Oral Candidiasis - Widely Prevalent, Frequently Missed

DOI: 10.17354/ijss/2015/421
R eview A r ti c l e
Oral Candidiasis - Widely Prevalent, Frequently
Missed
Pankaj Rathod1, Rohit Punga2, Vipinder Dalal3, Dhananjay Rathod4
1
Senior Lecturer, Department of Oral Surgery, PDM Dental College and Research Centre, Bahadurgarh, Haryana, India, 2Reader, Department
of Oral Surgery, PDM Dental College and Research Centre, Bahadurgarh, Haryana, India, 3Senior Consultant, Department of Dental Surgery,
General Hospital, Bahadurgarh, Haryana, India, 4Post-graduate Student, Department of Orthodontics, Seema Dental College and Hospital,
Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
Abstract
A Candidiasis describes a group of yeast-like fungal infections involving the skin and mucous membranes. Infection is caused
by Candida species, typically, Candida albicans. The candidiasis is seen orally in people with altered oral ecology (from dental
appliances, hyposalivation, or the use of immunosuppressants or antimicrobials) and/or impaired immunity (e.g., transplant
recipients, persons on immunosuppressive treatments, persons with HIV/AIDS, or other cellular immune defects). With the
high prevalence and opportunistic nature, it is one of the most common infections found in the oral cavity, especially in the
geriatric population. Due to asymptomatic nature of the infection and clinicians negligence during the examination, it is one
of the frequently missed pathology. The purpose of this study is to enumerate in detail the various types, epidemiology, and
management of oral candidiasis.
Key words: Candidiasis, Cheilitis, Erythema, Immunology, Leukemia, Pemphigoid, Stomatitis, Squamous cell carcinoma
INTRODUCTION
The candidiasis is an opportunistic infection commonly
affecting the oral cavity. It is often undiagnosed among
elderly, particularly in denture wearers and in many cases
is avoidable with proper oral hygiene care. It can also be a
mark of systemic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus and is a
common problem among the immunocompromised.1 The
candidiasis of the oral cavity is caused due to overgrowth or
infection by a yeast-like fungi, Candida.2,3 The predominant
ones are Candida albicans (the commonest), Candida tropicalis,
Candida glabrata, Candida guilliermondii, Candida pseudotropicalis,
Candida krusei, Candida lusitaniae, Candida parapsilosis, and
Candida stellatoidea.
C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis represent more than
80% of isolates from clinical infection.4 The oral candidiasis
is the most common human fungal infection especially in
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Month of Peer Review : 08-2015
Month of Acceptance : 08-2015
Month of Publishing : 09-2015
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early and later life.5,6 In the general population, carriage
rates have been found to range from 20% to 75% without
any symptoms.5 The incidence of candidiasis in the oral
cavity with predominant C. albicans isolation has been
reported to be 45% in neonates.7 45-65% in childrens,8
30-45% of healthy adults,9 50-65% in cases of long-term
denture wearers,10 65-88% in those residing in acute and
long-term facilities,11-13 90% in patients with acute leukemia
undergoing chemotherapy,14 and 95% of patients with HIV
infection.15 C. albicans is a normal commensal of the oral
cavity and is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals.
However, extensive overgrowth of the fungi can sometimes
lead to symptoms such as altered taste sensation, local
discomfort, and occasionally dysphagia.
Systemic candidiasis carries a mortality rate of 71-79%.16 It
is important for all the clinicians treating the older patients
to be aware of the risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment of
oral candidiasis. In a recent study, it was found that 30%
of clinicians agreed that, even without examining the oral
cavity, they would prescribe nystatin for oral candidiasis on
the request of assistant staff.17 Such negligence can lead
to an inaccurate diagnosis, missed pathologies, and failure
to address the risk factors which may lead to recurrence
of candidiasis.
Corresponding Author: Dr. Pankaj Rathod, Department of Oral Surgery, PDM Dental College and Research Centre, Sarai Aurangabad,
Jajjhar, Bahadurgarh - 124 507, Haryana, India. Phone: +91-9992029736/9354845574. E-mail: pankajr1982@rediffmail.com
193
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Rathod, et al.: Oral Candidiasis - Widely Prevalent, Frequently Missed
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES
There are different types of oropharyngeal candidiasis
including acute pseudomembranous, acute atrophic,
chronic hyperplastic, denture stomatitis, median rhomboid
glossitis, and angular cheilitis.18
Acute Pseudomembranous Candidiasis (Thrush)
They commonly occur as adherent white plaques
resembling curdled milk or cottage cheese on the
surface of the labial and buccal mucosae, hard and soft
palates, tongue, periodontal tissues, and oropharynx. The
membrane can be scrapped off with a swab to expose the
underlying erythematous mucosa (Figure 1). It is often
easily diagnosed and is one of the commonest forms
of oropharyngeal candidiasis accounting for almost a
third.19 The diagnosis can be confirmed microbiologically
either by culturing a swab from an oral rinse or by
staining a smear from the affected area. Histologically,
it is characterized by extensive white pseudomembranes
consisting of desquamated epithelial cells, fibrin, and
fungal hyphae. Predisposing factors include debilitating
diseases such as diabetes mellitus, extremes of age,
HIV infections, leukemias, those under steroid therapy,
antibiotics or psychotropic drugs, and terminally ill
patients.
Figure 1: Pseudomembranous candidiasis involving the dorsal
surface of tongue
Acute Atrophic Candidiasis
Acute atrophic candidiasis also known as erythematous
candidiasis is commonly associated with burning sensations
in the oral cavity or the tongue. Clinical appearance of white
flecks may not be the prominent feature. The tongue may
appear to be bright red or even give a bald appearance.
The diagnosis may be sometimes difficult and should be
considered in the differential diagnosis of a sore tongue,
especially in a long-term denture wearing old patient who
has received antibiotic therapy or who is on inhaled steroids.
A swab from the affected area usually helps in confirming
the diagnosis.
Figure 2: Hyperplastic candidiasis involving the right lateral
border of tongue
Chronic Hyperplastic Candidiasis
It characteristically occurs on the buccal mucosa or lateral
border of the tongue as a speckled or homogenous white
lesion (Figure 2). It is usually associated with smoking,
and complete resolution of the infection seems to be
dependent on cessation of the habit.20 This condition
can progress to severe dysplasia or malignancy and
is also referred to as Candidal leukoplakia (Figure 3).
Candida species may not always be isolated from the
lesions of oral leukoplakia, and their presence in these
premalignant lesions may be suggestive of a complicating
factor rather than a causative one.21 This condition may be
confused with lichen planus, pemphigus or pemphigoid,
or squamous cell carcinoma.
Figure 3: Candidal leukoplakia involving the left commissural
region
Denture Stomatitis
This condition is characterized by a localized chronic
erythema of tissues in a denture wearing area. Lesions
usually occur on the palate and upper jaw but may also
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affect the mandibular tissues (Figure 4). It is quite a
common lesion with a high incidence rate of up to 65%.
Median Rhomboid Glossitis
It occurs as a chronic symmetrical lesion on the tongue
anterior to circumvallate papillae. It is made up of atrophic
filiform papillae. The presence of Candida is detected in more
than 85% of the cases in a biopsy of this area.22 It is often
associated with smoking and the use of inhaled steroids.
Angular Cheilitis
It is an erythematous fissuring at one or both corners of
the mouth, usually associated with an intraoral candidal
infection. Other organisms implicated are staphylococci
and streptococci. In case of staphylococci, the reservoir is
commonly in the anterior region of the nostrils and spreads
to the angle of mouth which has been confirmed by phage
typing.23,24 Facial wrinkling at the corners of the mouth and
along the nasolabial fold, especially in older persons, leads to a
chronically moist environment that predisposes to this lesion.25
This wrinkling is even worse in long-term denture wearers, as
resorption of the alveolar ridges leads to a reduction in height
of the lower face when the mouth is closed.26 Other factors
implicated in the etiology of this condition are iron deficiency
anemia and vitamin B12 deficiency.
Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis
It describes a group of rare syndromes, which sometimes
include a definable immune defect, in which persistent
mucocutaneous candidiasis response is extremely poor to
topical anti-fungal treatment. Recent studies have shown
defect in cytokine (interleukine 2 and interferon-g) production
with reduced lymphocyte function (TH1 and TH2) activity
in response to candidal and few bacterial antigens.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
C. albicans is the predominant causal organism of most
types of candidiasis. It is a relatively harmless organism
inhabitating the oral cavity of almost 50% of the
population. Other species including C. krusei, have been
found in immunocompromised persons. C. glabrata is an
emerging cause of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients
receiving radiation for head and neck cancer.27 In patients
with HIV infection, new species, such as Candida dubliniensis
and Candida inconspicua, have been recognized.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Frequency
The candidiasis is common in groups at risk, such as patients
who are immunocompromised. Incidence of infection is
rising, primarily because of HIV infection and both increase
in candidal species and resistance to antifungals.28
Sex
The candidiasis is reported to occur with equal frequency
in both the sexes worldwide, except in areas where males
with HIV infection outnumber females.
Age
The candidiasis predominantly occurs in the older-aged
persons; however, it is primarily seen in the third and fourth
decades of life in those with HIV infections.
Mortality
The candidiasis may occasionally predispose to esophageal
spread that may prove to be life-threatening.29
HISTOPATHOLOGY
Histologically, an increase thickness of the parakeratin layer
with elongated rete ridges are seen. The candidal hyphae
infiltrate the parakeratin layer and rarely penetrate into the
cell layers of infected epithelium. Chronic inflammatory
cell infiltrate in the connective tissue with neutrophilic
microabscesses in the parakeratin layer is a prominent
feature (Figure 5).30
MANAGEMENT
Taking a history followed by a thorough examination of
the oral cavity, including the hard and soft palates, the
buccal mucosae are usually good starting points. In case
of denture wearers, the examination should be done after
they have been removed. Predisposing factors should be
identified and resolved followed by an assessment of the
type, severity, and chronicity of the infection.
Figure 4: Denture stomatitis
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The correct diagnosis can be reached based on the finding
of characterized lesion, ruling out the other possibilities,
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Topical Antifungal Therapy
Figure 5: Histopathology showing tubular hyphae of
Candida albicans embedded in the parakeratin layer
(Periodic acid-Schiff stain)
and assessing the response to antifungal treatment. Acute
pseudomembranous and chronic atrophic candidiasis can
be treated based on the clinical features, however when
the initial therapy is not successful, culture and sensitivity
testing can be undertaken. Imprint cultures,6 have also
been used for identification of Candida species, where
sterile foams dipped in Sabouraud’s broth are placed for
30 s on the lesion, and then for an hour in Sabouraud’s
agar containing chloramphenicol, after which they are
incubated. Acute atrophic and chronic hyperplastic types
may mimic other lesions and to rule out any kind of
malignancy, a biopsy is recommended in addition to the
empirical therapy. The oral hygiene maintenance and topical
antifungals are usually adequate for uncomplicated forms
of oral candidiasis.31
The oral hygiene involves scaling of teeth and regular
cleaning dentures. Dentures should be cleaned and
disinfected daily and left out overnight or at least 6 h daily.
The dentures soaked in a denture cleaning solution such
as chlorhexidine has been found to be very effective in
eliminating Candida than brushing.32 This is because the
porous and irregular surfaces of the dentures on which the
Candida can easily adhere, cannot be removed by brushing
alone. When rinsing the mouth with topical antifungal, the
patient should ensure that the dentures are removed and
that the entire oral mucosa is coated with antifungal and
held in the mouth for a few minutes. The incorporation
of an antifungal with a denture liner is recommended for
patients with denture wearers. Furthermore, the mucosal
surfaces should regularly be brushed using a soft brush.
After disinfection, dentures should be allowed to air dry as
this also kills adherent Candida on dentures.33 Chlorhexidine
can discolor both dentures and natural dentition if not
removed adequately after disinfection. Other denture
cleaning methods, like ultrasonic cleaning tanks using a
suitable solution, are not routinely used but found to be
effective.34
Use of topical antifungal therapy is the first line treatment
for uncomplicated oral candidiasis. In cases where systemic
treatment is essential, topical therapy should continue, as
this reduces the dose and duration of systemic treatment
required.35-37 The adverse effects and drug interactions are
more likely to occur with systemic agents than with topical
agents. In the early part of 20th century, gentian violet, an
aniline dye was used for the treatment of candidiasis. However,
because of its limitations such as staining of the oral mucosa
and the developing resistance, polyene antibiotics such as
nystatin (1951) and amphotericin B (1956) were introduced.
They act by binding to the cell membrane sterols of the fungi,
thereby altering the cell membrane permeability.38,39 Nystatin
and amphotericin are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal
tract. Whereas other drugs such as miconazole, clotrimazole,
or ketoconazole, used for the topical application have side
effects such as vomiting and diarrhea.
Nystatin is the most widely used topical agent for the
treatment of oral candidiasis.2,3 It is available as an oral
rinse, pastille, and suspension. The oral rinse contains
sucrose and is found to be very useful in patients with
HIV infections and also in completely edentulous patients.
The clotrimazole troche can be an alternative to nystatin
suspensions for those patients who find it unpalatable.
Systemic Antifungal Therapy
This therapy is appropriate in patients intolerant of or
refractory to topical treatment and those at the high risk
of developing systemic infections.40
Both nystatin oral rinses and clotrimazole troches
have high levels of sucrose content and in diabetic or
immunocompromised patients or in the presence of
decayed teeth, triazoles such as fluconazole or itraconazole
have been found to be effective.41 The ketoconazole has
also been found to be equally effective, but its use is not
recommended in elderly patients, due to drug interactions
and side effects which include hepatotoxicity.
The fluconazole is a potent and selective inhibitor of fungal
enzymes which are involved in the synthesis of ergosterol.
It disrupts cell wall formation followed by leakage of
cellular contents and ultimately resulting in cell death. It
is well absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and does not
produce side-effects such as hepatotoxicity. It is now listed
in the dental practitioners’ formulary as well as the British
National Formulary and is widely used both the practices.
Itraconazole has a wider spectrum of activity than
fluconazole, and is, therefore, valuable, in the treatment
of candidiasis in immunocompromised patients who are
resistant to fluconazole. Resistance to antifungals has
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become increasingly common since the introduction of
fluconazole especially in patients with advanced HIV
disease and recurrent and long-term treatment.42,43
Topical antifungal steroid creams and ointments are
recommended for the treatment of angular cheilitis. Any
concurrent intraoral lesions should also be treated at the
same time, dietary deficiencies should be excluded and
treated if found. Failure to respond to therapy especially
in chronic atrophic candidiasis is usually due to noncompliance with the treatment.
In patients undergoing treatment for cancers, oral
prophylaxis with antifungal agents reduces the incidence of
oral candidiasis, and in such cases, fluconazole have been
found to be more effective than topical polyenes. Similar
therapy has also been found to be effective in patients with
HIV infections.
asymptomatic and rarely produce any problem to the
patients, and hence, often missed during routine clinical
examination. Obtaining a thorough history and identifying
the underlying cause are the first step toward successful
management. The treating practitioner should have a
complete knowledge about the dosage, actions and sideeffects of antifungal agents used for the treatment. Hence,
it is important for all the clinicians, not to miss the candidal
infection during routine examinations, and treat them
appropriately.
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How to cite this article: Rathod P, Punga R, Dalal V, Rathod D. Oral Candidiasis - Widely Prevalent, Frequently Missed. Int J Sci Stud
2015;3(6):193-198.
Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
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