and the Reproduction of Bikini Atoll

Representing Place: "Deserted Isles" and the Reproduction of Bikini Atoll
Author(s): Jeffrey Sasha Davis
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 95, No. 3 (Sep., 2005), pp.
607-625
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of American Geographers
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Place:"DesertedIsles"andthe
Representing
ofBikiniAtoll
Reproduction
SashaDavis
Jeffrey
University
Department
ofGeography,
ofVermont
BikiniAtollhasbeenreshaped
islands.
"deserted"
timeaccording
to Western
regarding
through
mythologies
haveincreasingly
thatlandscapes
areshapedbythewayshumanagents
conceptualize
Geographers
recognized
butarealso
ofa givenplace,however,
places.Idealsthatshapeplacesarenotonlybasedon interpretations
formed
Bikini
Atollenof
ofrepresentations
ofsimilar
bythesemiotic
linking
Conceptualizations
landscapes.
abledthedrastic
ofthelandscape
1950s
as
well
as
alteration
in
nuclear
the
and
1940s
subsequent
by
testing
in this
suchas thecurrent
on theatoll.The information
tourism
development
presented
projects
operation
article
stems
from
a review
interview
in2001and2002aswellasfrom
research
intheMarshall
Islands
conducted
ofhistorical
accounts
oftheatollfrom1945to thepresent.
The conceptualizations
ofBikiniAtollheldby
oftheBikinian
intheMarshall
members
U.S.
other
and
officials,
community, military government
peopleliving
andvisitors
totheatollexplain
thenotionof
thetransformations
oftheatolllandscape.
Islands,
Goingbeyond
as
where
thesemiotic
readable
formations
can
be
understood
as
discursive-material
texts,
landscapes
places
of
are
nuclear
entwined
with
their
Words:
meanings places intrinsically
testing,
Key
place,landscape,
reproduction.
tourism.
semiotics,
Asfor
andhispeople,
nowliving
onRongerik
JudaofBikini
willbe repatriated
iftheyinsist
on it,
Atoll,theyprobably
United
Statesmilitary
authorities
can'tsee
though
saythey
should
wantto:Bikini
andRongerik
lookas alike
whythey
as twoIdahopotatoes.
-(E. Rooney
1946)
colonialwithnucleardestruction,
military
synonymous
contamination.
ism,and radioactive
of thispapershow,
As the quotesat the beginning
BikiniAtoll
viewsrepresent
different
however,
radically
as an objectofthetourist
gazefocusedon a small,but
tourismoperation(Urry1990). Today,in
successful,
Web
and on thepromotional
tourist
publications
BikiniAtollis a tropical
paradise,
bydevelop- many
unspoiled
is
as
the
atoll
site,www.bikiniatoll.com,
depicted the
withexcellent
scubadiving.
ment,
tourist
tropicalisplace: an unpopulated
quintessential
30 June1997)
MSNBC-TV,
-(TimothyFerris,
land. Althoughthe changein Bikini'sstatusoverthe
wasteland
to
nucleartestsiteandradioactive
Therearenotmanyplacesthatcouldlookmorelikethe
yearsfrom
Garden
ofEden.
all
these
cona tourists'
paradisemayappearsurreal,
ofBikini
AtollinCondeNastTraveler ceptualizations
oftheatollpresentBikinias a "deserted
-(A description
2000)
has been dominantfor
Magazine,
July
isle."Whilethisrepresentation
ofthe
thelastsixtyyears,nativeBikinians'
descriptions
It is a paradise,
a placewhereyouhaveeverything
you
visionof Bikinias a
atoll connectto a verydifferent
need.It is a placeGodputsyouwhereall is within
your homelandwith
and intensecultural
resources
plentiful
reach.
Bikinians
remainscattered
Whilethe3,100
ofBikini
Atollbya Bikini
-(A description
Islander,
June significance.
theMarshallIslandsand theiratollremains
throughout
2000)
uninhabitable
due to radioactive
contamination,
many
In 1946,theU.S. military
still
is
a
stark
As
in
there
removedthepeoplelivingon
to
soon.
1946,
hope repatriate
BikiniAtollin orderto use it as a testsitefornuclear
contrastbetweenBikinianvisionsof the atoll as a
thatunderlies
islemythology
weapons(Figure1). From1946 to 1958,twenty-three homelandandthedeserted
nuclearweaponsweretestedat BikiniAtoll.The largest widelycirculatedrepresentations
of the atollespoused
bomb,code-named
"Bravo,"wasa fifteen-megaton
blast,
byothers.
detonatedon 1 March1954,thatvaporized
For the past sixtyyears,agentshave producedand
threeofthe
atoll'sislandsandspreadhighly
ofBikiniAtoll,enablingthe
radioactive
consumedrepresentations
fallout
across
mostofthenorthern
The basisforsuch
a
MarshallIslands.To manypeople
of particular
landscape.
reproduction
aroundthe world,the name BikiniAtollhas become
as muchas
thelandscapeitself,
is rarely
representations
AnnalsoftheAssociation
95(3), 2005, pp. 607-625 C 2005 byAssociationofAmericanGeographers
ofAmerican
Geographers,
2005
Initialsubmission,
April2004; revisedsubmission,
July2004; finalacceptance,February
PublishedbyBlackwellPublishing,
350 Main Street,Malden,MA 02148, and 9600 Garsington
Road,OxfordOX4 2DQ, U.K.
608
Davis
1N170
E
15 N
T-.ngi
Taongi
.
TheRepublic
ofthe
.
MarshallIslands
BBikar
Bikini
Enewetak
Ailingnae
10
Rongerik
,'4
Ujae
0
0
100
200km
100
0Wote
"5,
Erikub
Erikub
Lib
ez{Kwajalein
CNamu
Maloelap
Jabwot
Mili
Jaluit
Kosrae5
(FederatedStatesofMicronesia)
Arno
Majuro
"
Namorik
a
Figure1. Map oftheMarThenamesof
shallIslands.
atollsandislandsdiscussed
in the articleare emphasized.
Aur4
--7Ailinglap ap
200miles
*
5
Mejit
Likiep t
.Wotje
Qo>1
N
7
Ailuk
Jemo
/
Lae
Utirik
Taka
Rongelap
Wotho
Ujelang
Tk
Knox
Kili
Ebon
165
ofotherplacesdeemedto be
"traveling
representations"
similar
toBikini.Suchtraveling
ofBikini
representations
someusesoftheplacewhilerepressing
others.
legitimize
This processof place reproduction
is not uniqueto
BikiniAtoll.It is usedhereas a case studynotbecauseit
is exoticor exceptional,
butbecauseit depictsa particcase of how place
ularlyfluidand well-documented
shiftthrough
time,and affect
meaningsare contested,
thereproduction
ofthelandscape.On Bikini,dramatic
differences
betweenconceptualizations
ofplace (nuclear
tourist
wasteland,
paradise,and homeland)can be used
to highlight
mechanisms
ofplacereproduction
occurring
aroundtheworld.To demonstrate
thisprocess,I weave
the case studyofBikiniAtollintocontemporary
theoreticaldiscussions
aboutplace.
Recent discussionsof place emphasizefourmajor
concentrated
on
points.First,scholarshaveincreasingly
theimportance
ofnonlocalprocesses
and eventsaffecting places (Massey1994). Second,therehas been an
on thewaysin whichdifferent
actorsinterpret
emphasis
aboutthem,and thereby
affect
places,creatediscourses
place reproduction
(Jackson1989; Duncan and Ley
170 E
1993; Casey 2001). Third,meaningsof placeschange
throughtime, sometimesdramatically(Hall 1997;
McGuirkand Rowe 2001). And lastly,the dialectical
hasbeen
betweenspatialandsocialprocesses
interaction
Cresswell
2004).
recognized
(Harvey1996; Soja 1996;
On thelastpointtherehas beendebateas to whether
by social processesor
places are whollyconstructed
constituwhetherthe spatialand social are "mutually
tive"(Cresswell
2004,29-33).
formations.
I referto places as discursive-material
This approachmergesthesefouremphasesof current
ofplaceproduction
and appliesthemto the
discussions
Bikini
Atollis a placethathas
of
a
study particular
place.
external
actorsanddiscourses,
beenheavilyimpacted
by
of
of place, transformations
different
interpretations
those interpretations
throughtime,and interactions
betweenlandscapeand social processes.Variouscontime
of the atollduringthreedifferent
ceptualizations
landcertain
of
have
enabled
the
periods
production
scapeson Bikiniat the expenseof others.This article
oftheatollproduced
examinesrepresentations
justprior
to thebeginning
ofnucleartestingin 1946,conceptu-
ofBikiniAtoll
Place: "DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
Representing
alizationsof the atollin the 1960s and 1970s during
a failedrepatriation
andcontemporary
viewsof
attempt,
Bikinias a lost homelandand financially
successful
tourist
destination.
The information
in thisarticlestemsfrom
presented
I conducted
research
intheMarshallIslandsin 2001and
socialscience
2002,as wellas froma reviewofprevious
researchand popularmagazineaccountsdealingwith
BikiniAtoll.I studiedhistorical
of
conceptualizations
BikiniAtolloverthe pastsix decadesand ascertained
thecurrent
attitudes
ofvariousgroupsofpeopletoward
theatoll.Duringstayson BikiniAtoll,MajuroAtoll,and
Kili Island,I conductedsemistructured
with
interviews
resort
andworkers,
of
tourists,
management
Department
of
the
Marshall
Islands
Energypersonnel,Republic
and membersof the Bikinian
officials,
government
andgovernment
toanalyzetheirinteractions
community
with,and conceptualizations
of,Bikini.'I supplemented
thisinformation
witha reviewofrecenttourist-oriented
articles
andnewspaper
stories
from
theUnited
periodical
Statesabout currentdevelopment
activitieson Bikini
Atoll.I also studiedlocalrepresentations
ofBikinifrom
twoyears(2001and2002) oftheMarshall
Islands
Journal
basedin Majuro,MarshallIslands)as well
(a newspaper
as information
on theWebpagemaintained
provided
by
Trust
Liaison
to thePeopleofBikini.2
JackNiedenthal,
I piecedtogether
oftheatollby
pastconceptualizations
written
academicaccountsand articles
about
consulting
BikiniAtoll in Americanperiodicalspublishedfrom
1946 to thepresent.3
Place
Conceptualizing
ofplace comein manyforms:
Representations
postcards(Dunn 1996;Waittand Head 2002), monuments
(T. Hall 1997),images(Rose 2001; Echtnerand Prasad
accounts(M. L. Pratt1992;Hutt1996),
2003),written
and verbalstatements
(C. Cohen 1995). Whatall representations
is thattheyare meansof
share,however,
certain
of a place to
transmitting
conceptualizations
otherpeople. Since these representations
emphasize
some characteristics
of a place at the expense of others,
they are alwaysincomplete"pictures"of place. These
representationsof place are also political. They "do
work"by reinforcing
conceptualizationsof a place that
legitimizecertainuses and prohibitothers.In turn,the
new formof the landscape informsnew conceptualizations.This is theessenceofHenriLefebvre'sworkon the
relationshipbetween conceptualizationsof places and
landscape. He writes,"In actualityeach of these two
kindsof space [the physicaland the imagined]involves,
underpinsand presupposesthe other" (Lefebvre1991,
609
ofthelandscapeis
14). The factthatthereproduction
oftheplace
withimagined
entwined
conceptualizations
fora
oftencontradictory,
leads to multiple,
imaginings
andcontests
landscapethatcauseconflict
singlephysical
has a different
overplaces.Each individual
conceptualizationofwhata givenplaceis (oroughtto be) and the
of the place is a socialprocess.Places,
reproduction
are morethanjustthe amalgamof thelocal
therefore,
inhabitants'
theyare the resultof spatially
imaginings;
ofsometo
of
wide-ranging
regimes powerandtheability
over
others.
of
a
one
legitimize imagining place
a givenlandscapein
How,then,do peopleinterpret
on thepart
different
ways?Therehasbeena lotofeffort
thatdifferent
of
to demonstrate
of theorists
imaginings
In
fall
into
distinct
geographers
categories. general,
place
have tendedto dividethe fieldof humanexperience
of places into"abstract"and "lived"realms.Entrikin
usingthe terminology
(1991) discussesthisdichotomy,
of "subjective"and "objective"approachesto underthisdivision
between
carry
standing
places.Somewriters
to theirdefinitions
andlivedconceptualizations
abstract
of space and place,with"space" as the realmof the
and
abstractand "place"therealmoflivedexperience
senseofplace (Taylor1999;Casey2001). ForLefebvre,
thespatial
thanusingan abstract/lived
rather
dichotomy,
worldcan be brokeninto threecategories:"spatial
of space,"and "representapractice,""representations
tionalspaces."He and EdwardSoja also referto these
withthe moreaccessibletermsof "perceivedspace,"
"conceptualized
space,"and "livedspace" (Soja 1996).
to
space"is the"real"conAccording Soja, "perceived
creteworldthatexistsat a givensite,while"concepmadeup ofprotualizedspace"is "entirely
ideational,
or
world
from
into
the
conceptualized
empirical
jections
...
...
is
a
space
imaginedgeographies [It a] symbolic
world of rationallyinterpretable
signification"
(Soja
1996,79). "Livedspace"is thedomainofpeopleusing
to "decipher
themwithouttrying
spacesor describing
the space (Soja 1996,67). To
and activelytransform"
waysofseeingthesamesite.As
Soja, thesearedifferent
theseare epistemological
spaces.
Soja notes,however,
He correlates
"perceived
space"withthespatialscience
traditionin geography,
"conceptualizedspace" withhuand "lived space" as a possiblenew
manistgeographers,
liberatingdirectionforgeographicalstudy.
fractureand cateWhile these popular frameworks
ways that places are experienced,I
gorizethe different
is reallyusefulforunframework
this
whether
question
are
how
derstanding
reproduced.At the very
places
a
not be seen as reifying
should
these
least,
categories
or
given space as eitherlived or perceived conceptualized. Not onlyare places consideredby different
people
610
Davis
that
Saussureand Barthesto demonstrate
theoreticians
betweenanymaterial
thereis a connection
object(refandthe
erent),theconceptpeoplehaveofit (signified),
it (signifier).
Baudrillard
wordorsymbol
usedto describe
thatexistsin the world
stressesthatforany referent
that are availablefor
thereare multiple"signifieds"
In
other
therearemultiple
the
to
words,
signifier.
linkage
availablethatlinka wordwiththeobjectitis
meanings
aimingto represent.
and connotations
ofdenotations
Barthes'sdiscussion
is
makesthisprocessmoreclear.The idea ofdenotation
thatthereis one true"real"meaningand thattheword
to that
usedto describean objectis a directconnection
"real" meaning.The idea of connotation,however,
thatthereare multiplemeaningsavailableto
suggests
thenarguesthatthere
linka wordandan object.Barthes
is
and
are alwaysmultiplemeanings that"denotation"
thataimsto convince
merelyan ideologicalconstruct
peoplethereis onlyone truemeaning.He statesthat
morethan the most
"[d]enotationis neveranything
attractiveand subtle of connotations"(quoted in
Baudrillard
1981, 158). The theoryof the discursivematerialformation
hingeson thisidea thatthereare
availableforan object.
connotations
multiple
relatesback
This conceptof multipleconnotations
Thereis no one "true"
to howplacesare experienced.
thata personperceives.
ofa place (denotation)
meaning
of a
a conceptualization
Rather,a personconstructs
atand
of
a
some
attributes
place
place by noticing
the
available
of
some
of
Place
and
Place
to
it
(connotameanings
taching
Conceptualizations
otherpotentialmeanings.In
and disregarding
tions)
Reproduction
but
otherwords,the place is not experienced
wholly,
It is not the
formations" ratherthroughsubsetsof its attributes.
Analyzing
placesas "discursive-material
itselfon
thepreviously
drawstogether
discussedtrendsin place
"wholebrutepresenceofplace"thatinscribes
it
last
that
researchthatrecognize
of
as
and
the
but
places fluid,permeable,
only
conceptualizations
people
the
with
a
in
affected
which
interacts
are
When
a
While
by
ways
they imagined.
person
(Casey 2001, 688).
Lakshman
or a representaeitherdirectexperience
Yapahas usedtheconceptofdiscursive-ma- place,through
terialobjectsin hisdiscussions
ofpoverty
and scientifi- tion,onlya fewofitsqualitiesarenoticed;someofthe
attributes
unnoticedbyone personmaymakea strong
callyengineeredseeds,I believethe conceptcan be
extendedto studiesofplacereproduction
on another.Peoplefindmeaningin a place
(Yapa 1996a,
impression
about
as
forma- not by accessinga "true"denotationbut by finding
b). Talking
places discursive-material
to
tions highlightsthe role of conceptualizationsand repbased on whattheyare predisposed
a connotation
to fallintodifferent
butthepeopleconsidercategories
a
be
it in waysthatdraw
ing place may experiencing
combinations
of
thatcross-cut
or hyexperiences
upon
bridizenotionsof "perceiving,"
and
"conceptualizing,"
"livingwithin"a givenspace. Furthermore,
people's
conceptualizations
changeover timeas theyinteract
withplacesand recreatetheiridentities
conthrough
with
tacts
places.
Ratherthanfollowing
Lefebvre's
(modified
by Soja)
formulaforcategorizing
tripartite
space, I arguethat
theprocessthatcreatesall oftheseforms
ofspaceis the
while
the
of
same,
resulting
types space are infinite.
AlthoughSoja applies his label of "conceptualized
space"to onlyone subsetofthewaysofseeinga site,all
of these spaces are conceptualized.
What Soja calls
is
a
ofa sitebased
"perceived
space"
conceptualization
on the assumptions
of the "mirror-model"
of science.
The ideathatan observer
isrelaying
the"real"perceived
site,unfiltered
byhumanbias,is merelya conceptualizationof a site informed
by positivist
epistemologies.
The "livedspace" is the conceptualization
of the site
madebythosewhohavea directcontactwiththespace.
The underlying
is
processforallofthesespaces,however,
the same.Sites are not conceptualized
in one typeof
the factthatsomeof theseconceptureified
category;
alizationsare labeledas "moreabstract"
thanothersis
a
matter
ofcategorizing
reallyonly
preference.4
resentationsofplace in enablingand legitimizing
certain
versionsof place over others.In termsof place reproduction, this perspectiveemphasizes that places are
known, discussed, and representedthroughlanguage
of certainactivitiesin those
legitimizesthe performance
places as well as directsthe social practicesthatactively
shape the landscape.
The concept of the discursive-material
formationis
similarto JeanBaudrillard's(1981) conceptofthe "signobject." Baudrillarddraws upon the work of semiotic
look for.
This is not to say that subjectsfreelychoose whichever connotations they desire or that they are programmedto select connotationsof place based on a
To use examplesfromthiscase study,
packagedidentity.
Bikiniansdo not universallythinkof Bikinias a homeland, and touristsdo not all see Bikinias a paradise.I do
not mean to implythat conceptualizationof places is
that mechanistic;there is not a universalimpression
made by places on people. Instead, there are multiple
Place: "DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
ofBikiniAtoll
Representing
611
of place,and observers
are drivenand foexperiences
cusedtowardcertainaspectsofplacein relationto prior
in the observer's
and differences
position
experiences
EdwardCasey's(2001) discussionof
and positionality.
in
PierreBourdieu'sconceptof habitusis informative
howpastsocialtrajectories
describing
producea habitus
an individual'sconceptualization
of the
that informs
The
that
life
previous explacestheyencounter.5 ways
and
to
affectsthe
exposure representations
periences
ofmeaningin tourism
placeshavealsobeen
production
examinedbyChrisRojek(1997).
it is notjustthatsubjectspassively
obFurthermore,
serveplacesand absorbmeaning.Instead,thereis an
activeand reciprocal
processbetweenplace reproducformation.
Some of the literature
on
tionand identity
usefulforexamining
thewaysin
is particularly
tourism
whichpeopledo notjust"read"landscapesbutactively
and
seekplacesthatcan be arenasforthereproduction
of theiridentities.
The tourist,
forintransformation
as a tourist
stance,needsa placeconceptualized
placeto
theiridentities
certainactivitiesthatreaffirm
perform
butas "a successful
notas "a tourist,"
(modern)person,"
ofsuccessis to be thekind
forwhomone ofthemarkers
of personwho travelsand vacations(E. Cohen 1979;
Urry1990; Rojek 1997; Burns1999). In thisrespect,
"read"places,but,rather,
subjectsdo notjustpassively
isreproduced
andaltered
thefluidsubjectivity
oftourists
along withthe place in whichtheyare performing.
readings
Throughthisprocess,
peopledevelopsimplified
ofwhata placemeans.RobShields(1991,47, emphasis
in original)describes
thisas theconstruction
of "placeimages":
can existforthe same place at the same
place-myths
time and that these mythscan shiftthroughtime.
Shields(1991,61) writes,
"Opposedgroupsmaysucceed
in generating
antithetical
(as opposedto
place-myths
in place-images)
different
class
justvariations
reflecting
of a defeat
experiencesor the culturalremembrance
whereconquerors
see onlyglory."
The place of Bikini
Atollhas been shapedby actorswhohave conceptualized the place based on verydifferent
attributes
than
thoseemphasized
bymanyoftheBikinianpeople.As a
conflicts
occuroverwhichphysical
attributes
and
result,
socialpracticeson Bikiniare to be celebratedand enhancedand whichare to be vilified
and erased.
This discussion
ofplaceconceptualization
stillleaves
enopen the questionof how thesevariedimaginings
twinewithsocial practicesto reproducethe material
not to see the discursivelandscape.It is important
material
as
thatwordsbuildhousesor
concept suggesting
discourses
bombs.
the
drop
Using languageofdiscursivematerial
formations
doesnotimplythatdiscourses
teletransform
or thatthe landscapedoes
kinetically
reality
not existpriorto ourviewsofit. Whatit does demonstrateis that the conceptsenablingand legitimizing
the materialreproduction
of place originatenot from
a perception
(denotation)of a materiallandscape,
but fromthe variousconceptualizations
(connotations)
of that landscape,mediatedby discoursesthat are
oftenquite independent
fromthe materiality
of that
place.
contentions
about
Figure2 expandsuponLefebvre's
real and imaginedspacesto depictthe dialecticalrelationshipbetweenthe real and the imagined.Placein thattheimagined
imagesarepreestablished
landscape
comeaboutthrough
Suchplace-images
over-simplification
ofa placecomesnotjustfromthesensory
of
experience
of
toonetrait),
(i.e.,reduction
(amplification
stereotyping
that particularenvironment,
but fromthe semiotic
andlabeling
a placeisdeemed
to
oneormoretraits)
(where
of thatexperienceto previously
knownwords,
Placesandspacesarehypostatized linking
be ofa certain
nature).
culturalnarratives,
and meanings.So, the imagined
ofrealspacerelations
toa symbolic
realm
of
from
theworld
... Theseimages
connected
witha
cultural
significations.
ofitsessential
placemayevencometobeheldas signifiers
character.
Pre-established
Place-images
that
Shieldsgoeson to arguethatsetsofplace-images
have particularcoherence and longevitycoalesce into
what he refersto as place-myths.The use of the term
mythhere is not meant to implythat the conceptualizationof place is somehowopposed to the "real facts"
about a place, but ratherthatthereis a coherenceto the
imaginingsalong a certainculturallysignificanttheme.
Place-myths,while shiftingwith changes in the landscape of a place, have a permanenceand inertiathatare
oftenslow to change. What is more importantformy
purposesin thisarticleis thatmultipleand contradictory
Material
Imagined
Landscape
Landscape
Power:
Capital
Institutions,
Legitimac
2. Placereproduction.
Figure
612
Davis
landscapeis not onlya productof the materiallandscape,it is a meldingof the materiallandscapewith
imagesof otherplaces.The sensoryexperiencein the
landscapeis not thesourceforthemeaningof a place,
butonlyone ofthesources.The "preestablished
placeofplacetocreate
images"meshwithsensory
experiences
availabletraveling
floating
signifiers:
culturally
concepofplacesthatdo notarisefroma particular
tualizations
placeas muchas theyare appliedto it.
In otherwords,discoursesand place-imagesthat
faroutsidethephysical
emanatefrom
howa
placeaffect
The place-myth
fora
placeis conceptualized.
generated
givensitemayhave muchmoreto do withstoriesand
imagesofotherplacesdeemedto be "like"it thanwith
the landscapeof the place itself.The IslandPacificis
one regionwhereWesternplace-myths
have
certainly
been consistently
constructed
based
throughout
history
on the islands'antipodalpositionto Europe,biblical
searchesforEden, and Rousseau'sromanticism
(Jolly
then
1997; Howe 2000).6 Such traveling
place-myths
landon specific
islandsand are appliedwithlittleconcernforthe specificmateriality
or socialconditions
of
thatplace.The place-myth
ofthedeserted
islehasbeen
applieddespitethe factthatthe Bikinianpeoplehave
livedthere(and stilldesireto live there).BikiniAtoll
has "become"a "desertedisle"by linkingBikini'smaterialenvironment
withnarratives
thathavebeenconin Western
structed
cultureoverthousands
ofyearsin a
ofgeographic
widevariety
contexts.
In turn,place-myths
enable and legitimizesocial
practicesthatalterthematerial
landscapeand attempt
to bringit moreintolinewitha conceptualization
that
was neverbasedon the materiallandscapein the first
place. Linksbetweenthe materialand the discursive
at the level of the semiotic,
occurimmediately,
when
a placeis encountered.
Divisionoftheworldintoseparaterealmsof the purelymaterialor discursive
is thus
because
are
or
essentially
problematic,
hybrids
places
a
of
mesh
and
natural
social
"quasi-objects,"
processes
(Latour1993;Haraway1997).ErikSwyngedouw
(2003,
or quasi-objects
96) notesthat," 'Things'are hybrids
(subjects and objects, materialand discursive,natural
and social) fromthe verybeginning. Everybodyand
....part social, part
every thingis a mediator,a 'hybrid,'
natural (but withoutdiscreteboundaries),which internalizesthe multiplecontradictory
relationsthatredefine
everybodyand everything."Landscapes,like all things,
are also "hybrids."
Differentgroupsof people, who have verydifferent
conceptualizationsof what kind of place Bikini Atoll
shouldbe, have all producedrepresentations
ofthe place
that are used in political ways. They do work in the
to fixa meaningofa placeand leworldbyattempting
the
ofa certainkindofplace.The
gitimizing production
practicalconsequencesaffectboth the agentsstriving
to changethe placeswithwhichtheyinteractas well
as researchers
Groups
considering
place reproduction.
to
need
to
make
to
recognize
changes places
working
can
thatthesocialpractices
affecting
placereproduction
of
construction
thediscursive
be redirected
bychanging
be doneto it.
whata placeis and whatcan legitimately
can
In otherwords,changing
the acceptedplace-myth
lead to tangiblechangesin the landscapeof places.
Researchershave noted this effectnot only in the
butalsoinplacessuchas
oftheIslandPacific,
"paradise"
and
Mountainsin Australia,
the "timeless"Kimberley
of
the"post-industrial"
Australia,
Newcastle,
landscapes
and Birmingham,
England(Hall 1997; McGuirkand
Rowe 2001; Waittand Head 2002). For researchers
lookingat thewayplacesareproducedand reproduced,
theneed to seriously
thisperspective
engage
highlights
the
withthe wayplacesare conceptualized
by
people
withthem.
interacting
thereproduction
affect
do place-myths
How,though,
maof the physicallandscape?Giventhata particular
teriallandscapegivesrisetomultiple
conceptualizations,
different
therearealmostinevitably
opinionsabouthow
themateriallandscapeshouldbe maintained,
changed,
inFigure2,
On thebottomofthediagram
andgoverned.
between the imaginedlandscape and the material
mayhavea unique
landscape,is power.Whileeveryone
versionofwhata place oughtto be, thereis onlyone
site.Powerthendictateswhichversionofplacegetsto
I have subdivided
be produced.In the diagram,
power
the
to represent
andlegitimacy
intocapital,institutions,
soverin
inherent
economic
political
processes,
power
In therestofthisarticle,I demand discourses.
eignty,
toremake
onstrate
howpowerful
agentshaveattempted
enabledand legitisocialpractices
BikiniAtollthrough
ofthedesertedisle.The atoll
mizedbytheplace-myth
in thewaysit has,notnecessarily
has been reproduced
or its
its
becauseof location,itsendogenous
attributes,
but acpositionin a globalpoliticaleconomicsystem,
Concordingto the wayit has been conceptualized.
ceptualizationsof BikiniAtoll are rootednot onlyin the
landscape itself,but in a semioticsystemof codes that
relateswhat people see on Bikiniwith signstheyhave
previouslyencounteredin otherplaces. People then act
to reproducethe atoll accordingto these conceptualizationsofplace. Have politicaleconomy,military
power,
and nuclearradiationaffectedBikini?Absolutely,but all
ofthesethingsare also entwinedwiththe discoursesand
practicesthat legitimatethe ways that capitalism,militarism,and nucleartestinghave been applied there.
Atoll
Place:"Deserted
ofBikini
Isles"andtheReproduction
Representing
613
Bikinias HomeandIdealTestSite
in the underlying
rationaleforthe tests,
prominently
Crossroads
code-named
because,as the adOperation
The "holein themap"wasa pre-condition
fora nuclear
airpower,
holein theground;
it alonecreatedthenecessary
mar- miralin chargeofthetestsnoted,"seapower,
itself
are
the
crossroads"
at
and
humanity
perhaps
for
to
be
deemed
ginality experimentation
acceptable.
(quotedin Weisgall1994,32).
-(Cosgrove1998,264)
The planwas to anchoran armadaofcapturedGerBikini
hadbeen,after
a
all,a placeofhumanhabitation,
manandJapanesenavalvessels,as wellas olderAmerhomeland.
Whentheatollwasacquired
bytheU.S.Navy, ican ships,in a lagoonand thenexplodeatomicbombs
ithadabout150inhabitants.
It had,however,
something nearthem.The first
testwastobe an air-dropped
bomb,
evenmoreimportant:
The trifling
lifeofthe
geography.
and a
thesecondbombwasto be explodedunderwater,
little
islandcouldnotreasonably
shareina transcendental thirdtestwas to involvean even
underwater
deeper
thatwas,whenallwassaidanddone,dedicated
experience
detonation.
The firsttwotestswerecarriedout in the
todeath.
Thewholefunction
ofBikini
wastoberemote,
far
detonation
summerof 1946,but the deep underwater
as
inaccessible
as
from
valued
away,
possible anything
by
between
the
In
the
"contest"
was
cancelled.
the
end,
A placehadtobe
man,becauseitwastobedestroyed....
as
Most
of
the
seen
a
draw.
and
was
ships
Army
found
wheretheprinciple
ofoverkill
couldbe examined, Navy
wherenuclear
bombscouldbe testedin theatmosphere usedin thetestsweresunkor unusableafterthetests.8
bombblast,however,
underwater
without
at leastanyonemuch. The Navy-delivered
inconveniencing
anyone,
much
more
was
credited
with
TheMicronesian
damageto thefleet
doing
of
the
central
Pacific
are
defipeople
by
the
bomb.
than
nition
much.
Army's
air-dropped
nobody
an inhabited
So howwasitthatBikini,
island,became
-(Cameron1970,24)
the siteforthesetests?Since the testsrequireda site
Severalscholarshave examinedhowtheexperimen- thataccommodated
the anchorageof largeships,contal spacesof ProjectPlowshare,
a 1960sprogram
that
tinentalsitesimaginedas remoteby the U.S. governwas to use nuclearweaponsfor"peaceful"excavation ment,suchas New Mexicoand Nevada,couldnot be
constructed
thetestareasas geographically
considered.
While the firstatomicbombtesthad ocand
projects,
in
ofserious
Kirsch
New
Mexicoin 1945,thediscovery
sociallymarginal(Frenkel1998;
1998; Krygier curred
the bombingof
BikiniAtoll
radioactivecontamination
1998;Millarand Mitchell1998). Similarly,
following
was not "found"as an ideal testsite in 1946; it was
to
andNagasakicausedtheU.S government
Hiroshima
made.In 1946,Bikiniwas considered
a healthyhomefurther
atomictestsin,or
be cautiousaboutconducting
land byits inhabitants,
whohad livedon the atollfor
UnitedStates.The AtomicEnergy
near,thecontinental
Commissiontherefore
generations(Niedenthal2002). It was a place with
suggestedthat the Operation
"overseas"(Weisgall
resources.
It was the
Crossroads
testsbe performed
1994,
ampleland and adequatefishing
locationof the gravesof the Bikinians'ancestors.
in theNavy'sOP-06
The
31). In October1945,twoofficers
U.S. military,
and HoAshworth
a verydifferent
officeofspecialweapons,Frederick
subhowever,
emphasized
setofattributes.
racioRiverostated,"We justtookout dozensof maps
The first
atomictestsat Bikiniin 1946servedseveral
the
and startedlookingforremotesites.Afterchecking
fortheU.S. military.
On a geopolitical
Atlantic,we movedto the westcoast and just kept
level,the
purposes
testingacted as a theaterin whichthe UnitedStates
looking"(Weisgall1994,32). In December1945,Ashcouldopenlydemonstrate
thepowerofitsatomicarseto the searchforthe site, "We
worthsaid, referring
nal. In contrastto the secrecysurrounding
It lookslike
conclusion.
haven'tcometo anyparticular
atomicex1994,
perimentation
duringWorldWarII, the testsat Bikini pretty
farawayisgoingtobe theanswer"(Weisgall
were highly publicized; representativesfrom many
32, emphasisadded).It was soondeemedthattheonly
countrieswere invitedto witnessthe testsas a demonstrationof American militarypower.7The military's
primarystated purposeforthe firstset of atomic bomb
testsat Bikiniin 1946, however,was morepractical.The
testswere designedto determinewhethernaval vessels
could withstandatomic attack and were conducted
jointly by the Army and Navy amid debate in the
American militaryover whetheratomic weapons had
made the Navy obsolete (Weisgall 1994). This rivalry
betweenthe two branchesof the armedservicesfigured
places "prettyfaraway" were located in the Pacific.Bikini was selected over otherislandsin the MarshallIslands,Caroline Islands,and even the Galapagos Islands.
summedup the
WilliamPratt,a retiredU.S. navyofficer,
requirementsin his shortarticle"How Bikini Became
the Bomb-TestingGround" (1946). He characterizes
Bikinias "the ideal place" because of its location in a
part of the world controlledby the United States, its
relativefreedomfromtropicalstorms,its shelteredlagoon sizableenoughto hold a naval fleet,and because of
614
Davis
thesmallpopulation
on Bikinianditsneighboring
atolls
In
Pratt
the
atoll
itself
could
be
1946,60). addition,
(W
as
a
area
used
staging forthetests,as couldthenearby
Americanbase at KwajaleinAtoll 240 kilometers
to
thesouth.
Bikinibecametheideallocation
fora testsitedue to
itsremoteness
from
of
the
world
deemedimportant
parts
to the U.S. military.
Once selected,however,
the atoll
neededto be characterized
as marginal
in otherways
so that it could be conceptualized
as an ideal locale
foratomicexplosions.
The dominantplace-myth
that
of
the
atoll
was
that
of
the
deguidedrepresentations
sertedisle.Twosimilar,
but distinct,
kindsofrepresentationswere used to portray
BikiniAtoll as a place
ofnucleardestruction.
In one sense,it wasrepworthy
resentedas a nonplace.In otherinstances,
Bikiniwas
as
a
that
the
backwardness,
portrayed place
represented
antithesis
of the Americans'technological
modernity.
No doubt,bothoftheserepresentations
drawheavilyon
the mythology
of the desertedisle and bothservedto
theuseofBikinias a testsite.I think,
legitimize
however,
it wouldbe a mistakeanalytically
to completely
fuse
thetwo.
In regardto emptynonplaces,Lefebvre(1991, 190)
writes,
Thenotion
ofa spacewhichis at first
butis later
empty,
filled
onthis
bya sociallifeandmodified
byit,alsodepends
initial
identified
as "nature"
andas a
hypothetical
"purity,"
sortofground
zeroofhumanreality.
Empty
spacein the
senseofa mental
andsocialvoidwhich
facilitates
thesoof a not-yet-social
cialization
realmis actually
a
merely
ofspace.
representation
This mentalconceptualization
ofBikinias an empty
is
in
rooted
U.S.
ofthe
nonplace
prior conceptualizations
Micronesian
as
a
region nonplace(Steinberg
2001). The
atollwasassumedtobe buta minorblemish
on an ocean
surfaceregardedby Americansin WorldWar II as a
of atollsis demonstrated
nonplace.This portrayal
by
reference
to theislandsas mere"anchoredaircraft
carriers."9One U.S. officialdescribedthe atollsof the
Marshallsthisway:"Livingon an atoll is like livingon a
ship,except that the ship will get to port,but the atoll
will nevergo anywhere"(quoted in Weisgall1994, 35).
This portrayal
ofBikinias terranullius
presagedthese-
lection of futureplaces consideredfornuclear testing
sitesfromMaralinga,Australia,to CentralPennsylvania
(Pilger1989; Krygier1998).
Of course,one difficulty
with portraying
Bikinias a
desertedislewas thatthe Bikinianslivedthere.This fact,
however,onlynecessitateda different
strategyof representation.To showthattheinhabitedatollwas actuallya
and
as unhealthy
nonplace,theatollhadtobe portrayed
the peoplethatinhabitedthe atollhad to be seen as
that"the
A U.S. Navyadmiralproclaimed
removable.
littlefood
becauseit "produces
atollitselfis unhealthy"
besidescoconutsand fish"(W Pratt1946, 60). This
the existenceof the
commentservedto delegitimize
thattheBikinians
on theatolland to suggest
Bikinians
else.
wouldbe betteroffsomewhere
Earlyin 1946,the Bikiniansweremovedto nearby
Atoll (Figure1). While the decisionto use
Rongerik
beenmadebytheUnited
Bikinias a testsitehadalready
of the Navy,in
Statesmonthsearlier,representatives
of asking
frontof newsreelcameras,made a ceremony
theBikinians
to leave theiratoll.The Navyknewthat
in theearly1900s,
theBikinians
hadbeenChristianized
Marshalls
of
the
and the military
persuaded
governor
to the
theBikinians
toleavebycomparing
theBikinians
childrenof Israel (Kiste 1974, 27). Accordingto anLeonard Mason (quoted in Niedenthal
thropologist
1997,30),
themilIn February
of1946,Commodore
BenH. Wyatt,
toBikini
oftheMarshalls,
traveled
and,ina
itary
governor
toaskifthey
after
assembled
theBikinians
church,
Sunday
so that
wouldbe willing
to leavetheiratolltemporarily
atomicbombsfor
theUnitedStatescouldbegintesting
andto endall worldwars."King
"thegoodofmankind
stoodupafter
thentheleaderoftheBikinian
Juda,
people,
hispeoandsorrowful
deliberation
muchconfused
among
and
Statesgovernment
"IftheUnited
ple,andannounced,
oftheworld
wanttouseourislandandatoll
thescientists
will
which
withGod'sblessing
forfurthering
development,
in kindness
andbenefit
to all mankind,
result
mypeople
willbe pleasedtogoelsewhere."
The wordthatbestdescribesthe timebetweenthis
decisionand the actualrelocationof the Bikiniansis
articlepublishedin
"spectacle."A NationalGeographic
1946 describeshow the last monthof the peopleon
forreBikiniwas one long stagedphotoopportunity
church
film
Bikinian
and
makers.10
The
final
porters
servicewas performed
threetimesso camerascould
get differentangles, and the Bikinians were often
repositionedfor effector to cover microphones.The
articlesand newsreelscreated fromthis period helped
cementthe idea in the imaginationofthe worldthatthe
Bikini Islanders were primitive,Christianized,loyal
themselvesto the greatergood ofthe
subjects,sacrificing
United States.
of the Bikiniansand
The imaginedculturalinferiority
theirsupposedweak attachmentto Bikiniwere used by
fortheirremovalfrom
the U.S. military
as legitimization
their atoll. It is here that we see another place-myth
ofBikiniAtoll
Place: "DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
Representing
615
it as a formofhellwherea demonnamedLitportray
oboraleftthefish,coconuts,and pandanuspoisoned.
arrivalon Rongerik,
TwomonthsaftertheBikinians'
waterand foodsupplieswerefoundto be inadequate,
to Bikini
and the peoplebeganrequesting
repatriation
were
Their
ignored
bythe
(Time1946).
largely
requests
unawarethatthe
U.S. Navy.The navywas apparently
and symptoms
fromstarvation
weresuffering
Bikinians
To be "on themargin"
has implied
exclusion
from
"the
Leountilanthropologist
Ciguaterapoisoning
center."
Butsocial,
andeconomic
relations
which matching
political,
Niin
the
atoll
Mason
visited
nard
1948
1985;
bindperipheries
(Kiste
tocenters,
them
in
a
series
keep
together
the
U.S.
of
At
the
edenthal
ofbinary
rather
than
Mason,
disconnection.
1997).
urging
relationships,
allowing
In thisway,"margins"
movedthe BikiniansfromRongerikto a
becomesignifiers
of everything government
centers
as"theother,"
become
the
on Kwajalein.A yearlater,they
denyorrepress;
margins
campnextto an airstrip
ofpossibility
condition
ofallsocialandcultural
entities.
weremovedto KiliIsland(see Figure1) in thesouthern
MarshallsIslands(Kiste1974). Kiliis a single,isolated
The portrayal
of Bikiniand the Bikiniansas the
200 acresinsizewithno lagoon.It
island,approximately
backwardoppositeof the progressive
one-ninthof the land area of Bikini
Americansis ilis approximately
lustrated
bythetitleofan articlein theNewYorkTimes Atoll and over 1,000 Bikinianslive theretoday.One
KiliIslandthisway:
Magazinein 1946: "The StrangePeople fromBikini: Bikiniandescribed
Primitive
theyare,but theylove one anotherand the
American
whotooktheirhome"(Rooney1946).
visitors
buthere
onecouldalways
AtBikini,
island,
gotoanother
The view of the Bikiniansas "simpleprimitives"
is
thesame.Sleep,wakeup,Kili.Sleep,wakeup,
it'salways
echoed in a NationalGeographic
articlethat opens,
Kili.Again,sleep,wakeup,Kili.Kiliis a prison.
"AboutthemiddleofFebruary,
civilization
1980,83)
-(quoted inWeisgall
1946,modern
the
overtook
of
Bikini
natives
and
Atoll,"
suddenly
closeswiththe thought,
in many
"Civilization
and the Atomic
In 1946, BikiniAtoll was conceptualized
that
there
come
it
obvious
to Bikini,and they[theBikinians]had
different
Age had
ways.While is reasonably
beenin theway"(Markwith
1946,97, 116). A newsreel is a cleardividebetweenAmericanand Bikinianconbeinformed
Americanviewersabout the Bikinians'reof Bikini,settingup a dichotomy
ceptualizations
movalfrom
theirislandbyclaiming,
It shouldnotbe forgotten
"The islanders
area
tweenthetwoistoosimplistic.
in the way the atoll was
nomadicgroup,and arewellpleasedthattheYanksare
that thereweredifferences
a
withineach ofthesegroups.Mostnotagoingto add littlevarietyto theirlives"(quotedin
conceptualized
in the United
inWeisgall1994,162). Furthermore,
manyAmericans
bly,therewas widespreaddisapproval
volvedwiththetestsviewedtheremovaloftheBikini- StatesoverusingBikinias an atomictestsiteas wellas
ans to nearbyRongerik
Atollas an eventrade,ifnotan
on Bikinithatthe
on thepartofAmericans
lamentation
in
the
condition
be
of
the
In
was
to
Bikinians.
their
atoll
1994).
improvement
(Weisgall
damagedbytesting
going
ofBikinias a
the periphery
was the periphery
theconceptualization
In theend,however,
and an
imagination,
to leatollwasan atoll;E. J.Rooney,
desertedisle enabledthe U.S. military
quotedat thebeginning marginal
ofthisarticle,
initial
two
atomic
of
the
the
not
lookas alike
wrote,"Bikiniand Rongerik
only
gitimize explosion
as twoIdahopotatoes"(Rooney1946,25).11
bombson Bikiniin 1946, but of anothertwenty-one
On Bikini,as in mostplaces,one group'simagined muchlargerhydrogen
bombblastsoverthenexttwelve
is anothergroup'simaginedcenter.As would
periphery
years.12
Bikini.Here,ratherthana focuson
emergeregarding
its nonplaceattributes,
Bikiniwas represented
as a
as thewordimplies,
marginalized
place.Marginalization,
suggeststhatBikiniwas a place of some sort,but an
antithetical
one in comparison
to whatexistsin the
center.
Shields
(1991,
imagined
276) contends,
be expected froma groupof people withgenerationsof
experiencein a place, mostBikiniansheld verydifferent
place-mythsthan the Americanmilitaryregardingboth
theirhome atoll and RongerikAtoll where theywere
forcedto relocate.Many BikiniansregardedBikiniAtoll
as a homeland rich in resources,the site of theirlived
experiences,and a cultural landscape saturated with
meanings, deities, and the graves of their ancestors
(Niedenthal 2002). The traditionalBikinianstoriesregardingRongerik,which is one-sixththe size of Bikini,
RadioactiveWastelandor Safe Home?
Afterthe initialtestsat Bikini,the island fadedfrom
the world'sconsciousness,while the bathingsuit that
bears its name became the mostpopularconnotationof
the word.Introducedin 1946 by Frenchdesigner,Louis
Reard,the bikinibathingsuitwas named afterthe atoll
due to the intensemedia attentionthat Bikinireceived
during Operation Crossroads. Allegedly,the "effects
616
Davis
cladwoman"ina bikiniswimsuit
wrought
bythescantily
were comparedto the impactof the atomicbomb
of the
(Cameron1970, 26)13 While the popularity
swimsuit
caused worldwide
identification
of the word
and not the atoll,the atoll
"bikini"withthe swimsuit
itselfonce again made newsin the mid 1950s when
bombsexpandedfromnearby
the testingof hydrogen
EnewetakAtollto Bikini.
bombtestsperformed
Ofthetwenty-one
on
hydrogen
Bikinifrom1954 to 1958,testshotBravo,on 1 March
A hydrogen
bombtest
1954,was themostdestructive.
over 750 timesas explosiveas the bombdroppedon
Bravovaporizedsomeoftheislandson the
Hiroshima,
rimoftheatolland lefta largecraterthrough
northern
the atoll reef.The pulverized
bits of coral landedas
falloutoverthe Pacificand on nearbyRongelapAtoll,
wavewashedoverBikini,"killing
and a radioactive
off
allanimallifeexceptonehardy
of
rats"
(Trumball
variety
1982,49). The damagefromBravowas so greatthat
in the
thereare reports
thatthe topAmericanofficial
Marshalls,
leaders,
MaynardNeas, warnedMarshallese
"Ifanyonebreathesa wordofthis,they'll
be shotbefore
sunrise"(Johnson
1980,58).
Therewasalsoa humancosttotheBravodetonation.
of Rongelapreceivedmassivedosesof
Manyresidents
Bravoandhavecontinued
radiation
from
tohavehealth
to thepreabnormalities,
thyroid
problems,
particularly
sent day (Simon 1997). The Rongelapeseclaimthey
wereintentionally
contaminated
as partof a U.S. exThe
Maru,
periment.
Japanesefishingboat Fukuryu
whichsailedintothe area duringthe test,was also affectedbyfalloutfromBravo.One personon boarddied
fromradiation
and thetunathecrewcaught
poisoning,
in Japan,creating
a panicover"Bienteredthemarket
kinituna" (Weideman1954). The effects
of the test
wereso significant
that1 Marchis nowa nationalholidayin theMarshallIslands(NuclearVictims'Day).
In 1958,thelastnucleartestoccurredat Bikini,and
in the 1960s,discourses
aboutBikinishifted
fromdiscussionsofitas an idealtestsiteto discussions
overhow
the
atoll
had
become.
Not
was
theatoll
only
dangerous
but
it
was
littered
with
radioactive,
equipmentand
damagedfacilities,and mostof the coconut palms were
gone (Diggs 1969). The U.S. governmentpromisedthe
Bikiniansthat afterthe atoll was declared safe,people
could move back. The United States triedto make the
atollhabitablebyclearingoffdebrisand plantingclose to
100,000 new palm treesin the high moderniststyleof
eerilyperfectrowsacrossthe island (Figure3).
By the late 1960s, the U.S. governmentdecided that
the atoll was safe and repatriationcould indeed begin.
The scientificrepresentationsof Bikini had changed;
Figure3. Replantedpalmtreeson Bikini.
one articlereferred
to Bikinias a "renovatedparadise"
(MacDougall1974). The BikinianCouncil,the local
fortheBikinians,
votednottoreturn
due to
government
distrust
ofthereports
thattheatollwassafe.Theyalso
said,though,thattheywouldnot preventindividuals
fromgoingon theirown if theydecidedto go (Niedenthal2002). In the early1970s,someBikinianswent
back to theatoll.Tommy
withthe
McCraw,a scientist
Americangovernment,
wentwiththe Bikiniansand
triedto convincetheBikinians
theatollwasnotradioon theBikiactivelyhazardous.
Lifemagazinereported
nians'return,
as wellas theirdistrust:
Farther
downthebeachwe cameupona single,
stunted
coconutpalmbearing
stunted
fruit.
TwoBikinians
were
thereandhadharvested
someofthenutsandcut
already
themopen.On ourarrival
heldthemoutandaskedif
they
theyweresafeto drink."Sure,"saidMcCraw,
"they"re
forthemtodrink.
Butthey
good,"andhe madea motion
hesitated.
Oneofthemheldhiscoconut
outandmadethe
samemotion
to McCraw.
he tookthenutand
Laughing,
drank
from
ittillitwasempty.
TheBikinians
too
laughed
anddrank
withconfidence.
-(Mydans1968,33)
Five yearslater,medicaldoctorsdiscoveredthat the
bodiesoftheatoll'sresidents
had tentimesthesafelevel
of radioactive
Cesiumand fourtimesthe safelevelof
Strontium
foundthe radioac(Simon1997). Scientists
tive contamination
resultedlargelyfromeatingthe
coconuts.In 1978, thoselivingon Bikiniwere once
againexpelledfromtheiratoll.A Bikiniansaid of the
experience:
didn'thaveanyworries
untilthosescientists
[W]ereally
started
about
the
island
talking
beingpoisoned
again....
ofBikiniAtoll
Place:"DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
Representing
Weweresoheartbroken
thatwedidnotknowwhattodo.
...We weresad,butwedidn't
wanttomakea problem
for
theAmericans.
Iftheysaymove,wemove.
2002,72)
-(Pero JoelquotedinNiedenthal
Thistragicepisodein Bikini'shistory
raisesquestions
aboutthelimitsof the abilityfordiscourses
to remake
the
places.Whilepeopleare compelledto understand
material
thewaysin whichthey
landscapeonlythrough
to see thelimitsofany
it,it is important
conceptualize
where
and representations
approach
conceptualizations
are viewedas driving
placeproduction
completely
separate fromthe materialenvironment.
As is painfully
discoursein the worldcould
obvious,all the scientific
not washtheCesium-137out ofthe foodchainor reconstitutethe threevaporizedislands.This is not,
to saythatthe scientific
discourses
however,
produced
aboutBikinididnotenablesocialpractices
to producea
certainkindofplace.
biasedproclamation
ofAdmiral
Justas theculturally
Prattthatthe atollwas "unhealthy"
in 1946 enabled
certainuses of the atoll,the scientific
declarationof
howevermistaken,
allowedthe repatriation
"healthy,"
ofBikini
inthe1970stotakeplace.Whennewevidencethe contamination
of the Bikinians-cameto light,it
was thechangeofdesignation
of thehealthfulness
of the
atollthatthendrovethepolicyofremoval.
Once again,
itwastheconceptualizations
oftheatoll'smaterial
attributes,
in thiscase radioactive
or not,thatinformed
theusesof
theatoll.
thepastexperiences
oftheBikinian
Understandably,
affecttheirdecisionsregarding
community
repatriation
thereare conflicting
viewsregarding
today.At present,
the safetyof Bikini,and manyBikiniansremaindistrustful
ofscientific
thesafety
of
proclamations
regarding
theatoll(J.S. Davis 2005). Duringmydiscussions
with
members
of the Bikiniancommunity,
peopleoftenexoverthe mixedmessagestheyhad
pressedfrustration
receivedfromdifferent
scientific
In particular,
reports.
therewasa strong
reactionwhentheBikinians
recently
thattheU.S. EPA standardforradiation
discovered
in
the United States is 15 milliremsabove background
level, while 100 milliremsabove backgroundlevel is
consideredsafe forthe MarshallIslands (personalcommunication2001). The existenceofthisdouble standard
forradiationexposure,regardlessof the scientificmerits
of the 100 milliremstandard,has furthereroded the
Bikinians' trustof scientificstudies on safe levels of
radiation.
The place-myththat has developed in the mindsof
many Bikiniansand non-Bikiniansis that Bikini is a
contaminated place that ought to remain deserted.
617
mostpeopleconsidertheatollsafeforshort
Currently,
are
but
visits, longerstaysandeatinglocalfoodresources
Thisdesignation,
to be attempted.
bothtoo risky
along
in the landscapefromnuwiththe materialremnants
ofthe
namerecognition
and theworldwide
cleartesting
of
a
new
has
made
atoll,
conceptualization
possible
tourist
Bikinibased on the deserted-isle
place-myth:
paradise.
Paradise
ofa Postnuclear
The Production
thatitisthe
itisoften
In a neo-colonial
imagined
process,
travelthe
to
tourist
contemporary
rightof thewealthy
of
the
world
arecolin searchofdifference-parts
world
andcolonies)
and
onizedbytourists
(withtheirenclaves
andtechnologies.
infrastructures
tourist
distinctive
their
-(Edensor1998,22)
of "a nuclear
Needlessto say,thetransformation
gravefor
revenues
sitethatmight
generate
yard"intoa tourist
and materially
seemsboth symbolically
the Bikinians
bankrupt.
-(Teaiwa 2000,109)
in yourmind..... It's a remote,
It is whatyoupicture
beaches.There's
island.Beautiful
SouthPacific
beautiful
It's
No
No
television.
to
do.
nothing
phones. whatyouwant
aren't
here.It's
the
it tobe.Weallwonder
why Bikinians
sucha beautiful
place.
2002)
-(BikiniAtolltourist,
ofpractices
as a category
hasbeenrecognized
Tourism
that can privilegethe needs and desiresof nonlocal
overtheneeds
wealthier
countries,
visitors,
usuallyfrom
have
and desiresof local people. Many geographers
landshown that tourismproduces"other-directed"
scapes that can severthe connectionbetweenlocal
ofthe
fabric
ofplaceandtheresulting
conceptualizations
social
activities
and
its
associated
physicallandscape
(Urry1990; DeOliver 1996; Hoelscher1998; Oakes
1999; Chang2000; Cheongand Miller2000; D'Arcus
itwouldseemthattourism
2000). Fromthisperspective,
on Bikini,like militarycolonialismin the past,will lead
to the Bikiniansagain being denied the abilityto refashionBikini Atoll accordingto theirdesires.Tourist
of the atoll,however,are onlyone set
conceptualizations
of currentimaginingsforthe atoll. Many Bikiniansstill
view the atoll as a potentialhomeland.Also, the Bikinians may have an advantage over other tourismhost
groupsin that theyown and operate the resortthemselves.The Bikinianexperiencewithtourismhighlights
the fact that there are always multipleconceptualizations of a place and that the reproductionof place is a
618
Davis
Figure4. Gazeboon BikiniIsland.
complexweavingof conceptualizations,
practices,and
power.
In 1996,the Bikiniangovernment
startedoperation
resorton BikiniAtoll(Figures
oftheirtourist
4 and 5).
The Bikiniangovernment,
whichgoesbythe polylocal
monikerof the Kili-Bikini-Ejit
Council,is based on
in
Marshall
Atoll
the
southern
Islandsand is
Majuro
an
elected
council
and
of
mayorthatreprecomposed
Kili
sentBikinians
on
Island,EjitIsland,and the
living
restof MajuroAtoll.The government-run
resorton
Bikiniis over 400 milesfromthe populationcenter
on Majuroand,as oneofitsemployees
noted,is"modest
on amenitiesand highon diving"(personalcommunication2001).
Diversfromaroundthe worldhave convergedon
BikiniAtollto stayin thesimplehotel,strollthewhite
that
sandbeaches,anddiveamongthewrecked
warships
Figure5. The lagoonbeach on BikiniIsland in frontof tourist
resort.
lie on thebottomofBikini'slagoon.The resortattracts
tourists
whoarequalified
to do thedeepand
high-dollar
technicaldives,manyofwhichare over55 m (175 ft)
intothewrecks.
In addition,
deepandinvolveswimming
thediversmustdo a seriesofdecompression
stopsunderwaterwheretheybreathea special blend of air
The priceforthe week is
(Nitrox)beforesurfacing.
not
the
airfare
to getto
US$2,700, including substantial
Bikini.Most tourists
Bikini
on
for
one
week
and
stay
spendmuchoftheirtimediving.
The shipson thebottomofBikiniAtoll'slagoonhave
a history
almostas variedas the atollitself,
withmany
to
the
II
World
War
era.
The
most
famous
vessels
dating
arethebattleship
USS Arkansas,
theaircraft
carrier
USS
and
the
Saratoga,
HIJMSNagato.14
Japanesebattleship
The shipsweresunkduringthe atomictestsin 1946
after
whichtheywerelargely
In the1970s,they
ignored.
ratedmentiononlyas "numerous
obstructions"
on the
chartsof Bikini'slagoon(Pincas 1975). In the 1980s,
titleto the shipswas transferred
to the Bikihowever,
niansbecausetheyviewedthescrapmetalas a possible
sourceofincome.
In 1989,theU.S. NationalParkService'sSubmerged
CulturalResources
Unitperformed
a studyto assessthe
tourism
of
Bikini
Atoll.
The
researchresulted
potential
in a textthatcataloguedthe shipsin the lagoon,describedtheircondition,and recommended
a plan of
actiontoturnBikiniAtollintoa nationalpark(Delgado,
Lenihan,and Murphy1991).15The authorsofthepark
servicedocument
wrotein excitedproseaboutthehistoricalimportance
ofthesunkenshipsand thepotential
fora scuba-diving-oriented
park.
Whilethenationalparkstatuswasneverrealized,
the
documentfostered
the idea thatthe sunkenshipson
Bikiniwerea tourismresource.The Bikinianssent a
fromprivate
delegationto Las Vegasto reviewoffers
Club
for
the
Med,
corporations,
including
development
of tourismon Bikini(J.Davis 1994). The Bikinians,
in order
involvement
however,
optedtoforego
corporate
to maintainfinancialand aestheticcontrolover the
Whiletheyinitially
a partnership
formed
with
operation.
a smalldivingcompanybased out of MajuroAtollin
the MarshallIslands,the Bikiniansnow own and runthe
entire business. This strategyhas been successful.
The resortcontinues to attract touristsin increasing
numbers,and in Decemberof2001, the Bikiniancouncil
distributedover $250,000 in profitsin equal shares to
everyBikinianman, woman,and child.
While higherprofitsforthe entirecommunitywas a
other
keyfactorin the Bikinians'developmentstrategy,
considerationsalso playeda role. Initially,the Bikinians
worriedthat an outside tourismcompanymightallow
ofBikiniAtoll
Place: "DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
Representing
619
diversto scavengepiecesoftheshipsandotherBikinian
artifacts
fromtheage ofnucleartesting,
whichareseen
as culturaland economicresources(personalcommunication2002). Whileit mayseemodd to some that
thereis a concernformaintaining
the"pristineness"
ofa
set of decayingshipsthathave been underwater
over
fifty
yearsafterbeingpulverized
by nuclearweapons,
diversare attracted
to Bikinibecausethewreckshave
been preserved.
A lawyerworking
withthe Bikinians
commented,
as nonsenseifitwerenotforthefactthatI
be dismissed
ofBikinitobe verycommon.
kind
ofportrayal
this
found
is lessmyconWhethertheatollis "really"pristine
withthe
cernthanthefactthatmanypeopleinteracting
it as pristine.
is
What is important
atollconceptualize
the
dethe
of
that,increasingly, place-myth
pristine,
sertedisleparadisehas been appliedto Bikinibytravel
theatoll,eventhoughmost
writers
and tourists
visiting
16The fact
ofthesepeopleknowBikini'snuclearhistory.
thatBikiniAtollis now developinginto a touristatof conceptualthe malleability
tractiondemonstrates
izationsof place and theirabilityto be mergedeven
One ofthemostimportant
issueswascontrol.
Andthe
As Shields(1991,25)
whentheyarenotcomplementary.
control
wasnotso muchthefiscalcontrol
as muchas
"The meaningofparticular
thecultural
anddiving
control.
Welooked
atTruk[a wreck writes,
placesis a compencultural
over
and
dium
of
in
site
the
Federated
of
States
we
and
interpretations
intersubjective
diving
Micronesia]
sawhowtheseoncepristine
considered
a
resort
a
from
had
been
time.
Thus
of
all
ships
being
stripped
placemaygo
theirinstrument
thatis
contendsthat
centre."He further
to beingan industrial
panelsand virtually
anything
movable.
Andwerealized
thatifwedidn't
setthisupthe
werefoundto have
in hisresearch,
"[i]magesandmyths
tohappen
toBikini.
Andwecould
right
waythatwasgoing
withema complexhistorically-changing
relationship
a
deal
with
theAcmediving
butwewouldn't piricalfactsand practices.In some cases imagespresign
company,
be outthere,
wewouldn't
knowwhatwasgoingon.And
servedpast practices,in other cases they followed
a diverslipping
a $100 to a divemaster
would
clearly
'realities'
(Shields1991,261).
strictly"
changing
be ableto takea tachometer
offa plane,or a
probably
and myths
reinforce
Not onlydo theseplace-images
trinket
offofsomething
movable.
Andwefeltthatwould
but
with
the
or
old
practices, thenew
practices change
be wrong.
Andwefelt,
OK ifBikini
isgoingtoopenitself
of
andinform
the
realm
discourse
can
come
from
images
wewanted
tokeepitpristine.
uptothepublic
It is notjustthatnewconceptualizations
newpractices.
-(personalcommunication
2002)
of the atoll have come about frompracticeson the
island,but ratherthatthe practiceof tourismon the
Whatmayseemevenmoresurprising
oftheplace
is thattheatoll
islandhas beenenabledbythereimagining
itself
is alsospokenaboutinterms
ofitspristineness.
the
Bikinian
attraction.
The
as a tourism
govDiscursively,
Web page forBikinidisplaysnumerousquotes from ernment
theimageof
hasbeenabletounlinkBikinifrom
to Bikinias "parcontamination
divingand travelmagazines
(even though,as discussedabove,the
referring
oftheatollis stillan issueofintensedebate)and
adise,""utopia,""theGardenofEden"and "unspoiled safety
link BikiniAtoll to place-imagesabout
One of
by development"
(http://www.bikiniatoll.com).
successfully
thediverswholed divingtourson theatollwasquoted
tropicalparadiseson desertedislesthathave been ciras saying,
"The lureof theplace is thatforforty
forcenturies(Howe
culatingin Westerncivilization
years
1997b,31). In another 2000).
nobodyhas beenhere"(Kristoff
thedeserted
This
Likemanyothertourist
article,thesamediversays,"Thisis a wilderness.
places,however,
hasn't
been
in
touched
for
is
one
of
several
the
isle
atoll,and it is a
1997a,
place
years"(Kristoff
forty
place-myth
if
Of
the
view
a
the
Bikini
as
tourists'
into
is
one.
These
of
course,
A4).
paradise
past expanded directed
images
from
Website
theBikinians'
disseminated
areprimarily
forty
yearsto sixtyyears,itmaybe one ofthemost
through
"touched"placeson the faceof the planet.It is also
As shown
and througharticlesin tourismmagazines.
interestingto note that the conceptualizationof Bikini
as untouchedforfortyyearsignoresthe repatriationattemptin the 1970s,theperiodicblastingforconstruction
materialson the south end of the island, and the Departmentof Energyexperimentson Bikinithat involve
scrapingofflargeareas ofsoil,removingpalmfronds,and
pumpingseawaterthroughthe soil.As one touristsaid in
regardto Bikini,"It's kind of in a precariousbalance
between being undisturbedand completelydisturbed
(personalcommunication2002). This quote could easily
above,thereare stillmanyinsideand outsidethe Bikinian
who regardthe atollas a contaminatedplace.
community
also continuesto promotethe
The Bikiniangovernment
imageof Bikinias a contaminatedplace to the U.S. govformoreclean-upmoney.
ernmentduringnegotiations
Anothermajorplace-mythprevalentin the Bikinian
communityis of Bikinias a lost homelandwithintense
While some in the community
culturalsignificance.
may
neverbe convincedBikiniwillbe safe enough forrepatriation,a substantialnumberof people believe it is safe
620
Davis
enoughnoworthatitcan be madeso soon.One official
in theMarshalls
stated,
Ifyouasksomebody
eveniftheyareliving
in
[Bikinian],
Arkansas
orNewYork,
ifyouaskthem
their
where
placeis
tellyouit'sBikini.
In their
belief
thatwasgivento
they'll
thembyGodandtheyhavea particular
pieceoflandup
thereor maybeseveralwherethatis whattheybelong
to. So maybeyouwouldn't
see 3100 peoplemoveup
theretomorrow
butatonepointoranother,
mostofthose
peoplewouldgo backand at leastvisitiftheyhad the
opportunity.
2002)
-(personalcommunication
of
DelvingmoredeeplyintoBikinianrepresentations
Bikiniand KiliIsland,I foundthat,unlikesomegroups
livingin exile (Malkki 1995), the Bikinianshave
maintaineda verystrongsense of collectiveidentity
based on theirsharedhistorical
narrative
of dispossesto formerly
uninsion, theircollectiveconfinement
habited(or verysparsely
and
their
inhabited)islands,
politicaldefianceof the traditional
paramountchiefs
(Iroij)oftheMarshallIslandsthatdatesbackto before
1946.
While they have maintaineda coherentethnic
theBikinianwayoflifehas beeninfluenced
identity,
by
theinclusionoftheMarshallIslandsin theworldeconomicand culturalsystem.
Bikinians
on bothKili and
have
access
to
consumer
Ejit
productssuch as cars,
cannedfood,televisions,
and otherimported
goods.In
because
is
subsistence
difficult
on the
fact,
extremely
have becomealmost
singleislandofKili,theBikinians
on imported
totally
dependent
goods.To manyBikinians
on tinyKiliandEjitislands,Bikiniis seenas a homeland
witha greater
amountofland,an abundanceofsea life,
of
anda variety edibleplants.Likethetourists
andtravel
refer
toBikinias paradise.
There
writers,
manyBikinians
is a cleardifference,
in thekindofplacethatis
however,
imaginedunderthe label of paradise.Whileboththe
Bikiniansand touristsuse "paradise"to denote an
Edenicplace of origin,to the tourists,
Bikiniis representedas a generic,deserted,tropicalisland.It is a purely
symbolicsite and, as Tim Edensor notes in his discussions of other touristattractions,"symbolicsites are
represented as synedoches or metaphors for larger
spaces" (Edensor 1998, 19). For tourists,Bikini is a
paradise in comparisonto the everydayspaces of their
livesin industrialized
countries.Conversely,the Bikinian
of
conceptualization Bikini as a paradise is rooted in
a historicalexperienceon the atoll thatis comparedto a
lifeof forcedmigrationto a small island almostuniverto as "the prison."As one Bikiniansaid,
sallyreferred
toKili.Kiliisa single
Bikini
oftheir
Theythink
[compared]
theoldpeople.
livehere[onBikini]
islandandthey
before,
Bikini
isparadise....
that
AndI think
that's
say
why[they]
to
andit'seasyforthem
togofishing
Likeitiseasyforthem
is
but
Kili....
not
like
on
the
other
islands,
Majuro good,
go
thatwhen
AndI think
it'skindofa lotofpeopleoverthere.
life
and
their
what
share
had
were
here
they
everybody
they
That's
for
herewasreally
easy everybody. whytheysay
think
aboutthepast,what
someofthepeopletheyalways
on
were
Bikini.
they
-(personalcommunication
2002)
natureofBikinian
thepolitical
Thisquoteemphasizes
ofKiliand Bikinito me as a researcher
representations
to thinkthat
from
theUnitedStates.It wouldbe foolish
to me were
Kili
Bikini
and
of
presented
representations
Thisis notto saythatthe
andpolitical.
notalsodirected
but
to me weredisingenuous,
Bikinianrepresentations
ratherthattheymustbe examinedin thecontextofthe
on
encounter.
HenryBarnard,reflecting
ethnographic
is not
the workof PierreBourdieu,noted,"Reflexivity
achievedbytheuse ofthefirst
personor bytheexpea textwhichsituatestheobserver
dientofconstructing
it is achievedbysubin theact ofobservation.
Rather,
to the samecritical
of
the
observer
the
jecting position
the
constructed
as
that
of
object at hand"
analysis
in
the
It is important
(Barnard1990,emphasis
original).
to notethat,as mystayin theMarshallIslandslengthI
ened,thereappearedto be a changein thenarratives
ofBikini.Thereappearsto
wastoldaboutthedesirability
of Bikini
aboutthe desirability
be a "stocknarrative"
andthat
first
to
versusKiliorMajurothatis told
visitors,
thata lifeon Bikinimight
is thenfollowed
bycomments
feelisolatedand a bitboring(especially
amongyounger
on
have
never
lived
who
Bikini).
respondents
willhappen,and
Whileitis unclearwhenrepatriation
just how manyBikinianswill establishtheirprimary
on theatoll,it seemslikelythatit willoccur
residences
When
the returnoccurs,it is likelythatthe
someday.
of Bikiniwill
"contaminated
place" conceptualization
will
the
two
But
how
be
competing
largely overcome.17
ofhomelandandthedeserted-isle,
paradise
place-myths
mix?The kindsofsocialpracticesencouraged
bythese
visionsofplace maynot be compatibleon a smallisland.
In my research,many touristsstated that theybelieve
the returnof Bikinianswould detractfromthe tourism
experience. One touriststated that she believed the
repatriationof the Bikinianswould "ruin Bikini." She
said, "Well it's goingto be a shantytownabout like it is
out here [in Majuro]. It would look likeTijuana I think.
It would changeit quite a bit" (personalcommunication
2002). Some touristsdid supportthe idea of the Bikinians moving back under certain conditions. Many
Place:"DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
ofBikiniAtoll
Representing
621
tourists
couldlive
brought
up theideathattheBikinians
from
the
tourists
but
close
separated
enoughso that
couldinteractwiththemin a sortof culturaltourists
tourism
wheretheycouldexperience,
typeofinteraction
"islandlife"and buycrafts.
briefly,
Otherswerealso skepticalabouthow touristsocial
and Bikiniansocialpractices
wouldcoexiston
practices
Bikini.One Marshallese
worker
at thetourism
operation
said,
allowthemmorechoiceoverhow tourismwillshape
iftheBikinians
theiratollin theyearstocome;however,
tourists
theywillhave to rehope to keep attracting
that
producetheatoll,orat leastpartsofit,in a fashion
a
of
what
withtourists'
is insymmetry
conceptualizations
vacationparadiseshouldbe. If the Bikinianswantto
in a globaltourism
competewithotherdiveoperations
will have to be conexternalpressures
marketplace,
controlovertheatolland
sideredevenifgovernmental
remainslocal.
tourist
operation
I think
it'sbetter
ifthey[Bikinians]
don'tcomeherewhen
in
While the Bikinianshave so farbeen successful
therearecustomers
on theisland.Becauseoncetheyare
be
seems
it
theremay dangersin
tourists,
attracting
dolotsofstuff,
herethey
likeifthey
wanttogofish
orthey
theiratollas a place thatfitsWesternconpromoting
wanttogobirds-killing
orsomething
likethat,or
birds,
of the desertedisle. For example,as I
ceptualizations
theturtles.
ofthecustomers,
eating
Theycandoitinfront
arenotsupportive
have
discussed,
already
manytourists
andthat's
onething
I'mafraid
of.
in theirspaces
of
local
inhabitants
idea
of
the
having
2002)
-(personalcommunication
tourism
maybe
(andviceversa).Whiletheincomefrom
someBikinians
associatedwith
haveconcerns
socialproblems
thepotential
abouthow
welcomed,
Conversely,
of tourism
In a twistof
need to be considered.
Researchers
tourism
theymightbe offended
bytourist
practices.
incredible
tourists
that
while
tourism
the
documented
suit
named
have
irony,
maybringneeded
wearing bathing
afterthe atollare considered
affect
can
also
into
local
it
Bikinians
to
be
income
economies,
negatively
by many
disOne Bikinianmanworking
at
local places by spawningcorruption,
culturally
inappropriate.
prostitution,
thetourism
enviofland,erosionoftraditional
cultures,
said,
enterprise
possession
and greaterincomeinequality
ronmental
degradation
Ourcustom,
that'stheproblem.
Likeright
now,nofamily, (Doxey 1976; Erisman1983; E. Cohen 1988; Dogan
noBikinians
now.[Whentheyarehere]
staywithusright
1989; Urry1990; Britton1991; King,Pizam,and Milis really
thecustom
different.
cannot
They[thetourists]
man1993;C. Hall 1994;Pearce1994;SimpsonandWall
justwearthebikini
suit].It [would]
[bathing
really
destroy 1999;
Chang2000; Holden2000).
ourcustom.
-(personalcommunication
2002)
Mostofthetourists,
tourism
andBikinians
managers,
I spokewithbelievethatthebestsolutionis to keepthe
tourists
Bikiniancommuseparatedfroma repatriated
There
are
different
ideas
on
howto do this,
nity.
many
from
both
on
different
ranging
having
partsof Bikini
to
ortheBikinians
on another
Island, havingthetourists
islandoftheatoll.
It appearsthatthedeserted-isle,
paradiseplace-myth,
and the homelandplace-myth
mayencourage
practices
and alterations
to thematerial
landscapethatwillbe difficultto reconcile
in thesameplace.The Bikinian
governmentand tourismmanagers,who are interestedin
continuingto generateincomefromthe touristoperation,
seem willingto explorethe idea of separatingthe tourists
and local inhabitants
whenrepatriation
occurs.In thisway,
the Bikinianswould attemptto minimizeconflictsby encouragingthe existenceof both the homelandand deof the whole atoll while
serted-isle,
paradiseplace-myths
the
witheach imagining
associated
constraining practices
to finer-scale
within
the
spaces
place.
Given that the Bikiniansown theirtouristoperation,
the institutionalcontrolover tourismpracticesshould
andthePoliticsofPlace
Contested
Meanings
a lessessential
notionofplacenotnecI wanttorecover
butas an
ofresistance
alliedwiththegeopolitics
essarily
notonlyhewhichin factproblematizes
terrain
unstable
as well.
anddomination,
butresistance
gemony
-(Oakes 1997,525)
themanydifofBikinidemonstrate
Representations
time.In
of the atollthrough
ferentconceptualizations
article
is
another
this
itself
addition,
representation,
the atoll,throughacademic
one that conceptualizes
and my personalexselectiveinterviews,
discourses,
periences, as a contested place with multiple,fluid
There is not one trueway of seeingthe
interpretations.
but
atoll,
people consideringthe atoll todaymaysee it as
a radioactiveplace to be feared,a place ravaged by a
successionofneocolonialistpractices,a tourismparadise,
a lost homelandwithplentifulresources,or a combination of these perspectives.Afterall, which is the true
representationof Bikini?The one made by a seventyyear-oldBikinianman who once lived there,or a thirtyyear-oldmale tourist,or the workerswho operate the
touristresort,or the U.S. Departmentof Energy,or an
622
Davis
or a travelwriter,
alsohadthepowertoleacademicauthor,
or themayorofBinuclearweaponsthere,butthey
of
or
a
Bikinian
it
the
born
on
woman
Kili
kini,
fifteen-year-old
gitimizethrough labeling theatollas a "deserted
Island?
isle"and thelabelingoftheBikinianpeopleas "primiof
Whilesomemaydisagreeas to whichoftheaboveis
tive"and "nomadic."Today,touristrepresentations
the dissemiessential
the"correct"
natureofBikiniAtoll,theanalysis the atollhave cometo dominatethrough
of the deI putforward nationof a re-imagined
ofplaceas a discursive-material
formation
conceptualization
holds that thereis no essentialnatureto the place.
sertedisleofBikinias a tropical
paradiseopenforforeign
therearemultiple
In both1946and today,theviewoftheatoll
ofBikinibasedon
visitation.
Rather,
place-myths
to competeagainstthesemore
a plurality
of readingsof the atoll.Each place-myth
is
as a homelandstruggles
basedon a selectsubsetoftheatoll'sattributes,
formed popularrepresentations.
betweenthe observedphysicalsite
Third,by arguingagainstthe idea of "correct"and
by the relationship
and thewaythatpastexperiences
viewsofplace,I runa riskof undermining
withtheworldpre"incorrect"
anticolonial
disposethe observerto findmeaningin places.These
politicalprojects.Ratherthandelegitimize
ofwhata place is, and shouldbe, are then
the politicalclaimsforplace governanceespousedby
imaginings
usedto construct
thataimto legitimize colonizedand exploitedpeopleby claimingthattheir
representations
an analysis
of
one amongmany,
certainrulesthatgovernactivities
in theplaceas wellas
viewsofplacearemerely
not
can
lead
to
the
modifications
and builtenvironment.
ofplacereproduction
themechanisms
just
physical
I
Whiletheanalysisofthemechanisms
but to tacticsof resistance.
forplaceproto a theoryof resistance
ductionoutlinedin thisprojectis usefulforstudying
the
believethatthereis politicalbenefitin understanding
andcontested,
thereare
thatthereare alwaysmultipleviewsof a place bydifwaysthatplacesarereproduced
threeimplications,
twoanalytical
individuals
and thatthoseviewscan be changed
andone political,
that
ferent
discussed
need to be
controlovertheplace (sovereignfurther.
institutional
First,mychoiceto charthrough
acterizeBikinias an indivisible
place ratherthanas a
ty). This, though,is onlyone way to changeplaces.
forthe waythat
Placesare subjectin manywaysto economic,cultural,
space has ramifications
partitionable
fromfaroutsidetheofficonflictresolutioncan be theorized.By choosingto
and politicalforcesemanating
I
Bikini
Atoll
a
control.
as
of
have
chosen
to
cial
emboundaries
analyze
place,
political
control
and undividable
There are also ways to gain institutional
phasizeit as a singular
space.The reason formakingthischoiceis thatthisis thewaymost
campaignsthatserveto legitimize
throughdiscursive
it.
ofwhata place"is."Beingable
The
in
a
subaltern
peopleimagine
respondents mystudyplace
representations
viewofa
labelon it thatappliesto thewholeatoll.Forthemost
thatthecurrently
to demonstrate
hegemonic
and
atoll
the
whole
is
a
characterized
as paradise, placeis historically
exploitive,
contingent,
political,
part,
can
I have,in manyways,
contaminated
on itsbeingseenbypeopleas legitimate
place,orhomeland.
dependent
"followed
itas a singular
be a powerful
mydata"andportrayed
starting
pointfora groupthatlacksecoplaceas
well.As is evidentin mydiscussion
and institutional
ofconflicts
between nomic,political,
powerdue to yearsof
overplace,to say
in
contest
touristuses and homelanduses,however,
BikiniAtoll
Tactically, any
exploitation.
view
and
another
is
can be seen as a dividablespacewheretourists
view
of
are relthatyour
group's
place right
of a place is wrongis onlythe start.It is imperative
to anotherpart.
egatedto partoftheatollandBikinians
conThe solutionsto resolvingfuturedisagreements
howothergroupshave discursively
to understand
may
have
how
the
on
see
as
and
to
the
a
atoll
structed
they
place,
depend people'sability
imagined
space
ratherthanas an indivisible
adherents
to theirviews,and howtheyhave
marshaled
place.
theirviewsin thematerial
Greatcarealso needsto be takento emphasizethat
to inscribe
gainedtheability
to considerthesediscursivelandscape.It is important
power existsnot only when the imaginedlandscape is
made real, but also when the real landscape is made
imagined (Figure 2). All of the different
place-myths
discussed in this article are influencedby the ability
different
actorshave to link them to other representationsof place and the powersome groupshave to mobilize certainrepresentations
and disseminatethem.As
is obvious fromthishistoryof Bikini,some groupshave
had a much greaterabilityto producerepresentations
of
the atoll. In 1946, the U.S. militaryhad the power to
forcethe Bikiniansofftheiratoll and explode
physically
materialmechanismsof place reproductionin orderto
influencethemforpoliticalends.
Acknowledgements
I am indebtedto manypeople formakingthisarticle
possible.I send mysincerestthanksto JackNiedenthal,
Brenda Waltz, Hinton Johnson,Eldon Note, and Tim
Williamsformakingmyresearchin the MarshallIslands
possible.I am also gratefulforhelpfuland criticalcom-
Place:"DesertedIsles"and theReproduction
ofBikiniAtoll
Representing
mentson previousdraftsof thisworkby Kat Kleman
Davis,LorraineDowler,Lakshman
Yapa,JamesMcCarthy,DuarteMorais,RogerDowns,MattHannah,Don
Mitchell,JamesDuncan, AudreyKobayashi,and the
reviewers.
anonymous
623
8. For a completelistingof the shipssunkat Bikini,and
see Delgado,
of the shipsthatsurvived,
the whereabouts
Lenihan,and Murphy(1991); Delgado (1996); and
Niedenthal(2002).
Islandsusedon a mural
oftheMarshall
9. Thisis theportrayal
on Kwajalein
Atoll.
in theairport
articleon Bikini
theNational
10. See, forexample,
Geographic
filmRadio
in 1946 (Markwith
1946). The documentary
foran
Stonein 1988(nominated
Bikini,
byRobert
produced
Award),alsoshowsin vividdetailhowthemiliAcademy
Notes
werestagedand reshot
withtheBikinians
tary'smeetings
times.
numerous
1. The vastmajority
of the interviews
weretape recorded, 11.
to theBikinians'
Iroij(leader)in 1946.
"Juda"refers
a fewweredonewithonlywritten
notes.I tranalthough
ofBikinias a nonplace
12. WhilethetwoAmerican
portrayals
scribedthe recordedinterviews
and then coded and
be logically
notnecessarily
andas a marginalized
may
place
software.
analyzedtheresponses
using"AtlasTI"computer
mannerto
wereusedin a complementary
consistent,
they
Whilemanyotherpeoplewereconsultedcasuallyduring
ThiseffecBikinias an experimental
space.
conceptualize
mytwostaysin theMarshallIslands,a totaleighty-eight
theuseofatomicweaponsat Bikini.
tively
legitimized
interviewed.
Most interviews
were
peoplewereofficially
between
oftheconnections
13. Fora moredetaileddiscussion
conductedin English,
exceptforsomethatweredonein
thebathingsuitand BikiniAtollas wellas a theoretical
Marshallese
withtheassistance
ofa localtranslator.
Most
and exoticizing
of
analysisof the similarmarginalization
interviews
weredone one-to-one,
but some interviews,
women's
bodiesandBikinians,
see Teaiwa(2000).
thosewithtourists,
wereconductedin small
particularly
14. The Nagatowas formerly
JapaneseAdmiralYamamoto's
groups.
from
whichtheattackon PearlHarborwascomflagship,
2. See Websiteat http://www.bikiniatoll.com
manded.The othermajorshipsin Bikini'slagooninclude
3. Thiswas done through
a reviewof theReader's
Guideto
USS Apogon,
deUSS Anderson,
submarine
thedestroyer
Periodic
Literature.
The periodicals
thatcommonly
convesselUSS Carlisle,subUSS Lamson,merchant
stroyer
tainedaccountsofBikiniincluded
Life,US NewsandWorld
marineUSS Pilotfish,
and the JapanesewarshipHIJMS
New YorkTimesMagazine,NationalGeographic,
Report,
Sakawa.
andothers.
Newsweek,
15. Bikiniis not the onlyformer
rangeto be conbombing
in Soja'swork,as well
4. As noted,thereis a strong
tendency
as a possible
See alsoMisrach(1990).
national
sidered
park.
as in writings
and other
byEdwardCasey,David Harvey,
Bikiniis notreallywhatcouldbe categorized
16. Interestingly,
to portray
different
kindsofspacesas moreabtheorists,
as a siteof"darktourism"
(see,e.g.,Lippard1999).While
stract(or "thin,"or "placeless")thanotherspacesmore
liketo divearoundthewreckedships,thedivers
tourists
witha senseofplace.Theseabstract
infused
spacesappear
in the tragedy
I interviewed
muchlessinterest
displayed
to be tiedto domination
or an outsider
bythebourgeoisie
ofthe
histories
thanin themilitary
ofthenucleartesting
Twostrong
ofthistendency
havebeen
authority.
critiques
themselves.
ships
offered
theorists
as wellas byresearchers
exbyfeminist
from
theidea thatiftheBikinian
17. Thisfollows
government
DoreenMasseyand other
amining
spacesofconsumption.
itwilllikely
be because
thego-aheadforrepatriation,
gives
feminists
claimthe perspective
of abstractand lived is
Thereis,
the atollis no longerviewedas contaminated.
fromthe verynarrowviewpoint
of privileged
generated
It is
a spatialcomponent
to thecontamination.
however,
maleswhohavehistorically
to control
enjoyedtheability
thatthe Bikinians
couldreturnto someof the
possible
betweendifferent
spacesand easilycrossthe boundaries
remained
islandsoftheatollwhilecontamination
southern
socialspaces.See,forexample,
Massey(1991).Thefeminist
forthenorthern
islands.The Bikiniangoverna problem
thatspacesmustbe viewed(andcategorized)
from
critique
thattherewillbe no
menthasrepeatedly
stressed,
though,
basedon the variedexperiences
of
multiple
perspectives
use of theentire
returnuntiltheycan have unrestricted
undermines
the idea that
space by genderedindividuals
atoll.
to simple
spacescan be viewedand categorized
according
binaries(oreven"trinaries").
theworkofJon
Furthermore,
Gossandothers
hasfurther
erodedthedistinction
between
abstract
andlivedspacebydemonstrating
howpeoplefinda
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