Recognizing Cultural Differences in Verbal and Nonverbal

Recognizing Cultural
Differences in Verbal and
Nonverbal Language Use
Daniel Keelan, M.A., CCC-SLP
Nate Friedman, M.A., CCC-SLP
Culture
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Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular
group of people, defined by the LANGUAGE, religion,
cuisine, social habits, music, and arts shared by such
individuals
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More of a ‘salad bowl’ than a ‘melting pot’ in the U.S.
Cultural Linguistic Impact
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Language is inherently intertwined with the culture we
accept and are accepted into
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A shared perspective of the world shapes language and creates
differences between (and within) cultures
These can present as verbal or nonverbal distinctions
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Arabic vocabulary
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New Guinea counting system
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Comments about weight
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Finger/hand gestures
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Laughing
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Eye contact
Accents and Dialects
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Accent – the pronunciation patters of a particular group of individuals
established by region, SES, ethnicity, social class, or influence of native
language
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Many well-know accents by region
Standard American English accent
Considered a subset of one’s dialect
Dialect – a rule-governed, systematic variation of a language that is
mutually intelligible to speakers of all other dialects for that given
language
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Creates differences in not only phonologic patterns (i.e. accent), but also
morphological/syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic language
Individuals may be bidialectal, able to switch between the dialect of their
community and another dialect, most often the ‘Standard’ American
dialect
Accents and Dialects
Accents and Dialects
African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE)
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AAVE is the American dialect spoken by many AfricanAmericans
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A history of prejudice exists viewing AAVE as ‘inferior’
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Not all African-Americans use AAVE, and many who do are
bidialectal
This can have implications for academic and economic success
Important to be aware of dialectal characteristics when
discerning error patterns during assessment
African-American Vernacular English
(AAVE)
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Like all dialects, speakers use it with a consistent set of rules
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Phonological
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Syntax/Morphology
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f/th – baf/bath and toof/tooth
/r/ deletion – fo/four
Metathesis (rearranging consonants) – aks/ask and ecsape/escape
Regular past tense not obligatory – I walk home yesterday
Habitual state marked with uninflected be - She be workin’ two jobs for She’s
working two jobs now
All reflexive pronouns regularized by adding -self – hisself, herself, theirself
Double- and triple-negative markers may be used – Nobody didn’t never write to
me
Pragmatic
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Direct eye contact reserved for speaker’s role with indirect eye contact reserved for
listeners
Asking personal questions (i.e. family, job, etc.) of new acquaintances can be
considered rude
Bilingualism/Multilingualism
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A bilingual child knows more than one language to different
degrees, using them for a variety of purposes
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Bilingualism not dependent on proficiency in both
Does not lead to language delay both languages, unless already present
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21% of school-aged children speak a language other than English at
home
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Types of bilingualism
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Simultaneous vs. sequential
Factors influencing language development
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Quality and quantity of input
Opportunity of use
Context of use
Bilingualism/Multilingualism
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Stages of Development
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Simultaneous learners reach milestones around the same age as
monolinguals
Sequential learners progress through stages:
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Stage 1 – attempt use of native language to communicate
Stage 2 – silent period
Stage 3 – limited use of new language
Stage 4 – selected use of new language
Stage 5 – fluid use of new language
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Influence of native language is a normal part of development with
‘errors’ expected
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Code-switching appears as fluency increases, adhering to the child’s
morphological and syntactic systems
Spanish-Influenced English
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Many children of Hispanic heritage come to school with
limited English proficiency (LEP)
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A language difference, not a disorder
Influence from the native language may occur in any or all
aspects of English language production
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Phonology
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/th sh v j/ do not exist in Spanish, thus substitutions:
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b/v in berry ---- ch/sh in shoe ---- t/th in think
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Addition of schwa before initial /s/ - estudy or eschool
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Only has 5 vowel sounds /a e i o u/, thus substitutions:
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ee/ih in sheep ---- eh/ae in pat ----
Word-initial /h/ deletion, --/h in hot
Spanish-Influenced English
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Syntax/Morphology
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Copula sometimes produced as have – I have eight years
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Possessive markers replaced with prep phrases – the book of my
sister
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Articles often omitted or viewed as optional – That is big dog
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No used in place of not – She no go to work today
Pragmatics
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Tolerate closer personal distance during conversation
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Direct eye contact is avoided, with lack thereof often signaling
attentiveness
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Greater incidence of touching between partners
Arabic-Influenced English
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The overall structure of Arabic differs more greatly from
English than a romance language like Spanish, leading to
increased errors of interference
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Phonology
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w/v in vest ---- f/v in above ---- sh/ch in chew
No triplet consonant clusters in Arabic, thus
• hardly becomes harduhly
• split becomes spuhlit
Semantics
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No presence of cognates from Arabic to English (ex.
bicycle/bicicleta)
Requires greater effort for acquisition of English lexicon
Arabic-Influenced English
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Syntax/Morphology
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Omission of prepositions (ex. Put your shoes)
Omission of copula form ‘to be’ (ex. She my friend)
Follows an S-O-V word order in place of the English S-V-O
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ex. Would say I the ball hit instead of I hit the ball
Pragmatics
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‘Contact’ language meaning closer proximity when speaking
and more touching behaviors accepted
Language Difference, Delay, or Disorder
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Language difference is designated for children who:
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are typically developing in a native language and display error
patterns consistent with second language acquisition
Speak with an established dialect different from the mainstream
culture
When assessment reveals a language difference there are two
options for the SLP
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Inform/educate parents and teachers of language difference
(compared to disorder) and do not provide intervention
Address differences in collaboration with classroom or ESL teacher
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Program should foster development of standard form as a complement
to, not substitution for the child’s native dialect or language
Language Difference , Delay, or Disorder
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Delay vs. Disorder (consider a flight from LA to New York)
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Language Delay – language development follows the expected
sequence of milestone acquisition, just at a slower rate
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Often more mild in severity
Implies that the child can ‘catch up’
Language disorder – a significant discrepancy in language skills
relative to what would be expected for a child’s age or
developmental level
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Development deviates from the expected progression
• ex. Expressive language of children with echolalia
Delays in language acquisition often a symptom of a language disorder
Frequently observed in concert with overlying developmental concerns
Language Difference , Delay, or Disorder
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When a parent hears ‘delay’
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When a parent hears ‘disorder’
Language Difference , Delay, or Disorder
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So, how do we know if a delay or disorder is present?
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Requires knowledge of cultural linguistic characteristics of a
child’s community for assessment and lots of parent
interviewing
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A language disorder is likely present if communication:
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Is considered defective within child’s dialectal/language
community
Operates outside the norms of acceptability for that community
Calls attention to itself or interferes with communication in that
community
Cultural View of Disorders
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Important to consider the family’s perception of a
speech/language disorders
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May be culturally or religiously based
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Important not to stereotype, but be aware of possible belief system
Examples:
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Many Asian cultures believe that only physical disabilities are
worthy of professional treatment
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Some Mexican, Haitian, or Latin American may view disability as a
sign that the mother or family was cursed
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Some religious communities see disability as a punishment from
God and treatment would dishonor God’s will
Cultural View of Disorders
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Assessment and treatment requires a balance of respecting
family culture and providing best practices
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Be aware of your own beliefs, attitudes, and prejudices
Consult with community members to build cultural knowledge
Promote parent communication regarding causes of disability
Request education from family regarding treatment approaches
in their community
Recognize similar values between cultures
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Importance of family
Wanting the best for children
Discuss a typical treatment plan with evidence to support it’s
effectiveness
Characteristics of Culturally Competent
Practitioners
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Sociocultural consciousness
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Be aware of your own cultural identities and beliefs
Affirming attitude towards culturally diverse students
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Respect cultural differences and create an inclusive learning environment
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Commitment to act as an agent of change
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Constructivist view of learning
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Providing scaffolds to bridge what the patient already knows with what they need
to learn
Learn about students and families
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Utilize knowledge about students home life to increase the ability to use
experiences in the context of learning
Developing and Applying Cultural
Competence to a Caseload
• Encourage families to be a part of the learning or treatment
process
• Encourage parents to ask questions and be a part of discussion
during assessments, treatment sessions, etc.
• Gather professionals into a learning community
• Focus on increasing cultural competence
• Utilize resources on cultural competence
• ASHA practice portal on cultural competence
• ASHA special interest group on Communication Disorders and
Sciences in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations
Considerations for Assessment in CLD
Populations
• Case History
• Compare to others from the same community
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Parent question: Is your child like other children in your community or
different in some way?
• Use open-ended questions
• Instead of yes/no questions
• Summarize and/or restate what the client says
• To create the opportunity to correct incase of misinterpretation
• Avoid multiple or multi-part questions and ‘why’ questions
• To decrease language barrier and to keep from sounding judgmental
and increase defensiveness
• Importance of an interpreter during parent interview
Considerations for Assessment in CLD
Populations
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Standardized tests in languages other than English
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Normative samples in standardized tests
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Do not reflect culturally diverse clients or students
Potential modifications to standardized tests
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Rewording and/or providing additional instructions
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Additional cues
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Extra time
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Record comments, explanation, and changes for qualitative analysis
Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation (DELV)
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Contains items designed to neutralize effects that variations from SAE may have on performance
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Identify speech delays in AAVE speakers
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Processing-dependent tasks – tasks that don’t require prior knowledge
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Use criterion referenced tasks to identify and evaluate a client’s strengths and
weaknesses without comparing to a group of peers
Dynamic Assessment Methods for CLD
Children
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Ask the child to explain their answers to test questions
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Assess child’s knowledge of items and assess alternate responses
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Generate questions to help children understand their thinking
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Identify zone of proximal development by graduated prompting
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Test-teach-retest
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Measure gains
Bilingualism and Selective Mutism
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Silent period of 1-6 months is typical in bilingual learners
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1/3 of children affected by selective mutism are raised in multilingual settings
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Multi-language learners first start to repeat words then quietly start to practice
before actually using language to communicate
Increased anxiety because of foreign environment
Treatment or classroom demands should reduce communication anxiety
without actually forcing child to speak
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Find a ‘speech buddy’ who speaks the native language
Create a low-demand language environment
Allow verbal responses in the child’s native language
Create early, meaningful opportunities for simple language expression
Don’t demand that the child speak but provide examples of the potency of
expressive language
Encourage growth of receptive language skills
Considerations for Treatment in CLD
Populations
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Modify environment, scheduling and materials to be culturally sensitive
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Include culturally relevant stimuli and experiences in treatment programs
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Be aware of cultural differences or beliefs that may influence provision of
services
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Promote behavior patterns that are consistent with family values
Cultural Differences Relevant to a
Caseload or Classroom
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Ways of Knowing Information
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Acquiring world knowledge through academic resources
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Acquiring knowledge through ‘non-academic resources
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Ways of Solving Problems
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Nonverbal Communication Differences
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Knowledge of nonverbal behaviors of CLD increases likelihood of positive communication experience
Ways of Learning
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Students learning from each other and collaborating
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Teacher is the center of activities, students are not encouraged to ask questions, priority on memorization of information
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Ways of Dealing with Conflict
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Ways of using symbols
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Symbols that may be meaningful to some cultures and offensive to others
Other differences
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Thoughts/beliefs about treatment and disorders
High and Low Context
• Some cultures utilize a high-context communication style.
American culture tends to be de-contextualized (low-context)
• High context activities can help assist CLD children, especially
those with language and learning difficulties, transition to lowcontext American classrooms/culture
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High and low context communication differs by culture
High context
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Information in physical context
Provide rich, contextualized language input with models of discourse while
giving ability to relate to personal experiences
Low context:
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Most information transmitted verbally
Classroom activities are traditionally lower-context
High and Low Context
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Provide Lower-context activities for home
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Provide books in first language and in English
Encourage parents to ask specific questions (see notes)
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Also develops narrative skills, literacy skills
Build low-context skills in nurturing environment
Working with CLD Children in
Classrooms
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Reiterate
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Repeat what is said for clarity and emphasis
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Check and Expand vocabulary
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Maintain flexible language environment
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Value native languages
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Convey acceptance and appreciation of multiple languages
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Encourage code-switching
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Ask questions
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Encourage students to ask and answer questions and increase class participation
Working with CLD Children in Classrooms
• Teach planning and metacognitive skills
• Book reports, especially those developed by groups
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Involves metacognitive skills like story retelling with little
contextual support
Supports development of taking others’ perspectives
Allows use of high-context learning styles to contribute to learning
how to learn in a low-context environment
•Discussing overcoming adversity
• Defying expectations and achieving great
things
• Books about overcoming low expectations
Cultural Comparison and Exposure
Activities
• Multicultural calendar
• Mark mainstream holidays of the
CLD children’s culture as well as
traditional American holidays
• Map Study
– Identify place of birth of each class member
– Follow routes of trips that students have taken
– Make maps of personal experiences
• Folktales
– Read folktales and ask CLD children if they know similar stories from
their culture
• Collective stories
– Each member of a group tells a part of a story
Ideas for Cultural Transitions
• “Culture clusters”
• Elements that are unique to a specific culture
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Ex: piñatas for Hispanic culture, star of David/menorah for Jewish
culture
• Display and discuss items
• Expand vocabulary
• Role-playing activities using language appropriate for the objects
• Personal Weather Report
• Helps develop vocabulary for emotional expression
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Helpful for transition from high context to low context culture
Use visual aids (emotion faces)
Give “personal weather report” and ask students to identify their
emotional state
Activity Ideas for Older Children
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Analysis of culture through reflective writing
– Students can locate themselves as members of different communities and
examine power and privilege that comes with each group
– Learn about history and current experiences of diverse groups
– Analyze sources of diversity within a culture
– Also use reflective writing before/after other activities
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Simulations and games
– Ba Fa Ba Fa
– Card colors = food distribution
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Exploring family histories
– Interview family members, discover about ancestors familial cultural
influences on own lives
References
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Agin, R., Anderson, N., & Harris, J. , et. al.(n.d.). Professional Issues:
Cultural Competence. Retrieved April 30, 2015.
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Anderson, R., Calandruccio, L., & Gonzales, M., et. al. (n.d.).
Professional Issues: Bilingual Service Delivery. Retrieved April 30,
2015.
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Dixon, D. (2014, November). How to Develop - and Apply -Your
Cultural Competence. The ASHA Leader, 26-27.
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Otto, B. (2006). Language Development in Early Childhood, p. 64-68.
Boston, MA: Merrill.
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Goldstein, B. (2000). Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Resource Guide for
Speech-Language Pathologists. San Diego, CA: Delmar Learning.
References
•
Gort, M. Learning in Two Languages in Early Childhood: What Every Early
Childhood Professional Needs to Know (PDF Document). Retrieved online
http://www.earlychildhoodwebinars.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/03/Gort-PPT-4.30.2014-Webinar-Learning-in-Two-Langsin-Early-Childhood-GORT-to-share.pdf
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Kea, C., Campbell-Whatley, G., & Richards, H. (2006). Becoming Culturally
Responsive Educators: Rethinking Teacher Education Pedagogy.
Retrieved April 30, 2015, from
http://www.nccrest.org/Briefs/Teacher_Ed_Brief.pdf
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Kinyua, M. and Ndung’u R. (2009). Cultural perspectives in language and speech
disorders. Disability Studies Quarterly. Vol 29(4).
•
Preston, K. (2014, November). When a Child Goes Silent. The ASHA Leader, 3538.
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U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Available online: http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=96