did not return a complete response, while 58 have accessed the
form without filling it out. In total, 1019 respondents answered the survey (TNS Gallup,
2012). These surveys were closed when the desired number of respondents was
41
achieved, and therefore the remaining potential respondents had no opportunity to
participate.
The final sample is weighted by TNS Gallup in two steps, corresponding to the
distribution of the population. The total weighting is based on a demographic weight,
which is adjusted for education. Education levels are divided into two categories
according to high (university or college) and low education (primary or secondary).
Demographic weight is calculated based on region (4 regions), gender (2 categories),
and age (5 categories) - according to population distribution, which gives a total of 40
cells. Respondents who lacked information of one or more weight properties were given
weight equal to 1.0. The received data was analysed with SPSS software (IBM, USA).
The results are mainly given as descriptive statistics.
Table 4: Survey respondents of the three surveys
Background variables
Sample 2010
N=546
[%]
Sample 2011
N=1124
[%]
Sample 2012
N=1019
[%]
Post and Internet
Internet
Internet
No
Yes
Yes
Male
23
50
51
Female
77
50
49
Below 24 years
9
10
11
25-39 years
48
29
27
40-59 years
33
38
38
Above 60 years
9
23
23
Method
Weighted
Sex
Age
3.3.3 Qualitative interviews
A strategic sample of 16 households was selected for a qualitative study to collect more
detailed information of household clothing material flow through in-depth interviews. In
addition to the interviews, these households collected all clothes taken out of use and
filled in a list of their clothing acquisitions during a period of six months. The
informants were interviewed a second time to find out the specific reasons for disposal
of each clothing item. This method is referred to as wardrobe study and presented in the
next section (3.3.4).
The intention was to interview individuals with different life situations, age, gender,
civil status, family size, and so on. This way of sampling is often referred to as strategic
sampling, but also judgement or purposeful sampling. The distribution of informants is
not representative of the population, but the informants are actively selected in such a
way that it maximizes the chance that many different and even conflicting sides of the
phenomenon in question are encountered (Eneroth, 1984; Marshall, 1996).
42
Three main groups of households were selected based on the life phase:
1) Young adults age between 18 and 35 who are either single or couples, but not
living with parents anymore and do not have own children.
2) Families with children below the age of 16. Children’s clothes are included but
they are not intended to be interviewed.
3) Adults above the age of 55, who are either retired or approaching retirement, and
have no small children living at home.
Respondents were selected from volunteers who had agreed to be contacted after the
quantitative survey. The aim was to receive both female and male informants.
Participants were recruited from three different areas of Norway to get diversity, but
still within practical travel distances from SIFO or NTNU. These were Oslo (where east
and west side have generally different demographics), neighbouring counties of Oslo
such as Akershus and Buskerud, and Trondheim and neighbouring cities.
Main informants’ background variables are given in table 5. Thirteen of the main
informants were women and three were men, but three partners were interviewed in
addition (two women and one man). Seven of the households belong to group 1 (young,
no children), seven to group 2 (families with children below the age of 16), and two to
the group 3 (above the age of 55). Therefore, recruitment goals were only partly
achieved. There were fewer male participants, as well as group three (adults above the
age of 50). Two men in this age group had originally agreed to participate, but dropped
out of the study just before the first interview. An 80-year old man could not participate
due to illness (he was hospitalised), while the second one (age 60) did not give a reason.
More detailed information of the participants is enclosed at Appendix 7, including their
pseudonyms.
When the informants’ answers on the interest towards environmental issues, fashion,
and clothing were compared to the rest of the Textile Waste survey respondents, it did
not show any significant differences between the two groups.
A semi-structured interview guide was used, where the topics were fixed, but the exact
wording of the questions was not. The interview guide is included as appendix 6. The
questions were formulated in a manner that made the informants describe and reflect on
their experiences in the form of a conversation. As interviews are data collection that
includes a social interaction, the role of interviewer is important and may affect the
research process.
43
Table 5: Main informants’ background variables
Property
Sex
Variables
Women
Men
Age
20-34
35-49
50+
Family
No children
Parents with small children
Parents (adult children)
Relationship status
Single/living alone
Living with partner
Area of living
West Oslo
East Oslo
Neighbour counties to Oslo
Trondheim area
Nationality
All Norwegian
Foreign household member(s)
Education
Vocational
Bachelor level
Graduate level
a
Working
Employment situation
b
Student
Retired
a
Three of them only work part time
b
All three students had also part time jobs
Main informants
13
3
8
6
2
7
7
2
6
10
5
3
5
3
12
4
1
6
9
12
3
1
An interview is not an everyday conversation between two equal partners, but an
asymmetrical dialogue between a researcher and an informant. The researcher has a
goal and is therefore steering the discussion topics and how the conversation proceeds
(Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). I tried to keep the interview situations comfortable and
used more supporting and confirming answers to what the informants told me, rather
than confronting or challenging them. However, I also tried to ask some “stupid” or
obvious questions that made the informants reflect over matters that they may not have
thought about before, or that they thought are too mundane or general to talk about. This
is also suggested by Hitchings (2012) as one of the techniques to overcome the problem
of getting the informants to talk about their mundane routines that are usually not
verbalized. In addition, consumption, waste and recycling are partly morally charged
issues, and therefore I tried to be neutral but some of the informants had expectations on
what they thought I would “want” them to say. Here is an example of interview with 42year-old Markus:
Int:
Is there any information that you think is missing from the label, or that
you would like to know more about when buying clothing?
Markus:
No... This seems a bit leading question since I know what you are
working with, so here you must surely add a methodological error when
you are interpreting the results.
44
However, he did not mention missing the environmental or ethical information that I
assumed he meant with his comment. Another example is an interview with 59-year-old
Pia, where she thought my role was to “improve” their behaviour or knowledge:
Int:
Pia:
And the next topic is environmental questions. First just in general, are
you interested in the topic?
Well, yes, I am, but I think that you have to teach a bit about it, well, we
are not good enough at it even if I say yes, I'm interested in the
environment.
The informants are likely to have some expectations for the role of the interviewer, even
though they don’t always say it as straight forward as these two informants did.
Heiskanen points out that “researchers should recognise their active, performative role
when interacting with consumers” (2005). Therefore, this has been taken in to account
in the interviews and when analysing and interpreting the data material. I have been
critical to the answers and observant for possible inconsistencies. In order to reduce
prestige response bias, I told at the beginning of each interview that I would like to get
knowledge of informants’ regular everyday habits, and that they should try not to be
affected by the clothing registration period but live as normally as possible. In addition,
weight was given to the anonymity of responses, in order to encourage the informants to
tell about their practices, even though they might not be that environmentally or socially
sustainable.
The interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, coded and analysed with ATLAS.ti
software (Atlas.ti GmbH, Germany). I did all of the interviews, coding and analysing by
myself, but got help in preparing the interview guide, as well as transcription of
majority of the interviews. Permission from the Norwegian Social science data services
(NSD) was applied and received (their ref. nr. 22287). Information of the project was
given first in the recruitment letter and more detailed during the first interview when the
informants signed the declaration of consent. They were informed that the results are
treated confidentially, and that they had a right to withdraw from the study at any point
without explaining the reasons, if they wished to (this right was used by one of the
informants, see section 3.3.4). After the project period was finished, the list of names
and addresses was deleted. The interviews were also originally transcribed with
pseudonyms given to the informants.
45
3.3.4 Wardrobe study (interview, registration and laboratory test)
The same informants who participated in the qualitative interviews also took part in the
wardrobe study. A wardrobe study consists of an inventory of all or some selection of
clothes of a person or a household. This inventory involves cataloguing the garments
combined with a tape or video recording of what the owner, user or caretaker has to say
about the individual garment and its history of use. The additional material frames such
as the clothes, the wardrobes and laundry baskets are studied (Woodward, 2007). The
goal is to look at the relationship between the individual item of clothing and the larger
material totalities. This method has been described and discussed in more detail by
Klepp and Bjerck (2012), as well as in researcher network concerning wardrobe
ethnographies (Skov, 2011).
The 16 households that were included in the wardrobe study consisted of 35 persons (8
children, 2 teenagers, 16 adult women, and 9 adult men). During the approximately six
months long project period, 620 garments were taken out of use and registered10.
Participants stopped using on average 18 garments per person, but the figures varied
from 0 to 71 items per person.
One of the informants in group one (Diana, 27) participated only in the first interview
round, as she dropped out afterwards due to a hectic life situation. She gave a lot of
clothing during the first interview, as she had been collecting clothing since she had
been informed about the study, which was some time before the first interview.
However, her results are excluded when estimates of disposed clothing amount within
specified time periods are made.
The living situation of one of the informants (Greta, 24) changed suddenly during the
study, as she separated from her boyfriend and moved out very fast. Then, she did not
think of the study and disposed of a large amount of clothing that was not registered.
The disposal process and the number of bags that were going either to reuse or to waste
was discussed during the second interview.
In the
items:
-
10
interview, the following details were asked for each of the disposed clothing
Type of garment and which household member used it
Reasons for why is it going out of use
How old is it and when it was used last time
When and how much has it been used
Original figures indicated that there was 619 garments, which is a number given in one of the articles (P10 Use
matters), but one additional unregistered item was found at the bottom of one of the plastic bags. The owner of this
item is known based on its location in the specific bag, but not the reasons for its disposal.
46
-
Where would it have been disposed to (if it had not been collected to the project)
Other aspects that may be relevant, such as the acquisition method was often
given, especially if the garment was inherited.
Most of the garments were given to the study, but some were kept by the informant, as
they had intended use area for them that they wished to keep, such as giving the
garment to a family member, or that they had already disposed of some items, such as
underwear, stockings and socks, which they thought would not be interesting for the
study.
The collected clothing items were registered and studied further in the textile laboratory
of SIFO. Each collected item was registered by two persons, me and a student trainee
Madeline Buck. The second registration round was done in order to control and correct
potential errors or differences in judgement based evaluations. Following details were
recorded when they were available:
x Garment type, e.g. t-shirt, trousers,
x Age estimation made by 2-3
socks or skirt
persons independent of each other
x Weight in grams
x Fashionability, as in could it be
used today without drawing
x Brand
attention?
x Colour
x Changes and physical wearability
x Whether it has a print or some
x Wear
other special design (not plain)
x Holes in the fabric
x Size
x Broken seams
x Fibre content
x Colour changes
x Construction (knitted, woven, nonwoven or a combination)
x Stains
x Care label information (washing
x Shrinkage
temperature, method, bleach, iron,
x Pilling or fuzzing
dry clean, drying method, whether
x Repairs or alterations
it should be washed separately or
x Whether the product has had a
with like colours)
failure in production or during use
x Eco label
x Comments for appearance
x Made in (country of origin)
x Which laboratory tests could or
x Comments for labelling
should be performed
These registrations were done several months after the interviews, but before the
interview data on clothing disposal reasons and age were analysed and connected to the
registration data in order to avoid the bias on what people tell about the clothing, for
example the age or why they stopped using the clothing.
47
Appendix 8 gives a list of the collected garment types and some examples of
distribution of properties that were registered, such as the fibre content, colour, age of
the owner, and whether the garments have holes, broken seams or stains.
When pilling or fuzzing was given as a disposal reason, the degree of pilling was
evaluated by four assessors according to grading given in standard EN ISO 12945-2
(2000). It would have been possible to do additional laboratory tests on garments, but
the time allocated for the project was limited, and it would have been more fruitful to
test clothing when the original properties would have been known, such as the original
strength of a garment that has got a hole in it. For test of pilling it was assumed that the
garments did not have pills originally and that they were cause by use.
In addition to the study of disposed clothing, the wardrobe study included a part where
storing of clothing in the house was gone through. This included visits in the bedrooms,
bathrooms and even attics, as clothing could be found in many rooms. Special focus
was on placement of “half used” clothing. This was not done with all of the informants,
as some of them limited the access to some specific areas of the house, such as
bedrooms.
This way of acquiring information of clothing to be disposed of gives rich empirical
data. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009:28) point out that it is an important aspect of
qualitative interviews to get specific descriptions by the informant instead of only
general opinions the informant has about a theme, and keeping the focus on the clothing
items is one way to do this. However, it cannot be assumed to be completely
representative for all clothing that is disposed of in Norway. Firstly, the informants are
not representative for the whole population, and their clothing habits may differ from
the average of Norwegian consumers. Secondly, because the topic of disposal is a
morally loaded issue, the informants might have been more prone to give more
“correct” answers, such as giving less importance to fashion as a disposal reason, or
saying they would deliver more clothing to reuse than what they would have done if
they had kept the clothing instead of it being collected to the study. The role of fashion
is discussed further in the Lifespans article.
3.3.5 Washing trials in laboratory
New information of the environmental effects during the use period was collected
through tests at the washing laboratory. The properties measured included energy and
water consumption, cleaning effect, changes in textiles and residual moisture at
different washing temperatures, machine settings and drying methods.
48
Laboratory tests were designed in order to measure the environmental consequences of
changing various textile maintenance methods. For clothes cleaning purposes, the four
fundamental factors are solvent (water and detergent combination), mechanical action,
temperature and duration of washing, often referred to as Sinner’s circle (Sinner, 1960).
Six different washing variables were selected based on the literature cited in section
2.4.1 and tested after different washing and drying cycles to consider the impact on both
the textiles and the overall sustainability of the laundry process.
Table 6 gives an overview of the washing variables and the parameters that were
measured. All the tests were performed in five equal Miele W307 washing machines
that are labelled with the European Union energy efficiency class A for washing
performance and B for spin-drying performance. The machines’ capacity was 5 kg and
maximum spin speed 1400 rpm. The results could be different if a variety of washing
machines had been used, but using similar machines that are controlled regularly gives
better repeatability and enables comparison between the selected test variables.
Table 6: Washing test variables
Variables
Washing temperature
Machine filling grade
Detergent dosage
Type of detergent
Spin speed
Drying method
Parameters
Cleaning effect
Textile changes
Energy consumption
Cleaning effect
Energy consumption
Water consumption
Cleaning effect
Energy consumption
Water consumption
Cleaning effect
Residual moisture
Textile changes (wool)
Energy consumption
Textile changes
Tested variable values
30 °C and 40 °C. 8 detergents.
30 °C, 40 °C and 60 °C
Cold - 95 °C
0.5 kg, 2.5 kg, and 5.0 kg
Mixed washing load
0.5 kg, 2.5 kg 3.5 kg and 5.0 kg
0.5 kg, 2.5 kg 3.5 kg and 5.0 kg
Full or reduced (2/3 dosage)
Full or reduced (2/3 dosage)
Full or reduced (2/3 dosage)
Alternative detergent, regular detergent
or water only
400, 900 and 1400 rpm
400, 900 and 1400 rpm
Tumble drying
Tumble drying and hang drying
Cleaning effect
The cleaning effect is tested by measuring the reflection values of pre-soiled textile
swatches after wash based on the standard EN 60456 (2005). The cleaner and lighter the
swatches get, the higher the reflection thus indicating better cleaning effect. The
reflection was measured with a Minolta CM-3610d spectrophotometer as tristimulus
value Y (CIE 15.2, 1986).
49
When the cleaning effect of washing textiles at 30 qC or 40 ºC degrees was compared, a
normal cotton washing program without pre-wash was used. Each of the eight
commercially available detergents was tested 5 times for each of the temperatures.
Ballast of 3.5 kg consisting of cotton bed sheets, pillowcases and towels was used, as
given in standard EN 60456:2005. The details of testing the effect of washing
temperature can be found in two test reports (Jensen et al., 2008a; Jensen et al., 2008b)
and in an article by Laitala and Jensen (2010).
For testing how the machine filling grade and the detergent dosage effect cleanliness,
three different loads were used (0.5 kg, 2.5 kg, and 5.0 kg), in combination with two
different detergent dosages (full dose and 2/3 dose). These were tested with the cotton
program at 40 qC. Detailed test procedure can be found in the test report 57-2009
(Laitala and Eilertsen, 2009b).
Another test was performed to see whether woollen materials can be washed with other
fibre types without affecting the cleaning result. This test was selected because
consumers often have only a few woollen garments to be washed at once, and it may be
beneficial to be able to fill the machine with garments made of other materials. The
cleaning effect of wool wash program and delicate program was compared with varying
parameters connected to them: the cleaning effect of both wool and polyester materials
when varying the washing program, type of detergent, and fibre content of the wash
load materials. Detailed description is given in the test report 48-2009 (Laitala et al.,
2009a).
The cleaning effect of different alternative detergents or laundry products was also
tested with the cotton program at 40 qC. The products that were selected for the test
were available on the Norwegian market, and included soap nuts, laundry balls, washing
pellets and laundry magnets, that were compared with washing with conventional
compact powder detergent for coloured textiles, and washing with water only (Jensen
and Srikanthan, 2008).
Textile changes
The changes in textiles after washing and drying were measured with various
standardised methods. The change in strength was tested by drawing 50 mm wide strips
of textile and measuring the tensile strength (ISO 13934-1, 1999). The dimensions of
samples were measured before and after the washing treatments to document the
dimensional changes and shrinkage percentage (ISO 5077, 2007). In addition, changes
in appearance including pilling and colour changes were evaluated (ISO 105-A02,
1993).
50
A selection of textiles were washed repeatedly under different temperature and drying
conditions. The changes in textiles were measured after 1, 25 and 50 washes. Selected
laundering temperatures were 30 °C, 40 °C and 60 °C. Half of the samples washed at
40 °C were line-dried (indoors) and other half tumble-dried. Details of this test are
given in test report 35-2010 (Laitala et al., 2010). Additional dimensional change tests
were done on wool specimens that were spin dried at different speeds, see test report 472009 (Laitala and Eilertsen, 2009a).
Energy and water consumption
The energy and water consumption of washing machines were measured several times
under the washing trials with varying temperatures, filling loads and detergent dosages.
The used test temperatures were 30 °C, 40 °C and 60 °C (Laitala et al., 2010), and the
different filling loads 5.0 kg, 2.5 kg, and 0.5 kg, and detergent dosages were full or 2/3
of the recommended (Laitala and Eilertsen, 2009b).
Residual moisture
The spinning performance of the washing machine effects on how much residual
moisture is left on the textiles after they are washed, thus affecting on the length of the
following drying period. Residual moisture is measured by calculating the difference in
percentage of the laundry load weight before and after washing. In this test, three
different spinning speeds and two test materials were used, underwear of merino wool
in super wash quality, and standardised wool shrinkage test fabrics without super wash
treatment. The details are given in the test report 47-2009 (Laitala and Eilertsen, 2009a).
3.3.6 Odour test method
Odour tests were part of the “Valuing Norwegian wool” project. The aim of the test was
to investigate whether different textile materials take up more odours than others,
whether it is easier to remove odour from certain textile materials by airing and
washing, and finally, whether the use of fabric softeners affect these properties.
I only had a minor part in planning and execution of these tests, but have participated in
analysing and publishing the results. Only the main details of the test method are given
here, but the full details of the sensory test can be found in the test report by Kjeldsberg
et al. (2012).
Thirteen different fabric samples of four material categories (wool, cotton, odourcontrol, synthetic) were included in the test. In order to keep the test size manageable,
four of the samples were selected for additional testing with fabric softener which is
included in this thesis (table 7). All of them could be used in sports clothing. Odourcontrol materials did not often specify what kind of treatment they had, but most likely
they included either sources of silver ions or triclosan (Damm, 2011).
51
Table 7: Overview of textile samples that included in the test with fabric softener
Sample
Product Producer
Wool
Shirt
Janus
Cotton
T-shirt
Skillmill
Polyester
Fabric
-
Anti-odour T-shirt
Casall
Fibre
content
100 %
merino wool
100 %
cotton
100 %
polyester
Structure Additional information
Knitted
Oeko-Tex 100 label
Knitted
-
Knitted
-
85 %
polyester,
Knitted
15 % cotton
“Dri-release® microblend
performance fabric contains Fresh
Guard® eliminates odor in
garments by blocking odor causing
sebaceous body oils from
attaching to the fabric.”
Textile samples were pre-washed five times before testing and sewn to gym mat covers
that were used by 30 circuit training participants who sweated on the samples. All of the
samples went through several use, washing, and airing rounds. When the samples were
washed, the washing instructions were followed and commercially available fragrancefree detergents were used (wool detergent for woollen samples). In washing of some
samples, a fragrance-free fabric softener was used to see whether these results would
differ from the samples that were washed with detergent only. The fragrance-free
detergents and softeners were chosen as fragrances can have a very strong odour that
might "hang" in the specimens and air, making repeated observations methodologically
difficult. When the samples were aired, they were laid on a perforated steel table for a
set amount of time which varied depending on the stage in the experiment.
Odour intensity was evaluated at eleven stages during testing. The stages are given in
Table 8. An assessment panel consisting of 12 consumers with equal gender distribution
between the ages of 23 and 55 was recruited from SIFO employees. Assessors did not
know what happened to the samples between each stage, nor which sample they were
smelling. None of the participants were trained sensory analysts, and therefore they
received a brief introduction on what can affect the human senses and odour evaluation.
The panel members were strongly advised against the use of perfumes, soaps or lotions
with strong odours and told to avoid smoking and eating right before the tests. Efforts
were made to reduce strong or interfering odours in the test area, and conditions were
kept stable at a humidity of 55 ± 5% RH and a temperature of 23 ± 2°C.
52
Table 8: The stages of odour test
Evaluation
point
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Sample treatment
st
Sweated 1 time, moist specimens evaluated
Aired 16 hours
nd
Sweated on 2 time, aired 62 hours
st
rd
Washed 1 time, sweated on 3 time, aired 12 hours
Aired 28 hours
nd
Washed 2 time
th
Sweated on 4 time, aired 62 hours
th
Sweated on 5 time, aired 12 hours
rd
Washed 3 time
Washed 4rd time
Aired 17 hours
Not all panellists had the opportunity to evaluate at every stage, and therefore the
number of assessors between the different stages varies from six to eleven, with an
average of nine. The fabric samples were placed in an opaque container so that
assessors would not know which sample they evaluated. The samples were evaluated
for odour intensity on a scale from one to five where one equalled to “No odour” and
five to “Very strong odour”. The evaluators also indicated whether they would choose
to launder the sample in question, and were given the opportunity to describe the odour
in their own words. Each sample was evaluated twice per assessment day by each
participant in order to ensure reliability and internal consistency. These tests showed
that there was no significant difference between the two evaluations, when the mean
was compared (one-way ANOVA). The selection of an untrained consumer panel was
relevant for the research question, because we wanted to know how consumers relate to
odours in fabrics and if they would have used the same piece of clothing again or put it
in the wash.
The data were processed statistically using SPSS (IBM, USA) and Excel (Microsoft,
USA) software.
3.4 Theoretical positioning
As Bernsen (1983) stated it, the problem comes first in design. In this case the problem
is the environmental impact caused by clothing consumption. Design is the process by
which we "devise courses of action aimed at changing the existing situations into
preferred ones" (Simon, 1988). Therefore, as Friedman (2003) puts it, “design is by
nature interdisciplinary, integrative discipline”. This applies especially well to this
interdisciplinary project, where the included disciplines have their own theoretical
frameworks that form the basis for method selection. The behavioural aspects are
mainly studied through social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, and
behavioural psychology. As the study focus is on mundane, ordinary activities of
53
consumers, especially practice theory approach is relevant (e.g. Røpke, 2009; Schatzki,
2001; Shove and Pantzar, 2005; Warde, 2005). The material aspects are a part of
practices, in addition to other aspects such as the bodily and mental activities (see
section 1 for definition of practices). Therefore this theory is especially suited to be used
with methods that emphasize the meaning of the materiality. These activities are often
embedded in taken for granted routines. Connection to the physical objects may aid in
remembering and articulating the detailed use routines related to them and therefore the
use of wardrobe studies is beneficial. Also placing most of the interviews in the homes
of the informants gives an additional material aspect. Miller points out, that the home is
an important research location, because the key practices are situated there and that is
where the meaning is created (Miller, 2001b). Practices are collective, while behaviour
is individual. When gathering empirical data, the focus is on the consumer behaviour as
they are taking part to these practices.
Using wardrobe studies with interviews related to specific clothing items already gives
information of material aspects, but these are explored further by using textile
engineering based methods. These are mainly laboratory tests, where international
standardized well established test methods are used to acquire measurable results on
products’ properties. These give additional information of the utilitarian properties of
clothing and laundering. Results from these two main study directions are then again
used to give suggestions on how to improve design in different levels.
The clothing research has concentrated a long time on the communicative side of
clothing and fashion use (Carter, 2012), which is of course an important part of it.
However, my aim is to bring the material and mundane aspects related to this
consumption back to the clothing research, in combination with the social and
behavioural aspects. In order to do this, using methods that are not only based on the
language are important. Rather than discussing theoretical questions, the aim of this
thesis is to show how this method triangulation can be conducted in practice, and to use
these methods in order to gain empirical material, which in itself has a value. This
includes both the way problems are formulated, and the methods that are used to answer
them.
54
4. Summaries of the papers
A brief summary is given here for the eleven papers that are integral part of this thesis.
The summaries include the research questions and aim of the paper, as well as design,
major findings and conclusions. The complete papers are included at Appendix 2.
Further discussion on the results presented on the papers is given in section 5.
Figure 8 lists the different clothing life stages relevant for this thesis, and shows which
of the included papers are used for elucidating each of the stages. Even though placed in
one category, most of the papers overlap some between the different stages.
Figure 8: Illustration of which clothing life phases the different papers mainly cover
55
4.1
Labels
Kirsi Laitala and Ingun Grimstad Klepp (2013) Environmental and ethical perceptions
related to clothing labels among Norwegian consumers. Research Journal of Textile and
Apparel, 17(1), 50-58.
Very little eco-labelled garments are available on the Norwegian market. Therefore,
consumers who want to make environmentally sound choices when acquiring clothing
have to act based on other premises or information. This article discusses what kind of
information of sustainability is available for consumers during clothing acquisition, and
further, what kind of environmental and ethical perceptions consumers have related to
the information that is usually available on the garments, i.e. the fibre content,
maintenance, size and country of origin labels. The analysis is based on in-depth
interviews of 16 household representatives conducted in the Textile waste project (the
method given in section 3.3.3).
The results show that consumers connect several different types of labels on textiles
with environmental impact, both directly and indirectly. The informants assumed that
natural fibres are environmentally preferable to man-made materials at all times. This
lack of knowledge has also been reported earlier by Hiller Connell (2011). Some
respondents also assumed that the fibre content would indicate the complete chemical
content of the garment. This is not true as it only indicates the basic fibre material but
not any of the other additives such as dyes, finishes or coating. This means that labels in
one area are interpreted to mean something that they are not intended for. Another
example of this was that the country of origin label was used for evaluating the
production conditions or the quality of the garments.
Not all respondents read the fibre content and care labels, and many of them trusted
their own earlier experiences based on similar garments for how to maintain the
clothing instead. Opposite to fibre labelling, the care label was not related directly to the
environmental questions, even though laundering choices affect the magnitude of
environmental impacts through consumption of energy, water and laundry chemicals, in
addition the lifespan of the clothing through possibility of getting it clean, but also wear
and tear.
Size and fit issues are among the most important clothing disposal reasons (Laitala and
Boks, 2012). Size labelling could be improved through standardization of measures, as
well as increasing the information of fit. This could contribute to fewer mistake
purchases and clothes that do not get used, and thereby reduce the total environmental
impact.
56
Two essential themes for reducing the environmental impact of textile consumption are
lower energy consumption during use and longer lifespan of clothing. There is no
labelling that directly addresses these questions, although the care label provides some
relevant information. However, the important issue of how easily the garment gets dirty
and thus required washing frequency is not included. Technical durability is another
essential matter that is not labelled. There exists a quality label of upholstery fabrics in
Norway (Mobelfakta.no, 2013), but no similar label for clothing. Some consumers are
using other types of labelling as indications of quality such as fibre labelling and
country of origin, even though these provide no direct information about this issue. This
was also seen in a study by Cooper et al. (2010), where British consumers assessed the
clothing quality based on price and brand, and assumed it to reflect durability.
An essential work ahead will be to see how the clothes can be labelled to improve
consumers’ ability to make informed choices and how to inform consumers so that they
will be able to convert their environmentally friendly attitudes into actions.
4.2
Reuse
Kirsi Laitala and Ingun Grimstad Klepp (Submitted) Consumers’ Clothing Reuse:
Potential in Informal Exchange. Journal of Consumer Policy
Great environmental gains could to be achieved through reducing the amounts of
clothing in circulation, and increasing the lifespans of the existing clothing. One of the
possibilities consumers have for more sustainable clothing acquisition is to select preowned products. This article explores consumers’ practices and motivations within
clothing reuse. The aim is to study how many Norwegian consumers participate in
clothing reuse, what are their motivations and what is the magnitude of informal
clothing exchange compared to the formalised commercial second-hand markets. The
overall aim is to study how clothing reuse within the Western countries could be
increased. The scope includes informal clothing exchange, such as inheritance,
swapping and hand me downs, in addition to the formalised economic second-hand
markets. A representative sample of 1019 Norwegian consumers answered to the
questionnaire over the internet (see section 3.3.2).
A literature review shows how different researches have studied the motives consumers
have for acquiring second-hand clothing, and what the barriers for doing it are. I have
grouped these motive categories into a taxonomy that also gives additional examples of
the positive and negative associations consumers have within each category (Figure 9).
57
Figure 9: A taxonomy of second-hand clothing acquisition motive categories
The taxonomy shows that the same or at least similar properties can be used as
arguments both for and against acquirement of second-hand clothing. It also shows that
many different arguments are used, that belong to different forms of rational thinking
systems. These theories are also familiar from other studies on consumption. Political
consumerism can be seen especially important in categories related to the environment,
ethics and non-wastefulness, but also within the social aspects and reputation. The
traditional idea of the rational and self-interested economic man (Persky, 1995) is
connected to the economic reasons and quality, as acquiring pre-owned clothing might
58
provide clothing at minimum cost, and for example receiving clothing from a family
member does not require much effort. However, this motivation may even be closer to
Miller’s idea of thrift driven consumption, where the consumers’ motivation is based on
moral economy of the home. The aim is to take care of the family with the moral
obligation to manage the household’s resources with care and not to waste, (Miller,
1998). This is a lot less egoistic view than the idea of the economic man. Further, the
motivational categories that are not related to the economic capital such as uniqueness
and style, as well as fashion and trendiness can be seen as manifestations of achieved
cultural capital, while social aspects and reputation are more related to the collection of
social capital (Bourdieu, 1986).
The survey results showed that the scope of the private clothing exchange is greater than
the commercial sales of used clothing in Norway. Every third respondent (30%) had
received used clothing during the course of the past two years, i.e. almost twice as many
as those who had bought used clothing (17%). A minority (7%) had both received and
bought used clothing, while the majority (59%) of the respondents had neither received
nor bough used clothing. Women and younger respondents were more active in the
reuse of clothing. Within informal channels family is a more frequent source of used
clothing than friends. The most important perceived benefits for second-hand clothing
were general non-wastefulness and environmental benefits, followed by economic
reasons, and finally uniqueness, style and fashion-related reasons. The barriers were
general preference of new clothing, followed by unfavourable shopping experience and
contextual aspects, hygiene, and, finally, perceived high price of used clothing
compared to relatively low price of new clothing.
The article concludes that changes can be made in three main areas to increase the reuse
of clothing within Western societies; properties of the infrastructure and the markets
(e.g. availability, diversity of channels, store layout and organization, information flow,
price and quality classes), properties of the clothing (e.g. size labeling, technical quality,
and cleanliness), and consumers’ knowledge and attitudes (e.g. the importance of
environmental advantages, and that used clothing can be cleaner than new as the
harmful chemicals are washed out to a larger degree). The first point mainly concerns
formal exchange, while the two last ones apply also to private exchange. Further
investigations should concentrate more on private exchange, because the scope seems to
be larger while less is known about it compared to the formal markets. The article also
shows that by limiting our understanding of consumers to only customers we miss
important insights about consumption. When the goal is a more sustainable clothing
consumption we need to include the parts of consumption that are not only related to
buying and selling
59
4.3
Laundering
Kirsi Laitala, Casper Boks and Ingun Grimstad Klepp (2011) Potential for
environmental improvements in laundering. International Journal of Consumer Studies,
35(2), 254-264.
This article discusses the options that consumers have to change their practices in
clothing maintenance in a more environmentally friendly direction, and attempts to
evaluate which changes would be the most feasible and efficient, so that changes would
contribute to longer lifespans of textiles as well as sufficient cleaning result and
environmental savings.
Laboratory based tests measuring cleaning effect, changes on textiles, and energy and
water consumption were performed in order to evaluate the consequences of changing
the washing temperature, filling grade, detergent dosage or drying method (see section
3.3.5). These laboratory trial results were then compared with earlier research on
consumers’ washing habits. In addition to documenting the results on laundering, the
aim was also to find good arguments for changing consumers’ practices. The following
more detailed research questions were stated:
• Washing temperature: Do textiles become clean at lower temperatures? How
much energy could be saved? Do textiles get more wear and tear at higher
washing temperatures?
• Machine filling grade and fibre types: What are consequences of using different
filling grades on energy and water consumption, and level of cleanliness? What
are effects of washing other garments with woollen ones?
• Detergent dosage: When can detergent dosage be reduced?
• Spin drying speed: Can woollen garments be spin-dried more effectively
without increasing shrinkage?
• Drying method: What are the differences between tumble-drying and line
drying in terms of wear and tear?
The cleaning effect tests show that today’s detergents are suitable for low temperature
washing, and by selecting an efficient detergent, the cleaning result can be better at
30 °C than with a less efficient detergent at 40 °C. Many of the tested textiles changed
more in colour or strength if they were washed at higher temperature (60 °C) than at
lower temperature (40 °C or below).
It is more resource demanding to wash with an unfilled machine, even though washing
machines with fuzzy logic control11 are used. When the machine was only half filled, it
11
Machines with fuzzy logic control reduce automatically the amount of water and hence energy consumption when
the machine is less than completely filled.
60
still used 94 % of the energy and 74 % of the water compared to a full machine.
Washing a 500-gram garment needs almost 7 times more energy and 5 times more
water if it is washed separately in comparison to washing in a full machine.
Wool and polyester become equally clean independent of whether the wash load
consists of mixture of synthetic materials with the wool or only one type of fibres.
However, if synthetic materials are washed with wool program and detergent, they do
not get quite as clean as they would get with washing on the delicate wash program and
regular detergent.
Detergent dosage can be reduced when the laundry is not very heavily soiled or when
the machine is less than completely filled, for example when other than cotton programs
are used. The cleaning effect depends on the filling grade, washing program, duration,
temperature, water hardness, type of detergent, as well as level of soiling on textiles.
The detergent packages could be more informative about appropriate dosages to enable
consumers to make the correct choices.
None of the woollen test materials shrank more when the spin-drying speed was
increased to 1400 rpm. The effect on residual moisture was significant, as specimens
spin-dried at 400 rpm had much higher moisture content than the specimens spin-dried
at 1400 rpm (47% as opposed to 24%). This indicates that the drying time of garments
can be significantly reduced by increasing the spin speed, and that wool can be spindried at high speed without causing additional shrinkage. The study indicated that
tumble-drying only had a minor effect on wear and tear, but did cause additional
shrinkage when compared to line-drying.
The environmental impacts of clothing maintenance can be changed though
technologies, behaviour, or combination of both. Information provided in this article of
the effect of the relevant variables to cleanliness, wear and tear, and the consumer’s
time and resource use can be used to motivate consumers to change behaviour in order
to reduce the environmental impacts of textile maintenance. Due to the consumers’
laundering practices, the full possibilities of technological developments have not been
achieved. In addition, there is still need for further technological improvements.
61
4.4
Alternative detergents
Kirsi Laitala and Marit Kjeldsberg (2012) Cleaning effect of alternative laundry
products: A comparison of soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets, laundry magnets,
water and regular detergent. Household and Personal Care today 7 (4):53-56.
Alternatives to the conventional laundry detergents have merged into the market, such
as soap nuts, laundry balls and laundry magnets. The producers of these products make
bold marketing claims but only a few studies have investigated the efficiency of these
alternative laundry products. Therefore, this article discusses whether alternative
laundry products could be used to replace regular detergents and reduce the
environmental impacts of laundering. In our test we have compared the cleaning effect
of soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets and laundry magnets with washing with
conventional compact powder detergent for coloured textiles, and washing with water
only. The cleaning effect was evaluated by measuring the tristimulus Y reflection values
of pre-soiled fabric strips after they were washed according to standard EN 60456 at
40qC (see section 3.3.5).
Our results showed that the cleaning effect of the four alternative laundry products was
equal to that of water alone. Conventional compact detergent showed significantly
better cleaning effect at all tested soil types. The study also shows the importance of
establishing a reference point by comparing the cleaning effect of detergents to that of
water alone, as it has a substantial cleaning effect in itself. This also means that
consumers who launder only slightly stained textiles could be satisfied with the washing
result either without detergent, with an alternative laundry product, or with a reduced
amount of regular detergents.
In addition to the technical aspects of laundry, social aspects and consumer behaviour
have great potential to influence the environmental impacts. Although the results
showed that these products are not necessary supplements in the market, it is possible
that replacing a regular detergent with an alternative laundry product might be positive,
as long as no other contradictory changes in laundry process are made and the
consumers receive satisfactory clean laundering results of their only slightly soiled
laundry. However, many of these laundry products suggest making changes in the
laundering process that can increase water and/or energy consumption, such as only
filling the machine ¾ of full capacity or using hot water. In that case, it is more likely
that using regular detergent but at low temperature and at full capacity of the machine is
the environmentally preferable alternative. Not getting the laundry satisfactory clean
can lead to shortened textile lifecycles and thereby increased consumption and waste.
Other alternatives to improve laundering system without replacing detergents are
discussed in Laundering and Laundry habits articles.
62
4.5
Fabric softeners
Kirsi Laitala, Marit Kjeldsberg and Ingun Grimstad Klepp (2012) Troubles with the
solution: Fabric softeners and odour properties. Tenside Surfactants Detergents 49(5),
362-368
Fabric softeners are mainly used to reduce roughness and static electricity of textiles, as
well as adding a scent to them. As odour is one of the important reasons for laundering
clothing, this article discusses how fabric softeners are related to odour properties on
clothing. Could use of laundry softeners be beneficial from an environmental point of
view, as they might reduce the need for laundering based on odour, as well as reduce the
need for softening textiles in tumble drier?
We combine a Norwegian consumer survey with a sensory test on odour development
on four different materials used in sports clothing (see sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.6). The
samples went through several cycles of use with sweating, washing, and airing and the
odour was evaluated at 11 stages. Washing was performed either with or without a
fragrance-free rinse cycle softener.
The survey results showed that the use of fabric softeners seems to be increasing in
Norway and is more common than in Germany today. In both countries, the younger
age groups are more frequent softener users (Braun and Stamminger, 2011). In addition,
the results indicate that the respondents, who used fabric softeners often, also used
tumble dryer more often than the respondents who used fabric softeners less frequently
or not at all. Moreover, a larger number of the respondents who used softeners
experienced problematic odours in laundry compared to those who did not use
softeners.
The sensory test showed that softeners can have a negative contribution to odour in
textiles, at least on synthetic materials used in the test. This indicates that the use of
fabric softeners could lead to more frequent washing, especially of polyester used in
sports clothing. Damm (2011) has shown that unpleasant odour is the most common
reason for washing sports clothing. If people experience unpleasant odour in sports
clothes after washing, they may simply add fabric softener because they feel that it can
help in adding a fresh scent. However, if the perfume does not conceal the sweat odour,
the effect of this may be an even more intensive malodour. Thus, these users may
reinforce the problem they wanted to solve.
Puchta et al. (1993) have shown that softeners are not superfluous products due to some
beneficial properties they give to the textiles. However, the magnitude of these benefits
has to be compared to the drawbacks. From the environmental point of view, the use of
softeners cannot be recommended. In addition to the direct environmental impacts from
63
production, transport and use, the literature review shows that they can have negative
contributions to strength properties of the fabrics (Chiweshe and Crews, 2000; Reddy et
al., 2008), thus potentially decreasing the useful life time. When this is added with the
problems with odour in the laundry and in getting the textiles clean, the useful lifetime
of textiles can potentially decrease even more. They may also increase the washing
frequency instead of reducing it.
We do not know whether scented fabric softener would have had similar results as the
fragrance-free fabric softener that was used in the sensory test, since we have only
studied the effect, not the possible reasons. However, it is likely that this effect is
associated with the non-perfume related substances in the fabric softeners. This suggests
that the strength of the perfume will determine whether it will camouflage the sweat
odour. Our survey results indicate that it does not. If the perfume had been sufficient to
mask the increased problematic odour after washing, there would not have been a larger
number of respondents who use softeners experiencing problematic odours in laundry
compared to those who do not use softeners. Unfortunately we do not have data that
distinguishes between the users of different types of fabric softeners. For further study it
will be interesting to learn more on how the problems associated with odour in laundry
are related to laundering with various scented and unscented fabric softeners on various
textile materials, and if the effects build-up with continued use.
4.6
Laundry habits
Kirsi Laitala, Ingun G. Klepp and Casper Boks (2012) Changing laundry habits in
Norway. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 36(2), 228-237.
This article studies the behavioural side of laundering and can be seen as continuation to
the Laundering article, where the technical side of laundering was discussed. This paper
discusses the change in laundering practices during the past 10 years in Norway, and
suggests strategies to help consumers change their laundry habits to more sustainable
ones.
Quantitative information of consumers’ experiences, habits and opinions concerning
clothing maintenance was collected through three surveys in Norway in 2002, 2010 and
2011. The 2010 study was supplemented with qualitative in-depth interviews of a
strategic sample of households (see sections 3.3.1 - 3.3.3).
The average washing temperature seems to have decreased slightly during the studied
time periods. Some products’ washing frequencies remained the same, whereas other
products such as jeans were used a few more days before washing. The cotton program
is the most used washing program, but short programs are gaining popularity. The
64
laundry sorting processes vary greatly and are influenced by several factors such as
washing temperature, colours, fibre type, and use area. For some consumers, the use of
several different sorting categories made it more difficult to collect a sufficient amount
of clothing to fill the machine. They were also afraid that overfilling the machine would
result in clothes that were not clean enough or had detergent residues.
Detergent dosing practices are far from optimal. Some consumers tried to vary detergent
dosage based on the amount of laundry and level of soiling, but the majority of
respondents only used the eye measure and did not know the water hardness in their
area of living.
Different design for sustainable behaviour strategies could be used in order to enable,
inform and give feedback to consumers, including detergent dosage systems that ensure
optimal dosing, improved care labelling, machine program selection (such as suggesting
lower temperature and eco-program), machine filling grade indicators, storage systems
for slightly used clothing, and textile material choices that are easier to keep clean.
4.7
Disposal review
Kirsi Laitala (In press) Clothing disposal - a review of empirical research. International
journal of consumer studies
Consumers’ decisions on clothing disposal are important from an environmental point
of view, as they impact the lifespan of the clothing, as well as the reuse and recycling
possibilities. This paper reviews empirical literature on this topic published during the
past 30 years in order to get an overview of what is known about consumers’ clothing
disposal behaviour, and to find out which knowledge gaps exist and need further
investigations. It covers 36 research projects that are published in 41 publications.
This review shows that the clothing disposal studies include four major topics; 1)
disposal methods, 2) motivations for selection of disposal method, 3) clothing disposal
reasons, and 4) demographics of consumers who behave in specific ways. The main
focus in the existing literature has been on the destination of disposed clothing, while
less interest has been shown for why clothing is disposed of in the first place. The
majority of the studies indicate that consumers say they prefer to deliver clothing for
reuse such as donate to charity or give to family or friends rather than to bin it, but
convenience is important. However, a lot of the garments are still binned, especially if
the user feels that they are of no use to others, either because of wear and tear, stains,
other damages, or because of fashion changes. Some of the studies also point out that
consumers are not aware that other recycling options for clothing exist and are in use,
besides for direct reuse. The most common clothing disposal reasons were wear and
65
tear, poor fit, and fashion or boredom, but the order of importance varied between the
studies (Chun, 1987; Klepp, 2001; Laitala and Boks, 2012; Ungerth and Carlsson,
2011). In addition, some report situational reasons such as lack of storage space. Very
little is known about the variations of reasons behind clothing disposal, or the condition
of disposed clothing that is either binned or given to reuse.
The studied samples are often concentrated on young consumers, females, and often
college students which does not give generalizable results for complete populations’
disposal behaviour, nor enables comparisons between different consumer groups. The
focus on the studied samples gives an impression that clothing is something that only
relates to young women in developed countries, and seems to exclude the fact that all
people in the world use clothing, at least to some degree. Even though in general,
statistic show that young women acquire more clothing, and women are more often
responsible for most clothing decisions including the disposal within their families
(Laitala et al., 2009b), this focus does not give information of the total picture of
clothing disposal. None of the studies concentrated on men’s clothing disposal habits,
only one concentrated on elderly, and only one had focus on a very low income
population. Studies on heterogeneous samples are needed, that should enable
comparisons between children’s and adult’s clothing, genders, different geographic
areas, as well as the relationship between acquisition and disposal.
Most studies rely on self-reported behaviour and survey methods dominate, which
indicates the need of other research designs including method triangulation. The
technical and social aspects of clothing disposal should be studied further. Increased
knowledge on the relationship between the actual condition of the clothing, and what
the owners say about the clothing, would give insights on potentials to increase the
lifespans and reuse of clothing.
None of the studies included the take-back schemes that some stores have recently taken
into use. Their effect on consumer behaviour, as well as the potential impacts on
charities should be explored.
The practical implications of this study are relevant for several actors within the
clothing chain. The information on why clothing goes out of use can be used by
producers and designer when considering options for sustainable design and potentially
longer lifespans of clothing. Consumer education on other recycling possibilities
besides reuse will have the potential to increase the amount of clothing collected.
66
4.8
Clothing collection
Kirsi Laitala (Submitted) Textile waste management and consumers’ disposal practices:
How to increase used clothing collection rates Journal of cleaner production
The end-of-life and disposal phases have been given less focus in the sustainable
clothing consumption research than the clothing acquisition phase. When disposal is
studied, it is usually based on surveys and self-reported behaviour rather than clothing
to be disposed of. This article presents results of the disposal methods based on 620
clothing items from 16 households (35 persons) studied through interviews and a
wardrobe method, and relates them to quantitative survey data in Norway (see sections
3.3.1, 3.3.3 and 3.3.4). The aim of this article is to study how Norwegian consumers
dispose of clothing, and how do they choose these disposal channels? Further, which
measures could help to increase the used clothing collection rates, including potential
changes in textile waste management strategies?
The majority of consumable items such as underwear, sock and stockings, as well as
damaged or worn out clothing was binned, while intact clothing was mainly intended
for reuse and given to charity, friends or family. The results indicate that there are
several actions that could help in increasing the used clothing collection rates. Most
informants lacked knowledge of what happens to the textiles after they are donated to
textile collectors. Many assumed that clothing would only go to direct reuse either in
Norway or in some other countries. This is true for the majority of collected clothing,
but also a big portion is material recycled, especially if the textiles are sorted abroad at
large recycling centres, such as SOEX (2013). Most had not thought about the
environmental aspect of donating clothing either, as they were more concerned of the
charity aspect, as well as general non-wastefulness. Informing about the great
environmental savings that can be obtained through reuse could therefore increase the
awareness and through that also the collection rates.
One of the worst options consumers can choose for clothing disposal is to burn it in
private settings. Even though the amount of waste burned illegally in small scale
furnaces or open bonfires only represent a small part of what is burned in large
incineration plants, the total emissions from small stoves for some pollutants is
significantly higher than the total emissions from all large combustion plants combined,
because the large plants burn the waste more effectively and have better cleaning
systems for the exhaust fumes (SFT, 2001). Informing consumers about the
environmental and health consequences of these emissions could reduce the burning,
that seems to be occurring despite the fact that it is not allowed and that people get fines
from doing it. These campaigns should especially be aimed at rural areas.
67
In addition to working with consumers, some improvements could be done within the
Norwegian clothing collectors’ communication systems. Today, both of the largest
clothes’ collectors (Fretex and UFF) inform that they only wish to get clothing that is
reusable as it is, because these products give more profit than clothing that is going to
recycling (Laitala et al., 2012c). However, from the environmental point of view, this
strategy is not the best possible for two reasons. Firstly, it decreases the collection rates
of textiles that could be recycled. Secondly, it also decreases the collection rates of
textiles that could be reused, as consumers were very uncertain of where to draw a limit
on what is reusable and may often set the bar too high.
The density of clothes collection points in sparsely populated areas is low. Better
availability of collection systems such as take-back schemes in retail stores or separate
biannual collections during spring and autumn could increase clothes collection rates in
these areas in economically viable way.
Special focus on future studies should be given to the elderly, men and men’s clothing,
because the material in this and many other studies on clothing disposal has been less
strong for these consumer groups.
This study has implications both for the academics and the practitioners. Even though
not representative for the whole population, it contributed in understanding the
underlying dynamics of the Norwegian consumers’ clothing disposal habits. The
practical implications of this study are relevant for several actors within the clothing
chain, such as producers, designers, retailers, consumers, collectors, and recyclers, as
well as educators and public policymakers, who wish to diminish the environmental
impacts of clothing consumption through longer lifespans and increased reuse and
recycling rates.
4.9
Lifespans
Kirsi Laitala and Ingun Grimstad Klepp (2013) Bare mote? Materialitetens betydning
for klærs levetid [Only fashion? The significance of materiality to clothing lifespans], in
Pål Strandbakken and Nina Heidenstrøm (eds.), Hinsides symbolverdi - Materialiteten i
forbruket [Beyond the symbolic value – The materiality of consumption]: Novus, Oslo,
pp. 145-167.12
This paper was written for a book that explores the meaning of materiality to
consumption. Our chapter focuses on clothing, and discusses the length of clothing
lifespans and the relationship between material and non-material disposal reasons with
12
The summary for this paper is more detailed than for the other papers, because the original paper is in Norwegian.
68
special focus on examining the role of fashion. It is based on a survey and wardrobe
studies (see method sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.4).
The beginning of the paper discusses the importance of product lifespans, and shows
how there is a lack of knowledge concerning the lifespans of clothing. It also points out
the importance of the active use period in addition to the general lengths of lifespans, as
it is important from the environmental point of view.
The clothes that went out of use in the wardrobe study had an average total life of 5.4
years, and had been with the current owner for the past four years. This shows that
many of the clothes were inherited or purchased used. The total lifetime ranged from
brand new to about 50-year-old garments. Clothes for children and teenagers had
shorter average lifespans (2.0 years with the most recent owner), while adults above the
age of 51 disposed of 4.6 years older clothing than the average. In Klepp’s (2001) study
the mean lifespan of the clothes of the 40-year-old women was 7 years. In the present
material, clothing for this group was used slightly shorter, 5.2 years. This may be due to
differences in the samples, which have not been representative in the studies, other
methodological aspects, but also growth in the prosperity or other cultural changes
between the two studies.
The clothing lifespans are also affected by the way the owners have acquired the
clothing. As expected, the total lifespan of the second-hand clothing is longer than that
of clothing that is purchased or received as new. However, the use time with the current
owner also varies. The clothes that owners have chosen themselves is 0.3 years above
average, while the clothes received as gifts or inherited are kept 0.8 years shorter. The
clothes received as gifts from various organizations or companies are kept shortest,
which shows that the use of clothing as gifts or promotional items increases the
unwanted growth in the amount of clothing that does not get used.
The lifespan of the clothes were almost identical regardless of whether the plan was to
give, donate or sell them, or to throw away. However, there was a difference in active
use period with the current owner. The use period was 1.6 years shorter for the clothes
that were to be given for further use than for those that were to be discarded. Therefore,
these clothes had a potential for new use periods with new owners and therefore to
achieve the same or even longer total lifespan. The degree of wear was an important
criterion for what the owner planned to do with the clothing.
The clothing with functional defects had been used for half a year shorter than average
of all disposed clothes. The clothing with various material changes had an average
lifespan, which is understandable as there was largest proportion of the clothes in this
category. The garments that were described as worn out had a useful life of one year
69
under the average, while those that are described as having a worn look, had lifespan of
two years above average. The clothing that was described as washed out had a long
lifespan, 5.5 years above the average, but if the clothes had been damaged in the wash,
the average use time got reduced. Colour bleeding in washing reduced use life with 2.5
years, and shrinkage 1.6 years. The clothes that were disposed of because of the change
in living situation were 3 years older than average. These results show a correlation
between disposal reason, grade of wear and tear, length of active use period, and the
lifespan.
The clothes that owners said were disposed wholly or partially due to fashion were an
average of 3 years older than the average for all disposed clothes. In Klepp’s (2001)
study the clothes that went out of use because of fashion had as long lifespan as the
clothing that was disposed because of wear (approximately 8 years), but the clothes had
been stored longer between the disposal and the last time they were used. In both
studies, these clothes remained exactly the same time "at mercy", 2.8 years. It is not
known if this storage time affected the degree to which fashion is used as an argument
for disposal. It is conceivable that the clothes were less obsolete when they were last
used 2 to 3 years before the owner described them as too outdated to be used. Other
reasons might have been more important then.
These results indicate that the total lifespans were longer than previous estimates given
in other studies. However, many of the clothing had been used very little. 8% of the
garments were never used by anyone, and total every fifth garment were either never
used or used only a couple of times by the current owner. The corresponding figures in
Klepp’s study were very similar (9% and 19% of the clothes). Many had been lying
unused in the wardrobe for years before they were disposed of. Average time from last
use time was 1.4 years. It was common that children's clothing was disposed of sooner
after they did not fit anymore. They were used on average for the last time seven
months ago, while the average for clothing for adults was 1.7 years. We have not taken
into account that the clothes could have waited a few months before our visit and
registration. On the other hand, it may also be that some clothes were taken out of use
sooner because of the research project, and thus had shorter waiting time.
Fashion as a disposal reason was only valid for some types of clothing. No underwear,
socks, stockings or accessories were disposed because of it. Fashion and style changes
influenced mainly trousers, as fashion was given as one of the disposal reason for 11%
of them, followed by jackets and other outer wear, where fashion was given for 10% of
them. The remaining groups where fashion was mentioned were different tops, shirts
and sweaters, and skirts or dresses (3%). (Some of the disposal reason related results are
discussed in more detail in the sections 4.10 Use matters and 4.11 Design approach and
not repeated here.)
70
The garment registrations included an evaluation of the condition and fashionability of
the garment. The fashionability was evaluated as whether the garment looks so outdated
that it could not be used without drawing attention to the user. Only 1% of the garments
were clearly outdated, and about 8% were slightly or possibly outdated. Surprisingly,
these were not the same garments that the owners disposed of due to being out of
fashion or outdated.
A large proportion of garments had changed during use. 58% of the garments had very
visible changes and 10% of them were evaluated to be in that bad condition that they
could not be used for their original purpose, at least not without repair. At the same
time, we saw that about 21% of the garments looked almost new or unused. Children’s
clothing showed most signs of wear and tear, and teenagers’ clothes least. The
difference between grade of wear and tear between men’s and women’s clothing was
not significant.
About 30% of the garments had stains, although at different grades from rather
unnoticeable to very visible. If the garments were disposed of due to staining, we had
graded the degree of staining usually as “very visible”. About 40% of the garments had
pilling or fuzzing to some degree. Only a very small portion of these were given as
disposal reason by the owners. 37% of the garments had a hole or tears, and especially
stockings and socks were common in this category, followed by trousers. The owners
did not mention all of these holes as disposal reasons, and many of them were small or
placed in less visible areas, such as the lining.
The results that are presented here are based on all three methods, survey, asking
informants about their clothing, and examination of clothing. All methods show that
fashion is not a that important disposal reason in our study material. When fashion or
being outdated is mentioned, the clothing has had above average long lifespan.
However, the materiality of clothing is a larger problem. This applies for the technical
durability, such as wear and tear, holes and pilling, but also the fit.
The large amount of clothing contributes to shorter use times in several ways. Firstly,
the large amount contributes that each item is used seldom, and therefore have the
potential to last technically longer than socially (i.e. fashion or other symbolic side of
durability). Therefore, the amount of clothing should be reduced so that it could be used
until it is worn out within the time period it is still socially acceptable to be used, and
not outdated functionally. This will also contribute to higher possibility that it will still
fit to the owner’s body. The second problem with large amounts is that it is used also as
disposal reason. When the wardrobes are full, something must go out.
71
This paper has formed a picture of clothing consumption through wardrobe studies,
survey and interviews. A lot of the clothing is used for a long time and until it is worn
out. Many people do repair the clothing, and keep them for several years. At the same
time, we see that many clothes are used a little, or not at all. Analysis shows that the
way clothing is acquired and how it tolerates wear and tear and changes in owners’
body are important for the relationship they have with the owner. This indicates that
studies in the future should include information of the acquisition methods, and the
concrete amount of use, instead of only the age of the clothing.
4.10 Use matters
Kirsi Laitala and Casper Boks (2012) Sustainable clothing design: Use matters. Journal
of design research, 10(1/2), 121-139
In this paper we discuss how design can help to reduce the environmental impacts of
clothing consumption based on consumers’ motives behind clothing disposal,
acquisition practices and maintenance habits, including both social and technical
aspects. The analysis is based on two surveys, qualitative interviews of households, and
wardrobe studies that included examination of disposed clothing (method descriptions
are given in sections 3.3.1 - 3.3.4).
The most important disposal reason was degradations in textiles such as dimensional
changes in washing, wear and tear, unravelled seams, pilling and poor colourfastness.
Many of these reasons for disposal could be postponed or even prevented through
improved quality control of the materials and manufacturing process. They could also
be taken into account in design, for example by using reinforcements or detachable parts
placed on the areas that are most exposed to wear and tear.
The second largest group of disposal reasons were size and fit issues. The great design
challenge of women’s clothing is the adaptation to the body. Designers and pattern
makers could address this issue in greater detail. One solution to this problem is to
increase the user involvement in design by trying sample patterns on different sized
bodies instead of concentrating on small model sizes. For the users to recognise clothing
that will fit their bodies, the size labelling could be expanded to include more
information, such as figure type or length.
The favourite items are kept longer even if they are worn out, though often relegated for
use at home or private occasions. The results confirm that it may be challenging to
design socially durable clothing for the mass-market that meets the symbolic and
aesthetic demands, as there are numerous personal variations in preferences. In this
matter, individual tailoring has several advantages. Focus on user-oriented design and
72
customisation can offer solutions to this challenge. Good clothing design must address
the demands for functional, symbolic, and superior requirements. In addition to physical
durability, design and material choice can also solve problems such as pressure on the
body, difficulty of movement and static electricity.
Fashion is often blamed for the short lifespan of many clothing items. In this study,
fashion did not come up as an important reason for clothing disposal. Fashion change
was given as a disposal reason two main scenarios. The first was mothers of teenage
daughters, who assumed that their daughters had stopped using about a year old
garments due to trend changes. The other cases were clothing items that were about 820 years old, and referred to as outdated. However, the reasons registered here were
only based on what the respondents actually said. In some cases, it was evident that
there were more reasons behind the disposal decisions than what was said aloud.
To reduce the need for washing, the garments can be designed with common dirtexposed areas in mind. Some materials are naturally more dirt-repellent than others,
such as wool, which also has the benefit of having low washing temperature. Dirtrepelling treatments are another option, though one has to take into account the
environmental effects of these materials. The form of clothing is also essential: extra
space around armpits can help to avoid the smell of sweat.
Some textiles were washed even when they were not considered to be that dirty, as
many respondents did not want to store used clothing in the wardrobe without washing
it first. One possible design solution for this problem is addressing the storage need for
keeping “half-used” clothing neat and separated from clean clothing.
Many respondents felt that they could not use the same clothing several days in a row or
on different occasions. This led to more frequent clothing changes and thereby
increased washing. Designing solutions addressing these challenges could include
designing possible adjustments and changes on the clothing (styling and accessories)
that would allow for day-to-day variation or a way to make the garment look new or to
fit different use situations. This might even enable a smaller number of clothing items to
be used for creating several outfit combinations. In the survey, 39% of respondents
agreed that they would keep their clothes longer if they would feel less need for having
something new.
The respondents indicated that lack of skills, time, or materials were the main obstacles
for mending clothing. Some solutions could be teaching some basic sewing skills, or
alternatively, prepare repair kits, that could include easy to use repair products such as
adhesive patches and Woolfiller. In addition, designers can keep the mending
possibilities in mind when designing the clothing by planning the garments in a way
73
that the visibility of repair would not matter or could be part of the decorative element.
Seams are important, as there should be enough of an allowance to permit adjustments
and repair.
This paper has demonstrated that several design solutions can enable the users to keep
and use the clothes longer, and reduce the need for laundering, thus potentially
decreasing the total environmental effects of clothing consumption. By utilising the
information received from the users and their disposed clothing, new knowledge from
both technical and social aspects was obtained. The main issues discussed here are
related to enabling the users to keep and use the clothes longer, and possibilities for
reducing the need for laundering, thus potentially decreasing the total environmental
effects of clothing consumption. It is important that sustainable clothing design
addresses these two different sides of clothing use, the long lifetime and the possibility
for adequate and sustainable maintenance, in relation to each other. Essential design
elements for garments designed for longevity address the possibility for effective
laundering combined with high tolerance of changes in clothing, while not forgetting
the environmental impacts of potential changes in production. On the other hand,
production and disposal phases are decisive for clothing with short life expectancies. A
greater awareness of the use phase in the design process will therefore be beneficial.
Even though the development within clothing, washing machines and detergents is
significant, and can contribute to the designer’s solution space, consumer behaviour is
still crucial. The study reported on in this paper states that the users will make the
decisions concerning when the clothing is purchased and disposed of, and when and
how it is maintained. The use phase has been given little attention in the LCA analysis
and has been regarded as problematic due to the large variations between different
garments and users. Instead, this large variation could be utilized as potential in the
design process. What characterizes a garment with a long lifetime, high versatility
(socially and materially) and low maintenance-related environmental impacts? How can
the habits and norms related to these types of items be transferred to new materials and
concepts? To achieve this we need both innovative design and more research on
attitudes, values and motives for behaviour related to clothing use.
4.11 Design approach
Kirsi Laitala, Casper Boks, Ingun Grimstad Klepp (submitted) Making Clothing Last: A
Design Approach for Reducing the Environmental Impacts. International journal of
design
Numerous design strategies for making clothing consumption more sustainable exist
(e.g. Hur et al., 2013; TED, ND), but they are mainly quite general and there is a lack of
74
empirical data on their connection to clothing lifespans and consumers’ clothing use and
disposal practices. Therefore, this article seeks to find empirical data on clothing
disposal reasons that affect lifespans, and identify design strategies that could increase
the active use period of clothing and postpone the disposal phase. The aim is to address
the potential of design as a means to substantially reduce the environmental impacts
related to clothing consumption by using a multidisciplinary approach including design
sciences, natural sciences, social sciences and cultural studies. This article can be seen
as a continuation and deepening of some of the findings given in the Use matters article.
This paper is based on the wardrobe studies, where qualitative interviews, clothing
inventories, and laboratory testing are combined (see section 3.3.4). The aim was to
include user centred design methods into more traditional quantitative consumer
research to give new insights for design. In addition, the article gives examples of some
of the designs that the students from the three design schools made for the overarching
Textile waste research project. The students designed solutions to some of the
sustainability challenges based on the project’s research results and an overview of how
the different phases in the life-cycle of clothing effects the overall environmental
footprint.
The informants talked freely about their use of the garments that were to be disposed of,
and no disposal reason categories were given beforehand. In total, 70 different disposal
reasons were registered, which were combined into seven main categories (Figure 10).
The changes in garments and size and fit issues dominated, while functional, situational,
taste and fashion related reasons were less common. The most common disposal reason
was that the user had grown out of the garment (18%). This was followed by holes and
tears (13%), and having similar or better garments (6%). Then came dislike of design or
shape (4%), stains (4%), and worn out look (3%). In addition to the general results, two
examples of clothing registrations that show the type of rich data that can be acquired
through use of wardrobe methods were given.
The initial results related to clothing disposal reasons were already presented and
discussed in the Use Matters article, but in this article they are given in more detail, and
design solutions related to following topics were suggested:
- Size and fit issues
- Care: laundering, drying, ironing and mending
- Technical quality, durability and function
- Emotional value and acquisition
- Fashion
- Situational reasons and storage
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Figure 10: Clothing disposal reasons for adult men and women, and children and teenagers (N =
number of clothing items)
The article concludes by acknowledging that the lifespans of garments are affected by
many different aspects, and it is possible to counteract and delay clothing disposal
through improved design to some degree, but understanding user behaviour that stems
from norms, values, habits and contexts is crucial. Four essential design aspects emerge
for expanding clothing lifespans. The first two are related to product design, the third to
service design and the fourth to systems design:
1. The technical quality including material choice and seams that promote
durability. Examination of used clothing showed areas that need special
attention. Even the potential for reuse could often be improved through
increased quality of clothing.
2. The design of clothing form and shape, which is crucial for the fit to the body,
versatility of use, appearance and indirectly often also emotional attachment.
3. Services such as altering the fit, mending, styling, stain decorations, body
scanning, as well as education in sewing and altering.
4. Design of two-way communication systems between the users and the clothing
designers and producers, including labelling of size, fit, social and
environmental aspects, durability, chemical content and feedback from users.
By utilising the information received from the users and their disposed clothing, we
have obtained new, detailed knowledge on clothing use and lifespans, as well as the
design aspects that affect them. The data has shown that especially the clothing fit and
durability are more significant disposal reasons than previously thought, as fashion has
traditionally been emphasised more. Designing clothing to meet these challenges is
76
more tangible than trying to counteract fashion change. These insights are acquired by
combining two types of data, and in that way this article has added to our knowledge on
how to study these issues, in addition to the topic of how to improve the sustainability
of clothing. This research method could be transferred to other areas where information
of users and their interaction with products could aid in improving the design.
4.12 Summary of results
For easier overview of the articles, Table 9 gives a summary of the main findings and
recommendations or implications that were given.
Table 9: Main findings and their implications or recommendations of the different papers
Paper and Main findings
method(s)
Implications and recommendations
P1 Labels
Consumers’ ability to make informed
choices should be improved through
availability of choices and increased
information, for example through better
labelling, so that they could be able to
convert their environmentally friendly
attitudes into to actions.
Interviews
Consumers lack possibility to choose
durable clothing based on the current
available information.
Informants
lack
knowledge
of
environmental impacts of different fibres.
Informants did not consider laundering that
important for environmental impact.
Country of origin label was used for
evaluation of ethical aspects and quality.
P2 Reuse
Survey
Informal used clothing exchange has larger
scale than the commercial sales (double as
many had received compared to those that
had bought used clothing).
Majority had not acquired second-hand
clothing.
Women and younger respondents were
more active in the reuse of clothing.
Consumers acquire pre-owned clothing
mainly due to general non-wastefulness and
environmental benefits, followed by
economic reasons, and finally uniqueness,
style and fashion-related reasons.
The obstacles for acquiring pre-owned
clothing were general preference of new
clothing, followed by unfavourable
shopping experience and contextual
aspects, hygiene, and, finally, pricing of
new and used clothing.
Three areas could be improved to increase
reuse of clothing within Western societies:
Properties of the infrastructure and the
markets (e.g. availability, diversity of
channels, store layout and organization,
information flow, price and quality
classes)
2. Properties of the clothing (e.g. size
labelling, technical quality, and
cleanliness)
3. Consumers’ knowledge and attitudes
(e.g. the environmental advantages, and
that used clothing can be cleaner than
new as the harmful chemicals are
washed out to a larger degree).
The first point mainly concerns formal
exchange, while the two last ones apply also
to private exchange.
1.
77
P3
Laundering
Laboratory
tests
Clothes can get cleaner when washed at 30
than at 40 degrees, if efficient detergent is
selected.
Higher temperature causes more wear and
tear and colour changes on some materials.
Not using the full capacity of washing
machine consumes a lot more water and
energy per item to be laundered.
Detergent dosage can be reduced when the
laundry is not very heavily soiled or when
the machine is less than completely filled
Tumble drying shrinks some textiles more
than hang drying
Wool tolerates higher spin drying speed
than most washing machines’ wool
programs have today.
P4
Alternative
detergents
Laboratory
tests
Environmental
impacts
of
clothing
maintenance can be changed though
technologies, behaviour, or combination of
both.
Due to the consumers’ laundering practices,
the full possibilities of technological
developments have not been achieved.
There is still need for further technological
improvements.
The information from this article can be
used to motivate consumers to change
behaviour
Detergent packages could be more
informative about appropriate dosages to
enable consumers to make the correct
choices.
The cleaning effect of currently available
alternatives to detergents is equal to that of
laundering with water alone.
Currently available alternatives to detergents
cannot replace regular detergents in
laundering.
Conventional compact detergent showed
significantly better cleaning effect.
Consumers who launder only slightly soiled
textiles could be satisfied with the washing
result either without detergent, with an
alternative laundry product, or with a
reduced amount of regular detergents.
Water alone does however
substantial cleaning effect.
have
a
P5 Fabric
softeners
Use of fabric softeners increased the
malodour of tested synthetic materials.
Laboratory
tests and
survey
Survey respondents who used fabric
softeners reported to have more problems
with odours in laundry than respondents
who did not use softeners.
Use of fabric softeners cannot be
recommended from an environmental point
of view due to the several potential negative
impacts within production and transport, in
addition to potential negative impacts on
textiles.
Respondents in young age group used more
often softeners than in the older age groups.
Consumers who used softeners often were
also more likely to use tumble dryers.
P6 Laundry
habits
Some lowering of laundering temperatures
has occurred during the past decade.
Survey and
interviews
Most products’ washing frequencies
remained about the same, whereas others
e.g. jeans were used a few more days.
Percentage of respondents that use of fabric
softeners seem to have increased slightly
during the past decade.
78
Different design for sustainable behaviour
strategies could be used in order to enable,
inform and give feedback to consumers,
including:
-
detergent dosage systems that ensure
optimal dosing
improved care labelling
machine program selection (such as
suggesting lower temperature and eco-
Consumers tend to underestimate their
laundering frequencies.
The cotton program is the most used
washing program, but short programs were
also popular.
-
program)
machine filling grade indicators
storage systems for slightly used
clothing
textile material choices that are easier to
keep clean
Use of several different sorting categories
made it more difficult to collect a sufficient
amount of clothing to fill the machine.
Detergent dosing practices are far from
optimal.
P7 Disposal
review
Literature
review
Clothing disposal studies have four major
topics; 1) disposal methods, 2) motivations
for selection of disposal method, 3)
clothing disposal reasons, and 4)
demographics of consumers who behave in
specific ways.
Studies on heterogeneous samples are
needed, that should enable comparisons
between children’s and adult’s clothing,
genders, different geographic areas, as well
as the relationship between acquisition and
disposal.
Studies indicate that consumers say they
prefer to deliver clothing for reuse, but
convenience is important.
The technical and social aspects of clothing
disposal should be studied further. Increased
knowledge on the relationship between the
actual condition of the clothing, and what
the owners say about the clothing, would
give insights on potentials to increase the
lifespans and reuse of clothing.
Lot of garments are still binned, especially
if the user feels that they are of no use to
others due to damages or fashion change.
Several knowledge gaps exist.
P8 Clothing
collection
Wardrobe
studies,
interviews
and survey
Majority of consumable items such as
underwear, sock and stockings, as well as
damaged or worn out clothing was binned.
Intact clothing was mainly intended for
reuse and given to charity, friends or
family.
Used clothing collection rates could be
increased through several measures:
-
-
Private burning of waste (including textiles)
still occurred in rural areas.
Most informants lacked knowledge of what
happens to the textiles after they are
donated to textile collectors.
Many were uncertain of where to draw a
limit on what could be delivered to reuse.
-
Increasing consumer awareness about
the great environmental savings of
clothing reuse and recycling.
Improving the clothing collectors’
communication messages. Current
messages decrease the collection rates
of textiles that could be recycled, but
also potentially the collection rates of
textiles that could be reused.
Increase the availability of collection
points on sparsely populated areas, e.g.
through take-back schemes in retail
stores or separate biannual collections.
Most had not thought about the
environmental aspect of donating clothing,
as they were more concerned of the charity
aspect and general non-wastefulness.
P9
Lifespans
Garments had longer lifespans than most
previous research indicated, 5.4 years, out
Large amounts of clothing contribute to
higher environmental impacts in several
ways; each item gets to used more seldom
79
Wardrobe
studies and
survey
of which 4 years with the current owner.
Children’s clothing had shortest lifespans
and clothing of adults above the age of 50
had longest lifespans.
Clothing that was inherited or received as
gift had below average long lifespans.
Clothing disposed of due to fashion had
longer lifespans than average, but they also
waited longer unused before the disposal
decision.
Examination of clothing showed that 58%
had very visible changes and 10% were in
so bad condition that they could not be used
as they were. 21% looked almost unused.
and can therefore last longer technically than
what is socially acceptable, while the
chances for that the owner changed body
size increase during this time. Large
amounts contribute to filled wardrobes,
which again is used as a disposal reason.
Studies on sustainable consumption of
clothing and fashion should have higher
focus on materiality than most previous
research has had.
In future studies, more detailed information
of the length of use should be acquired, as in
times of use instead of only length of
ownership period.
Material aspects of clothing were more
decisive for lifespans and use than fashion.
P10 Use
matters
Survey and
wardrobe
studies
Survey respondents said they would use
clothing longer if it was of better quality
(did not shrink, get pilling, or change
colour), if there was less need for
something new, and it the clothing fit was
better.
Most important clothing disposal reason
groups were changes in garments, size and
fit issues, taste-related unsuitability,
situational
reasons,
functional
shortcomings, and finally, fashion or style
changes.
Evaluation of disposed clothing showed
that typical problem areas were pilling or
fuzzing, colour changes, dimensional
changes, and wear and tear (areas vary
between garment types).
-
-
-
-
About 18% of garments were never worn or
only used once or twice.
-
There are great variations on when
consumers consider something to be too
worn out to be used.
-
Large portion of respondents mend clothing
at least sometimes, and then usually do the
simple repairs such as sewing on buttons,
fixing seams, patching, darning and fixing
trouser length.
80
Design for longer lifespans and reduced
environmental impacts in maintenance:
-
Improved quality control
Reinforcements or detachable parts on
areas exposed to wear and tear
Select materials that age well and where
changes are more accepted than on
some other types of garments/materials
(such as jeans instead of dress pants)
Design with physical comfort in mind
to avoid static electricity, uncomfortable
pressure on body, and to enable free
movement.
Try on samples on different sized and
shaped models instead of only small
sizes to improve the fit
Improve size labelling so that it
includes more information of size and
fit, such as figure type and length.
Encourage trying on clothing before
buying it, and discourage giving
clothing as present
Use materials that do not get dirty so
easily, or are at least easy to get clean.
Leave extra space around armpits to
avoid the smell of sweat
Use materials/colours where stains are
not so easily visible or noticeable
Address the storage need of “half-used”
items
-
P11 Design
approach
Wardrobe
studies
Most common single clothing disposal
reasons were that the used had grown out of
the garment, followed by holes/tears,
having similar or better garments, dislike of
design/shape, stains, and worn out look.
Grouping of disposal reasons showed that
adults’ clothing is mainly disposed due to
changes in appearance, while size and fit
issues are most important for children’s and
teens’ clothing.
Fashion was not that important disposal
reason in general, but played larger role in
disposal of trousers and jackets than other
types of garments.
Examples of design students’ contributions
are given.
Design for enabling changing the
garments to get day to day variation for
versatility of use and to avoid boredom
- User oriented design and individual
tailoring could help in achieving better
fit and emotional attachment
- Education to improve sewing and
mending skills
- Design with seam allowance that
permits adjustments
Design strategies based on disposal reasons
are suggested:
-
-
-
-
Technical quality to increase durability,
concentrate on areas that are more
exposed to wear and tear, both material
and seams.
Focus on form and shape to improve fit,
versatility of use, appearance and
emotional attachment.
Services including altering, mending,
styling, body scanning, and education in
sewing and altering.
Design of communication systems
between users, designers, and producers
including labelling of size, fit, social
and environmental aspects, durability,
chemical
content,
and
securing
feedback form users.
81
5. Discussion
This chapter will discuss the overarching research questions that were stated in the
introduction, while the more detailed research questions from the background chapter
were answered in the attached papers that were summarised in previous chapter. The
evaluation of the validity of the central hypothesis (given in the introduction) is taken in
the conclusion section.
5.1 Methodological approaches
This section is going to discuss the first overarching research question, which was:
1. What are the benefits and disadvantages of combining various methodological
approaches for studying the different aspects of clothing consumption?
The selection of suitable methods depends on the phenomena to be studied. In this
project, the methods were selected within the practice theory approach in order to get
new insights on the material and behavioural aspects of clothing consumption. The
material aspects were mainly studied through a rather new method combination called a
wardrobe method in addition to laboratory tests, while the behavioural aspects were
mainly studied through surveys and interviews in combination with wardrobe studies. In
the wardrobe studies the material objects (clothes) were used in the interviews to get
more specific information of behaviour related to the specific garments. The selected
methods were both of qualitative or quantitative character. For example, in the wardrobe
studies the interviews of 16 households were mainly qualitative, while the results of the
studies of 620 garments were also quantitative in nature.
In some areas, the same phenomenon was studied through several methods. Using this
kind of method triangulation was especially beneficial when acquiring knowledge on
matters where there may be a difference between what people think, say, or do. This
was shown for example in the Laundry habits article, where different laundering
frequencies were reported when asked directly in an interview, or based on a more
detailed survey of laundering frequencies in specific temperatures or washing programs.
Similar discrepancy was reported earlier by Klepp (2003b) in her study, where
interviews and diary keeping of laundering gave different results, because the
informants underestimated their laundering frequencies. Some of the results related to
clothing acquisition were reported in a conference paper, which showed that several
informants underestimated the amount of clothing that they acquired (Laitala et al.,
2011b). One of the informants said in the interview that he acquired clothing very
seldom, only once or at maximum twice a year, but diary keeping showed that he
actually acquired something every month. Another example was an informant that
described buying only a few items but of high quality, but she was still the informant
83
who bought the most clothing in the study; actually two times more than another
respondent who said she bought several low quality items (Laitala et al., 2011b).
Therefore, if information of consumer behaviour is needed, methods based on what
people say may not be the best, as they may have different opinions and reference
points, for example related to what is little or what is a lot. In addition there may be
biases, as people are more prone to answer what they think they are expected to, or what
is morally correct, such as that they recycle more or buy less than what they actually do.
Sometimes they may even not know or be aware of some aspects of their clothing
consumption, such as the amount of clothing they dispose of, laundering frequency, or
general lifespans of clothing to be discarded.
Method triangulation was also beneficial in some cases where the results received
through different methods supported each other. In these cases triangulations such as the
use of survey in combinations with the wardrobe studies gave strong support for the
results. The wardrobe studies were more detailed, while the surveys ensured that the
results are also representative for the population. Example of this was presented in the
Use matters article. Both the wardrobe studies and the survey indicated that good fit
was especially important criteria for women’s clothing to get used and have longer
lifespans.
There exist also some potential disadvantages of using mixed methods. It requires more
time and effort to collect and analyse the data than using a single method. If there is lack
of time, some results may remain unobserved or unreported. The later was also valid for
this project, where so much empirical data was received that not all results are given in
the publications so far13. Using mixed methods also requires the researchers to have
sufficient knowledge on all of the used methods. There may be challenges in having the
required competence across the variety of methods and disciplines, while also aiming to
have specialist skills on several areas. For example, in the wardrobe method it is
important that the interviewer also has material knowledge of the textiles to keep the
interviews and analysis in a tangible level.
Besides these challenges, triangulation that gives inconsistent results requires that the
researcher has to evaluate the reasons for the differences and to take a standpoint on
which results to trust, or if there could be a methodological error on one or all of the
used methods. However, these inconsistencies could have remained unnoticed if a
single method was used.
In this project, the wardrobe study was used for analysing the clothing to be disposed of.
It consists of several methods, where interviews related to specific clothing items have
been the most common in use in earlier research (Kaiser, 1997; Skov, 2011; Tseëlon,
13
Some more publications on the project are planned in the near future, one about the mending practices, and another
that gives the results of clothing lifespans in more detailed and structured manner.
84
1995; Woodward, 2007), while I also combined it with listings, analysis of clothing
condition, and some laboratory tests. This combination has not been used before to a
large extent, although some studies do exist (Klepp and Bjerck, 2012). The wardrobe
studies showed to be an interesting and suitable method for studying clothing
consumption, as detailed empirical data that combined the material and behavioural
aspects was received. This method seems suitable to be used in other areas of clothing
consumption as well, such as the acquisition and use phases, in addition to disposal.
Additionally, it could be adjusted to be used to research consumption of other product
groups, for example electronic household appliances, food, and even furniture, where
the disposal phase has already been studied through a similar method by Hebrok and
Asdal (2013).
For the laundering phase, especially a combination of laboratory tests and the consumer
behaviour studied through surveys and interviews was positive. The selected methods
were suitable for acquiring most of the needed data, but the material on the laundering
habits would have been stronger if it had included observations or diary keeping where
the consumers could have registered details of their laundry14. The quality of the data
provided by consumer diaries can be additionally increased by providing the
participants measuring instruments such as thermometers that can be placed with the
laundry and a scale to measure the weight of the detergent and laundry load. That way,
the temperature could have been recorded at specific intervals and information of the
laundry frequencies, temperatures and length of cycles could have been collected.
Kruschwitz and Stamminger (2011) have reported on ongoing research conducted in
such matter in Germany.
This section has answered to one part of the research question concerning the benefits of
using interdisciplinary mixed methods or method triangulation. The next section
continues the discussion related to the different clothing consumption phases and the
new insights that are gained by using these methods.
5.2 Emerging insights
As the previous section showed, using various methods had several benefits. This
section continues the discussion from methods to the main findings and answers to the
second research question:
2. What insights emerge when data from different methods and various clothing
consumption phases are combined?
Selected examples from the research that illustrate all these points are given below for
the different topics or stages of clothing consumption.
14
A trial was made to collect this kind of data, but not enough of responses were received.
85
5.2.1 Clothing acquisition
The acquisition phase was discussed mainly in two articles; Labels and Reuse. The
Labels article discusses the information that the consumers usually have available when
buying clothing, and how they relate this information to sustainability. The Reuse article
discussed the consumers’ acquisition of used clothing, and aimed to find out how to
overcome the barriers that consumers may have towards acquiring second-hand
clothing. In addition, the Use matters and Lifespans articles showed that the way
clothing was acquired also had an impact on the average lifespans. These papers are
based on various methods, including in-depth interviews, surveys and wardrobe studies.
Even though the starting point of the Textile waste project was on the disposal phase of
clothing, the information that was gained through looking back from that stage gave
interesting new information on clothing acquisition.
In sustainable clothing acquisition, the first consideration should be given to whether
the acquisition is necessary, followed by the selection of products with long lifespan,
potential to reuse, minimum packaging and minimum toxicity (Lloyd, 1996). Currently,
it is difficult for consumers to make choices based on these criteria, because the
information is very seldom available. In addition, the results discussed in the Labels
paper showed that the available information is misinterpreted. The consumers had a low
level of knowledge on some sustainability issues, such as which fibre types give smaller
environmental impacts. They often thought natural fibres are environmentally preferable
to man-made materials at all times, a result that has been confirmed by other studies in
several countries (AWI, 2013; Hiller Connell, 2011). This result was not that
unexpected, as even tools that compare the environmental effects of different fibres do
not agree on which materials are to be preferred, and the status of nature and the
“natural” is high in Norway (Witoszek, 1998). In addition, very little information was
available when the consumers wished to select the environmentally better alternative, as
very little eco-labelled garments are available on the Norwegian market (Austgulen,
2013). Clothing labels do not give information of durability, which would enable
consumers to select clothing based on intrinsic quality.
Buying pre-owned clothing is one of the sustainable clothing acquisition options that is
readily available for most Norwegian consumers. The Reuse article presented categories
of second hand clothing acquisition motives, both negative and positive, and which of
them are important for Norwegian consumers. Survey results also showed that informal
clothing exchange seems to be occurring at larger scale than sales through formalised
markets. Less is known about the private exchange, which is also the environmentally
preferable solution due to less need for transport and sorting (K. Fisher et al., 2011).
However, it is not known to which degree the pre-owned product replace new products
in the Norwegian context. Farrant estimated that 100 second-hand garments would
replace 60 new garments if the reuse takes place in Sweden, 75 in Estonia or Lithuania,
86
and 85 if the reuse takes place in Africa (Farrant, 2008). This should therefore be
studied further to improve the LCA calculations that estimate the benefits of reuse in
different contexts.
The acquisition phase was not in the main focus of this study, as it had more of a
reverse life cycle perspective, where information from end-of-life and use was used.
However, the information from wardrobe studies on clothing to be disposed showed that
the acquisition method actually also contributed to clothing use and length of lifespans
(this will be discussed further in section 5.2.4). Additionally, it shows a need to study
the clothing acquisition phase further, as it is the stage that contributes to increased
amounts of clothing in circulation, but from a different perspective than most current
market oriented research is done. A wardrobe study of purchased clothing could give
similar deeper insights that were received for the disposal phase, and could also be used
to study the replacement rate in cases where pre-owned clothing is acquired.
5.2.2 Laundering
Reducing the effects of maintenance was the main issue of four articles; Laundering,
Alternative detergents, Fabric softeners, and Laundry habits. Clothes laundering and
drying were researched through laboratory tests, consumer surveys and in-depth
interviews. The laboratory tests were used to measure the effects of doing laundry in
specific ways, while consumer studies gave information on how laundry was done,
either through surveys to get knowledge on how large proportion of population is doing
it in specific ways, or interviews to know more about why the specific methods were
chosen. The articles concentrating on disposal reasons also showed the importance of
laundering, as a lot of clothing was disposed of due to unsuccessful laundering, such as
stains, odours or shrinkage.
The laboratory tests gave several promising results. Even though washing at low
temperatures has been an environmental strategy promoted by several stakeholders such
as Defra (Bain et al., 2009) and detergent industries (A.I.S.E., 2009b; P&G, 2013), the
provided data has lacked information on the actual effects of 30 degrees laundering
compared to laundering at higher temperatures. The results presented in the Laundering
article show that the cleaning effect can actually be better at 30qC than at 40qC, if a
more efficient detergent is chosen, and that in any of the cases, the difference between
the two temperatures was not large (at least when detergents suitable for low
temperature laundering were used). Additionally, some textiles showed less signs of
wear and tear or colour changes when washed at lower temperature, thus giving
additional environmental benefits in form of potentially prolonging the lifespans of
clothing. The potential of giving this information to consumers, based on tests made by
an independent test institute can be beneficial compared to more general suggestions
87
given by the industries themselves that promote mainly only the energy saving
perspective.
The results related to detergent types and dosages were presented in the Alternative
detergents and Eco-labelling articles. They showed that the current alternatives to the
regular compact detergents such as laundry balls and pellets did not deliver additional
cleaning effect compared to laundering with water only, a conclusion confirmed later
also by Kruschwitz et al. (2013). However, the positive finding of these studies was that
water has rather high cleaning effect on its own, and that cleaning effect with reduced
detergent dosage for many stain types is close to that of full dosage. Therefore, reduced
detergent dosage may often be sufficient, if the laundry is not that soiled (Kruschwitz et
al., 2013; Laitala et al., 2011a). Research on consumer behaviour showed that people
seldom measured the detergent dosages, and were not aware of some aspects that should
affect the dosage, such as water hardness.
The results on the effect of fabric softeners were more negative than expected. The
laboratory tests showed that they increased the sweat odour on some synthetic materials,
and the survey results showed that the consumers who used softeners had more often
problems with odour in the laundry than the consumers who did not use softeners. In
addition, the consumers who used softeners were also more likely to use the tumble
dryer, thus showing wrong the hypothesis that the softeners may reduce the use of
tumble drying because the tumble drying could give the additional benefit of making the
textiles softer compared to hang drying. These connections could have not been found
without the use of mixed methods and an interdisciplinary research approach.
Some positive trends in consumer behaviour during the past decade were observed, such
as reduction in average laundering temperature, in addition to an indication of reduction
in the laundering frequency of jeans (Laitala et al., 2012b). However, the laundering
frequency of many other types of garments, especially those that are close to the body,
was even higher than before. The results also confirmed that consumer behaviour is
prominent for the environmental effects from laundering, and especially the frequent
laundering should be worked further on. The interviews revealed that it was common to
launder the clothing, even if the users themselves would have evaluated the clothing to
be clean enough to be used for some more days, in order to reduce the pile of “half
used” clothing.
In general, the results are in line with previous research (e.g. Bain et al., 2009), but
contribute in giving a more detailed picture that combines the material and behavioural
aspects of clothing maintenance, and new insights for the Norwegian context.
88
5.2.3 Clothing disposal
The disposal phase was discussed mainly in the articles Disposal review and Clothing
collection, where the focus was primarily on which end-of-life solutions consumers
choose for their clothing, while disposal reasons that affect lifespans of clothing were
discussed in the Use matters, Design approach and Lifespans articles. The aim of these
articles was to see how used clothing could be lifted higher up in the waste hierarchy,
starting from reduction and going through reuse to material recycling. Research
methods included literature reviews, surveys, interviews and wardrobe studies that are
combined in most of the papers.
These results deviate from previous research and the common understanding of the
clothing consumption especially when it comes to the role of fashion. In this study,
fashion does not come out as an important disposal reason or driver for clothing
consumption. Actually, clothing that was disposed due to fashion was older than the
average of items. It seems that these items were affected more of the long run secular
trends than the short fashion cycles, as discussed by Sporales (1981). However, many
other studies single out constantly changing fashion as the most important cause driving
the consumption rates up (Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010). One of the explanations for
the difference could be on how the research is made, i.e. the method and the studied
sample. The focus was on the mundane clothing consumption instead of research on the
more spectacular fashion consumption or unusual clothing items. Fashion is given high
importance in the media, marketing and public debate. Consumers are more likely to get
affected by this (Gauntlett, 2008), and when asked they may just repeat the message
they have been told and that they believe in. Therefore, methods based on what people
say may be biased on this. In addition, many of the studies on clothing disposal are
made on samples dominated by young females that often are also students, and even
specialising on clothing and fashion. This group is more likely to be more interested in
and affected by fashion than the average consumers, but many studies based on such
samples fail to set focus on the consequences of their sample selection to
generalizability of the results. Selection of the used research terms may also have
consequences for the results. Defining something as fashion research instead of clothing
research may increase the potential of giving fashion high importance in results as well.
Such studies tend to focus on the communicative side of clothing instead of the
utilitarian side (Carter, 2012). In addition, cheap prices of clothing, having shopping as
a leisure activity, and the need for variation are all important reasons for increased
clothing consumption, which are topics often related to fast fashion, but not
synonymous to it.
Another area where this study contributed and has not been reported on earlier was the
condition of clothing that went out of use. Analysis of the disposed clothing confirmed
that in the majority of cases, material changes were visible, although at the same time a
89
large proportion of clothing appeared very little used or almost new. The consumers
were not aware of what happens to the textiles after they are delivered to the clothes
collectors. They assumed that the most would go to reuse either in Norway or other
countries, but did not know about the massive sorting processes, the material recycling
possibilities, and had not thought so much about the environmental benefits, as they
concentrated more on the charity aspects and moral norm of non-wastefulness.
5.2.4 Lifespans and connections between consumption stages
The topics of how to prolong the lifespan of existing clothing and reducing the amounts
in circulation through reduced acquisition and improved maintenance were discussed in
several articles, but partly from different starting points. The Use matters and Design
approach papers took an overarching starting point, and concentrated on what is
possible to do through design, mainly based on clothing disposal reasons. The Lifespans
paper presented result related to the age and condition of garments that went out of use.
The Use matters article discussed also clothing repair and altering as options to increase
lifespans. The Reuse article discussed the potential for increasing reuse within the
Western societies, while the Laundering article looked into changes that occur in
textiles during maintenance, among other themes.
New information about the age of garments was received. Adults’ garments had in
average been 6.3 years with the current owner before they were disposed of, which is a
longer lifespan than the 1-3 years that most of the previous studies have assumed (Beton
et al., 2014:52; Gracey and Moon, 2012:13), but slightly shorter than the seven years in
the study of Norwegian 40-year-old women’s clothing (Klepp, 2001:163). However,
many of the garments could also have rather long periods where they have not been in
active use. During the wardrobe study, the informants were asked how old the garment
is, when it was used last time, and if it had been used a lot, but not exactly how many
times it was in active use. Future studies should concentrate on this topic in order to get
more detailed information of the active use period, not only amount of years but more
detailed on number of uses as well as number of washes. Fletcher points out that
clothing with long lifespans was usually a consequence of nurture, not because it was
originally planned that way (Fletcher, 2012). However, our results indicate that the
matter is more complicated. A clear connection between the acquisition method,
disposal reasons, and the length of clothing lifespans was found. It is likely that having
high enough intrinsic quality and fit will enable long lifespans while requiring less work
with the maintenance from the user. However, favourite garments received more
attention from the users and were more likely to be mended if needed.
The clothing consumption stages affect each other and the length of clothing lifespans,
which in turn have environmental impacts. The clothing acquisition method affected on
the amount of use and lifespan, because the clothing that the users received as a present
90
or inherited was more likely to end up unused and have below average long lifespans
than the clothing that the users actively chose themselves. Considering the possible
laundering methods also affects use, as consumer can choose not to buy garments that
require dry-cleaning.
Making an environmentally preferable acquisition decision, such as buying organic
cotton, may not always have the lowest total environmental impacts. This was described
in the Labels article, where an informant told about the bad experiences she had had
with low durability of organic cotton products. The quality of organic cotton was lower
when it was introduced to the market due to lack of standards and knowledge of organic
production (Perschau, 2013). Even though the quality of organic cotton today should be
similar to the conventionally grown cotton, the reputations may still hang, and the
production yields are lower, in addition to higher costs due to increased need of manual
hand-weeding work (Swezey et al., 2007). The lower quality may lead to shorter
lifespans, and in total contribute to higher environmental impacts, although the impact
categories will be different (Allwood et al., 2006).
The use phase also affects the other consumption stages. Consumers’ behaviour such as
participation in different activities requires various types of clothing, which in turn need
to be acquired. This has not been researched to a large degree in this project, but the
effect of different occasions is of interest for future research.
The possibility of getting the clothing clean is also a determinant factor for the potential
lifespans. Stains or odours that were not removed in the laundering were important
disposal reasons, and stains reduced especially the lifespans and reuse possibilities of
children’s clothing. The laundering clothing at low temperature reduces the energy
consumption, but if the soil such as stains or odour are not removed, the laundering has
not fulfilled its purpose. It should be possible to launder the clothing efficiently enough
to remove the dirt. Tests showed that the sweat odour hanged more on laundered items
if fabric softener was used. Consumers may try to defeat this problem by using more
fabric softeners, thus enforcing the problem of not getting the textiles clean, and
therefore increase the consumption rate. Also other material properties such as
shrinkage is affected by care, as many of tumble dried test materials showed higher
level of shrinkage than the hang dried materials. Garments that were disposed of due to
shrinkage had 1.5 years shorter average lifespans than the other garments.
5.3 Implications for design
In this thesis, the central aim has been to understand how the users interact with
clothing, and based on that information; suggest solutions on how to affect the users’
behaviour so that the clothing consumption could be steered to reduce the
91
environmental impacts. Therefore, the third overarching research question was
formulated as:
3. How could these insights be used in design to reduce the environmental
impacts of clothing consumption?
Improvement suggestions are given on the four main areas where consumers can affect
the environmental impacts of their clothing consumption:
1.
2.
3.
4.
prolonging the clothing lifespans and reduction in volume
reducing the effects of maintenance
selection of clothing with smaller environmental impacts in acquisition phase
selection of disposal methods that are higher on the waste hierarchy
The first point has been central, and design solutions are given primarily in the Use
matters and Design approach papers, mainly based on clothing disposal reasons, while
the Lifespans paper also reported the relationship between clothing properties and
lifespans. The second point, maintenance, is discussed mainly in the Laundering,
Alternative detergents, Fabric softeners, and Laundry habits papers. The third point of
choice during acquisition is in focus at the Labels and Reuse articles, while the fourth
point concerning disposal methods is discussed in the Disposal review and Clothing
collection papers.
Most suggested strategies are based on increased information, followed by enabling and
encouraging. In these solutions, the user has more control than the products, and is
thereby also given more responsibility (Pettersen and Boks, 2008; Zachrisson and Boks,
2012). Several solutions are also based on improving the clothing or the systems around
them, thus enabling the users to use them more, launder less, reuse and recycle, and/or
keep using clothing longer. Only a few of the suggested strategies give higher control to
the product, mainly related to laundering and potential changes in washing machines.
The solutions based on information can also be considered to support the strategy of
“think”, where consumers are given the right context and framing, and can therefore
actively make informed choices based on it, while the strategies that give more control
to products are often closer to or beyond nudging, such as preselected low washing
temperature (John et al., 2009).
In the following, the suggested strategies are summarised, first for the strategies that
distribute most of the control for the user, followed by strategies that distribute more of
the control to the products.
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5.3.1 User in control
The strategies where there user has more control, and thereby also responsibility,
include information, feedback, enabling, encouraging, and guiding. The research results
showed that there was a severe lack of information on several stages of the clothing
consumption. Therefore, many of the solutions presented in the papers are based on
increased information, either improving the information flows between the different
stakeholders, products and users, or increasing the knowledge of some stakeholders,
often designers or consumers. Available information is often a requirement for the other
strategies within this group to function, for example information of the environmentally
preferable choices is needed to give feedback and guiding. Additionally, the information
should be relevant so that the choices that are made based on it actually have an effect
in reducing the environmental impact.
If consumers want to acquire clothing that is environmentally preferable, they need
information on which products to select. Several challenges were recognised related to
which information is available, and the consumers’ knowledge level on environmental
aspects within clothing acquisition. Information of use of potentially harmful chemicals
lacks, besides for the very few garments that have an eco-label. Additionally, no
information is available of the quality and expected lifespans of clothing. The
consumers lacked knowledge on sustainability of different materials, and had some
misunderstandings related to the current labelling. Systems around information transfer
in the supply chain should be improved. Fransson and Molander (2013) have shown that
information of chemicals consumption in production usually only reached the next tier
of the supply chain, and could easily be lost or misunderstood between different
suppliers. The European REACH regulation requires that consumers should get
information of whether restricted chemicals can be found in the products, but if the
information is not going through the value chain, it is hard for the retailers to apply to
this requirement.
One of the important disposal reasons was fit of the clothing, which was especially
important within women’s and children’s clothing. Here, several design solutions could
be used, either through changes in clothing, information, or services around acquisition
situation. Changes in clothing include improving the fit through using more flexible
solutions. Within children’s clothing, the length is a more common problem than the
width (Petersen, 2010), so especially use of adjustable sleeve and leg lengths could
prolong the use period. For women, more problems are caused due to the variations
between different body measures, such as height and proportions between the bust,
waist and hip measures. Most clothing is made to fit standard measures of these body
parts, which can make it difficult to find clothing that fits on all measures. Previous
research has shown that this is especially a problem to larger women, which could also
partly be explained by the current design and production process where clothing is
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designed and tried on only on standard sized, small models (Laitala et al., 2011c).
Therefore, the design process should be improved so that the clothing could be tried on
more models of various sizes and figure types. Additionally, improving the labelling to
include the information of these different measures could help in finding clothing that
fits, which has also been suggested by Faust and Carrier (2009). The standardisation
work in this area has been going on for over a decade, but as the participants do not
agree on the way to do this, the label is still not in use (prEN 13402-4, n.d.). The label
could provide more information, such as the length, which is especially important for
trousers, as well as figure type. Additionally, sometimes consumers’ own understanding
of their size is not that accurate. In these cases, help in measuring and labels based on
measures instead of “small” or “large” could help in recognising the correct size (Song
and Ashdown, 2013)
The flexible fit solutions do not only mean changes in the used materials, such as
increased use of elasthane, or the use of new design solution such as adjustable sleeve
lengths, but should also be considered in the pattern making. For example, cutting
patterns diagonally on some woven fabrics will increase the flexibility of the final
garment. This may increase the material consumption, and therefore the benefits should
be considered against the potential drawbacks. Clothing tolerates better changes in the
user’s body weight if for example the waist line can be worn higher or lower when
needed. This is valid for example for some skirts, that can be worn low at the hips when
the user has lost weight, and again higher on the waist if the user gains weight. There
are also other garments that can easily have this flexibility inbuilt, such as wrap-dresses.
In general, looser fit permits more variations in the body sizes, but the aesthetic end
results should still be in focus.
The purchase situation could also be improved. Consumers should be encouraged to try
on clothing to secure the suitability. The fitting rooms should enable all the consumers
to try on clothing, and considerations should also be given for consumers with
disabilities (Bjerck et al., 2014). Factors such as ample space, good lightning, mirrors
that enable seeing the garment from different angels can help in the evaluation of the
garment’s suitability. Sometimes the decision is difficult to make, and then feedback or
second-opinion on the appearance could help. This feedback could come from the sales
person, or even from friends or family, as providing pictures of the garment on from
different directions could enable the consumer to consider the purchase longer before
making the decision. Also using new technologies such as 3D body scanners could be
used to enable consumers to easier find clothing that fits, and even used in making
custom-fitted clothing (Ashdown and Dunne, 2006). Also increasing the availability of
altering services of ready-to wear garments could help to improve fit, but then, the
garments should be made so that alterations are possible, for example they should have
large enough seam allowances to permit adjusting the fit and size when needed.
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The service based systems such as altering, mending, styling, body scanning, education,
renting or sharing, are often given as solutions for ensuring longer clothing lifespans
and/or more intensive use, while ensuring economic viable dematerialised sustainable
solutions. However, there is only limited amount of empirical data available, and these
show that the results vary greatly between different services, and that savings are
usually not on a factor of ten scale (Heiskanen and Jalas, 2003). Therefore, future
studies should examine what the consequences would be of increasing the service based
industries within clothing.
Recently mobile-phone applications have increased popularity and are a common way
for the different stakeholder to provide information. Some of these are also used for
sustainability issues, such as Nike’s Making app, which is a reference guide for
comparing the impacts of different textile and shoe materials (Nike.inc, 2013). Another
example is a social sustainability application “Slavery footprint”, where the users can
give information of their consumption habits, and get feedback on how many “slaves”
has worked for making the consumption possible (Slavery footprint, 2011). To my
knowledge, no application exists that would give more complete overview information
of the environmental consequences of clothing consumption, but developing such
solution could give valuable feedback to consumers. Results from this study could be a
good starting point for making some of the assumptions of consumption that would be
required in such an application.
Increasing the clothing durability combined with improved information of quality and
expected lifespans would enable consumers to select clothing that could be
environmentally preferable due to increased possibility to more intensive and longer use
period. In addition to the recommendations given in this thesis, further detailed
suggestions for different product groups can be found in report by Cooper et al. (2013).
Niinimäki and Hassi (2011) have also suggested providing information of durability as
a sustainable design strategy. In order to do so, the information provided by the
wardrobe studies of changes that occur in garment during the use and laundering could
be used, and compared to the laboratory results. Future studies should concentrate on
how to provide and form this information, so that it could be trusted and understood by
consumers. One alternative instead of labelling each style separately could be to decide
of a minimum level that all garments of a brand would adhere to, and inform consumers
about the general quality level, which could be a competitive advantage. However, it is
important to evaluate the consequences throughout the lifecycle. For environmental
improvement, the benefits of increased durability should be greater than the potential
negative environmental impacts form changes in production, as shown by De Saxce et
al. (2012). In addition, garments only last as long as the weakest component on them,
for example increasing the durability of fabric may not be beneficial, if the seams,
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zippers or decorations are of poor quality (Fletcher, 2012). Therefore, another additional
cost of using this strategy is the costs going to improved quality control. For enabling
long product lifespans, also selection of materials that age well and maintain their
aesthetic qualities is important. Physical comfort is another factor that will make the
users more likely to keep on using the clothing. When designing with physical comfort
in mind, care should be taken to avoid materials that cling or attract dust due to static
electricity, have points with uncomfortable pressure, or diminish free movement.
If the aim is to increase the product lifespans, change in the systems where two-ways
communication between the users, designers and production sites could give
improvements. The designers should be able to get feedback from the users after the
product has been taken in use, as this would give an opportunity for the designers to
learn more about the use phase, if the products are used as intended, and how to
improve them if needed.
It is possible to be fashionable with low clothing consumption. As a design solution this
is referred to as slow fashion (Fletcher, 2008). As fashion was a less important driver
for the consumption, the results of this study can actually be seen as encouraging for the
designers who wish to work with sustainable clothing design. Less work is needed on
fighting the ever-changing fashion cycles, and it is possible to focus on issues such as
fit, durability, and how to make consumers connect with their clothing through other
symbolic values than fashion. Emotionally durable design can improve the emotional
attachment between the user and the product, and therefore, encourage increased use (J.
Chapman, 2005). Although having emotional attachment is not necessary in achieving
long product lifespans (Evans and Cooper, 2010), the results of this study have shown
that dislike of a garment is very likely to shorten the use period. User oriented design,
customisation, and co-creation are design solutions that can be used to increase the
emotional attachment.
Fletcher and Tham have experimented with the idea of optimised lifespans in their
Lifetimes project, and show how different types of garments are used differently and
therefore different design solutions for various expected scenarios may be beneficial
(Fletcher and Tham, 2004). They give several recommendations for future projects on
the field. This project has followed the ones that suggest placing the user at the centre
and to explore what happens to the garments post purchase, and to use multidisciplinary teams in the investigations.
One of the rather readily available environmentally preferable acquisition methods is
the acquisition of pre-owned clothing. The respondents gave their legitimisation of
reasons for their second-hand clothing acquisition behaviour, and based on these results
and a literature review, changes were suggested in three levels in order to inform, enable
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and guide consumers to acquire larger portion of their clothing pre-owned. The first
level applied for the infrastructure and the markets, where increasing the availability,
diversity of channels, price and quality classes could give access for a larger portion of
consumers to the type of clothing they would like to acquire. Several solutions were
also suggested for making the acquisition process function better, including improving
the store layout and organization. The second strategy was related to the properties of
the clothing. Improved size labelling could also help in the pre-owned clothing markets,
and it should be additionally easy to find and read. Another aspect of the clothing would
be to improve the technical quality as the clothing should be in good condition at the
moment of acquisition, even if it has been used before. Yet another improvement area is
related to the cleanliness, as some consumers associate second-hand clothing with
malodours and poor hygiene. The clothing given to reuse should be clean. This property
could also be improved by changing the consumers’ knowledge and attitudes, which
was the third strategy. None of the studies in the literature review took up an issue that
could promote pre-owned clothing consumption; that used clothing can be cleaner than
new as the harmful chemicals are washed out to a larger degree (Greenpeace, 2012).
Also increasing the consumers’ awareness of the environmental benefits of reuse could
help in increasing the pre-owned clothing acquisition, which could replace the
acquisition of new clothing to some degree.
Consumers can take several measures to reduce the energy and water consumption of
clothing maintenance, including reducing the laundering frequency, lowering the
temperature and using eco-programs, using the full capacity of the washing machine,
avoiding tumble drying and ironing, selecting materials that require less laundering and
using lightweight materials. Providing them information of the benefits of these
measures could raise the awareness, and potentially lead to changed behavior.
Information of that laundering at 30qC can give cleaner result than laundering at 40qC
with less efficient detergent should be an important detail. Technical solutions should
enable consumers to make these better choices. Feedback is easier to achieve on
washing machines than directly on clothing, although smart wear or use of RFID
technologies may deliver such solutions in time to come. Feedback design strategy
could be used on energy and water consumption, in addition to filling grade indicator of
that could show when full capacity of the washing machine is in use. In addition,
washing machines with low temperature programs even down to 15qC should be
available on the market, thus enabling the preferable behaviour and future developments
within detergents.
Also the clothing can be designed for reduced need of maintenance. This can be done
through selection of materials that do not get so easily dirty, are easy to clean, or where
the stains are either less visible or noticeable, such as when they could look as part of
the design. Design could also aim for the clothing to have a reduced contact with the
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body on areas that emit more perspiration, such as the armpits, where extra space could
hinder the sweat odour to get so easily attached to the garment. Rigby (2011) is doing
interesting research in this area by looking into garments that are laundered seldom, and
then using the aspects that contribute to reduced laundering in design of new clothing.
Also modular design could be used, by having detachable parts on areas that are more
prone to get dirt or stains, such as collar or armpits on white shirts. Modular design
could also be used to enable variation and versatility of use. This could enable day to
day variations, which are perceived important within social context of not always
having on the “same” clothes. Additional adjustments could be made for various use
situations such as work, leisure time and formal occasions, and to avoid boredom of the
user, thus potentially increasing the use. Modular design could also be used to have
detachable parts on the areas that are most prone to wear and tear, which can be
observed on used clothing.
Recently, some clothing producers have also started to use labels to encourage users to
avoid unnecessary laundering and tumble drying, as pointed out in the Labels article.
This is positive for raising consumer awareness on the topic. In addition, consumers can
select the clothing in the acquisition situation to avoid items that can’t be laundered
together with other items that they already own (such as deviating colours), or clothing
that requires ironing or other special treatments that make the use and care less practical
or leads to higher environmental impact.
Most strategies related to the way clothing is disposed of are based on information and
enabling, and aim at increasing the potential of reuse and recycling. The results showed
that consumer motivations for delivering clothing to reuse or recycling was mainly
related to moral aspects of non-wastefulness, as well as charity aspect of “helping the
needy”. Even though such awareness is good, it could be strengthened further through
increased information of what happens to clothing if it is delivered to clothing
collection, i.e. that clothing also goes to recycling and not only reuse, and that clothing
is sorted to many reuse categories suitable for use in various areas. In addition,
informing about the great potential environmental saving of reuse and recycling could
give extra motivation for delivering clothing to reuse instead of throwing it to waste.
The organisations that collect used clothing should also give improved information on
what can be delivered to clothing collections, as today, the information limits too much
on collection of products that could be reused or recycled.
Convenience was an important factor for recycling, which indicates that strategies that
enable and encourage consumers to deliver clothing to reuse could be successful.
Especially the access to recycling stations was crucial, and this is largest problem in
scarcely populated areas where take-back scheme or bi-annual clothing collections
could be viable solutions, not least to avoid highly polluting private burning of waste.
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Some papers also discuss what would the suitable methods for providing the relevant
information to consumers. Mass-mediated consumer communication can be used as a
tool to inform, inspire, motivate, instruct, and even persuade the consumer (Reisch and
Bietz, 2011). Reisch and Bietz specify that when the goal is to change consumer
behaviour to the sustainable direction, the message is more likely to have an effect if it
is positive, and specific to a particular type of consumption, or personal. The message
should also be relevant to the everyday life, easy to apply, and any necessary additional
elements such as services should be readily available (Reisch and Bietz, 2011). The
timing of the message is also important (Verplanken and Wood, 2006).
5.3.2 Product in control
The strategies that give higher share of the control to the produces include steering,
forcing and automatic solutions. It is easier to suggest strategies for steering the
consumer behaviour through giving more control to the products in the maintenance
stage than other clothing consumption stages. Washing machines and other laundering
products can even make some choices automatically, while it requires larger changes of
the current system to take into use clothing that forces the consumer to use it in
specified way, such as advanced smart wear or disposable garments could do. If the aim
is to force the consumers to change their behaviour, they could be easier to achieve
through other policy instruments than product design, for example through legislation,
regulations or economic incentives.
Several strategies for improving washing machines were suggested. The good cleaning
effect of 30qC laundering compared to 40qC indicates that a low temperature washing
program such as 30qC could be the default temperature for colour wash instead of 40°C,
as it might increase washing at this temperature when the consumer would actively need
to select the higher temperature. Technological developments in the area continue. The
current eco-design requirements for household washing machines in the EU require that
washing machines shall offer a washing cycle at 20 °C (European Commission, 2010).
The cleaning effect of such programs should be tested and documented in order to
ensure their functionality, and to inform the consumers on the potential to use them.
However, it is still important to remember the main meaning of doing laundry, which is
getting the textiles clean. Therefore, even though low temperatures or an eco-program
would be the suggested first choice, the washing machines should allow for more
efficient laundering at higher temperature, with more water, or more mechanical
agitation to clean even difficult soil types. Getting a clean result is decisive for
continued use of most clothing types.
The results showed that lower than recommended detergent dosages and even
laundering with water only already gave a significant cleaning effect in many cases. As
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there are several aspects that can potentially effect the need of detergents such as level
of soiling, selected washing program (variations in temperature, length, amount of
water, degree of mechanical agitation etc), water hardness, and amount of laundry;
automated solutions that take all these aspects into account may be beneficial compared
to solutions that aim to change the consumer behaviour. Automated detergent dosing
systems already exist (Sanner, 2011; Witte, 2011), but they could be further improved
to measure the degree of soiling in textiles in order to avoid unnecessary high level of
use of detergents. However, until such solutions are the norm, consumers could be
encouraged to be more aware and evaluate whether the detergent dosage could be lower,
for example through improvements in detergent packaging.
The laboratory results also indicate that there is room for additional technological
improvements, for example within increased spinning speed for lower moisture content,
especially of the wool washing program. This can reduce the drying time, and if a
tumble dryer is used, also the energy consumption.
Another design strategy is to address the storage need of half-used items, which could
help in solving the problems caused by unnecessary laundering. Even though having
access to this kind of wardrobe for example with airing possibilities would not give the
behavioural control to the product, still having a new furniture could have a strong
influence on the consumer behaviour in this matter.
Jack (2013b) conducted a small scale intervention experiment, where 31 participants
used a pair of jeans 5 days a week for 3 months without washing them. The results show
that for the participants, the expectation of not washing was worse than actually
performing the study. Many of them aired their jeans overnight. During the
experiments, the participants became more reflected over the collective conventions and
their own practices. Jack concludes that “interventions, like not washing jeans, recruit
early adopters to trial and model new practices, but it is through mainstream awareness,
interpretation, application and repetition that these altered practices become accepted
ways of doing: the new collective conventions” (Jack, 2013b:419). Work remains on
awakening this mainstream awareness and questioning the collective conventions, such
as frequent laundering and not wearing the same clothing several days in a row. In the
meantime, the prioritising of design solutions as suggested in this thesis could be used
to achieve changes already in a short time perspective.
5.4 Limitations
The research presented in this thesis is based on several methods, and all of them have
their limitations. Many of these method specific limitations are already given at section
3.3, but the more general limitations of the results and their consequences for the
conclusions that can be drawn from the study are discussed here.
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First, as the scope specified the research has been done in the Norwegian context, which
limits the potential to use the results for other areas, although it is likely that some of the
challenges and opportunities are similar in other Western countries, as discussed in the
scope.
Second, the wardrobe studies have given rich and detailed data, but unfortunately the
material based on 16 households is not representative for the complete population, and
the material on men and men’s clothing was less strong due to the lower number of
male informants. The same problem was also valid for the survey performed in 2010,
despite the efforts to recruit more men than women to the study. This indicates that the
sample can be biased, as it is likely that those men (and women) that are less interested
in the environment, fashion or clothing have chosen not to participate the study.
Third, even though the wardrobe study based on concrete clothing items gives more
reliable empirical data than general surveys based solely on what consumers say, the
data still has some deficiencies. The information the consumers gave may not be that
accurate. They had sometimes problems in remembering the age of many garments,
where they had received them, in addition to not always being that aware of all the
possible disposal reasons they may have had for each item. The age estimates of new
items as well as items that have not been used are more likely to be more exact than the
estimates on older or more used products. In addition, when the family disposed of a
large number of clothing, fewer details were registered per item, as the interview length
got too long for the informants.
Fourth, although the research results were given to the design students that designed
projects based on them, the provided solutions have not been tested in use with
consumers. This is one of the areas that should be covered by future studies, and is
discussed in the next section.
5.5 Future directions
New knowledge gaps and potential research areas have already been recognised and
given in the previous results and discussion sections, but these are summarised and
developed further here. The topics include methodological issues, clothing consumption
practices as well as design implications.
As a method, the wardrobe studies showed to have several benefits when the aim is to
combine the material and behavioural aspects related to products and their use and
where concrete empirical data based on specific items is beneficial. Therefore, the
method could be further developed and tested on other areas within clothing such as the
acquisition or maintenance phases to research further on how the various stages of
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consumption influence each other. Another way to obtain more detailed knowledge is to
limit the study to specific types of clothing, for example studying only the clothing that
remains unused in the wardrobe, or concentrate on the properties of the clothing that has
had very long and active use periods. The method could also be tested on completely
different product areas such as electronic household appliances, food, or furniture. This
could give new information that could be beneficial to stakeholders that are interested to
improve the use of these items, for example to study the lifespans and combined use of
electronic appliances, what contributes to food waste, or replacement reasons of
furniture.
One of the aims of the study was to obtain more information of the relationship between
laboratory test results and the changes that occur in clothing during real use. This aim
was followed up to some degree by evaluating the changes that occurred in the
garments, including the grade of colour change and pilling. In future studies, more focus
could be placed on making more laboratory tests that also evaluate other forms of wear
and tear, such as tensile strength, tear strength, seam slippage, and Martindale abrasion
tests. Having these results would help in the evaluation on how to give information of
garment durability and expected lifespan. For some test methods, it may be more
fruitful to test clothing where the original properties are known, such as the original
strength of a garment that has got a hole in it, as these properties may have changed
during use and therefore testing them afterwards may not give as exact picture. When
pilling or fuzzing was given as a disposal reason, the degree of pilling was evaluated by
four assessors according to grading given in standard EN ISO 12945-2 (2000). In these
cases it was assumed that the garments did not have pills originally and that they were
caused by use.
The effect of various demographic properties on clothing consumption should be
researched further. Very little is still known about several aspects within clothing
consumption, especially related to what people do, and not only what they say they do.
More comparisons should be done between countries, genders, age groups, and
consumers with various forms of clothing consumption practices, such as studies on
consumers who choose to limit their consumption through methods such as not buying
any clothes for a year. One of the limitations of this and many other studies on clothing
is that the samples are dominated by women and their clothing. Therefore, special focus
in future studies should be given to men, children, elderly, and their clothing, as there
are large differences between the consumption practices of these groups.
Most studies that compare the environmental impacts of clothing today are focused on
the production, and have less detailed knowledge on the use phase. This phase should
be incorporated as a criterion when the environmental effects of different clothing items
are compared. The present study gave information of how long time ago the garments
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were acquired and when they were used the last time, in addition to some information of
how much they had been used, but not exactly how many times they were in active use.
Future studies should concentrate on this topic in order to get more detailed information
of the active use period, not only amount of years but more detailed on number of uses
as well as number of washes.
Prolonging the clothing lifespans through reuse is the environmentally preferable option
to acquiring new clothing, but there is still a lot of information missing on the scope of
reuse, especially within the informal networks. LCA studies that calculate the benefits
of reuse must select the replacement rate of pre-owned clothing compared to new
clothing. This is dependent on whether the person acquired the pre-owned item instead
of buying a new item, or got it in addition. Also the condition of pre-owned clothing is
significant, as in whether it can have as long lifespans as new clothing, or is already
quite worn out and only has short life expectancy. This should therefore be studied
further to improve the LCA calculations that estimate the benefits of reuse in different
contexts.
Many of the suggested design strategies were based on information provision. At the
next step, the studies should concentrate on how to give the various forms of
information to the different parties. One of the main choices that should be given to
consumers is the possibility to choose garments based on qualities. This could be, for
example, including information of durability as in how many uses or laundering cycles
the garment tolerates at minimum without changing the appearance, such as resistance
to colour change, abrasion, pilling and shrinkage. Also the seams, decorations and other
components should apply to these criteria. The results from this study can be used when
deciding in which level such requirements should be set, as in looking at how large
colour change or degree of pilling is required for consumers to decide to dispose of the
garment. The results showed that the levels varied between the respondents and the
garment use areas, therefore, some more information is needed for the specific areas.
Many of the potential strategies are based on increasing the product-service systems
(PSS). Armstrong et al. (2014) have studied consumers’ positive and negative
perceptions various form of PSS within clothing, and conclude that take-back schemes,
swaps, repair, redesign and consultancy were perceived as the most interesting
possibilities, although there were differences between the preferences of different age
groups. The negative perceptions were related to lack of trust, difficulty of use, as well
as accessibility. The potential and the environmental consequences of various forms of
services should be researched further.
The applicability, feasibility and functionality of the suggested design solutions should
be studied and tested further. The first research results were given to design students
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who designed projects based on them, but they have not been tested in use with
consumers. Research should concentrate on whether the improvements in design
increase the clothing lifetimes, reduce the laundering, or reduce the amount of waste.
Different stakeholders should be contacted to get their view of what is feasible within
the current economic paradigm, and what would be possible if there were changes to it
either to a small or large degree. This was outside the scope of the current research
project, but future studies could test some of the suggested solutions in close
cooperation between users and designers. The design solutions could be prioritised
based on the disposal reasons that shorten the product lifespans. Recently, the wardrobe
method has been used by other researchers within the sustainable clothing consumption
field. Smith (2013) performed wardrobe audits of 17 women in the UK. Her results are
similar to findings in this present study related to clothing disposal reason categories,
but the most common disposal reason was dislike of garment style. Additionally, she
suggests design solutions both on the product and service level for some specific
scenarios. Her aim is to prepare a design tool after receiving feedback from the
designers on the suggested solutions. Another recent study with detailed design
suggestions for prolonging clothing lifespans came up with specific areas for different
clothing product groups (Cooper et al., 2013). As this report was part of a larger
prioritised government initiated project, it is possible that work within the SCAP group
will be continued. In that case, it will be interesting to follow up if the recommendations
are followed up in clothing design; especially if there will be studies that measure the
effects on the lifespans of clothing and the environmental impacts. The increased focus
on sustainable fashion and dynamic research field indicates that these topics are likely
to be studied further in the near future.
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6. Conclusions
This chapter will discuss the overall contribution of this thesis with a starting point in
the central hypothesis, and give the implications and recommendations for the various
stakeholders. The central hypothesis of this study was:
Interdisciplinary method triangulation that combines study of the material and
behavioural aspects of clothing consumption can give understanding of consumers’
clothing consumption practices that enables making environmental improvements
in the clothing value chain.
The previous chapters have shown that this hypothesis was supported, although with
some limitations. The first part of the hypothesis has been explored through employing
various methods on different areas of clothing consumption, and combining quantitative
studies with qualitative studies, and studies on material aspects of clothing with
behavioural aspects. For example, using method triangulation in acquiring information
of the clothing disposal reasons gave more detailed answers that are based on the
clothing to be disposed of instead of the consumers’ general opinions. This information
can be used in prioritizing design solutions when the aim is to prolong the clothing
lifespans. In addition, combining odour tests and surveys gave unexpected results of the
potential negative sides of the use of fabric softeners that nobody had reported on
earlier. Also the studies that concentrated on the specified life cycle stages showed that
the different consumption stages are interrelated and affect each other. For example, the
clothing lifespans were shorter than average when the user was not in control in the
acquisition process, such as when the clothing was given as a present or inherited.
Problems in the maintenance phase also shortened the lifespans, such as in cases where
the stain or odour removal failed.
The information acquired through studying used clothing and its users in the disposal
situation gives rich empirical data. There are several potential ways of using this
information for reducing the clothes’ environmental contribution through design
measures, either of clothing, related systems, or information flows, for example when
aiming to design for sustainable behaviour or longevity of clothing. However, consumer
behaviour is crucial, and the main limitation of the present study was that it did not
include a part for testing whether the consumers’ behaviour would actually change
based on the design recommendations that were given. This should be done in future
studies, as discussed in section 5.5. In addition, the study has contributed in identifying
information that can be helpful when motivating consumers to change their clothing
consumption practices to a more sustainable direction, such as the good cleaning effect
of 30qC laundering and the negative impacts of tumble drying.
105
As this project has had a highly interdisciplinary point of departure, it contributes within
several research fields including clothing, textiles, consumption, environmental, and
design research. These research results have given a lot smaller importance to the role
of fashion as a driver for clothing consumption than most previous research. Therefore,
one contribution to the clothing and fashion research can be seen to be a reminder to
take the materiality into account and not only concentrate on the immaterial aspects
such as fashion, or what consumers say they do instead of also looking into what they
actually do and whether the concrete clothing items reflect these practices. This study
has demonstrated that the wardrobe studies as a method is suitable for acquiring
empirical data of products and their use that includes both the material and behavioural
sides. This method may even be transferred to study other products and consumption
areas, as discussed in section 5.5. The study also contributed within textile engineering,
as it provides a starting point on looking into the relationship between textile laboratory
tests and the changes that occur in garments during use, which can be used when more
information of garment durability and expected lifespans is needed.
The starting point of this study was the clothing that went out of use. This is very
different to most consumption research, where the focus lies often in the acquisition
phase, and therefore this research can be seen as a methodological contribution also
within the consumption research field. By looking at the final consumption stage, new
information was received also of the earlier phases. Some of these insights could not
have been found by starting the study in the acquisition phase, such as the information
of that the way clothing was acquired also affected the later use and the length of
clothing lifespans. Similarly as the contribution to fashion research, another
contribution to consumption research can be seen to be a reminder to take the
materiality into account, in addition to the behavioural factors (which include here a
wide range of other factors that influence behaviour such as social norms, culture,
infrastructure, economy, habits, attitudes, motivations, and knowledge).
The work has also contributed within the environmental research field. Earlier, the
focus of environmental sustainability has been on improvements mainly within the
earlier stages of the value chain. These have been dependent on the existing tools, such
as LCA, which function better for measuring the environmental impacts of the
production than the use phase, because there has been a lack of information and
possibility to effect the clothing use phase. With this research, I have contributed in
gaining new empirical knowledge of this phase, in addition to the methodological
improvements on how to research this area. Especially the knowledge of the
relationship between the environmental impacts of laundering and the length of clothing
lifespans will be beneficial, when the environmentally optimal product lifespan are to be
106
planned, such as when deciding whether single-use disposable or long lasting textiles
are the better alternative.
Until now there has been little research on the design for sustainable behaviour within
clothing design. One of the contributions has therefore been in increasing the
knowledge about behaviour and related it to clothing design. Consumer research and
design are two fields of research that have had little exchange and cooperation despite
the fact that both research fields have something to learn from each other and focus on
many of the same themes. This study has therefore contributed also in gaining
experience in adapting a more holistic user-centred design perspective to clothing
consumption research. The suggested design strategies give mainly control to the users
instead of forcing the changes to them by giving more control to the products. I have
taken a starting point in products that have already been in use, and then looking for
possibilities for general improvements. Many of the suggested approaches have been
presented earlier as sustainable fashion design strategies, including slow fashion, long
life guarantees, customisation, modular structures, co-creation or participatory design,
reducing the environmental impacts of maintenance, services for longer utilisation
(including repair or altering), as well as persuasion, feedback and interaction with the
products. Even though these strategies are not that novel, the potential solutions given
here are based on regular garments that are going out of use, and therefore guide in
prioritising the selection of solutions with higher environmental advantages, and on
some strategies, include also some more details of the solutions. However, the final part
of looking into whether the strategies actually are viable in the way clothing design is
conducted today, and whether the improvements would change consumer behaviour still
needs to be conducted. Some of the solutions are only possible if changes are made by
several stakeholders in the whole clothing production and consumption system, as many
of the strategies are depended on the information and changes made by other
stakeholders either in the value chain, the regulatory level or at the user level. These
implications and recommendations for the different stakeholders are discussed in the
next section.
6.1 Implications and recommendations
The results of the study have implications on several levels and the collected
information is relevant to many different stakeholders including consumers, designers,
clothing, washing machine and detergent producers, retail sector, charity organizations,
environmental organisations, policy makers, standardisation bodies, and researchers.
The main options that consumers have for changing their behaviour to a more
environmentally preferable direction were summarised in the introduction and discussed
and developed further at sections 5.2 and 5.3. This study has shown that the consumers
lacked knowledge and had limited possibilities to change their behaviour to an
107
environmentally preferable direction on several consumption areas, such as selection of
more durable or eco-labelled clothing, but that they have a possibility to make
improvement on many other areas. Large amounts of clothing contribute to higher
environmental impacts in several ways. Each item gets used more seldom and can
therefore last longer technically than what is socially acceptable, while the chances for
that the owner changes body size increase during this time. Additionally, the large
amount contributes to filled wardrobes, which then again is used as a disposal reason.
Several potential changes within the laundering practices would be quite easy to
undertake, including the lowering the laundering frequencies, temperatures and
avoiding energy consuming practices such as tumble drying and ironing.
Design has great potential to affect the environmental impacts of clothing, but the
possibilities clothing designers have to influence products are highly dependent on their
position in the company and the frames they are given by their employees. Therefore,
making the largest required change in clothing design is changing the focus from mass
market volume sales or high fashion to concentrating on the use phase and how to
improve it. For the designers to be able to make this switch in thinking, the companies
should have environmental goals that aim higher than reducing the emissions from
production and transportation. The producers should provide the designers with a work
environment that gives solution space that enables them to do the changes that are
needed. The companies’ aims should be on the economic viability by increasing in the
quality and other added values to increase the competitiveness instead of only being
based on the quantity and selling more. The same condition applies also for most other
stakeholders, as making big changes require co-operation between all involved actors.
When aiming at design for longer lasting garments, the designers could prioritize based
on the most common clothing disposal reasons for the different consumer groups,
including the garment durability and size and fit issues. The aim should be functional as
well as aesthetically pleasing garments that are easy to maintain. The detailed design
strategies were already discussed in the section 5.3. The garments should go through a
quality control before the production, including the fabric, seams and trimmings to
ensure that they tolerate the intended use.
In the systems design level, improvements should be made in the communication
systems between the different actors in the value chain, from the variety of suppliers
(fibres, yarns, dyes, finishing chemicals etc.) to clothing producers, designers, retailers
and consumers. For increasing the clothing designers’ knowledge on how the products
are used after they are sold, feedback from the users would be beneficial. Additional
improvement on the systems level would be looking into the potential of incorporating
the service providers in the value chain.
108
Great improvements have already been made by the detergent industries through
replacing some of the toxic chemicals with less harmful ones and improving the
washing efficiencies at low temperature laundering. In addition, several eco-labelled
detergents are available at the Norwegian market. In the technical improvement side, the
development of compact low temperature detergents should be continued. The
efficiency of new laundry products should be tested before placing them into the market
and the results should be made public. They should have a functional effect and not be
misleading consumers, as the case some of the alternative laundry products tested in this
project seemed to be. The need of additional laundry products such as softeners should
be considered carefully, and at minimum they should be tested to ensure that they do
not have negative effects on the textiles, such as increased odour, but also other
potential negative effects that have been reported on in the literature. For improvements
in the use phase, the detergent packages could be redesigned to help consumers to use
more optimal detergent dosages. As many consumers seem to launder only slightly
soiled textiles, less detergent could be sufficient, as water already has a significant
cleaning effect. The packaging should guide for the optimal dosage for different
laundering conditions. For further development, detergent producers could co-operate
with washing machine producers to find automated detergent dosing solutions.
The recommendations for the washing machine producers and designers include giving
consumers the environmentally preferable options, guiding in selecting them, and even
some automated solutions. To enable the better choices, producers should continue the
technological development within reducing the energy and water consumption, for
example through providing low temperature laundering below 30qC and increased spin
drying efficiency, which could reduce the drying time and energy use if tumble dryer is
used. For guiding consumers, default programs could be used, such as low temperature
or eco-programs, in addition to supplying the machines with filling grade indictors.
Automated solutions could be further developed for detergent dosage use. The
environmentally preferable solutions should also be tested for the cleaning efficiency as
well as the potential effects they may have for textiles, and these results should be made
publicly available.
For environmental improvements within the retail sector, a change from quantity to
quality thinking should be made. Economic competitiveness could be gained through
improved product service systems and increased information that would give added
value to consumers. Added value could also be achieved through providing consumers
with more information of the chemical content and durability of the clothing, in addition
to improved fit and size labelling. As lot of clothing is disposed of due to poor fit or
unsuitable size, the stores should make it easier for consumers to find the clothing that
fits and provide a good environment for trying on the clothing. New technologies such
as body scanning could be used in achieving this goal. Services could be incorporated to
109
the business model, for example to help the consumers who do not necessarily find
well-fitting clothing within the regular mass customised clothing selection. As a large
portion of clothing is disposed of unused, the return policies could be more flexible to
find these items new owners while they still can be considered as “new” items instead
of second hand products. To improve the use phase, consumers should get clear
maintenance instructions, including the maximum temperature that the garment
tolerates, but also recommend lower temperature, reduced laundering frequency and
other resource saving options. Additional service stores should consider is take-back
schemes, where consumers could return their used clothing for reuse and recycling in
order to increase the used clothing collection rates. However, this should not be used to
encourage consumers’ clothing consumption rate.
Some services within clothing tailoring, mending and altering already exits, but
currently the services are quite costly when compared to the relatively cheap pricing of
new clothing. Therefore, the potential of individual tailoring for improved fit and
emotional attachment, as well as other services such as body scanning, styling, redesign,
and repurposing should be evaluated in co-operation with other potential changes in the
economic system, which could be changed through policy measures.
Currently the two largest charity organisations that collect used clothing in Norway
have a main focus in the social side of sustainability and the charity aspect, and
therefore increasing the focus of the environmental aspect could improve the used
clothing collection and reuse rates. The organisations should communicate better what
consumers can deliver and what the textiles are used for, as lot of the consumers were
uncertain of these details. For the environmental improvement, the organisations should
try to encourage consumers to deliver also recyclable textiles, and not only the best of
the reusable items. Additionally, the suitability of the current used clothing collections
system should be evaluated. Today, the communal waste handling systems do not take
responsibility of the textiles and clothing that are intended for reuse or material
recycling. This is done within other waste fractions such as glass, paper and metal. The
potential of including this fraction is discussed in more detail in a SIFO report (Laitala
et al., 2012c), which concludes that if clothing could be collected in a way that it did not
lose value due to moisture or odours, it could be economically profitable to sort textiles
as a new waste fraction and sell them on for reuse and recycling at current market
prices.
In addition to the clothes collection, charity and second-hand stores could make
improvements in the used clothing selling phase. The acquisition situation should be
made more convenient for the consumers, for example by making it easier to find the
needed clothing size and type. It seems that many consumers prefer the acquisition
situation of new clothing, and making the shopping experience closer to this could
110
increase the reuse by the majority of consumers who currently do not acquire pre-owned
clothing. As feeling of cleanliness was an important factor, care should be taken to
avoid odours in the clothing and the location. As some consumers did not like the idea
of using other, unknown peoples’ old clothing, experiments that the previous owners
provide a story behind the garment could be used.
Currently, the main clothing consumption related advice given by the governmental
environmental organisation to consumers is to choose eco-labelled, organic or longer
lasting garments (Norwegian Environment Agency, 2013a). These advices are
insufficient when it comes to clothing, because very little eco-labelled garments are
available, and there is no information given of the durability of the clothing. Many other
product groups such as paper towels, detergents and electric appliances do provide
several alternatives that are labelled to be environmentally preferable. Additionally,
other alternatives that consumers have a possibility to choose may have greater
environmental impact reduction potential, such as limiting purchases, selecting preowned products or laundering less are not mentioned. The advice should be updated
based on the current possibilities, and the environmental organisations should work
together with the other stakeholders to make further improvements within this sector.
The educational institutes should include home economics to the education programs to
ensure that students learn sewing and mending techniques, as these skills are important
for consumers to be able to repair and redesign. An additional area that should be
included is the importance of consumption and its environmental impacts in all the
consumption stages.
For researchers, this thesis has contributed especially in showing the methodological
benefits of using mixed methods, where specifically the wardrobe studies showed the
strength of acquiring new empirical data both of the behavioural and material aspects.
This contribution is of interest to several disciplines and especially for researchers who
are interested in working interdisciplinarily. The knowledge gaps and recommendations
for future studies were already discussed in the section 5.5, and are not repeated here.
The role of standardisation in regulation of products, services and systems related to
clothing consumption is often not thought of, but an important contribution. Here,
especially the lack of standardised clothing sizes and size labelling systems is one
important area, where some work is already undertaken but no agreement has been
found so far (Klepp and Laitala, 2010; prEN 13402-4, n.d.). There are also several new
areas that could be standardised but no work has been done yet, such as the expected
product lifespans, the environmental impact of use, and measuring the environmental
impacts of production in an equal manner. Having these standards in place would
enable comparisons between clothing items.
111
The role of policy makers is crucial. Today, the environmental challenges are mainly
regulated through setting limits to the chemicals consumption through legislations such
as REACH, while voluntary regulations include companies’ self-regulation,
participation in eco-labelling schemes, code-of-conducts, using standards and
involvement in CSR work, often aimed for improving the social side of sustainability.
The regulatory bodies should also have resources to monitor that the regulations are
followed. The media has covered lack of compliance on issues such as clothing that
include harmful chemicals, or accidents at production facilities showing lack of
following the international labour conventions. Kjærnes et al. (2014) point out that
when there is focus on sustainable consumption, the authorities have aimed at
increasing the range of alternatives, for example by supporting eco-labels, rather than
controlling and limiting the consumption. This lack of regulation drives up the
consumption rates, as the economy is based on increasing the volumes, the clothing
prices are very low and the marketing forces are significant. Even though the focus of
this thesis is on the consumers and designers, the responsibility should not solely be
placed on their shoulders. For ensuring a more environmentally sustainable future,
additional regulatory instruments and economic incentives should be taken in use and
enforced, in addition to the voluntary incentives such as information provision, which is
discussed here as a change in the systems design level. However, the present work also
points out the importance of changing the focus of the clothing and fashion design and
production from increased sales and volumes to aiming at improving the use phase.
112
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Appendix 1: Statements of co-authorship
Statements of co-authorship from:
1) Casper Boks
2) Ingun Grimstad Klepp
3) Marit Kjeldsberg
137
138
139
140
Appendix 2: Papers 1 – 11
Paper 1
P1 Labels
Environmental and ethical perceptions related to clothing labels
among Norwegian consumers K. Laitala & I. G. Klepp (2013)
Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, 17(1), 50-58.
Copyright © 2013 Hong Kong Institution of Textile and Apparel
(HKITA)
141
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RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013
Environmental and Ethical Perceptions Related to
Clothing Labels Among Norwegian Consumers
Kirsi Laitala1,2* and Ingun Grimstad Klepp3
National Institute for Consumer Research, Oslo, Kirsi.Laitala@sifo.no
2
Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim
3
National Institute for Consumer Research, Oslo, Ingun.G.Klepp@sifo.no
1
ABSTRACT
Norwegian consumers know little about eco-labeled garments as almost none are available
on the market. Therefore, consumers who want to make environmentally sound choices
have to act based on other information. This article discusses the environmental and ethical
perceptions of Norwegian consumers that are related to fiber content, maintenance, size, and
country of origin labels. The analysis draws conclusions from a research project where
in-depth interviews were used to collect qualitative data on consumer attitudes, knowledge,
and habits. The results show that several different types of labels on textiles can be
connected with environmental impact, both directly and indirectly. Sometimes wrong
assumptions are made, such as when all natural fibers are considered to be always more
sustainable than synthetics. The country of origin label is even used to evaluate the
production conditions or quality. The care label affects selection of laundry method and has
great environmental consequences, yet it is not usually perceived to include environmental
information. Ill-fitting clothing is an important disposal reason, and many respondents wish
for consequent size labeling and more information on the clothing fit.
Keywords: Clothing Labels, Sustainability, Consumer Behavior, Environment, Size, Ethical
Perceptions
1.
Introduction
et al., 2005). In some cases, the information is
checked and approved by an independent party.
Almost all clothing sold today has some attached
information in the form of labels or hang tags.
These are one of the important ways for
consumers to receive information with regards to
textiles and clothing. The legislation on this matter
varies by country, but it is common for the
mandatory information to include fiber content
and maintenance instructions (Thiry, 2008).
Additional often voluntary information that is
commonly found may include the price, size,
country of origin, environmental or ethical labels,
information on the manufacturer or brand, health
and safety warnings, technical performance,
statement labels by producers, decorations, etc.
Environmental and ethical labels include various
symbols, schemes, institutional and legal
arrangements (Niinimäki, 2006). Rubik and Frankl
(2005) distinguished between different schemes in
the following way:
•
•
•
•
Labeling is a form of communication between two
parties. It requires knowledge from both sides to
be used and correctly understood, and has to be
comprehensible, recognizable and believable (Li
•
* Corresponding author. Tel.: (47) 22 04 35 77; Fax: (47) 22 04 35 04
E-mail address: Kirsi.Laitala@sifo.no (Kirsi Laitala)
mandatory labels (for example, the EU
energy label relevant for household
appliances),
ISO-type I eco labels, classical second- party
labels (for example, the EU-flower, German
Blue Angel and Nordic Swan),
ISO-type II eco labels, self-classification by
industry or retailers,
ISO-type III eco labels, quantitative
environmental product declarations (EPD),
and
other relevant labels, including social and
fair trade labels.
50
143
RJTA Vol. 17 No. 1 2013
In general, only these direct environmental
statements are connected to ethical or
environmental information given on textiles.
However, almost no textiles with official
eco-labels, such as the Nordic Swan, EU flower or
GOTS, are available on the market in Norway. In
addition, knowledge about eco labels on textiles is
minimal. The exception is the human-ecological
label Øko-tex standard 100, and some organic
products. Therefore, in this article, we will discuss
the environmental and ethical perceptions of
consumers that are related to different types of
non-environmental labels. Our material is based
on a literature review and qualitative interviews of
Norwegian consumers.
and some of their selections may be made on a
subconscious level. We were also more interested
in the reasons behind the different ways of
considering the environment, and not solely on
how a large percentage of Norwegian consumers
thought that way. However, we will relate the
qualitative material to the findings of the
quantitative material in the project to some extent.
2.1
A strategic sample of 16 households was selected
for the qualitative study. Respondents were
selected from volunteers who had agreed to be
contacted after the quantitative survey was
conducted earlier in the project. The sampling
criterion was to find individuals with different life
situations, age, gender, civil status, and family size.
The respondents also had varied economic
situations and varying levels of interest in clothes,
fashion and environmental issues. The background
variables of the main respondents are listed in
Table 1. In addition to the main respondents of
each household, three of the cohabitants were
interviewed, two female and one male, which
resulted in 19 interviews.
The article outline is as follows: we start by
presenting the research method and continue with
a combined section on the results and discussion,
where we analyze each of the studied label types
separately, starting from fiber content and going
through maintenance, size and country of origin
labels. At the end, we conclude and give
recommendations for further research.
2.
Method
Table 1. Background variables of main informants
Variables
No. of
Property
informants
Sex
Female
13
Male
3
Age
20-34
8
35-49
6
50+
2
7
Family
No children
Small children
7
Adult children
2
Relationship Single/living alone
6
status
Living with partner
10
Area of
West Oslo
5
living
East Oslo
3
Other cities
8
12
Nationality All Norwegian
Foreign house-hold
4
member(s)
Education
Vocational
1
Bachelor level
6
Graduate level
9
12
Employment Working1
situation
Student2
3
Retired
1
The analysis is based on the clothing research
project: “From textile waste to material resources
in a grave to cradle perspective,” which was
conducted for collecting information on
experiences and opinions of consumers that
concerned clothing use, maintenance routines
(washing, drying and ironing,) disposal habits, and
environmental attitudes (Laitala & Klepp, 2010).
During the research, we saw that there was an
interesting tendency of our respondents to describe
environmental and ethical aspects of clothing
based on labels that were not directly related to the
environment, and this article is therefore a further
analysis of the in-depth interviews for obtaining
more information on this topic. These results are
discussed in light of the literature on how labeled
information affects the environmental contribution
of textiles, and thereby whether the informants are
using the information in a rational way. We have
chosen to use qualitative data in order to obtain
deeper knowledge on consumer perceptions on the
matter. Multiple choice options could have too
much influence on the rationale behind informant
responses on the relationship between labels and
environmental matters, as they have often not
thought about such in detail before the interviews
1
2
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Sample Selection
Three of them only work part time
All three students had part time jobs
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2.2
Interviews and Analysis
confusing fiber labeling with content labeling, and
assumed questions related to use of chemicals in
textiles to refer to synthetic materials.
A semi-structured interview guide was used,
where the topics were fixed, but not the exact
order or wording of the questions. The questions
were formulated in a manner that made the
informants describe and reflect on their
experiences in the form of a conversation. The
interviews took place at the homes of the
informants and lasted on average between 1 and 2
hours. The interviews were recorded, transcribed,
coded and analyzed with ATLAS.ti software. All
quotations from the interviews are given with age
and a fictional name of the respondent.
2.3
Studies show that different fibers tend to have
their own specific areas where they have the
largest environmental effect: the growth of
conventional cotton requires high water, pesticide
and fertilizer consumption (Grose, 2009); merino
wool production requires large land areas (Russell,
2009); and polyester requires non-renewable
resources and high energy consumption during
fiber productions which contributes to increased
CO2 emissions (Madsen et al., 2007). Some fibers
have a smaller environmental impact in the
production phase, such as recycled or organic
versions of cotton and wool, or Tencel lyocell
compared to regular viscose (Made-By, 2011).
This means that consumers can make
environmental decisions based on fiber labeling,
although only at a limited level as it is difficult to
compare different environmental impacts, such as
use of water and harmful chemicals, and there are
even great variations in production conditions
between similar fiber types depending on the
methods used. Different fibers are also maintained
differently, which causes variation in energy
consumption during use. For example, wool is
washed at lower temperature and less frequently
than cotton (Laitala et al., 2012). The later stages
of the life cycle are often not included in the
comparison platforms for environmental impacts
from the same fiber (Kviseth, 2011). This together
with the large geographical variations makes a
general comparison between the environmental
impacts of the fiber types unreliable.
Limitations
The distribution of respondents is by no means
representative of the population, but a strategically
selected sample (Eneroth, 1984). There is evident
overrepresentation of females, respondents below
the age of 35 and respondents with higher
education than the average Norwegian population.
During the recruitment phase, several men and the
elderly were contacted, and some were willing to
participate, but left the study before the interviews
either due to illness or other reasons. We still
believe that this wide selection criterion gives
examples of different consumers who are suitable
to discuss the project research questions.
3.
Results and discussion
3.1
Fiber Content
The labeling of fiber content is mandatory in many
countries, such as the USA, Mexico, Canada, as
well as the EU area. In Norway, the labeling has
been mandatory for decades. This legislation only
applies for the fibrous part of the garment and
should therefore not be confused with content
labeling, which is used, for example, for labeling
food ingredients. For instance, a garment can be
laminated and include over 50% of non-fibrous
content, and this is not covered by fiber labeling
requirements. This was not completely understood
by some of our informants. When the interviewer
asked Pia (59 years) on whether she missed
information about the chemical contents of textiles,
she answered: “No. And it could also be that we…
We should get more education on what kinds of
chemicals are used in synthetic fabrics, in
clothing”. She was not the only one who was
The majority of our informants checked the fiber
content label in a purchase situation if they were
uncertain of the garment content. If it felt like
regular cotton, the respondents would usually not
look for the label. The fiber label was most
commonly checked when there was uncertainty if
something was made of wool, a wool mixture or
not wool at all, as then the fiber content was
perceived as important information. It was also
obvious that many respondents felt that they did
not feel that they knew enough of different fiber
types to use the information. As described by Pia
from earlier: “Clothes that are marked synthetic,
such as acrylic, cordel, and a lot more different
names, we have no idea what they really are” and
48-year-old Nina: “I do not know what polyester
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is. Plastic? And I do not really know what lycra is.
And I think I know that viscose is a kind of cotton
that has been processed, but I do not know”. In
these cases, the label would not help to provide
any additional knowledge as the words that were
used would not have any meaning besides maybe
a rough classification of natural fibers, such as
cotton and wool to a diffuse group of "synthetics".
production is estimated to cause around 330 Mt of
CO2 emissions per year, whereas the use phase
adds another 530 Mt of CO2, which cause a total
effect of 850 Mt of CO2 per year. This equals to
about 3% of the global CO2 emissions (Carbon
Trust, 2011). Therefore, consumers can affect the
environmental impact of clothing through the
maintenance methods that they select. Care labels
tell the user how to take care of the garment so
that it can be cleaned without losing its properties.
The selection of care methods can be used to
reduce energy consumption during use, for
example, by recommending low washing
temperature or avoiding tumble drying (Figure 1).
Correct maintenance can also potentially increase
the lifetime of clothing (Laitala et al., 2011a). Care
symbols are standardized by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO 3758, 2005)
and GINETEX (Ginetex, 2011).
There was variation in level of knowledge in terms
of sustainable clothing purchase habits. This was
especially evident in the matter of fiber selection:
“Well, I know that cotton, for example, pure cotton,
is more environmentally friendly than blend
products or 100% synthetic [...] Environmentally
friendly clothing consumption ... Hmm ... it must
be that it is made mostly of wool and cotton" (Pia,
59 years). She considered all natural fibers to be
automatically better for the environment than
synthetics. Some respondents had heard that
conventional cotton production has detrimental
consequences for the environment. “So the only
thing you have heard of, it's organic cotton, and
that cotton production can be very harmful and so
on. But on the other hand, there is cotton in almost
all the things that I own. [...] So the consequence
is that in practice I do not really care so much
about it either, because I feel that I do not have a
real choice anyway. And I have also considered
buying a few things that have been organic cotton,
but then I had some bad experiences, that they
became somehow completely formless very fast,
and it really was not so practical” (Camilla, 29
years). Camilla knew that traditional cotton
production was bad for the environment, but had
some negative experiences with using organic
cotton. As she still wanted to use cotton, she chose
to not act on this knowledge. The dominance of
cotton in the clothing market was also obvious, as
several of the informants stated that they mainly
only used cotton clothing such as t-shirts, shirts
and jeans, and none of the interviewed
respondents refused to buy regular cotton, even if
they knew about the sustainability issues related to
cotton production.
3.2
Fig.
Examples of care labels
environmental messages
with
Selection of textile maintenance methods has great
environmental consequences, but none of the
informants directly related care labeling to
environmental aspects, and they had not thought
about lowering the temperature or washing less
frequently for reducing energy consumption.
Not all informants read the care labels, and many
of them trusted their own earlier experiences
based on similar garments on how to maintain the
clothing instead. If the label was checked before
purchase, it was for garments that they had some
doubts about that may have to be washed by hand
or dry cleaned. Many informants did not blindly
trust the labeling, and had often experienced that
garments tolerated washing in the machine even if
they were labeled with hand wash or dry cleaning,
Care Labeling
Even though the production phase has great
environmental impacts, many life cycle
assessment studies on clothing show that the use
phase is the most energy-demanding (Dahllöf,
2004; Madsen et al., 2007). Global clothing
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or could be washed at warmer temperatures than
the label indicated. This was described, for
example, by 39-year old Jenny, mother of three
small children: “Children’s clothing that needs to
be cleaned a little rough, that is when I check if
they tolerate it. And even if it says 40, they must
often tolerate 60 here anyway” (laughs a little).
These results are similar to a German study made
by Henkel, which revealed that 58% of the
respondents trust their personal experiences in
clothing maintenance. They also showed that the
laundering and ironing symbols are rather well
recognized, but symbols related to bleaching and
dry-cleaning are less understood (Schiller, 2011).
Dry cleaning is an alternative to washing, but also
has environmental impacts due to the harmful
chemicals that are used in traditional processes, as
well as energy required for the transport of
clothing (Udasin, 2011). However, clothing that
requires dry cleaning are usually cleaned less
frequently than clothing that can go through the
regular laundering process. On average,
Norwegian households use less money on dry
cleaning yearly than it costs to clean a dress,
which means that many households do not deliver
anything for dry cleaning every year (Brockfield,
2009; Statistics Norway, 2010). Ian, 40, checked
the care label when he has doubts on whether the
garment can be washed: “It should not be difficult
to wash them. It makes the clothes less practical
for me, and it is one of the reasons why I do not
use suits. It costs money to use the suit, you must
send it to dry cleaning. And dry cleaning is not
good, because they use awful lot of chemicals. So I
try to be a little... well not directly environmentally
conscious about it, it's probably mostly a question
of the costs”. He would like his clothes to tolerate
at least a 40°C washing, and uses that as a
selection criterion in purchasing situations.
Resistance to dry cleaning is widespread in
Norway and the environment is used here as an
argument (Klepp, 2003), although other reasons
may be just as important.
Most respondents had not thought about lowering
the washing temperature in order to save
electricity, although some washed at lower
temperatures, but then mainly in order to save the
clothing from wear and tear. Many assumed high
washing temperature was required for appropriate
hygiene on some products: “I wash at 90 degrees
when I wash things like cleaning rags, towels, and
bed linen, I do that. It may not be as
environmentally friendly but I think it's nice to
think that bacteria get boiled away. It may be too
much, I don’t really know” (Diana, 27 years). For
most respondents, the temperature selection is
mainly based on habit.
Another way that care labeling can influence the
environmental impact of laundering is whether the
garment can be washed together with similar items
or needs to be separately washed. In a textile
waste project survey, 64% of the respondents said
that they washed garments labeled with “wash
separately” together with similar colors, whereas
22% washed these items alone (Laitala et al.,
2012). Modern washing machines used in Europe
have fuzzy logic control, which means they reduce
the amount of water and hence energy
consumption when the machine is less than
completely filled. Even though automatic water
reduction takes place, it has been shown that it is
more resource demanding to wash with an unfilled
machine. When only one garment (about 0.5 kg)
was washed, the machine could still use 69% of
the energy and 50% of the water of a full machine
(Laitala et al., 2011a). Therefore, the common
warning text on care labels can have great
consequences for energy use during clothing
maintenance.
3.3
Size Labeling and Fit
The size label is one of the most important pieces
of information that consumers check at the point
of purchase, but it is not mandatory in most
countries. Many different systems are used side by
side (Figure 2), and variations within clothing
sizes that are labeled to be the same size have been
documented by several studies (Chun-Yoon &
Jasper, 1993; Faust et al., 2006; Kinley, 2003;
Laitala et al., 2009; Sieben & Chen-Yu, 1992).
The development of an international sizing
standard for clothing started in 1969 and the first
international standard for clothing size
designations including definitions and body
measurement procedures was finally published in
1977 (ISO 3635, 1977). The European committee
for standardization has adopted a modified version
of this standard into their work (EN 13402-1,
2001), and is now working further to develop a
common European coding system (prEN
13402-4).
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Unreliable size labels and clothing with poor fit
can lead to mistakes in purchases, which in turn
can increase the environmental impact of clothing
that has to be disposed when it is not suitable for
use. Several studies have shown that consumers
often experience problems with clothing size
and/or fit, and it is a common reason for clothing
disposal in addition to other reasons such as
changes in clothing appearance, and taste-related
issues (Domina & Koch, 1999; Klepp, 2010; Koch
& Domina, 1999; Laitala & Klepp, 2011). Size
and fit are more problematic for women’s
clothing, which could be seen in a study of
clothing disposal reasons where poor fit was
related to 22% of women’s disposed garments, as
opposed to 9% of men’s garments. In the same
study, about 18% of all collected garments to be
disposed had never been used or only used once or
twice, often due to poor fit (Laitala & Klepp,
2010).
for causing the differences. Consumers were most
dissatisfied with labeling systems that were
foreign, as they were not familiar with them, as
well as children’s systems that were based on age.
Some informants, mainly women, wished for more
information on fit in addition to basic size. One of
the most missed fit characteristics was different
trouser lengths and their labeling (Laitala et al.,
2011c). Another study has shown that consumers
prefer informative size labels that indicate body
measurements compared to the ones that do not
(Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1995). This could also be
seen in our study, where 25-year old Barbara used
to buy clothes online, but had stopped due to
problems with size and fit: “It is often really
wrong size and fit and ... And the clothes are so
different when you try them on, so ... I have made
some mistake purchases on the internet”. However,
when problems related to sizing are discussed, the
main arguments are usually economic, not
sustainability related.
3.4
Country of Origin
The country of origin labeling is mandatory in the
USA, but currently not in the EU (Federal Trade
Commission, 2005). However, the labeling is
under evaluation for clothing imported to the EU
(IMCO, 2011, OTEXA, 2011). In some countries,
it is obligatory to label the garments with the
manufacturer, importer or distributor name. In
addition, the using of brands is common in the
marketing of textiles.
On textiles, labeling the country of origin is also
sometimes problematic due to the long chain of
production, including several stages such as fiber
production, spinning, weaving, dyeing, finishing,
sewing, marketing and design. Therefore, the label
easily becomes inaccurate and unreliable.
Fig. 2. Examples of sizing systems that are used
side by side on women’s clothing
purchased in Norway
Very few of the informants read the country of
origin label, even if it was available. When it was
read, the information was usually connected to the
possible ethical problems in production, or
varying levels of clothing quality. They did not
connect it to local production with environmental
advantages due to shorter transport distances,
which has gained popularity in Norway and other
European countries within the food sector
(Vittersø & Jervell, 2011). A 30-year-old student,
Emma, described her attitude to the country of
origin label: “No, I do not really check it. Although
A recent Nordic study on clothing size showed
that there are great variations in size labeling and
consumers have problems in trusting the size
codes (Laitala et al., 2011b). Only one percent of
respondents could always use the same size, and
trouser measurements indicated that a pair of
trousers labeled as large could be smaller than
another pair labeled as small. There were the most
variations in women’s large sizes, which indicate
that the grading process may be one of the reasons
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I think it is good to buy, for example, Nordic
clothes, if I could afford them (small laugh). But
otherwise, it's very much China and Bangladesh. I
think, if I had heard news that worker rights in one
country in particular were extremely negative, I
would try to avoid that country”. When 32-year
old Heidi was asked whether she checks the
country of origin label, she answered, “No, it's not
interesting. I know that I get such a bad
conscience then, that I have to go home. [...] I
would have liked to have the financial ability to
purchase my clothes somewhere else. [...] I would
rather have had my clothes tailor made. I would
like that, because then I would know where they
came from, and have some assurance that both the
fabric and handicrafts were of good quality. I
imagine that then I could have them a little longer
as well, with the possibility to adjust/mend and
that they would have a fit that I like. But that's far
out of reach financially”. Forty-six year old Karl
said that he does not check the country of origin
label either, but that: “I just think of those poor
workers who cannot possibly earn much from this”.
This and similar responses indicate that consumers
were more interested in how clothes are produced
than solely where they are produced.
environmental impact of textile consumption are
lower energy consumption during use and longer
lifespan of clothing. There is no labeling that
directly addresses these questions. The care label
provides some relevant information. However, the
important issue on how easily the garment gets
dirty and thus required washing frequency is not
included. Another essential matter that is not
labeled is technical durability. There exists a
quality label for upholstery fabrics in Norway, but
no similar label for clothing. Some consumers are
using other types of labeling as indications of
quality, such as fiber labeling and country of
origin, even though these provide no direct
information about this issue. This was also seen in
a study by Cooper et al. (2010), where British
consumers assessed clothing quality based on
price and brand, and assumed it to reflect
durability.
4.
Acknowledgements
An essential work ahead will be to see how the
clothes can be labeled to improve consumer ability
to make informed choices and how to inform
consumers so that they will be able to convert
their environmentally friendly attitudes into
actions.
Conclusion
We have found the same lack of knowledge as
Connell (2011). Consumers assume that natural
fibers are environmentally preferable to man-made
materials. Some respondents also assume that
fiber content would indicate the complete
chemical content of the garment, which means that
labels in one area are interpreted to mean
something else.
The authors would like to thank the Norwegian
Research Council and Orkla ASA for financing the
project “From textile waste to material resources
in a grave to cradle perspective”.
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58
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Paper 2
P2 Reuse
Consumers’ Clothing Reuse: Potential in Informal Exchange. K.
Laitala & I. G. Klepp (Submitted) Journal of Consumer Policy
153
154
Consumers’ Clothing Reuse: Potential in Informal Exchange
Submitted to Journal of Consumer Policy
Kirsi Laitala 1,2 and Ingun Grimstad Klepp 1
1) National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO)
P.O. Box 4682 Nydalen
N-0405 Oslo
Norway
2) Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
Department of Product Design
N-7491 Trondheim
Norway
Abstract Great environmental gains could to be achieved through reducing the amounts of
clothing in circulation and increasing the lifespans of existing clothing. This article explores
consumers’ behaviour and motivations within clothing reuse, including informal exchange
and formal second-hand markets based on a sample of 1019 Norwegian consumers. 30% of
respondents reported to have received used clothing during the course of the past two years,
i.e., almost twice as many as those who had bought used clothing (17%). This indicates that
the scale of informal exchange is larger than the scale of formal markets. A majority (59%) of
the respondents had not received or bough used clothing. Taxonomy of consumers’
legitimation of second-hand clothing acquisition behaviour was prepared. Perceived benefits
of second-hand clothing consumption were general non-wastefulness and environmental
advantages, followed by economic reasons, and finally uniqueness, style and fashion-related
reasons. The barriers were general preference of new clothing, followed by unfavourable
shopping experience and contextual aspects, hygiene, and finally, perceived high price.
Changes can be made in three main areas to increase the reuse of clothing; properties of the
infrastructure and the markets, properties of the clothing, and consumers’ knowledge and
attitudes. The research provides new insights on consumers’ second-hand clothing acquisition
habits and motivations that are relevant for different types of stakeholders, including store
managers, charity organizations, environmental NGOs, policy makers, and consumers. The
potential of informal sector should be researched further and be included in the policies that
aim at reducing the environmental impacts of clothing consumption.
Key words Reuse; Clothing consumption; Second-hand clothing; Acquisition; Informal
exchange.
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Introduction
Current production and consumption of textiles and clothing fail to meet both the
environmental and social aspects of sustainability (Fletcher, 2008; Madsen et al., 2007).
Several life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on clothing have demonstrated that the greatest
environmental benefits can be obtained through increased clothing lifespans and reuse, which
reduces the consumption of virgin materials, energy and water in addition to reducing the
greenhouse gas emissions related to the production of new textiles (Farrant et al., 2010; K.
Fisher et al., 2011; McGill, 2009; Woolridge et al., 2006). This article will discuss the role of
informal sector as a potential area for environmental improvement. The informal sector has
been outside the political and academic focus. The existing environmental policies are
focused on the business sector, production, and on the markets. These markets are important
sources for clothing acquisition, but not the sole sources. Consumption occurs also outside the
markets and in this article we will discuss how this can contribute to greener solutions. We
will show that within pre-owned clothing acquisition, the magnitude of informal exchange is
in fact more significant than within the formal markets. We will do it by concentrating on
acquisition, not only purchase. There is a difference on how we understand what consumption
and consumers are compared to most of the current research on consumption. In economic
literature, the term “consumer” is increasingly used to replace the term “customer” (Lien,
2004), even though the meaning is not the same. Consumers acquire, use and dispose of
products while customers buy them. If consumers are only reduced to customers, the proenvironmental solution is limited to select and buy something “greener” at the market.
Consumers’ role as users with various alternative behaviours gives more opportunities for
pro-environmental choices. So far, the informal sectors are not sufficiently recognized, as
even most of the research on political consumerism is focused on people acting as customers
on the formal markets. For example, Sustainable Clothing Action Plan in the UK aims at
improving the sustainability of clothing across its lifecycle and has done significant work with
focus on increasing the clothing reuse among other topics. However, the suggested strategies
are targeted for improving the formal markets and clothing collections systems (WRAP,
2014).
This article starts with presentation of the theoretical framework of second-hand
clothing consumption and the different forms of exchange. Based on that, taxonomy of
different categories for legitimisation of second-hand clothing acquisition behaviour is
proposed. A quantitative consumer survey of the adult population in Norway is executed in
order to study the magnitude of clothing reuse, types of channels that are used as well as the
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perceived benefits and barriers for acquiring pre-owned clothing. The special focus is on the
scale and potential of informal clothing exchange compared to formalised markets, as less is
known about them. Strategies and policy instruments that aim to improve the pre-owned
clothing exchange are suggested, and future research areas are pointed out. The article
concludes with a summary of the results and recommendations for stakeholders.
Second-hand Clothing Consumption
Studies on second-hand clothing are mainly concentrated on the formal markets, and only a
few include also inheritance, swapping and other forms of exchange. Most of studies
concentrate on the amount of specific populations that have bought second-hand clothing, and
some also study the reasons for buying, as well as obstacles for not buying used clothing.
There has been more focus on consumers that acquire vintage or retro clothing than on
general consumers (Brace-Govan and Binay, 2010; Cassidy and Bennett, 2012; DeLong et al.,
2005; Jenss, 2005). Very little information could be found about private clothing exchange
(Corrigan, 1989; Gracey and Moon, 2012; Morley et al., 2009). A prevalent view on
consumers’ motives for acquiring second-hand clothing has been that they either have
economic or hedonic agency-oriented reasons for their clothing choice, but recently it has
been shown that these motives often co-exist, although the degree varies within different
populations (Bardhi and Arnould, 2005; Williams and Windebank, 2005). Consumers that
that are experts in thrift shopping and acquire second-hand products mainly from economic
reasons have often below-average income (Christiansen and Snepenger, 2005).
In general, studies point out that consumers bought second-hand, vintage or retro
clothing to reflect their personal ethical or recycling view of avoiding mainstream fashion and
to express their anti-consumption attitudes. These types of justification for obtaining used
clothing can be seen as a form of political consumption, which is defined by Micheletti (2003)
as:
“action by people who make choices of producers and products with the goal of
changing objectionable institutional or market practises. Their choices are based on
attitudes and values regarding issue of justice, fairness, or non-economic issues that
concern personal or family wellbeing, or political assessment of favourable and
unfavourable business and government practice.”
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In addition to the goal of being unique and original, having a specific style, ethical or
environmental aspects as well as the shopping experience of treasure hunting for quality
clothing at bargain prices were identified as motives (Brace-Govan and Binay, 2010; Cassidy
and Bennett, 2012; Charbonneau, 2008; DeLong et al., 2005; Ekström et al., 2012;
Henriksson and Kechalanlo, 2010; Roux and Korchia, 2006). Retro clothing was used to
construct identity with differentiation, but also to show belonging to a group of like-minded
people (Jenss, 2005). Economic reasons come as a more important motivation in studies that
concentrate on the general population compared to studies concentrating on vintage or retro
consumers.
Several studies have also pointed out barriers that consumers experience with regard to
acquiring second-hand clothing (Ekström et al., 2012; T. Fisher et al., 2008; Gracey and
Moon, 2012; Henriksson and Kechalanlo, 2010; Hiller Connell, 2009; Steinbring and Rucker,
2003; Stephens, 1985). These include:
-
Cleanliness and feeling that it is unsanitary, unpleasant or unhygienic to wear
something that belonged to someone else.
-
Inconvenience of shopping, including lack of stores nearby, poor store organization
and layout, dirt and bad odours, poor lighting conditions as well as a feeling of
crowdedness.
-
Available clothing was felt unappealing, old, outdated, poor condition, does not last as
long, bad odours, limited size ranges, missing size information, not reflective of own
personal style, and price similar to new clothing in discount stores.
-
Embarrassing to shop at second-hand stores or to wear second-hand clothing, believe
it is meant for a lower socio-economic range, and other people’s negative attitudes
(family or friends).
Figure 1 gives taxonomy of categories that are used for legitimisation of second-hand
clothing acquisition behaviour. The categories give examples of perceived benefits, as well as
perceived barriers. This taxonomy is made based on the earlier studies referred to in this
section, but it includes a wider variety of reasons than any of the individual studies has
pointed out. Even additional categories that were not mentioned in any of the studies were
recognised when the potential negative or positive associations to each category were
considered. Some of the categories are mainly valid for formal markets, such as the shopping
experience, while the others also apply the private exchange, such as economic and
environmental reasons.
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Fig. 1 Taxonomy for legitimisation of second-hand clothing acquisition behaviour
The taxonomy shows that the same or at least similar properties can be used as arguments
both for and against acquirement of second-hand clothing. It also shows that many different
arguments are used, that belong to different forms of rational thinking systems. These theories
are also familiar from other studies on consumption. Political consumerism can be seen
especially important in categories related to environment, ethics and non-wastefulness, but
also within the social aspects and reputation. The traditional idea of rational and self5
159
interested economic man (Persky, 1995) is connected to the economic reasons and quality, as
acquiring pre-owned clothing might provide clothing at minimum cost, and for example
receiving clothing from a family member does not require much effort. However, this
motivation may even be closer to Miller’s idea of thrift driven consumption, where the
consumers’ motivation is based on moral economy of the home. The aim is to take care of the
family with moral obligation to manage the household’s resources with care and not to waste,
(Miller, 1998). This is a lot less egoistic view than the idea of the economic man. Further, the
motivational categories that are not related to the economic capital such as uniqueness and
style, as well as fashion and trendiness can be seen as manifestations of achieved cultural
capital, while social aspects and reputation are more related to the collection of social capital
(Bourdieu, 1986).
Some studies also report on how large portions of specific populations acquire secondhand clothing. Of the UK population, 51% had sometimes bought clothing from charity
shops, 39% from online sites for used items, 28% had bought clothing from vintage shops,
and 25% had received clothing from friends or acquaintances (Gracey and Moon, 2012). In
Sweden, Ekström et al. (2012) report that 23% had bought second-hand clothing during the
past year (survey among low-price shoppers where women constituted the majority). In the
US a survey among 282 adult women showed that 6% bought second-hand clothing often,
46% sometimes and 49% never (Stephens, 1985), while some later figures for college
students are higher, as 80% of them had sometimes acquired second-hand clothing, and 20%
did it on regular basis (Hiller Connell, 2009).
This shows that although much is known about the clothing reuse channels, there is still
a lack of knowledge about the magnitude of reuse, especially through the informal channels,
as most literature concentrates on the formal trade markets. In addition there is a lack of data
on the perception of benefits and barriers to reusing clothing in different consumer groups, as
well as data from Norway.
Forms of Exchange
There are several different channels that can be used to pass pre-owned clothing from one
user to another. Polanyi (1957) has identified three major forms of exchange; market
exchange, redistribution and reciprocity. Market exchange is a direct, often pecuniary form of
exchange, while redistribution is a system of economic exchange with centralized collection
and redistribution of goods. Reciprocity refers to the non-market exchange of goods, labour,
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services or other commodities, either directly with immediate exchange, or by different forms
of gift exchange where a return can be delayed, as in the exchange of birthday gifts (Parry,
1986). Reciprocity differs from a true gift that is given without expecting something in return
(Mauss, 1970). We will discuss these different forms of exchange within clothing, and
concentrate especially on the informal forms of exchange.
The formal and organized channels that Polanyi classifies as marked exchange include
second-hand and vintage stores, used markets, charity thrift-stores, flea markets, and online
versions of them, such as Oxfam and Fretex, who use online sales channels, mainly for the
very best and most expensive pieces of clothing. Flea markets in Norway are often organized
to collect money for organizations and associations, such as school bands (Briel, 1999) and is
therefore approaching Polanyi’s redistribution category. Common to all of the abovementioned channels is that the clothing changes ownership through a third party.
However, Polanyi’s term market exchange is not limited to channels that involve a
third party. Private direct selling occurs as well, and several methods for finding the potential
new users, such as classified advertisements on the Internet, in newspapers or other places.
Other methods include organizing backyard or garage sales, selling by commission through
second-hand stores, renting a stand at flea markets, or selling directly to acquaintances.
Reciprocity or non-market exchange in the informal reuse sector includes a variety of
different forms. People hand down items to friends, family, or other acquaintances, participate
in clothes swapping parties, inherit clothing, give away things online, use new social media,
and so on. There are special websites for giving away, swapping, selling, and auctioning
clothing. In the UK the private exchange of clothing has been tentatively estimated to 100 000
tons per year, compared to 350 000 tons collected for recycling and reuse by charitable and
commercial organizations (Morley et al., 2009). It is believed that the informal exchange is
declining because of increased wealth and reduced clothing prices, as both of these factors can
make reuse less necessary (ibid). However, these estimations are uncertain as these items are
not captured by statistics kept by the organisations in the same way as the scale of formal
second-hand trade is measured. An alternative hypothesis to declining private exchange is that
it may actually increase due to the increasing amounts of slightly used garments and thus
potential number of clothes to give away. Additionally, increasing focus and understanding of
the environmental and ethical impacts of clothing consumption may contribute in changing
consumer behaviours and more political clothing consumption with private exchange as one
opportunity. Technical developments and new social platforms also give easier access to new
forms of exchange.
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Either way, to study change we need comparative material from different time periods,
but lack data. For example, one qualitative study that concentrated on wardrobe studies and
circulation of clothing in Irish families from 1989 showed that from about a quarter to every
third of the items in that the family members used were not self-purchased. These items were
obtained through other means or other sources than the market. These included gifts that were
either purchased on the market or family made, using other family member’s cast-offs, and
borrowing with or without permission (Corrigan, 1989). This was a qualitative study and we
have no studies that are directly comparable. However, it is interesting that it shows major
differences between the genders in terms of giving and getting clothing, and what forms of
exchange of clothing they take part in.
It is believed that it is more common to exchange children’s clothing than clothing for
adults (Laitala and Klepp, 2014; Morley et al., 2009). Another product group that is
considered to be commonly exchanged is maternity wear that is only owned for a short
period, until it is possible for the women to use their “own” clothing again (Gregson and
Beale, 2004). Some products have several owners. This sharing of products between different
users is not really reuse, nor is it solely borrowing. Belk (2010) points out that this is a natural
part of human culture that is understudied. This is likely to occur especially within families,
where for example sports clothing has shown to be a clothing category where sharing is
common (Skuland and Klepp, 2012). The relationship between the owner, user and
"administrator" of clothing is complex also within the families.
Environmental Benefits
Textiles can be reused as they are or undergo a processing stage in order to be recycled either
as modified versions of the original products or as completely new products with different use
purpose. Waste prevention and management are set as top priority in EU’s Sixth and Seventh
Environment Action Programmes. Waste Framework Directive enforces the targets and gives
a hierarchy of environmentally preferable waste management system that starts from waste
prevention, and continues through re-use, recycling, other recovery (e.g. energy recovery),
and finally, to the least preferred option, disposal (European Parliament and the Council,
2008). It has been estimated that three months longer active use time of clothing could reduce
the carbon, water and waste footprints by 5-10% in the UK (WRAP, 2012). The prolonged
lifespan is easiest to obtain when the first owner uses the clothing, as no work related to
redisposition is needed. However, this is not always possible, and in these cases reuse implies
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extending the lifespan of clothing by a new owner. As mentioned before, research on preowned clothing acquisition mainly concentrate on the formalised market channels (Morley et
al., 2009).
Several organizations collect used clothing in Norway, and majority of the majority of
collected clothing is exported for reuse in other countries (Fretex, 2011; Laitala et al., 2012;
UFF Norge, 2011). They may be charitable organizations, which often send clothes directly to
partners in other countries, or private companies that sell second-hand clothing for profit.
Although most of the collected textiles are going to reuse, some also go to material recycling,
and, unfortunately, some end up as waste. The most typical material recycling is downcycling into products such as rags, shoddy, and insulation, while a very small amount goes to
up-cycling such as re-design (Fretex, 2011; UFF Norge, 2011).
Norway is a rich country with high clothing consumption, and the amount of clothing in
circulation has increased greatly during the past decade, as shown in Table 1. The yearly
consumption of clothing in Norway is around 16.6 kg/capita, which is just slightly higher
compared to the other Nordic countries that consume 13-16 kg/capita (Tojo et al., 2012).
Nevertheless, as we will show, there is a significant amount of informal clothing exchange.
Therefore it is likely that the results related to informal exchange are relevant for other
countries also have it, as in Norway the economic reasons are likely to be less significant
motivational factors because of the high clothing consumption, wealth and relatively high
degree of economic equality in population.
Table 1 Statistics of main clothing streams in Norway (Statistics Norway, 2012a, 2012b,
2013)
Tons in 2011
Import of clothing
Kg/capita in 2011
Change from 2001
81 985
16.6
46 %
48 000
9.7
30 %
20 743
4.2
148 %
Textile waste from
households
Export of used clothing
and textiles
Knowledge of clothing reuse in informal markets can aim in achieving the goal of finding
more local solutions (Schor, 2009). These could reduce the environmental impacts related to
transportation of used clothing, waste dumping in underdeveloped countries, as well as
possibilities for reducing the rate at which new clothing is produced.
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Consumer Survey
A quantitative consumer survey was conducted in order to get more information of the
magnitude of pre-owned clothing acquisition in Norway, the used channels, and legitimation
of this behaviour. Before execution of the survey, the multiple choice questionnaire was tested
on a small pilot group, and some minor adjustments were made based on the feedback, mainly
to improve the understanding of the questions and answering options.
The research target group was the Norwegian adult population between ages 18 and
80, which constituted 3.7 million people in 2012. Adult population was selected as the target
group of the study to be able to compare the different forms of exchange. In addition, children
below a specific age are not yet active in acquiring their own clothing. The web-based survey
was conducted by TNS Gallup in March-April 2012. The survey invitation was sent by e-mail
to 2140 respondents, and the survey was opened by 1124 respondents (53%). Among these,
47 did not return a complete response, while 58 have accessed the form without filling it out.
In total, 1019 respondents answered the survey, which constitutes 91% of the respondents that
opened the survey (TNS Gallup, 2012). The survey was closed when the desired number of
1000 respondents was achieved, and therefore the remaining potential respondents had no
opportunity to participate. The final sample was weighted to match the distribution of
education, age, gender, and place of residence in the Norwegian population. The received data
was analysed with IBM SPSS statistics software. Pearson Chi-Square test was used for
evaluation of significance of the results.
Who Acquires Second-hand Clothing?
The results show that 30% of respondents had received and 17% had bought used clothing
during the past two years. Of these respondents, a minority (7%) had both received and
bought used clothing. This indicates that clothing streams within informal networks are
almost twice the size of the formalized networks that include the exchange of clothing for
money. However, the majority of Norwegian adults (59%) had neither received nor bought
used clothing during the past two years. The study includes only adults own clothing, and not
exchange of their children’s or other family members’ clothing.
Results between different demographic groups are compared in Table 2. There was
significant gender difference, as women had both received and bought used clothing more
often than men (p < .05). In addition, younger age groups and students are more active in both
buying and receiving clothing.
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164
Table 2 Results between different demographic groups with the number of respondents and
level of significance (Pearson Chi-Square significance test used, where significance levels
below 95% indicated by p < .05 were considered to be significant).
Group
Gender
Age
group
Employment
status
Personal
income
Highest
education
Housing
form
Men
Women
Sign.
18-24
25-39
40-59
60+
Sign.
Employed (Full or part-time)
Retired
Student
Unemployed, home-maker or on
social security
Sign.
Below 200.000 NOK
200.000 - 299.999 NOK
300.000-399.999 NOK
400.000 - 599.999 NOK
600.000 NOK or more
Sign.
Elementary Education (7- or 10year primary school)
Secondary education (general,
vocational or other)
Vocational training / certificate /
vocational secondary education
University with up to 4 years
duration
University with more than 4 years
duration
Sign.
I live with a spouse / partner
I live with a spouse / partner and
children
I live with my children
I live with my parents
I live alone
I share the residence with other
adults (shared housing)
Other, please specify:
Sign.
Has bought used
clothing
%
11
23
.000
24
22
12
16
.001
14
15
26
24
Has received
used clothing
%
22
38
.000
45
36
28
19
.000
30
19
45
31
Neither received nor
bought used clothing
%
69
50
.000
45
51
65
66
.000
62
68
42
56
N
.002
23
19
14
15
13
.056
21
.000
43
29
31
25
23
.001
29
.000
47
57
59
65
68
.001
56
17
29
60
452
15
32
58
165
16
29
61
123
16
32
59
144
.592
16
14
.957
24
33
.871
65
60
363
303
16
17
20
34
36
33
30
38
54
50
58
42
50
66
176
38
25
.043
45
.056
35
.009
20
515
504
115
274
392
238
626
134
109
136
177
180
235
265
79
135
Larger portion of respondents with low personal income received used clothing than
respondents with high income, but there was no significant difference in buying behaviour.
Level of education had less effect, but there was a non-significant indication of that those with
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165
only primary school education had bought used clothing more often than those with any
higher level of education. Respondents that had neither received nor bought used clothing
were more often male, older, retired or employed, had higher income, and living with a
spouse or partner.
Where Does the Used Clothing Come from?
Respondents who said they had received or bought used clothing were asked further questions
concerning the sources and motivations for these acquisitions. The respondents could indicate
all sources that they had used during the past two years. Respondents that received clothing
through informal exchange indicated that their main sources were family (67%) and friends
(46%). Respondents that had bought clothing acquired it most often from second-hand stores
(41%) and through internet (26%). Respondents that both received and bought were more
active in use of various channels and indicated that their main sources were second hand
stores (78%), friends (68%), family (67%), and flea markets (27%). There were significant
differences between the genders, as women in general got used clothing from a greater
number of sources than men. In particular, a larger portion of women bought clothing from
second-hand stores and flea markets than men, and they also more often received clothing
from friends. For men, the dominating source of used clothing was the family. Respondents
above the age of 60 received least clothing from friends and family. The level of income did
not show significant linear differences between the used sources, but the results indicated a
marginally significant trend that larger portion of the respondents that had income below
300 000 NOK had received clothing from family and bought clothes at second-hand stores (p
< .10).
Legitimisation of Second-hand Clothing Acquisition
The next questions were stated for finding out how the consumers legitimised their used
clothing acquisition behaviour. Respondents who had bought or received used clothing could
select up to three reasons for acquiring second-hand clothing from a ready-made list. The
distribution of answers is given in Table 3.
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166
Table 3 Consumers’ legitimisation for acquisition of pre-owned clothing within formal
markets, informal networks and a combination of both sources
Formal markets – Informal exchange - Combination Respondents that
Respondents that
Respondents that
bought only
received only
bought and received
(N=98)
(N=231)
(N=75)
Not wasting useable garments
31 %
71 %
49 %
For economic reasons
30 %
23 %
49 %
For environmental reasons
29 %
22 %
44 %
Get them for free
10 %
43 %
38 %
It fits my style
12 %
14 %
21 %
To have something that not
16 %
4%
22 %
To get brand clothes cheaper
17 %
4%
5%
There is larger selection in used than
9%
0%
4%
Other
10 %
4%
8%
Don't know
8%
2%
1%
everybody else has
in new clothing stores
This shows that the moral reason, i.e., the discomfort of throwing away usable clothing,
is more important than economic reasons and reasons that have to do with style and variety.
The uniqueness of second-hand clothing was a significantly more important reason for female
respondents than for male respondents, but there were no significant differences between the
genders in the distribution between the other reasons. Non-wastefulness was more important
for respondents above the age of 40 than for younger respondents. Uniqueness and getting
clothes for free were most important for the 18-24 age group.
Respondents who had neither received nor bought used clothing during the past year
could also give up to three reasons for not doing so. These are listed here:
x
Prefer new clothing
59 %
x
Don’t like to use other peoples’ old things
26 %
x
There is no second-hand store nearby
20 %
x
Too much work to look for used clothes
13 %
x
Clothes feel dirty
13 %
x
Can’t find clothes I like
11 %
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167
x
Better selection at regular clothing stores
x
Don’t like the smell of old clothing
9%
x
Can’t find my size in second-hand stores
6%
x
There is no flea-markets nearby
4%
x
Clothes are often too expensive
3%
x
Can’t find modern/fashionable used clothing
3%
10 %
Men were more likely to just prefer new clothing, while women stated several different
reasons for their preferences. Almost twice as many women as men said they could not find
their size or clothing they liked, or that they thought used clothing felt dirty or smelled. In
most cases there are no significant differences between the age groups, but the respondents
under the age of 24 were most likely to say that they did not like to use other peoples’ old
clothing, or that the clothing felt dirty or smelled.
It seems that the reason for choosing new over used clothing is related to certain
qualities of new clothing that they appreciate as well as to some properties of used clothing
that they do not like. In addition, availability of the clothing is an important aspect for many.
The prices seemed to play a minor role.
Respondents could also write comments on their used clothing acquisition behaviour.
The most often given reason (2%) for not acquiring used clothing was that they already had
enough clothing and did not need to acquire, or did not buy clothing, anyway. A couple of
respondents also commented that they had not done it during the past two years, but had done
it before.
These results are grouped according to the previously presented taxonomy. Figure 4
gives the grouped reasons that consumers gave for buying, receiving or avoiding second-hand
clothing. The motivations for or against second-hand clothing consumption were quite similar
to the reasons given in previous studies. However, in this study more information was
obtained about the differences between consumer groups, in addition to the clothing exchange
that occurs in informal networks. Many of the consumers seem to be executing political
consumerism as well as economic rational behaviour. These motivations seem to be especially
important for the consumers that are active in informal exchange. Achieving higher cultural or
social capital seemed to be more important for customers that were active in use of formal
markets.
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Fig. 4 Benefits and barriers consumers associated with the acquisition of second-hand
clothing grouped according to the taxonomy
Potential to Increase Reuse
This section will discuss the potential strategies for increasing the second-hand clothing
consumption based on the previous results section. The most frequently cited reason for using
second-hand clothing was not wasting usable garments. Even though this approach has
obvious environmental benefits, these consumers may be connecting it more to morality and
rational consumer behaviour than to environmental benefits. Informing consumers on how
large the potential impact actually is could still increase this development, thus requiring
communication based policy instruments. Heiskanen et al. (2009) have shown that the
reputation of the agencies providing this information is essential for the message to be
believed.
The second most common reasons for using second-hand clothing were economic,
either that the respondents got clothing for free from family or friends, or that the purchasing
price was low. Some were also motivated by the possibility of getting brand clothing cheaper.
However, economic reasons were also cited as barriers, since the price of new clothing is low
(Andersen, 2007). In addition, prices in some vintage shops may not be perceived as low.
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Here, further work could be done to target stores that sell used clothing to suitable customer
sections. There is already a separation between thrift and vintage stores in Norway, with quite
different selections of clothing and prices. There may be a potential to increase the midsection, where the clothing could be regular good quality items at reasonable prices, but
where the customers would not be worried about being associated with lower socio-economic
groups or being poor. This solution is already close to the flea markets, which offer the
possibility for treasure hunts with low prices.
Much of the research literature on the use of second-hand clothing emphasizes aspect
related to the cultural capital such as uniqueness, style and vintage fashion as reasons for
consumers to use second-hand clothing (Brace-Govan and Binay, 2010; Cassidy and Bennett,
2012; DeLong et al., 2005; Jenss, 2005). In our study these reasons were of less importance
than general non-wastefulness and economic reasons. This may be related to the scope of the
study, as this study includes all adult consumers, ordinary clothing, as well as informal
clothing exchange, while many previous studies have only concentrated on consumers who
purchase vintage or retro clothing. These phenomena seem to be different based on who
participates, whether they buy or receive the clothing, and which kind of motivations they
have.
The largest barriers to acquiring used clothing are the preference for new clothing and
the contextual aspects related to the shopping, such as the availability of stores and clothing,
and the shopping experience. As Valor (2008) points out, consumers have several roles to
fulfil in their lives, such as being employees or family members, and therefore have limited
time to use on selection of products. Several aspects of the shopping experience within the
formal markets could be designed to function better, both with regard to the assortment of
clothing and the layout, cleanliness and organization of the stores. 13% of respondents who
did not acquire used clothing said that it was too much work trying to find suitable garments,
and 6% said that they could not find their size in second-hand stores. This can be reduced
through better organization and sorting of clothing, for example based on categories and sizes.
This should be possible as charity shops have become more professional (Broadbridge and
Parsons, 2003). Another option is to give information about size on a separate, easily readable
tag that could make the search faster. Hygiene and odours were perceived as important,
especially by women and young respondents. Therefore, it is important to wash or sort out
clothing that does not appear to be clean. The physical store design could also be improved
with good ventilation, lighting, and organization. Previous research has shown that store
ambient including the sounds such as selected music type and volume, odours, colours and
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crowdedness are important for the shopping experience (Clarke et al., 2012; Ting-yan and
Wong, 2012). Implementing these changes requires more work from the businesses, but may
result in gaining increased sales, and in the long run even change the perceptions of
consumers who do not acquire second hand clothing today. These recommendations are
similar to the advice given by Hiller Connell (2009) for the US markets, indicating that the
problems are common in several Western countries. These barriers are less relevant for
informal clothing exchange.
Another hygiene related argument was given by consumers who did not mind receiving
clothing from people they know, but did not want to get clothing from unknown persons. For
these consumers, informal exchange is more suitable. However, the information flow within
formalized second-hand markets could be improved as well. Some experiments have been
made where the consumers who donated clothing wrote a short private message to the next
owner (Busch, 2004; Oxfam, 2011). This way, the customer gets to know more about the
history of the garment and the previous owner, which makes the clothing exchange more
personal and may help when the consumer has a problem with unknown previous ownership,
and even increase the product attachment (Niinimäki and Armstrong, 2013). This property is
used as a marketing advantage when it comes to celebrities’ old clothing. It is of high value in
the used markets, as there seems to be a belief that these products contain some remnants of
their previous owners (Newman et al., 2012).
Hygiene related arguments such as odour and feeling of dirtiness are probably also
related to the type of garment. O’Reilly et al. (1984) found that consumers were less willing
to purchase used garments that were close to the body, such as underwear. Therefore,
outerwear may be more easily accepted for exchange than inner clothing. Acceptance also
increased with experience of second-hand shopping (O’Reilly et al., 1984), which could mean
that if consumers first started to acquire at least some pre-owned clothing, they could
increasingly start to use this type of clothing acquisition later.
These legitimations of behaviour may be different for different types of clothing. It
seems that informal channels for children’s clothing may be functioning better than adults
clothing (Morley et al., 2009). There may be several reasons for this, such as that children
regularly outgrow their clothing, and at that point clothing may not yet be worn out, especially
babies clothing. Informal exchange could be facilitated further by using more gender neutral
children’s clothing, which would make it easier to find new users within the circle of
acquaintances.
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The answer options in the survey were not optimal for covering all possible positive and
negative associations consumers may have related to second-hand clothing consumption.
However, they give some main impressions of the most important motivations. In future
studies, more attention should be given to exploring all the potential aspects of consumers’
opinions, including social aspects and reputation, as well as the quality of second-hand
clothing. A qualitative approach could give a further deeper understanding of the underlying
motivations.
Discussion
As mentioned previously it is assumed that the private exchange of clothing is in decline. This
may be one of the reasons for why this phenomenon is so little studied despite growing
interest in reuse and recycling. Without comparative material from different time periods, it is
difficult to say anything definite about the change. There are a few things in the material
presented here suggesting that private exchange is not decreasing. One is the fact that the
amount of clothing in circulation is rapidly increasing and therefore there is more to give
away and therefore to receive. Another fact is that the younger age groups are more active in
reuse, while the oldest age group is least active. If the consumers that are young now will
continue to acquire pre-owned clothing as they grow older, the amount may increase. Further
studies are necessary to gain more knowledge about change in relation to the total amounts
and the relationship between the formal and informal sector. It is an advantage if these studies
will include the traditional forms (e.g. inheritance among siblings) and newer forms (e.g.
between friends on social media) of exchange. These studies should also be representative to
all age groups, including children. In addition, in such a comparison it is important to get
more knowledge of the amount of clothing and not just who participates in the activity. A
related topic where we lack knowledge is the various forms of recycling or down-cycling in
the informal sector.
As there is very limited amount of previous studies, there are several unclear factors
surrounding the categorization and definition of the various forms of acquisition. As the
Corrigan (1989) study shows, the boundaries between borrowing, stealing and receiving a gift
are sliding and is not only about how the garment is given but also dependent on between
whom the exchange takes place. Gift giving is usually understood as reciprocity exchange, but
we don’t know to what degree the informal clothing exchanges are reciprocal. The exchanges
may occur at swapping events where clothing is exchanged for clothing, but another
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conceivable option is that clothing is given away and the donator gets a cleaner conscience in
return instead of new clothing. The return gift in this case may be finding a good new home
for the garment, avoiding waste, or getting more space in the wardrobe for new clothing
items. The different types of opportunities for informal exchange should be studied further,
including the motivations and justifications to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon
and the different categories.
Conclusions and Policy Implications
A majority (59%) of Norwegian adults had not received nor bought used clothing for
themselves during the past two years. Every third respondent had received used clothing, i.e.,
almost twice as many as those who had bought used clothing. This indicates that the scope of
the private clothing exchange is greater than the formal market sales of used clothing among
adults in Norway. Pre-owned clothing was most often bought at second-hand stores and
through internet, while informal exchange occurred most often within the family and friends.
Women and younger respondents were more active in the reuse of clothing. Within the
informal channels, family is more a frequent source of used clothing than friends.
The current environmental incentives are marked oriented (Hobson, 2013), and
therefore shape and scope of the private exchange should be investigated further to find
suitable instruments for supporting this sector. When sustainable strategies are discussed, the
informal sectors’ importance should be recognized and equated with the formal markets to a
larger degree.
There is a well-documented “knowledge-to-action gap” showing that information
alone is not an efficient tool for changing consumer behaviour (Markkula and Moisander,
2012). However, increasing consumers’ knowledge can contribute in making them more
aware of the environmental advantages of reuse, and therefore change their values and
indirectly also the behaviour. There are various facts that have not been communicated to
large degree earlier. For example, the environmental advantages of reuse are several times
higher than selecting new “green” products, such as those made of organic cotton. Another
under communicated fact is that pre-owned clothing can be cleaner than new as the harmful
chemicals are washed out to a larger degree (Greenpeace, 2012). This argument should be
especially communicated to those consumers that feel that using pre-owned clothing is
unhygienic and to parents of small children as infants can be particularly sensitive to
chemicals.
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The properties of the clothing affect the reuse potential. For example, within children’s
clothing the gender specific products reduce the potential for the clothing to be reused within
the family, as the younger siblings may be of the opposite sex. This is not that specific
hindrance within the formal markets with larger pool of potential new users. In general,
clothing properties that effect reuse potential independent of the channels include the
technical quality of clothing, the size labelling, as well as the cleanliness. Future research
should concentrate on which properties on clothing effect on the reuse potential within
different sectors.
Norwegian environmental agency has a given out a guide for environmentally
preferable consumption of textiles and clothing. Their advice for consumers is to purchase
organic or eco-labelled clothing, or clothing of high quality (Norwegian Environment
Agency, 2013). These policy instruments are however insufficient. It is very difficult to know
which clothing is of high quality, as there is no labelling with this information, nor is it
directly connected to price or other available information (Laitala and Klepp, 2013). In
addition, there are very little eco-labelled garments available on the Norwegian market
(Austgulen, 2013). Additional regulatory, economic, communication based, or voluntary
policy instruments could be used in order to achieve more sustainable clothing consumption
(Heiskanen et al., 2009; Wolff and Schönherr, 2011).
Economic incentives could be used to facilitate the different forms of reuse and
recycling in addition to affecting the turnover of new clothing. Collection, sorting and
transportation costs related to the redistribution of pre-owned clothing within the Western
counties are relatively high compared to the cheap pricing of new clothing. Alternative
incentives include pollution charges or taxes, or subsidies for preferable products.
Voluntary instruments could be used to support the infrastructure of private exchange
that could enable consumers that do not have suitable recipients within their circle of
acquaintances to connect each other.
To support the formal reuse markets, further improvements should be made within the
properties of the infrastructure and markets, such as availability, diversity of channels, store
layout and organization, information flow, price and quality classes. However, the
implications for policy makers are likely to depend on the political and administrative context
in each country.
These results provide new insights on consumers’ second-hand clothing acquisition
behaviour and motivations in formal and informal sectors. The implications are relevant for
different types of stakeholders, including store managers, charity organizations,
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environmental NGOs, policy makers, and consumers. The article also shows that by limiting
our understanding of consumers to only customers we miss important insights about
consumption. When the goal is a more sustainable clothing consumption we need to include
the parts of consumption that are not only related to buying and selling.
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P3 Laundering
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering K. Laitala,
C. Boks & I. G. Klepp (2011) International Journal of Consumer
Studies, 35(2), 254-264.
Copyright © 2011 Blackwell publishing Ltd
Paper 3
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International Journal of Consumer Studies ISSN 1470-6423
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
1,2
2
Kirsi Laitala , Casper Boks and Ingun Grimstad Klepp
ijcs_968
254..264
1
1
National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO), Oslo, Norway
Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
2
Keywords
Consumer habits, drying, energy reduction,
laundry, textile care, washing.
Correspondence
Kirsi Laitala, SIFO, PO Box 4682 Nydalen,
Oslo 0405, Norway.
E-mail: kirsi.laitala@sifo.no
doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00968.x
Abstract
Life cycle assessment studies on clothes, detergents and washing machines show that the
use period is usually the most energy-demanding period during these products’ life cycle,
even higher than production or transportation phases. Laundering practices are constantly
changing and influenced by social, cultural and moral norms. Even though the technologies
in clothes cleaning have improved greatly, the length of time that consumers use for
washing clothes has not been reduced. We own more clothing and wash it more frequently.
This increased amount of washing counteracts the technological improvements in laundry.
This paper discussed the options of changing consumer habits in clothing maintenance to
a more environmentally friendly direction and attempts to evaluate which changes would
be the most feasible and efficient. Laboratory trial results on washing were compared with
earlier research on consumers’ washing habits. Laboratory-based tests measuring cleaning
effect, energy and water consumption were performed in order to evaluate the consequences of changing the washing temperature, filling grade, detergent dosage or drying
method. The cleaning effect tests showed that today’s detergents are suitable for low
temperature washing, and by selecting an efficient detergent, the cleaning result can be
better at 30°C than with a less efficient detergent at 40°C. When washing only slightly
soiled textiles or small loads of laundry, the detergent amount can be reduced. Many
textiles changed more in colour or strength if they were washed at higher temperature
(60°C) than at lower temperature (40°C or below). Tumble-dried textiles shrank more than
line dried. These facts can be used to motivate consumers to change behaviour in order to
reduce the environmental impacts of textile maintenance.
Introduction
Life cycle assessment studies on clothes, detergents and washing
machines show that the use period is usually the most energy-
demanding, and depending on the energy source, it can also be the
most polluting phase (Saouter et al., 2002; Otto et al., 2006;
Madsen et al., 2007). Different eco- and energy-labelling schemes
have been developed in order to facilitate users’ informed choices.
About of the authors:
Kirsi Laitala is a PhD student at Norwegian University of Science and Technology within Industrial Design Engineering. She has an MSc in textile, fibre
and clothing engineering from the Tampere University of Technology. At the moment, she is working as principal engineer at the National Institute
for Consumer Research. She has researched on areas related to clothing quality and size issues and is currently working with sustainability of clothing,
concentrating on the use and disposal periods. For more information, please see http://www.sifo.no/page/Staff//10443/48263-10600.html.
Casper Boks has a PhD in industrial design engineering from Delft University of Technology and an MSc. in applied econometrics from Erasmus
University Rotterdam. At the moment, he is professor in product design at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. His research
interests include sustainable product innovation and education, and he has focused on the organizational and managerial aspects of successful
implementation of sustainable product innovation in the electronics industry. He has supervised a number of PhD students on various related topics,
such as user-centred design for sustainable behaviour, eco-design management, stakeholder probing and learning in the fuel cell industry, sustainable
packaging design and human factors in eco-design.
Dr art Ingun Grimstad Klepp is head of research at National Institute for Consumer Research in Oslo. She has professor competence and leads the
Technology and environment research group. She wrote her MA and PhD on leisure time and outdoor life at the University of Oslo. Her current field
of research is clothing, laundry and leisure consumption. She has written numerous articles and books on these themes. For more information, please
see: http://www.sifo.no/page/Staff//10443/48249-10600.html.
254
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183
K. Laitala et al.
This has had a positive effect on the average environmental performance of washing machines and on detergents. Increasing
numbers of washing machines sold in Europe belong to highenergy labelling classes, and therefore, the average energy and
water consumption per load has decreased. At the same time, the
machines have maintained their washing performance and a higher
portion of the machines now has an automatic load detection
system (Stamminger, 2007).
Detergents are becoming more environmentally friendly as well,
mainly due to changes made in the formulations. Detergent compositions with enzymes function on lower temperatures, thereby
reducing energy consumption in use (Ryom, 2003). The compact
form of detergents reduces the transportation, packaging, chemicals, water and storage needs resulting in environmental benefits
(Van Hoof et al., 2003). Additional improvements can be reached
by continuing the replacement of harmful chemicals with biobased, readily degradable ingredients (Skagerlind et al., 2009).
Despite all these technological improvements, consumers’
choices can counteract the potential benefits of technological
improvements as they decide the method and frequency of
washing and drying. Their habits are dependent on both the available technologies as well as of information and knowledge – in
addition to a willingness to change. It will be easier to argue for
change when the consideration for the environment is not in conflict with other values. This paper identifies such areas by studying
the environmental consequences, cleaning effect and changes in
textiles in conjunction. These results can be used further to assess
the feasibility of changing various consumer habits with regard to
clothing maintenance.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. First,
background information on textile maintenance habits and resulting environmental effects are discussed. The methods and data
sources for measuring the consequences of selecting different
ways of washing or drying are then presented, followed by the
results of these measurements. The subsequent discussion aims to
combine the technical, social and psychological aspects of clothes
washing, including consumer habits.
Mundane routines with a big impact
The selection of washing temperature, frequency, type of detergent, ironing and use of tumble dryer are very much culturally
dependent (Arild et al., 2003; Pakula and Stamminger, 2010). A
majority of Spanish consumers (48%) wash their cotton T-shirts in
cold water,1 whereas the majority of Norwegians (48%) wash the
same products at 60°C (Arild et al., 2003). In Europe, the average
washing temperature is 45.8°C (Stamminger, 2009). A worldwide
comparative study of energy and water consumption of automated
laundry washing showed that the energy use per wash cycle
mainly depends on the average washing temperature (Pakula and
Stamminger, 2010). Eliminating tumble-drying and ironing in
combination with lowering washing temperature has been calculated to lead to around 50% reduction in global climate change
impact of a cotton T-shirt (Allwood et al., 2006). In the UK alone,
reduction from 40°C to 30°C could save 0.5 TWh annually (Bain
et al., 2009). In the recent years, information campaigns have
communicated the message of reducing washing temperatures to
1
Temperature of unheated tap water.
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Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
30°C in Europe. In the UK, a change was reported in consumer
behaviour as in 2002, only 3% of survey respondents washed at
30°C or below, whereas by 2007, this percentage had increased to
17%. During these 5 years, the average washing temperature in the
UK had decreased from 43.5 to 40.2°C (The World Business
Council for Sustainable Development, 2008).
In addition to energy, water and chemical usage, the washing
also contributes to wear and tear of clothing because of mechanical action, heat and detergents, creating damage to fibres. A scanning electron microscope study of cotton fibres showed that
washing caused fibrils from cotton fibres to be separated, resulting
in reductions in the fibres’ diameter, and the fibres appearing
stringy and peeled. Tumble-drying and especially over-drying
caused embrittlement and fibres to snap due to deep cracks
(Goynes and Rollins, 1971). Therefore, another motivation to
reduce washing and tumble-drying besides saving energy is the
possibility to save clothing from additional wear and tear.
Changing washing habits
Consumers’ washing habits are constantly changing. It is a
paradox that even though textile cleaning technologies have
improved greatly during the past century, the amount of time that
consumers spend washing clothes has not been reduced. We own
more clothes, and wash them more often (Klepp, 2003a). Washing
methods and temperatures have changed greatly after the industrial revolution. During the transition to privately owned electric
washing machines in Norway in the decades after the Second
World War, a discussion arose on whether the 95°C washing in the
machine could replace the earlier practice of boiling the laundry
on a stove. Until the 1970s, experts in home economics were
leading the change towards lowering the washing temperatures
(Klepp, 2003b). In the 1980s, further temperature reduction down
to 60°C was also recommended by experts. However, at this stage,
the change increasingly was led by new advancing washing technologies, materials in garments that did not tolerate to be washed
at high temperatures, and the consumers themselves reducing the
washing temperature to 40°C and lower despite the experts’ advice
to continue washing at 60°C (Klepp, 2007). This shows that habits
change through different mechanisms and are affected by new
technologies, available information as well as changes in society
and norms.
It has been shown that a large portion of clothing is washed
purely habitually rather than as a result of examining the level of
soiling first (Klepp, 2003a). Freshness is important, and it is a
common notion among consumers from the Western world that
clothing items such as underpants and T-shirts that have been in
contact with the skin should be washed after each use (Arild et al.,
2003; Shove, 2003b; Fisher et al., 2008). If consumers evaluate
cleanliness of clothes, it is usually performed by assessing visible
stains and odour, both before and after washing (Kerr et al.,
2005). Throughout history, the level of washing and acceptance
of body odours has varied greatly. Today, body odours are considered appalling and daily washes and use of artificial perfumes
is almost a norm (Ashenburg, 2007). These hygiene standards are,
of course, culturally depended with individual variations. In clothing, there are also product-dependent variations: woollen garments can be washed less often than cotton garments because
of cultural standards and inherent soil repellence, thus having
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Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
potential to save energy. However, if this difference in washing
requirements between fibres is not communicated to users or if
the user does not want to follow the recommendation, the potential saving is lost.
The aforementioned studies suggest that there may be a potential for reducing washing frequencies. Uitdenbogerd (2007)
calculated that the potential savings of using all clothing items
one extra day would be 100 wash cycles per year in households
(families with children). Some of the washing could potentially
be replaced by other cleaning methods such as stain removal,
airing or brushing. Airing is an especially good alternative for
woollen materials or for products that have a slight odour but are
not soiled. Traditional dry-cleaning is not an environmentally
good alternative as harmful chemicals are used and transportation
distances increase (Flückiger, 1999; Eckman, 2004). Another
option for eliminating energy use from washing is the use of
disposable clothing. This would, however, increase the impacts
from production, distribution and waste (Fletcher and Goggin,
2001). In practice, different solutions may be best suited for the
different clothing use areas, such as disposables in the medical
sector.
These examples show that there are various motivations for
realizing changes in consumers’ washing habits. Steering processes of change will need to consider integrated socio-technical
systems and will therefore be complicated (see discussion of
laundry as a system of systems in Shove, 2003a). Even though
many consumers are reluctant to change their washing behaviour,
they may be led to do so if barriers for change can be identified and
overcome. Providing information and feedback is one of the
methods used in campaigns that try to steer the consumer behaviour in given directions but will not necessarily result in the
desired changes under all conditions. Recent research has identified a range of other strategies that may be effective depending on
the context. Lockton et al. (2010) suggested a number of design
strategies aimed at altering users’ behaviour towards more sustainable practices. These strategies include choice editing, warnings,
portion control, feedback, rewards, colour associations, positioning and even threats. Several examples can be found in the design
of washing machines and detergents that guide the users towards
more sustainable behaviour, such as the use of eco-buttons or
detergent tablets that should ensure optimal dosage in wash (Lilley
et al., 2005).
Knowledge of environmental benefits alone is probably not
enough to change the consumer behaviour as there are several
other barriers for change. Throne-Holst et al. (2008) identified
six potential barriers for energy-saving solutions in households.
These included individual psychological barriers that are based
on earlier experiences or upbringing, physical and structural barriers, information barriers, political barriers, economic barriers
and cultural normative barriers. An example of the latter could
be the importance of cleanliness in the Western cultures, where
individuals’ fear of having body odour that may be caused by
unsatisfactory laundering results may inhibit the change to lower
temperature.
Many consumers express that they wish to contribute in
decreasing the environmental impact, but not at the expense of
other important goals and values or when it would be an additional
burden economically or through increased effort. When it comes
to laundry, both the cleanliness and textiles longevity are impor256
K. Laitala et al.
tant goals. With this in mind, we have selected several parameters
for further investigation. The primary purpose is not only to document the environmental impacts but also to find good arguments
for changing consumers’ practices.
Research methods
Laboratory tests were designed in order to measure the environmental consequences of changing various textile maintenance
methods. For clothes cleaning purposes, the fundamental factors
are solvent (water and detergent combination), mechanical action,
temperature and time. Five different washing variables were
selected based on literature cited earlier and tested after different
washing and drying cycles to consider the impact on both the
textiles and the overall sustainability of the laundry process.
Table 1 lists for each washing variable the main questions investigated, with the main relevant environmental and behavioural
aspects.
Table 2 gives an overview of the washing variables and the
parameters that were measured. All the tests were performed in
five equal Miele W307 (Miele & Cie. KG, Gütersloh, Germany)
washing machines that are labelled with European Union energy
efficiency class A for washing performance and B for spin-drying
performance. The machines’ capacity was 5 kg and maximum
spin speed 1400 rpm.
Cleaning effect
The method for evaluating cleaning effect was based on standard
tests used for measuring washings machines’ performance for
energy labelling purposes (EN 60456, 2005). Pre-soiled standardized textile swatches were washed in household washing
machines under specified laboratory conditions. The cleaning
effect was measured as a reflection percentage of the soiled
swatches with a spectrophotometer. The cleaner the swatches
get, the higher the reflection value, thus indicating better cleaning effect.
Energy and water consumption
The energy and water consumption of the washing machines were
measured several times under the washing trials with varying
temperatures and filling loads.
Textile changes
Six different types of woven textiles were washed repeatedly
under different temperature and drying conditions. The changes in
textiles were measured after one, 25 and 50 washes. Selected
laundering temperatures were 30°C, 40°C and 60°C. Half of the
samples washed at 40°C were line-dried (indoors) and the other
half tumble-dried. The tumble-dried samples were dried for
35 min at maximum 70°C (not over-dried). Textile properties and
use areas are listed in Table 3.
The changes in textiles after washing and drying were measured with different standardized methods. The change in tensile
strength was tested by drawing 50-mm-wide strips of textile
and measuring the breaking strength (International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) 13934-1, 1999). This method has
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185
K. Laitala et al.
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
Table 1 Washing test variables, research questions and motivations
Washing test variables
Questions
Environmental aspect
Behavioural aspect
Washing temperature
• Do textiles become clean at lower
temperatures?
• How much energy could be saved?
• Do textiles become more worn at
higher washing temperatures?
• What are the consequences of
using different filling grades on
energy and water consumption, and
level of cleanliness?
• What are the effects of washing
other garments with woollen ones?
• When can detergent dosage be
reduced?
Lower temperatures save energy and
environmental impact and can
potentially increase clothing life time
Consumers’ reluctance to decrease
temperature in fear of bad washing
result
Higher filling grades decrease
environmental impact per kg textiles
but may reduce the level of
cleanliness
Consumers’ reluctance to fill the
machine in fear of bad washing
result or due to sorting systems
resulting in lack of suitable items to
be washed at the same time
(especially woollens)
Consumers may overdose detergent
to be assured of clean textiles or
out of habit
Wool wash programmes have reduced
spinning speed, and consumers may
prefer other fibres to wool because
of the long drying time
Consumers’ choice in drying method
depend on many factors including
convenience, speed, energy use and
fear of damaging textiles
Machine filling
grade or type
Detergent dosage
Spin speed (wool)
• Can woollen garments be spin-dried
more effectively without increasing
shrinkage?
Drying method
• What are the differences between
tumble-drying and line drying in
terms of wear and tear?
High detergent dosage increase
environmental impact, too low can
reduce the cleaning results
Woollen textiles need less
maintenance and therefore, have
potential to reduce the
environmental impacts
Tumble-drying uses energy and
potentially causes more wear and
tear on clothing than line drying.
Table 2 Washing test variables and measured properties
Washing test variables
Cleaning effect
Energy and water
consumption
Textile changes
Residual moisture
Washing temperature
Machine filling grade or type
Detergent dosage
Spin speed (wool) (rpm)
Drying method
30 or 40°C
0.5, 2.5 or 5.0 kg mixed or single fibres
Full or reduced
–
–
30, 40 or 60°C
0.5, 2.5 or 5.0 kg
Full or reduced
–
–
30, 40 or 60°C
–
–
400, 900 or 1400
Tumble-drying or line drying
–
–
–
400, 900 or 1400
–
Table 3 Textile specimens used in testing
Code
Fibre content
Use area
Weight
(g/m2)
A
B
C
100% cotton
100% polyamide
69% viscose, 27%
polyamide, 4%
elastane
45% cotton, 55%
polyester
100% linen
100% acetate
Printed bedding sheet
Printed clothing material
Elastic trouser/skirt fabric
143
108
314
D
E
F
Bed sheet
Clothing or interior material
Clothing lining material
94.8
234
80.7
been used earlier for measuring wear and tear due to washing in
addition to some other tests (Ulrich and Mohamed, 1982;
Wilcock and Van Delden, 1985; Luijkx et al., 2004). The dimensions of the samples were measured before and after the washing
treatments to document the dimensional changes and shrinkage
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© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
186
percentage (ISO 5077, 2007). In addition, changes in appearance
including pilling and colour changes were evaluated (ISO 105A02, 1993).
Residual moisture
Residual moisture on the fabrics after washing depends among
other things, on the spinning performance of the washing machine.
It was measured by weighing the laundry load before and after
washing, calculating the difference in percentage of the original
weight. In this test, three different spinning speeds and two test
materials were used, underwear of merino wool in super wash
quality, and standardized wool shrinkage test fabrics without super
wash treatment.
Results
The main results from different laboratory based washing trials are
presented later. Detailed information of wash procedures are given
in referred test reports.
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Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
K. Laitala et al.
68
Reflectance tristimulus Y (%)
66
64
62
60
30 ºC
40 ºC
58
56
54
52
50
Det. A
Det. B
Powder for coloureds
Det. C
Det. D
Liquid for coloureds
Det. E
Det. F
Det. G
Powder for white
Det. H
Liquid for white
Figure 1 Cleaning effect of eight detergents
in two different temperatures.
Table 4 Summary of total cleaning effect (average reflectance Y) of eight detergents at 30°C and at 40°C
Detergent
Cleaning effect
Difference
Code
Brand
For
Type
30°C
40°C
%
Comments on difference between 40°C and 30°C
A
B
C
D
1
2
1
2
Colour
Colour
Colour
Colour
Powder
Powder
Liquid
Liquid
58.48
60.78
56.25
59.00
58.73
61.14
56.99
60.62
0.4
0.6
1.3
2.7
E
1
White
Powder
61.46
62.64
1.9
F
2
White
Powder
64.44
65.42
1.5
G
1
White
Liquid
56.13
57.69
2.8
H
2
White
Liquid
58.14
60.22
3.6
No significant difference in any washing effect.
No significant difference in any washing effect.
No significant difference in any washing effect.
40°C better in total washing effect, general detergency and amylase enzyme
activity. No significant difference in bleaching effect or protease enzyme
activity
40°C better in protease enzyme activity. No significant difference in other
washing effects
40°C better in general detergency. No significant difference in other washing
effects.
40°C better in total washing effect, general detergency and amylase enzyme
activity. No significant difference in bleaching effect or protease enzyme
activity
40°C significantly better in all washing effects.
The difference is calculated as percentage related to washing at 30°C.
Cleaning effect of different
washing temperatures
The cleaning effect of two different laundry temperatures, 30°C
and 40°C, was tested.2 Eight commonly used compact household
detergents for textiles were used in the experiment, including both
liquid and powder detergents for white and coloured textiles from
two different producers. These detergents were selected because of
their high market share and because their packaging and recent
commercials indicate that they are especially suited for low temperature washing at 30°C. The detergents were bought in Norway,
but the brands are international.
The results showed that the difference in reflection value was
on average only 1.9% higher at 40°C than at 30°C, indicating a
very small difference in cleaning effect (Fig. 1). Most differences
between temperatures were observed in liquid detergents for white
2
For more detailed information of the tests, please see Jensen et al.
(2008a,b) and Laitala and Jensen (2010).
258
textiles and least in powder detergents for coloured textiles. As
Table 4 states, the differences were often not significant. Detergents B and F, the best performing detergents of white and colour
classes, were the only ones in the test that had the Nordic Swan
eco-label.
Cleaning effect with different machine filling
grades and detergent dosages
Different combinations of machine filling grade and detergent
dosages were tested in order to measure the differences in cleaning effect.3 These trials were performed at 40°C. Two different
detergent dosages were used. The full dosage was based on the
instructions on the package and the reduced dosage on washing
machine user manuals, which recommend reducing the amount
of detergent in case of low level of soiling or reduced amount of
laundry.
3
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala and Eilertsen
(2009b).
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187
K. Laitala et al.
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
75
70
Reflectance (%)
65
60
55
50
70.0
68.0
69.4
64.9
62.3
60.9
45
40
Figure 2 Cleaning effect when the machine
filling grade and detergent dosage varies.
Full dose
2/3 dose
Full dose
5.0 kg
2/3 dose
Full dose
2.5 kg
2/3 dose
0.5 kg
Table 5 Washing variables and total washing effect given as average reflectance percentage for all pre-soiled swatches
Series
Base load
Pre-soiled test materials
1
2-kg polyester
2
2-kg polyester
3
2-kg polyester
4
1-kg polyester + 1-kg wool
5
1-kg polyester + 1-kg wool
6
2-kg wool
Polyester swatches 30 RM, 30 PB, 30 LI
and 30 D
Polyester swatches 30 RM, 30 PB, 30 LI
and 30 D
Polyester swatches 30 RM, 30 PB, 30 LI
and 30 D
Polyester swatches 30 RM, 30 PB, 30 LI
and 30 D
Wool swatches 60 RM, 60 PB, 60 LI and
60 D
Wool swatches 60 RM, 60 PB, 60 LI and
60 D
Washing
detergent
Washing
programme
Total washing effect,
mean value with 95%
conf. limits (%)
Wool detergent
Wool wash
56.3 ⫾ 2.0
Wool detergent
Delicate wash
63.3 ⫾ 0.2
Coloureds detergent
Delicate wash
67.0 ⫾ 1.4
Wool detergent
Wool wash
56.9 ⫾ 2.4
Wool detergent
Wool wash
59.7 ⫾ 1.0
Wool detergent
Wool wash
59.8 ⫾ 1.8
Each series was tested three times at 30°C. Results from series 1–4 cannot be readily compared with results from series 5–6 because of different
fibre content of pre-soiled swatches.
The most soil is removed when the laundry is washed with
smallest base load (0.5 kg) and full detergent dosage, and the least
when washed in a completely filled machine (5.0 kg) with reduced
detergent dosage (Fig. 2). However, the difference in cleaning
effect between reduced and full detergent dosage is minor, and
the reduced dosage could therefore be recommended when the
laundry is not very heavily soiled or when the machine is less than
completely filled, for example, when other than cotton programmes are used.
Wool and polyester become equally clean independent of
whether the wash load is composed of mixture of synthetic
materials with the wool or only one type of fibre (Table 5).4 The
delicate wash programme washes more efficiently than the wool
programme. Regular detergent for coloured materials washes
more efficiently than a wool detergent. Therefore, if synthetic
materials are washed with wool programme and detergent, they
do not get quite as clean as they would get on the delicate wash
programme.
4
5
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala et al. (2009).
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188
Washing temperature and changes in textiles
The changes on textiles were measured by testing the tensile
strength, dimensional change and colour change after one, 25
and 50 washing cycles at 30°C, 40°C or 60°C.5 After the
first wash, cellulose-based materials, cotton, acetate and linen
shrank more when washed at a higher temperature than at a
lower temperature. However, the dimensional change evened out
after repeated washing, and no significant differences between
the different temperatures could be seen after 25 or 50 washing
cycles.
After washing at 60°C, almost all materials exhibited more
intensive colour changes and more colour bleeding to other
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala et al. (2010).
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Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
K. Laitala et al.
900
800
Tensile strength (N)
700
600
Viscose/PA/EL
Linen
Cotton/Polyester
Cotton
Polyamide
Acetate
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
1
25
50
Figure 3 Average tensile strength results
after repeated laundering.
Number of washes
200
180
Tensile strength (N)
160
140
120
30 °C
40 °C
60 °C
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
1
25
50
Number of washes
materials compared with washing at lower temperature.6 Most of
the materials became slightly weaker after repeated laundering
(Fig. 3). The differences between the washing temperatures were
not unambiguous. Shrinkage and felting plays central role for the
tensile strength results as the materials get packed together more
tightly, and therefore, more threads are present in the 50-mm-wide
sample, thus increasing the strength. At the same time, the fibres
become entangled, which also causes an increase in internal
bonding.
Two of the fabrics (polyamide and linen) did not show any
significant difference in strength between the temperatures. The
weft samples of viscose mix and cotton/polyester got slightly
weaker when washed at a higher temperature, whereas the warp
samples had no significant change. For the acetate fabric, the high
6
Only one specimen was the exception, a cotton/polyester bed sheet that
maintained the colour better when it was washed at a higher temperature.
Some dye groups have better affinity to fibres and therefore better colour
fastness at higher washing temperature. The cotton/polyester material in
question had very poor colour fastness in general and was evaluated to
grade 2–3 already after the first wash.
260
Figure 4 Tensile strength of acetate lining
after washing at different temperatures
(strength not tested after 50 washes at 60°C
because fabric was torn to too small pieces in
wash).
washing temperature caused obvious damages as the sample was
torn into small pieces after 50 cycles in 60°C. More rifts could also
be seen in the sample washed 50 times at 40°C than at 30°C,
indicating direct effect of the temperature. The tensile strength was
on the same level when the fabric was washed 25 times at 60°C or
50 times at 40°C (Fig. 4). This result indicates that washingrelated wear and tear on acetate garments can be halved by reducing the temperature below 60°C. In general, acetate garments have
poor strength in wet stage and should not be washed above 40°C.
Energy and water consumption in washing
Energy and water consumption of different washing temperatures
and loads were tested. First, the energy consumption was measured at 30°C, 40°C and 60°C with 3.5 kg load and cotton programme.7 The results showed that washing at 30°C used
0.370 kWh, at 40°C used 0.526 kWh and at 60°C used 0.895 kWh.
This means that washing at 30°C used 29.6 % less than washing at
40°C and 58.7 % less than washing at 60°C.
7
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala et al. (2010).
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K. Laitala et al.
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
Table 6 Energy and water consumption with different filling grades
(40°C, cotton)
Energy consumption (kWh)
Water consumption (L)
Filling load (kg)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
5.0
2.5
0.5
0.51 (0.014)
0.48 (0.041)
0.35 (0.005)
46.0 (1.5)
34.1 (3.1)
22.8 (0.3)
Average and standard deviation calculated from four washing cycles.
Second, the water and energy consumption of different filling
loads was measured (Table 6).8 The washing machines used in the
test have fuzzy logic control and thus, reduce the amount of water
(and hence energy) when the machine is less than completely
filled. Even though the automatic water reduction took place, it
was still more resource-demanding to wash with an unfilled
machine. When the machine was only half filled, it still used 94%
of the energy and 74% of the water compared with a full machine.
Washing only one garment (about 0.5 kg) at a time is even more
resource-consuming as the machine still used 69% of the energy
and 50% of water of a full machine. Changes in detergent dosage
did not contribute to significant difference in energy nor water use.
Spin-drying
Wash programmes for wool often have reduced spin speed in the
area of 400–1000 rpm (Laitala and Vereide, 2010). In this study,
we investigated if the low spin speed is required to prevent shrinkage in wash or if the garments could be dried more effectively with
higher spin speed.9 The results showed that none of the woollen
test materials shrank more when the spin-drying speed was
increased to 1400 rpm. The effect on residual moisture was significant as specimens spin-dried at 400 rpm had much higher
moisture content than the specimens spin-dried at 1400 rpm (47%
as opposed to 24%). This indicates that the drying time of garments can be significantly reduced by increasing the spin speed
and that wool can be spin-dried at high speed without causing
additional shrinkage. However, when interpreting the results, one
still has to take into account that wool does shrink readily if the
mechanical action is performed in the way that the wet fibres move
and get entangled. Therefore, the spinning programme has to have
a rapid acceleration and slowing down phases so that the centrifugal forces will keep the garments trapped in place against the walls
of the drum during the spin-drying.
Tumble-drying and changes in textiles
The effect of tumble-drying on textiles varied between the specimens.10 Five out of the six tested textiles shrank more after tumbledrying than after line drying (Fig. 5). The tumble-dried specimens
were softer and line-dried harder than before wash. When the
appearance of the samples dried with different methods was com8
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala and Eilertsen
(2009b).
9
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala and Eilertsen
(2009a).
10
For more detailed information of the test, please see Laitala et al. (2010).
International Journal of Consumer Studies 35 (2011) 254–264
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
190
pared, the linen specimen showed that tumble-drying had positive
effects on reducing pilling. The line-dried linen was covered with
severe pilling, whereas the tumble-dried specimen had almost no
pills. This was most likely due to wear and tear due to tumbledrying, which caused the pills to fall of.
The tensile strength after 25 washes varied. Cotton, linen and
acetate had slightly higher tensile strength when line-dried, at least
on one of the fabric directions. The polyamide sample had slightly
higher tensile strength when it was tumble-dried. This might be
explained by the high shrinkage percentage as opposed to line
drying.
Discussion
Several of the results show potential for environmental improvement in textile maintenance. Regarding washing temperature, the
results confirm that today’s detergents remove soil satisfactory
already at 30°C instead of the more commonly used 40°C when it
comes to coloured wash in a household use context. An efficient
detergent results in better cleaning at 30°C than less efficient
detergent at 40°C. Greater differences in cleaning effect between
these two temperatures were observed in a study performed in
2003, indicating that the new detergent formulations are more
efficient at 30°C washing (Arild et al., 2003). Besides contributing
to energy reduction, using lower washing temperatures can reduce
wear and tear, potentially increasing clothes’ lifespan.
However, even though washing at 30°C is suitable and sufficient
for many of the laundry loads in households, there still are situations when it is preferable to wash at higher temperature. Terpstra,
(1998) warned that measures towards more sustainable textile
washing may reduce hygiene levels due to reduced soil and microorganism removal as well as bio-film formation in the washing
machines. As a minimum, one wash at 60°C once a month is
recommended to avoid problems connected to bio-film formation
as well as letting the machine dry with the door open between
washes (Bain et al., 2009). In some cases, there may also be other
reasons for higher temperature in wash such as when there is
sickness in the family, severe soiling or when a higher bleaching
effect is required.
Regarding machine filling grade, clothes do get slightly cleaner
when a machine is less than completely filled. However, washing
a 500-g garment needs almost seven times more energy and five
times more water if it is washed separately in comparison with
washing in a full machine. Consumers’ laundry-sorting processes
vary greatly and are influenced by several factors such as colours,
fibre type, use area and care labelling. Laundry that is not part of
the regular white and coloured washes is usually washed with
smaller loads. Some consumers are worried of overloading in fear
of bad washing results or damaging the washing machine (Uitdenbogerd, 2007). In addition, sometimes overly cautious care labels
on clothing may result in low filling grades, such as the use of
wording ‘wash separately’ instead of ‘wash with similar colours’.
For wool, the results show that other delicate garments can be
washed at the same time as long as the maximum limit of the wool
programme is considered, usually 1–2.5 kg. The wool programme
and detergent were not as effective in cleaning as the delicate
programme, but delicate garments that are not that heavily soiled
could be washed with wool and the cleaning effect would probably
be considered satisfactory. The spinning speed can be increased
261
Potential for environmental improvements in laundering
K. Laitala et al.
-12
Dimensional change (%)
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
Cotton
Polyamide
Viscose/PA/EL
Tumble-drying
Cotton/
Polyester
Acetate
Line drying
without causing additional shrinkage as long as the spinning programme has a rapid acceleration and slowing down phases so that
the centrifugal forces will keep the garments trapped in place
against the walls of the drum to prevent the wet fibres from moving
and getting entangled. The increased spinning speed will reduce
the drying time significantly.
Detergent dosage can be reduced when the laundry is not very
heavily soiled or when the machine is less than completely filled,
for example when other than cotton programmes are used. The
cleaning effect depends on the filling grade, washing programme,
duration, temperature, water hardness, type of detergent as well as
level of soiling on textiles. Detergent packages could be more
informative about appropriate dosages to enable consumers to
make the correct choices.
The study showed that tumble-drying only had a minor effect on
wear and tear but did cause additional shrinkage when compared
with line drying. Based on Labhard and Pedersen’s (1989) study,
tumble-drying is often selected because line drying is considered
to be time-consuming or because of lack of space. Consumers may
also find tumble-drying convenient because it results in softer
textiles, reducing the need for softener use and ironing. In this
case, there is a difference between line drying textiles inside or
outside as breezes may reduce the stiffness when hanging outside.
Sometimes, tumble-drying or ironing is also required for heatactivating water or soil repellent treatments on garments.
Uitdenbogerd (2007) studied Dutch consumers’ response to
different potential changes in washing to reduce the environmental
impact. The options addressed reducing the washing temperature
of coloured textiles to 25°C, more selective use of tumble dryers,
smaller washing machines, increased use of woollen garments and
use of fibre blends for bedding. In general, only a minority of the
respondents were willing to change washing and drying behaviour
and then often set conditions for change, such as better detergents
or convincing tests in consumer organizations’ magazines. An
even smaller minority was willing to seek material solutions such
as using different textile materials, changing to a smaller washing
machine or giving up the tumble-dryer.
Verplanken and Wood’s research on how to change consumer
habits has shown that habit change interventions that include
information campaigns are most successful when they are applied
262
Linen
Figure 5 Average dimensional change in textiles after 25 washing and drying cycles given
with 95% confidence limits.
in the right context, for example when the existing habits are
disrupted. Another way is to use interventions that prevent the
unwanted outcome from happening (Verplanken and Wood, 2006).
Besides these methods, Stern added that removing the main barrier
for change makes the intervention more likely to succeed and that
the most effective interventions also combine social influences,
incentives of various kinds and institutional support (Stern, 1999).
Conclusions
Literature tells us that there are various motivations for realizing
changes in consumers’ laundering habits, in particular, environmental ones, and that there may be potential for doing so. This
may be achieved through different mechanisms, either by changing the technologies, consumer behaviour or by a combination of
the two. Applying these mechanisms requires an understanding of
consumer’s attitudes, habits and prejudices as well as information
on how relevant variables such as washing temperature, filling
grades, detergent use and drying methods impact cleanliness, wear
and tear and the consumer’s time and resource use.
Because of the consumers’ laundering practices, the full possibilities of technological developments have not been achieved.
This is particularly evident in the case of washing temperature
where the development of detergents suggests a change in practice
to lower temperature. This would be a win–win situation for consumers because they can save energy (and thus, money) without
getting worse laundering result or requiring more effort from
them. Therefore, it is easy to argue for this change as the industry
has already accomplished. We see that trend is going in the right
direction. Besides information campaigns, applying design strategies to guide the consumers towards lower washing temperatures
could be used on the products related to textile maintenance,
clothing, washing machines or detergents. Convenience helps to
develop a habit, and if washing machines were designed so that the
suggested temperature for colour wash was 30°C instead of 40°C,
it might increase washing at this temperature as the consumer
would actively have to select the higher temperature.
In other fields, we see that there are still some gains to be made
through technological developments. Examples of this are the
wool wash programme that could have a higher spin speed to
International Journal of Consumer Studies 35 (2011) 254–264
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
191
K. Laitala et al.
facilitate the drying process and detergents that could have an
accurate dosing system in the package or even a completely automated system in the washing machine.
Probably the largest positive effect could be obtained by changing the consumer habits to a greater degree. Examples of such
possible fields are changes in fibre selection for clothing (greater
use of wool and less cotton), less frequent washing or line drying
outside. Here, only the most motivated consumers are willing to
change. Relevant information campaigns, if developed, should
focus on both the environmental benefits and other potential benefits for consumers. Transition to wool will primarily contribute to
less laundry and hence, less work. The same applies to less frequent cleaning. Other benefits of greater use of wool may also be
the warmth, which could lead to reduced need of heating indoors.
Positive arguments for drying outdoors could be the resulting
freshness of clothing.
In order to be able to use the information for changing consumers’ washing behaviour, further research should be performed on
what are the most important barriers for each of the suggested
changes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the laboratory personnel for
carrying out the experiments and Tone Skårdal Tobiasson and the
Technology and Environment research group for valuable comments. We also want to thank Norwegian Research Council and
Orkla ASA for financial support on the project ‘From textile waste
to material resources in a grave to cradle perspective’.
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194
P4 Alternative detergents
Cleaning effect of alternative laundry products: A comparison of
soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets, laundry magnets, water
and regular detergent. K. Laitala & M. Kjeldsberg. (2012)
Household and Personal Care today 7 (4):53-56.
http://www.teknoscienze.com/Articles/HPC-Today-Cleaningeffect-of-alternative-laundry-productsA-comparison-of-soap.aspx
Paper 4
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196
DETERGENCY
KIRSI LAITALA*, MARIT KJELDSBERG
National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO)
PO Box 4682 Nydalen
NO-0405 Oslo, Norway
*Corresponding author
Cleaning effect of alternative
laundry products
A comparison of soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets,
laundry magnets, water and regular detergent
KEYWORDS: alternative laundry products, laundry, washing effect, environmental impact, detergent laundry balls, laundry magnets,
soap nuts.
Abstract
The cleaning effect of soap nuts, laundry balls, washing pellets and laundry magnets has been tested and
compared with washing with conventional compact powder detergent for coloured textiles, and washing
with water only. The cleaning effect was evaluated by measuring the tristimulus Y reflection values of pre-soiled fabric strips after they
were washed according to standard EN 60456 at 40°C. The results showed that the cleaning effect of the four alternative laundry
products was equal to that of water alone. Conventional compact detergent showed significantly better cleaning effect at all tested
soil types. However, the results also indicate that water alone already has a substantial cleaning effect.
INTRODUCTION
W
ashing of textiles has major environmental impacts
as energy, water and different chemicals are
used. Several Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies
demonstrate that use phase of detergents, washing machines
as well as clothing dominate the environmental contribution
(1-4). Therefore, any improvements in the laundry process
such as reducing washing temperature, Àlling the washing
machine to its full capacity, correct detergent dosing, less
frequent washing and avoiding tumble drying can reduce
the environmental effects of laundering (5). Compact
detergents are environmentally preferable compared to the
traditional detergents due to lower use of chemicals as well
as advantages in transportation, packaging and storage
needs (6). The beneÀts include reductions in aquatic toxicity,
eutrophication, ozone depletion and photochemical smog (1).
The detergent industry is also working to increase sustainability
by using less harmful chemicals and more bio-based, readily
degradable ingredients (7). New alternatives to conventional
laundry detergents have merged into the market, including
soap nuts, laundry balls and laundry magnets, to mention
some. The producers of these products make bold marketing
claims but the documentation of washing effects are often
lacking data and very few scientiÀc studies can be found.
Pusic et al have tested primary- and secondary washing
effect of the laundry ball (Biowashball®)(8). This type of
laundry ball contains ceramic balls in a perforated silicone
shell. Primary washing effects are a measure for soil- and stain
removal and colour change. Secondary washing effects
are the degree of whiteness, ash content, and decrease
in breaking strength. The laundry ball was tested by its
own at 40°C and with 1/5 regular detergent in the wash,
as recommended for very soiled textiles by the producer.
Secondary effects were compared with unwashed samples.
Pusic et al. showed that laundering with ceramic balls
showed stain reducing effect on egg yolk, shoe polish and
ketchup, but did not remove red wine stains. The soil removal
efÀciency was increased on average by 5 , varying from
-66 depending on the soil and fabric type, when adding
1/5 of regular detergent to wash. Results also showed a slight
reduction in breaking force after repeated laundering up
to 25 cycles. There was no increase in ash content although
washing in hard water (22°dH) and the degree of whiteness
was not improved (8). Unfortunately, this test only included
one product type, and the washing effects were not
compared to that of regular detergents or of water alone.
Therefore, it is uncertain to which degree the cleaning effect
is a result of the laundry ball or of water alone.
53
Household and Personal Care Today - Vol. 7 nr. 4 October/December 2012
197
Bruce and Thulin tested three different laundry balls according
to Nordic eco-labelling criteria for detergents (9) at 40°C, and
showed that none of them met the criteria for cleaning effect
(10). The cleaning results of the washing balls were closer
to results with only water than washing with standardised
reference detergent. Their study did not include soap nuts
or laundry magnets, and did not compare laundry balls with
regular detergents. As this brief literature review demonstrates,
only a few studies have investigated the efÀciency of
so called eco-friendly alternative laundry products and
compared to the use of conventional detergents and water
alone. Therefore, in our test we have compared the cleaning
effect of four alternative laundry products with water and a
marked leading compact powder detergent for coloured
textiles.
surfactant, sodium metasilicate, calcium carbonate, sodium
carbonate, sodium tripolyphosphate, and cellulose gum”.
The package comes with a reÀll that should add another
250 washing cycles. In addition, a tube with stain remover is
included. Three laundry balls are to be placed on top of the
load in washing drum, and one should not exceed ö of Àlling
load of machine to allow the balls to circulate freely. Laundry
balls can be used in temperatures between 0°C and 60°C.
The selected washing program should not have reduced
amount of water, and the washing time should be around
0 minutes. The rinse cycle can be left out. Usually all three
balls are to be placed in laundry, but for loads below 2 kg,
two laundry balls are sufÀcient. The producer claims that the
laundry balls are to be anti-bacterial, because they raise the
water pH above 10. The package claims that the washing
effect has been tested to last up to 750 washes, but no
reference to the test report is given.
EXPERIMENT
The test method for evaluating of cleanliness is partially based
on the European standard EN 60456:2005;”Clothes washing
machines for household use – Methods for measuring the
performance” (11). Standardised artiÀcially soiled cotton
fabric test strips were washed with ballast in domestic washing
machines under laboratory conditions. The combined wash
test strip consists of Àve cotton cuts (15x15 cm) joined together
into a strip carrying different types of artiÀcial soil; unsoiled,
carbon black/mineral oil, blood, cocoa and red wine. The
cleaning effect was evaluated by measuring the reÁectance
value called tristimulus value Y of the washed test strips with a
spectrophotometer (12). Every washed piece was measured
twice on both sides. The average reÁectance value for each
soil type is given as the mean value of the readings for each
of the soiled test pieces used in the test.
Laundry products and dosages
Figure 1 shows the products we have tested. The dosages are
based on the instructions given on the packages for normally
soiled laundry and soft water with hardness of below 1 °dH.
Numbered codes for soil swatches were used during the test.
When presenting the products, we use the information given
by the producers.
Figure 1. The alternative laundry products used in the test.
From left: Laundry balls, soap nuts, washing pellets, laundry
magnets and regular detergent.
Laundry balls are plastic balls that contain small washing
pellets inside. Their content is claimed to be non-toxic and
hypoallergenic, and includes “higher alkyl sulphate, non-ionic
54
Soap nuts are nutshells that contain saponin, a kind of natural
soap (surfactant). They can be used in temperatures between
0°C and 90°C. Four to six half nutshells (6-8 g) are to be
placed in a cotton bag and washed with the laundry. The
instruction state that nuts could be used twice when washed
at 0°C - 60°C. We used new nutshells in every wash in the test.
A colour change from brown to black should indicate that all
saponin had been exhausted. As soap nuts do not contain
bleaching chemicals, the producer advices to use a natural
bleach agent on every third to fourth white laundry load in
order to prevent greying of textiles. DifÀcult stains should be
pre-treated with gall soap or some other form of natural stain
remover. The nuts are claimed to clean laundry in a natural
way without leaving any chemical residues in the textiles.
Washing pellets is a polyamide 6 washing bag with zipper, in
aluminium- zinc alloy, containing small washing pellets inside.
The pellets have three different colours: yellow, green and
dark purple and contains; sodium alkyl sulphate, non ionic
surfactant (from coconut oil), disodium disilicate (Na2O5Si2),
ligands, pH-regulating agents, water and perfume. All
ingredients are claimed to be easily biodegradable and have
no known negative ecological effects. The bag is placed in
the middle of the laundry, and can be used up to 50 washes
when used in a 5 minutes washing cycle. It can be used in
temperatures between 0°C and 95°C. It is suitable for all kinds
of textiles, but is claimed to work best for cotton. The bags are
to be re- Àlled when the content is reduced to about half. It is
claimed to function by creating a reaction in the water with
the help of minerals that increase the pH value and activate
the water molecules. This in turn should increase the waters
natural dissolving effect in cleaning textiles. It does not contain
any allergenic substances, and it is antibacterial. The producer
claims that the washing pellets clean as well as 0-40 grams
of regular detergent of -4 kg of textiles, and with less soiled
textiles, it should wash up to 5 kg load. The product information
states that it has been tested, but no reference to the report
can be found.
Laundry magnets are a set of two plastic coated magnets
that are placed inside of the washing machine drum on
opposite sides. The magnets have lifetime warranty and
are guaranteed to perform as long as they are owned, and
used according to the instructions. They can be used with
all temperatures and washing programs, but hot setting is
recommended as it has been shown to achieve best results.
Household and Personal Care Today - Vol. 7 nr. 4 October/December 2012
198
The producer claims that the product is independently tested
and proven and has two patents, but no reference to the test
report is given.
Regular detergent is a compact powder detergent for
coloured textiles for domestic use. The content is 15-0
zeolite, 5-15 non-ionic and anionic surfactants and
less than 5 soap, phosphonates, poly carboxylate and
perfume. The dosage is 45 ml which corresponds to 4,95g
as recommended by the producer for normally soiled
laundry and soft water. The detergent is labelled with the
ofÀcial Nordic ecolabel, the Swan. The product information
states that the surfactants are easily biodegradable and the
powder is phosphate –free. The compact powder is claimed
to be so effective that you will receive satisfactory clean
laundering results all the way down to 0°C. If the washing
temperature is adjusted down from 40°C to 0°C, you will
save energy. For heavily soiled textiles or laundries that require
hygienic wash, the producer recommends washing at a
higher temperature.
Water, we used soft tap water with water hardness in
between 0.5-0.8 ºdH. This water type was used in all tests.
As the laundry pellets and laundry balls are supposed to
tolerate a large number of washing cycles, respectively 50
and 750. These products were used in Àve washing cycles with
ballast, but without soiling before the test started. This was
done to get a more realistic picture of how these products
function during normal use.
Washing conditions
We used three identical Miele W 07 domestic washing
machines. These machines are labelled with European Union
energy efÀciency class A for washing performance and B for
spin drying performance. The maximum capacity is 5 kg and
maximum spinning speed is 1400 rpm. We rotated the laundry
between the washing machines, and rinsed the machines
between each repetition.
Each laundry product was tested three times. A normal
cotton washing program at 40 ºC with two rinse cycles and
no pre-wash was used. The total duration of this program is
116 minutes and it uses 45 litres of water per washing cycle.
We decided to use regular washing program instead of short
program recommended by some of the laundry product
producers, because it is more common in use (11) and we
wanted to have same washing conditions for all the tested
products.
We used cotton ballast as given in standard EN 60456:2005
(12). It includes pre-washed cotton bed sheets, pillowcases
and towels with a .5 kg total wash load. Test strips were
attached to the towels.
EMPA 105 standardised artiÀcially soiled cotton fabric test
strips were used. The soil types and their use areas are listed
in Table 1. We added
three pre-soiled test strips
in every wash. This way,
a total of nine swatches
were used in the testing of
each laundry product. The
size of each soiled patch
was 15 ´ 15 cm.
Measurement of cleaning effect
The cleaning effect was evaluated by measuring the reÁection
percentage of the soiled fabric strips after the wash (1). The
cleaner the swatches, the higher the reÁection tristimulus value Y
thus indicating better cleaning effect. The tristimulus value Y (14)
was measured with a Minolta CM-610d spectrophotometer
with D65 illuminant, 10° observer and 25.4 mm measuring
diameter. The UV Àlter was set to 420 nm which excludes the
effect of optical brighteners. The reÁectance measurement
was carried out with four layers of the same washed soiled
fabric type in order to avoid the transmission of light. Each
piece was measured at four places, and as there were three
test strips in each wash and three parallel wash cycles, the
total number of measurements per soil type was 72. Based on
the 72 measurements, the mean, standard deviation and 95 conÀdence limits were calculated for each soil type (1).
RESULTS
The cleaning effect results
of the compared laundry
products and the effect of
water alone are given in table
2. The tristimulus value Y results
are given separately for each
of the soil types. In addition, an
average value as well as values
for detergency (the average
of Carbon black/ mineral oil
and cocoa), bleach effect
(red wine), and total enzyme
activity (the average of blood
and cocoa) is calculated.
The comparison of average
Table 2. Cleaning effects in
cleaning effect with 95
percentage (Y value) for
different soil types and
conÀdence limits is given in
products.
Figure 2.
In general the results show that
the tested alternative
laundry products have
as good washing effect
as water alone. The
regular detergent shows
the best cleaning effect
in all measurements
with the exception of
the bleaching effect.
However, none of the
detergents in the test are
meant to bleach textiles.
The largest differences
were observed in enzyme
activity in removal of
Figure 2. Average cleaning effect
blood and cocoa.
with 95 confidence limits (Laundry
The results have good
ball results got worse during the test
reproducibility of the
causing higher uncertainty of
measurement).
three washing cycles for
all agents and all types of
stain, with one exception.
The effect of the laundry balls when it comes to removal of
blood was considerable worsened through the series of washes.
According to the information given by the producer, the laundry
balls are supposed to tolerate 750- and the washing pellets 50
Table 1. Used soil types on
cotton fabric patches.
55
Household and Personal Care Today - Vol. 7 nr. 4 October/December 2012
199
thereby increased consumption and
laundering cycles. The products
waste. Other alternatives to improve
were weighed when received,
laundering system without replacing
after Àve pre-wash cycles and
detergents, include detergent dosage
after the additional three test
systems that ensure correct dosing,
wash cycles. Both of these
improved textile care labelling,
products foamed extensively
machine program selection (such as
during the Àve Àrst pre-washing
suggesting lower temperature and
cycles. The warning light on
eco-program), machine Àlling grade
the washing machine lighted
indicators, and textile material choices
up indicating too much foam
that get easily clean (11).
and with recommendation to
For further studies, we suggest to
«control the dosage». Both of
test the effect of water hardness,
these products lost a lot of weight
Figure . Soiled swatches before and after wash. Soil
as well as to evaluate the potential
during the eight washing cycles.
types from left: red wine, cocoa, blood, carbon
bacterial reduction and evaluating
The washing pellets lost 77,
black/mineral oil and clean unsoiled patch.
cleaning effect by other techniques
whereas laundry balls lost 0 of
in order to corroborate the obtained
their content. This indicates that
data. Such potential future study
there may not be much left to last
could also include content analysis and an evaluation of the
washes in the claimed product durability, 50 or 750 cycles.
chemicals used in such alternative products in order to evaluate
Figure shows the visual comparison of colour change of the
whether they are less harmful to the environment than regular
soiled swatches. The differences between regular detergent and
detergents.
the alternatives are easy to observe with the naked eye.
The test scope was limited to the testing of the primary washing
effect. The secondary effects such as greying, Àbre damages
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and calcareous deposits were not taken into account, neither
the hygienic effect. As microbes often adhered to the soil,
The authors would like to thank Heidi Mollan Jensen and
a measurement of the cleaning effect can give some slight
Selvi Srikanthan for carrying out the experiments and Ingun
indications of bacterial reduction.
Grimstad Klepp for valuable comments. We also wish to thank
Many of the laundry products suggest using either stain removal
Forbrukerrapporten (Norwegian consumer magazine) for
or bleach in addition to the product itself. The use of these
Ànancing the experiment and Orkla ASA for Ànancial support on
additional products would most likely have improved their
project “From textile waste to material resources in a grave to
washing result.
cradle perspective”, which this publication is part of.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES
Our results showed that the cleaning effect of the four
alternative laundry products was equal to that of water alone.
These results support partly the Àndings of Pusic et al. as well
as Bruce and Thulin (8, 10). Conventional compact detergent
showed signiÀcantly better cleaning effect at all tested soil
types. The study also shows the importance of establishing a
reference point by comparing the cleaning effect of detergents
to that of water alone, as it has a substantial cleaning effect
in itself. This also means that consumers that wash only slightly
stained textiles could be satisÀed with the washing result either
without detergent, with an alternative laundry product, or with a
reduced amount of regular detergents.
In addition to the technical aspects of laundry, social aspects
and consumer behaviour has great potential to inÁuence the
environmental impacts (15, 16). Although the results showed
that these products are not necessary supplements in the
market, it is possible that replacing regular detergent with an
alternative laundry product might be positive, as long as no
other contradictory changes in laundry process are made and
the consumers receive satisfactory clean laundering results of
their only slightly soiled laundry. However, many of these laundry
products suggest making changes in the laundering process
that can increase water and/or energy consumption, such as
only Àlling the machine ö of full capacity or using hot water.
In that case, it is more likely that using regular detergent but
at low temperature and at full capacity of the machine is the
environmentally preferable alternative. Not getting the laundry
satisfactory clean can lead to shortened textile lifecycles and
56
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J. Madsen, B. Hartlin, et al., Mapping of Evidence on Sustainable
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E. Saouter, G. van Hoof, et al., Int. J. LCA, 7, pp. 27-8 (2002).
R. Otto, A. Ruminy, et al., Assessment of the Environmental Impact of
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K. Laitala, C. Boks, et al., Int J Consum Stud, 35, pp. 254-264 (2011).
E. Saouter, G. van Hoof, et al., Int. J. LCA, 6, pp. 6-72 (2001).
P. Skagerlind, S. Friis-Jensen, et al., Sustainable detergents for cleaner
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T. Pusic, K. Visic, et al., Biowashball - an alternative to detergents?, 45th
International Detergency Conference, Düsseldorf, WFK, pp. 864-870
(2011).
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removers Version 6.0. (1 October 2008 - 0 June 2012) (2008).
F. Bruce, J. Thulin, Teknologie kandidatexamen med huvudområde
textilteknologi, Textilhögskolan, Rapportnr: 2010.2.14, Högskolan i Borås
(2010).
K. Laitala, I. G. Klepp, et al., Int J Consum Stud, 36, pp. 228-27 (2012).
EN 60456, Clothes washing machines for household use – Methods for
measuring the performance (2005).
H. M. Jensen, S. Srikanthan., Sammenlignende test av 5
tekstilvaskemidler og vann ved 40 °C, National Institute for Consumer
Research (2008).
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Paper 5
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P6 Laundry habits
Changing laundry habits in Norway K. Laitala, C. Boks, & I.G.
Klepp (2012). International Journal of Consumer Studies. 36(2),
228-237.
Copyright © 2012 Blackwell publishing Ltd
Paper 6
211
212
International Journal of Consumer Studies ISSN 1470-6423
Changing laundry habits in Norway
1,2
1
Kirsi Laitala , Ingun G. Klepp and Casper Boks
1
2
ijcs_1081
228..237
2
National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO), Oslo, Norway
Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
Keywords
Washing habits, laundry, consumer behaviour,
textile maintenance, clothing care, design for
sustainable behaviour.
Correspondence
Kirsi Laitala, National Institute for Consumer
Research (SIFO), PO Box 4682 Nydalen,
N-0405 Oslo, Norway.
E-mail: kirsi.laitala@sifo.no
doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2011.01081.x
Abstract
Maintenance is often the most energy-demanding stage during clothes’ life cycle. Therefore, a shift towards more sustainable washing habits has great potential to reduce the
consumption of energy, water and detergent. This paper discusses the change in laundering
practices during the past 10 years in Norway and suggests strategies to help consumers
change their laundry habits to more sustainable ones.
Quantitative information of consumers’ experiences, habits and opinions concerning
clothing maintenance was collected through three surveys in Norway in 2002, 2010 and
2011. The 2010 study was supplemented with qualitative in-depth interviews of a strategic
sample of households.
The average washing temperature has decreased slightly during the studied time periods.
Some products’ washing frequencies remained the same, whereas other products such as
jeans were used a few more days before washing. The cotton programme is the most used
washing programme, but short programmes are gaining popularity. The laundry sorting
processes vary greatly and are influenced by several factors such as washing temperature,
colours, fibre type and use area. For some consumers, the use of several different sorting
categories made it more difficult to collect a sufficient amount of clothing to fill the
machine. They were also afraid that overfilling the machine would result in clothes that
were not clean enough or had detergent residues. Detergent dosing practices are far from
optimal. In 2010, although the majority of respondents only used eye measure and did not
know the water hardness of their area, they still tried to vary detergent dosage based on the
amount of laundry and the level of soiling. Different design for sustainable behaviour
strategies could be used within detergent dosage systems, care labelling, machine programme selection (such as suggesting lower temperature and eco-programme), machine
filling grade indicators, storage systems for slightly used clothing and textile material
choice.
Introduction
The most energy-demanding time during the life cycle of clothing
is often the use period (Madsen et al., 2007). Technological
improvements in washing machines and detergents have reduced
the total environmental impact per wash, but the total time that
consumers spend on laundering has not been reduced (Klepp,
2003). Increased washing frequencies and the amount of clothing
we own in Western societies potentially offsets the technological
improvements.
Even though clothing maintenance has a substantial environmental impact, consumers connect environmental issues related to
clothing mainly to the end of the use period when clothes are either
given or thrown away (Laitala and Klepp, 2011). Less consideration is given to clothing maintenance and purchase stages.
Research suggests several measures that consumers can take to
228
decrease the environmental burden caused by textile maintenance
(Uitdenbogerd, 2007; Bain et al., 2009; Laitala et al., 2011). They
can lower washing temperatures, use eco-programmes, fill the
machine to capacity, decrease washing frequency and assure
correct detergent dosing. They can also avoid tumble-drying and
ironing, and practice alternative freshening methods such as
airing. How to best realize this desired behaviour is, however, not
straightforward but may be informed by recent research into
design for sustainable behaviour. Some design solutions may
involve simply providing information or putting the user in
control, while other design directions may focus on making undesirable behaviour impossible (Zachrisson and Boks, 2010).
In-between solutions may persuade or seduce users towards sustainable behaviour, like the use of eco-buttons or detergent tablets
that should secure optimal dosage in wash (Lilley et al., 2005).
Lockton et al. (2010) collected a wide range of mechanisms that
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
213
K. Laitala et al.
can be used to realize design for sustainable behaviour, including
choice editing, warnings, portion control, feedback, rewards,
colour associations, positioning and even threatening. Pettersen
and Boks (2008) discussed how to balance between the control
applied in leading the users towards a more sustainable
behaviour with the users’ rights and free will. They suggested that
designers should apply a reflective approach towards the ethical
consequences.
Further information regarding consumer clothing maintenance
habits and the reasons for their choices is required in order to study
the possibilities for influencing consumer behaviour towards more
sustainable practices. Laundering practices are constantly changing, influenced by social, cultural and moral norms (Shove, 2003).
They must, therefore, be understood over time and across cultures.
Before the industrial revolution, labour intensive practices such as
washing textiles outside or boiling them on a stove were common.
Such labour intensive practices are disappearing as a result of new
technology such as the advent of the electric washing machine.
Efficiency in spreading information from professionals has also
been a factor; washing temperatures have dropped considerably
since World War II, first from boiling down to 60°C in the 1980s
(Klepp, 2003). At this stage, the change was increasingly led by
new washing technologies; materials in garments that did not
tolerate being washed at high temperatures; and the consumers
themselves reducing the washing temperature to 40°C and lower,
despite the experts’ advice to continue washing at 60°C (Klepp,
2007). In recent years, experts’ advice has varied depending on
whether they have a hygienic or environmental argument as a
basis. However, most experts agree that low washing temperatures
can be used in home laundering, except in cases of epidemics or
especially vulnerable user groups.
Throughout history, the level of washing and acceptance of
body odours has varied greatly. Today, body odours are considered
appalling, and daily washes and use of artificial perfumes is almost
a norm (Ashenburg, 2007). These changes in social norms have
led to increased washing frequency of our bodies and clothing
(Shove, 2003).
These examples show that habits have changed relatively fast
through different mechanisms and have been affected by new
technologies, available information, as well as changes in society
and its norms. Steering these processes of change will require a
consideration of integrated socio-technical systems and will therefore be complicated. A number of studies have shown that changes
in attitudes and values may have limited effect on everyday behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and that there are several barriers
for change (Throne-Holst et al., 2008). The importance of cleanliness in the Western cultures is an example of a cultural-normative
barrier where individuals’ fear of having a body odour that
might be caused by unsatisfactory laundering may inhibit the
change to lower washing temperatures. Other barriers may be
individual-psychological and were based on earlier experiences or
upbringing.
Understanding these and other barriers is essential for successfully choosing and applying design for sustainable behaviour strategies. Therefore, this paper aimed to provide quantitative data to
illustrate changing laundering practices over time in Norway,
allowing a more informed discussion on incentives and obstacles
that may exist for consumers to change their laundry habits to
more sustainable ones. Finally, we suggest possible strategies for
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
214
Changing laundry habits in Norway
overcoming these obstacles to steer behaviour in an environmentally friendly direction.
Methods
Quantitative information of consumers’ experiences, habits and
opinions concerning clothing maintenance was collected through
three surveys in Norway. Special attention was given to washing
frequency and temperature, programme selection, sorting process,
and the detergents and other laundry aids used. In order to get
more information on the reasons behind laundry practices, additional qualitative information was gathered through one set of
in-depth interviews.
The first quantitative survey was conducted in 2002 by telephone, interviewing 1008 randomly selected Norwegian respondents1 (Arild et al., 2003). The main topic was laundering habits
and, therefore, the research questions were asked of the household
member that was mainly in charge of the laundry. The gender
distribution of respondents in this survey shows that main responsibility of doing laundry was primarily women’s area (Table 1).
These cases are not weighed to population.
The second survey was conducted in 2010 in order to collect
quantitative information of consumers’ experiences and opinions
concerning clothing use, maintenance routines (washing, drying
and ironing), disposal habits and environmental attitudes in
Norway. Respondents were recruited through different channels.
The majority of respondents were received through questionnaires
sent by mail to 1200 randomly selected households. Due to low
response rate, additional respondents were recruited through personal and work-related networks, and publicity in media2. A web
questionnaire was available on the net from July 2009 to March
2011. A total of 546 answers were received (Table 1). A few of the
questions were replaced during the survey period, so the total
number of respondents varies some. The distribution of respondents is uneven with evident female domination (77%). The age
group 25–39 is overrepresented in comparison to the average of
the adult population, and the age groups below 24 years and above
60 are underrepresented. The received data are not representative
for the whole population, which has been taken into account when
conclusions are drawn. These cases are not weighed.
The third and most recent study is called SIFO survey, which is
a country representative survey conducted yearly in Norway. This
survey covers a variety of general consumption-related themes,
where textiles and clothing constituted only a minor part. A total of
1124 people completed the web questionnaire in March 2011.
These cases are weighed to present the Norwegian population.
These respondents are selected from a pre-recruited, randomly
selected sample of persons above 15 years of age, who are willing
to participate in surveys.
The received data from all three surveys were analysed with the
help of spss software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The descriptive statistics from the different surveys are compared when the
question setting has been similar enough to allow it. Even though
1
The same study included three other European countries, but this paper
concentrates on the Norwegian results.
2
Web address to questionnaire was given in three magazine articles where
SIFO researchers were interviewed about clothing consumption-related
themes.
229
Changing laundry habits in Norway
K. Laitala et al.
Table 1 Respondents divided by background variables and compared with Norwegian population (15 years and older) (Agerskov, 2010)
Background variables
Sample 2002
Sample 2010
Sample 2011
Norwegian population 2010
Number of respondents (n)
Gender
Male
Female
Average age
Age groups
Below 24 years
25–39 years
40–59 years
60+ years
1008
546
1124
–
18%
82%
47.7
23%
77%
39.2
50%
50%
45.2
50%
50%
45.9d
5%a
30%
42%
23%
9%b
48%
33%
9%
10%c
29%
38%
23%
16%d
25%
33%
26%
a
All respondents were 14 or older.
All respondents were 15 or older.
c
All respondents were 18 or older.
d
Figure applies for population above the age of 15.
b
Figure 1 Distribution of washing temperatures for different textile products in 2002 and
2010. Average temperature given below the
pillars (2002: n = 1008, 2010: n = 546).
the two first surveys are not country representative, they have
several similarities such as the high percentage of female respondents. This enables the comparisons of washing habits over time.
The 2010 study included a strategic sample of 16 households
selected for qualitative in-depth interviews in order to collect more
detailed information on reasons behind households’ clothing practices. People with different life situations and backgrounds from
different areas in Norway were interviewed with a semi-structured
interview guide. These results can be used in helping to interpret
the quantitative data from the surveys. The interviews were
recorded, transcribed, coded and analysed with ATLAS.ti software
(ATLAS.ti GmbH, Berlin, Germany). Citations from these interviews are given with informant’s age and a fictional name. To
separate quantitative and qualitative results, survey participants
are referred to as ‘respondents’, whereas interview participants are
referred to as ‘informants’.
As the laundry habits are varying between different cultures,
these results are compared with similar studies from other countries in the Discussion section.
Results
Textile maintenance includes many different areas such washing,
drying, ironing, storage and mending. In this paper, only the areas
relating to washing are discussed.
230
Washing temperature and programme selection
We collected information of temperatures that are used for
washing specific products from surveys conducted in 2002 and
2010. The percentage of washes in different temperatures as well
as the average value are given in Fig. 1. The average washing
temperature of woollen garments was significantly lower than for
similar products in cotton in both surveys (P < 0.01). Most of
woollen textiles are washed at 30°C. Products worn next to the
skin are more often washed at higher temperatures than the outer
garment layers (e.g. sweaters.)
A slight reduction can be seen in many products’ average
washing temperature3. For the six product groups given in Fig. 1,
the average reduction is 3.7°C. The largest change can be seen in
cotton t-shirts, which the majority of respondents today washed at
40°C instead of 60°C, causing the average temperature reduction
to be 7.7°C. In Fig. 2 we have compared the results for different
age groups of respondents, as the age distribution in these two
surveys varied. It shows a reduction in average washing temperatures within each age group, and that younger respondents had
lower average temperatures.
3
For calculating the average washing temperature, unheated ‘cold water’
was calculated as 16°C.
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
215
K. Laitala et al.
Changing laundry habits in Norway
Figure 2 Comparison of t-shirt washing temperatures divided by age groups (2002:
n = 1008, 2010: n = 546).
Figure 3 Reduction of washing temperature
the past 5 years (2011: n = 1122).
One of the questions of 2011 survey was whether the respondents washed clothes today at a lower temperature than five years
ago (Fig. 3). The majority (47%) said they had not reduced the
temperature, 37% said they had and 16% did not know. A comparison of age groups showed that the elder respondents were
more likely to have reduced the temperature, although they would
still wash at a higher average temperature than the younger respondents. In the interviews, Olivia (67) described reasons for her
washing temperature reduction: ‘I do not think I’ve used 95 for
very long time. I did before on towels, but not anymore. [. . .]
Detergents are more efficient, so 60 is actually enough. We do not
have that dirty things. And I use a bit of stain remover if needed.’
The respondents estimated the use frequency of different
washing temperatures and programmes in 2010. The most commonly used washing programme was the cotton wash cycle at
40°C. This temperature was followed by 60, 30 and 90°C wash
(Fig. 4). The average washing temperature was 48.4°C. The use of
short programmes was second most popular and more common
than eco-programmes. Wool programme use frequency may have
been harder to estimate, as there is great variation between the
seasons when it comes to use of wool. Survey respondents were
not asked how many times they washed per week in total, but how
often they washed at different temperatures or with different
washing programmes. Based on these answers, an average number
of washing cycles per week was calculated for different household
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
216
sizes (Fig. 5)4. One has to take into consideration that this way of
evaluation may not be that accurate as the average is based on
several estimations of laundering frequencies instead of only one
estimate, which may have been easier for the respondents to
answer. This question was posed to the interviewed households,
and these informants reported a lower number of washing cycles
per week, on average, 1–3 cycles less for each household size.
Washing frequency, sorting process and
filling grade
The number of days different textiles were used between the
refurbishing cycles varied greatly (Fig. 6). Almost all would use
underpants only 1 day, whereas woollen sweaters could easily be
used over 10 days. In general, men and the older respondents were
more likely to use the products a little longer between washes.
The results show that consumers use woollen products longer
between washes than similar products in cotton. Barbara, 25 years
old, described her washing habits of woollens compared with
other textiles: ‘I wash wool very seldom. Wool is almost selfcleaning. So wool is a bit . . . wool wash is even less frequent.’ The
4
The results for households above six persons are uncertain due to low
number of respondents.
231
Changing laundry habits in Norway
K. Laitala et al.
Figure 4 Number of washing cycles with different programmes and temperatures per
week per household (average household size
3.1 persons) (2010: n = 257).
Figure 5 Average number of washing cycles
per week for different household sizes
(survey 2010: n = 257, interviews 2010
n = 16).
Figure 6 Number of days different textiles
are used before wash (2002: n = 1008, 2010:
n = 546, 2011: n = 1094).
2011 survey results showed that 72% of the respondents prefer to
wash wool in the machine, as opposed to 17% that preferred
washing it by hand.
The storage of clothes that were used, but not too dirty to be
used again, was described by many informants as piles of clothing
232
on a chair or bedside or even on the floor. Jenny, a 39-year-old
mother of three small children, described the problems of having
large amounts of clothing within this category: ‘We’ve tried to
make a system in the bathroom, where we hang up clothes that are
used, so that we get to use them again . . . When they are not
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
217
K. Laitala et al.
Changing laundry habits in Norway
Figure 7 Used laundry sorting methods (multiple answers possible) (2010: n = 545).
spotty, you can use them the next day, especially the kids
. . . Otherwise it becomes just a big chaotic pile, and eventually
they end up in the laundry bin, right. So I try to think that they have
to use the laundry until it’s dirty at least. [. . .] But it is clear that
there is a lot . . . when we clean up, then it’s a lot that goes in the
laundry bin.’ She tried to ensure clothes were used longer between
washes, but eventually they still got washed before they were too
dirty to be used. Some other informants even washed without
evaluation of soiling degree, habitually after 1 day of use.
The laundry sorting processes vary greatly, influenced by
several factors such as washing temperature, colour, fibre type, use
area and care labelling (Fig. 7). Only 3% of respondents wash
everything together. Younger respondents are more likely to sort
colours into only two categories (light and dark). Washing temperature as basis for sorting is more common among the female
respondents, as well as the higher age groups. Woollen products
are often washed separately from other fibre types, and 73% of
survey respondents state that they do not wash wool together with
other textile materials. For some consumers, the use of several
different sorting categories made it more difficult to collect sufficient amount of clothing to fill the machine. One example of this
is described by Camilla, 29: ‘Wool wash . . . It’s something I typically postpone a very long time, because I think it’s a bit . . . I may
have one woollen shirt for example, that I should wash, but I have
no other wool clothes that I should wash with it, and so it will only
wait very, very long time, until eventually I have to wash it.’
The question of filling grade was not included in the surveys,
but the interviews showed similar tendencies among many informants. They said they mainly washed ‘full machines, but not too
full’. They did not want to overfill the machine in fear of not
getting a good cleaning result or having detergent residue on the
garments.
Detergents, laundry aids and dosing
About one-half of the respondents in 2002 said that they used a
measuring cup for detergent dosing, and one-third never used it.
The use of measuring cup seems to have receded in recent years,
as in 2010, the majority (58%) based their dosage only on eye
measure. Only 12% accurately followed the instructions given on
detergent packages and used a measuring cup. However, as the
questions were stated differently, the results give an indication but
cannot be compared directly.
The majority of respondents in 2010 varied their detergent
dosage based on the amount of laundry and level of soiling. They
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
218
were more likely to use less detergent if the laundry was not that
dirty or there was not so much of it than to increase the amount in
opposite cases. Very few took into account the water hardness, size
of washing machine or the water level of the washing programme.
Sixty-three percent of the respondents did not know or even try to
guess the water hardness of their living area. These results indicate
that detergent dosing is not optimal. However, only 4% always used
the same amount, indicating that the consumers try to vary the
dosage to fit the need. Some of the informants used the washing
machine to get variation to achieve required cleaning level instead
of varying detergent amount. Markus (42) explained: ‘We have a
quite new, modern washing machine. We can set it for dirty laundry,
less dirty and . . . You can control the wash from two hours to one
hour, four different lengths. So we use that quite a lot’.
The majority of respondents in the 2002 and 2010 surveys used
fabric softeners often (Fig. 8). The interviews revealed that they
could be used for many different purposes: desired scent, softness,
improved antistatic properties and easier ironing. The use was also
related to tumble-drying. Many informants said that they needed it
if they did not use a tumble dryer. The use of stain removers was
a lot less common. The number of respondents that used softeners
and stain removers seems to have increased during this period, but
the slight difference in question setting does not allow certain
interpretation. Today, the most common method for treating stains
with stain remover seems to be to apply it directly to the stain as
a pre-treatment to washing.
Cleaning effect and hygiene
We were also interested in respondents’ opinions related to
washing results, as these experiences have a potential to affect
future washing behaviour. Most common problems associated
with laundry that a majority of respondents had experienced were
textiles loosing colour, not getting clean results and textiles
loosing shape (Fig. 9). Eighty-five percent of respondents have
seldom or never experienced the washing machine smelling bad.
This is a problem connected to insufficient microbial reduction
often associated with constant use of low washing temperatures
(Amberg et al., 2009). Another way to notice this can be clothes
receiving an unpleasant odour in the wash, but this was not
common among the respondents either. As a minimum, one wash
at 60°C once a month is recommended to avoid the problems
connected to biofilm formation, as well as letting the machine dry
with door open between the washes (Bain et al., 2009). During the
2002 survey, 9 out of 10 respondents agreed to statements that it is
233
Changing laundry habits in Norway
K. Laitala et al.
Figure 8 Use of fabric softeners and stain
removers (2002: n = 1008, 2010: n = 268).
Figure 9 Experiences of problems related to
clothes washing (2010: n = 268).
Figure 10 Percentage of respondents that
trust a specified programme to clean a jamstained shirt almost or completely clean
(2010: n = 204).
embarrassing to wear clothes smelling of body odour, and that it is
important that clothes are hygienically clean.
Respondents’ opinions on the cleaning effect of different
washing programmes are presented in Fig. 10. They were asked to
estimate how well a specified washing programme would clean a
jam-stained shirt. The cotton programme’s cleaning effect was
trusted the most. This was followed by the eco-programme, but at
a much lower level. The wool and silk programme was considered
to be the mildest with the lowest washing effect.
Discussion
When comparing these results to studies made in other countries,
we can see clear cultural differences between Norway and other
234
European countries. In 2002, laundry habits in Norway, Greece,
Netherlands and Spain were compared (Arild et al., 2003). The
main differences found were washing temperatures and frequencies. For example, in Spain the majority of respondents washed
cotton t-shirts in cold water, in Greece and Netherlands at 40°C and
in Norway at 60°C. Our study from 2010 indicates that Norwegians
are lowering the washing temperatures as well to 40°C, but are still
not usually using 30°C or cold water for washing such products.
This shows that the direction is good from the environmental
perspective, but there is still potential for improvement in this area.
Studies of average washing temperature in Europe have shown that
it lies now usually between 40 and 55°C, depending on the region
(A.I.S.E., 2009; IKW, 2009; Stamminger, 2009). The exception is
Spain, where use of cold water for washing is more common.
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
219
K. Laitala et al.
Many washing machines have automatic temperature selections, or at least suggest a specified temperature for some programmes. This was frustrating for Barbara (25) ‘Our new washing
machine uses 40 as a default. But if I had chosen myself, I had
probably chosen more often 30, because for me there is no difference between washing at 30 and 40.’ This is supported by a recent
study on cleaning effects, which showed that the difference in
cleaning performance between 30 and 40°C was not large, and that
one can get a cleaner washing result at 30°C than at 40°C if a more
efficient detergent is used (Laitala and Jensen, 2010).
The cotton programme dominated as the most used washing
programme. It was followed by the short programmes, which
were more common than the eco-programmes despite the fact
that the trust in the eco-programmes’ cleaning effect was higher
than that of short programmes. This may be a reaction to the
increased washing duration of the basic cotton program, which is
a result of energy labelling requirements. According to Sinner’s
washing circle (Sinner, 1960), having the same washing performance with reduced water and energy consumption (and thereby
reduced mechanical agitation) requires an increase in washing
duration, unless more efficient detergents are used. The typical
duration of a normal cotton programme in Norway is over 2 h.
Eco-programmes are often even longer, on average, 26 min more
and can last up to 4 h (Laitala and Vereide, 2010). Rapid programmes take usually 15–35 min but have reduced machine
filling grade, something that consumers may be unaware of. One
of the informants, Camilla (29), described that she felt that the
normal cotton programme took a very long time: ‘It may often be
okay to just wash a little shorter. Because it’s very seldom there
are a lot of stains’. She assumed that shorter washing time
reduced the energy use and was sufficient for a laundry that was
not very soiled. Another reason for the lower use rate of ecoprogrammes may be the lower trust in their cleaning effect compared with that of the cotton programme, despite the fact that
high washing performance is required for energy labelling in the
European Union (European Commission, 2010; EN 60456,
2011).
These results indicate that there is great potential in lowering
the electricity consumption through design of washing machines.
The customary suggested washing temperature could be lowered
and the eco-programme could be a suggested programme that one
could turn off if wished instead of having to actively select it.
In addition, a machine filling grade indicator could guide the
consumer to use the full capacity of the different washing
programmes.
The calculated washing frequency for a family of four persons
in the 2010 study was 6.5–8.9 washing cycles per week. This result
is not far from a Norwegian study done in 2000, where households
kept washing diaries. In this study, the average number of washes
was 8 cycles per week for a household of that size. These same
informants were interviewed before the diary-keeping, and all of
them estimated their washing frequency to be lower than it was in
reality (Klepp, 2003). Thus, studies based on washing narratives
may give inaccurate estimations, and diary-keeping is a more
appropriate method for getting a realistic picture. Several other
studies have reported estimates for washing frequency. A worldwide comparison of laundry habits with varying sources estimated
that the average number of washing cycles in West Europe was 3.2
per household. The estimates varied from 1.9 in China to 10.4 in
International Journal of Consumer Studies 36 (2012) 228–237
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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Changing laundry habits in Norway
Japan (Pakula and Stamminger, 2010). An internet survey in 10
European countries reported the average number of washing
cycles per week per household to be 4.9 with variation from 4.1 to
6.0 between countries (Stamminger, 2009). Another internet
survey of 23 European countries showed variations from 3.0 to 4.2
washing cycles/week, depending on the region (A.I.S.E., 2009).
The household size affects the washing frequency. This was taken
into account in a Finnish study, which estimated that single households washed 1.6 times a week, couples 3.3 and families with
children 6.2 times a week (Aalto, 2003), which is slightly less than
the results from our Norwegian survey from 2010.
Methodically, we see a challenge in getting correct data on
washing behaviour through interviews and surveys. To obtain
correct statistical information of everyday practices, one may have
to follow the informants more closely. For example, it is difficult
to estimate whether one is washing a full machine load, if one has
never weighed the laundry. This has been taken in account in a
recent German study, where informants were given scales for
measuring the amount of detergent as well as laundry (Kruschwitz
and Stamminger, 2011).
The changes in washing frequency over time between different
clothing items varied. Some items, such as underpants, are mainly
washed after one day’s use. This was also valid for four European
countries included in the 2002 study (Arild et al., 2003). In
Norway, some products were reported to be used longer between
washes now than before, such as towels and jeans. In jeans, we
have seen a new trend to wash them more seldom, especially
dark ‘raw’ denim materials, in order to keep the fit and colours
unchanged (Tan, 2010; Hicks, 2011). Evaluation techniques of
soiling or freshness of clothing varied. In a British study, it was
documented how different senses, such as smell, touch and
vision, can be used to evaluate the laundry experiences (Pink,
2005). Some of the washing could potentially be replaced by other
cleaning methods such as stain removal, airing, using steam or
brushing.
In addition to washing machine development, design of sustainable behaviour strategies can be used also in clothes design. One
designer currently working with this theme is Emma Dulcie Rigby
(Hanlon, 2010; Rigby, 2011). She has designed a clothing line
based on interviews on which types of clothing items are seldom
washed. Different themes in clothing were identified to affect the
washing behaviour, such as material choice (wool), use area (home
wear) and fit (loose).
Our results revealed that detergent dosing behaviour was far
from optimal. This result is similar to a German study, which
showed that consumers often gave no regard to soil level, detergent
type, water hardness or machine capacity (Kruschwitz and Stamminger, 2011). To overcome this problem, washing machine producers have developed automatic detergent dosage systems
(Sanner, 2011; Witte, 2011). However, these machines require that
the user sets the correct information on the machine about water
quality, soil level, etc. Even though most consumers do not know
the water hardness level of their living area, this system may make
them attentive to it as they will have to select a setting. This system
does not address the problem of unnecessary and frequent washing
of some items. In these cases, a better system for intermediate
storage could be helpful.
The use of fabric softeners seems to be increasing in Norway. A
comparison with Germany shows that they are used more often in
235
Changing laundry habits in Norway
Norway than in Germany, where 35% never used them (Braun and
Stamminger, 2011). Most of the informants were not that reflected
over the use of fabric softeners and their potentially harmful
chemical content. Steinemann (2009) revealed that many fragranced laundry products had volatile organic compounds that
were not listed on product label, but were regulated as toxic or
hazardous.
No major cleaning result problems were registered, although
over every third had sometimes experienced detergent remaining
in the washing chamber. Problems related to clothes getting ruined
in the wash were mainly caused by mistakes in the sorting process,
such as washing wool with the normal programme or washing a
coloured item with whites. Smaller changes in textiles were
common, such as dye fading and changes in shape. These problems are related to clothing quality in addition to the washing
method.
Conclusions
We have witnessed a reduction in the average washing temperature
to below 50°C in Europe. From an environmental perspective, a
continuation of this tendency is desirable provided that the
increase in washing frequency is discontinued or even reversed.
Even though perceptions of cleanliness are not always directly
connected to the level of soiling on textiles, cleanliness is considered important. It may be one of the barriers for more sustainable
behaviour, such as further lowering the washing temperature. As
the washing habits change and vary between the different cultures,
the solutions should be adjusted to the local conditions. Using
such insights, appropriate design for sustainable behaviour strategies can be determined depending on goal and context. Many
relatively obvious strategies are based on information provision,
feedback and enabling users to do the right thing. These include:
• improved detergent dosage systems in detergent packages and
washing machines;
• textile care labelling that encourages low temperature washing
at lower frequency (but does not prohibit efficient washing when it
is needed);
• machine programme selection (such as suggesting lower temperature and eco-programme);
• machine filling grade indicator;
• improved storage systems for used clothing that does not yet
need to be washed;
• using materials that can be washed more seldom and at lower
temperature, such as wool.
The data from this study may also inform design strategies that
are less based on pure information provision or feedback. Instead,
they tap into ways to persuade or even steer users into sustainable
laundering practices. Future research by the authors will address
the generation and evaluation of the full spectrum of design strategies related to clothing, equipment and system design.
Even though the results apply for Norway only, we can see
some potential for transferring the knowledge to additional geographic and cultural contexts. Emerging economies such as China,
India and Brazil have increasing populations and a growing
middle class. Will they follow our trends with frequent washing?
This will have great consequences for the water and energy use in
these countries.
236
K. Laitala et al.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Norwegian Research Council
and Orkla ASA for financing the project ‘From textile waste to
material resources in a grave to cradle perspective’. We would also
like to thank Madeline Buck, Kjersti Eilertsen and the anonymous
reviewers for valuable comments; Anne-Helene Arild and Ragnhild Brusdal for conducting the survey in 2002; and Lisbet Berg
for the survey in 2011.
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Consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour - A synthesis of research
results. K. Laitala (In press) International Journal of Consumer
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ijcs12088
International Journal of Consumer Studies ISSN 1470-6423
Consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour – a synthesis of
research results
Kirsi Laitala1,2
1
2
National Institute for Consumer Research, Oslo, Norway
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Keywords
Clothing disposal, discard practices,
environmental attitudes, recycling behaviour,
textile waste.
Correspondence
Kirsi Laitala, SIFO, PO Box 4682, Nydalen,
Oslo 0405, Norway.
E-mail: Kirsi.laitala@sifo.no
doi: 10.1111/ijcs.12088
Abstract
Consumer decisions on clothing disposal are important from an environmental point of
view, as they have an effect on the lifespan of clothing, as well as the potential for reuse and
recycling. This article summarizes what is known about consumers’ clothing disposal
behaviour based on empirical literature published during the past 30 years. The goal of this
synthesis is to integrate empirical research, find generalizable results, evaluate the used
research methods and identify central issues for future research. Most clothing disposal
studies concentrate on disposal channels, behavioural motivations, disposal reasons and
demographics of consumers that behave in specified ways. Many consumers prefer to
deliver clothing for reuse rather than to dispose of them, but convenience is paramount.
Common disposal reasons for apparel were wear and tear, poor fit and fashion or boredom,
in addition to lack of storage space. Survey methods are most common, which indicates the
need of other research designs that preferably include the clothing items in method
triangulation. Studied samples are dominated by young women and students, and research
on more heterogeneous samples is needed.
Introduction
Clothing and textile production and consumption cause significant
environmental impacts (Fletcher, 2008). The amounts produced
have increased greatly, and due to the speed of the current clothing
consumption terms such as fast fashion and McFashion have
appeared (Lee, 2003). Sustainable clothing consumption includes
several stages, not only the purchase but also post-purchase components such as use, care and disposal (Jacoby, 1976). Behaviour
related to sustainable clothing acquisition practices has been
studied by many researchers especially within marketing, while
less attention has been given to the clothing disposal phase
(Hetherington, 2004; Bianchi and Birtwistle, 2012; Koszewska,
2013). Disposal in this article refers to the act of getting rid of
something, i.e. the end of life stage of the clothing with the present
owner, regardless of whether the clothing is discarded of as waste
or delivered to recycling or reuse. Consumers’ clothing disposal
behaviour is important from an environmental point of view. They
decide when and where the used clothing is delivered and, therefore, determine the lifespan of clothing, the amount of waste that
is generated, as well as the potential for reuse and recycling. Some
research on consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour exists, but no
comprehensive overview or assessment of these studies has been
made. This has been carried out within general recycling behaviour (e.g. Hornik et al., 1995; Schultz et al., 1995), but it has been
shown that clothing recycling behaviour differs from general recycling behaviour (Shim, 1995). Because of this deviance and the
International Journal of Consumer Studies
significant environmental impacts caused by clothing consumption, this topic should be studied separately. Therefore, this article
investigates and summarizes what is known about consumers’
clothing disposal behaviour. The focus is on research findings and
used methods. The goal of this synthesis is to integrate empirical
research, find generalizable results, evaluate the used research
methods and identify central issues for future research.
This article is structured as follows: first, a general overview of
the environmental benefits of clothing recycling and reuse is given,
followed by a description of the product obsolescence and the
process of product disposal phase. The Methodology section indicates how the data of clothing disposal literature were collected
and coded. The summary of studies is given in a table form,
followed by a content analysis that outlines publication channels,
methods, sample characteristics, variables and synthesis of major
findings. The article concludes with analysis of the findings, their
implications and suggests future research directions.
Sustainability of clothing recycling and reuse
It is estimated that the average UK consumer disposes of 30 kg of
clothing and textiles to landfill annually (Allwood et al., 2006).
EU’s Sixth and Seventh Environment Action Programmes set
waste prevention and management as one of the top priorities.
Waste Framework Directive enforces the targets and gives a hierarchy of environmentally preferable waste management system
(European Commission and the Council, 2008; DEFRA, 2011).
1
s_quer
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This is called waste hierarchy, and it sets out five steps for dealing
with waste, ranked according to environmental impact where the
best solutions are given first:
1 Prevention of waste occurring, e.g. using less materials or
keeping products for longer.
2 Preparing for reuse; can include, for example, cleaning, sorting
and repairing so that the product can be used again.
3 Recycling, i.e. turning waste into a new product.
4 Other forms of recovery, e.g. incineration with energy recovery.
5 Disposal, e.g. landfilling or incineration without energy
recovery.
It has been shown that in most cases this hierarchy is valid, and
within textiles and clothing it has been shown that the greatest
energy and CO2 equivalent savings are achieved through longer
lifespans and direct reuse, followed by reuse through organizations, material recycling and finally energy recovery, which are all
better solutions than landfilling (Farrant, 2008; Morley et al.,
2009; Cooper, 2010; Fisher et al., 2011). In addition to environmental sustainability, recycling and reuse is beneficial for the
economic and social aspects of sustainability, such as employment
and earnings from resold textiles (Cuc and Vidovic, 2011). Of the
collected clothing, largest volume is sorted for reuse, followed by
recycling and finally smallest portion is discarded of as waste that
goes either to landfill or incineration (Hawley, 2006).
It has been estimated that about 40% of clothes and shoes in
residual household waste in the UK could have been reused
(Morley et al., 2009, p. 37). Even for those garments that cannot
be reused, several recycling options exist. Large-scale textiles
recycling usually implies down-cycling (Morley et al., 2006),
where textiles are used as rags, insulation, sound-absorption
materials, oil absorbents, horticultural/agricultural matting and
spring-cushioning. Within textiles and clothing, up-cycling and
redesigning waste into new products is currently small scale only
(Morley et al., 2009; Morley, 2013). This shows that there is still
potential to increase the used clothing collection rates to reuse and
recycling. Domina and Koch (1997) suggest areas where improvements could be made to increase the recycling rate, including
better infrastructure between textile producers and recyclers,
curbside collection programmes, increase in end-use markets of
waste recyclables and education of consumers. Studying consumer behaviour is therefore crucial for gaining knowledge of
obstacles for clothing reuse and recycling.
Disposal practices
Jacoby et al. (1977) have developed a conceptual disposition decision taxonomy, which shows that consumers have three general
choices when discarding a product: to keep it, dispose of it permanently or dispose of it temporarily. Keeping includes converting
for use for another purpose or storing. Permanent disposition
includes throwing or giving away (charitable donations or handing
down to friends or family), abandoning, selling or trading. Temporary disposition includes loaning or renting. They suggest that
three-factor categories influence these consumers’ disposition
choices: psychological characteristics of the decision maker (personality, attitudes, etc.), factors intrinsic to the product (condition,
style, etc.) and situational factors extrinsic to the product (storage
space, financial situation, etc.). These categories can interact and
partly even overlap.
2
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Research on product disposal practices in general differentiate
between absolute and relative obsolescence (Cooper, 2004). Absolute obsolescence means that the product has failed and is no
longer usable. Relative obsolescence applies for products that are
still functional, but discarded for some other reasons. Several
researchers have looked into these different types of obsolescence
and categorized them in different ways (Packard, 1960;
Heiskanen, 1996; Strandbakken, 1997; van Nes and Cramer,
2006). In general, the given main groups are the following:
1 Functional: replaced by products with improved utility or
expression.
2 Quality: product failure, or wear and tear (either aesthetic or
physical).
3 Psychological: also called symbolic obsolescence, and includes
fashion, desirability, personal style and hedonism such as pleasure
of shopping.
4 New consumer needs or desires.
This shows that products can get obsolete in different ways, and
that the first two factors are more directly related to the physical
properties of the product, while the two last factors are more
related to the user or the society. Granberg (1997) makes a further
distinction between absolute obsolescence that is mainly the
manufacturers’ responsibility (durability, process quality and
maintenance possibilities) and relative obsolescence that can be
functional or psychological and is mainly the users’ decision.
However, it is not known to which degree these different disposition methods and product obsolescence categories apply for disposal of clothing.
This introduction has shown that from an environmental point
of view, increasing clothing and textile lifespans, reuse and recycling is preferable, while at the same time there are several factors
that contribute to product disposal practices. In the next sections,
I will summarize what is known about consumers’ textile and
clothing disposal behaviour in order to see which factors could
contribute to getting larger portion of disposed textiles to elevated
levels in the waste hierarchy.
Methodology
Data collection
To select the articles, electronic databases ISI Web of Science®,
EBSCOhost® Research Databases (E-Journals and Academic
Search Complete) and Google Scholar were searched through.
Search terms used included clothing, apparel or fashion combined
with disposal, disposition, discard or recycling in the title, abstract,
keywords or the body of the articles. In addition, reference lists of
the found articles were scanned through.
It turned out that many of the studies had not been published in
academic journals, so it was decided to include reports, dissertations (minimum master’s level), book chapters and conference
papers. However, it is possible that not every existing relevant
document was found due to lack of inclusion in common search
databases and lack of referencing by other researchers.
The found literature was coded including the publication name
and type, year of publication, research method(s), sample size,
sample composition (gender distribution and age), country and
variables or themes. Only the major findings of each study related
to clothing disposal practices are summarized in this review.
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Limitations
Any studies discussing fashion, clothing and textiles disposal
behaviour are included in the review, but not general disposal
behaviour of other products or materials. Also, only disposal of
consumer clothing and textiles by consumers was included, so for
example disposal of work wear or waste from other stages of
clothing production or distribution chain were excluded. The
review also excludes reports that only give national waste statistics
instead of studies on consumer behaviour.
The search was limited to publications for years between 1980
and 2013, which excludes earlier publications that might be relevant to the topic. However, clothing disposal practices today are
likely to differ from those of over 30 years ago, as prices of
clothing have decreased the last decades, and the waste and recycling infrastructures have changed.
Only publications in English and Scandinavian languages were
included, which means that potentially relevant literature published in other languages has been excluded (although one Japanese publication with a comprehensive abstract in English was
included). However, English is the main language for scientific
publishing on this topic, and the largest number of peer-reviewed
journals is in English.
Disposal terminology
In some cases several articles were published based on the same
empirical data set, often with slightly different focus on the aspect
of disposal, but partly overlapping results. These results are presented and combined in the overview table in this article to avoid
repetition and to save space.
The studies vary somewhat in terminology. For purposes of
clarity, six main terms are used for the options of disposal of
clothing:
• Binning is used for permanent discarding of clothing as part of
household waste or for other ways that imply that textiles will not
be reused or recycled.
• Donation is used when clothes are given to an organization, not
to friends or family. These organizations usually are non-profit
with charitable purposes, but some are also profit based. There is
no economic gain for the donator.
• Give away is used when clothes are handed down to friends,
family, neighbours or other acquaintances (without economic
gain).
• Selling is used when clothing is exchanged for money through
different channels such as the Internet, garage sales or flea
markets.
• Swapping is used when clothing is exchanged for other clothing,
usually in an informal meeting between friends or in organized
happenings with larger number of participants.
• Keep is used when garments that go out of use are stored and
kept.
Results of clothing disposal studies
The summarized results of the review are given in Table 1. The
following section presents a content analysis that outlines publication channels, used methodologies, sample characteristics,
International Journal of Consumer Studies
Clothing disposal behaviour
socio-demographic variables, studied topics and major findings of
the included studies.
Publication channels
In total, 41 research projects that were reported in 47 publications
are included in this review. The majority of publications were
articles in peer-reviewed journals (28), but also include dissertations (8), conference papers (5), reports (4) and book chapters (2).
The majority of articles were published in consumer research
journals, followed by marketing, retail and management journals,
as well as a number of fashion, clothing and textiles research
journals. A smaller number of articles were published in education, environment and design research journals. Most articles were
published in:
• International Journal of Consumer Studies (4)
• Clothing and Textiles Research Journal (2)
• Environment and Behaviour (2)
• International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management (2)
The interest in the topic has increased significantly during the
past years (Fig. 1). Even though at the time of writing this article
we are currently only at the end of year 2013, the number of
publications since 2010 already exceeds the total number of publications from the past three decades.
Used methodologies
The selected publications are based on varying research methods,
where one important distinction is whether they are based on
informants’ general responses only or also include concrete textile
items. Each research method used in the selected publications was
coded as one of the following:
• Survey: this category includes quantitative research that has
been carried out with questionnaires with pre-selected answering
options.
• Interview: qualitative research with direct interaction with the
informants. Divided between individual, focus group and other
interview techniques.
• Observation: including the type of event, location and length of
participation.
• Experiments: either tests of consumer behaviour in controlled
settings with actual reactions to stimuli or physical tests of textile
items in laboratory settings.
• Other: includes other methods that are not directly any of the
above mentioned methods. These can be based on research on
informants, such as essay writing and diary keeping, or on clothing, such as wardrobe audits, clothing counting and/or registrations, and household waste content analysis.
Comparison of the research methods shows that the most
common method used is quantitative surveys (26). Provided that
sampling has been performed properly, the benefit of this method
is that conclusions can be drawn for a larger population than just
the population addressed in each specific survey. However, survey
methods have also some drawbacks. Pre-selected answering
options may not be suitable for all respondents, may miss contextual details and deeper knowledge on the reasons behind the
selected answering options is lacking. In addition, when studying
practices and behaviour, a survey is a very limited tool, as it has
been demonstrated that self-reported behaviour often differs from
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228
Survey
Takamori and Ueda (2005) Memoirs of the
Faculty of Education, Kumamoto
University. Natural Science (Japanese
with English abstract)
Gregson and Beale (2004) Geoforum
Domina and Koch (2002) Environment
and Behavior
Participant
observation
Survey
Interviews
Interviews
Clothing
registrations
Survey
211 university students, 64% women
20 women, aged 16–40, either pregnant
or recently had a baby
Two maternity wear retailers outlets
840 adults, 81% women
24 women, age around 40
329 women’s garments awaiting disposal
217 adults (subset of total of 840), 75%
women, all above the age of 65
Survey
Klepp (2001) Report
396 adults, 88% women, median age 38
Survey
Domina and Koch (1999) Journal of
Fashion Marketing and Management
Koch and Domina (1999) Family and
Consumer Sciences Research Journal
Domina and Koch (2001) Journal of Family
and Consumer Sciences
817 adults, 46% women, average age 48
Survey
89 women in college, aged 18–30
(average 19.8) attending the course
‘Clothing and society’
Daneshvary et al. (1998) Environment and
Behaviour
Focus groups
Survey
468 university students, 55% women,
89% below the age of 25
Four groups, each four to six students
277 university students, 82% women,
91% below the age of 24
Survey
Francis and Butler (1994) Journal of
Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction
and Complaining Behaviour
Shim (1995) Clothing and Textiles
Research Journal
Koch and Domina (1997) Journal of
Consumer Studies & Home Economics
402 adult women, even age distribution
Survey
Chun (1987) MSc thesis
282 adult women at shopping mall, 54%
below the age of 34
Survey
Stephens (1985) PhD thesis
Sample
Method
Publication
Table 1 Summary of clothing disposal studies
Japan
UK (England)
US (national sample)
Norway
US (national sample)
US (Michigan)
US (Nevada)
US (Midwest)
US (Texas)
US (national sample)
US (Oregon)
US (Virginia)
Country
Relationship between clothing behaviour
and environmental consciousness
(destinations and demographics)
Variables that influence clothing disposal
patterns (destinations, motivations and
demographics)
The effects of environmental attitude and
fashion opinion leadership on textile
disposal behaviour (destinations,
motivations, reasons and demographics)
Recycling behaviour and attitudes towards
potential curbside textile recycling
(destinations and demographics)
Variables that influence textile recycling,
disposal reasons and methods
(destinations, motivations, reasons and
demographics)
Textile recycling practices and needs of
older adults (destinations and
motivations)
Reasons why women stop using clothes
and wish to dispose them (destinations,
motivations and reasons)
Effect of convenience and other variables
in recycling behaviour, and potential of
textiles curbside recycling (destinations
and motivations)
Circulation of maternity clothing
(destinations)
Social responsibility in clothing
consumption (destinations and
demographics)
Differences between fashion innovators
and non-fashion innovators in clothing
disposal (destinations, reasons and
demographics)
Satisfaction with clothing disposition
options (destinations and demographics)
Topic
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Six adult women, aged 27–57
206 adult women, 77% below the age of
24
Four charity shop managers
194 university students, 59% women,
aged 18–54 (average age 22)
Interviews
Survey
Interviews
Survey
Interviews
Survey
Walter (2008) MSc thesis
Cluver (2008) PhD thesis
Charbonneau (2008) PhD thesis
Bianchi and Birtwistle (2010) The
International Review of Retail,
Distribution and Consumer Research
Survey
Interviews
32 adults
15 adults, 93% women, aged 19–64
(average 25)
Seven (three in UK, four in Brazil)
middle-class mothers in their 30s and
40s
743 (504 Scotland and 239 Australia) adult
women above the age of 15. In
Scotland 63% below the age of 24,
Australia 21%
First stage 18 adults, 83% women, aged
22–55. Second stage 12 adults. Majority
participates in swapping events
Nine swapping events
26 women who acquire second-hand
clothing
Three groups, 23 persons, six to eight
persons per group (same as survey)
Nine groups with 99 participants, 42%
women, aged 18–65
29 adults
29 adults
22 adults, 64% women, aged 37–54
UK (Scotland) and Australia
UK (England) and Brazil
US (state not given)
US (Southwest)
UK (England)
US (Colorado)
US (California and Oregon)
US (Illinois)
UK (Scotland)
UK (Scotland)
Country
Clothing disposal behaviour in donation
setting (destinations and motivations)
General waste disposal practices,
including clothing (destinations and
some demographics)
Factors that affect clothing disposal
method selection in two countries
(destinations and some demographics)
Voluntary clothing disposition decisions
(destinations and motivations)
Consumers’ perspectives on sustainable
clothing consumption, attitudes to
clothing lifespans and disposal practices
(destinations, motivations, reasons and
demographics)
Textile recycling attitudes, knowledge and
behaviour (destinations and
demographics)
Decision-making process between storage
and disposal, and why clothes are kept
at storage when they are no longer
used (motivations and reasons)
Motivations for acquiring and wearing
second-hand clothing, and clothing
disposal behaviour (destinations)
Relationship between product types and
disposal channels, events that prompt
disposal (destinations and reasons)
Consumers’ fashion clothing disposal
habits (destinations, motivations,
reasons and demographics)
Topic
K. Laitala
Ha-Brookshire and Hodges (2009) Clothing
and Textiles Research Journal
Moraes et al. (2009) Conference paper
Workshops
Home tasks
(diaries and
wardrobe audits)
Interviews
Cooper et al. (2010) Conference paper
Goworek et al. (2012) International Journal
of Retail & Distribution Management
Goworek et al. (2013) Book chapter
Albinsson and Perera (2009) Journal of
Consumer Behaviour
Participant
observation
Narratives
Interviews
Focus groups
Fisher et al. (2008) Report
Focus groups
10 groups with 71 young women (age
17–25)
Focus groups
Birtwistle and Moore (2007) International
Journal of Retail & Distribution
Management
Morgan and Birtwistle (2009) International
Journal of Consumer studies
210 households
Survey
Hibbert et al. (2005) Journal of Business
Research
Sample
Method
Publication
Table 1 Continued
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230
Survey
Interviews
Interviews
Survey
Survey
Focus groups
Description and
photo of a garment
Observation and
interviews
Survey
Sego (2010) Journal of Consumer
Behaviour
Sung and Kincade (2010) Journal of Global
Academy of Marketing Science
Baker (2011) MSc thesis
Phillips and Sego (2011) Marketing Theory
Ungerth and Carlsson (2011) Report
Bianchi and Birtwistle (2012) International
Journal of Consumer Studies
Björnman and Kaloper (2012) MSc thesis
Goldsmith (2012) Nordic Textile Journal
Koukouvinos (2012) MSc thesis
Participant
observation
Survey
Interviews
Focus groups
Interviews
Saunders (2010) Conference proceedings
Ekström et al. (2012) Report
Method
Interviews
Publication
Table 1 Continued
201 young consumers, 75% women,
aged 18–35
689 adult low-price shoppers, 77%
women
24 people in three groups (retired, parents
to small children and fashion-interested
students), 83% women
29 participants of swapping event (mainly
young women)
Swapping event (total 800 participants)
People who donate clothing
17 (divided to three groups) young female
students, aged 20–26
17 garments to be disposed
488 women (239 in Australia and 249 in
Chile)
1014 adults, aged 16–74 (representative
of Swedish population)
13 mothers aged 32–52
18 women aged 24–64 who had donated
and bought second-hand clothing
600 adults, 50% women, aged 20–49,
average age 34
10 poor, unemployed, religious consumers
ages 25–56, 60% women in
Johannesburg
Six mothers
Sample
Greece
Sweden
US (New York)
Sweden
Australia and Chile
Sweden
North America (Canada/US)
US (North Carolina)
Korea
US (state not given)
South Africa
Country
Psychosocial factors that influence
clothing disposal behaviour (destinations
and motivations)
Textile recycling behaviour and
motivations (motivations and reasons)
Clothing acquisition and disposal practices
(destinations, motivations, reasons and
demographics)
Urban poor’s disposition behaviour of
household items, including clothing
(destinations and motivations)
Mother’s disposal of children’s items,
including clothing (destinations,
motivations and reasons)
Which consumer have sustainable
clothing behaviours (destinations and
demographics)
Motivations for clothing donations and
purchase of second-hand clothing
(motivations and demographics)
Effect of identity in disposal process of
children’s belongings, including clothing
(motivations and demographics)
Swedish consumers’ clothing acquisition
and disposal behaviours (destinations,
reasons and demographics)
Factors that affect sustainable clothing
disposal method selection (destinations,
demographics)
Factors that influence clothing disposal
decisions and channels (destination,
motivation and reasons)
Topic
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K. Laitala
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International Journal of Consumer Studies
Survey
Interviews
Survey
Survey
Essay writing
Interviews, diaries
and wardrobe audits
Collett et al. (2013) Research Journal of
Textile and Apparel
Joung and Park-Poaps (2013) International
Journal of Consumer Studies
Lang et al. (2013) International Journal of
Consumer Studies
Lee et al. (2013) Young Consumers
Smith (2013) Conference proceedings
Registrations of
disposed clothes
Survey
Stall-Meadows and Goudeau (2012)
Journal of Extension
McGrath (2012) Conference proceedings
Survey
Survey
Laitala and Boks (2012) Journal of Design
Research, Laitala and Klepp (2013) Book
chapter
Interviews
Method
Publication
Table 1 Continued
71 undergraduates, 96% women, aged
18–24, attending a fashion introduction
course
17 adult women, ages not given
555 adults with even age distribution
between 18 and 66, 54% women
126 adults, 96% women (included
students, county fair participants and
church group)
13 undergraduate female students of
design or merchandizing management,
aged 18–28
232 textile and apparel college students,
92% women, 98% aged 18–25
150 young adults, aged 18–25, 82%
women
546 adults, 77% women
1124 adults, 50% women, (representative
to Norway)
16 households, 81% of main informants
were women
619 clothing items from 35 people
Sample
Factors that prompt fast fashion disposal
and perceptions of limited apparel
lifespans (reasons)
Factors that motivate and influence
clothing disposal behaviours
(destination, motivations and
demographics)
Influence of personal attributes and
behaviours to clothing disposal
frequency (motivations and reasons)
Clothing disposition behaviour, motivations
and emotional responses (destination,
motivations and reasons)
Better understanding of consumers’
clothing use behaviour, and how this
information could be used to reduce the
material flow (reasons, destinations and
demographics)
US (Oregon)
UK
US (Midwest)
US (state not given)
US (Southeast)
US (state not given)
Consumers’ clothing consumption
motivations and how fashion design
could be used to achieve longer
clothing lifespans (reasons)
Effects of textile recycling education
(destinations and motivations)
Clothing disposal practices and reasons,
clothing lifespans (destinations, reasons
and demographics)
Topic
US (state not given)
Norway
Country
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Figure 1 Number of publications concerning
clothing and textiles disposal during the past
decades.
bs_bs_query
the actual behaviour (Chao and Lam, 2011). This is especially
valid in cases where the research topic is value loaded and concerns ethical issues, when there are assumed ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
answers, such as within recycling (Thøgersen, 1996). Many consumers may think that it is ‘wrong’ to throw usable garments in the
waste bin, and are likely to underreport such behaviour when
asked. In addition, consumers may not be that aware of their own
mundane daily tasks, which may lead to incorrect reporting
(Gronow and Warde, 2001).
Different types of interviews were the next most common
research method. Individual interviews (17) were more common
than focus group interviews (6). Qualitative methods are suitable
when the research aim is to gain an understanding of the phenomenon of interest, as well as underlying consumer reasoning and
motivation. The data is therefore more ‘rich’, but at the same time
more resource intensive to collect, and offers less possibilities to
generalize in comparison with quantitative survey data.
A minority of studies used other types of methods. Some of
these were informant-based research, such as workshops, essay
writing, narratives and diary keeping, while a few also included
clothing items, through wardrobe audits, participant observations,
clothing counting and registrations. These methods are interesting
because they make the studied topic more concrete and tangible
than general surveys and interviews, and can reduce the bias often
caused through self-reported behaviour.
It was striking that none of the studies used consumer experiments. Experiments are not uncommon in studies of sustainable
clothing acquisition behaviour, where studying willingness to pay
for more sustainable options is a common research topic (e.g. Gam
et al., 2010). Experiments may answer questions related to user’s
perceptions, intentions, beliefs and habits concerning the material
aspects such as quality and design. Such insights might also be
useful when studying the discarding of clothes, e.g. when studying
the relationship between the actual condition of the clothing, and
what the owners say about the clothing, or to see how consumers
would sort various used clothing items for reuse, recycling or
waste disposal.
8
A few of the studies had combined different research methods
(mixed methods). This kind of method triangulation is positive, for
example, Kelle (2005) argues that integrating qualitative and
quantitative methods in the sociological research process can be
used as mutual validation or as the integration of different perspectives on the investigated phenomenon.
Sample size and sources
The study samples varied in size and very few were representative
for complete national populations. In surveys, the average sample
size was 427 respondents, with a median of 339. The smallest
survey was based on 26 respondents, and the largest on 1124
respondents.
Focus group interviews had on average 43 participants with 7.6
participants in each group. The total number of groups was on
average 5.3, and varied between 3 and 10. Samples were smaller
for individual interviews, where the average sample size was 15.6
informants. The smallest reported interview data were based on 4
informants, and the largest on 29 informants.
In general, the informants are recruited through different channels, but a lot of convenience sampling has been used. This is
particularly the case with college students, which gives limited
generalizability.
Socio-demographic variables
Gender
It was found that the gender distribution in the studied samples
generally is very uneven. On average, the studies have 81% female
respondents. Of the included study methods, 19 were based on an
all-female sample, and additional 18 have female-dominated
sample with over 61% female participants. About 12 studies have
close to even gender distribution (even considered to be a 40–60
split), and none of the studies are either male dominated or concentrated on only men’s clothing disposal practices. However,
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some studies with a female sample, study disposal of children’s
clothing and many studies do not separate whose clothing is being
disposed. Within households, women often are more responsible
for the clothing and textiles of the whole family (Laitala et al.,
2009). They take on a larger portion of tasks related to acquisition,
laundering, repair and, most likely, also the family’s clothing
disposal. Studies that concentrated on younger women’s disposal
habits argued that the reason for this focus was because these
specific consumers purchase fashion more frequently than other
groups, which may generate information on certain volumes of
disposed clothing (Birtwistle and Moore, 2007; McGrath, 2012;
Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013). However, students and young
women are likely to be only responsible of their own clothing, and
this sample selection excludes knowledge on disposal of children’s, men’s and elderly women’s clothing, and makes comparisons between groups difficult.
Age
The majority of the studies have used samples of adults of different ages. However, when specific age groups are studied, there is
a bias in the studied samples. One of the studies has concentrated
on elderly consumers above the age of 65, whereas young consumers have been the target group in 12 samples.
Geographic spread
A bit over half of the studies were conducted in Northern America
(mainly US), followed by Europe where most studies were carried
out in the UK, followed by Sweden, Norway and Greece. A minority of the studies was carried out in Australia, Asia and South
America, each represented with two studies only, and one study in
Africa. This shows clearly that some areas are less studied, or at
least the studies have not been published in peer-reviewed journals
in English. For example, during the literature search, several
journal articles from Korea were found, but their short English
abstracts did not include sufficient information to be included in
the review.
Study topics and research questions
In general, the study topics can be divided into four major
categories.
1 Destinations: study of disposal methods, amounts and/or distribution between the potential destinations.
2 Motivations: reasoning behind selection of the specific methods
of disposal (includes studies on hindrances for recycling).
3 Reasons: studies concentrating on why clothing is disposed of
in the first place. Includes also studies that look into when clothing
is disposed of related to specific disposal events, as what prompts
disposal.
4 Demographics: studies that address which consumers are more
likely to use specific disposal methods, and/or have specific motivations or disposal reasons.
The majority of studies concentrate on research themes 1 and 2,
followed by 4. Fewer studies are focused on theme 3. Some of the
studies also have focused on other topics, such as whether the
consumers support curbside collection programmes, but such
results are outside the scope of this paper. The major findings
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Clothing disposal behaviour
within each of the four themes are summarized in the following
sections.
Destinations
The majority of studies give a positive picture of consumer’s
clothing disposal behaviour, as they prefer to deliver the clothing
to reuse rather than binning in most cases (e.g. Klepp, 2001;
Charbonneau, 2008; Walter, 2008; Ha-Brookshire and Hodges,
2009; Stall-Meadows and Goudeau, 2012). The preferred reuse
channel varies some, but in general donating and giving to friends/
family are more frequent than selling garments. However, a lot of
garments are still binned if the user feels that they are of no use to
others, either because of wear and tear, stains, other damages or
because of fashion change (e.g. Sego, 2010; Ungerth and Carlsson,
2011; Björnman and Kaloper, 2012; Ekström et al., 2012). None
of the studies included take-back schemes as disposal options,
most likely because they are a rather new alternative on the consumer market. Some of the studies point out that consumers did
not distinguish between recycling and reuse, or were not aware of
other recycling options for clothing besides reuse (e.g. Domina
and Koch, 2002; Fisher et al., 2008). Some consumers did repurpose textiles and used them, e.g. as cleaning rags, before binning
them. Some of the studies also show that many consumers have
inactive garments in their wardrobes, storing them for long periods
of time before making a disposal decision (Klepp, 2001; Cluver,
2008; Smith, 2013). Some clothing that goes out of use is still
kept, usually due to emotional attachment. They can be either
stored as mementos that are never to be used or as intended
heirlooms, e.g. for grandchildren (e.g. Cluver, 2008; Fisher et al.,
2008; Ha-Brookshire and Hodges, 2009; Sego, 2010).
These findings confirm the categories found in Jacoby et al.’s
(1977) disposition taxonomy. Permanent disposition was the
dominating method, followed by keeping the product in inactive
storage. However, it may be that many of the studies have not
considered the option of temporary disposition such as loaning
and sharing, besides of studies on maternity wear that circulated
between wardrobes (Gregson and Beale, 2004), and clothing disposal practices of underprivileged people, where sharing was
common (Saunders, 2010).
Motivations for selection of disposal method
The disposal method was chosen based on characteristics related
to the product, the individual and the surrounding structures
(Albinsson and Perera, 2009; Björnman and Kaloper, 2012;
Koukouvinos, 2012), which were also given in Jacoby et al.’s
disposition taxonomy (1977). Familiarity of the disposal method
was important as well (Koch and Domina, 1997; Domina and
Koch, 1999). Most of the studies that discuss motivations are
related to recycling behaviour, and it seems that the most common
decisive factor for deciding whether to recycle or not is convenience, which is related to availability of recycling stations, collection systems or other organized infrastructures (Shim, 1995;
Domina and Koch, 2001, 2002; Ha-Brookshire and Hodges, 2009;
Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009). Some studies reported lack of
knowledge and awareness on how to recycle and showed that
educational campaigns had an effect on planned future recycling
behaviour (Koukouvinos, 2012; Stall-Meadows and Goudeau,
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Figure 2 Distributions of given clothing disposal reasons in five studies.
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2012). Another reason for binning textiles was that some respondents felt that they had too small amounts of textiles to deliver for
recycling (Domina and Koch, 2001). This was often combined
with lack of storage space (Domina and Koch, 2002; Fisher et al.,
2008; Lee et al., 2013). Throwing away was also mostly connected
to specific types of clothing, such as underwear and socks, as well
as damaged, worn out, stained, unfashionable or cheap clothing
(Birtwistle and Moore, 2007; Fisher et al., 2008; Laitala and
Klepp, 2013).
Reasons for donating clothing included not wanting to waste
usable garments, helping the needy and, to a minor degree, also
environmental considerations (Shim, 1995; Koch and Domina,
1999; Baker, 2011). The selection of particular charities was often
less important; convenience was a more essential factor (Birtwistle
and Moore, 2007). Selling garments was more often related to
economic reasons, in addition to not wasting usable products
(Shim, 1995; Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013). Different types of
clothing are disposed of in different ways; it is more common to
give children’s clothing to acquaintances than adults’ clothing,
and women’s clothing is swapped more often than men’s clothing
(Hibbert et al., 2005; Fisher et al., 2008; Sego, 2010; Ekström
et al., 2012).
Clothing with high sentimental value was more likely to be kept
than discarded (Ha-Brookshire and Hodges, 2009; Lee et al.,
2013). Studies on general product disposal have shown that if the
associations related to the product are positive, the owner must
distance him or herself before disposal through a divestment ritual.
In these cases, the disposal is easier if the owner feels a shared self
with the potential new user, a common identity. If the product has
a negative association, consumers are more pleased with the act of
discarding such items (Lastovicka and Fernandez, 2005). Some
studies also reported on positive emotions related to clothing disposal and recycling, such as hedonic values related to feeling good
about helping, and utilitarian reasons, such as making space and
attaining less clutter at home (Baker, 2011; Lee et al., 2013).
The studies show that the most common events that prompt
disposal are clearing up/clearing out (often connected to season
10
changes), purchase of new goods, a request for goods such as calls
from charitable organizations or the identification of a suitable
recipient. Transitions in life, such as moving and bereavement,
were events where a lot of clothing was disposed of, but occurred
less often (Hibbert et al., 2005; Cluver, 2008; Collett et al., 2013).
Disposal reasons
Only a few studies have looked in more detail at reasons why
clothing is discarded of, and then usually use methods such as
surveys or focus group interviews (Koch and Domina, 1997;
Domina and Koch, 1999; Fisher et al., 2008; Morgan and
Birtwistle, 2009; Ekström et al., 2012). Five studies that reported
the disposal reasons quantitatively are presented in Fig. 2. In this
figure, the disposal reasons are categorized to four main groups in
order to enable comparison: wear and tear; fit or size; fashion, taste
or boredom; and other reasons. The other category included,
among other things, situational reasons such as lack of storage
space. The distribution between different disposal reasons varied
between these studies. Two of the studies are based on surveys,
and three on disposed clothing. Estimating the share of clothing
disposed of due to different reasons might be difficult based on
surveys, as it was shown in the studies based on disposed clothing;
one clothing item often has several disposal reasons. The surveys
only allowed selection of one answering option based on preselected categories, which in these cases was either the most
common disposal reason or the disposal reason of the most
recently disposed clothing item. The five studies are also based on
very different samples, and the one where fashion as disposal
reason ranks highest is based on young female students who
attended a course called ‘Clothing and Society’.
These disposal reasons can be recognized as parts of product
obsolescence categories given in introduction (Packard, 1960;
Heiskanen, 1996; Strandbakken, 1997). It seems that qualityrelated disposal such as wear and tear is most common, followed
by category of psychological/symbolic reasons such as fashion,
and finally, new consumer needs or desires that include a category
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of changed body size. The category of functional obsolescence
seems to be less important for clothing. This may be related to that
new clothing seldom has improved utility compared with the existing solutions, besides for some sportswear or protective clothing
where it is more common with technical improvements such as use
of nanotechnologies and new materials that have improved moisture management properties. In addition, the obsolescence categories do not seem to take into account a large number of clothes that
have never been used, as they have been less suitable for use to
begin with. Many of the studies in this review reported on clothing
that was never used, or only used a couple of times, before disposal. Main reasons that were given for this were unsuitable
design (fit, use properties) or a mistake purchases, such as wrong
size (Klepp, 2001; Fisher et al., 2008; Laitala and Boks, 2012).
Many consumers also reported on having inactive clothing in their
wardrobes. Bye and McKinney (2007) have studied why women
kept clothing items that did not fit. Main reasons for keeping such
clothing were weight management, investment value, sentimental
value and aesthetic object.
Demographics
As the majority of studies focus on females’ clothing consumption, most of them do not draw any conclusions on differences
between the genders. However, the ones that did compare genders
found some differences. In the US and Europe women have shown
more environmental-related attitudes and practices in clothing
disposal than men, whereas in Japan no difference was found
between male and female students’ disposal behaviour (Shim,
1995; Koch and Domina, 1997; Daneshvary et al., 1998; Takamori
and Ueda, 2005; Walter, 2008).
Some of these studies showed that older age was related to
increased recycling behaviour, at least related to donating to (religious) charitable organizations. Younger respondents and fashion
innovators were more likely to give to friends or family (Domina
and Koch, 2001; Ekström et al., 2012).
Most studies did not report on differences based on demographics such as income, education and marital status, most likely due
to non-representative sampling. One of the studies reported that
lower income and higher education increased recycling behaviour
(Stephens, 1985).
A study of underprivileged consumers in Johannesburg stands
in contrast to the other studies, as these consumers lived under
completely different conditions. They did not shop for clothes, but
received their clothing (and food) mainly from a church. Therefore, their disposal habits were also different. They assumed that
their clothing is beyond use by the time they decided to dispose of
it, and then disposed of it permanently by burning it (Saunders,
2010).
Conclusions
This review shows that clothing disposal studies include four
major topics: (1) disposal methods, (2) motivations for selection of
disposal method, (3) clothing disposal reasons and (4) demographics of consumers who behave in specific ways. The majority of the
studies indicate that consumers prefer to deliver clothing for reuse
(donate, give to friends) rather than to bin it. However, a lot of
garments are still binned if the user feels that they are of no use to
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Clothing disposal behaviour
others, either because of wear and tear, stains, other damages or
fashion changes. Some of the studies point out that consumers are
not aware of other recycling options for clothing, besides reuse.
Convenience was a key factor for whether most consumers
decided to deliver clothing for reuse. Most common clothing disposal reasons were wear and tear, poor fit, and fashion/boredom,
but the order of importance varied between the studies. In addition
some report of situational reasons such as lack of storage space.
Many studies used female-dominated samples. The focus on the
studied samples gives an impression that clothing is something
that only relates to young women in developed countries, and
seems to exclude the fact that all people in the world use clothing,
at least to some degree. Even though in general, young women
acquire more clothing, and women might be responsible for most
clothing disposal within their families, this focus does not give
information of the total picture of clothing disposal. None of the
studies concentrated on men’s clothing disposal habits, only one
concentrated on elderly, and only one had focus on a very lowincome population.
There is also room for improvement methodically. Most studies
rely on self-reported behaviour. Relationship between the actual
condition of the clothing, and what the owners say about the
clothing, has not been studied.
Future directions
This review of clothing disposal practices has shown a need to
continue to study the topic. The main focus in existing literature
has been on the destination of disposed clothing, and less interest
has been shown for why clothing is disposed of in the first place.
Little is known about the variations of reasons behind clothing
disposal, or the condition of disposed clothing that is delivered
either to garbage collection or recycling. The technical and social
aspects of clothing disposal should be studied further. Increased
knowledge on the relationship between the actual condition of
the clothing, and what the owners say about the clothing, would
give insights on potentials to increase the lifespans and reuse of
clothing.
Comparisons of these results with disposal behaviour related to
other product categories such as glass, metal, paper or household
electronics could increase the knowledge. It is especially interesting because it seems that studies on clothing disposal consider
more the individual consumers’ attitudes and behaviour rather
than the role of habits, collective norms or external facilitators
such as public waste collections systems that are more common
research topics within general recycling behaviour studies (Hornik
et al., 1995).
Research is dominated by survey methods, which indicate the
need of other research designs including method triangulation. In
addition, the sample has been biased to young consumers, women
and often college students, which does not give generalizable
results for complete populations’ disposal behaviour, nor enables
comparisons between different consumer groups. More information is needed, for example, on older male consumer clothing
disposal practices, as well as larger detailed studies on a heterogeneous sample that enables comparisons between children’s and
adult’s clothing, genders, different geographic areas, as well as the
relationship between acquisition and disposal. In addition, some
studies point in different directions in their results, e.g. related to
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the importance of fashion as a driver for clothing disposal, which
indicates that there is a need to study these topics further.
None of the studies used experiments. An example of a study
that could give new insights would include giving respondents
used clothing items and asking them to describe their condition,
whether it is suitable for reuse or not (and by whom), how they
would handle such garment themselves, whether aspects such as
original price, brand, information of previous owner or age of the
garment would make a difference, in order to evaluate which
factors in clothing affect the recycling behaviours.
The field of clothing recycling is changing and evolving.
Recently, clothing retailer chains have started to engage in takeback schemes, such as I:CO system that enables consumers to
bring their old clothing to retail stores (I:CO, 2013). This was not
included in any of the studies, and therefore the future studies
should explore the significance and consequences of this emerging
system, and its effect on charities.
Implications
For academics, this research contributes towards gaining an overview and understanding of the underlying dynamics of the clothing practices in consumer disposal decisions. It also indicated
areas where more research is needed. The practical implications of
this study are relevant for several actors within the clothing chain,
such as producers, designers, retailers, consumers, collectors and
recyclers, as well as educators and public policy makers. It details
current knowledge on topics such as:
• The perceived and actual hindrances for clothing recycling.
• The socio-demographic backgrounds of consumers who have
different disposal behaviours.
• The information on why clothing goes out of use can be used by
producers and designer when considering options for sustainable
design and potentially longer lifespans of clothing.
• Consumer education on other recycling possibilities besides
reuse will have the potential to increase the amount of clothing
collected.
Author biography
Kirsi Laitala is a PhD candidate at Norwegian University of
Science and Technology within Industrial Design Engineering,
and Researcher at the National Institute for Consumer Research.
She has researched on areas related to clothing quality and size
issues, and is currently working with sustainability of clothing
consumption concentrating on the use and disposal periods.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Casper Boks, Ingun Grimstad Klepp, Tone
Skårdal Tobiasson and the anonymous reviewers for valuable
comments, as well as Norwegian Research Council and Orkla
ASA for financial support on the project ‘From textile waste to
material resources in a grave to cradle perspective’.
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International Journal of Consumer Studies
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
238
P8 Clothing collection
Textile waste management and consumers’ disposal practices: How
to increase used clothing collection rates. K. Laitala (Submitted)
Journal of cleaner production
Paper 8
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Submitted to Journal of Cleaner Production
Kirsi Laitala a,b
a
National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO), P.O. Box 4682 Nydalen, N-0405 Oslo,
Norway
b
Department of Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
N-7491 Trondheim, Norway
Correspondence:
Name:
Kirsi Laitala
Address:
SIFO, P.O. Box 4682 Nydalen, N-0405 Oslo, Norway
E-mail:
Kirsi.Laitala@sifo.no
Phone:
+47-22 04 35 77
Fax:
+47-22 04 35 04
Abstract
Previous research on sustainable clothing consumption has mainly concentrated on clothing
acquisition phase, while less focus has been given to the end-of-life and disposal phases. This
study analyses consumers’ clothing disposal methods in Norway. Based on these results, the
current textile waste management strategies are evaluated, and further, improvements on
current textile waste policies and consumer information campaigns are suggested in order to
increase the used clothing collection rates. The analysis is based on mixed methods where
quantitative and qualitative data is combined. A wardrobe study of 35 persons’ 620 clothing
items to be disposed of is combined with interviews and a quantitative survey. Results
indicate that majority of consumable items such as underwear, sock and stockings, as well as
damaged or worn out clothing was binned, while intact clothing was mainly intended for
reuse and given to charity, friends or family. Clothing for reuse is not defined as waste, and
therefore the municipalities are not obligated to collect this fraction. There are several policy
measures that could help in increasing the used clothing collection rates, such as increasing
consumers’ knowledge on clothing recycling possibilities and the environmental benefits of
reuse, as well as working with clothes collectors on messages on what can be donated, and
finally, making collection points more easily accessible even at less populated areas, where
private burning of waste with high toxic emissions still occurs.
Keywords: textile recycling; clothing disposal; consumer behavior; waste management;
apparel reuse, discard
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1. Introduction
The clothing consumption in Western societies has increased greatly during the past decades,
and causes significant environmental impacts (Fletcher, 2008). Production of clothing has
moved to countries with lower labour costs and less stringent environmental regulations, such
as Bangladesh. Consumption phase that includes acquisition, use and disposal of clothing
causes also environmental impacts, mainly due to resources needed for maintenance such as
energy and water use, and production of waste. Most research on sustainable clothing
consumption is related to acquisition phase, while less attention has been given to the disposal
phase (de Coverly et al., 2008; Grasso et al., 2000; Hetherington, 2004; Mohr et al., 2011).
However, consumers' decisions in disposal phase are crucial from an environmental point of
view, as they effect on the lifespan of clothing, as well as the potential for reuse and
recycling. These decisions are of course effected by many factors, including the surrounding
infrastructures, such as the existing used textiles collection systems. Therefore, this study
analyses consumers’ clothing disposal methods in Norway, including the channels they select,
how frequently they dispose of clothing, and whether there are any differences between
consumer groups. Based on these results, the current textile waste management strategies are
evaluated, and further, improvements on textile waste policies and consumer information
campaigns are suggested in order to increase the used clothing collection rates.
The first section of the present study provides an overview of the environmental benefits of
clothing recycling and reuse. The current situation in Norway for the end-of-life textiles and
clothing is presented, followed by a short overview of literature on clothing disposal practices.
Then the two methods that are employed, a wardrobe study and a survey, are presented,
followed by results on disposal methods and frequencies. Finally, a combined discussion and
conclusion chapter indicates the implications of the present study and provides suggestions
for policy measures and future research directions.
1.1 Environmental benefits of recycling and reuse
Waste prevention and management is one of the top priorities given in the EU’s Sixth and
Seventh Environment Action Programmes. Waste Framework Directive enforces the targets,
and gives waste hierarchy with waste minimisation strategies in order of their environmental
impact, starting from prevention, preparing for re-use, recycling, other recovery (e.g. energy
recovery), and finally, least preferred option being disposal (European Parliament and the
Council, 2008). Several studies that compare the environmental impacts of different end-oflife scenarios of waste treatment are made, and for most of the cases, they show that
landfilling is the least preferred option (e.g. Finnveden et al., 2005; Glew et al., 2012; Lanoë
et al., 2013).
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) in the UK has recognised
Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) as a key priority, and identified clothing as
one of priority product groups (Madsen et al., 2007). Textiles and clothing recycling and reuse
are also focused on by the Nordic Council of Ministers, that have recently initiated several
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research projects within the topic (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2013; Tojo et al., 2012). This
strong political focus is supported by data from life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on
textiles. Figure 1 presents results from two LCA studies on cotton t-shirts that compare
different end-of-life scenarios and document the environmental impacts across the textile
lifecycle (Fisher et al., 2011; Farrant 2008 as calculated in Morley et al., 2009).
Figure 1: Comparison of different end-of-life scenarios of cotton t-shirts and the potential
saving of kg CO2 equivalent per tonne textiles during the lifecycle
As recycling option, both studies use example where t-shirts are cut and used as industrial
wipers, and replace paper towels, which is a commonly used textile recycling method today in
Europe (Morley et al., 2006). Figure 1 clearly demonstrates the benefits of reuse over
recycling, and that material recycling is better than energy recovery. However, methods where
recycled textiles would replace new textile products could give even higher environmental
gains. The environmental savings vary for different fibre types. It is estimated that replacing
one kilogram of virgin cotton fibres through use of second-hand clothing saves 65 kWh, but
the figure is even higher for polyester clothing, 90 kWh per kilogram (Woolridge et al., 2006).
In addition to energy consumption, production of several fibre types requires large amounts of
water and land (Sandin et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2010), which can be at least partially avoided
through recycling and reuse.
Chang et al. (1999) have evaluated the market applications for recycled postconsumer fibres,
and concluded that there are several textile sectors with potential increase in amounts of
recycled fibres replacing virgin fibres, such as carpet cushions, home insulation, fiberfill
stuffing, clean-up products, mattress pads/futons, geotextiles, landscaping, and concrete
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reinforcements. These production areas were evaluated most suitable, as they generate articles
with appropriate quality for end use, with competitive prices and as only whose the main
reprocessing needed is fibre shredding. Other potential areas for future are within disposable
clothing, filtering materials, stationary, harvest mesh bags, shades for poultry houses and
greenhouses. In addition to existing recycling solutions, lot of research on new technologies is
carried out. For example, a project in Sweden looks into possibilities of making new
regenerated cellulose fibres from used clothing materials such as cotton (Mistra Future
Fashion, 2013) and International Solid Waste Association has a project on designing jeans for
recycling (Van Bommel, 2013). These types of recycling possibilities would benefit from
having the environmental requirements integrated early in the design process (Bovea and
Pérez-Belis, 2012).
It seems that even though waste prevention is higher in the waste hierarchy and some
researchers focus on this issue (Fletcher, 2012; Niinimäki, 2012), the current research and
political focus lies in potential of increasing recycling.
1.2 Norwegian textile waste and reuse statistics
Similar to many other Western European countries, only small amounts of textiles and
clothing are produced in Norway, and therefore majority of these products are imported. In
2011, Norway imported 211 198 tons and exported 42 097 tons of textiles (Statistics Norway,
2012). Total import is equivalent to 43 kg textiles per capita annually, out of which 14 kg are
clothing. Exportation statistics for textiles show that the largest category of textiles that are
exported from Norway are used clothing and other worn textile articles, 20 745 tons in 2011,
which is almost half of the total textile exportation. This is equivalent to about 4.2 kg per
capita annually, but it is also possible that a minor part or export textiles return to Norway
after being sorted abroad (Laitala et al., 2012).
Trade in used clothing is a large global industry, where the largest clothing streams often
originate from the “Global North” and end up in “Global South” (Norris, 2012). In Norway,
two charity organisations dominate the used clothing collection, Fretex (Salvation Army) and
UFF (Humana people to people). They collect in 10 000 tonnes and 7 000 tonnes textiles
yearly, respectively (Fretex, 2011; UFF, 2011). A third organisation is entering the market
through co-operating with local sports clubs that get paid for collecting used clothing, that is
then sorted in Poland (Kirkebøen, 2013; Renotec, 2013). This type of competition of the used
clothing is even more common in some other countries such as UK, where several clothes
collection containers are often placed side by side (Laitala et al., 2012; Morley et al., 2009).
About 113 000 tons of textile waste was generated in Norway in 2011, which equals to 23 kg
per capita (Statistics Norway, 2013). This is close to the average amount of textile waste
generated in EU-27, which is 26 kg per capita (Laitala et al., 2012). The largest portion (42%)
of the Norwegian textile waste is originated from households, 9.7 kg/capita, followed by
service industries (31%). Clothing and footwear constitutes principal parts of this, about 57%,
followed by upholstery textiles and household products (30%). The amount of textile waste
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from private households has increased from 29 000 tons in 1995 to 52 000 tons in 2010,
which is almost 80% increase in 15 years. Based on composition analyses of household waste,
it has been estimated that about 28% of binned textiles could have been reused (Laitala et al.,
2012). Majority of the textile waste (66%) is incinerated with energy recovery together with
the rest of the household refuge (Statistics Norway, 2013). The proportion of incinerated
materials has increased greatly during the last few years since landfilling of biodegradable
waste has been banned since 2009 (SFT, 2008). The difference between textile import and
waste statistics indicates that potentially large amounts of clothing is kept in storages or
disposed of through different methods that are not captured by the statistics.
In Norway, municipalities are responsible for household waste collection and management.
The collection systems vary greatly between the different areas, but often products such as
glass, metal and paper are collected separately and delivered to recycling. One inter-municipal
waste collection company has included separate waste fraction for collection of textiles for
reuse and recycling (DIM, 2009), while another has made an agreement with a commercially
driven company concerning clothing collection (RfD, 2013). In the rest of the country, other
actors may collect this fraction on voluntary basis, often based on evaluation of profitability.
Therefore, the possibility of delivering textiles to recycling is often worse for consumers
living in sparsely populated areas.
1.3 Clothing disposal practices
Even though clothing disposal is a less researched area than acquisition, some studies on the
topic are being conducted. A recent comprehensive review on clothing disposal literature
summarises the main findings of research projects that were published during the past 30
years (Laitala, Unpublished). Most of these studies concentrate on disposal methods,
behavioural motivations, disposal reasons, and demographics of consumers with specific
behaviours. Despite some results present inconsistencies, some main tendencies could be
observed. Many of these studies point out that most consumers prefer to deliver clothing for
reuse rather than to dispose of them, but convenience is paramount for this behaviour (Bianchi
and Birtwistle, 2010; Birtwistle and Moore, 2007; Domina and Koch, 2001; Domina and
Koch, 2002; Ha-Brookshire and Hodges, 2009; Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013).
Common disposal reasons for apparel were wear and tear, poor fit, and fashion or boredom, in
addition to lack of storage space, but the order of importance between these reasons varied
between studies (Chun, 1987; Fisher et al., 2008; Klepp, 2001; Laitala and Boks, 2012;
Ungerth and Carlsson, 2011). Studied samples were constituted mainly of young students
with overrepresentation of females (Björnman and Kaloper, 2012; Joung and Park-Poaps,
2013; Koch and Domina, 1997; Lee et al., 2013; Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009; Shim, 1995;
Takamori and Ueda, 2005; Walter, 2008),
This indicates the need for studies on more heterogeneous samples and comparisons of
disposal habits of different demographic groups. The review also points out that survey
methods were most common, which indicates the need of other research designs that
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preferably include also the clothing items (Laitala, Unpublished). The present article aims at
covering some of these less studied areas, and employ mixed methods in doing so. This way,
clothing disposal parameters were studied, including disposal frequencies, reasons for
selecting the specific channels, and variations in behaviour between different consumer
groups.
2. Methods
The analysis is based on clothing research project “From textile waste to material resources
in a grave to cradle perspective”, where mixed methods with both qualitative and quantitative
parts were applied. The qualitative method was based on a wardrobe study of clothing to be
disposed of, and the quantitative method was based on a consumer survey.
2.1 Interviews and a wardrobe study of 620 garments
Qualitative method was chosen for gaining empirical data on clothing disposal practices that
is based on concrete garments instead of general opinions of disposal. The qualitative part of
the project had disposed clothing as the starting point. For receiving this detailed information,
a strategic sample of 16 households was selected. These households stored all clothes that
were to be taken out of use during a period of six months. During the in-depth interview, the
households were asked questions related to the disposal of each clothing item. This method is
called wardrobe study, which consists of an inventory of all or some selection of clothes in a
wardrobe. This inventory involves cataloguing the garments combined with a tape recording
of what the owner, user or caretaker has to say about the individual garment and its history of
use. The material frames of practices; such as the clothes, the wardrobes and laundry baskets
are studied. The goal is to look at the relationship between the individual item of clothing and
the larger material totalities. This method has been described and discussed in more detail by
Klepp and Bjerck (2012).
The 16 households included 35 persons (8 children, 2 teenagers, 16 adult women, and 9 adult
men) and disposed of 620 garments that were registered. Participants stopped using on
average 18 garments per person, but the figures varied from 0 to 71 items per person.
Demographic information of the households’ main informants is given in Table 1. Their ages
varied between 24 and 67, with average age of 38.
In addition to the main informant of each household, three of the cohabitants were
interviewed, two female and one male, resulting in 19 interviews. All participants were given
pseudonyms in a way that family members have their pseudonyms starting with same letter.
The sample of 16 household was strategically selected, also called judgement or purposeful
sampling. The distribution of informants is not representative of the population, but the
informants were actively hand-picked in such a way that it maximizes the chance that many
different and even conflicting sides of the phenomenon in question are encountered (Eneroth,
1984; Marshall, 1996). It gives examples of different consumers combined with large number
of clothing items that are suitable to discuss the article’s research questions.
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Table 1. Background variables of the 16 main informants
Property
Sex
Variables
Women
Men
Age
20-34
35-49
50+
Family
No children
Parents with small children
Parents (adult children)
Relationship status
Single/living alone
Living with partner
Area of living
West Oslo
East Oslo
Neighbor counties to Oslo
Trondheim area
Nationality
All Norwegian
Foreign household member(s)
Education
Vocational
Bachelor level
Graduate level
a
Employment situation
Working
b
Student
Retired
a
Three of them only work part time
b
Main informants
13
3
8
6
2
7
7
2
6
10
5
3
5
3
12
4
1
6
9
12
3
1
All three students had part time jobs
The interviews were recorded and transcribed. Qualitative data from the 19 interviews was
analysed with ATLAS.ti software (Atlas.ti GmbH, Germany), while quantitative information
related to the 620 disposed clothing items was coded in Excel (Microsoft, USA) and finally
analysed with SPSS software (IBM, USA).
2.2 Quantitative survey
Quantitative information of consumers’ experiences, practices and opinions concerning clothing
use and disposal was collected through a survey in Norway. Respondents were recruited
through different channels. The majority of respondents were received through questionnaires
sent by mail to 1200 randomly selected households from telephone catalogue. The different
counties were presented in proportion to the number of inhabitants. 60% of questionnaires were
sent to men, as earlier experience has shown that men have a lower response rate. Due to low
response rate (10.3%), additional respondents were recruited with a second round of contacting
1000 household that were selected randomly from the phone catalogue, in addition to
recruitment through personal and work-related networks, and publicity in media. A total of 546
answers were received (Table 2)1.
1
The total number of respondents is lower (N=480) for answer distribution presented in figure 4, because this
question was replaced in a later version of the survey questionnaire online.
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Table 2: Respondents divided by background variables and compared to Norwegian
population in 2010 (15 years and older) (Agerskov, 2010)
Background variables
Sample
Norwegian
population
Number of respondents (N)
546
-
Gender
Male
23%
50%
Female
77%
50%
39.2
45.9
15-24 years
9%
16%
25-39 years
48%
25%
40-59 years
33%
33%
60+ years
9%
26%
Average age
Age groups
The received data is not fully representative for Norwegian population, which has been taken
into account when drawing conclusions. Even though the sample is quite randomly selected,
the size is too small and it may be biased, because the respondents who chose to respond may
be different from those who chose not to respond. In addition, the constitution with
overrepresentation of women and non-representative age distribution does not correspond the
division in the Norwegian adult population, and therefore not sufficient to generalize research
findings. These cases are not weighted. The received data from was analysed with the help of
SPSS software (IBM, USA). As this is a convenience sample where some the assumptions
about probability sampling are violated, it is not appropriate to use statistical significance
tests. However, the sample contains a large number of different respondents that can be
compared with one another, and can be used as an example of consumers in Norway. They
also give a wider context for the results from qualitative study of the 16 households, and
therefore these two methods complement each other.
3. Results
Section 3.1 presents the results related to general clothing disposal methods based on survey
method. This is followed by disposal methods of specific clothing items based on wardrobe
study (section 3.2), and finally the disposal frequency based on survey data (section 3.3).
These themes include a discussion of demographic characteristics of consumers that select
specific disposal methods. Interviews are used throughout the results section in order to
interpret and explain the quantitative data. Participants of the qualitative interviews are
referred to as informants, while the participants to the quantitative survey are referred to as
respondents.
3.1 General disposal methods
There are several ways clothing can be disposed of and end up either to reuse, recycling,
storage, or as waste. This was researched in the survey through asking the use frequency of
the most common methods of clothing disposal. The question was stated separately for
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clothing that was worn out or damaged, and for clothing that was intact and usable. The
results show that consumers selected different disposal methods for these types of clothing
(Figure 2). Majority (59%) said they often binned damaged or worn out items, while intact
clothing was most often donated to charity (69%). Selling was least commonly used of the
given disposal channels. When it comes to undamaged clothing disposal behaviour, these
results are similar to reported behaviour in Sweden, but 53% of the Swedish respondents
reported to donate some of the damaged clothing as well (Ekström et al., 2012).
Figure 2: Disposal methods of intact and damaged clothing (N=546)
Men described to use clothing more often until it is worn out, but they also were more likely
to throw clothing to garbage. Women were more likely to give intact clothing to charity and to
friends and family. They were also more likely to repair and make something new of clothing
than men were.
Some disposal behaviours varied between respondents of different ages. Younger respondents
were more likely to give clothing to friends and family, while older respondents said they
used more often clothing until it was worn out, and used it as rags. No substantial differences
between age groups related to the other disposal channels were observed.
Respondents that said they were interested in environmental questions were more likely to
give intact clothing to charity and make something new of it, but there was no significant
differences in their other behaviour related to selection of clothing disposal channels.
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In addition to the disposal methods listed in survey, interviews revealed at least one
alternative method. Here 59-year old Pia explains how they dispose of waste, including some
textiles, about twice a year: ‘We've for example cleaned up some of the old stuff from the
farm, and that has been burned in the evening (laughs a little). It is not really allowed to burn
like that...’ This behaviour has not been researched in detail, but it is an old practice and it
seems that it still common in the countryside, even though it is against the regulations (SFT,
2001). This might be one of the reasons that explain the difference between clothing import
and waste statistics.
This section gave survey results based on general self-reported behaviour of large number of
Norwegian consumers. In the following section, the selection of disposal methods of specified
clothing items is analysed based on the wardrobe study.
3.2 Disposal methods of specified clothing items
In the wardrobe study the participating households told where they would have disposed the
collected clothing items, if they had not been given to the study. Figure 3 gives the
distribution of planned destinations of the clothing. In this figure ‘consumable’ clothing items
such as socks, stockings and underwear are separated from other types of clothing items, as
the material showed that these types of garments were treated differently when they were to
be disposed of. Consumables were in most cases to be thrown away with waste, with a few
expectations of giving some to charity, family or friends. Other types of clothing items were
mostly planned to be donated to charity, followed by throwing away with waste, and giving to
family or friends.
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Figure 3: Distribution of destinations of collected clothing. Separately for ‘consumables’ such
as socks and underwear, and for other (larger) clothing items (N=620).
Very few items were planned to be sold or used for purposes such as storing the item as
memento or intended heirloom, or planning to repurpose it either as clothing or something
else. The results indicate that ¾ of garments were intended for reuse (excluding
consumables). This was most common for all clothing, expect for the clothing that had
changed during use (e.g. got holes, pilling, colour changes or other changes in appearance)
and was then more likely to be thrown away as waste. There was also a big difference in this
matter between children’s and adults’ clothing, as 30% of adults’ clothing were to be disposed
compared to only 7% of children’s and teenagers’ clothing (excluding consumables). This
may be explained by the shorter use periods of children’s and teens’ clothing, as they outgrow
clothing usually within a season.
Consumables and other types of clothing items were treated differently when disposed of.
This difference in behaviour might also occur during the other consumption stages, such as
acquisition. In general, research on clothing and fashion consumption is focused on these
larger clothing items, and even some of the informants in wardrobe study had not collected
the socks and underwear they were going to dispose of, because they did not consider it to be
clothing.
Both of the two largest used clothing collectors in Norway, Fretex and UFF, say that they
only want undamaged clothing that can be reused as it is (Fretex, 2013; UFF Norge, 2013).
Therefore, many of the informants were uncertain on where to draw the line on whether
clothing could be delivered to reuse or not. Some informants chose to give almost anything to
charity. Erik (30) describes his jeans with a 15 cm wide tear in the crotch: ’I had given to the
charity, because some people like pants with holes in, that are worn. Fretex can choose
whether they want it or not.’ Some informants also often assumed that if there were only
small errors in garments, they would be repaired before the clothes would be given or resold,
such as small holes or missing buttons. Camilla (29 years) felt that the requirements for used
clothing collectors were high: ’It might be a bit like, at least in Norway, it should be so high
standard to be sold as used as well… If I first do not want it for some reason, then maybe
often others do not want it either. That it may have become outdated or that it is a bit washed
out and not as nice [...] I feel that maybe some charity shops only want the very nice clothes,
or the very fun clothes for dressing up.’ She did not know that large portion of the clothing is
reused or recycled in other countries. Most of the informants did not like to throw clothing
into trash, but did not know of other options if they felt it was not directly suited for reuse.
As previous studies also indicated, convenience was important in disposal decisions, and
these decisions were seldom made due to environmental considerations, here exemplified
again by 29-year-old Camilla: ‘I guess I always have ambitions to give away clothes that are
not damaged and like that. But it is more because I think that it is stupid to throw away
clothes that someone can use, not necessarily because of the environment [...] But often it's a
bit cumbersome to deliver clothes to a specific place. Then I don’t get it done anyway, and
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then it just lies there, until I eventually throw it away.’ This shows one of the problems related
to the disposal process. The consumers may have good intentions, but the possibilities and
practical hindrances may stop the intended behaviour.
3.3 Disposal frequency
Clothing disposal frequency was studied with both of the applied methods. In the survey, two
questions concerning the most common disposal frequency and disposal occasions were
stated. The results show that it was most common to dispose of clothing once or twice a year
(48%). Every third respondent (32%) disposed of clothing more often than this, and every
fifth (20%) more seldom. Women were more likely to dispose of clothing more often than
male respondents (Figure 4). It was most common to go through the wardrobes during spring
and autumn, when some of the winter and summer clothing are circulated between different
storage areas (30%). At this stage, clothing that was not too damaged or worn out to be used
could be taken out of use. Damaged clothing was more often disposed of directly. Highest
portion of respondents that disposed of clothing once or twice a year were in the age group
above the age of 60. This practice is explained here by 67-year-old Olivia: ‘I put summer
clothes away in another closet or up in the attic, in plastic boxes or such, and take down the
woollen clothes that I have not used during the summer. So I have this autumn and spring
cleaning up...’ This is also a common advice given for taking care of clothing, where the
focus lies on cleaning and airing clothing before storing it.
Figure 4: Clothing disposal frequency (N=480)
Every forth respondent (27%) also said that they disposed of clothing when the wardrobe got
too full. This was normal practice for 31-year old Fiona: ’I collect and collect and collect, and
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then finally there is no more room, and then you just have to take action. It happens very
rarely, maybe every third year.’ The disposal frequency based on lack of space could vary
however, as informants that shopped more frequently would need to dispose clothing more
frequently as well.
13% said they disposed clothing right away after they stopped wearing them. A few
informants also reported to give away clothing when somebody asked for it, for example
when there was a charitable collection or friends who have younger children came to visit. In
addition, moving was one of the occasions when it was common to dispose of clothing.
Barbara, 25 years old, describes that even though she thinks it is difficult to dispose of
clothing, she still does it sometimes, for example when moving: ‘Then I give maybe three or
four black plastic bags away, either to charity or my little sister. And then I throw away
maybe a couple of boxes or garbage bags, because it is so worn that I do not think it's nice to
give it away.’ This implies that she gives almost twice as much clothing to reuse than to waste
disposal.
Even though many garments were collected during the study, informants still described that
they had kept a lot of clothing that was not in active use. 35-year-old Anita explains: ‘I have
lots of clothes in the wardrobe that I never use, but I'm really bad at clearing them out. When
they are in good condition and could be used, I can’t get myself to get rid of them.’ This
shows that for her and many other informants, it was easier to dispose of clothing that was
worn out or damaged than clothing that was in good condition, but was not used for other
reasons.
4. Discussion and conclusions
The results indicate that there are several measures that could help in increasing the used
clothing collection rates. Most informants lacked knowledge of what happens to the textiles
after they are donated to textile collectors. Many assumed that clothing would only go to
direct reuse either in Norway or in some other countries. This is true for the majority of
collected clothing, but also a big portion is material recycled, especially if the textiles are
sorted abroad at large recycling centres, such as SOEX (2013). Most had not thought about
the environmental aspect of donating clothing either, as they were more concerned of the
charity aspect, as well as general non-wastefulness. Informing about the great environmental
savings that can be obtained through reuse could therefore increase the awareness and through
that also the collection rates.
One of the worst options consumers can choose for clothing disposal is to burn it in private
settings. It is estimated that about 45 000 tonnes of waste are burned yearly in small scale
furnaces or open bonfires in Norway (SFT, 2001). Even though the amount of waste burned
illegally in this way only represent a small part of what is burned in large incineration plants,
the total emissions from small stoves for some pollutants is significantly higher than the total
emissions from all large combustion plants combined, because the large plants burn the waste
more effectively and have better cleaning systems for the exhaust fumes (SFT, 2001).
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253
Informing consumers about the environmental and health consequences of these emissions
could reduce the burning, that seems to be occurring despite the fact that it is not allowed and
that people get fines from doing it (Hanssen, 2012). These campaigns should especially be
aimed at rural areas.
In addition to policies aimed at consumers, improvements could be done within the
Norwegian clothing collectors’ communication systems. Today, all the largest clothes’
collectors inform that they only wish to get clothing that is reusable as it is, because sales
from clothing for reuse are more profitable than sales from clothing that is going to recycling
(Laitala et al., 2012). However, from environmental point of view, this strategy is not the best
possible for two reasons. Firstly, it decreases the collection rates of textiles that could be
recycled. Secondly, it also decreases the collection rates of textiles that could be reused, as
consumers were very uncertain of where to draw a limit on what is reusable. Some assumed
that only clothing that they would be prepared to use by themselves was to be delivered, thus
excluding many items that may have been useable for others.
Clothing for reuse is not defined as waste, and therefore the municipalities are not obligated to
collect this fraction. In order to guarantee recycling access for all consumers, municipalities
should take responsibility also of collecting clothing for reuse. In many cases, it would still be
most feasible to delegate this task to other organisations, but the collections should be agreed
on even at these sparsely populated areas. Even though there are quite many clothes collection
points in Norway, consumers living in the less populated areas may have to drive long
distances to deliver clothing for reuse and recycling. Better availability of collection systems,
including take-back schemes in retail stores, could increase clothes collection rates in these
areas. As consumers disposed of clothing usually once or twice a year, separate biannual
collections during spring and autumn could be economically viable solution. Textiles that get
wet or soiled by other waste loose value and are less, if at all, suitable for reuse or recycling,
and therefore the collection systems should be separated from the wet waste fractions (Morley
et al., 2009).
The limitation of this and many other studies on clothing disposal is that the material on some
consumer groups’ clothing disposal practices is less strong, including men and the elderly.
Therefore, these consumer groups should be given special focus on future studies.
This study has implications both for the academics and the practitioners. Even though not
statistically significant, it contributed in understanding the underlying dynamics of the
Norwegian consumers’ clothing disposal practices. The practical implications of this study are
relevant for several actors within the clothing chain, such as producers, designers, retailers,
consumers, collectors, and recyclers, as well as educators and public policymakers, who wish
to diminish the environmental impacts of clothing consumption through longer lifespans and
increased reuse and recycling rates.
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254
5. Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Ingun Grimstad Klepp and Casper Boks for valuable comments,
Madeline Buck for clothing registrations, as well as Orkla ASA and Norwegian Research
Council for financial support on the project entitled “From textile waste to material resources
in a grave to cradle perspective”, which this article is part of. The funding bodies have not
involved in any parts of the research work.
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P9 Lifespans
Bare mote? Materialitetens betydning for klærs levetid. K Laitala &
I.G. Klepp (2013) In P. Strandbakken & N. Heidenstrøm (Eds.),
Hinsides symbolverdi - Materialiteten i forbruket. Oslo: Novus.
Copyright © 2013 Novus AS
Paper 9
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262
Kap. 7
7. Bare mote? Materialitetens betydning for
klærs levetid
Kirsi Laitala & Ingun Grimstad Klepp
Klær, ikke mote
Det er stor enighet om at økt levetid på klær har potensiale for å redusere den
totale miljøpåvirkningen fra klesforbruk. En kort levetid gjør at produkter erstattes raskere, og dermed øker den miljømessige belastningen fra produksjonsog avhendingsfaser, slik det diskuteres i bokas innledning. Men hva bidrar til
økt levetid for klær? Er det noen vits i å forbedre den tekniske kvaliteten for å
legge til rette for lengre bruk? Det er vanlig å forestille seg at ønsket om noe
nytt og endringer i mote er de viktigste grunnene til at klær blir kassert i de
vestlige landene, og for at det ikke lønner seg å kjøpe varige og dyre klær.
Denne forestillingen finnes både blant folk flest, i markedet og blant journalister, og den preger mye av forskningen og debatten. I dette kapitlet vil vi
se på klesavhendingsgrunner, og presentere det vi vet om forholdet mellom
den tekniske kvaliteten og levetiden for klær i Norge. Er det mote, eller er det
forhold ved klærnes utforming, slik som materialer, farge og passform, som
gjør at de kastes? Dermed blir denne diskusjonen også en diskusjon om forholdet mellom de sosiale og de materielle aspektene ved klær.
Mote defineres av klesforskeren Elisabeth Wilson som: «Ei klesdrakt der
hovudtrekket er raskt og vedvarande stilskifte. Mote er i ei viss tyding forandring, og i moderne samfunn i den vestlige verda er alle slags plagg underlagde
moten» (Wilson, 1989: 9). Av denne definisjonen ser vi at mote (fashion) kan
forstås som (minst) to ting. Som en kulturell prosess som bidrar til forandring,
og som klær som i særlig grad er påvirket av denne prosessen. Denne siste betydningen er noe sterkere på engelsk enn på norsk. Vi vil vanligvis måtte bruke
uttrykket moteklær om «fashion» i denne betydningen.
I definisjonen ser vi at uttrykket stil (stilskifte) brukes til å forklare mote.
Stil er da brukt som betegnelse på det moten endrer, nemlig klærnes utseende
263
146
KIRSI LAITALA & INGUN GRIMSTAD KLEPP
eller estetiske uttrykk. Stil brukes også om de individuelle klesvalg, som på et
visst nivå kan stå i motsetning til mote. I begge betydningene er stil mer konkret knyttet til form, mens mote er selve prosessen bak. Til stil knytter det seg
i tillegg noe mer individuelt eller personlig.
Mote som mekanisme er noe som gjør seg gjeldende på så å si alle livets
områder, slik som hvilke navn barn får. Mote blir ofte koblet til bekledning,
men påvirker også stort sett alle andre forbruksvarer (Robinson, 1961). Likevel
er det slik at mens forskere innen andre forbruksfelter kan velge å diskutere
mote som fenomen, er dette noe som tas for gitt at er relevant for klesforskning.
En grunn til dette kan være den dominerende stillingen markedsføringen har
innen forståelsen av klær. En annen kan være at forskning på det hverdagslige
klesforbruket har vært marginal. Buckley og Clark (2012) diskuterer hvordan
klesforskning er konsentrert om det spektakulære og haute couture, mens
ordinær hverdagsmote ikke har fått mye oppmerksomhet. Forfatterne foreslår
at mote strekker seg fra det spektakulære over i det dagligdagse og i den rutinepregede hverdagen som folk lever i over tid. Vi vil ikke benytte en slik svært
bred forståelse av mote, men reserverer betegnelsen til å gjelde endringer i klærs
utseende i tid, i tråd med Wilson. Den store graden av stabilitet, rutine og
konservatisme innen bruken av klær må dermed forklares med andre begreper
og teorier.
Levetid og klesforbrukets miljøbelastninger
Etter flere tiår med synkende klespriser og økt kjøpekraft kjøper og eier norske
forbrukere stadig flere klær. Klesforbruket preges også av massiv imageorientert
markedsføring. Det finnes bare helt unntaksvis informasjon på produktene
om teknisk kvalitet, holdbarhet eller miljøpåvirkning og svært sjelden informasjon om produktenes innhold av kjemikalier og omdiskuterte teknologier.
Om lag halvparten av bomullen på verdensmarkedet er genmanipulert, og
bruken av nanoteknologi er økende (Laitala m.fl., 2012). Forbrukere har
generelt lite kunnskap og få redskaper til å orientere seg på markedet
(Austgulen, 2013). De opplysningene forbrukeren får om pris, fiberinnhold
og vedlikehold gir ikke denne typen informasjon, selv om forbrukerne kan
tolke det slik. I mangel av mer relevant informasjon tolkes pris ofte som tegn
på høy teknisk kvalitet, og fibermerkingen forstås både som innholdsdeklarasjon og som miljøinformasjon (Laitala & Klepp, 2013).
264
BARE MOTE? MATERIALITETENS BETYDNING FOR KLÆRS LEVETID
147
Miljøpåvirkningen fra klesforbruket er spesielt stor i produksjonsfasen og
i bruksfasen. Produksjonen av klær er en lite regulert global industri med mye
bruk av problematiske kjemikalier, som blir benyttet for å oppnå spesielle egenskaper som farger, økt slitestyrke, antikrølling, impregnering eller brannhemming. Tekstiler kan inneholde skadelige kjemikalier som rester av forbudte
azofarger, tungmetaller og organiske miljøforurensninger (KEMI, 1997). Det
kan også finnes restkjemikalier fra produksjonen av fiber, slik som plantevernmidler, eller fra videreforedlingen hvor for eksempel organiske løsemidler inngår. Disse farlige stoffene kan komme ut i miljøet både under produksjon, når
tekstilene brukes, eller etter at de er kastet. Vasking av tøy sprer miljøgifter
(Greenpeace, 2012).
For de aller fleste produkter, deriblant klær, er økt levetid bedre for miljøet.
Det motsatte gjelder kun dersom produktene har stor miljøpåvirkning i løpet
av brukstiden og det i tillegg finnes betydelig bedre alternativer på markedet
(Strandbakken, 2007; van Nes & Cramer, 2006).
Klær har stor miljøpåvirkning i løpet av brukstiden på grunn av vask og
stell. Miljøbelastningen i bruk kommer i indirekte, via andre produkter så som
vaskemaskiner og tørketromler. Det har vært en modernisering av disse
produktene slik at de i dag bruker mindre energi og vann. Også egenskaper
ved klærne påvirker bruk av ressurser i bruksperioden. Tyngre og tykkere
materialer krever mer vann og energi i vask, noen materialer får fortere lukt
eller flekker enn andre (Kjeldsberg, Eilertsen, Buck, & Klepp, 2012; Kjeldsberg, Eilertsen, & Laitala, 2011). I tillegg kan detaljer innen design eller fargevalg gjøre at de bedre kan motstå smuss, eller at flekkene er mindre synlige.
Men den største forskjellen ligger i de tradisjoner for vask som følger ulike
typer plagg, der f. eks. en dressbukse vaskes/renses sjeldnere enn en olabukse
(Klepp, 2006).
Livssyklusanalyser (LCA) søker å dokumentere miljøpåvirkning fra
produkter gjennom hele livsløp. For klær har slike studier foreløpig store
svakheter. For det første er informasjon om produksjon mangelfull. Klær har
en lang og komplisert verdikjede, og det er store variasjoner mellom de ulike
landene, produksjonsmetodene og prosessene som benyttes. For det andre er
bruksfasen ofte estimert uten noen referanse til faktiske undersøkelser. Dette
har store konsekvenser for resultatene. Antas bruksfasen å være kort blir den
relative påvirkning fra produksjon og avhending høy. Å gå kledd i t-skjorte 50
dager vil gi 368 kg CO2-utslipp dersom vi bruker en ny t-skjorte hver dag,
men bare 15 kg CO2 dersom det er den samme t-skjorten hver gang (Carbon
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Trust, 2011). I det første tilfellet kommer utslippene hovedsakelig fra produksjon fordi ingen vask er nødvendig, mens i det andre tilfellet dominerer utslippene fra bruksfasen. Det antas da at t-skjorten blir vasket mellom hver gang
den brukes. I tillegg har valgt vedlikeholdsmetode som vaskehyppighet,
temperatur og tørkemetode stor påvirkning. Dersom vasketemperaturen senkes
med 10 °C, blir besparelsen i energibruk cirka 0,23 kWh per kulørtvask
(Laitala & Vereide, 2010). Allwood, Laursen, Russell, Malvido de Rodriguez
og Bocken (2006) har beregnet at det er mulig å spare 50 % av den globale
klimapåvirkningen av en bomulls t-skjorte ved å ikke trommeltørke eller
stryke, i tillegg til å senke vasketemperaturen. Lengre levetid i form av gjenbruk
har stor fordel sammenlignet med forbrenning energiutnyttelse i forhold til
klimapåvirkning (Farrant, 2008; Fisher, James, & Maddox, 2011).
Arbeidet for å gjøre miljøbelastningen fra tekstilforbruket mindre kan tas
gjennom forbedringer i produksjonsforholdene, for eksempel gjennom
miljømerking, eller ved å redusere mengde og omsetningshastighet. For det
førstnevnte tilfelle vil belastningene kunne regnes ut per plagg. Men for å få et
godt bilde av klesforbrukets miljøbelastning må også bruken av plaggene regnes
med. Da er ikke lenger plagget i seg selv det vi må fokusere på, men i hvilken
grad de bidrar til å nå målet med klesforbruket. Sagt på en enkeltere måte;
klær som ligger ubrukte i skapet og yndlingsplagget ditt kan ha «kostet» like
mye å produsere, men deler vi på antall gangers bruk, for ikke å snakke glede,
blir regnskapet helt forskjellig. Målet med klesforbruket bør være å ha klær
som passer deg og de anledninger du trenger klær til, men nås ikke nødvendigvis gjennom mange plagg i skapet. Derfor må diskusjonen om levetid også
omfatte i hvilken grad klærne faktisk brukes av de som eier dem.
Kunnskap om avhending og levetid; mange ukjente
De fleste studier om avhending av klær undersøker hvor de kasserte klærne
havner og hvilke forbrukergrupper som avhender på hvilke måter, for eksempel
å levere klærne til gjenbruk eller bruke dem som kluter før de blir kastet i restavfallet (Bianchi & Birtwistle, 2012; Francis & Butler, 1994; Joung & ParkPoaps, 2013; Koch & Domina, 1997; Sung & Kincade, 2010; Walter, 2008).
Noen studier har også undersøkt hvorfor klær blir avhendet på en bestemt
måte, og studerer barrierer mot miljøvennlig atferd (Domina & Koch, 2001;
Ekström, Gustafsson, Hjelmgren, & Salomonson, 2012; Ha-Brookshire &
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149
Hodges, 2009; Shim, 1995). Kun noen få studier har sett på grunnene til at
klærnes kastes mer detaljert, og da som regel gjennom survey eller fokusgruppeintervjuer. Ennå færre har brukt dybdeintervjuer eller observasjoner.
Slike studier stiller generelle spørsmål om avhendingsgrunner og deler ofte
avhending opp i grupper som mote og slitasje. Ofte begrenses undersøkelser
til unge kvinners klesforbruk (Bristwistle & Moore, 2007; Chun, 1987;
Cooper, Fisher, Hiller, Goworek, & Woodward, 2010; Domina & Koch,
1999). Ingen av de nevnte studiene har tatt utgangpunkt i klærne som har gått
ut av bruk. Det er dermed ikke mulig å angi noen kvantitativ fordeling mellom
ulike avhendingsgrunner eller si noe om dette i relasjon til den faktiske tilstanden klærne var i. Den eneste studien vi kjenner til som tar utgangspunkt
i klærne er fra SIFO (Klepp, 2001). Klepp studerte klespraksiser hos 24 cirka
40 år gamle kvinner, og registrerte avhendingsgrunner til 329 klesplagg.
Det finnes tilsvarende lite data på klærs levetid. Mangelen på kunnskap
fører både til at LCA analysene blir mangelfulle og at vi vet lite om hva som
bidrar til lang levetid. I en nederlandsk studie ble det estimert at gjennomsnittlig levetid for bukser var 6,2 år, skjørt og kjoler 15,2 år, gensere 7,1 år,
bluser 7,2 år, t-skjorter 6,8 år, blazers 11,5 år og jakker 11,6 år. Levetiden til
en skjørt ble dermed anslått til å være dobbelt så lang som for et par bukser.
Beregningen var basert på antall plagg i 16 husholdninger og korrelert med
hvor mye som ble kjøpt inn (Uitdenbogerd, Brouwer, & Groot-Marcus, 1998:
127). Uitdenbogerd har også gjennomført en survey der respondentene ble
spurt om hvor lenge de bruker ulike plagg før de blir avhendet. Resultatet er
2,5 år for bomulls og olabukser, og 6,2 år for ullgensere (Uitdenbogerd, 2007:
281). I et annet estimat er levetid på alle plagg satt til 1–3 år, uten at det
refereres til noen faktiske undersøkelser (Beton m.fl., 2012). Forskjellen mellom resultatene i disse studiene er ganske betydelig, og viser hvor usikre slike
indirekte måter å estimere brukstid er.
I studien fra 2001 diskuterer Klepp også levetid og brukstid. I dette
materiale var klærs brukstid i gjennomsnitt 7 år, men tiden inneholdt perioder
når klærne ikke var i aktiv bruk slik som tiden etter siste gangs bruk og før de
ble kastet. Levetid kan forstås på ulike måter, som faktisk eller teknisk levetid.
Det eldste bevarte plagget i Norge er en mannskjortel fra ca. 300 e.Kr og har
dermed «levd» i 1700 år (Aftenposten, 2011). Mer interessant er selvsagt hvor
mange gangers bruk (og vask) noe tåler. Dette kaller vi brukstid, og det er vanskeligere å få informasjon om. En middelvei er å se på perioder med ulik grad
av bruksintensitet slik Klepp gjorde i 2001 (figur 1). Et plaggs levetid ble da
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delt opp i perioder med ulik bruksintensitet. Dersom plagget ble gitt bort eller
solgt videre kunne det få en ny brukstid hos en (eller flere) nye eiere. Denne
abstraksjonen gjør det mulig å sammenligne klær (eller eiere) og hvor mange
år som gikk mellom anskaffelse, siste gangen plagget var i bruk og når det ble
kassert.
Figur 1: Levetid av et plagg med ulike bruksperioder (basert på Klepp, 2001)
Så gjør vi så når vi forsker på klær; materiale og metode
Artikkelen bygger på to metoder; survey og garderobestudier. Garderobestudier
som metode blir presentert og diskutert i kap.2. Den garderobestudien vi
bygger på her er basert på et strategisk utvalg av 16 husholdninger. Målet med
den kvalitative studien var å skaffe detaljert informasjon om husholdningenes
klespraksiser. Materialet består av dybdeintervjuer om klespraksiser, registreringer av anskaffelser og av alle klærne som skulle ut av bruk i løpet av et
halvt år samt at de fleste av dem ble samlet inn for senere analyser. Informantene ble intervjuet for å finne ut de spesifikke årsakene til avhending av
hvert enkelt plagg, og hvordan plagget hadde vært brukt. Sitater fra disse intervjuene er gitt med informantens (fiktive) navn, alder, og bilde av plagg (se figur
2–5). Klærne som ble samlet inn er senere evaluert, og det er gitt karakterer
som betegner graden av slitasje, nupping, fargeendringer. Vi har også notert
om plaggene har hull eller ødelagte sømmer.
Informantene er valgt ut for å få med en variasjon i forhold til livssituasjoner, alder, kjønn, sivilstatus, familiestørrelse og økonomi. De kan deles
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i tre hovedgrupper basert på livsfase: 1) unge uten barn, 2) foreldre med små
barn, og 3) godt voksne, pensjonerte eller som nærmer seg pensjonsalderen.
Informantene kommer fra tre ulike geografiske områder i Norge: Oslo (øst og
vest), Oslos nabofylker Akershus og Buskerud, og Sør-Trøndelag. Klærne fra
35 personer i de 16 husholdningene er med i undersøkelsen. I løpet av seks
måneder ble 620 plagg tatt ut av bruk og registrert. Hver deltaker sluttet å
bruke i gjennomsnitt 18 plagg.
Det ble også gjennomført en surveyundersøkelse i 2010–2011, som ble besvart av 546 respondenter. Respondentene ble hovedsakelig rekruttert gjennom
utsendelse av spørreskjemaer til tilfeldig valgte hushold. På grunn av lav respons, ble ytterligere respondenter rekruttert via personlige og jobbrelaterte
nettverk samt publisitet i media. Noen av spørsmålene ble erstattet i løpet av
undersøkelsen, og dermed kan totalt antall respondenter variere noe. Utvalget
er ikke representativt, da det var større andel av kvinner (77 %), personer med
høy utdannelse og respondenter i alderen 25–39 år, enn gjennomsnittlig i
Norge. Samtidig var studenter, arbeidsløse, pensjonister, aldersgruppen 15–24
og de over 60 underrepresentert i undersøkelsen. Utvalget er ikke vektet. Selv
om resultatene ikke kan generaliseres til å gjelde den norske befolkningen som
helhet, har vi fortsatt et stort antall respondenter som kan sammenlignes med
hverandre i utvalget, og brukes som et eksempel på forbrukere i Norge. For å
skille kvantitative og kvalitative resultater i teksten, er survey-deltakerne omtalt
som «respondenter», mens intervjudeltakere betegnes som «informanter».
Som man spør får man svar
I surveyen har vi spurt respondentene om hva som hadde fått dem til å bruke
klærne deres lenger. 61 % var enige i at de ville ha brukt klærne lenger dersom
de var av bedre kvalitet. Bare 17 % svarte at de ville ha brukt klærne lengre
dersom moten ikke endret seg så ofte. Flere (39 %) svarte at behov for noe nytt
virker på brukstiden på klærne deres. Likevel svarte flere at materielle og kvalitetsmessige grunner som fargeekthet, nupping og endringer i fasongen/krymping i
vask var grunner til avhending. Bare 14 % sa at krav til klærnes utseende på
jobben var avgjørende. Respondentene svarte med andre ord at klærnes
materialitet mer enn mote og smak var viktig for at de ikke ble brukt lenger.
Det var signifikante kjønnsforskjeller i de fleste kategoriene. Som regel var
menn mindre enige i at de angitte alternativene kunne øke brukstiden på
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klærne deres. Den eneste kategorien der majoriteten av menn var enige var
kvalitet på klærne generelt. Ellers var det tydelig at kategoriene relatert til størrelse og passform samt endringer i plaggene (nupping, fargeendring, dimensjonsendinger) var viktigere for kvinner.
Respondenter i ulik alder svarte forskjellig på spørsmålene. Over dobbelt
så mange av de under 24 år mente at behov for noe nytt var viktig, sammenlignet med de som var over 60 år. Mote forbindes vanligvis med ungdom, og
antas å være viktigere i denne livsfasen (Storm-Mathisen & Klepp, 2006). Det
er derfor overraskende at det ikke er signifikant forskjell i svar om betydning
av mote mellom de ulike aldersgruppene. Derimot var det aldersforskjell på
de kvalitetsrelaterte problemene. Mangel på kunnskap om klesreparasjon som
påvirket brukstiden på klærne er mer til stede hos de unge enn hos de eldre
respondentene.
Hele 45 % av respondentene sa at de som regel bruker klærne til de er utslitt eller ødelagt. Menn og eldre svarer bekreftende på dette i høyere grad enn
kvinner og yngre. Utdannelse eller arbeid gir derimot ikke signifikante forskjeller. De som er enige i at mote påvirker deres avhendingsvaner svarer også
oftere at de ikke bruker klær til de er slitt ut.
Denne måten å stille spørsmål på har åpenbare svakheter dersom man
ønsker å finne ut hvorfor klær blir avhendet. Spørsmålene om betydning av
ulike forhold som mote og slitasje er sammensatte og som vi ikke uten videre
kan forvente at folk har kjennskap til. Spørsmålet refererer til mange små hverdagslige handlinger som man i liten grad er bevisst – og som i alle fall ikke blir
summert opp og analysert. Det kan også være store forskjeller på avhending
av ulike typer klær, og ikke lett å vite hvordan sokker og undertøy skal «vektes»
mot dyrere plag som kåper, dresser eller bunader. Det kan være store forskjeller
på avhendingspraksis for ulike kategorier klær som sportsklær, selskapstøy eller
nattøy. I tillegg er det å kaste – og da i særdeleshet å kaste godt brukbare ting
– forbundet med skam. Derfor er det mulig at mange fort vil glemme at de
faktisk kastet noe nesten nytt, og/eller underrapportere det. På den andre siden
er mote også et ladet ord. I en sammenligning mellom unge jenter og kvinner
rundt 40 år kom det frem at kvinnene ønsket å fremstille sitt klesforbruk som
preget av smak og stil, mens det å følge mote ble sett på som noe som både
angikk de unge og som sto i kontrast til en mer moden forbrukspraksis (Klepp
& Storm-Mathisen, 2005). Det er dermed grunn til å tro at noen vil ønske å
fremstå som modne forbrukere ved å underrapportere mote som avhendingsårsak. Det kan også være slik at mote er koblet til noe som skjer på catwalk og
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røde løpere, og ikke i vanlige forbrukeres hverdagsliv. Derfor kan ønske om å
ha riktige klær for anledning føles viktigst, uten at forbrukeren er bevisst på at
det som føles riktig er også påvirket av mote, og endres over tid.
Spørsmålet vi ønsker å få svar på i dette kapittel er; i hvilken grad er det
mote eller materielle endringer i plaggene som gjør at klær kastes? Mens det første
i hovedsak kan betraktes som et sosialt fenomen (en enighet om hva som til
en hver tid betraktes som «nytt» «in» eller «vakkert»), er det andre egenskaper
ved det materielle. Survey som metode gir lite kunnskap om hva folk faktisk
gjør, men gir derimot innblikk i hvordan de selv forstår dette forholdet. Respondentene i undersøkelsen tror materielle forhold er viktigere for deres
avhending enn stil og mote. Vi skal nå se på resultatene fra en metode som i
større grad gir mulighet til å se disse to forhold i sammenheng fordi den bygger
både på analyser av klærne og på analyser av den måten informantene forstår
forholdet mellom klærnes materielle og sosiale potensiale.
Hullete og trangt
I garderobestudien gjennomgikk vi alle plagg som var på vei ut av bruk og ba
informantene fortelle både om bruken av plagget og om hvorfor de ikke ønsket
å beholde det lenger. Her skal vi se på de avhendingsårsakene som informantene gir for hvert enkelt av de 620 plaggene. Fortsatt kan forhold som
hvordan de ønsker å se seg selv, eller bli sett av andre spille inn i den måten de
har begrunnet avhendingen, men konkrete spørsmål gir normalt svar som
refererer mindre til idelogi og mer til praksis. Det er også lettere å svare på et
konkret spørsmål som hvorfor vil du kaste denne, enn på et mer generelt spørsmål om hva en pleier å gjøre. Hitchings (2012) påpeker også at intervjuene
kan fungere bra for å få informasjon om praksiser, bare forskeren tar noen forbehold og er villig til å stille spørsmål om noe som virker opplagt. Informantene fikk snakke fritt om de ulike grunnene til at de ønsket å slutte å bruke
de aktuelle plaggene. Totalt sett ble det registrert 70 ulike grunner og disse ble
senere kategorisert og gruppert. I gjennomsnitt ga informantene 1,7 ulike begrunnelser for avhendingen per plagg, og for enkelte plagg ble hele fem ulike
grunner for avhending gitt (figur 2).
Her har vi operasjonalisert mote på flere måter. Vi har kategorisert begrunnelser der informantene selv brukt uttrykket som mote og «umoderne».
Men vi har også tatt med begrunnelser der informantene beskriver at noe går
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Emma, 30 år:
Det er den gamle morgenkåpa mi. Den har jeg
sikkert hatt siden jeg kanskje var 14 eller noe sånt.
1994, tenker jeg. Og jeg har aldri vært så veldig
fornøyd med den, fordi den ikke er så veldig behagelig. Den er jo litt sånn stiv og sånn... Og så
er den litt for kort på ermene. Og så er den ikke
spesielt varm (ler). Så det eneste den gjør er å
dekke til. Men den er ikke sånn som du har lyst
å tusle rundt i. Så derfor ønsket jeg meg ny
morgenkåpe til jul. Ting tar litt tid. Jeg har jo
brukt den mye men... Da måtte jeg ha stillongs
hvis man skulle gå i den, så... Og før jeg fikk ny
så pleide jeg bruke Erik sin når jeg var alene.
(Kommer med ny morgenkåpe.) Akkurat det
med farge hadde jeg ikke valgt selv. Så mamma
har valgt denne fargen for meg. Men den er veldig
deilig og varm. Jeg hadde kanskje gitt den gamle
til Fretex. Den er jo ren og har ikke noen hull eller
rift eller noe sånt. Det er ikke akkurat noe jeg tror
de hadde fått så veldig mye for, det er kanskje ikke
noe de trenger mest heller, men jeg... Jeg gir ikke
på en måte ødelagte klær til Fretex, men de får ta
den avgjørelsen selv om de trenger den eller ikke.
Jeg brukte den sist til jul.
Figur 2: Morgenkåpe med lang levetid til tross for mange mangler. (modell: Sara
Almgren, foto: Kirsi Laitala)
ut av bruk på grunn av stilendring, selv om de relaterer dette til endringer i
egen stil og ikke direkte til «tidsmessige endringer»
Også med denne metoden er avhendingen dominert av endringer i
materielle forhold. Nesten halvparten av de voksnes klær hadde endret seg i
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utseende, og det vanligste var hull eller revner (22 %), etterfulgt av generelt
slitt utseende (15 %). Den nest største gruppen for avhending var ulike
problemer med størrelse og passform (figur 3). Enten at eierne hadde vokst ut
av klærne, eller at de ikke hadde passet i utgangspunktet. Den tredje største
gruppen handler om ulike smasksrelaterte preferanser, for eksempel at noe er
i en stil eller farge man ikke liker, eller har et trykk som en ikke ønsker å gå
med slik som på reklameskjorter. Den fjerde gruppen inneholder situasjonsbestemte grunner, for eksempel at eieren har flere tilsvarende eller bedre plagg,
eller livssituasjonen var endret slik at han eller hun ikke lenger trengte bestemte
typer plagg. Den femte gruppen er kalt funksjonelle mangler, og dette gjelder
plaggene som blir beskrevet som upraktiske eller ukomfortable. Det er klær
som klør, eller ikke er varme eller vanntette nok til sitt bruksområde. Mote
kommer ikke opp før som den sjette og nest siste hovedgruppen, og bare 4 %
av plaggene blir avhendet fordi de er umoderne ifølge eierne. Den samme
hovedgrupperingen inneholder også endring i egen stil (3 %), som kan kobles
til endringer i mote, selv om informanten ikke nødvendigvis kobler disse to
temaene sammen. Den siste hovedgrupperingen inneholder de plaggene der
avhendingsgrunnene var ukjente eller kunne ikke plasseres under noen av de
andre hovedgruppene.
Når man ser nærmere på klærne som gikk ut av bruk på grunn av mote,
ser vi at undertøy, sokker, strømpebukser, tilbehør eller nattøy aldri ble kastet
på grunn av mote. Mote påvirket mest bukser, der 11 % nevnte mote, og jakker
og annet yttertøy, der mote ble nevnt i 10 % av tilfellene. Den resterende klesgruppene der mote ble nevnt var overdeler og skjørt/kjoler, men bare for 3 %
av plaggene.
Det er kun 42 plagg der minst en av avhendingsgrunnene var relatert til
mote, for lite for å finne pålitelige forskjeller mellom bakgrunnsvariabler for informantene. Det ser ikke ut som forskjell i kjønn er signifikant her, mens tenåringene oftere bruker mote som grunn for avhending i forhold til de andre
aldersgruppene. Her er det imidlertid en svakhet ved metoden ved at det oftest
er foreldre som har angitt disse grunnene for avhending av alle familiens klær,
og ikke tenåringene selv. Kravet om det å «passe inn» kan være tydeligere for tenåringene enn for de voksne (Simpson, Douglas & Schimmel, 1998). Det ser
også ut som familier med høyre inntekt oftere nevnte mote enn familier med lav
inntekt, men her er materialet svakt. Geografi gir ingen observerbare forskjeller.
Den største forskjellen mellom kvinners og menns avhendingsgrunner
gjelder betydningen av størrelse eller passform. 22 % av kvinnenes klær mot
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Fiona, 31 år:
Så er det ei bukse. Det er også en gammel
Acne jeans som jeg har brukt mye. Og som
jeg har reparert selv. Her (viser lapping mellom lårene). Den har blitt for trang (ler). Så
sånn er det. Jeg tror jeg har brukt den et par
år. Og alle mine jeans blir ødelagt her (viser
reparasjonen). Det er et vanlig sted for jenter
når man har litt mer lår enn menn. Jeg
brukte den sist i fjor en gang tror jeg. Jeg
hadde kanskje funnet noen å gi den bort til.
De fleste vennene mine er jo litt mindre enn
jeg, da. Jeg tenkte i og med at den er sydd på,
så vil jeg ikke selge den. Hadde den vært
plettfri så hadde jeg solgt den, men siden de
har reparasjon på...
Figur 3: For trange, lappete olabukser. (modell: Sara Almgren, foto: Kirsi Laitala)
10 % av klær til menn blir avhendet på grunn av slike årsaker. Dette kan ha
flere grunner. Kvinneklær har oftere tettere passform, og er trange på steder av
kroppen som endres mye ved vektendringer slik som hofter og byste. Menns
klær er generelt videre og sitter tett der kroppen endres relativ lite slik som
håndledd og halsringning. Det er også rapportert større forskjeller mellom
merking av klestørrelser og de faktiske størrelsene på dameklær, enn på herreklær (Laitala, Klepp & Hauge, 2011). Fordeling mellom de andre avhendingsgrunnene var overraskende lik mellom menn og kvinner med noen små for-
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BARE MOTE? MATERIALITETENS BETYDNING FOR KLÆRS LEVETID
157
skjeller, som at det var en høyere andel av herreklær på «endringer i klærne»
og i «funksjonelle mangler».
Barnas klær ble, som forventet, ofte gitt videre fordi barn vokste ut av dem,
men utover størrelse var ikke fordeling mellom avhendingsgrunnene så ulik fra
voksnes klær. Den nest største grunnen for avhending av barneklær var den
største for de voksne; endringer i plaggene. Andre typer begrunnelser for
avhending av klær ble brukt sjelden for barneklær (under 10 % av totalen).
Det er et samsvar mellom svarene i surveyen og garderobestudien. I begge
har mote og andre ikke-materielle begrunnelser en beskjeden plass. Men garderobestudien viser også noe som ikke kom frem i surveyen. Aller viktigst er den
store betydningen passform og størrelser har for hva kvinner kaster. Hvordan
klærne sitter på kroppen har både med størrelse og form og endringer i dette for
både kroppen og klærne, og er således ikke bare et spørsmål om klærnes
materialitet, men også kroppens. Også her spiller sosiale sider ved klærne inn.
Et eksempel er normen med mer kroppsnære plagg for kvinner, et annet at også
normene for passform endres over tid og er ulik for ulike miljøer og personer.
En haug med brukte klær
På SIFO analyserte vi videre 532 av de 620 registrerte plaggene som avsnittet
over er basert på. Eierne hadde enten kastet eller ville beholde de resterende
plaggene for å selge eller gi klærne til en bestemt person. Mange av disse klærne
har vi tatt bilde av. Minst to personer så på hvert enkelt plagg, og registrerte
ulike detaljer som farge, merke, vaskeanvisning, fiberinnhold, om plaggene
har hull eller ødelagte sømmer, nupper, fargeendring, krymping, flekker, eller
andre endringer. Også graden av «moteriktighet» ble bedømt. Her er mote forstått som de klær som ikke kunne bli brukt uten å bli lagt merke til på grunn
av stilen. Det ble da forutsatt at klærne hadde vært teknisk i orden og båret av
en eier i riktig kjønn og størrelse.
Bare 1 % av klærne var helt tydelig umoderne, og 8 % var ganske eller
muligens umoderne. Registreringen ble gjort uavhengig av intervjuene. Noe
overraskende var at plaggene som vi registrerte som umoderne ikke var de
samme som de klærne tidligere eierne selv så som for umoderne å beholde.
Vi var enige med de tidligere eierne om at det var mange plagg med synlige
endringer. Hele 58 % hadde godt synlige endringer, og 10 % av disse ble
evaluert som ubrukelige til sitt originale formål. Men samtidig så 21 % av
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KIRSI LAITALA & INGUN GRIMSTAD KLEPP
klærne ubrukte ut. Barneklær var mest slitt, og klærne til tenåringer minst.
Det var ingen signifikant forskjell på evaluering av graden av slitasje mellom
herre- og dameklær. Flekker var også et tydelig problem. 30 % av plaggene
hadde flekker med ulik grad av synlighet. Når flekker var angitt som avhendingsgrunn hadde vi oftest registrert dem som meget synlige.
Undersøkelsen av klærne viste at cirka 40 % hadde nupping og/eller loing
i noen grad. Kun en liten andel av disse var nevnt av eierne som avhendingsgrunnlag. 37 % av klærne hadde hull, og her peker strømpebukser og sokker
seg spesielt ut, etterfulgt av bukser. Tidligere eiere nevnte ikke alle hullene vi
registrerte som avhendingsgrunn, men mange av dem var små eller plassert på
usynlige steder som i fôret. Omtrent 2 % av plaggene hadde tydelig endret
størrelse, de fleste var tovete og krympede ullklær. Ellers var krymping ikke
lett å bedømme, da vi ikke hadde sett hvordan klærne så ut i utgangpunkt.
Derfor ble også noen kategorisert som «muligens krympet/endret dimensjoner»
(9 %). Noen av disse var de samme som eierne fortalte hadde endret dimensjoner, men dette gjaldt ikke alle av de aktuelle plaggene.
Lang levetid men lite brukt
Klærne som ble avhendet hadde en gjennomsnittlig levetid på 5,4 år, og hadde
vært de siste fire årene hos nåværende eier. Dette viser at en del av klærne var arvet
eller kjøpt brukt. Den totale levetiden varierte fra helt nye til 50 år gamle plagg.
Klær til barn og tenåringer har kortere brukstid. Voksne over 51 år
avhendet klær som hadde «levd» 4,6 år lengre enn gjennomsnittet. I Klepps
studie var den gjennomsnittlige alderen på klærne 40-årige kvinner kastet 7
år. I vårt materiale, har klærne for denne gruppen blitt brukt litt kortere, 5,2
år. Dette kan skyldes velstandsveksten i tiden mellom de to studiene, men også
utvalget eller andre metodiske faktorer.
Måten eierne har ervervet klærne har betydning for brukstiden. Levetiden
til second-hand klær er lengre enn klær som er kjøpt eller fått som nye. Klær
som eierne har valgt selv er 0,3 år eldre enn gjennomsnitt, mens klær som er
mottatt som gaver har vært 0,8 år kortere hos den nåværende eieren. Kortest
tid har eierne hatt klærne som er mottatt som gaver fra organisasjoner eller bedrifter. Dermed bidrar bruk av klær som gaver eller reklameartikler til uønsket
vekst i mengden av klær som blir lite brukt.
Levetiden på klærne var nesten lik, uansett om eieren planla å selge, kaste
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BARE MOTE? MATERIALITETENS BETYDNING FOR KLÆRS LEVETID
159
eller gi dem bort, men brukstiden hos den nåværende eier varierte derimot.
Brukstiden var 1,6 år kortere for de klærne som skulle gis videre enn for de
som skulle kastes. Men disse klærne har mulighet til ny brukstid og dermed
totalt sett lengre levetid. Dette har sammenheng med at graden av slitasje var
et viktig kriterium for hva eieren planla å gjøre.
Levetiden var lenger enn estimater i tidligere nevnte studier. Men mange
av klærne har vært brukt lite. 8 % av plaggene var aldri brukt av noen, og totalt
hvert femte plagg var enten aldri brukt eller kun brukt et par ganger av nåværende eier. Det samsvarer med funnene i Klepps studie (9 og 19 % av klærne).
Mange hadde ligget ubrukt i skapet flere år før de ble avhendet (se eksempel i
figur 4). Gjennomsnittlig tid fra siste bruk var 1,4 år. Det var vanlig at barneklær ble avhendet raskere etter at de var vokst fra. Gjennomsnittlig ble de brukt
siste gang 7 måneder før avhending, mens klær for voksne hadde ligget 1,7 år.
Vi har ikke tatt hensyn til tiden klærne kan ha ventet på vår registrering. På
den annen side kan det også være at noen klær ble tatt ut av bruk på grunn av
undersøkelsen, og dermed fikk kortere ventetid «på nåde». Vi finner dermed
lengre levetid enn tidligere studier, men samtidig at mange av klærne har vært
lite brukt og også ligget lenge før avhending.
De klærne eierne sa ble avhendet helt eller delvis på grunn av mote var i
gjennomsnitt 3 år eldre enn gjennomsnittet. Klær med funksjonelle mangler
ble derimot brukt et halvt år kortere enn gjennomsnittet. Klær med ulike typer
materielle endringer hadde en gjennomsnittlig brukstid, noe som er forklarlig
i og med den store andelen av klærne i denne kategorien (figur 5). Ser vi bare
på de som er beskrevet som utslitt, har de en brukstid som er et år under gjennomsnitt, mens de som er beskrevet som slitt/utbrukt, har brukstid på to år
over gjennomsnitt. Klærne som ble beskrevet som utvasket hadde ennå lengre
brukstid, hele 5,5 år over gjennomsnittet. Klær som var blitt skadet i vask ble
brukt kortere. Fargesmitte i vask reduserte brukstiden med 2,5 år og krymping
1,6 år. Ukomfortable klær ble kastet raskere, og levetiden ble ett år kortere. Vi
ser at det er en sammenheng mellom avhendingsårsak, graden av slitasje, bruk
og levetid. Klær avhendet på grunn av mote var eldre enn klær som ble
avhendet fordi de var slitte eller ødelagt, det vi her har kalt materielle endringer.
Med referanse til spørsmålet vi stiller i dette kapitelet; betydningen av mote
for avhending av klær, viser analysen at levetid og brukstid for de til sammen
42 plagg som avhendes av moteårsaker er lengre enn for klær avhendet på
grunn av ulike former for slitasje. Dette ligner resultatene i Klepps studie fra
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KIRSI LAITALA & INGUN GRIMSTAD KLEPP
Markus, 42 år:
Dette er egentlig ganske fin dress da. Men
dresser, der vil jeg si at moten ender seg. Jeg
jobbet i Tyskland, det er faktisk lenge siden,
det er 7-8 år siden, da kjøpte jeg en del
dresser for bruk på jobb. Dette var en sånn
vår/ sommer dress. Men den er veldig sånn,
altså nå liker jeg dressene mine litt sånn
tight fit, denne her er veldig, veldig stor da.
Den er ikke moderne lenger. Jeg synes det
er OK å se OK ut, i dress da. Jeg brukte den
sist kanskje for 5 år siden. Den har ventet
lenge.
Figur 4: Umoderne dress som ventet lenge «på nåde». (modell: Harald ThroneHolst, foto: Kirsi Laitala)
2001. Klærne som gikk ut av bruk på grunn av mote var like lenge hos eieren
som klær som gikk ut på grunn av slitasje (cirka 8 år), men klærne lå lagret
lengre etter siste gangs bruk enn klærne som var mer slitt, slik vårt materiale
også viser. I begge studiene lå disse klærne nøyaktig den samme tiden ”på
nåde”, 2,8 år. Ingen av studiene gir svar på om denne lagringstiden har påvirket
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BARE MOTE? MATERIALITETENS BETYDNING FOR KLÆRS LEVETID
161
Erik, 30 år.
Dette er en H&M bukse som har revnet
en gang, det var her ja, revna i gylfen her,
og så har jeg lappa den. Og etter noen år
senere så revnet den her bak. Og det bedømte jeg som for slitsomt å reparere i forhold hvor lenge jeg hadde hatt buksen.
Denne buksa, hvis jeg husker riktig, kjøpte
jeg i Bergen våren 2006. Jeg har som regel
kun tre olabukser. Så bruker jeg da en
olabukse hver uke, så... Da er den brukt en
tredjedel av året i to år, nei tre år. Så et år
totalt, cirka. Så er den slitt sånn generelt
nede i buksene, eller i bena, og har mistet
ganske mye farge. Den hadde jeg gitt til
Fretex. For det er noen som liker bukser
med hull i. Som er slitte.
Figur 5: Hullete olabukser som er brukt nesten et år i løpet av tre år. Eieren skulle
gi dem til gjenbruk, men der ville de ha blitt sortert ut som avfall. (modell: Pål
Strandbakken, foto: Kirsi Laitala)
i hvilken grad mote brukes som argument for å kaste. Det kan jo tenkes at
klærne var mindre umoderne da de ble brukt siste gang, 2 – 3 år før eieren beskrev dem som for umoderne til å brukes. Kanskje var andre grunner viktigere
den gangen?
279
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KIRSI LAITALA & INGUN GRIMSTAD KLEPP
Langt fra bare mote
Denne gjennomgangen viser at mote ikke er noe viktig årsak til avhending av
klær i vårt materiale. Når mote blir nevnt, har klærne faktisk hatt over gjennomsnittet lang levetid. Dette gjelder uansett om vi spør et større utvalg i en
survey, eller om vi ser på klespraksisen til et mindre utvalg informanter. Sosialt
har klærne potensiale til å bli brukt i mange år, og for mange plagg vil den
sosiale verdien stige igjen etter en periode der de oppfattes som umoderne, slik
vi også kjenner det fra antikviteter (McColl, Canning, McBride, Nobbs &
Shearer, 2013). Klærnes materialitet er derimot et stort problem. Dette gjelder
både den tekniske holdbarheten, der nupper, slitasje i sømmer, og hull er
viktige avhendingsårsaker. I tillegg kommer at klærne ofte ikke passer eierne.
Dette problemet kan både skyldes produksjonen, der klærnes gis for lite
fleksibilitet med hensyn til passform, eller at de er galt merket. Andre forklaringer kan være at plaggene kommer inn i skapet som gaver og arv; altså
ikke er valg direkte av brukeren samt at det både finnes noen forbrukere som
ikke prøver og andre som bevisst kjøper for trange klær (Laitala m.fl., 2009).
Den store mengden klær bidrar også til kortere brukstid. For det første
bidrar mengden til at hvert plagg brukes sjeldent og dermed kan tenkes å teknisk vare lenger enn det sosialt akseptable. For bedre å utnytte klærnes tekniske
levetid må dermed mengden klær ned. Dette vil sikre at klærne slites ut mens
de fortsatt er sosialt akseptable før de blir umoderne eller funksjonelt utdatert.
Dette vil samtidig gjøre at sannsynligheten for at de passer eierens kropp er
større. Et annet problem med mengde, i tillegg til miljøbelastning, er at
mengden i seg selv også brukes som avhendingsårsak. Når det ikke er plass i
skapet må noe ut. De mer praktiske problemene de mange klærne skaper ligger
utenfor tematikken til dette kapitelet. Noen av årsakene til den store mengden
klær kan være lave priser og massiv markedsføring kombinert med god råd, og
ikke minst spesialisering, spesielt innen sport (Aall, Klepp, Engeset, Skuland,
& Støa, 2011). Videre kommer krav om variasjon i påkledningen (Workman
& Johnson, 1993) og bruk av klær som gaver (se diskusjon om gaver i kap.8).
Analysen viser også hvor tett sosiale og materielle årsaker til avhending er koblet
sammen. Når noe er slitt er ikke bare et objektivt spørsmål om grader slik det
kan måles i et laboratorium, men også et sosialt definert problem. Noen aksepterer lettere slitasje enn andre og ikke minst aksepteres det lettere på noen
materialer og plaggtyper enn andre, for eksempel slitte jeans sammenlignet
mot en tilsvarende slitt dressbukse. På samme måte vil flekker, nupper, og
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163
andre feil vurderes ulikt etter kjønn og alder, stil og sted på kroppen for å nevne
noe. Slike vurderinger av det materielle endres selvsagt over tid og er således
bundet til den sosiale vurderingen av klær slik som mote.
Gjennom analyser av klær og garderober samt svar på survey får vi et bilde
av et klesforbruk der mange klær blir brukt lenge – også etter at de er godt
slitt. Mange reparerer klær, og har dem i mange år. Samtidig er det også mange
klær som brukes lite, eller ikke i det hele tatt. Mengden klær er tilsammen stor
og bidrar til både et tidkrevende og miljøbelastende klesforbruk. Analysen viser
at den måten klærne er anskaffet på og hvordan de takler slitasje og endringer
av eierens kropp er viktig for det samlivet de får med eierne. Det sier oss at
videre studier både må inkludere hvordan klærne «havner» hos eierne, og bruk
mer konkret. Antall år gir jo ikke noen informasjon om antall gangers bruk.
Dette er dermed områder vi ønsker å studere videre.
Hverken forholdet mellom mote og avhending eller den estimerte levetiden
fra andre studier passer med våre funn. Vi tror det kan være flere grunner til
dette. For det første er det gjort få studer av det hverdagslige klesforbruket for
«alminnelige» mennesker i forhold til studier av mer spektakulært klesforbruk.
I tillegg vil de metoder vi benytter kunne ha betydning for de resultater vi
finner slik vi også diskuterer i kapitelet om metoder for å fange materialiteten.
Troens makt
I det kjente eventyret av H.C. Andersen om keiserens nye klær var hans nakenhet fullstendig akseptabel så lenge alle trodde det bare var dem selv det var
noe galt med. Den lille gutten gjorde en forskjell fordi han satt ord på det han
så: «Keiseren er jo splitter naken». Slik er det også med motens makt. Bare når
alle tror den er stor blir den det. Å kunne eller ikke kunne gå med en dress
eller kjole man liker fordi den ikke lenger er «moderne» er et spørsmål om hva
man tror de andre ville mene.
Dersom man tror klær fort vil bli umoderne og derfor ubrukelige vil det
ikke lønne seg å kjøpe klær som er dyre – selv om det er klær som man virkelig
liker. Det vil heller ikke lønne seg å produsere varige klær, eller markedsføre
klærnes tekniske holdbarhet så lenge produsentene selv tror på motens makt,
eller tror at forbrukeren tror på det. Dermed er troen på at mote er viktig for
avhending av klær med på å gjøre mote til en viktigere og viktigere avhendingsårsak.
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KIRSI LAITALA & INGUN GRIMSTAD KLEPP
Økt fokus på materialitet i studier av klesforbruk i markedsføring og journalistikk kunne bidra til å snu en uheldig utvikling. Det vil kunne bidra til økt
kunnskap som kan lede til redusert forbruk av materielle ressurser uten at målet
med klesforbruket, sosialt akseptable kropper, glede og skjønnhet måtte
reduseres. Det ville tvert i mot bidra til at klærne ble bedre og færre og vi vakrere.
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P10 Use matters
Sustainable clothing design: Use matters K. Laitala & C. Boks
(2012) Journal of design research. 10(1/2), 121-139.
Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd
Paper 10
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J. Design Research, Vol. 10, Nos. 1/2, 2012
121
Sustainable clothing design: use matters
Kirsi Laitala*
National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO),
P.O. Box 4682 Nydalen, N-0405 Oslo, Norway
and
Department of Product Design,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
N-7491 Trondheim, Norway
E-mail: Kirsi.Laitala@sifo.no
*Corresponding author
Casper Boks
Department of Product Design,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
N-7491 Trondheim, Norway
E-mail: Casper.Boks@ntnu.no
Abstract: Many life cycle assessment studies document that the use period is
the most resource-demanding phase during the clothing life cycle. In this
paper, we discuss how design can help to reduce the environmental impacts
of clothing. Motives behind clothing disposal, acquisition practices and
maintenance habits are analysed based on two surveys, qualitative interviews of
households, and examination of disposed clothing. The main reasons for
clothing disposal were changes in garments, followed by size and fit issues,
taste-related unsuitability, situational reasons, functional shortcomings and
fashion or style changes. Several design solutions can enable the users to keep
and use the clothes longer, and reduce the need for laundering, thus potentially
decreasing the total environmental effects of clothing consumption.
Keywords: clothing use; textile; sustainable design; eco-design; durability;
clothing maintenance; mending; design for sustainable behaviour; laundry;
consumption; consumer research.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Laitala, K. and Boks, C.
(2012) ‘Sustainable clothing design: use matters’, J. Design Research, Vol. 10,
Nos. 1/2, pp.121–139.
Biographical notes: Kirsi Laitala is a PhD student at the Department of
Product Design, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, and
researcher at the National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO). She holds
an MSc in Textile, Fiber and Clothing Engineering from the Tampere
University of Technology in Finland, and an international education titled
European Masters in Advanced Textile Engineering (E-TEAM). She has
researched and published on areas related to clothing quality, maintenance,
safety, as well as fit and size issues. Currently, she is working with
sustainability of clothing, textiles and fashion concentrating on the use and
disposal periods.
Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
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Casper Boks is a Professor of Sustainable Product Design at the Department of
Product Design, Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU) since 2007. Previously, he was
an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft
University of Technology (PhD degree in 2002). He holds a Master degree in
Applied Econometrics (Erasmus University Rotterdam, 1995). His research
interests include sustainable product innovation and education in general, and
currently focus on design for sustainable behaviour, sustainable design for
non-western cultural contexts, and organisational, managerial and stakeholder
conditions for successful implementation of sustainable product innovation.
This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled ‘Clothing
design for sustainable use: social and technical durability’ presented at 14th
European Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ERSCP)
conference, Delft, The Netherlands, October 2010.
1
Introduction
Several life cycle assessment (LCA) studies concerning textiles and clothing evaluate the
total environmental impact of specific products, taking into account the complete life
cycle from cradle to grave (Dahllöf, 2004; Madsen et al., 2007). Most of these studies
show that the use phase is the most energy-demanding stage of the clothing life cycle.
Depending on the energy source, it may also be the most polluting phase. In addition to
the energy required for maintenance, the use phase has significant environmental impacts
because consumers determine how long the garments are used, and how they are disposed
of. A short lifetime increases the need for products to be replaced faster, hence increasing
the environmental load from production and disposal phases. However, when discussing
the possibilities for designers to increase sustainability, the focus is usually on the
production phase. In this paper, we explore designers’ possibilities for reducing the
environmental impacts from clothing consumption, including both social and technical
aspects of use.
We begin by discussing the negative impact of textiles on the environment,
concentrating on the specific issues related to the use period and including a presentation
of some eco-design principles. In the following section, we discuss the research methods
applied to obtain more information of consumers’ habits, behaviour and attitudes related
to clothing consumption. In Section 4, we provide the results, and in Section 5 we discuss
a number of possibilities available for designers to increase the durability of clothing and
thereby reduce their environmental impact. In the final section, we draw conclusions, and
provide recommendations for further research.
2
Clothes’ environmental contribution
The clothing production chain is long and complicated due to the several steps involved,
starting from fibre production and continuing to yarn spinning; knitting or weaving;
various dyeing and finishing processes; and finally garment manufacturing based on
different designs. Many of these steps take place in different countries and even
continents, thus involving considerable transportation distances. LCA studies are used to
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document the environmental impact of products during the different stages of the total
life time. Studies show that different fibres tend to have their own specific areas where
they have largest environmental effect: the growth of conventional cotton requires high
water, pesticide and fertiliser consumption (Grose, 2009); merino wool production
requires large land areas (Russell, 2009); and polyester requires non-renewable resources
and high energy consumption during fibre productions which contributes to increased
CO2 emissions (Madsen et al., 2007). Even though the production phase has great
environmental impacts, most LCA studies on clothing show that the use phase is the most
energy-demanding phase. Evaluation of the total effects of this phase is difficult, as
different garments are maintained differently, users have different habits and the life
spans of clothing vary greatly. For example, in two studies the estimated lifetime of
clothing items varies from ten up to 104 uses (Bristwistle and Moore, 2007; Collins
and Aumônier, 2002). Only a few extensive real life studies on clothing lifetime
measurements have been made. A Dutch study showed that though an average piece of
clothing was used about 44 days and washed around 20 times during its lifetime, large
variations exist: the lifetime of skirts was estimated to be twice as long as that of trousers
(Uitdenbogerd, 2007). A Norwegian study of 40-year old women’s disposed clothing
showed that the garments’ lifetime was on average seven years, but this time includes
periods when the clothing has not been in active use (Klepp, 2001). Even if the same
lifetime is assumed, the selection of maintenance methods may have significant effects
on the LCA results. A study that compared energy consumption of a cotton t-shirt with a
viscose blouse showed strikingly different results during the use phase. This study
assumed the life time to include 25 washes for both of the products, but estimated that
they would be maintained differently, thus causing the use phase to be most important for
cotton products, but only a third as important for the viscose blouse (Allwood et al.,
2006). Primary energy profile results from this study combined with another LCA are
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Primary energy profiles for a cotton t-shirt, viscose blouse, cotton briefs and polyester
trousers (see online version for colours)
Source: Allwood et al. (2006) and Collins and Aumônier (2002)
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LCA studies document the environmental contribution per product or per weight unit.
When reading such results, one has to take into account that the shorter the assumed use
phase, the higher the relative impacts from production and disposal periods. Therefore,
depending on the length of use period as well as on the assumptions regarding applied
maintenance methods, the contribution from the use phase has enormous variations. This
indicates that the use phase is of considerable importance, suggesting the need for more
knowledge on consumer behaviour concerning clothing acquisition, maintenance and
disposal patterns. Such insight will be instrumental in assessing the redesign potential and
providing methods to do so.
One of the possibilities for increasing sustainability within the field of textiles and
clothing is to prolong the use period (Fletcher, 2008; Klepp, 2001). Theoretically, if the
use period could be doubled and one garment fewer would be produced, the reduction in
the environmental effects from the production and discarding phases could be reduced
significantly in both absolute and relative terms. This could be valid under the
assumptions that changes in production methods would not increase the environmental
burden, that the longer active use of that specific product would prevent another product
from being manufactured, and that the longer use period would not increase the
environmental effects from repair or additional washing, as well as that there would be no
other rebound effects. When comparing the energy consumption of different clothing life
stages, production and discard phases have often low relative impact, but potentially
more intensive in terms of chemical use and air and water emissions. Increasing the
lifetime of clothing may therefore result in lower environmental impact.
2.1 Consumers’ clothing use and disposal habits
In Norway, the price level of clothing has consistently fallen since 1995 and is now equal
to level of 1984 (Andersen, 2007). Concurrently, the relative income has increased, thus
enabling higher purchasing power. A portion of the higher purchasing power is used on
buying more textiles and clothing, which can be seen in the increased amount of imported
clothing, textiles, and textile waste (Figure 2). In 2007, the imported amount of clothes
corresponded to 16.5 kg of clothes per person. Nearly 130,000 tonnes of textile waste are
generated annually. Of the 26.8 kg of textile waste per person, 10.5 kg derives from
households (SFT, 2008). The service sector and different industries are the source of the
remaining textile waste. There are many charity organisations, however, that are
collecting clothing for reuse. Fretex (The Norwegian Salvation Army) is Norway’s
largest collector of second-hand textiles. Together with UFF (Humana People to People)
they collect approximately 13,500 tonnes of clothes every year (Germiso and Tajet,
2007). 20% of Fretex’s collected clothes is sold in Norway, while 60% is exported and
sold abroad, mainly to Asia and Africa. About 4% of collected materials are used as
shoddy and rags, while the remaining 16% is thrown away as waste (Fretex, 2009;
Tranberg Hansen, 2000). Some garments are unsuitable for reuse. In contrast to the other
big waste fractions like glass, paper and wet organic materials, these textiles lack
collection systems in Norway and are generally incinerated because land filling of
organic materials is forbidden.
While recycling is preferable to throwing away, using the clothing longer and not
buying new may be better in the view of complete life cycle thinking and under the
aforementioned assumptions. Other arguments in favour of extending lifetimes of
clothing are that recycling has negative environmental repercussions resulting from
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transport, sorting and selling stages. It has also been argued that the export of used
clothing to the third world competes with local production (Baden and Barber, 2005;
Germiso and Tajet, 2007). There does not yet exist a clear picture which takes
into account quantified assessments of all types of effects related to sustainability
(environmental, economic and social).
Figure 2
Generated textile waste, and textiles and clothing import, in Norway, 1,000 tonnes
(see online version for colours)
Source: Statistics Norway (2010a, 2010b)
Some studies have discussed the clothing use phase including maintenance habits and
disposal patterns. Winakor (1969), who developed and published one of the first models
for clothing consumption, describes the different stages from clothing acquisition to
disposal, including use, care, active, and inactive storages. According to her, the inactive
storage is a kind of limbo between inventory and discard. VeVerka (1974) showed that
garments are discarded from the inactive storage when the current use value provided by
the garment is less than the current costs of the garment and when the cost of keeping the
garment exceeds the costs of disposing of the garment. Cluver (2008) has studied this
further in her dissertation, concentrating especially on the complex decision-making
process between storage and disposal, and why clothes are kept in storage even though
they are no longer used. According to her study, several factors exist, which prompt
disposal versus storage at decision-making, including calls from charitable organisations,
seasonal changes, need of storage space, changes in lifestyle, and identification of
suitable recipients.
Klepp (2001) has studied women’s clothing habits and reasons for clothing disposal
in Norway. She identified several reasons for clothing disposal, and divided the reasons
for discarding clothes into six main categories (Table 1). These consumer product
disposal categories are a further development of studies made by Packard (1960)
and Strandbakken (1997). In this study, the informants could give several reasons for
disposing of each garment. The results show that technical or quality-related
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obsolescence is given as the most common reason for clothing disposal, even though a
large amount is discarded due to psychological reasons. One of the psychological reasons
mentioned is that the owner is tired of the product and wants something new. Another
high percentage of disposed clothing is within the ‘never used’ category. Some
explanations to this were unsuitable design (fit, use properties) or mistake purchases such
as wrong size.
Table 1
Reasons for disposal of clothes in a study of 24 Norwegian women
Type of obsolescence
Percentage of total
number of registered
reasons
1
Situational (The owner has developed new consumer needs, such
as changed body size, has other similar clothes, or clothes have too
narrow use area.)
2
Functional (New and better products have come to the market.)
1%
3
Technical or quality-related (The product is worn out, ruined or is
uncomfortable in use.)
35%
4
Psychological (The owner is tired of the product and wants
something new, does not use that style anymore, or clothes that
seem outdated.)
31%
5
Never used (Product not suitable for purpose. Often bought on
impulse or received as present.)
13%
6
Museal (The owner takes the product out of use and keeps it for
other purpose, does not want to use it in order to not to ruin it.)
1%
Total
19%
100%
Source: Klepp (2001)
Similar research was done by Koch and Domina in Michigan, who studied which textile
disposal methods were used, and why clothes were discarded. One of the most common
reasons for finding a new use area for clothing after the use period is ‘not to waste it’. Fit
problems were typical reasons for giving away clothing. Damaged clothing was usually
used as rags or modified and reused (Domina and Koch, 1999; Koch and Domina, 1999).
Another study, which included focus group studies and interviews of younger female
fashion consumers, revealed that most respondents did not have a specific idea of how
long they would keep the clothing (Bristwistle and Moore, 2007). Most kept items as
long as they were wearable and said that they stopped wearing clothing acquired from
cheaper mainstream outlets for three main reasons: lower quality, new fashion trends, or
clothes were only bought for one specific occasion. They were more likely to retain
expensive clothing, even if they no longer wore it.
Several studies on clothing recycling have concentrated on environmental behaviour
and attitudes of consumers, recycling habits and hindrances for environmentally friendly
behaviour (Daneshvary et al., 1998; Domina and Koch, 2002; Ha-Brookshire and
Hodges, 2009; Shim, 1995). These studies show that some specific consumer groups are
more likely to recycle, and that convenience of recycling plays a central role.
Correct maintenance is crucial for keeping the clothing functional in terms of
cleanliness, comfort and aesthetics. In addition to energy, water and chemical usage,
washing and tumble drying also contribute to wear of clothing (Goynes and Rollins,
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1971; Laitala et al., 2011). Therefore, another motivation to reduce washing and
tumble-drying, besides saving energy, is the possibility to take better care of clothing.
2.2 Eco-design
Eco-design, also called sustainable design, takes life cycle considerations into account
during the design process and attempts to systematically reduce the environmental
impact. Fletcher and Goggin (2001) criticise that eco-design has been too concentrated on
resource use in production instead of concentrating on human choices and actions during
use. Traditionally, the conversation around eco-design has focused around production,
material and end-of-life solutions of clothing (Niinimäki, 2010), or the eco-design of
washing machines, tumble dryers or detergents (Lilley et al., 2005). In recent years,
however, some researchers and designers have started to look into this. Boks and
McAloone (2009) identify user-centred design as a key element of modern eco-design,
and a community of researchers have begun to focus on design for sustainable behaviour
(Lilley, 2009; Lockton et al., 2008; Wever et al., 2008). Lockton et al. (2010) have
introduced a range of tools for designing for sustainable behaviour, which they refer to as
‘design with intent’ (DwI). Some examples of the techniques used for leading the users
are choice editing, warnings, portion control, feedback, rewards, colour associations,
positioning, and even threatening. This growing body of literature provides an initial
understanding of how the solution space for sustainable clothing design goes far beyond
the borders of traditional eco-design of clothing. It suggests that understanding why
people choose to buy, use, repair, store and dispose of clothing opens up a larger solution
space, both in terms of systemic perspective and in terms of design strategies one can
follow.
When discussing sustainable clothing, fast fashion and design for durability are two
trends worth noting. The former is a defining characteristic of today’s textile and clothing
industry. It is a combination of high speed and low-cost production with high speed and
volume consumption, which puts pressure on working conditions and environmental
standards (Fletcher, 2008). Lee (2003) has given a new term for this trend, calling it
McFashion, referring to the similarity to the McDonalds fast-food chain because of its
global uniformity and predictability, as well as its low price. Design for durability, on the
other hand, is often seen as a sustainable approach, an antidote to fashion change. The
design process consists of improving the physical and technical robustness of garments in
addition to addressing the emotional and expressive qualities they can provide for
consumers. This may lead to extended use and a longer functioning cycle, thus harvesting
environmental benefits (Fletcher, 2008; Hethorn and Ulasewicz, 2008; Klepp, 2001).
Some examples of clothing design for sustainable behaviour are found in existing
literature. Niinimäki and Hassi (2011) identify design strategies that focus on extending
the life span of clothing. These strategies include increasing the product durability
through higher quality and informing the consumers about the expected lifetime, using
emotional attachment to increase the product satisfaction, customisation, as well as
co-creation. Emma Dulcie Rigby has concentrated on reducing the need for maintenance,
by designing a clothing line based on interviews on which types of clothing items are
seldom washed (Hanlon, 2010; Rigby, 2011). She identified different themes in clothing
that affect the washing behaviour, such as material choice (wool), use area (home wear)
and fit (loose).
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When using such strategies for increasing the product lifetime, satisfying both the
functional and symbolic values is of importance. Functional values are formed between
the user, the product and the actual environment, and include themes such as protection
and physical comfort. Symbolic values arise between the user, the product, and the
socio-cultural environment, such as ‘belonging to’ or ‘distinguishing from’ fellow
humans. In addition to these user requirements, external general or superior
demands exist, including legislative, economical, normative and political demands
(Rosenblad-Wallin, 1985). The symbolic and aesthetic values of clothing are of great
importance for the wearer to be able to function in social settings (Kaiser, 1997).
Being inappropriately dressed for an occasion can cause feelings of awkwardness
and vulnerability (Entwistle, 2000). These values affect the feelings of self-esteem,
respectability, group membership, fashion consciousness, and decorativeness, among
others. If these principles are not addressed correctly in the design, the clothes often
remain unused.
Additional information concerning consumer habits and clothing is required in order
to study the possibilities designers have for increasing sustainability of clothing use. In
our approach, we use discarded clothing as an information source and a basis for
improving design. The next section presents the research methods on which this paper is
based.
3
Methods
Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the project and the large number of research
themes, several data sources were used, including quantitative surveys, qualitative
interviews, and laboratory tests.
3.1 Quantitative questionnaires
Quantitative information of consumers’ experiences and opinions concerning clothing
consumption habits was collected through two surveys in Norway.
The first survey from 2010 was specially conducted for collecting quantitative
information of consumers’ experiences and opinions concerning clothing use,
maintenance routines (washing, drying and ironing), disposal habits, and environmental
attitudes. Respondents were recruited through different channels, including randomly
selected Norwegian households, personal and work-related networks, and publicity in
media. A total of 546 answers were received. As a few of the questions were replaced in
the web questionnaire during the survey period, the total number of respondents (N)
varies slightly. The received data is not representative, which has been taken into
account when drawing conclusions. The distribution of respondents is uneven with an
evident preponderance of female respondents (77%). The 25–39 year age group
is overrepresented in comparison to the average of the adult population, and the
youngest and oldest age groups are underrepresented. The results cannot be used for
generalisations for the Norwegian population as a whole. However, the sample contains a
large number of respondents that can be compared with one another. The sample can also
be used as an example of consumers in Norway. These cases are not weighted.
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The second, most recent survey is country representative and conducted yearly in
Norway. This survey covers a variety of themes, where textiles and clothing constitute
only a minor part. A total of 1,124 people completed the web questionnaire during
March 2011, and these cases are weighted to represent the Norwegian population. The
respondents are selected from a pre-recruited, randomly recruited sample of persons
above 18 years of age who are willing to participate in surveys. The received data from
both surveys was analysed with SPSS software.
3.2 Qualitative interviews, clothes collection and laboratory tests
A strategic sample of 16 households was selected for a qualitative study to collect more
detailed information of household clothing material flow through in-depth interviews. In
addition to the interviews, these households collected all clothes taken out of use and
filled in a list of their clothing acquisitions during a period of six months. The informants
were interviewed a second time to find out the specific reasons for disposal of each
clothing item. During the six months project period, 619 garments were taken out of use
and registered. Each participant stopped using, on average, 18.4 garments.
The collected clothing items were studied further in the textile laboratory of the
National Institute for Consumer Research in Oslo. The products taken out of use due to
technical reasons such as wear and tear or changes in appearance are being analysed in
order to determine which test methods could reveal these weaknesses and to quantify the
technical quality. Based on these results, it will be possible to suggest minimum limits for
these technical properties, which will be useful in the selection of materials for
production.
Respondents were selected from volunteers who had agreed to be contacted after the
quantitative survey. The intention was to interview individuals with different life
situations, age, gender, civil status, family size, and so on. A semi-structured interview
guide was used, where the topics were fixed, but the exact wording of the questions was
not. The questions were formulated in a manner that made the informants describe and
reflect on their experiences in the form of a conversation. The interviews were recorded,
transcribed, coded and analysed with ATLAS.ti software.
4
Results
In the following, we present the results from surveys, interviews and laboratory studies
concerning the durability. Firstly, the year 2010 survey respondents were asked for their
opinion on what would need to be different in their clothing in general for them to use a
clothing item longer (Figure 3). In line with earlier research results, as presented in 2.1,
the main reasons for clothing disposal tend to be a combination of technical and
quality-related aspects, unsuitable fit, and the situational/psychological/social reasons
(Bristwistle and Moore, 2007; Domina and Koch, 1999; Klepp, 2001; Koch and Domina,
1999). The most popular answer, better quality in general, was often commented with
wish for more durable material. This was followed by problems of clothing pilling,
changing shape or size, and having issues with fit and/or poor colourfastness. In addition,
39% agreed that the wish of having something new affected how long they used the
clothing.
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Figure 3
Percentage of survey respondents that agreed on different statements on what would
need to be different in their clothing for it to be used longer (N = 546) (see online
version for colours)
During the interviews, the respondents gave up to five different reasons for disposal per
garment. The responses were registered and categorised into 63 different categories,
which were then grouped into seven main groups:
1
size and fit issues (too large or small, outgrown, fit at specific areas, etc.)
2
changes in garments (such as abrasion, colour changes, broken zipper or soiling that
does not get clean)
3
fashion or style changes (either fashion or individual style changed)
4
functional shortcomings (such as unpractical, electrostatic, or too cold for use area)
5
situational (does not fit with other clothes, no occasions to use it or have several
similar or better garments)
6
taste-related unsuitability (for example dislike of style, colour or design)
7
other or unknown.
Changes in garments constituted 49% of the given reasons for disposal of adult clothing.
This was followed by size and fit issues (19%), taste-related unsuitability (11%),
situational reasons (8%), and functional shortcomings (6%). Only 5% of given reasons
were based on fashion or style changes. The distribution of men’s and women’s disposal
reasons were quite similar, except that women reported problems with size and fit issues
more than twice as often as men did. Men also disposed of clothing more often based on
functional shortcomings. For children and teens, size and fit issues were the most
prevalent, mainly because children outgrow clothing quickly. The second most common
reason for children’s’ clothing disposal was changes in garments.
The same problems recognised by respondents could be seen in the examination of
disposed clothing. Typical problem areas were:
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Pilling and fuzzing.
2
Colour changes.
3
Unstable dimensions (especially on knitted clothing).
4
131
Abrasion damages. Typical abrasion areas varied between different types of clothing:
x
trousers: at lower legs (if too long), between thighs, around pockets and knees
(different typical abrasion areas on different users)
x
jackets: lining seams, elbows, hanging loop
x
socks: heels, sometimes toes
x
shirts: collar, cuffs, elbows.
Examination of disposed clothing showed that there is a great difference in opinions
regarding when the clothing is too worn out to be used. Some users did not mind pilling
or small holes, whereas for others, these changes indicated the clothing was worn out and
were important disposal reasons.
Garments that had changed only little during use were usually given away to friends,
family or charity organisations instead of being thrown out as waste. The respondents
often have problems verbalising the reasons for disposing these items, stating, for
example, “I just don’t use it” or “I don’t like it anymore”. When pushed further, the
reasons varied: the clothing feels unflattering to the user, is difficult to combine with
other garments, feels out-dated or has a colour or print that does not fit the owner’s taste.
The latter was often the case when the respondent in the purchase situation had thought
they should try some new style or colour they do not usually use. These items were rarely
used but stored for a long time before given away. When categorising these reasons, they
usually fell within the three main categories of size and fit issues, fashion or style
changes, or other situational matters.
About 18% of all registered garments had never been used or were used only once or
twice. Most of the unused clothes were gifts or inherited clothing items from family and
friends. This category also includes clothing that was not tried on before purchase, or that
was bought on sale.
Interviews also revealed that washing was related to use even beyond the purpose of
cleaning dirty clothes. Clean clothing was sometimes washed because the user felt that it
could not be used again due to social reasons, such as that one cannot go to work in same
clothing several days in a row, or that the clothing could only be used for specific
occasions such as formal parties. Many respondents did not want to store used clothing in
the wardrobe without washing it first, even if it was only used for some hours and would
not have any odour or visible stains.
4.1 Mending and repair
The survey results indicate that a large part of the respondents do repair their clothing at
least occasionally. In the 2010 survey, 35% of respondents said they repaired damaged
clothing often, 51% sometimes, and only 14% never mended clothing. The same was
seen in the interviews, where all of the informants would do the simplest repairs.
Different considerations play a role when deciding to repair the clothing or not. The value
of a garment is considered important. This not only means the purchase value, but also
functional, symbolic, aesthetic, and exchange values. Therefore, favourite items and
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expensive clothing are often considered more valuable than other items and are more
likely to be repaired, if broken. The type of clothing and its use areas are important as
well. For example, holes in sportswear or children’s wear are more often repaired than
holes in more formal clothing. In this evaluation, the visibility of mending is of
importance. Very few informants used the repair as a decorative element, which is also a
possibility.
The decision to repair clothing depends partly on the handiwork and sewing abilities
of the respondents. It was most common to report undertaking easy reparations to
clothing such as sewing on a button or repairing a seam that had unravelled. The next
level of sewing ability included mending holes or tears on clothing either by patching or
darning. Zipper replacement is more demanding, and most of informants did not try to do
it themselves. If the zipper breaks, the garment is often thrown away unless it is
considered to be very valuable. In that case the zippers may be taken to professional
tailors or family or friends (usually mothers) with more sewing competence. Adjusting
clothing size was uncommon; some female informants had done it sometimes, but found
it often too difficult. Based on the surveys, a large portion of respondents had either
repaired or had reparations done to their clothing during the past year. These results are
presented in Figure 4, and reflect findings very similar to the interview findings.
Figure 4
Percentage of respondents that have mended their own clothing during the past year
based on two surveys (see online version for colours)
Note: 2010 survey selection is female dominated.
The economic situation of the household is also of importance, and more mending occurs
in lower income families. However, even some of the high-income families do repair, at
least if they have the competence and time. As one of the survey respondents put it:
“I would use my clothes longer if I was better at repairing them” (male, 49 years),
indicating that higher competence in this area might help to increase the lifetime of
clothing.
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It is often found to be a large threshold to start mending clothing, so the clothing
often waits for a long time before it is fixed, and then several products are generally sewn
at the same time, when the sewing machine is finally taken out. Figure 5 shows mending
done by two of the informants. Both Fiona, 31, and Olivia, 67, said that they often had
wear and tear on the trousers in the same area, and did these kinds of repairs every now
and then.
Figure 5
5
Patch repair on typical abrasion area of trousers (jeans patch is sewn outside, wool-mix
trousers has glued patch inside) (see online version for colours)
Discussion
Results revealed a variety of themes that affect consumers’ clothing maintenance and
disposal habits. Designers can potentially reduce the environmental effects in both of
these areas. In the following, we discuss strategies for the different themes.
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The most important disposal reason was degradations in textiles such as dimensional
changes in washing, wear and tear, unravelled seams, pilling and poor colourfastness.
These reasons for disposal could be postponed or even prevented through improved
quality control of the materials and manufacturing process. They could also be taken into
account in design, for example by using reinforcements or detachable parts placed on the
areas that are most exposed to wear and tear. If the designer does not want the
reinforcements to be visible, they could be placed inside the clothing.
On some types of clothing the wear and tear is more accepted than others, and can
even be intentional in the original design, as wear and tear can be considered positive
depending on the materials and on the occasions the clothing will be worn. For example,
visible changes on jeans are more accepted than on dress pants, and wrinkles on linen
clothing are more accepted than wrinkles in similar clothing of other materials. Favourite
items are kept longer even if they are worn out, though often relegated for use at home or
private occasions.
Naturally, users are different and their clothing usage; habits, background and use
situations vary greatly. For example, examination of disposed clothing showed that there
is a great difference in opinions on when the clothing is too worn out to be used. These
norms depend on cultural and personal preferences, rendering it impossible to suggest
a technical quality level that will apply for all. However, different levels could be
suggested for these properties in order to secure minimum durability in use, and increased
values for clothing that requires higher durability.
In addition to physical durability, design and material choice can also solve problems
such as pressure on the body, difficulty of movement and static electricity. These
discomforts were also given as reasons for clothing disposal in the interviews.
The great design challenge of women’s clothing is the adaptation to the body. Few
ready-to-wear items fit well and close to the body while also being flexible enough for
changes in weight and body shape. Designers and pattern makers could address this issue
in greater detail in order to increase the use period and lifespan of clothing, and to avoid
the unnecessary production of clothing that does not get sold due to fitting problems. One
solution to this problem is to increase the user involvement in design by trying sample
patterns on different sized bodies instead of concentrating on small model sizes. This
could not only contribute to better-suited clothing for users of different sizes and figure
types, but it could also make clothing more comfortable and flexible for all consumers.
For the users to recognise clothing that will fit their bodies, the size labelling could be
expanded to include more information, such as figure type or length.
Many of the clothing items that were never used, or only used once or twice, were
gifts or inherited clothing items from family and friends. In these cases the receiver had
very little control over what she/he was given. In other cases, rarely used items consisted
of clothing that was not tried on before purchase, or that was bought on sale. It is evident
that the way clothes are acquired has an impact on whether they are likely to be used. It is
difficult to change this through clothing design, but flexible fitting solutions would
enable clothing to be used by a larger variety of people.
To reduce the need for washing, the garments can be designed with common
dirt-exposed areas in mind. Some materials are naturally more dirt-repellent than others,
such as wool, which also has the benefit of having low washing temperature.
Dirt-repelling treatments are another option, though one has to take into account the
environmental effects of these materials. The form of clothing is also essential: extra
space around armpits can help to avoid the smell of sweat. Another option for designing
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clothing for durability is to meet the challenge of stains that sometimes are not removed
in washing. If the stains are not visible, or if the material would look like the stains were
intentional, the garment could be used longer. Large portion of the children’s clothing
thrown away was stained. These items were often used by the child despite the stains, but
when the clothes got too small they were not passed on to friends or charity, as the
parents felt such clothing was too damaged to give away.
Some textiles were washed even when they were not considered to be that dirty, as
many respondents did not want to store used clothing in the wardrobe without washing it
first. One possible design solution for this problem is addressing the storage need for
keeping ‘half-used’ clothing neat and separated from clean clothing.
Many respondents felt that they could not use the same clothing several days in a row
or on different occasions. This led to more frequent clothing changes and thereby
increased washing. Designing solutions addressing these challenges could include
designing possible adjustments and changes on the clothing (styling and accessories) that
would allow for day-to-day variation or a way to make the garment look new or to fit
different use situations. This might even enable a smaller number of clothing items to be
used for creating several outfit combinations. In the survey, 39% of respondents agreed
that they would keep their clothes longer if they would feel less need for having
something new.
Fashion is often blamed for the short life span of many clothing items. In our study,
fashion did not come up as an important reason for clothing disposal. The material
revealed two main scenarios where the fashion change was given as a disposal reason.
The first was mothers of teenage daughters, who assumed that their daughters had
stopped using some garments due to trend changes. These garments were usually quite
new, about a year old. The other cases were clothing items that were about 8–20 years
old, and referred to as outdated. However, the reasons registered here were only based on
what the respondents actually said. In some cases, it was evident that there were more
reasons behind the disposal decisions than what was said aloud. Many adult women do
not want to admit their reason for disposal being purely fashion as they may prefer to be
perceived as sensible, rational consumers who are confident in their choices and style
(Storm-Mathisen and Klepp, 2006). Fashion and brand items are associated with the
youth, and uncertain consumers who have not yet found their individual style (Klepp and
Storm-Mathisen, 2005). It is therefore to be expected that respondents do not report
fashion as a reason for disposal as often, even if it might be an underlying reason. Instead
of saying it directly, the respondent can emphasise that the clothing is too narrow or
wide, even if there has not been any changes in the clothing or body size, the only
difference being the fashionable fit (Klepp, 2001).
Favourite clothing items are kept longer than those lacking emotional attachment. The
results confirm that it may be challenging to design socially durable clothing for the
mass-market that meets the symbolic and aesthetic demands, as there are numerous
personal variations in preferences. In this matter, individual tailoring has several
advantages. Focus on user-oriented design and customisation can offer solutions to this
challenge. Good clothing design must address the demands for functional, symbolic, and
superior requirements.
Lack of skills, time or materials were given as the main obstacles for mending and
repairing clothing. These problems require different solutions, but improvements in
mending/sewing skills could reduce the needed mending time and make it easier to
prioritise the task. Education is therefore of importance. Knowing how to operate a
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sewing machine is an advantage, though not necessary for all repairs such as sewing on a
button. In addition, some relatively easy alternatives for sewing are available, such as
adhesive patches and wool filler. Designers can keep the mending possibilities in mind
when designing the clothing by planning the garments in a way that the visibility of
repair would not matter or could be part of the decorative element. Seams are important,
as there should be enough of an allowance to permit adjustments and repair. Such
techniques are used, for example, in folk costumes in Norway. Since the dresses are often
used for decades, the seam allowance allows for changes in the owner’s body or for when
the garment is inherited by a new owner.
6
Conclusions
This paper has demonstrated that the possibilities for designing clothing for more
sustainable use are numerous. By utilising the information received from users and their
disposed clothing, we obtained new knowledge from both technical and social aspects.
The main issues discussed here are related to enabling the users to keep and use the
clothes longer, and possibilities for reducing the need for laundering, thus potentially
decreasing the total environmental effects of clothing consumption. It is important that
sustainable clothing design addresses these two different sides of clothing use, the long
lifetime and the possibility for adequate and sustainable maintenance, in relation to each
other. Essential design elements for garments designed for longevity address the
possibility for effective laundering combined with high tolerance of changes in clothing,
while not forgetting the environmental impacts of potential changes in production. On the
other hand, production and disposal phases are decisive for clothing with short life
expectancies. A greater awareness of the use phase in the design process will therefore be
beneficial.
Even though the development within clothing, washing machines and detergents is
significant, and can contribute to the designer’s solution space, consumer behaviour is
still crucial. The study reported on in this paper states that users will make the decisions
concerning when clothing is purchased and disposed of, and when and how it is
maintained. The use phase has been given little attention in the LCA analysis and has
been regarded as problematic due to the large variations between different garments and
users. Instead, this large variation could be utilised as potential in the design process.
What characterises a garment with a long lifetime, high versatility (socially and
materially) and low maintenance-related environmental impacts? How can the habits and
norms related to these types of items be transferred to new materials and concepts? To
achieve this we need both innovative design and more research on attitudes, values and
motives for behaviour related to clothing use.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ingun Grimstad Klepp and the anonymous reviewers for
valuable comments, as well as Orkla ASA and Norwegian Research Council for financial
support on the project entitled ‘From textile waste to material resources in a grave to
cradle perspective’.
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P11 Design approach
Making Clothing Last: A Design Approach for Reducing the
Environmental Impacts. K. Laitala, C. Boks & I.G. Klepp
(Submitted) International Journal of Design
Paper 11
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Making Clothing Last: A Design Approach for
Reducing the Environmental Impacts
Kirsi Laitala *1,2, Casper Boks2, and Ingun Grimstad Klepp1
1) National Institute for Consumer Research (SIFO), Norway
2) Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
This article discusses to what extent it is possible to delay clothing disposal through improved
design, thus reducing environmental impacts. This has been done by including user centered
design methods into more traditional quantitative consumer research to give new insights for
design. Empirical data on reasons for disposal of 620 clothing items from 35 persons in 16
Norwegian households was collected. In total, 70 different disposal reasons were registered,
which were combined into seven main categories. Changes in garments and size and fit issues
dominated, while functional, situational, taste and fashion related reasons were less common.
The article concludes with design solutions on four levels related to the important disposal
reasons including product design (material and shape), service design and systems design, but
also shows that consumer behavior is crucial. In addition, combination of results obtained
with various qualitative and quantitative methods proved to be suitable for giving rich data
that can be used to drive design research forward.
Keywords - Clothing design, Consumer behavior, Lifespan, Sustainable design.
Relevance to Design Practice - The article has both practical and methodological relevance.
It suggests several design strategies to prolong clothing lifecycles and reduce the
environmental impact based on a new methodological combination of user research.
Introduction
Our modern Western society consumes large amounts of resources, and there is a seemingly
endless stream of new products available. Textiles and clothing production is among the
industries that contribute most negatively to environmental and social aspects of sustainability
(Madsen, Hartlin, Perumalpillai, Selby, & Aumônier, 2007). Textiles production and
consumption combined contributes to 3% of global CO2 equivalent emissions (Carbon Trust,
2011). This article aims to address the potential of design as a means to substantially reduce
environmental impacts related to clothing consumption by using a multidisciplinary approach
including design sciences, natural sciences, social sciences and cultural studies. This
reduction may take place during any stage in the lifecycle of clothing, as well as on the
systems design level (Fletcher, 2008). In the past decades a considerable number of studies
have addressed the potential for reducing the environmental impact in the phases before
products reach the consumer, including the production and transportation phases, as well as
the post-consumer phase through recycling and re-designing of the discarded textiles (Morley,
Bartlett, & McGill, 2009; Morley, Slater, Russell, Tipper, & Ward, 2006). Only recently has
attention to the use stage started to increase. To reduce environmental impacts in the use
stage, research largely goes in two directions: how to diminish the total amount of textiles in
circulation through expanding the life of the existing textiles and re-using the products
(Cooper et al., 2013; Fletcher, 2012; Jørgensen et al., 2006; Madsen et al., 2007), and how to
reduce the consumption of energy, water and chemicals during the use including laundering
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and drying of clothes within households (Bain et al., 2009; Laitala, Boks, & Klepp, 2011;
Pakula & Stamminger, 2010).
This article discusses whether it is possible to delay clothing disposal through
improved design, thus increasing the active use period. Most existing research on clothing
disposal is measured either through quantitative surveys (Bianchi & Birtwistle, 2012; Domina
& Koch, 2002; Hibbert, Horne, & Tagg, 2005; Joung & Park-Poaps, 2013; Lang, Armstrong
& Brannon, 2013; Shim, 1995) or qualitatively (Albinsson & Perera, 2009; Cluver, 2008; HaBrookshire & Hodges, 2009; Klepp, 2001). By triangulating user centred design methods of
data collection into more traditional ways of quantitative consumer research, the authors
sought to arrive at richer data that would bring new insights for design. In this article, we use
the word design in its broad sense, not only the direct forming of clothing, but also the design
of services or systems around clothing consumption.
First, the article presents briefly background information on sustainable clothing
consumption and design, followed by a chapter on methods used for collection of the
empirical data. The analysis of the data then provides input to a discussion of potential design
strategies. A summary, conclusions and recommendations for relevant stakeholders, as well as
an outlook conclude this article.
Sustainable Clothing Consumption and design
Pettersen studied how design can contribute to changing consumer behaviour in a more
sustainable direction (Pettersen, 2013). In order to understand the dynamics of the activities
and the potential for change she combined several theories, including practice theory and
system innovation theory, with a multi-layered sociotechnical transformation perspective
(Geels, 2004; Reckwitz, 2002; Rip & Kemp, 1998; Schatzki, 2001). Pettersen concludes that
the social practices can be used as a measuring unit to quantify the dynamics of private
consumption, and can be used as a starting point by those who wish to contribute to changes
in practices through design (2013). Accordingly, in this article our starting point is the various
consumer practices related to clothing consumption that are covered by the acquisition, use
and disposal phases. Most literature on clothing consumption concentrates on the acquisition
phase, where consumers’ selection of more sustainable products is discussed. This article uses
the two latter stages as a starting point and connects sustainable design to clothing use and
disposal practices. It is also important to note that each of the consumption stages influences
the other stages. For example, the amount of clothing a person acquires influences how much
each garment is used, and if garments are not properly taken care of, they can end up sooner
in the disposal phase.
There are numerous design strategies for making clothing consumption more sustainable.
For example, the Textiles, Environment, Design (TED, ND) project proposes ten sustainable
design strategies for textile and fashion designers:
1.
Design to Minimise Waste
2.
Design for Recycling / Upcycling
3.
Design to Reduce Chemical Impacts
4.
Design to Reduce Energy and Water Use
5.
Design that Explores Clean / Better Technologies
6.
Design that Looks at Models from Nature & History
7.
Design for Ethical Production
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8.
Design to Replace the Need to Consume
9.
Design to Dematerialise and Develop Systems & Services
10. Design Activism: leave behind the product and work creatively with the consumers
and society at large.
Another example is a co-design toolkit for sustainable fashion design and consumption
that facilitates positive behaviour (Hur, Beverley, & Cassidy, 2013). It includes six design and
use patterns with several examples of each:
1.
Choice: e.g. choice of use of resources in production and ways of use (wear, care,
dispose).
2.
Optimisation: e.g. cradle-to-cradle thinking, zero-waste and rethinking alternatives
such as swap & share services.
3.
Empowerment: propose solutions that satisfy psychological and social needs, such
as personalisation.
4.
Persuasion: Ways to motivate people, e.g. providing information or rewards.
5.
Interaction: Patterns in user-product relationships, such as behaviour feedback and
sensory effects.
6.
Social conversation: Enables changes through social learning, use of open-source,
creative communities and ways of living.
Also Niinimäki and Hassi (2011) present design strategies that can be used in promoting
sustainable consumption of textiles. Strategies related to extending the life span of clothing
include increasing product durability through higher quality and informing the consumers
about the expected lifetime, using emotional attachment to increase product satisfaction,
customization, as well as co-creation. Some of these strategies were presented to consumers to
evaluate their opinion on the possibilities. Niinimäki and Hassi conclude that consumers were
most positive to the solutions that they are most familiar with and that already exist to some
degree, but that a combination of design strategies might improve efficiency.
Design for durability consists of improving the physical and technical robustness of
garments as well as addressing the emotional and expressive qualities they can provide for
consumers. This may lead to extended use and a longer functioning cycle, thus harvesting
environmental benefits (Fletcher, 2008; Hethorn & Ulasewicz, 2008). However, Fletcher
(2012) points out that in her study of garment use practices in the Local Wisdom project, the
garments that were used for a long time were not really intended to be special during the
design phase, but became so in unintentional ways and often because the user took better care
of them. This indicates the importance of both sides of durability, the material side is needed
as a starting point, but product attachment is needed for the user to keep on using and taking
care of the garment.
Physical durability is often connected to clothing quality, but consumers perceive
clothing quality to include also other features that can be either concrete, objectively
measurable facts, or abstract, subjective features. They evaluate these qualities based on
extrinsic, intrinsic, aesthetic and performance cues such as price, brand, fibre content, and
how fabric feels (Hines & Swinker, 2001). The ISO 9000 (2005) standard’s definition of
quality is the “degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements”.
Therefore, quality is a question of degree. High quality can be achieved if all inherent
characteristics meet the requirements, while the opposite is true for low quality. However, for
clothing there are not that many official requirements. Legislation can be found for labelling
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of fibre content and care labelling, as well as requirements for chemical content and
production conditions, and some safety features especially on children’s clothing, but these
requirements vary greatly between different countries. Since almost no clothing includes
information about expected lifespan, consumers’ evaluation of durability is mainly based on
cues that do not directly reflect it, such as price or brand (Laitala & Klepp, 2013). Rahman
(2012) has tested how young female consumers evaluate quality and price level of jeans when
no brand or price information is given. These consumers got expectations of product
durability based on visual evaluations of the fabric and stitches, as well as tactile evaluations
of hand feel and the stretchiness of the material. In many cases they managed to guess the
price level of jeans, and assumed the high price jeans to be of better quality. However, no
quality tests of the jeans were performed, and therefore it is not known how correct their
evaluations were.
A consumer survey in five European countries showed that consumers assume high
quality to be an important environmental measure, as they perceived buying fewer clothes and
extending the length of use by repairing clothing to be environmentally preferable measures
compared to buying eco-labelled clothing or reducing laundering (Austgulen, 2013).
However, research on fast fashion clothing lifespans showed that most of the informants
thought that low price justifies lower clothing quality and shorter lifespans (Collett, Cluver, &
Chen, 2013).
This short review suggests that several sustainable clothing design strategies exist.
However, there is limited research on their connection to clothing lifespans and consumers’
clothing use and disposal practices, and no empirical data connecting all these aspects were
found. Therefore, this article seeks to find empirical data on clothing disposal reasons that
affect lifespans, and identify design strategies that could increase the active use period of
clothing and postpone the disposal phase. In the following chapter, the empirical data
collection method is presented.
Research Methods
The research presented in this article has been part of a nationally funded project on clothing
research. Within this project information was collected about consumers’ experiences,
opinions, and practices concerning clothing use, maintenance routines (washing, drying and
ironing) and disposal practices. In this article we aim to connect the results from clothing
lifespans and disposal reasons to potential design solutions.
Wardrobe Studies
Wardrobe study is a methodological approach that combines methods such as qualitative
research interviews, field work, inventories, and laboratory testing. It often includes an
inventory of wardrobe contents, either complete or partial, and enables us to analyse the
material and symbolic properties of clothing, as well as the relationship between the clothes
and their users (Klepp & Bjerck, 2012). Our study included 35 persons from 16 Norwegian
households who stored all clothes that were to be taken out of use during a period of six
months. A total of 620 clothing items were collected and registered for the study. One or two
representatives of the households were interviewed about the use and disposal reasons of each
item, including how long and how much they have used the items, and why they stopped
using or, in some cases, never started using the garments. On average, each participant
stopped using 18 garments, but the figure varied from 0 to 71 items per person. Together with
the garments, this interview material is used as the empirical starting point of the analysis.
Lockton, Harrison, Cain, Stanton, and Jennings (2013) suggest that behavioural heuristics
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involving problem-solution pairs can be used to link the insight from user research to possible
design strategies. In their methodology, if using interviews the designer approaches the
relevant question by asking the informants a series of “why” questions to get their behavioural
reasons, and then suggested design solutions for each reason. Our approach was similar, but
we have usually asked “why” question only once or twice for each garment to keep the
interviews at a reasonable length.
Informants were selected from respondents that had answered to an earlier quantitative
survey within the same project, and agreed to be contacted for further interviews. The aim
was to select informants in different life situations and of different age, gender, civil status,
family size, and so on. Three main groups of households were chosen:
1.
Young adults age between 18 and 35 that are either single or couples, but not living
with parents anymore and do not have own children.
2.
Families with children below the age of 16.
3.
Adults above the age of 55, who are either retired or approaching retirement, and
have no small children living at home.
Based on the earlier survey answers, it was also known that these informants had
different economic situations and varying levels of interest in clothes, fashion and
environmental issues. The 16 households included 8 children, 2 teenagers, 16 women, and 9
men. In addition to the main informants in each household, three of the cohabitants/spouses
were interviewed, two female and one male, resulting in 19 interviews. The background
information of the main informant of each household is given in table 1. The interviews were
recorded, transcribed, coded in Excel and finally analysed with SPSS software. Quotations
from the interviews are given with age and a fictional name assigned to the respondent.
Table 1: Main informants’ background information
Property
Variables
Main informants
Sex
Women
13
Men
3
20-34
8
35-49
6
50+
2
No children
7
Parents to small children
7
Parents (adult children)
2
Single/living alone
6
Living with partner
10
Oslo
8
Neighbour counties to Oslo
5
Trondheim area
3
Vocational
1
Bachelor level
6
Graduate level
9
Age
Family
Relationship status
Area of living
Education
Employment situation
Working
a
12
5
315
a
b
Student b
3
Retired
1
Three of them only work part time
All three students had also part time jobs
The collected clothing items were studied further in a textile laboratory. All garments
that were given to the study were registered with the following information:
x
Type of garment
x
Fabric structure (woven or knitted)
x
Fibre content (if no label, a qualified guess was made in easy cases)
x
Colour
x
Care label content
x
Country of origin (when given)
x
Changes (e.g. pilling, stains, holes, broken seams, dimension or colour changes)
x
Repairs or other adjustments
x
Home/handmade or not
In addition, some technical laboratory tests were performed. Garments that were
disposed of due to properties that were suitable for technical testing such as amount of pilling
and degree of colour change were evaluated in order to quantify the technical quality. The
pilling grade was evaluated based on grading given in standard EN ISO 12945-2 (2000), and
colour change was evaluated according to ISO 105-A02 (1993). Both of the standards use a
scale form of one to five, where five is best (no pilling or colour change).
Limitations
The sample was strategically selected, also called judgement or purposeful sampling, meaning
that the informants were actively hand-picked in such a way that it maximizes the chance that
many different and even conflicting sides of the phenomenon in question are encountered
(Eneroth, 1984; Marshall, 1996). The distribution of respondents is by no means
representative of the population, but the wide selection criteria provide examples of different
consumers who are suited to discuss the project’s research questions. Furthermore, the
overrepresentation of women may accurately reflect that clothing-related practices such as
purchase, maintenance and making final decisions on discarding may be unevenly distributed
between males and females in most households.
Although informants were questioned about each of the disposed garments, some
information is still missing, as not all informants remembered how old some garments were,
and in some cases when a large number of garments were to be disposed of and the interview
extended over several hours, there was not time to register all aspects as detailed as planned.
This was especially the case with children’s clothing, when there were heaps of clothing and
they were all to be disposed of mainly because the child had outgrown them. In these cases,
the informants did not necessarily also say that the garments had other deficiencies such as
holes or stains, or specify the use period of each item. Often they said at least once during the
interview that the child usually used clothing for one season.
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The Involvement of Design Schools
The research project involved three design schools from different countries as partners;
Chelsea School of Art & Design, Oslo National Academy of the Arts, and The Swedish
School of Textiles. Students were given a task to design solutions to some of the sustainability
challenges based on the first initial project’s research results on disposal reasons, as well as
general education on how the different phases in the life-cycle of clothing effects the overall
environmental footprint. Students got too choose their topics freely. Many of them chose to
include the environmental aspect to their graduation projects, and some of these designs are
presented here as an example of how designers worked with these issues.
Overview of Clothing Disposal Reasons
Informants talked freely about their use of garments that were to be disposed of, and no
disposal reason categories were given beforehand. In total, 70 different reasons were
registered. On average, each garment was given 1.7 different disposal reasons, and at
maximum, five different reasons. Research on product disposal practices in general
differentiates between absolute and relative obsolescence (Cooper, 2004). Absolute
obsolescence means that the product has failed and is no longer usable. Relative obsolescence
applies to products that are still functional, but discarded for some other reasons. In the
literature, the main categories generally used for distinguishing between reasons for disposal
are 1) functional: replaced by products with improved utility or expression, 2) quality: product
failure, or wear and tear, 3) psychological: also called symbolic obsolescence, and 4) new
consumer needs or desires (Heiskanen, 1996; Kostecki, 1998; Packard, 1960; Strandbakken,
1997; van Nes & Cramer, 2006). We decided to use a large number of descriptions to classify
the different disposal reasons that apply to clothing, before grouping them into seven main
categories. The distribution and grouping of disposal reasons is given in Table 2. In this
article, the disposal reasons are given mainly as weighted results. That means that if the owner
gave four different reasons for disposing a garment, each of the reasons is given 0.25 points,
instead of each receiving one point (i.e., each garment gets a total of one point).
Table 2: Grouping and division of clothing disposal reasons
Disposal reasons in each group
Changes in garments
Hole or tear
Looks very used or worn
Stains (not sweat)
Worn out
Colour change or fading
Lost elasticity
Shape changed (dimensional change)
Pilling
Discoloration - bleeding from other garments
Broken seam or sewing failure
Shrinkage (dimensional change)
Broken zipper
Material has become thin
Washed out
Sweat smell
Failed mending or repair
Stains of sweat
Print faded
Unweighted reasons
Points
%
41
112
18
42
7
35
6
34
5
29
5
24
4
21
3
17
3
15
2
15
2
12
2
11
2
10
2
10
2
9
1
8
1
7
1
7
1
Weighted reasons
Points
%
40
77.5
13
20.7
3
22.5
4
18.4
3
12.8
2
10.3
2
13.3
2
7.4
1
7.3
1
7.3
1
7.2
1
6.3
1
4.2
1
3.7
1
5.6
1
3.0
0
4.2
1
4.0
1
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Disposal reasons in each group
Yellowing
Threads drawn out
Broken decorations
Felting
Bra underwire broken or bent
Fuzzing
Fabric became harder
Buttons missing
Spirality
Size and fit issues
Too small – grown out of it
Fit – length
Too big – always been
Too small – always been
Fit – general or not specified
Fit – waist
Fit – hips
Will outgrow soon or before next season
Fit – shoulders
Fit – bust
Fit – collar
Too big – lost weight
Unweighted reasons
Points
%
7
1
6
1
3
0
3
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
1
0
1
0
Weighted reasons
Points
3.3
3.1
2.5
1.3
1.3
1.0
0.8
0.3
0.3
%
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
143
31
27
24
22
11
6
4
4
3
3
2
26
23
5
4
4
4
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
111.4
15.1
16.5
16.2
10.0
4.2
3.1
1.8
1.7
2.0
1.0
0.6
30
18
2
3
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Taste related unsuitability
Dislike of design or shape
Not own style
Dislike of colour
Does not use that type of garments
Dislike of pattern or print
Does not like – unspecified
44
26
22
20
15
4
12
7
4
4
3
2
1
23.5
13.7
11.4
7.2
8.8
2.3
11
4
2
2
1
1
0
Situational reasons
Have several similar or better garments
No occasions to use it
Does not fit with other clothes
Change in life situation
Someone else needed it
71
6
5
4
1
8
11
1
1
1
0
35.7
2.7
2.3
1.4
0.5
7
6
0
0
0
0
Functional shortcomings
Material not good
Uncomfortable (physical)
Unpractical
Too wrinkled, has fold marks or would need ironing
Too warm
Rolls up
Static electricity
Itches
Not water resistant
Does not fall nicely
Buttons or zipper do not stay closed
Functional failure
Too cold
15
14
10
7
6
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
6
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7.0
4.2
4.2
3.4
1.8
2.5
2.0
1.3
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.5
0.2
5
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fashion or style changes
Fashion change or outdated
Own style changed
Bored with the garment
25
19
1
4
4
3
0
16.2
7.7
1.0
4
3
1
0
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Disposal reasons in each group
Other or unknown
Unknown
Other
Missing pair
Lacks sentimental value
Unweighted reasons
Points
%
15
4
4
2
2
2
1
1
0
Weighted reasons
Points
%
14.5
3.3
3.0
1.0
4
2
1
0
0
The most common disposal reason was that the user had grown out of the garment
(18%). This was followed by holes and tears (13%), and having similar or better garments
(6%). Then came dislike of design or shape (4%), stains (4%), and worn out look (3%).
In some cases, the grouping of disposal reasons into the main categories was not
straightforward. For example, “Own style has changed” was categorised as “Fashion or style
changes”, but it could also have been categorised as “Taste related unsuitability”. However, in
the separation between these two main groups the meaning of change was emphasised. In the
taste related main category, the owner never liked the product, whereas in “fashion and style
changes”, the product has been used and liked before, but goes out of use because there has
been a change. This change is often related to cultural aspects such as fashion, even though
the owner might not be that aware of it. For example, one informant explained that it was no
longer her style to use a short skirt made of old jeans. These types of garments were in fashion
in the time period she used it.
In Figure 1 the main groups of disposal reasons are separated between children and
teens, and adult men and women. The results show that material properties of the clothes
dominate when the informants describe their reasons to stop using clothing. Nearly half of the
clothing for adults had changed appearance. The most common change was that the garment
had a hole or was torn (22%), followed by generally worn appearance (15%). The next largest
main group was related to problems with size and fit, either that the owners had grown out of
their clothing, or that the clothing never fitted well to start with. This group does not include
cases where clothing has changed dimensions, as these belong to the group of changes in
garments. The third biggest group comprised different taste related preferences, e.g. that
clothing has a style or colour that the user does not like, or a print that the user does not want
to promote, such as commercial t-shirts received from different businesses. The fourth group
includes different situational reasons, e.g. the owner having several similar or better garments,
or that the life situation has changed. Typical changes in life situation were changing jobs,
becoming retired or not being pregnant anymore, thus having a change in needs for clothing.
The fifth group is called functional shortcomings. This group includes garments that are
described as unpractical, uncomfortable (physically), itching or not warm or waterproof
enough for the intended use. Fashion does not come up until the 6th and second to last group,
which shows that 4% of garments are disposed of because they are out of fashion or otherwise
outdated. The same main group includes changes in own style (3%), as it can be connected to
changes in fashion, even though the respondents may not be aware of it. These results partly
confirm those of three other studies on clothing disposal reasons, as they also had wear and
tear as the most important category (Collett, Cluver, & Chen, 2013; Klepp, 2001; Ungerth &
Carlsson, 2011). However, the order of importance of the other categories varies, and another
study on young female students’ clothing disposal reasons indicates that fashion was a more
important reason for them (Chun, 1987).
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Figure 1: Clothing disposal reasons for adult men and women, and children and teenagers
(N = number of clothing items)
When examining the clothing that went out of use because of fashion, it is obvious that
the type of garments plays a role. No underwear, socks, stockings or nightwear were disposed
of because of fashion. Fashion was a more important reason for trousers and jeans, where it
was mentioned in 11% of the cases, and for jackets and other outerwear (10%), than other
types of garments. Four out of five socks and stockings were disposed of due to physical
changes, the next biggest reason being size and fit (mainly children’s clothing). Size and fit
issues were dominant for trousers, skirts, dresses and jackets.
Even though similar detailed studies are not reported on in the literature, the material
from 16 households is still relatively limited. It is not possible to generalise which
demographic variables determine the different disposal habits. However, it seems that
teenagers may more often dispose of clothing based on fashion than the other age groups.
This is also suggested in other studies (Storm-Mathisen & Klepp, 2006). It should be noted,
though, that the teenagers did not give their own disposal reasons, instead they were given by
their parents. It also seems that families with higher income mention fashion more often than
families with average income, and families with low income mentioned it least, although this
is a limited observation.
The largest differences between women’s and men’s disposal reasons are found in the
group size and fit, which was mentioned in 22% of cases by women, as opposed to 10% by
the men interviewed. Otherwise the distribution between gender and the other disposal reason
groups is very similar.
As expected, children’s clothing was most often given away because children had
outgrown the clothing. Otherwise the distribution of disposal reasons was similar to that of
adults’ clothing. Changes in garments were the second most frequent reason, whereas each of
the other groups made up less than 10% of cases.
Examples of interaction between the different categories were observed. For example,
garments could be disposed of due to situational reasons, e.g. that the user has too many
similar products. However, there needs to be some intrinsic product related properties that
prompt the disposal of a particular product that makes it less desirable to keep than other
similar products, e.g. that it starts to look worn. In addition, the personality of the user is
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important, a hoarder could for example decide to keep the garment despite lack of storage
space, while a person who is interested in environmental matters would be more likely to give
it to reuse.
In the following section we will first give two examples of clothing registrations that
show the type of rich data that can be acquired through use of wardrobe methods, and how
different aspects have affected clothing lifespans and the amount of clothing that is used.
Examples include a picture of the garment, excerpts from the interview transcripts,
information on how the garment is registered, a diagram of the lifespan, and a brief analysis
of improvement potential and design implications. Based on these examples, design
recommendations are given.
Example 1: Emma’s Bathrobe with Long Life-cycle Despite of Many
Shortcomings
Here 30-year old Emma explains how she has used her bathrobe (Figure 2), and why she now
wants to dispose of it:
This is my old bathrobe. I have had it since I was maybe 14 or something like that. And I've never
been very satisfied with it, because it is not very comfortable. It's a bit stiff and like that... And it's a little
too short on the sleeves. And it's not particularly warm (laughs). So the only thing it does is cover up. But
that's not the type of garment you want to use for wandering around the apartment. So therefore I wanted a
new bathrobe for Christmas. Things take their time. I've used it a lot but... Then I had to wear long johns
under it if I was going to wear it, so... And before I got the new one I used to use Erik's when I was alone.
(Comes with the new bathrobe.) I wouldn’t have chosen this colour myself. So my mom has chosen this
colour for me. But it is very lovely and warm. I had probably given the old one to charity. It is clean and
does not have any holes or tears or anything like that. It is not exactly something I think they would earn
much money on, and it might not be what they need most either, but I... I do not give damaged clothing to
charity, but they can make the decision themselves whether they need it or not. I used it until last
Christmas.
Figure 2: Emma’s bathrobe
The garment was registered as a white medium-sized bathrobe of 100% cotton.
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According to care instructions, it can be washed with similar colours at 60qC. The analysis of
the condition of the garment showed that the material looked rather worn and had some
discolorations. Colour change was evaluated to grade 4 on a scale from 1 to 5, where grade 5
is best (no changes) according to ISO standard 105-A02 (1993). The changes may be caused
by washing with non-white clothing. The bathrobe has also quite visible yellow stains,
especially around the neck area. It had some loose threads and in some areas the terry loop
threads had disappeared. The hanging loop had unravelled. The garment had no noticeable
shrinking, pilling or repairs. Overall changes and wear were evaluated to grade 3, which
means noticeable changes but still usable. However, it is uncertain whether the charity
organisation would have accepted it for reuse, as it did have staining and showed clear signs
of wear. The garment lifespan given in Figure 3 indicates the major stages of use of the
garment. During this time, the bathrobe had not been used as much as it could have, as it was
not warm enough on its own, and Emma sometimes preferred to use her boyfriend’s bathrobe
instead.
Figure 3: Lifespan and intended future use for Emma’s bathrobe
Sixteen years use period is over ten years longer than the average lifespan of garments in
this study. It is not known whether Emma had bought the garment herself, or if she received it
as a present. It is more common to give this kind of garments such as nightwear as a present
than many other types of garments that have more specific fit requirements. It might be that
she would have chosen a different bathrobe herself, with longer sleeves and softer material, or
that she had not noticed these shortcomings during the clothing acquisition if she bought it
herself. It is uncertain if these properties could have been improved during production, as they
are related to the individual user’s preferences. Properties related to increasing the durability
could have been improved at the production stage, but Emma did not consider them as
reasons for disposal, although the stiffness may be related to material wear. This example
shows the importance that the contents of wardrobe have for clothing use and disposal. Emma
kept on using the bathrobe despite of its deficiencies, as she had no good alternative garment
in her own wardrobe.
Example 2: Lena’s T-shirt: Low Quality and Bought on Sale
39-year old Lena explains how she acquired her t-shirt (Figure 4), and why it never got to be
used:
OK, this one I have not used at all, this t-shirt. I bought it on sale at H&M, but this is like loose, so it
does not look good on me. And even though I haven’t used it, maybe once at home, it has some pills on it.
So they have appeared when it has been stored in the wardrobe, in a drawer. So it got all these… Because it
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hasn’t been used. And even though it’s loose, the material sucks into you, it’s so thin, so it doesn’t look
nice when it shows all the stomach “rolls”. This is the same age as the previous ones, two years.
Figure 4: Lena’s t-shirt
The garment was registered as a knitted, 100% viscose, navy blue t-shirt that is size
medium and made in India. According to the care label, it can be washed at 40qC. The
condition was evaluated to be almost like new, with the largest noticeable change being some
pilling. The area with the most pilling was evaluated according to EN ISO standard 12945-2
(2000). The result was grade 3-4 on a scale from 1 to 5, where grade 5 is best (no pilling)
(Figure 5). The t-shirt had no visible holes, broken seams, colour changes, shrinkage or
repairs, which means that there is a good chance that it could go to reuse.
Figure 5: Pilling on Lena’s t-shirt
Lena had either never worn the t-shirt, or at most, once at home. Still, it waited for two
years in the drawer before she decided to give it to charity (Figure 6). In this case,
improvements in production and acquisition could have enabled and prolonged the use period
of this garment. In production, the pilling properties should have been tested, as products that
receive grade 3-4 after only one use are really poor quality and should not have been
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produced. Producer’s quality management should have spotted this problem. During
acquisition, Lena should have noticed already in the purchase situation that the combination
of shape and thin material is not something she prefers to use, and refrained from buying the
garment even if it was cheap. It is uncertain whether she tried it on before buying it. This was
one of several examples of garments in this study that were purchased because of low price,
and then did not get used. Low pricing drives unnecessary overconsumption of clothing.
Figure 6: Lifespan and intended future use for Lena’s t-shirt
Design Strategies
The overview of disposal reasons and the two examples of clothing have shown the benefits
of the wardrobe method for acquiring rich, detailed data. However, they also demonstrate that
the effect of design is limited. Even poorly suited products can be used long, such as Emma’s
bathrobe, but that is not an excuse for producing poor quality clothing, such as Lena’s t-shirt
with pilling. In the following sections design solutions to specific disposal reasons and other
problem areas within use are discussed.
Size and Fit Issues
One very important disposal reason was size and fit issues (30%), which were the dominating
reason for disposal of children’s clothing and the second most important reason for women’s
clothing. The data suggest that children often wear clothing for only one season before they
outgrow it. Petersen (2010) has proposed design solutions for adjustable clothing for growing
children. She discovered that the garment length is more often the problem than the garment
width, and she therefore suggested solutions for having adjustable sleeves and trousers
through adjustable pleats, zipper openings and extendable cuffs. However, we also saw that it
was very common to give away children’s clothing to reuse within circles of acquaintances.
This requires that the condition of the clothing is suitable for reuse, and often garments with
visible stains or some other changes were discarded instead of delivered to reuse or recycling.
Even though clothing fit has been acknowledged as a reason to discard clothing earlier as
well, the magnitude of the problem has not been recognised nor tried to be solved in largescale clothing production. Sizes and fit are more significant problems with women’s clothing
than with men’s clothing. The great design challenge of women’s clothing is the adaptation to
the body. Few ready-to-wear items fit well and close to the body while also being flexible
enough for changes in user’s weight and body shape. Designers and pattern makers could
address this issue in greater detail in order to increase the use period and lifespan of clothing,
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and to avoid the unnecessary production of clothing that does not get sold due to size and fit
problems. One strategy to overcome this problem is to increase the user involvement in design
by trying sample patterns on differently sized and shaped bodies, instead of basing the grading
on small model sizes, which is the current practice. This could not only contribute to betterfitting clothing for users of different sizes and non-standard figure types, but it could also lead
to general improvement in comfort and flexibility for all consumers. For example, only 47%
of the American women fit the medium hip category, which is defined as hips being 2 inches
greater than the bust (Cooklin, 1990). For the users to recognise clothing that will fit their
bodies, the size labelling should be improved so that the code could be trusted. Today great
variations exist both within the same coding systems, and even more so between the different
systems (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1996; Faust, Carrier, & Baptist, 2006; Ujevic, Szirovicza, &
Karabegovic, 2005). In addition, the label could be expanded to include more information,
such as length measurements and suitable body figure type. This has been suggested in
European standardisation work, but has so far not been implemented (prEN 13402-4, n.d.). It
has been shown that women using larger sizes found it more difficult to find a size standard
they could adhere to (Laitala, Klepp, & Hauge, 2011; Otieno, Harrow, & Lea-Greenwood,
2005). But more importantly, most ready-to-wear clothing cannot be individually fitted,
except maybe in leg lengths. This is, however, changing as designers are finding ways to
custom-fit even what is in fact ready-to-wear. One of the students’ designs in this project
called “Make a change” presented the classic black dress, which was made using details
learned from traditional folk costumes, such as the bunad in Norway, which includes
sufficient seam allowance and could therefore be amended as the figure of the user changes,
or the garment is inherited by new users, Figure 7 (Nordberg, Mattsson, Nowak, & Erdes,
2012). Additional ways of improving the fit could be to use elastic materials, but the
combination of different fibre types such as cotton and elastane makes the recycling process
more complicated. Fit can also be improved by using specific tailoring methods when making
the patterns, such as diagonal cutting in woven fabrics to increase the flexibility, or through
the use of flexible solutions that fit to several body sizes, such as wrap dresses.
Figure 7: Classic black dress that can be amended (Nordberg et al., 2012) Photo: Jan Berg, The
Swedish School of Textiles
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Another way of thinking about clothing is not to have it ready sewn to specific garments,
but to use pieces of fabrics that can be worn differently. This is also a traditional way of using
clothes in some parts of the world, for example the sari in India, but was also an inspiration in
one of the students’ designs called “Square” (Figure 8). These design students used old bed
sheets from hotels with added luxury finish to create one-size clothing that can be worn in
various ways (Larsson, Nilsson, Furderer, & Lange, 2012).
Most of these solutions are currently only tried out in smaller niche markets, but many
do have a potential to be used in mass production within the current economic paradigm.
They mainly demand additional work in the design phase, as well as a minor increase in
material consumption and possibly also time consumption in the sewing stage, for example if
seam allowance is increased and sewn in several stages instead of only using one overlock
stitch, or if patterns are cut diagonally.
Figure 8: Square (Larsson et al., 2012) Photo: Daniel Larsson, The Swedish School of Textiles
In addition to improving the fit of clothing, a design on the service and systems level
could be used. Especially the acquisition situation should be improved so that customers can
easily know whether clothing will fit, either through improved labelling, good access to fitting
rooms (even for customers with physical disabilities), and by using new solutions such as
body scanning and computer aided design. Some studies indicate that clothing fit can be
improved through the use of these new technologies (Ashdown & Dunne, 2006; Istook, 2002;
Meunier, 2000). Price is of course an important property, as consumers will consider it easier
to buy cheap clothing even if it would not fit perfectly. Buying clothing online has increased
in the past years. This means that a larger selection of sizes and fits is available, but it also
presents the challenge of not being able to try on before purchase, although most of these
stores have good return policies. However, in order to see the effect of the changes on the
service and systems level, more research on the topic is needed.
Clothing Care
Many of the changes in garments were related to laundry related problems such as stains,
odour, shrinkage, and colour changes. This shows that successful care phase is important for
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continued use of the garments. As the care phase also has environmental impacts due to
energy and water consumption (Bain et al., 2009), design strategies that aim at reducing the
need of extensive care are preferable. It is possible to use clothing as well as systems design
to reduce the environmental impact related to the use period. In her PhD project, Rigby (2011)
has researched which types of clothing items are seldom washed, and designed a clothing line
based on that information. She identified different themes that affect the washing behaviour,
including material choice, use area and fit. For example woollen materials, home wear and
loose- fitting clothing were washed more seldom than other types of garments. As odour is
one of the important reasons for laundering, material selection is an important way to reduce
this need, for example wool can be aired to remove odours and to freshen it up (Rigby, 2011).
Also the design of loose fit and airier arm-pits that reduce sweat stains, or the use of inlays
that could be removed and washed would reduce the need for laundering.
Stains on clothing were one of the most important disposal reasons, especially for
children’s clothing. Keely Butler (2011) used this as a starting point in one of the design tasks,
where she developed different methods of embroidering around stains, as well as using
natural dyestuffs to create figures that were inspired by weeds. Another way of thinking about
this is to design clothing so that stains could be hidden within the patterns, or to use surface
treatments that prevent soil from sticking, although in this case the safety of such products
would need to be assessed to evaluate the complete environmental impacts.
Clothing care is also connected to lifespan of clothing. For example, some garments in
the study did not get used because they would have required ironing before use, and that was
considered to be too demanding for some of the owners that chose to give away the clothing
instead. Non-iron labelled shirts can be found in many stores, but the products that require
ironing are not labelled, and in some cases it is difficult to predict how they will turn out in
use.
Technical Quality, Durability and Function
The largest disposal reason group was changes in garments (40%). It is possible to reduce
these changes through several measures in production and design, such as selection of suitable
materials for the intended use and stricter quality control. Most of these properties can be
easily tested in a textile laboratory, and large textile companies do have their own quality
manuals. However, examples such as Lena’s t-shirt show that either the requirements are too
low, or that they are not tested and followed up.
Based on the examination of clothing, it is also possible to suggest strengthening areas
that are more prone to stress, and show signs of wear and holes. On trousers this will typically
be at lower legs (if too long), between the thighs, and around pockets and knees, but these
abrasion points varied some based on the body types of the user, as well as the use situations
(for example if pockets were used a lot or not). On clothing with lining the lining often
showed more signs of wear than the main material, and especially the seams were often
broken. On shirts most signs could be seen in collar, cuffs and elbows, while in socks the most
common place for holes was the heels, but also sometimes the toe area.
The investigation of clothes showed that approximately 40% had pilling or fuzzing to
some degree. Only a small proportion of these were mentioned by the owners as disposal
reasons. When pilling or fuzzing was given as disposal reason, the level was evaluated to be
on average grade 2 on a scale from 1 to 5, which is very noticeable pilling (EN ISO 12945-2,
2000).
The analysis also shows how closely the social and material reasons for disposal are
connected. When something is worn out is not only an objective matter of degrees that can be
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measured in a laboratory, but also a socially dependent matter. Some users accept a more
worn look than others, and accepted it easier on some materials and garment types than
others, such as jeans compared to suit trousers. Similarly, stains, pilling and other changes are
evaluated differently by different informants and are based on the style of clothing and the
location on the clothing. Such assessments of the material change vary over time and are thus
bound to the social and cultural evaluation of clothing, including current fashion.
Functional shortcomings (5%) are often directly related to production and quality
control, as well as acquisition situation. If rainwear fails to be waterproof, it is difficult to
know for the user beforehand, as these properties are usually not given in the garments (apart
from in some items of sports clothing). Some functional shortcomings can be recognised if the
garment is tried on before purchase, while others may require longer use to be noticed (for
example too cold garments, such as Emma’s bathrobe).
Emotional Value and Acquisition
The third largest disposal category was taste related unsuitability (11%). The acquisition
method was crucial here; items that were inherited or received as gifts were more often
discarded because of this, as the user did not have that much control of what was given to
him/her. In general, it could be recommended to avoid giving clothing as presents, unless the
giver is sure to know the taste, size, and needs of the receiver. Otherwise these products do
not provide enjoyment in use.
Increasing the consumer product attachment is one potential way to prolong the clothing
lifespans. The degree of attachment is connected to memories and use enjoyment
(Schifferstein and Zwartkruis-Pelgrim, 2008). Favourite items go through several stages of
attachment during their lifecycle, where the items owned for short time are connected to
satisfaction in use, but as they are owned for longer period, the level of attachment increases,
while the use frequency often decreases. If a product is used longer, it increases the possibility
for it being connected to memories of persons, places and events. Favourite clothing items
that are owned for more than 22 years are mainly stored as mementos (Niinimäki and
Armstrong, 2013). Therefore, in order to increase the sustainability of consumption patterns,
designers should try to evoke the enjoyment through creating products that are both useful
and enjoyable. Niinimäki and Koskinen studied consumers’ long-term product attachments to
garments and showed that these attachments are created at multiple levels, including personal
and emotional values, but also memories and associations, as well as construction of self.
Even though many of these aspects are outside the power of designer, designers can enable
these attachments to emerge through using specific design styles, aesthetic and quality related
attributes, as well as improved functionality (Niinimäki and Koskinen, 2011).
Several of the design students’ works aimed at increasing the emotional value and
connection of clothing to the user through different techniques. For example, Juin (2012)
aimed at linking the designer, producer and customer through a label “made in and by, worn
by....”. Næstby (2012) researched the clothing consumption of eccentric people and used the
alternative thinking and different views on society as an inspiration in her work to create
clothes in a life perspective where there are relations between the textiles and the user.
Fashion
Fashion or style changes were not given as a major disposal reason and constituted only about
4% of the total. In general, fashion changes are often strongly connected to clothing, but the
fashion life cycles change faster and in more visible matters in some other product areas, such
as currently the case of mobile phones, although in combination with technological
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developments. Within clothing research fashion is usually given a much higher importance for
clothing discard than our research indicates (Bianchi & Birtwistle, 2012; Chun, 1987; Collett,
Cluver, & Chen, 2013). However, fashion did affect specific garment types such as trousers
and jackets more than others, but was never mentioned as the disposal reason for consumable
items such as socks or stockings. Disposal due to fashion was quite user specific and
depended on how interested the user is in fashion and what kind of requirements there are for
clothing at work and for other social occasions. Clothing disposed of due to fashion was often
given to charity, thus enabling a longer lifespan through reuse. In the interviews, a wish for
something new was given as a reason to acquire new clothing, but seldom mentioned as a
disposal reason.
In design the logic of fashion vs. durability, sometimes referred to as fast vs. slow
fashion, could be challenged more (Niinimäki, 2009). It is often assumed that these two
concepts are in opposition, but maybe they can co-exist if some measures are taken. For
example, fashion clothing with short lifespans could possibly be designed to be potential
“good” waste that is easy to recycle or compost, and not even necessarily made of textile
fibres. On the other hand, classic and quality clothing could be designed in such a way that it
could be updated either by those who created it or by the users to enable long lifespans. One
of the design school’s tasks aimed at producing clothing of high quality and durability of
leftover pieces, where focus was on style rather than fashion (Steen, 2012), thus aiming to
prolong physical durability and postpone fashion-related disposal (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Textile leftovers (Steen, 2012)
Situational Reasons and Storage
Situational disposal reasons (7%) were often not related directly to the garment, but more to
the other factors surrounding it or the use situations. These garments were disposed of
because the owners had too many similar garments or had changed their user needs, for
example because of retirement. These aspects are difficult to relate directly to design, besides
ensuring that the garments are suitable for versatile use situations. Owning too many garments
decreases the amount each item gets used, and contributes to overcrowded wardrobes and lack
of storage space. This is also related to the number of occasions one clothing item can be
worn, and it may be possible to use to use design and styling to make few items go a long
way. Then a few basic items could become the basis for numerous combinations.
In addition, sometimes the storage of clothing affects their life-time, how often we
launder them and how much we use them too. Interviews of the 16 households showed that
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lots of clothing that was only used for a short time and not considered to be soiled enough to
need laundering yet, were laundered anyway when the families wanted to clear up the pile of
half used items on the chair, floor or some other temporary storage location. This led to
unnecessary washing, as most of the informants did not want to put worn but not yet dirty
clothing back into the wardrobe together with clean clothes. Therefore, storage solutions for
these items could help in reducing the unnecessary laundering, for example if these items
could be stored in well ventilated wardrobes where they were hanged neatly to avoid creases.
Some informants also said that they had so many items of clothing that they were not
always sure what they owned. Only a small portion of the wardrobe was in actual use. In these
cases storage solutions that could make it easier to find the clothing that is placed at the back
or bottom of the wardrobe would help. Circulation of these items could make users more
aware of what they own.
In the Case delux design task the students suggested that if each item got an individual
case, it would make each item seem precious (Bendzovski, Brorsson, Ringström, &
Andersson, 2012) (Figure 10). Regardless of whether this idea is good or not from an
environmental point of view, it still points to an important area of disposal that could be
explored further. A situation with clothes that nobody cares about and that owners hardly
realise they own and why, is not optimal, and focusing on attaching value to things that are
already owned could help.
Figure 10: Case delux, because each item is precious (Bendzovski et al., 2012) Photo: Jan Berg, The
Swedish School of Textiles
Conclusion
The lifespan of garments is affected by many different aspects. It is possible to counteract and
delay clothing disposal through improved design to some degree, but understanding user
behaviour that stems from norms, values, habits and contexts is crucial. Four essential design
aspects emerge for expanding clothing lifespans. The first two are related to product design,
the third to service design and the fourth to systems design:
1) The technical quality including material choice and seams that promote durability.
Examination of used clothing showed areas that need special attention. Even the
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potential for reuse could often be improved through increased quality of clothing.
2) The design of clothing form and shape, which is crucial for the use satisfaction
including the fit to the body, versatility of use and appearance.
3) Services such as altering the fit, mending, styling, stain decorations, body scanning, as
well as education in sewing and altering.
4) Design of communication systems between the users and the clothing designers and
producers, including labelling of size, fit, social and environmental aspects, durability
and feedback from users.
At the moment, a lot work remains on all these areas for different stakeholders within the
textile value chain. Changing focus of fashion design from the aesthetic side of fashion shown
in photos and on catwalk models to the practical side of consumers’ use of clothing, where
quality, fit and lifespan are important, could encourage the development to move in a more
sustainable direction. By utilising the information received from users and their disposed
clothing, we have obtained new, detailed knowledge from clothing use and lifespans, as well
as the design aspects that affect them. The data has shown that especially clothing fit and
durability are more significant disposal reasons than previously thought, as fashion has
traditionally been emphasised more. Designing clothing to meet these challenges is more
tangible than trying to counteract fashion change. These insights are acquired by combining
two types of data, and in that way this article has added to our knowledge on how to study
these issues, in addition to the topic of how to improve the sustainability of clothing. This
research method could be transferred to other areas where information of users and their
interaction with products could aid in improving the design.
When it comes to consumer behaviour, we see that addressing clothing acquisition is
important, and therefore this phase should be studied further. With this we do not solely mean
research on whether consumers buy clothing that is produced in a sustainable manner, but
more importantly on what could be done to reduce the total number of acquired items of
clothing, especially the ones that do not get used at all. This article has pointed out some
possible improvement areas within service and systems design, but for a more detailed
analysis, different research methods including all the involved stakeholders may be more
appropriate.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for valuable comments, as well as Orkla
ASA and Norwegian Research Council for financial support on the project entitled “From
textile waste to material resources in a grave to cradle perspective”. We are also very grateful
for the project partners within this task, including Nice Fashion, Chelsea School of Art &
Design, Oslo National Academy of the Arts, and The Swedish School of Textiles.
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47. Morley, N., Bartlett, C., & McGill, I. (2009). Maximising Reuse and Recycling of UK
Clothing and Textiles. Incl. Appendix 1 - Technical Report. London: A research report
completed for DEFRA by Oakdene Hollins Ltd. Retrieved from
http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Default.aspx?Menu=Menu&Module=More&Location=None
&ProjectID=16096.
48. Morley, N., Slater, S., Russell, S., Tipper, M., & Ward, G. D. (2006). Recycling of
Low Grade Clothing Waste. Prepared for Defra Aylesbury, UK: Oakdene Hollins Ltd
Salvation Army Trading Company Ltd and Nonwovens Innovation & Research
Institute
Ltd.
Retrieved
from
http://www.oakdenehollins.co.uk/pdf/defr01_058_low_grade_clothing-public_v2.pdf.
49. Niinimaki, K., & Hassi, L. (2011). Emerging design strategies in sustainable
production and consumption of textiles and clothing. Journal of Cleaner Production,
19(16), 1876-1883. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.04.020
50. Niinimäki, K. (2009). Consumer Values and Eco-Fashion in the Future. In M.
Koskela, & M. Vinnari, (Eds.). Future of the Consumer Society. Proceedings of the
Conference “Future of the Consumer Society”, 28–29 May, 2009, Tampere, Finland,
pp.125-134. Finland Futures Research Centre, Turku School of Economics. Available
http://orgprints.org/16410/1/consumer6.pdf
51. Niinimäki, K., & Koskinen, I. (2011). I Love this Dress, It Makes Me Feel Beautiful!
Empathic Knowledge in Sustainable Design. Design Journal, 14(2), 165-186. doi:
10.2752/175630611x12984592779962
52. Niinimäki, K., & Armstrong, C. (2013). From Pleasure in Use to Preservation of
Meaningful Memories: A Closer Look at the Sustainability of Clothing via Longevity
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6(3), 190-199. doi: 10.1080/17543266.2013.825737
53. Nordberg, J., Mattsson, A., Nowak, C., & Erdes, S. (2012). Make a change [Design
project]. Borås: The Swedish School of Textiles.
54. Næstby, M. (2012). Fintfolk [Design project]. Oslo: Oslo National Academy of the
Arts.
55. Otieno, R., Harrow, C., & Lea-Greenwood, G. (2005). The unhappy shopper, a retail
experience: exploring fashion, fit and affordability. International Journal of Retail and
Distribution Management, 33(4), 298-309.
56. Packard, V. (1960). The status seekers. London: Longmans.
57. Pakula, C., & Stamminger, R. (2010). Electricity and water consumption for laundry
washing by washing machine worldwide. Energy Efficiency, 3(4), 365-382. doi: DOI
10.1007/s12053-009-9072-8
58. Petersen, B.-A. (2010). The development and construction of sustainable adjustable
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Cape Town.
59. Pettersen, I. N. (2013). Changing Practices: The Role of Design in Supporting the
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Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
60. prEN 13402-4 (n.d.). Size designation of clothes - Part 4: Coding system.
61. Rahman, O. (2012). The Influence of Visual and Tactile Inputs on Denim Jeans
Evaluation. International Journal of Design, 6(1), 11-25. Retrieved from
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62. Reckwitz, A. (2002). Toward a Theory of Social Practices A development in culturalist
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63. Rigby, E. D. (2011). Energy Water Fashion. Paper presented at the Towards
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(Eds.), Human Choice and Climate Change. (Vol. II Resources and Technology, pp.
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2(3),
1-13.
Retrieved
from
http://www.ijdesign.org/ojs/index.php/IJDesign/article/viewFile/325/205.
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Retrieved
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http://www.konsumentforeningenstockholm.se/Global/Konsument%20och%20Milj%c
3%b6/Rapporter/KfS%20rapport_april11_Vad%20h%c3%a4nder%20sen%20med%20
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Production, 14(15-16), 1307-1318. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.04.006
26
336
Appendix 3: Textile waste survey questionnaire (2010)
UNDERSØKELSE OM KLÆR OG KLESFORBRUK
Statens institutt for forbruksforskning (SIFO) er i gang med et forskningsprosjekt der vi både
undersøker tekniske, kulturelle og samfunnsmessige sider ved anskaffelse, bruk, vask og
avskaffelse av klær i norske husholdninger. Prosjektet heter ”From waste to material resources
in a grave to cradle perspective: A stakeholder approach within the textile value chain”, er
finansiert av Norges Forskningsråd og gjennomføres mellom 2009 – 2012.
Vi ønsker å nå ”vanlige” norske forbrukere for å undersøke hvorfor og når klær kjøpes inn,
og hvorfor og når klærne går ut av bruk og kastes eller videresendes. I prosjektet skal vi
undersøke hva som skjer med klærne underveis i deres livsløp. Det er gjort få undersøkelser i
norske husholdninger rundt forbrukeres klespraksiser, så vi er avhengige av din hjelp for å
utvide kunnskapen om feltet. De som svarer spørreskjemaet kan velge å bli med i trekning av 3
stk Universal gavekort à kr 500. Vi håper at så mange som mulig deltar ved å svare på
spørreskjema om klær og klesvaner.
Prosjektet er tilrådd av Personvernombudet for forskning, Norsk samfunnsvitenskapelig
datatjeneste AS. All informasjon behandles konfidensielt av forskere i prosjektet med
taushetsplikt. Navn og kontaktinformasjon om dere lagres atskilt fra annen informasjon dere
oppgir. Ved prosjektslutt 1.3.2013 vil alt identifiserbart materiale anonymiseres såfremt du
ikke har gitt særskilt tillatelse til videre oppbevaring av personopplysninger. Deltakere som
ønsker det vil få tilgang til forskningsresultatene når de foreligger.
Trykk her for å delta i undersøkelsen.
Undersøkelse om klær og klesforbruk
Når spørsmålet er stilt til ”dere” gjelder det hele husholdet, ellers gjelder de bare seg som svarer.
1. Hvor ofte kaster eller gir du bort egne klær? (velg et alternativ)
{ Mer enn 10 ganger i løpet av et år
{ 5-10 ganger i løpet av et år
{ 3-4 ganger i løpet av et år
{ 1-2 ganger per år
{ Annet hvert år
{ Sjeldnere
{ Aldri
337
2. I hvilken forbindelse kaster eller gir du bort egne klær oftest? (velg et alternativ)
{ Jeg planlegger rydding av klær til bestemte tidspunkter, for eksempel vår og
høst.
{ Jeg kaster klær når det blir for fullt i skapet.
{ Jeg kaster/gir bort klær med en gang jeg ikke bruker dem lenger.
{ Jeg kaster ikke klær selv.
{ Annet, vennligst beskriv: ____________________________________
3. Hva gjør du vanligvis med klær som ikke er utslitte, men som du ikke bruker lenger?
Avhendingsmåte
Nesten
alltid
Ofte
Av
og til
Aldri
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Gir klærne til venner eller familie
Leverer til Fretex, UFF eller loppemarked
Selger på bruktmarked, Finn.no eller tilsvarende
Kaster klærne i vanlig søppel
Bruker klærne til kluter
Lager noe nytt av klærne
Jeg bruker klær til de er utslitt eller ødelagt
Annet, vennligst beskriv:______________________________________________
4. Hva gjør du vanligvis med klær som er utslitt eller ødelagt?
Avhendingsmåte
Kaster klærne i vanlig søppel
Lager noe nytt av klærne
Reparerer klærne dersom mulig
Bruker klærne til kluter
Leverer til Fretex, UFF eller loppemarked
Selger på bruktmarked, Finn.no eller
tilsvarende
Gir klærne til venner eller familie
Nesten
alltid
Ofte
Av og til
Aldri
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Annet, vennligst beskriv:______________________________________________
5. Hva slags arbeidsbekledning er vanlig i ditt yrke?
{ Uniform eller annet arbeidstøy levert av arbeidsgiveren
{ Formelt eller pent antrekk
{ Enkle hverdagsklær
{ Ikke aktuelt
338
6. Hvordan passer følgende beskrivelser med ditt forhold til klær du ikke bruker lenger?
Jeg hadde brukt klærne mine lenger…
dersom moten ikke endret seg så ofte
dersom fasongen på klærne ikke endret seg i
vask
dersom klærne nuppet mindre
dersom klærne hadde bedre fargeekthet
dersom klærne var av bedre kvalitet generelt
dersom kroppsfasongen min endret seg sjeldnere
dersom jeg fikk dårligere økonomi
dersom det var mindre krav til utseende i
arbeidet mitt
dersom jeg hadde mulighet til å justere
størrelsen på klærne (for eksempel livvidden)
dersom jeg hadde mindre behov for å ha noe
nytt
dersom passformen på klærne hadde vært bedre
Dersom jeg var flinkere i å reparere dem
Annet, vennligst beskriv:
Passer
svært
bra
Passer
bra
Passer
verken bra
eller dårlig
Passer
dårlig
Passer
svært
dårlig
Vet
ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
7. Har du i løpet av det siste året (velg minst et svar pr. rad):
Sydd på en knapp
Lappet tøy
Stoppet tøy
Skiftet glidelås
Sydd igjen sømmer
Farget om tøy
Lagt opp bukser
Tilpasset størrelse (sydd
inn eller ut)
Laget noe nytt av gamle
klær
Sydd nye klær
Kommentarer:
Noen andre har
gjort dette for meg:
Privat Forretning
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Ja, på mine
egne klær
Ja, for noen
andre
Nei, ingen
av delene
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
339
8. Hvor ofte vasker dere klær og tekstiler ved de ulike temperaturene på vaskemaskin? (Gjelder
hele husholdningen.)
Antall vask per uke
Temperatur
90qC
70qC
60qC
50qC
40qC
30qC
Springvann
oppvarming
uten
7
eller
mer
6
5
4
3
2
1
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Cirka 1til 2
ganger per
måned
Sjeldnere
Aldri
Vet ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
9. Hvor ofte benytter dere de ulike programmene på vaskemaskinen for vask av klær og
tekstiler? (Gjelder hele husholdningen.)
Antall vask per uke
Program
Bomull/kok/kulørt
Strykelett/Syntetisk
Delikat
Ull/silke
Kortprogram
Spare/Økoprogram
Vask for hånd
7
eller
mer
6
5
4
3
2
1
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Cirka 1til 2
ganger per
måned
Sjeldnere
Aldri
Vet ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Kommentarer:
10. Hvilke av følgende sorteringsmåter benytter du når du vasker klær? (kryss av for alle
alternativer du benytter)
{ Jeg vasker alle plagg sammen uansett vedlikeholdsmerking, farge eller fiberinnhold
{ Dersom plagget er merket med ”vaskes separat”, vasker jeg det alene
{ Dersom plagget er merket med ”vaskes separat”, vasker jeg det sammen med andre plagg i
lignende farger
{ Jeg sorterer alt i to kategorier, mørke og lyse/hvite farger
{ Jeg vasker kun klær i lignende farger sammen, for eksempel rødt med rødt
{ Jeg sorterer klesvasken basert på vasketemperatur
{ Jeg vasker ikke ull sammen med klær av andre fibre
{ Jeg vasker ikke bomull og syntetiske plagg sammen
{ Jeg vasker ikke undertøy sammen med kjøkkenhåndklær
{ Jeg vasker ikke klær selv
{ Annet, vennligst beskriv: ____________________________
340
11. Hvilken temperatur bruker du vanligvis når du vasker følgende plagg?
Hvitt sengetøy
Jeans
Ullgensere
T-skjorter i bomull
Undertrøyer i ull
Underbukser
Syntetisk sportstøy
Frottéhåndklær
Kaldt
vann
30qC
40qC
50qC
60qC
70qC
90qC
Vasker
for hånd
Ren
ser
Bruke
r ikke
Vet
ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
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{
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{
{
{
{
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{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
12. Hvor mange dager bruker du følgende tekstiler vanligvis før de blir vasket?
Hvitt sengetøy
Jeans
Ullgensere
T-skjorter i bomull
Undertrøyer i ull
Underbukser
Syntetisk sportstøy
Frottéhåndklær
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 eller
flere
Bruker
ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
13. Hvor ofte benytter dere følgende metoder for vedlikehold av tekstiler? (Et svar pr. rad)
Separat flekkfjerning (uten vask av hele plagg)
Flekkfjerning rett før vask som forbehandling
Flekkfjerningsmiddel som tilsettes med
vaskemiddel i maskinen
Bløtlegging før vasking
Forvask
Ekstra skylling
Mykgjøringsmiddel eller skyllemiddel
Ekstra sentrifugering
Vrenger klær før vask
Vasker ømfintlige klær i vaskepose
Lufting av ulltøy
Lufting av klær som ikke er ull
Børsting av klær
Bruker forkle
Bruker andre klær hjemme for å spare på
finere klær.
Kommentarer:
Nesten
alltid
Ofte
Av
og til
Sjelden
Aldri
Vet
ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
341
14. Hvor ofte har dere følgende problemer knyttet til klesvask? (Velg et alternativ pr. rad)
Tekstiler eller klær har blitt grå
Tekstiler eller klær har mistet farge
eller falmet
Tekstiler eller klær har fått
misfarginger fra andre klær i vasken
Smuss eller flekkene har ikke
forsvunnet i vask
Klær har krympet
Klær har mistet formen
Lukten har ikke forsvunnet i vask
Tøy har fått en lukt i vask
Vaskemaskinen har begynt å lukte
vondt
Vaskemiddel har blitt igjen på stoffet
(hvite prikker)
Deler av vaskemiddel blir sittende
igjen i kammeret i vaskemaskinen
Andre problemer, hvilke?
Nesten
alltid
Ofte
Av
og til
Sjelden
Aldri
Vet ikke
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
15. Tenk deg at du har en hvit bomullsskjorte som du har fått syltetøyflekker på. I hvilken grad
tror du følgende vaskeprogram vil vaske skjorten ren?: (Du skal svare på en skala fra en til fem,
der en betyr ikke rent (fortsatt skittent) og fem betyr helt rent. Velg et alternativ pr. rad.)
Bomull/kok/kulørt
Strykelett/Syntetisk
Delikatvask
Ull/silke
Kortprogram
Spare/Økoprogram
Vask for hånd
Kommentarer:
Fortsatt
skittent
1
3
4
Helt rent
5
Vet ikke
2
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
16. Hvor hardt er vannet i området der du bor?
{ Bløtt (0-5 dHq)
{ Middels (5-10 dHq)
{ Hardt (over 10 dHq)
{ Vet ikke
342
17. Hvordan varierer dere tilsetting av vaskemiddel? (kryss av for alle de aktuelle
svaralternativene)
Bruker mer vaskemiddel hvis…
{ det er mye tøy i vaskemaskinen
{ tøyet er ekstra skittent
{ vannet er hardt
{ bruker stor vaskemaskin
{ bruke vaskeprogram med høyt vannivå
Bruker mindre vaskemiddel hvis…
{ det er lite tøy
{ tøyet ikke er så skittent
{ vannet er bløtt
{ bruker liten vaskemaskin
{ bruker vaskeprogram med lavt vannivå
{ Varierer ikke mengden basert på noen av grunnene nevnt ovenfor
{ Bruker kun øyemål
{ Måler nøyaktig basert på det som står på pakningen for hvert middel
{ Bruker alltid samme mengde (Hvor mye? ___ dl)
{ Bruker vaskemiddel i tablettform
{ Vet ikke
18. Hvor mye tid bruker du til stryking av klær og tekstiler?
{ 5 timer eller mer per uke
{ 3-4 timer per uke
{ 1-2 timer per uke
{ 2-4 timer per måned
{ En time eller mindre per måned
{ Stryker sjeldnere enn hver måned
{ Jeg stryker ikke
19. Blir tørketrommel brukt i husholdningen din?
{ Ja, til tørking av det meste
{ Ja, av og til
{ Nei
343
20. I hvilken grad tenker du på klærnes miljøpåvirkning i følgende situasjoner?
Situasjon
Tenker ikke på miljø
i en slik situasjon
Tenker miljø i
veldig liten grad
Tenker
miljø av og
til
Tenker
miljø hver
gang
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Ved innkjøp
Ved vask
Ved tørk
Under reparasjon
Når jeg gir bort
Ved kasting
Kommentarer:
21. Hvor interessert er du i følgende temaer?
Ikke
interessert
Litt
interessert
Ganske
interessert
Veldig
interessert
Vet
ikke
Miljøspørsmål
Mote
Klær
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
22. Kjønn
{ Kvinne
23. Alder
______
{ Mann
24. Sivilstand
{ Gift eller samboer (trenger ikke være registrert som
samboere)
{ I forhold, men bor ikke sammen
{ Single, separert eller enke
{ Annet eller vet ikke
25. Hvor mange barn har du?______ Angi alder på eventuelle barn: ______
26. Hva er din høyeste fullførte utdannelse?
{ Grunnskole
{ Videregående skole eller artium
{ 2-årig tilleggsutdanning (fagskole, yrkesrettet utdanning)
{ 3-årig høgskole
{ Høyere universitetsutdannelse
{ Annet
344
27. Arbeidssituasjon
{ Yrkesaktiv - heltid
{ Yrkesaktiv - deltid
{ Student
{ Fødselspermisjon
{ Hjemmeværende husmor eller husfar
{ Arbeidsledig
{ Pensjonist eller uføretrygdet
{ Annet
28. Hvor mange yrkesaktive er det i husholdningen?
{ Ingen
{1
{ 2 eller flere
29. Hvilket fylke bor du i?
{ Østfold
{ Akershus
{ Oslo
{ Hedmark
{ Oppland
{ Buskerud
{ Vestfold
{ Telemark
{ Aust-Agder
{ Vest-Agder
{ Rogaland
{ Hordaland
{ Sogn og Fjordane
{ Møre og Romsdal
{ Sør-Trøndelag
{ Nord-Trøndelag
{ Nordland
{ Troms
{ Finnmark
{ Annet
{ Not given
30. Kommentarer rundt temaet eller rundt svarene dine kan skrives her:
345
346
Appendix 4: SIFO survey 2011 questionnaire
Only the questions related to my PhD are included here. SIFO survey includes many
more questions on variety of topics, including the demographics of the respondents.
BRUK OG KAST
1: Har du i løpet av det siste året gjort noe av følgende?
Ett kryss på hver linje
Ja
Nei
Vet ikke

Stoppet tøy

Sydd igjen sømmer

Sydd nye klær

Laget noe nytt av gamle klær

Kastet et brukbart plagg i søpla 
Kjøpt brukt tøy

Gitt bort klær til venner

Gitt klær til innsamling

Fått brukte klær





















Sydd i en knapp
2: Hvor mange ganger bruker du vanligvis følgende klær før de blir vasket?
Skriv inn tall. Hvis du ikke bruker slike klær, skriv 0.
Bomulls T-skjorte
Ullundertrøye
Bomullsgenser
Ullgenser
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
ganger
ganger
ganger
ganger
3: Er du enig i følgende påstander?
Ja
Nei
Vet ikke

Ull vasker jeg oftere i maskin enn for hånd

Jeg har ofte problemer med at ull krymper

Hvis jeg kunne velge, ville jeg foretrekker ull fra norske sauer 








Jeg vasker klær på lavere temperaturer i dag enn for 5 år siden
347
348
Appendix 5: SIFO survey 2012 questionnaire
Only the questions related to my PhD are included here. SIFO survey includes many
more questions on variety of topics, including the demographics of the respondents.
BRUKTE KLÆR
1: Har du i løpet av de to siste årene kjøpt- eller fått brukte klær til eget bruk?
‰ Ja, kjøpt (1)
‰ Ja, fått (2)
 Nei (3) [Exclusive]
 Vet ikke (4) [Exclusive]
***Condition: If answer 1 or 2, go to question 2. If 3, go to question 4.
2: Hvor kjøpte/fikk du klærne?
‰ Loppemarked (1)
‰ Bruktbutikk (2)
‰ Internettbutikk (3)
‰ Venner (4)
‰ Familie (5)
‰ Annet, vennligst notér (6)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (7) [Exclusive]
3: Hvorfor bruker du brukte klær?
Angi maksimum tre grunner
‰ Av økonomiske grunner (1)
‰ Av miljøhensyn (2)
‰ Finnes større utvalg av brukte klær enn nye (3)
‰ For ikke å kaste brukbare plagg (4)
‰ Får dem gratis (5)
‰ Får billigere merkeklær (6)
‰ For å ha noe som ikke alle andre har (7)
‰ Passer til stilen min (8)
‰ Annet, vennligst notér (9)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (10) [Exclusive]
349
4: Hva er grunnene til at du ikke har kjøpt brukte klær?
Angi maksimum tre grunner
‰ Foretrekker nye klær (1)
‰ Finner ikke klær jeg liker (2)
‰ For mye jobb å lete etter brukte klær (3)
‰ Finner ikke størrelsen min i brukt-butikker (4)
‰ Finner ikke brukte klær som er moderne (5)
‰ Klærne er ofte for dyre (6)
‰ Ingen bruktbutikk i nærheten (7)
‰ Ingen loppemarkeder i nærheten (8)
‰ Liker ikke å bruke andres gamle ting (9)
‰ Liker ikke lukten av gammelt tøy (10)
‰ Klærne føles urene (11)
‰ Bedre utvalg i vanlige klesbutikker (12)
‰ Annet, vennligst notér (13)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (14) [Exclusive]
Nå følger noen spørsmål om levetid på klær
5: Hvor gammelt er det eldste plagget du fortsatt bruker?
 Under 1 år (1)
 1 år (2)
 2 år (3)
 3 år (4)
 4 år (5)
 5 år (6)
 6 år (7)
 7 år (8)
 8 år (9)
 9 år (10)
 10 år eller eldre - vennligst noter ca antall år: (11)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (12)
6: Hvilket plagg er det?
350
7: Hvor gammel er genseres/skjorten (evt annen overdel) som du har på deg nå? (Hvis du
har flere lag klær på deg, svar for det ytterste plagget)
 Under 1 år (1)
 1 år (2)
 2 år (3)
 3 år (4)
 4 år (5)
 5 år (6)
 6 år (7)
 7 år (8)
 8 år (9)
 9 år (10)
 10 år eller eldre - vennligst noter ca antall år: (11)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (12)
8: Har du ullgenser, og hvor gammel er i så fall den ullgenseren du har brukt mest i
vinter?
 Under 1 år (1)
 1 år (2)
 2 år (3)
 3 år (4)
 4 år (5)
 5 år (6)
 6 år (7)
 7 år (8)
 8 år (9)
 9 år (10)
 10 år eller eldre - vennligst noter ca antall år: (11)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (12)
 Har ingen/har ikke brukt ullgenser (13)
9: Har du bukse, og hvor gammel er i så fall den buksen du har brukt mest i vinter?
 Under 1 år (1)
 1 år (2)
 2 år (3)
 3 år (4)
 4 år (5)
 5 år (6)
 6 år (7)
 7 år (8)
 8 år (9)
 9 år (10)
 10 år eller eldre - vennligst noter ca antall år: (11)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (12)
 Har ingen/har ikke brukt bukse (13)
351
10: Har du vinterjakke/kåpe, og hvor gammel er i så fall den vinterjakken/kåpen du har
brukt mest i vinter?
 Under 1 år (1)
 1 år (2)
 2 år (3)
 3 år (4)
 4 år (5)
 5 år (6)
 6 år (7)
 7 år (8)
 8 år (9)
 9 år (10)
 10 år eller eldre - vennligst noter ca antall år: (11)____________ [Other]
 Vet ikke (12)
 Har ingen/ikke brukt vinterjakke/kåpe (13)
[Open Text Š Numeric Š Force Number of Items: Min 0 Š Force Number of Items: Max 99 Š Columns=2]
11: Hvor mange år mener du følgende plagg bør kunne brukes før de går i stykker?
Skriv inn tall – ett tall i hver rute
Ullgenser (1)
Bomullsgenser (2)
T-skorte (3)
Ullundertrøye (4)
Olabukser (5)
Ullkåpe (6)
Allværsjakke (jakker som er vann- og vindtette, men som
«puster») (7)
Boblejakke (8)
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
år (1)
år (2)
år (3)
år (4)
år (5)
år (6)
år (7)
______________________________
år (8)
12: Tenk deg at det fantes klær som er av høy kvalitet, og som har garantert lang levetid.
Hvor mye mer kunne du ha tenkt deg å betale for klær som har garantert lang levetid i
forhold til vanlige klær uten slik garanti?
 Ikke noe ekstra (1)
 10-20% (2)
 30-40% (3)
 50% eller mer (4)
 Vet ikke (5)
352
Appendix 6: Interview guide
Informasjonsdel
Dette forskningsprosjektet handler om tekstiler og materialflyt. Det vi ønsker å finne ut
mer om er det som skjer i husholdningene. Gjennom intervjuer og tekstilundersøkelser
i laboratoriet ønsker vi å kartlegge hvordan forbrukerne håndterer de daglige
avgjørelsene om anskaffelse, bruk, vask og avskaffelse av klær og tekstiler.
Dermed kan vi får mer kunnskap om hva kan bidra til mindre belastende tekstilbruk.
Vi ønsker å møte både menn og kvinner i ulike alder og livssituasjoner, som har
anledning til å stille opp til intervjuer og samle informasjon om sine klesanskaffelser og
avskaffelser i løpet av prosjektperioden. Vi ønsker å få informasjon om deres vanlige
vaner. Det er meningen at du skal kaste og kjøpe som vanlig!
Informasjon om klesinnkjøp (anskaffelser)
Vi ønsker at du skriver opp dine klesinnkjøp i løpet av prosjektperioden i en loggbok.
Der filler du in type plagg, hvor kjøpt, når og pris. Dette kan man gjøre enkelt ved å
bare ta vare på kvitteringer, men med en liten notat bak om hva slags plagg det er.
Eventuelt kan du fylle in andre kommentarer dersom du ønsker det.
Informasjon om avskaffelse:
Vi ønsker at du lagrer alle de klærne som du tenker å kvitte deg i løpet av
prosjektperioden, og kontakter oss når du ønsker at vi skal hente de. Vi kommer og
henter de når det passer deg. Når vi henter vil vi intervjue og høre litt om de klærne,
hvor mye de har blitt brukt og hvorfor du skal kaste eller gi dem bort.
Andre intervju skjer i slutten av undersøkelsesperioden i mai 2010, eller allerede
tidligere dersom du ønsker at klærne skal bli hentet. Det er også mulig å ta dette i flere
deler dersom du har dårlig med lagerplass for klærne som du skal kvitte deg med.
Dersom du ikke ønsker å gi noen av klærne bort (har andre formål for dem), er dette
lov. Du har tre valg, du kan enten gi, låne eller beholde plagget selv. Hvis du ønsker å
beholde plagget så bli det kun registrert og fotografert ved intervjuet. Hvis vi låner den,
tar jeg den med for undersøkelser og returner den etterpå.
Anonymitet: Vi sørger naturligvis for at ingen utenom prosjektet får tilgang til
opplysningene, og resultatene av intervjuet blir også anonymisert. Du har rett til å få
tilgang til resultatene når de foreligger.
Signering av samtykkeskjema for å samtykke at du har fått informasjon om prosjektet,
og kan bli intervjuet.
Påminnelse om at man kan trekke seg dersom en ønsker det.
353
Spørsmål førstegangsintervju:
Hva er ditt forhold til klær? Fortell litt om det. Hvordan kommer det til uttrykk?
Interessert: På hvilken mote? Kjøper mye eller leter etter spesielle ting? Egen stil?
Tror du at du kjøper eller har mer klær enn de som ikke er interessert i klær?
Hva tenker du om mote? Hva mener du mote er?
Hvordan kommer det til uttrykk?
Ikke interessert: Hvorfor ikke? Kan du gå ikledd i noe som absolutt ikke er mote nå?
Interessert: Hvordan holder du deg oppdatert om mote? (blader, butikker,
moteforestillinger) Gjelder det bare klær eller også andre ting som for eksempel
interiør? Tror du t du kjøper mer klær enn de som ikke er interessert i mote?
Hvor interessert er du i miljøspørsmål? Hva betyr det i praksis til deg?
Interessert: Hva gjør du i praksis for å være mer miljøvennlig? (kildesortering, spare
strøm, vann, kjøpe mindre, kjøpe brukt, bruke miljømerkete produkter, unngå fly osv)
Ikke: Hvorfor synes du det? (Bryr du deg ikke, mener at det andre sitt ansvar (hvem),
andre områder som er mer interessante)
Tror du at andre vil si det samme om deg?
Hvis man sier ”bærekraftig eller miljøvennlig klesforbruk”, hva forbinder du i det?
I spørreskjema stilte vi spørsmål om grad av miljøtenking ved ulike situasjoner i løpet
av klærnes liv. Hva forbinder du med miljøtenking ved:
x innkjøp
x vask
x tørk
x reparasjon
x avhending (kaste eller gi bort)
Hvorfor tror du at du tenker miljø mer ved avhending enn innkjøp eller vask?
GRUPPERING AV KLÆR
Jeg ønsker å vite mer om hvilke ulike type klær du har. Har du for eksempel ulike
grupper av klær, så som jobb, fritid, hjem, når du møter venner ute, trening, hytte og så
videre? Eller kan du bruke de samme klærne innen ulike aktiviteter?
Hvor mange ulike bruksområder har du?
Hva slags krav er det til klær i ditt yrke? (Hvilket yrke er det?)
Hvor mange dager på rad kan du gå på jobb/skole i samme antrekk? Gjør du det?
Bytter du klær når du kommer hjem fra jobb? Hva bytter du til i så fall?
354
Har du ulike festantrekk? Hvilke type klær er det? Hvordan gjør du deg klar til fest?
Har du bunad eller andre folkedrakt? Når kjøpte du sist noen klær til fest?
Kunne du ha tenkt deg å bruke samme antrekk på julebord to år på rad? Hvorfor
ikke?
Hva med 17. mai?
Kan klær bytte bruksområder, for eksempel hvis en jobbantrekk har blitt litt slitt, kan
du bruke den på fritid i stedet?
Har du noen favorittplagg? Hvilket er det, og hvorfor? Når bruker du det? Hvor lenge
har du hatt det?
Hender det at du ”sparer” noen klær til bestemte anledninger? Hvilke type plagg er
dette?
Hvor gamle tror du de eldste klærne som fortsatt er i vanlig bruk hos deg er? Hvilke
klær er de?
Er det noen klær som blir delt av flere innenfor familien eller vennekretsen? Hvem
deler, og hvilke type klær er dette?
KLESINNKJØP
Hvordan får du nye klær? (kjøp, gave, arv)
Liker du å kjøpe klær? Hvorfor/ikke?
Hvor ofte går du i klesbutikker? Hvor ofte kjøper du noe?
Når du kjøper nye klær, tenker du vanligvis jobb, fritid, fest, sport eller noen andre
spesifikke bruksområder? Hvilke? Hva kjøper du mest av?
Føler du ofte behov for å fornye deg?
Ønsker du deg ofte noe du ikke kjøper ? Eller kjøper du stort sett de klærne du liker?
Hvor handler du vanligvis?
Kjøper du noe second hand klær? Hvorfor (ikke)? Benytter du loppemarkeder
generelt på andre ting? Hva synes du er spesielt positivt eller negativt med brukte
klær?
Hva er viktig for deg når du kjøper klær? Hovervurdering (mangler noe, utseende,
materiale, pris, mote, kvalitet, farge…)
Hvilke merkelapper sjekker du før du kjøper klær? (pris, vask, fiber, merke,
produksjonsland)
Hva er viktig informasjon for deg?
355
Er det noe informasjon du skulle ønske du hadde men som mangler fra merkingen
nå? (kjemikalieinnhold, passform, brennbarhet, barnearbeid, etisk produksjon,
vanntetthet, pusting)
Finnes det bestemte klesmerker du liker? Hvilke merker er det? Hvordan har du
funnet de merkene? Er det noen merker eller butikker som du aldri kjøper klær fra?
Hvorfor?
Prøver du å kjøpe klær i god kvalitet?
Hva synes du er god kvalitet? Hvordan vurderer man det?
Prisnivå: Hva synes du er billig og hva er dyrt? Hvor mye kan f.eks. et par jeans
koste for at det er aktuelt for deg å kjøpe de? (evt. bukser/skjørt hvis ikke bruker jeans)
Hender det at du gjør feilkjøp? Kan du gi noen eksempler? Returnerer du slike klær?
Prøver du på alle klær før du kjøper de? Hvilke prøver du ikke?
Har du klær i din garderobe som du aldri har brukt?
VEDLIKEHOLD
Hvordan er rutinene rundt klesvasken hos dere?
Er det en som har hovedansvar eller er det delt arbeid?
Hvor mange vask per uke er vanlig?
Hvilken temperatur er vanligst? Hvilke andre temperaturer blir benyttet til ulike type
plagg? (se på skjema svarene)
Hvordan doserer dere vaskemiddel? Samme dosering alltid eller varierende
beroende på hvor skittent tøyet er? Bruker du måleskje eller heller direkte i maskinen?
Hvor mange ulike tekstilvaskemidler har dere? (til farget, hvit, ull, flekkfjerning osv)
Bruker dere flekkfjerningsmidler, skyllemiddel eller klor?
Sjekker du om vaskemiddel er miljømerket?
Hvor fult blir vaskemaskin ved vask? Hvis fullt, må du trykke inn for å få plass til alt
eller er det noe tomt plass i trommelen?
Vasker du noe for hånd? Hvilke plagg er det?
Bruker dere renseri? Hvilke plagg i så fall? Hvor ofte?
Hvordan blir klærne tørket? Tørketrommel?
Stryker dere noe? Hvilke type tekstiler? Hvorfor? Hvem gjør det?
356
Vet du hvilken energiklasse vaskemaskinen
evalueringskriterium ved innkjøp av maskinen?
deres
er?
Var
det
viktig
Hvis noe går galt i vask, hva er det vanligvis? (krymp, farge, fasong, nupping)
Noen eksempel på dette?
Bruker dere noen andre oppfriskingsmetoder for klær, så som lufting, børsting,
klesrulle for fjerning av hår, nuppefjernere, damp eller noe annet?
Reparerer du noe av klærne dine, eller gjør noen andre det for deg? Hvilke type
reparasjoner? (omsøm, knapper, skifte glidelås, stoppe sokker, lapper hull, syr raknede
sømmer, farging osv)
Hvorfor (ikke)? (økonomi, miljø, liker plagget…) Hadde du gjort det oftere hvis du var
flinkere i det?
AVSKAFFELSE AV KLÆR
Hva tror du, hva er viktigste grunnene for deg å kvitte deg med klær? Kan du anslå
hvor stor andel går ut på grunn av det? (dette skal vi jo undersøke videre i prosjektet,
så dette er bare foreløpig estimat.)
Hva gjør du vanligvis med klær som du ikke lenger bruker? (basert på skjema)
Når kvitter du deg klær videre vanligvis? (vår/høst opprydding, når trangt på
garderoben, når de er slitte, når ikke i bruk lenger)
Tar det lang tid fra det du sist brukte et plagg til du kvitter deg med den?
Har du eget lager for klær som ikke lenger er i bruk men som du ikke vil gi bort ennå?
Føler du noe ubehag eller dårlig samvittighet når du avhender klær? Når? Hvorfor?
**
Bakgrunnsdata hvis behov:
Sivilstand, yrke, samboerens yrke, foreldrenes yrke, antall barn + alder
Er det noe du ønsker å legge til eller noen andre refleksjoner? Noe som jeg har glemt
å spørre?
(Dersom mulig ønskes det at informanten viser oss rundt i huset og forteller hvor de
beholder klærne, hvordan de er sortert, er det noen årlige rutiner ved rotering av
sommer/vintertøy, er det problemer med plassmangel, hvor er de klærne som ikke
brukes)
357
Oppfølgings intervju
Hvordan har det gått?
Evt. noen oppfølgingsspørsmål fra 1. intervju.
Gjennomgang av klær som skal gis bort:
(Alle de samlede klær vil bli gjennomgått, jeg sier høyt hvilket nummer plagget får og
merker det med ID lapp. )
Følgende informasjon samles om hvert plagg:
(Dersom ikke informantens eget plagg, prøv å svare allikevel.)
Hvorfor skal du ikke lenger ha dette plagget?
Passform eller størrelse – hvor ligger problemet? På hvilken måte synes det?
Var den slik når du kjøpte den eller har plagget eller du endret størrelse?
Slitasje – hva er det konkret, hvor på plagget, tror du det skyldes vask eller
bruk? Hvor slitt er den (slitt, shabby, utslitt, utvasket)?
”Bruker ikke lenger” – hvorfor? (Andre lignende plagg, utseende, farge, passer
ikke sammen med andre plagg eller noe helt annet? Plassmangel?)
Umoderne eller ut av mote: Hvordan ser man det? Tror du at noen andre kunne
fortsatt ha brukt det?
En annen ønsker å få plagget – hvem og hvorfor?
Er det noen andre årsak i tillegg til det?
Hva måtte til at du hadde fortsatt å bruke det?
Når brukte du det sist?
Hvor mye har du brukt det? I hvilke anledninger har du brukt den? Har det vært
noen perioder da du ikke har brukt det? Hvorfor? Har den endret bruksområde for
eksempel fra jobb til fritid?
Hvor gammel tror du det er? Husker du noe om når du fikk det, har du kjøpt det selv
eller var det en gave, noe funnet på salg osv?
Hvor skulle plagget videre? (søppel eller gis bort til Fretex/UFF, venner, omsøm osv)
Hvorfor dit?
Kan jeg få plagget til viderestudier på laboratoriet? Evt. låne/registrere.
358
Gjennomgang av loggbok for klesinnkjøp:
Har du registrert alt du har kjøpt? (sjekk lesbarhet)
Hva synes du, var dette som forventet eller mindre eller mer enn du trodde?
Har dette vært vanlige måneder for dere? Hvorfor?
Har du fått noen andres klær som gaver? Er de med i listen? Hvem har du fått de fra?
Har du brukt de?
Har andre kjøpt klær til deg? Er de med i listen? Hvem har du fått de fra? Kunne du
bruke de? Passet plagget på deg og likte du det?
Kan du si noe om hvorfor de er kjøpt, har det alltid vært planlagt eller er det noen
impulskjøp?
Hvis impuls, hvorfor tror du at du kjøpte det? (billig, fin, ønsket bare noe nytt..)
Har du brukt like mye av de plaggene som var planlagte kjøp som de som ble kjøpt på
impuls?
Hvilke plagg var det størst behov for? Hvorfor?
Hvilke plagg ble kjøpt for å erstatte et annet plagg som gikk ut av bruk?
Oppfyller noen av innkjøpene et nytt behov? (for eksempel ny hobby, ny jobb)
Er det noe i listen som du har brukt veldig mye, eller ikke i hele tatt? Hvorfor?
Etter ferdig men gjennomgangen noen oppfølgingsspørsmål:
Tror du at du har gjort noe annerledes enn vanlig fordi du deltok i studien? Hva kunne
ha vært annerledes hvis dette hadde vært et vanlig år?
Takk for intervjuet!
Er det noe du ønsker å legge til eller noen andre refleksjoner?
Noe som jeg har glemt å spørre?
359
360
Appendix 7: Information of participating households
Demographic information of the 16 participating households’ main informants with
their fictional names.
Property
Gender
Grouping of main informants
Male (3)
Erik
Karl
Markus
Female (13)
Anita
Barbara
Camilla
Diana
Fiona
Greta
Heidi
Isabel
Jenny
Lena
Nina
Olivia
Pia
Age/family
Young, no children, Parents to small children, age Above age of 55,
group
age 24-32 (7)
30-48 (7)
adult children age 59Barbara 25
Anita 35
67 (2)
Camilla 29
Isabel 30
Olivia 67
Diana 27
Jenny 39
Pia 59
Erik 30
Karl 46
Fiona 31
Lena 39
Greta 24
Markus 42
Heidi 32
Nina 48
Relationship
Living alone/single (6)
Living with partner (10)
Camilla
status
Barbara Diana
Anita
Fiona
Greta (broke up)
Erik
Isabel
Heidi
Lena
Jenny
Karl
Markus
Nina
Olivia
Pia
Area of living
West Oslo (5)
East Oslo (3)
Neighbour counties Trondheim area
Barbara
Erik
to Oslo (5)
(3)
Diana
Fiona
Anita
Camilla
Greta
Heidi
Isabel
Karl
Lena
Jenny
Pia
Olivia
Markus
Nina
Education
Vocational (1)
Min. three years college (5) University (9)
Isabel
Pia
Anita
Camilla
Barbara
Erik
Jenny
Diana
Fiona
Karl
Lena
Greta
Markus
Nina
Heidi
Olivia
Working
Working (12)
Student (3)1
Retired (1)
Jenny
situation
Anita
Diana
Olivia
Barbara
Karl
Erik
Camilla
Lena
Heidi
Fiona (part time) Markus
Greta
Nina
Isabel
Pia (part time)
1) All students work part time in addition to studying.
361
362
Appendix 8: Registration lists of collected clothing
Type of garment
Valid
Shirt, sweater, blouse or top
Trousers, jeans or shorts
Skirt or dress
Jacket or outer wear
Overalls
Underwear (pants or bra)
Socks
Stockings or tights
Accessorise (hat, scarf, gloves)
Nightwear or bathrobe
Other
Total
Frequency
244
93
29
67
10
36
37
52
31
16
5
620
Percent
39.4
15.0
4.7
10.8
1.6
5.8
6.0
8.4
5.0
2.6
.8
100.0
Fiber content
Includes also guessed content for garments that did not have a label or the text was not
possible to read.
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Mainly cotton
327
52.7
Mainly linen or ramie
5
.8
Mainly regenerated cellulose
28
4.5
Mainly polyester
49
7.9
Mainly polyamide
53
8.5
Mainly acrylic
16
2.6
Synthetic
23
3.7
Mainly wool or hair
48
7.7
Mainly silk
2
.3
Mixture
38
6.1
Leather
2
.3
Unknown
29
4.7
Total
620
100.0
363
Construction
Valid
Woven
Knitted
Nonwoven
Both woven and knitted structures
Leather
Other or unknown
Total
Frequency
173
424
1
6
2
14
620
Labelled with some environmental claims or information
Frequency
Valid
EU eco flower
5
Organic
1
Azo dyeing free
4
Encourage to better washing behaviour
2
No such labels
608
Total
620
Percent
27.9
68.4
.2
1.0
.3
2.3
100.0
Percent
.8
.2
.6
.3
98.1
100.0
Owner’s age
Valid
Child below the age of 10
Teenager, age 11-19
Adult, age 20-34
Adult, age 35-50
Adult, age above 51
Total
Not known
Total
Registration on whether the garment had holes
Frequency
Valid
No holes
345
Has a hole or holes
201
Total
546
Missing
System
74
Total
620
364
Frequency
189
32
214
142
41
618
2
620
Percent
30.5
5.2
34.5
22.9
6.6
99.7
.3
100.0
Percent
55.6
32.4
88.1
11.9
100.0
Valid Percent
63.2
36.8
100.0
Registration on whether the garment had broken seams
Frequency
Percent
Valid
No broken seams
423
68.2
Has broken seam or seams
122
19.7
Total
545
87.9
Missing
System
75
12.1
Total
620
100.0
Registration on whether the garment had stains
Frequency
Valid
1: Very visible stains
46
2: Noticeable stains
28
3: Small/minor stains
85
4: Almost unnoticeable stains 43
5: No noticeable stains
343
Total
545
Missing
System
75
Total
620
Percent
7.4
4.5
13.7
6.9
55.3
87.9
12.1
100.0
Valid Percent
77.6
22.4
100.0
Valid Percent
8.4
5.1
15.6
7.9
62.9
100.0
Main colour
Valid
Black
White or off-white
Blue
Red, burgundy or maroon
Green
Yellow
Orange
Brown, beige or khaki
Pink
Purple or lavender
Turquoise
Grey
Multi-coloured
Not known
Total
Frequency
125
91
80
27
20
3
5
42
29
12
5
49
97
35
620
Percent
20.2
14.7
12.9
4.4
3.2
.5
.8
6.8
4.7
1.9
.8
7.9
15.6
5.6
100.0
365