Forwick and Vorren 2..

 Late Weichselian and Holocene sedimentary environments and ice rafting in
Isfjorden, Spitsbergen
Matthias Forwick, Tore O. Vorren
PII:
DOI:
Reference:
S0031-0182(09)00241-7
doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.06.026
PALAEO 5055
To appear in:
Palaeogeography
Received date:
Revised date:
Accepted date:
6 October 2008
16 June 2009
16 June 2009
Please cite this article as: Forwick, Matthias, Vorren, Tore O., Late Weichselian and
Holocene sedimentary environments and ice rafting in Isfjorden, Spitsbergen, Palaeogeography (2009), doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.06.026
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Late Weichselian and Holocene sedimentary environments and ice rafting in
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Isfjorden, Spitsbergen
University of Tromsø, Department of Geology, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
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Matthias Forwick a,* & Tore O. Vorren a
* Corresponding author.
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Postal address: University of Tromsø, Department of Geology, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
Phone: +47 776 44453
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Fax: +47 776 45600
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E-mail address: Matthias.Forwick@uit.no
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Keywords: glacial sedimentary environments; sea-ice rafting; iceberg rafting; fjord; Late
Weichselian; Holocene
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Abstract
Multi-proxy analyses of two sediment cores from central Isfjorden were used to reconstruct the
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glacial history in central Spitsbergen during the Late Weichselian and the Holocene, and to relate
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iceberg rafting and sea-ice rafting to climatic and oceanographic changes in the north Atlantic
region. A basal till was deposited beneath an ice stream prior to 12,700 cal. years BP (calendar
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years before the present). Several tidewater glaciers influenced the sedimentary environment
during the Younger Dryas and probably already during the Allerød. The Younger Dryas cooling
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might be reflected by enhanced sea-ice formation and suspension settling, as well as reduced
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iceberg rafting. The final deglaciation was dominated by intense iceberg rafting. It terminated
around 11,200 cal. years BP. Optimum Holocene climatic and oceanographic conditions with
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significantly reduced ice rafting occurred between c. 11,200 and 9000 cal. years BP. Ice rafting
occurred almost exclusively from icebergs after 10,200 cal. years BP. The icebergs most
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probably originated from tidewater glaciers on east Spitsbergen, indicating the presence of a
strong east-west temperature gradient at this time. An increase of iceberg rafting around 9000 cal.
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years BP, followed by enhanced sea-ice rafting, reflects the onset of a general cooling in the
western Barents Sea – Svalbard region. Comparatively intense rafting from icebergs and sea ice
between 9000 and 4000 cal. years BP is related to this cooling. A general reduction in ice rafting
after 4000 cal. years BP is most probably the result of the enhanced formation of shore-fast
and/or more permanent sea-ice cover, reducing the drift of icebergs and sea ice in the fjord. The
results indicate that the palaeoenvironmental conditions on central Spitsbergen to a large degree
depended on the oceanographic conditions in the western Barents Sea and west off Spitsbergen.
However, climatic trends affecting Greenland and the entire north Atlantic region can also be
identified.
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1. Introduction and background
Climate modelling experiments indicate that the temperature increase during the next century
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will be particularly pronounced in the Arctic region (IPCC, 2007). However, the projections of
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future climate change are hampered because of the limited understanding of natural climate
variability, so that it is important to study the climatic development of northern high latitudes
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during the Holocene (Renssen et al., 2005).
Numerous reconstructions of the Holocene palaeoclimatic and -oceanographic conditions from
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the north Atlantic region with sub-millennial time resolution are based on the analyses of ice
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cores, as well as terrestrial and ‘open ocean’ records (e.g. Werner, 1993; Svendsen & Mangerud,
1997; Johnsen et al., 2001; Sarnthein et al., 2001; Isaksson et al., 2003, 2005; Rohling & Pälike,
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2005; Nesje et al., 2005; Ślubowska et al., 2005; Hald et al., 2007). However, reconstructions
with similar time resolution from Spitsbergen fjords are sparse (Hald et al., 2004; Zajączkowski
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et al., 2004; Majewski & Zajączkowski, 2007; Hald & Korsun, 2008; Majewski et al., 2009).
Spitsbergen fjords are settings that are characterised by strong environmental gradients. On one
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hand, they are influenced by tidewater glaciers and partly covered by sea ice during winter. On
the other hand, their oceanography is to a large degree affected by intrusions of the West
Spitsbergen Current, one of the most distal parts of the North Atlantic Drift that transports
relatively warm and saline Atlantic Water to the Arctic (Fig. 1; Svendsen et al., 2002; Saloranta
& Haugan, 2004; Schauer et al., 2004; Cottier et al., 2007; Nilsen et al., 2008). Even minor
changes in the intensity of the North Atlantic Drift will have a significant impact on the
environmental conditions on Spitsbergen. For example can short-lasting increases in the inflow
of Atlantic Water significantly reduce the formation of sea ice in the fjords during winter (Cottier
et al., 2007). Due to their vicinity to sediment sources, Spitsbergen fjords provide unique settings
for the study of variations in glacial activity and the influence of Atlantic Water and, hence,
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provide information about past environmental changes in the European Arctic with high
temporal resolution.
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The environmental conditions in large areas of the north Atlantic region improved rapidly after
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the Younger Dryas cooling as a result of high solar insolation, increased meridional heat flux of
Atlantic Water and ice-free conditions (e.g. Koç et al., 1993; Bauch et al., 2001; Duplessy et al.,
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2001; Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001; Birks & Koç, 2002; Sarnthein et al., 2003; ŚlubowskaWoldengen et al., 2007). The Holocene Climatic Optimum occurred during the first half of the
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Holocene. However, its estimated onset and duration varied with up to several thousand years,
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depending e.g. on latitude, the influence of the remnants of the Fennoscandian, Laurentide and
Greenland ice sheets, as well as on the proxies applied (e.g. Koç et al., 1993; Hald et al., 2007;
Duplessy et al., 2001; Johnsen et al., 2001; Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001; Knudsen et al.,
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2004; Moros et al., 2004; Cortese et al., 2005; Nesje et al., 2005; Rasmussen, et al., 2007;
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Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2008). Shorter cooling intervals interrupted the warming trend
during the early stages of the Holocene. These were most probably related to one or several
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factors including solar activity changes, increased explosive volcanism and internal feedback
mechanisms in the Earth’s climate system, as well as sudden fresh-water outbursts during the
deglaciation of the Fennoscandian, Laurentide and Greenland ice sheets (e.g. Hald & Hagen,
1998; Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001; Rohling & Pälike, 2005; Nesje et al., 2004, 2005). Most,
if not all, glaciers in southern Norway may have melted completely at least once between c. 8000
and 4000 cal. years BP (calendar years before the present; e.g. Nesje et al., 2005).
The subsequent, stepwise cooling is generally related to decreasing insolation, resulting in
reduced heat flux from the Atlantic Water to high northern latitudes and, in consequence,
decreasing sea-surface temperatures that led to increased sea-ice cover (e.g. Koç et al., 1993;
Koç & Jansen, 1994; Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001; Voronina et al, 2001; Birks & Koç, 2002;
Nesje et al., 2005; Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2007). Simultaneously, increased influx of cool,
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low saline and δ18O-depleted Arctic Waters to the eastern Barents Sea occurred (Hald et al.,
1999; Duplessy et al., 2001; Lubinski et al., 2001). In Scandinavia, glaciers started to re-
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form/readvance between 6000 and 4000 cal. years BP (Nesje et al., 2005, 2008).
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Spitsbergen fjords acted as pathways for fast-flowing ice streams draining the Late Weichselian
Svalbard-Barents Sea Ice Sheet (e.g. Landvik et al., 1998, 2005; Ottesen et al., 2005). The mouth
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of Isfjorden (Fig. 1) was deglaciated at c. 14,100 cal. years BP and the final glacier retreat in the
inner fjords terminated around 11,300 cal. years BP (e.g. Mangerud et al., 1992, 1998; Elverhøi
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et al., 1995; Svendsen et al., 1996; Lønne, 2005). The deglaciation pattern in Spitsbergen fjords
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and the behaviour of the glacier fronts during the Younger Dryas cooling is still poorly
understood. Mangerud & Svendsen (1990), Svendsen & Mangerud (1992) and Mangerud &
Landvik (2007) showed that local glaciers on western Spitsbergen were smaller during the
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Younger Dryas than during the Little Ice Age and that no evidence for a Younger Dryas
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readvance exists. It has been suggested that the tributaries of Isfjorden were occupied by outlet
glaciers and that their fronts were located either in the inner main fjord (Mangerud et al., 1992)
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or “far out in the main fjord” (Svendsen et al., 1996, see Fig. 1C). Retarded glacio-isostatic uplift
during the Younger Dryas (Forman et al., 1987; Landvik et al., 1987; Lehman & Forman, 1992)
led Svendsen et al. (1996) to conclude that the glaciers in the inner parts of Isfjorden readvanced
during this period. Boulton (1979) suggested a marked Younger Dryas glacier readvance in the
Billefjorden area.
The chronology of the Holocene glacial activity in Spitsbergen fjords remains debatable.
Whereas Svendsen and Mangerud (1997) did not find any glacial signal in Lake Linnévatnet and
Billefjorden (for location see Fig. 1C) during the early and mid Holocene, Hald et al. (2004)
inferred that central Spitsbergen was never completely deglaciated during the Holocene.
Svendsen and Mangerud (1997) suggested that the glacier Linnébreen started to form approx.
4000-5000 years ago and that Nordenskiöldbreen in Billefjorden formed c. 3000-4000 years ago
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(for locations see Fig. 1C). However, Forwick and Vorren (2007) found indications that
Vardebreen, c. 10 km north of Linnébreen (Fig. 1C), formed or increased in size already c. 7000
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cal. years BP.
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In this paper, we present data that provide new information about the environmental conditions
in the largest fjord system on Spitsbergen during the past c. 13,000 years. We discuss temporal
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oceanographic changes in the north Atlantic region.
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variations of iceberg rafting and sea-ice rafting and how these processes relate to climatic and
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2. Physiographic setting
The Isfjorden fjord system is the largest fjord system on the island Spitsbergen, Svalbard (Fig. 1).
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It is c. 100 km long, up to 425 m deep and it comprises the trunk fjord Isfjorden and thirteen
tributary fjords and bays. The fjord system is surrounded by the second largest drainage basin on
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Spitsbergen (7309 km2; Hagen et al., 1993). With a glacier coverage of about 40 %, it is,
however, the area with the least relative glacier cover on the island. Nine tidewater glaciers
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terminate into the fjord system.
The hydrography in Isfjorden is characterised by water masses of internal and external origin
(Nilsen et al., 2008). Surface waters (mainly formed from glacial melt and river runoff during
late spring and summer), local waters (increased salinity due to sea-ice formation) and wintercooled waters originate in the fjords. Atlantic Water from the West Spitsbergen Current and
Arctic-type water, a heavily modified extension of the East Spitsbergen Current, intrude into the
fjord system through the mouth of Isfjorden (Fig. 1A; Nilsen et al., 2008).
Sea ice usually forms in the inner fjords on western Spitsbergen in December/January and starts
to break up between April and July (Węsławski et al., 1995; Svendsen et al., 2002; Nilsen et al.,
2008). However, the sea-ice conditions are strongly controlled by interactions with the
atmosphere and ocean (Cottier et al., 2007).
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The bedrock geology in most of the Isfjorden system is dominated by partly deformed
sedimentary rocks of Devonian to Paleogene age (Dallmann et al., 2002). Intensely deformed
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metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic to Mesozoic age occur in the west. Smaller
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areas of volcanic and metamorphic rocks occur in the east and northeast. Unconsolidated
Quaternary fluvial and marine sediments have been deposited in surrounding valleys and on
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raised strandflats (Dallmann et al., 2002).
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3. Material and Methods
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This study is based on the analysis of the two piston cores JM98-818-PC and JM98-845-PC (Fig.
1C; Tab. 1) that were retrieved with R/V "Jan Mayen" in 1998. The inner diameters of the cores
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are 10 cm. The plastic liner containing the interval between 168 cm and 267.5 cm in core JM98818-PC was partly flattened due to the formation of vacuum during core sampling; the sediments
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of this section were partly disturbed. In core JM98-845-PC, the sediments were disturbed
coring.
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between approx. 20 cm and 25 cm, probably also as a consequence of vacuum generated during
Prior to opening, the physical properties of the cores were measured in one-cm steps using a
GEOTEK Multi-Sensor Core Logger (MSCL). The parameters included bulk density, magnetic
susceptibility (loop sensor) and fractional porosity. After opening, the magnetic susceptibility
was measured with a point sensor (Bartington MS2EI) in 0.5 cm intervals. Radiographs of halfcore sections were acquired and described. Visual description was performed and colour
information is based on the Munsell Soil Color Chart. The water content as well as the shear
strength, using the fall-cone test (Hansbo, 1957), were estimated.
Grain-size analyses were performed on samples from core JM98-845-PC. Above 725 cm, the
samples comprised 1 cm thick slices that were sampled every 10 cm, starting at 5 cm. Below 725
cm, samples had generally smaller and variable volumes, because of variable thicknesses of
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sampled strata. Sieves with mesh sizes of 63 µm, 125 µm, 250 µm, 500 µm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 4 mm
and 8 mm were used. The fraction < 63 µm was analysed with a Micrometrics SediGraph 5100
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in order to separate clay and silt. The boundary between clay and silt was set at 2 µm. Weight
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percentages of clay, silt and sand fractions of core JM98-845-PC are presented. We excluded
grains larger than 2 mm from the calculations since the weight of one single large grain can bias
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the data.
Grains larger than 1 mm are regarded to be ice-rafted debris (IRD; compare with Hald et al.,
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2004), except in the basal till comprising unit I-T (see below). We counted their numbers in the
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grain-size distribution samples. The roundness of grains > 1 mm was determined using a
binocular. IRD fluxes were calculated for the uppermost 705 cm.
Fifteen AMS-radiocarbon dates of shells, snails and foraminifera were obtained. The targets
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were produced at the Radiological Dating Laboratory in Trondheim, Norway, and the
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measurements were carried out at the Ångström Laboratory in Uppsala, Sweden. A marine
reservoir effect of 440 years was applied (Mangerud and Gulliksen, 1975). The radiocarbon ages
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were calibrated with the software programme Calib Rev 5.0.1 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) using
ΔR = 93±23 (regional average for Spitsbergen; in marine reservoir correction database:
http://radiocarbon.pa.qub.ac.uk/marine/). Results were obtained from the calibration data set
marine04.14C of Hughen et al. (2004).
4. Results
Based on multi-proxy analyses of the two piston cores JM98-818-PC and JM98-845-PC (Fig.
1C; Tab. 1) we define five lithological units for central Isfjorden (Figs. 2, 3, 4). A detailed
overview about the lithological composition, sediment colour, as well as physical-properties and
other parameters is given in Table 2.
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4.1 Lithostratigraphy
4.1.1 Unit I-T – basal till
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Unit I-T occurs below 918 cm in core JM98-845-PC (Figs. 2, 3A; Tab. 2). It comprises a very
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dark greyish brown, massive diamicton with high clast content in a muddy matrix. Its upper
boundary is sharp and uneven. Reliable shear-strength measurements with the fall-cone test
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could not be performed due to the high clast content. However, sticking a needle into the
sediments revealed that the deposits are slightly overconsolidated in comparison to the other
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units. Both the bulk density and the magnetic susceptibility reach the highest values for the entire
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core (Fig. 2). The grains > 1 mm in two grain-size distribution samples are predominantly
angular (Fig. 6). Several deformed strata and patches of more reddish and brownish sediments
occur above 948 cm. One shell fragment was dated to c. 46,000
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C BP (radiocarbon years
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before the present; Fig. 2; Tab. 3).
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Because of the high clast content and overconsolidation we suggest that unit I-T is a basal till.
Deformed strata may indicate that this unit was deposited beneath a fast flowing glacier / ice
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stream (Alley et al., 1986; Benn and Evans, 1996).
4.1.2 Unit I-Gs – stratified glacimarine sediments
Unit I-Gs is present in both cores (Figs. 2, 3B, 4; Tab. 2). Its thickness is 190 cm in core JM98845-PC and 393 cm in core JM98-818-PC, respectively. It is characterised by clast-bearing
stratified mud with intercalated sandy strata. The colours vary between the three end members
reddish brown to very dark greyish brown and very dark grey. Boundaries between strata are
generally sharp or gradational. Some erosional boundaries occur in the lower parts of the unit,
predominantly at the bases of the sandy strata. These sandy strata may be turbidites (see e.g.
Mackiewicz et al., 1984; Powell, 1984; Powell and Molnia, 1989). The amount of sandy strata
decreases upwards, coinciding with a general fining upward trend (Fig. 2). Some deformation
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occurs in core JM98-818-PC (Fig. 4; Tab. 2). This is supposed to be the result of mass-transport
activity because of the core's location close to the slope off Borebukta (Fig. 1C).
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The physical-property logs show generally cyclic fluctuations with slightly up-core decreasing
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bulk density and increasing fractional porosity (Figs. 2, 4). The fluctuations of the bulk-density
logs and changes in the grey intensity on the X-radiographs (Fig. 3B) indicate that the
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stratification in unit I-Gs is partly related to variations in grain size. However, particularly in the
upper parts of the unit, where the lithological changes are not as pronounced as in the lower parts,
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the sediment colour defines the stratification to a large degree. Because of the stratification and
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the high clast content, we suggest that unit I-Gs was deposited in a glacimarine environment
where sediment input occurred from multiple sources.
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4.1.3 Unit I-Gd – clast-rich glacimarine diamicton
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Unit I-Gd comprises a 30-35 cm thick upward fining, massive and clast-rich diamicton with a
muddy matrix (Figs. 2, 3C, 4; Tab. 2). It has gradational upper and lower boundaries. The values
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of the physical properties, except of the fractional porosity and the water content, decrease upcore. Close to the top of the unit, the lowest magnetic-susceptibility values for the entire core
were measured. Within the lowermost 20-25 cm, the sediment colour is a mixture of the reddishgreyish-brownish colours of unit I-Gs. However, more distinct strata of the single colours occur
occasionally. The sediment colour changes gradually to very dark grey about 10 cm below the
top of the unit. One radiocarbon date of benthic foraminifera from the upper parts of the unit in
core JM98-818-PC provided an age of 10,535±60 14C BP (Fig. 4; Tab. 3).
We suggest that unit I-Gd comprises a glacimarine diamicton that was deposited close to the end
of the last glacial, rather than a basal till (unit I-T), because 1) the gradational boundaries
indicate that this diamicton is part of a continuous sedimentation record linking the Late
Weichselian stratified glacimarine sediments (unit I-Gs) with the Holocene mud (Unit I-M; for
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chronology see chapter 4.2, below; Figs. 2, 3); 2) the undrained shear strength is similar to the
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shear strengths in the surrounding units, indicating that it is not overconsolidated (Fig. 2).
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4.1.4 Unit I-M – massive glacimarine sediments
Unit I-M is the uppermost unit in both cores. It comprises bioturbated massive mud with clasts
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(Figs. 2, 3D, 3E, 4; Tab. 2). The amount of clasts is significantly less than in unit I-Gd. Black
mottles occur on fresh surfaces. They disappear and the sediment colour changes to very dark
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grey when the sediment surface is exposed to air. Paired shells, shell fragments, snails and
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foraminifera are present. The unit is divided into the sub-units I-Ml (lower) and I-Mu (upper),
respectively. Sub-unit I-Ml is characterised by lower clast contents but larger amounts of organic
material, compared to sub-unit I-Mu (Figs. 2, 3D, 3E, 4). We suggest that unit I-M has been
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deposited in a glacimarine environment where sub-unit I-Ml reflects lower and sub-unit I-Mu
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higher glacial activity, respectively. Four radiocarbon dates from sub-unit I-Ml provided ages
between 9870±65 and 8700±60 14C BP and nine radiocarbon dates from sub-unit I-Mu gave ages
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of maximum 8115±45 14C BP (Figs. 2, 4; Tab. 3).
4.2 Chronology
The shell fragment from the basal till (unit I-T) was dated to c. 46,000 14C BP (Fig. 2; Tab. 3).
This indicates that it lived during the Kapp Ekholm interstadial (Mangerud et al., 1998) or older
interstadials, and that it was reworked during younger glacial periods. We suggest that the basal
till was deposited during the last glacial, because 1) it is the only till in our record, and 2) older
deposits were most probably removed by glaciers occupying the fjord (e.g. Hooke and Elverhøi,
1996).
Two radiocarbon dates from the deposits that are correlated with the overlying stratified
glacimarine deposits (unit I-Gs; for correlation see chapter 4.3, below) imply that the till was
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deposited prior to 10,585±90
14
C BP (c. 12,700 cal. years BP; Tab. 3; Elverhøi et al., 1995;
Svendsen et al., 1996).
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Very few foraminifera tests were found in the glacimarine deposits of unit I-Gs, so that no
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radiocarbon date could be obtained from our material. We suggest, however, that its deposition
commenced after the deglaciation of the mouth of Isfjorden at 12,300
14
C BP (c. 14,100 cal.
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years BP; Mangerud et al., 1992). Based on the correlation with the laminated glacimarine mud
described by Elverhøi et al. (1995) and Svendsen et al. (1996; see chapter 4.3, below), we infer
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that its deposition commenced before 10,585±90 14C BP (c. 12,700 cal. years BP; Tab. 3). This
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indicates that the sediments were deposited during the Younger Dryas and probably also during
the Allerød.
One radiocarbon date from the upper parts of unit I-Gd of 10,535±60
14
C BP (Fig. 4; Tab. 3)
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suggests that most of the clast-rich glacimarine diamicton was deposited during the early stages
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of the Younger Dryas. It should be noted that our date and the date of 10395±140 14C BP (Tab.
3; Svendsen et al., 1992, 1996) from deposits correlated with the underlying unit I-Gs show an
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age inversion. However, we assume that both dates are reliable, because the calibrated ages
reveal that the dating material could have been deposited in the correct chronological order.
Whereas the four dates from sub-unit I-Ml have early Holocene ages, are the dates from sub-unit
I-Mu of mid and late Holocene age (Figs. 2, 4; Tab. 3). When assuming a linear sedimentation
rate between 8700±60 and 7790±60 14C BP in core JM98-845-PC (Fig. 2; Tab. 3), the transition
from unit I-Ml to I-Mu occurred around 8100 14C BP (c. 9000 cal. years BP).
The material sampled from 109-110 cm in core JM98-818-PC provided an age that is
significantly older than the age from 135-136 cm (Fig. 4; Tab. 3). We suppose that the material
from 109-110 cm has been reworked and therefore disregard the result. The dates from sub-unit
I-Mu in core JM98-845-PC show generally decreasing ages up-core and are assumed to provide
reliable ages (Fig. 2; Tab. 3). However, we disregard the uppermost two dates, because 1) the
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date from 33 cm (130 14C BP) provides an invalid age for the calibration (Hughen et al., 2004);
2) the material from 6 cm (440
14
C BP) was sampled in the vicinity of the disturbed section
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between c. 20 cm and 25 cm, and because it was sampled close to the core top that most
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probably has been disturbed during coring.
Even though we obtained radiocarbon dates from both cores (Figs. 2, 4; Tab. 3), our chronology
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for the environmental reconstructions during the Holocene are exclusively based on the dates
from core JM98-845-PC because 1) the Holocene section in this core is more than twice as thick
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as in core JM98-818-PC (Figs. 2, 4; Tab. 2), and therefore provides higher temporal resolution;
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2) parts of the Holocene section in core JM98-818-PC were disturbed during sampling (see
chapter 3); 3) we found signs of reworking of the sediments in core JM98-818-PC (deformed
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strata in unit I-Gs, age reversal in unit I-Mu; Fig. 3; Tab. 2).
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4.3 Lithostratigraphic correlation
Elverhøi et al. (1983, 1995) and Svendsen et al. (1992, 1996) published lithological data from
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central Isfjorden. They distinguish three lithological units. Elverhøi et al. (1983) suggested that
"ice-front deposits" are covered with "interbedded proximal deposits" (Fig. 5A). The latter are
overlain by "homogenous distal mud/basin mud". Svendsen et al. (1992, 1996) and Elverhøi et al.
(1995) suggested that a till is overlain by laminated (glacimarine) mud and olive grey mud (Fig.
5B). The till was deposited before 15 to 10 14C ka BP (thousands of radiocarbon years before the
present), the laminated mud was deposited prior to 10 14C ka BP and the olive grey mud after 10
14
C ka BP. Radiocarbon ages of 10,585±90 14C BP and 10,395±140 14C BP were obtained from
the stratified glacimarine sediments (Tab. 3; Svendsen et al., 1992, 1996; Elverhøi et al., 1995).
The following lithological units from our study, and the records of Elverhøi et al. (1983, 1995)
and Svendsen et al. (1992, 1996) can be correlated based on their lithologies, stratigraphic
positions and chronologies (Fig. 5): I-T and the ice-front deposits / till; I-Gs and the interbedded
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proximal deposits / laminated (glacimarine) sediments; I-M and the homogenous distal muds /
olive grey muds.
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Our data allow the following improvements to the existing lithostratigraphy (Fig. 5C): 1) A
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massive glacimarine diamicton (unit I-Gd) separates units I-Gs and I-M; 2) we are able to sub-
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divide the glacimarine muds into lower (I-Ml) and upper (I-Mu) muds.
4.4 Sedimentation rate
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The highest sedimentation rate in central Isfjorden during the Holocene occurred prior to c. 8800
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cal. years BP (Fig. 8B, below). At that time, it dropped by approx. 50 %. Another less
pronounced decrease to the lowest Holocene values occurred around 7000 cal. years BP. The rate
remained low until c. 1300 cal. years BP when it doubled.
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A marked drop in the sedimentation rate in van Mijenfjorden (for location see Fig. 1B) occurred
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also around 8800 cal. years BP (Hald et al., 2004). However, an increase in the sedimentation
rate that is comparable to the increase in Isfjorden around 1300 cal. years BP could not be
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detected in van Mijenfjorden. Because the increase appears unrealistically high and because
parts of the uppermost sediment column of core JM98-845-PC are disturbed (see chapter 3), we
disregard the chronology for the last 1300 years (uppermost c. one meter) for further discussions.
4.5 Ice-rafted debris (IRD)
4.5.1 Amount and shape
Ice-rafted debris (grains > 1 mm) was counted in the grain-size distribution samples from core
JM98-845-PC (Figs. 6, 7). The number of grains per sample varies between 0 and 208; the
average number of grains per sample is approx. 20 (note that the sample volumes are variable
below 725 cm; see chapter 3). No clasts were found in the samples 455-456 cm, 465-466 cm and
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475-476 cm, respectively. However, the radiographs reveal scattered clasts around the sampled
depths.
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We divided the grains into two groups: one group comprising "angular" grains (including
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angular and sub-angular grains), and the other group containing "rounded" grains (including subrounded, rounded and well-rounded grains; Figs. 6, 7, 8; Tab. 4). The percentages of the two
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groups fluctuate, but angular grains generally dominate. Based on the average percentages of
angular and rounded grains we distinguish six intervals of ice rafting. The intervals IRD-1 and
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IRD-2 occur in the lithological sub-unit I-Mu, IRD-3 and IRD-4 in sub-unit I-Ml, IRD-5 in unit
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I-Gd and IRD-6 in unit I-Gs, respectively (Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4).
An overall upward decrease in the percentage of rounded grains occurs in interval IRD-6 (Fig. 6).
However, more pronounced fluctuations and comparatively high percentages occur between c.
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768 and 822 cm. Interval IRD-5 is characterised by increasing percentages of rounded grains
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(Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4). Interval IRD-4 comprises moderately high and fluctuating percentages of
rounded and angular clasts. A marked change in the clast roundness occurs at the boundary
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between the intervals IRD-4 and IRD-3. Interval IRD-3 is characterised by the highest
percentage of angular clasts in the entire core. Marked fluctuations occur in interval IRD-2, in
particular in the lower part. Whereas angular grains dominate in interval IRD-2 is the average
ratio of angular to rounded grains in interval IRD-1 almost equal (Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4).
4.5.2 IRD flux
The IRD fluxes for the top of the glacimarine diamicton (unit I-Gd) and the Holocene muds
(units I-Ml and I-Mu) were calculated, based on the sedimentation rates in core JM98-845-PC
(Fig. 8; Tab. 4). The fluxes at the top of unit I-Gd were estimated from an assumed continuous
sedimentation rate below 690 cm.
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Between c. 11,300 and c. 9300 cal. years BP, the IRD fluxes decreased from the highest values
of 444 grains > 1 mm / cm2 / ka (ka = thousands of calendar years ) to zero (Fig. 8A). The most
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significant drop occurred between 11,300 and c. 10,800 cal. years BP. It was followed by
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decreasing and frequently fluctuating fluxes until 9700 cal. years BP. The flux decreased
gradually between 9700 and 9300 cal. years BP. Based on the calculations it seems that no ice-
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rafting occurred between c. 9300 and 9000 cal. years BP. However, scattered clasts on the Xradiographs indicate that some ice rafting took place during this period. An increase in IRD flux
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occurred from c. 9000 to 8800 cal. years BP. The time between c. 9000 and 4000 cal. years BP is
characterised by relatively high and oscillating IRD fluxes. The average IRD flux during this
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time was 17.5 grains > 1 mm / cm2 / ka (Tab. 4). Fluxes of 12.5 grains > 1 mm / cm2 / ka
occurred between c. 4000 and c. 1300 cal. years BP. We did not include IRD fluxes for the past
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1300 years (uppermost c. 1 m of the core) into this study, because of the unrealistically high
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sedimentation rate (Fig. 8B; see chapter 4.4).
The fluxes of angular and rounded grains generally fluctuated synchronously (Fig. 8). However,
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three intervals of asynchronous fluctuations should be noted: 1) around 10,200 cal. years BP,
when the flux of rounded grains dropped to almost zero, while the flux of angular grains
continued to fluctuate; 2) An increase in angular grains between 9000 and 8800 cal. years BP
was substituted by an increase in rounded grains between 8800 and 8600 cal. years BP; 3) a peak
in the IRD flux around 5800 cal. years BP was almost exclusively related to the increase in the
flux of angular grains.
5. Discussion
5.1 Iceberg-rafted vs. sea-ice rafted debris
Ice rafting can occur by icebergs and sea ice. The size of the rafted material can occasionally be
used to infer the type of transportation in shore-distal settings, i.e. larger particles are more likely
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to be deposited from icebergs (e.g. Gilbert, 1990; Knies et al., 2001). However, since core JM98845-PC was retrieved from the central parts of Isfjorden, the setting is rather proximal, and we
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do not regard the grain size as a proxy for the distinction between iceberg-rafted and sea-ice
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rafted debris in our study.
Another parameter that might be used is the grain shape. Iceberg-rafted debris is angular to
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rounded, and sea-ice rafted debris is usually more rounded (Gilbert, 1990; Goldschmidt et al.,
1992; Lisitzin, 2002). However, sea-ice rafted debris in polar settings can also be of a more
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angular type (Gilbert, 1990 and references therein). Hence, an unequivocal distinction between
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iceberg-rafted debris and sea-ice rafted debris remains problematic (Gilbert, 1990; Dowdeswell
et al., 1998).
Based on the results of our study, we infer that iceberg-transported material in central Isfjorden
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has generally higher percentages of angular grains than sea-ice transported material, because: 1)
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Unit I-Gd / interval IRD-5 comprises a glacimarine diamicton that reflects the major and rapid
retreat of the glacier fronts from central Isfjorden at the end of the Late Weichselian glaciation.
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The retreat occurred mainly through iceberg calving (see chapter 5.3, below). The unit/interval is
characterised by high IRD flux and comparatively high percentages of angular grains (on
average 87 %; Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4); 2) In chapter 5.4 (below), we infer that the period between c.
10,200 and 8800 cal. years BP is characterised by warm surface waters, suppressing the
formation of sea ice. Accordingly, the IRD was mainly iceberg derived. The grains > 1 mm that
were deposited during this period are almost exclusively angular (Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4); 3) The
samples from the basal till (unit I-T) indicate that glacier-derived material is mainly angular (Fig.
6).
5.2 Late Weichselian glaciation
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We suggest that the basal till (unit I-T) at the base of core JM98-845-PC (Figs. 2, 3; Tab. 2) was
deposited beneath an ice stream that drained the Late Weichselian Svalbard-Barents Sea Ice
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Sheet through Isfjorden during the last glacial (compare with Ottesen et al., 2005). High
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magnetic susceptibility indicates that at least some material derived from areas other than in the
overlying units. Even though restricted areas of volcanic and metamorphic rocks occur in areas
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that presently supply sediments to central Isfjorden (Dallmann et al., 2002), the magnetic
susceptibility of the units overlying the till remains below 40 10-5 SI (loop sensor) and 60 10-5 SI
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(point sensor), respectively. Hence, the material with the high magnetic susceptibility may have
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its origin north of Billefjorden where e.g. granitic rocks and mica gneisses occur (Dallmann et al.,
2002), or further away. This suggests a transport distance of at least c. 50 km.
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5.3 Late Weichselian / earliest Holocene deglaciation
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The stratified glacimarine sediments (unit I-Gs; Figs. 2, 3) covering the basal till, as well as the
clast-rich glacimarine diamicton (unit I-Gd) were deposited during a period when the glacier
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fronts retreated from the mouth of Isfjorden and to the heads of its tributaries (e.g. Mangerud et
al., 1992, 1998; Elverhøi et al., 1995; Svendsen et al., 1996; Lønne, 2005).
We suggest that unit I-Gs was deposited in a glacier-proximal environment during the Younger
Dryas and probably already during the Allerød. Sediment supply occurred from suspension fall
out, ice rafting and mass-transport activity. The frequent colour changes from reddish brown to
very dark greyish brown and very dark grey suggest sediment input from multiple sources. The
general fining-upward trend (Fig. 2) is regarded to reflect the transition from a more glacierproximal to a more distal environment. Predominantly higher percentages of angular IRD in unit
I-Gs / interval IRD-6 (average 76 %) are probably due to frequent iceberg rafting (Fig. 6; Tab. 4).
However, peaks of more rounded grains (in particular within the interval between c. 768 and 822
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cm in core JM98-845-PC) suggest periods of relatively increased sea-ice rafting and/or decreased
iceberg rafting.
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A clast-rich massive glacimarine diamicton (unit I-Gd / interval IRD-5) overlies the proximal
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glacimarine sediments (Figs. 2, 3, 4). It is characterised by high IRD flux and high percentages
of angular IRD (Figs. 6, 7, 8; Tab. 4).
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We suggest that the high IRD flux and the dominance of angular clasts in unit I-Gd are the result
of intense iceberg rafting related to the final glacier withdrawal from Isfjorden to the inner parts
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of its tributaries, because 1) the unit is part of a continuous record linking Late Weichselian
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glacier-proximal sediments with the Holocene deposits, i.e. that it has to contain the final glacier
withdrawal; 2) marked IRD peaks offshore western Svalbard are related to the Late Weichselian
deglaciation (Mangerud et al., 1998; Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2007); 3) the general fining
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upward trend in the clay-silt-sand fractions (Fig. 2) is regarded as an indicator for an increasing
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distance to the sediment source.
The occasional occurrence of reddish brown, very dark greyish brown and very dark grey strata
Isfjorden.
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probably reflects a temporarily increased input from individual retreating glaciers surrounding
The deposition of unit I-Gd terminated in the earliest Preboral, shortly prior to 9870±65 14C BP
(11,200 cal. years BP; Fig. 2; Tab. 3). This was the time when the deglaciation on Spitsbergen
terminated and the glacier fronts had retreated to the fjord heads (e.g. Elverhøi et al., 1983, 1995;
Mangerud et al., 1992, 1998; Svendsen et al., 1996; Hald et al., 2004; Lønne, 2005).
The response of the glacier fronts on Spitsbergen to the Younger Dryas cooling is still debated.
Whereas marked glacier-frontal deposits related to a Younger Dryas readvance are found in
Scandinavia and Canada (e.g. Andersen et al., 1995; Lyså & Vorren, 1997; Dyke & Savelle,
2000; Vorren & Plassen, 2002), such morphological evidence is lacking on Spitsbergen. The low
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preservation potential of terrestrial deposits on Svalbard (Boulton et al., 1996; Lønne & Lyså,
2005) may account for this.
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Retarded glacio-isostatic uplift (Forman et al., 1987; Landvik et al., 1987; Lehman & Forman,
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1992) led Svendsen et al. (1996) to conclude that the glaciers in the inner parts of Isfjorden
readvanced during the Younger Dryas cooling. It has been suggested that the tributaries of
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Isfjorden have been occupied by outlet glaciers and that their fronts were located either in the
inner main fjord (Mangerud et al., 1992) or “far out in the main fjord” (Svendsen et al., 1996; see
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Fig. 1C).
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A possible Younger Dryas readvance may be archived in the lithological units I-Gs and I-Gd.
The data from unit I-Gs do not provide any information about the IRD flux. However, the peaks
of more rounded grains in the interval between c. 768 and 822 cm in core JM98-845-PC suggest
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a period of a relative increase in sea-ice rafting and/or decreased iceberg rafting (Fig. 6). This
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may reflect the Younger Dryas cooling and a related glacier readvance, because 1) glacier
growth could have resulted in reduced iceberg calving; 2) reduced summer melt due to lower
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summer temperatures (compare with Birks et al., 1994) could have caused reduced iceberg
calving during summer; 3) multi-annual and/or shorefast sea-ice suppressed the drift of icebergs
across the core site.
High clay, as well as low silt and sand contents in this interval (Fig. 2) may point towards
sedimentation mainly from suspension settling. This would support our suggestion that multiannual and/or shorefast sea-ice suppressed iceberg rafting. The increasing percentages of angular
grains and the coarsening in the topmost part of the section may reflect periodic break-up of the
sea ice and the onset of the glacier retreat following the Younger Dryas maximum ice extent.
Above, we argued that unit I-Gd was deposited during the final glacier withdrawal to the head of
the tributaries of Isfjorden. However, because muddy diamictons with high clast contents occur
in various glacimarine settings where high IRD flux reflects intensive iceberg calving related to
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the presence of ice streams, glacier advances or glacier retreats (Powell, 1984; Dowdeswell et al.,
1994, 1998; Vorren and Plassen, 2002), it should not be excluded that an eventual Younger
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Dryas readvance is archived in this unit, in addition to the subsequent retreat.
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Ślubowska-Woldengen et al. (2007) described only a slight increase in the IRD flux west off
Svalbard during an early phase of the Younger Dryas. Koç et al. (2002) did not detect any
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significant IRD signal north off Svalbard during this period. Both observations may indicate that
ice rafting was generally reduced during the cooling. This may exclude that unit I-Gd was
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deposited during the Younger Dryas. It could, however, support a potential increase sea-ice
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formation the interval between c. 768 and 822 cm in core JM98-845-PC as a consequence of the
Younger Dryas cooling.
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5.4 Holocene glacimarine environments
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Clasts in unit I-M are suggested to reflect continuous ice rafting by sea ice and icebergs (Figs. 6,
8), implying that tidewater glaciers were present in the Isfjorden area throughout the entire
(Fig. 8).
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Holocene. However, ice rafting has been significantly reduced compared to the Late Weichselian
Our suggestion is in contrast to observations by Svendsen and Mangerud (1997) who did not find
any signs of Holocene glacial activity in Lake Linnévatnet after the Younger Dryas and prior to
approx. 4000-5000 years BP, and in Billefjorden before c. 3000-4000 years BP. It supports,
however, the results of Hald et al. (2004) from Van Mijenfjorden who found indications for a
continuous presence of tidewater glaciers during the Holocene (for locations see Fig. 1).
Sub-unit I-Ml (intervals IRD-3, 4) was deposited between c. 11,200 and 9000 cal. years BP. The
relatively low IRD flux (Fig. 8), but high amounts of paired shells, shell fragments and
foraminifera are regarded to reflect the most favourable Holocene climatic and oceanographic
conditions.
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The period between c. 10,800 and 9700 cal. years BP was characterised by decreasing but
oscillating IRD flux (Figs. 8, 9B-D). The generally decreasing IRD fluxes are suggested to
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reflect the ongoing general warming in the North Atlantic Region (Fig. 9E-G; Johnsen et al.,
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2001; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004). Peaks in the IRD flux generally resulted from
synchronous increases in iceberg and sea-ice rafting prior to 10,200 cal. years BP (interval IRD-
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4). They were probably caused by short-lived synchronous climatic and oceanographic coolings
in central Spitsbergen. These variations could have been related to short-lived atmospheric and
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oceanographic fluctuations on Greenland, the western Barents Sea and the continental slope off
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west Spitsbergen (Fig. 9E-G; Johnsen et al., 2001; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004).
After 10,200 cal. years BP, ice rafting occurred exclusively from icebergs (IRD-3; Figs. 8C, D;
9C, D). This change took place almost at the same time as the onset of the Holocene Thermal
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Optimum in the western Barents Sea and on the west Spitsbergen continental margin, lasting
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from c. 10,000 to c. 9000/8800 cal. years BP (Fig. 9E, F; Birks, 1991; Salvigsen et al., 1992;
Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004; Rasmussen et al., 2007). We assume that the formation
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of sea ice was significantly reduced or absent during this period, because 1) of the strong inflow
of warm Atlantic Water to the western and northern Svalbard shelf, and its appearance as a
surface-water mass off western Spitsbergen (Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2007; Rasmussen et
al., 2007); 2) the mean July temperatures at the west coast of Spitsbergen were about 2 °C higher
during the early Holocene than at present (Birks, 1991); 3) surface-water temperatures in west
Spitsbergen fjords were 1-3 °C higher than at present (Salvigsen et al., 1992).
We assume that the iceberg-rafted debris originated from glaciers on east Spitsbergen, because
glaciers along the west coast appear to have been absent at that time (Svendsen and Mangerud,
1997). This may point towards a strong east-west temperature gradient across Spitsbergen during
the early Holocene.
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The most favourable and stable environmental conditions during the Holocene in the western
Barents Sea and Spitsbergen regions (Fig. 9E, F; this study, Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al.,
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2004) occurred while the sea-surface conditions off Scandinavia were still generally unstable and
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influenced by the meltwater runoff from the Fennoscandian ice sheet (Klitgaard-Kristensen et al.,
2001; Birks & Koç, 2002), and while Arctic conditions were still prevailing along a narrow zone
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over the western Greenland Basin (Koç et al., 1996). However, they occurred synchronously
with the most favourable environmental conditions off north Iceland, in an area that presently is
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influenced by branches of the relatively warm Irminger Current (Fig. 1; Knudsen et al., 2004).
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The early and synchronous timing for the Holocene Climatic Optimum off north Iceland, the
western Barents Sea and the continental margin off west Spitsbergen (Sarnthein et al., 2003;
Knudsen et al., 2004; Hald et al., 2004), as well as in Isfjorden is most probably the result of
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increased solar insolation and warmer Atlantic Water penetrating northwards (Fig. 9H; e.g.
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Berger & Loutre, 1991; Koç et al., 1993; Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2007). However, the fact
that it precedes the Holocene Thermal Optimums in more central parts of the Nordic Seas with
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up to several thousand years (e.g. Harrison et al., 1992; Koç et al., 1993; Hald et al., 2007; Bauch
et al., 2001; Duplessy et al., 2001; Johnsen et al., 2001; Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001;
Voronina et al., 2001; Birks & Koç, 2002; Nesje et al., 2005) can have several reasons. The ice
sheets over Svalbard and the Barents Sea, as well as over Iceland, were significantly smaller
and/or thinner than the ice sheets over Scandinavia and Greenland (e.g. Svendsen et al., 2004;
Wohlfarth et al., 2008). This resulted in a rapid decay (compare with e.g. Landvik et al., 1998)
and, in consequence, a rapidly decreasing influence on the climate and oceanography in these
areas. Such a development opposes the situation in northwestern Europe where the ice sheets
over Scandinavia and north America probably damped the effect of the high summer insolation
until c. 8000 cal. years BP (e.g. Harrison et al., 1992; Duplessy et al., 2001; Nesje et al., 2005).
Furthermore, a layer of relatively fresh water from these ice sheets might have restricted the
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warmer Atlantic Water masses to the subsurface (compare with Rasmussen et al., 2007) and, in
consequence, limited the supply of heat to the atmosphere off northwestern Europe.
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An increase in the IRD flux (Fig. 8), as well as lower amounts of shells, shell fragments and
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foraminifera in sub-unit I-Mu indicate generally cooler environmental conditions and an increase
in glacial activity during the past c. 9000 cal. years BP. We distinguished the IRD intervals IRD-
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1 and 2, respectively (Figs. 6, 8; Tab. 4).
A period of increased iceberg rafting between c. 9000 and 8800 cal. years BP was followed by
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enhanced sea-ice rafting until approximately 8600 cal. years BP (Fig. 9C, D). The onset of
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iceberg rafting preceded a general cooling in the western Barents Sea and the Spitsbergen region,
starting at c. 8800 cal. years BP (Fig. 9E, F; Birks, 1991; Wohlfarth et al., 1995; Sarnthein et al.,
2003; Hald et al., 2004; Rasmussen et al., 2007). However, it correlated to a period of relatively
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large fluctuations in the δ18O record, following a cold spell at c. 9300 cal. years BP on Greenland
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(Fig. 9G; Johnsen et al., 2001; Rasmussen et al., 2006; Vinther et al., 2006). The subsequent
increase in sea-ice rafting occurred synchronously with a marked drop in sea-surface
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temperatures in the western Barents Sea and west off Spitsbergen (Fig. 9D-F; Sarnthein et al.,
2003; Hald et al., 2004). These changes may reflect a sequence of marked environmental
changes in the northernmost North Atlantic commencing with a marked cooling on Greenland c.
9300 cal. years BP (Johnsen et al., 2001). This might have led to decreasing air temperatures
and/or increased precipitation on Spitsbergen, resulting in glacier growth and increased iceberg
calving latest around 9000 cal. years BP (note that this is a minimum age, because some ice
rafting occurred between c. 9300 and 9000 cal. years BP – see chapter 4.5.2). The subsequent
decrease in iceberg rafting and enhanced sea-ice rafting might indicate that a ‘cooling threshold’
was crossed, leading to a marked drop in sea-surface temperatures in the Svalbard-Barents Sea
region at c. 8800 cal. years BP (Fig. 9E, F; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004). The low
temperatures might have resulted in glacier growth without iceberg calving. The comparison of
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our results with other data (Fig. 9; Johnsen et al., 2001; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004;
Rasmussen et al., 2006; Vinther et al., 2006) indicates that Spitsbergen fjords are settings that
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can archive asynchronous atmospheric and oceanographic environmental variations in the
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European Arctic.
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The fluctuating and comparatively high IRD fluxes between c. 9000 and 4000 cal. years BP
(interval IRD-2; Figs. 8, 9B-D) are suggested to be related to the cooling in the Svalbard-Barents
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Sea region (Birks, 1991; Wohlfarth et al., 1995; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004;
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Rasmussen et al., 2007). The onset of the cooling in this region correlates comparatively well
with the onset of a cooling off north Iceland starting at c. 9000 cal. BP (Knudsen et al., 2004).
However, it started before large areas in and around the Nordic Seas had reached their most
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favourable Holocene environmental conditions, because these were still affected by the ongoing
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meltdown of the Fennoscandian, Laurentide and Greenland ice sheets (e.g. Harrison et al., 1992;
Koç et al., 1993; Hald et al., 2007; Bauch et al., 2001; Duplessy et al., 2001; Johnsen et al., 2001;
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Klitgaard-Kristensen et al., 2001; Voronina et al., 2001; Birks & Koç, 2002; Calvo et al., 2002;
Nesje et al., 2005).
The ice rafting in central Isfjorden during this time occurred mainly from icebergs (Fig. 9C, D).
Short-lasting increases in the flux of iceberg-rafted debris may have been caused by 1) less seaice cover during temporal warming or intrusions of warmer water masses into Isfjorden,
allowing more icebergs to drift across the core site, 2) increased iceberg rafting related to glacier
surges, or 3) random dumping from icebergs.
However, because the fluctuations in iceberg rafting mostly correlate with fluctuations in sea-ice
rafting, we assume that these are the result of synchronous climatic and oceanographic variations.
Whether these variations are coolings or warmings cannot be inferred from our data. They
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indicate at least that open waters must have existed temporarily, allowing relatively large
amounts of icebergs and sea ice to drift across the core site.
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The peak flux of angular grains around 5800 cal. years BP correlates to a temporal sea-surface
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temperature increase in the western Barents Sea (Fig. 9E; Sarnthein et al., 2003). Since no
increase in the sea-ice flux occurs, we suggest that this peak reflects a period of stronger inflow
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of warmer waters into the Isfjorden area, suppressing the formation of sea ice and enhancing
iceberg calving. The subsequent drop in iceberg calving occurred simultaneously with a
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where more ice is retained in the glaciers.
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temperature decrease in the western Barents Sea and probably reflects another glacier growth
As previously mentioned, the ice caps covering Svalbard and the Barents Sea decayed rapidly at
the end of the last glaciation (Landvik et al., 1998), resulting in a very reduced influence on the
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environment in the western Barents Sea-Svalbard region. Therefore, we assume that the cooling
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starting around c. 9000 cal. BP was mainly driven by decreasing solar insolation and the related
decrease in heat flux to the high northern latitudes (Fig. 9H; Berger & Loutre, 1991; Hald et al.,
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2004, 2007; Ślubowska et al., 2005).
A general decrease in the IRD flux occurred around 4000 cal. years BP (interval IRD-1; Figs. 8,
9B-D; Tab. 4). From then, and at least until 1300 cal. years BP, ice rafting took place to almost
equal proportions from icebergs and sea ice. The decrease in IRD flux is probably the result of
the enhanced formation of shore-fast sea ice and/or more permanent sea-ice cover that generally
reduced the drift of sea ice and icebergs in central Isfjorden. We assume that the reduced iceberg
rafting reflects conditions where icebergs were trapped and forced to release their debris close to
the calving fronts in the tributaries of Isfjorden (compare with Ó Cofaigh and Dowdeswell,
2001). This enhanced formation of sea ice is most probably the consequence of decreasing heat
flux along the western Scandinavian-Svalbard margin related to the cooling in the entire north
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Atlantic region (e.g. Birks, 1991; Koç et al., 1993; Svendsen & Mangerud, 1997; KlitgaardKristensen et al., 2001; Voronina et al., 2001; Hald et al., 2004; Nesje et al., 2005; Rasmussen et
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al., 2007; Ślubowska-Woldengen et al., 2007).
6. Conclusions
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1. A basal till in central Isfjorden was deposited beneath an ice stream prior to 12,700 cal. years
BP (Fig. 10A). Some of the material was transported at least 50 km.
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2. Proximal glacimarine conditions, that were influenced by several tidewater glaciers,
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prevailed during most of the Younger Dryas and probably already during the Allerød (Fig.
10B). Ice rafting occurred mainly from icebergs. The Younger Dryas cooling might be
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reflected by increased sea-ice formation and reduced iceberg rafting, in addition to a relative
increase in suspension settling.
(Fig. 10C).
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3. Iceberg rafting dominated the final deglaciation that terminated around 11,200 cal. years BP
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4. The most favourable Holocene climatic and oceanographic conditions occurred between c.
11,200 and 9000 cal. years BP (Fig. 10D). They were probably the result of high solar
insolation and enhanced oceanic heat flux. Ice rafting decreased significantly and occurred
almost exclusively from icebergs after 10,200 years BP. The icebergs were most probably
released from remaining ice masses on east Spitsbergen, suggesting the presence of a strong
east-west temperature gradient on Spitsbergen during this time.
5. Generally enhanced ice rafting between 9000 and 4000 cal. years BP (Fig. 10E) is related to
atmospheric and oceanographic cooling in the western Barents Sea-Svalbard region, as the
result of decreased solar insolation and oceanic heat flux. The cooling period commenced
with an increase in iceberg rafting between c. 9000 and 8800 cal. years BP, followed by an
increase in sea-ice rafting until approx. 8600 cal. years BP.
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6. Decreasing ice rafting after 4000 cal. years BP is regarded to be the result of the ongoing
cooling. It most probably reflects the enhanced formation of shore-fast and/or more
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permanent sea-ice cover, reducing the drift of icebergs and sea ice in the Isfjorden area (Fig.
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10F).
7. The sedimentary record in central Isfjorden reveals that the palaeoenvironmental conditions
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on central Spitsbergen mainly correlate with the oceanographic conditions in the western
Barents Sea and the shelf off western Svalbard. However, it also shows that climatic and
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oceanographic changes on Greenland and in the entire north Atlantic region can have an
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impact on the environment on Spitsbergen.
Acknowledgements – This study was performed as part of the Strategic University Programme
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SPONCOM (Sedimentary Processes and Palaeoenvironment on Northern Continental Margins),
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financed by the Research Council of Norway. The masters and crews of R/V Jan Mayen
supported the data collection. Steinar Iversen provided technical help during and after the cruises.
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Jan P. Holm helped with several figures. Edel Ellingsen, Trine Dahl, Elsebeth Thomsen and
Henrik Rasmussen supported the laboratory analyses. The Roald Amundsen Centre for Arctic
Research at the University of Tromsø provided funding for the radiocarbon dates. Jan Sverre
Laberg gave constructive comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Editor in chief Thierry
Corrège, Jochen Knies and one anonymous reviewer critically reviewed the manuscript and
provided constructive comments for improvements. We extend our most sincere thanks to these
persons and institutions.
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ecosystems. In: Skjoldal, H.R., Hopkins, C., Erikstad, K.E., Leinaa, H.P. (Eds.): Ecology of Fjords and Coastal
SC
Waters, 229-241.
Wohlfarth, B., Björck, S., Funder, S., Houmark-Nielsen, M., Ingólfsson, Ó., Lunkka, J.-P., Mangerud, J., Saarnisto,
NU
M., Vorren, T.O., 2008. Quaternary of Norden. Episodes 31, 73-81.
Wohlfarth, B., Lemdahl, G., Olsson, S., Persson, T., Snowball, I., Ising, J., Jones, V., 1995. Early Holocene
MA
environment on Bjørnøya (Svalbard) inferred from multidisciplinary lake sediment studies. Polar Research 14,
253-275.
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Zajączkowski, M., Szcsuciński, W., Bojanowski, R., 2004. Recent changes in sediment accumulation rates in
AC
CE
PT
Adventfjorden, Svalbard. Oceanologia 46, 217-231.
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Table 1: Overview of sediment cores that provide the basis for this study, and cores referred to in
the text (see Fig. 1 for locations).
Longitude
[E]
14°48.17’
15°18.11’
15°15.6'
Water depth
[m]
239
257
228
Recovery
[m]
7.05
10.15
?
90-03-PC1
78°22.77'
15°28.72'
216
?
Reference
This study
This study
Svendsen et al., 1992, 1996
Elverhøi et al., 1995;
Svendsen et al., 1996
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JM98-818-PC
JM98-845-PC
87-144
Latitude
[N]
78°17.57’
78°20.64’
78°16.6'
Core no.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
I-Gs
I-Gd
918 cm – end of core
Absent
728 cm – 918 cm
312 cm – end of core
Clast bearing stratified mud with
intercalated sandy strata
1 mm to 6 cm thick strata with
sharp or gradational boundaries
Some erosional boundaries in
lower part of unit, mainly at
bases of sandy strata
692 cm – 728 cm
282 cm – 312 cm
Massive, clast-richt diamitcton
with muddy matrix
Clast amount, size and shape
High amounts
< 5 cm
Angular to rounded
I-Mu
c. 450 cm – 692 cm
c. 198 cm – 282 cm
Top of core – c. 450 cm
Top of core – 198 cm
Massive mud with clasts
Massive mud with clasts
High amounts
Up to 3 cm
Angular to rounded
Scattered
Generally < 1 cm, but single
clasts up to c. 5 cm
Angular to rounded
Generally scattered, some
intervals with higher amounts
Generally < 3 cm, but single
clasts up to c. 5 cm
Angular to well rounded
Lowermost 20-25 cm: Mixture of
reddish-greyish-brownish
colours of unit I-Gs; more
distinct strata of single colours
can occur
Uppermost c. 10 cm: gradual (upcore) change to very dark grey
(2.5 3/1)
Black mottles on fresh surfaces
Change to very dark grey (2.5Y
3/1) when exposed to air
Black mottles on fresh surfaces
Change to very dark grey (2.5Y
3/1) when exposed to air
Upward fining massive, clast rich
diamicton with muddy matrix
MA
N
Lithology
I-Ml
US
C
I-T
Scattered and in layers
Gen. < 3 cm, but one 5 cm
Angular to rounded
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Lithological unit →
Parameter ↓
Core JM98-845-PC (10.15 m)
Core JM98-818-PC (7.05 m)
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Table 2: Overview of characteristics and physical properties of the lithological units in the cores JM98-818-PC and JM98-845-PC, as well as
their ages and genesis.
Bulk density [g/cm3]
Fractional porosity [%]
Magn. susc. (loop) [10-5 SI]
Magn. susc. (point sensor) (10-5 SI]
1.7-2.1
31-61
12-37
8-49/5-51 (core 845/core 818)
1.7-2.0
42-62
13-18
5-18/9-33
1.5-2.0
46-70
14-19
7-18/8-37
1.3-1.7
62-83
7-18
8-28/5-58
17-53
15-47
15-36
6-25
19-61
Sharp and uneven
Gradational
Some folding and faulting in core
JM98-818-PC (c. 357-312 cm;
615-597 cm)
Absent
15-28
Gradational
Gradational
25-46
Gradational
Gradational
18-49
Gradational
Top of cores
Some folding in core JM98-818PC
Not observed
Not observed
Bioturbation
2.0-2.3
26-42
28-210
Not possible to measure
Not possible to measure
stiff appearance when sticking a
needle into the sediment
< 20
Not recovered
Sharp and uneven
Several deformed strata of more
reddish and brownish sediments
above 948 cm
Absent
Datable material
One shell fragment
Very few foraminifera tests
Some foraminifera
Highest intensity in core
Highest amount in core (e.g.
paired shells, snails,
foraminifera)
Second highest intensity in core
Second highest amount in core
core (e.g. paired shells, snails,
foraminifera)
Age and genesis
Late Weichselian basal till
Late Weichselian glacierproximal glacimarine sediments
Late Weichselian glacier-distal
glacimarine diamicton
Early Holocene distal glacimarine
mud – lower glacial acitivity
Mid/Late Holocene distal
glacimarine mud – higher
glacial acitivity
Water content [weight %]
Lower unit boundary
Upper unit boundary
Deformation
AC
Shear strength [kPa]
PT
Very dark greyish brown (10YR
3/2)
CE
Reddish brown (5YR 3/2)
Dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2)
Very dark grey (10YR 3/1)
Colour (colour codes from Munsell
Soil Colour Chart)
Absent
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Table 3: Radiocarbon ages and calibrated ages obtained from the cores JM98-845-PC and JM98-818-PC as well as selected published ages.
TUa-4798
TUa-4799
TUa-4800
TUa-4801
TUa-4802
TUa-4803
TUa-4804
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
642-643
690
1008-1009
Nuculana minuta (paired)
Opistobranchia indet. (fragments)
Astarte sp.? (fragments)
TUa-4805
TUa-4806
TUa-4807
JM98-818-PC
JM98-818-PC
JM98-818-PC
JM98-818-PC
JM98-818-PC
17
109-110
135-136
235.5-238
289-291
87-144
362
Turitella communis (whole)
Yoldiella lenticula (paired)
Yoldiella lenticula (paired)
Yoldia hyperborea (fragments)
Foraminifera, several species,
predominantly Nonion labradoricum
Shell indet.
90-03-PC1
255-265
Foraminifera, several species
C age
(± 2σ)
440±55
130±40
1380±40
3945±50
6090±65
7790±60
8700±60
Ua-757
10395±140
TUa-442
10585±90
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TUa-5195
TUa-5194
TUa-5193
TUa-5192
TUa-5191
9785±90
9870±65
45900+1800
-1700
920±30
8115±45
3580±40
9640±50
10535±60
PT
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Calibrated
age BP (1σ)
366-487
Invalid
1238-1324
4344-4502
6822-7017
8521-8717
9640-9875
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Astarte sulcata (paired)
Yoldiella lucida (paired)
Bathyarca glacialis (paired)
Yoldiella lenticula (paired)
Yoldiella (lenticula) (presumably paired)
Yoldia hyperborea (paired)
Yoldiella lenticula (paired)
14
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Lab. No.
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N
Material
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
JM98-845-PC
Depth
[cm]
6
33
102
219-220
314
406-407
530-531
AC
Core
11038-11234
11147-11252
--765-871
8994-9138
3838-3971
10883-11106
12321-12418
12436-12633
11910-12389
12475-12580
12352-12689
Calibrated
age BP (2σ)
298-508
Invalid
1177-1368
4238-4564
6752-7130
8436-8854
9536-9967
9972-10001
10785-11307
11097-11360
---
Lith.
unit
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Ml
Reference
I-Ml
I-Ml
I-T
This study
This study
This study
720-904
8969-9244
3778-4066
10735-11132
12117-12140
12177-12689
11425-11490
11617-12710
12121-12134
12182-12793
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Ml
I-Gd
This study
This study
This study
This study
This study
I-Gs
Svendsen et al., 1992,
1996
Elverhøi et al., 1995;
Svendsen et al., 1996
I-Gs
This study
This study
This study
This study
This study
This study
This study
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Table 4: Characteristics of IRD intervals. Fluxes are shown in [# grains > 1 mm / cm2 / ka].
IRD
interval
Depth [m]
in core
JM98-845-PC
Age [cal. BP] or
chronozone
%
angular
grains
%
rounded
grains
Average
IRD
flux
1
2
3
4
5
~1.00-1.90
1.90-~4.50
~4.50-5.80
5.80-6.92
6.92-7.27
51
69
95
59
87
49
31
5
41
13
6
7.27-9.17
1300-4000
4000-9000
9000-10,200
10,200-11,200
Late Younger Dryas/
early Preboreal
Younger Dryas &
probably older
24
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I-Gs
PT
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Average
flux
rounded
grains
6.47
5.15
0.74
11.80
---
Lithounit
12.53
17.51
7.40
29.79
---
Average
flux
angular
grains
6.05
12.36
6.65
17.99
---
I-Mu
I-Mu
I-Ml
I-Ml
I-Gd